History of Letter Post Communication 

Between the United States and Europe, 1845—1875 

SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

NUMBER 6 

History of 

Letter Post Communication 

Between the United States 

and Europe, 1845-1875 

George E. Hargest 

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION PRESS 

City of Washington 

1971 

'U;i i , v> . 
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Copyright © 1971 by George E. Hargest 

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Preface 

It is the purpose of this book not only to describe the postal services between the 

United States and Europe, but also to explain their development. The period considered begins with the subsidization of United States steam mail-packets in 1845, and 

ends on 1 January 1876, when France, the last of nineteen European countries to do 

so, placed in force the provisions of the treaty of Berne and became an active member 

of the General Postal Union. In order to keep the size of this work within reasonable 

bounds, it was necessary that its scope be in some way limited. Rather than narrow the 

limits of the period covered, it was decided to consider only letter post communication. 

Interesting as are the arrangements for the exchange of newspapers, printed circulars, 

and registered mail, they are not included in this work. 

A table of United States postal rates to foreign countries is presented in the appendix. While this book confines itself to letter post communication between the United 

States and Europe, the scope of the appendix is broadened to include rates to all parts 

of the world. Since information regarding the broadened scope was available, it was 

felt that it would be of value to collectors to include it. 

An attempt has been made in the book to retain the language of the sources from 

which information has been drawn. This is particularly true in regard to the names of 

countries and places of which mention is made. Many of the names are subject to a 

variety of spellings, especially those of the Turkish towns. Places in the appendix 

follow the spellings given in the tables of postages to foreign countries presented in the 

U.S. Mail and Post Office Assistant, and the names are sometimes misspelled in that 

source. The difficulties the Americans had when dealing with foreign languages are 

occasionally brought to the fore. For example, the port of Riviere-du-Loup on the St. 

Lawrence River is spelled, in the English version of the United States-French postal 

convention of 1861, as the Americans pronounced it, "River du Loup." 

While I have largely drawn from primary sources for information relating to 

mail arrangements, the history of the steam-packet lines has been authoritatively 

presented in seveal works, and I have, therefore, relied upon these secondary sources 

for this information. Individual ship sailing and arrival dates have been taken from 

original sources. 

It must be recognized, however, that much original source material that should 

be available no longer exists. The letterbooks of the Post Office Department in the 

National Archives contain copies of outgoing letters only. Nine of these letterbooks 

were examined in 1963, and not one letter relating to the foreign-mail service was 

found. Fortunately, many matters were referred by the Post Office Department to the 

Department of State, and correspondence on these matters exists. Congress occasionally requested that correspondence relating to certain matters be published, and postmasters general sometimes published correspondence to Congress in support of their 

requests for legislation. These letters are found in the House and Senate Executive 

Documents. While many changes in the original postal conventions were made by 

signing additional articles, changes were also effected through correspondence between 
SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

the post offices of the countries concerned. Postmasters general sometimes made 

reference to. these changes in their annual reports, but some that are known to have 

taken place cannot be supported by documentary evidence. The cover is to the postal 

historian what the artifact is to the archeologist, and in the absence of other evidence, 

the cover has been relied upon to supply the missing information. 

Postal markings are considered only in relation to the function they performed. 

No attempt is made to present various types of markings performing the same 

function. This subject has been definitively covered for Boston in Boston Postal 

Markings to 1890, by Maurice C. Blake and Wilbur W. Davis, and, for the United 

States in United States Postal Markings, 1851-1861, by Tracy W. Simpson. Some 

postal markings, however, domestic or foreign, that are unique to a particular mail 

service, are illustrated and described. 

Without the assistance, support, and encouragement of others, this book could not 

have been written. While it would be impossible to mention everyone who has in some 

way participated in this endeavor, I hope that I will be forgiven for acknowledging 

my special thanks to a few of them. I am particularly indebted to Dr. Clifford K. 

Shipton, Director Emeritus, and to Mr. Marcus A. McCorison, Director of the American Antiquarian Society in Worcester, Massachusetts, for granting me privilege of the 

library stacks, and to Miss Mary E. Brown, staff librarian, for her invaluable assistance. 

I wish to express my gratitude to Mr. Tilton M. Barron, librarian of Clark University, 

not only for his ready assistance, but also for his willingness to secure certain works on 

library loan. I also wish to acknowledge the assistance of Miss Geneva Chancey, 

librarian of the Post Office Department library in Washington, D.C, and of Dr. 

Arthur Hecht of the National Archives. 

I am deeply indebted to Mr. Carl H. Scheele, Associate Curator in Charge, 

Division of Postal History, and Chairman, Department of Applied Arts, at the 

Smithsonian Institution, for the privilege he granted me of examining the foreign-mail 

covers in the Smithsonian collection, and for the use of the Smithsonian's extensive 

philatelic library. 

My sincere thanks are extended to Mr. Melvin W. Schuh of Worcester, Massachusetts, not only for his extensive loan of covers for illustration, but also for his 

kind and patient counsel. I also wish to express my gratitude to Mr. Lester L. Downing 

of Concord, Massachusetts, for his many generosities in loaning works from his private 

library and covers for illustration, and for his information in regard to the sailings of 

the Cunard line. 

I am particularly indebted to Mr. C. J. Starnes of Midland, Michigan, for his 

translation of Piefke's Geschichte der bremischen Landespost, and for sharing with 

me information on postal rates. 

I wish to extend my sincere thanks to Dr. Robert de Wasserman of Brussels, 

Belgium, for his loan of photographs for illustration and his exchange of information on 

Belgian mails. I wish, too, to thank Dr. Jacques Stibbe of Brussels, for his kind and 

informative letters about Belgian mails. My gratitude is also extended to M. Raymond 

Salles of Paris for information about French mails, and to Mr. Walter Hubbard of 

London for photographs of covers for illustration and for his kind counsel. 

For the loan of photographs for illustration as well as for items from their private 

libraries, my sincere gratitude is extended to the late Hugh J. Baker, Jr., Mr. J. David 

Baker, Mr. Arthur E. Beane, Jr., Mr. William C. Coles, Jr., Mr. John A. Fox, Mr. 

Greighton C. Hart, Mr. Karl Jaeger, Mr. Millard H. Mack, Mr. Mortimer L. Neinken, 

Mr. James E. Schofield, Mr. Tracy W. Simpson, and Mr. George T. Turner. 
NUMBER 6 

For their advice and encouragement, as well as for their many kindnesses over 

the years, my thanks are extended to Mr. Richard B. Graham, Mr. Robson Lowe, Mr. 

Elliott Perry, Mr. Marcus W. White, and the late Maurice C. Blake. 

I also wish to acknowledge with thanks the kindness of Dr. Robert L. D. Davidson, 

editor of the Chronicle of the U.S. Classic Issues, in granting me permission to use 

portions of my articles which appeared in that journal. 
Contents 

Page 

INTRODUCTION 1 

1 Negotiation of the United States-Bremen Postal Arrangement of 1847 . . 3 

2 Negotiation of the United States-British Postal Treaty of 15 December 

1848 23 

3 Postal Relations with France 40 

4 The United States-French Postal Convention of 2 March 1857 70 

5 The Prussian Closed-Mail Convention 85 

6 Postal Relations with Belgium, 1844-1868 99 

7 Amendments, New Conventions, and the Operations of the Steamship 

Lines 109 

8 Postal Conventions Effective After 1 January 1868 147 

9 Postal Relations with France, 1870-1876 164 

10 Depreciated Currency Covers 184 

Bibliography 194 

Appendix: Postal Rates to Foreign Countries, 1848-1875 196 

Index 227 

IX 
Introduction 

In the winter of 1844 the citizens of Boston voluntarily cut a path through the ice of East Boston harbor 

to free the Cunard line's Britannia and allow her to 

sail to sea. While the people of Boston were so extravagantly demonstrating their high regard for the 

British steamship line, Congressmen in Washington 

were contemplating it with a growing concern. It was 

not that Cunard's performance had been unsatisfactory. It had, in fact, exceeded all expectations. Since 

1840 its passage time between Liverpool and Boston, 

via Halifax, had averaged only fourteen days, and 

sailings were being maintained with great regularity. 

It was, rather, the success of the Cunard line that was 

forcing Congress to take a critical view of the whole 

situation involving postal communication with Europe. 

The advent of the steam packet had blunted American prestige. For many years American sailing packets 

had dominated the 'Atlantic shuttle." Although the 

sailing packets were still carrying the bulk of European 

emigrants and freight—including coal to America for 

use by the steam packets—most of the mail, cabin 

passengers, and fine freight were now carried by the 

British steamships. Their progress appeared inevitable, 

and the American flag would soon take second place 

on the 'Atlantic ferry." American pride, inflated by a 

surge of new nationalism, was piqued. But Congress 

was concerned with far more than piqued pride. The 

United States was becoming increasingly dependent 

upon the British for its postal communication with 

Europe. Additionally, the Cunard line was under contract to the British Admiralty, subsidized at £81,000 

sterling annually, to carry the mails, and each of its 

ships carried on board an off-duty officer of the British 

navy as an agent of the Admiralty. The close tie between the British Admiralty and the contract mail 

packets was noted by Congress. 

George E. Hargest is an associate professor with the Economics Department, Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts 01610. Now residing at 1275 46th Avenue, Vero Beach, 

Florida 32960. 

During the 1840s there was a great expansion of 

American foreign trade. Total foreign trade averaged 

$197 million annually during the first five years of the 

decade and $259 million for the last five years.1 The 

second half of the decade was characterized by a 

general tendency toward freer trade. In 1846 Great 

Britain repealed its Corn Laws, and in the same year 

the United States reduced its tariff. Increased industrialization in Great Britain, coupled with high 

prices for foodstuffs caused by crop failures, particularly in Ireland, were also important causes of the 

increased American foreign trade. 

The representatives of American commercial interests, now prosperous, began to flex their political sinews. Interested as they were in the rapid transmission 

of business information, particularly in regard to prices, 

the cost of disseminating such information was also 

a matter of their continuing concern. The postal reform achieved in Great Britain stimulated them to press 

for lower and more uniform rates of postage in the 

United States. As early as 10 June 1840, Daniel Webster introduced a resolution in the Senate calling for 

lower rates of postage and the use of postage stamps.2 

A British General Post Office order of June 1840 announced the inauguration of the Cunard packet service, with "the Postage remaining as at present, viz. 

an Uniform Charge of Is. the Single Letter. . . ."

 3 

A later General Post Office order of February 1841 

applied the one-shilling-packet rate to a letter whose 

weight did not exceed half an ounce, instead of a single 

letter consisting of one sheet of paper.4 Although this 

British packet rate represented a considerable reduc1

 George R. Taylor, The Transportation Revolution, p. 445. 

Semi-averages were constructed, from annual data presented. 

See bibliography (pp. 194-195) for complete citations. 

" Van Dyk MacBride, "Barnabus Bates—The Rowland Hill 

of America," The American Philatelist 60, no. 8 (May 1947) : 

635. 

c

 Frank Staff, The Transatlantic Mail, facsimile of original 

order reproduced, p. 144. 

'Ibid., p. 173. 

1 
SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHN 

tion in postage in comparison with the rates of 1837, 

American postal rates remained high, and agitation 

for postal reform in the United States was beginning 

to attract the attention of the public. 

Important as this reduction in postal rates was to 

American business, the Cunarders themselves were 

making additional savings possible. Their relatively 

rapid crossings, together with the regularity and certainty of their sailings, were obviating the necessity for 

sending many duplicate copies of the same letter by 

different ships in order to be certain that a copy would 

arrive as early as possible, or would arrive at all. This 

had resulted in a considerable saving in clerical cost 

as well as in postage. 

There were, however, other aspects of the foreignmail service that inconvenienced and annoyed merchants. Since the Cunarders ran to Liverpool, letters 

addressed to other parts of Europe were forwarded 

from England, often with great difficulty. American 

businesses usually employed a British banking, merchandising, or brokerage firm to act as their agent for 

forwarding mail. Agents on the continent were also 

employed. The agents paid the necessary postage and 

attended to the expeditious routing of letters. The act 

of 3 March 1845 authorized the postmaster general or 

the secretary of state to empower United States consuls 

to pay foreign postage and forward letters.6 Certain 

consuls were so empowered, but the consular service 

in general was not used for this purpose. The cost and 

cumbersomeness of forwarding mail through agents 

was an annoyance to American merchants who exerted 

political pressure upon Congress to eliminate the necessity for the procedure. 

Another source of annoyance was the impossibility 

of fully prepaying the postage to a European destination on letters sent from the United States. Nor could 

the full postage be collected from an American addressee on letters received from Europe. Some of the 

postage always had to be paid or collected in the 

United States and some in Europe. As it was a common 

practice of business to refuse to pay postage on and 

receive letters from persons unknown to them, American merchants were forced to rely upon agents, if new 

contacts were to be made. Most of these difficulties 

arose because the United States had no postal convention or treaty with any European country. When postal 

conventions existed, accounting between the^ post 

offices of the contracting countries was established, 

which made it possible to pay the whole postage on 

letters sent or received. 

Great as was the stake of American commercial 

interests in postal reform, it was not they who carried 

the fight to the public, but rather, a small group of 

"reformers" who spearheaded a campaign for lower 

and more uniform postal rates for both domestic and 

foreign mail. Spawned in the seething cauldron of 

social change that was America in the 1840s, zealots 

such as Barnabus Bates, Joshua Leavitt, and Elihu 

Burritt,G among others, waged a propaganda campaign on the public platform and in the press, for 

cheap postage. In this struggle, their chief antagonist 

was the United States Post Office Department with 

its army of 14,000 postmasters, clerks, and other employees who feared that cheaper rates would lessen 

their emoluments.7 

But neither the Post Office Department nor Congress 

could long resist the rising tide of public opinion and 

the political pressure being exerted by American commercial interests. Congress, caught up as it was in a 

surge of nationalistic feeling, also lent a sympathetic 

ear to those who demanded that the American flag 

be kept upon the high seas. In 1844, Congress, by a 

joint resolution, paved the way for the establishment 

of a United States postal service to Europe, and in 1845 

passed an act providing for the subsidization of United 

States mail packets, as well as the reduction and simplification of postal rates. These acts of Congress initiated 

the development of the United States postal service 

to European countries, and it is to this development 

that the following chapters are directed. 

"Act of 3 March 1845, sec. 6-5, U.S., Statutes at Large 

748-750. 

8

 Frank Staff, "Campaign for Cheap Postage Was Rife 

With Propaganda," Postal History Journal II, no. 1 (Jan. 

1967): 15. 

7

 MacBride, "Barnabus Bates", p. 636. 
Chapter 1 

Negotiation of the United States-Bremen Postal 

Arrangement of 1847 

Organization of the Ocean Steam 

Navigation Company 

The groundwork for the foreign mail provisions 

of the act of 3 March 1845 was laid by a joint resolution of Congress voted on 15 June 1844. While the 

act of 3 March 1825

 x had given the postmaster general permission to make arrangements for the exchange 

of mail with foreign countries, it had not been incumbent on him to do so, and by 1844 no such arrangements had been made with any European country. 

The joint resolution authorized the postmaster general to make such arrangements with the proper authorities of France and Germany. He was also authorized to make arrangements with "the owners or 

agents of vessels plying regularly between those countries and the United States, whereby a safe and, as 

near as possible, a regular direct mail communication 

. . shall be secured—so that the entire inland and 

foreign postage on letters and other mail matter . . . 

may be paid at the place where they are respectively 

mailed or received."

 2 The joint resolution was specific on two points. Prepayment or collection of the 

entire postage required that international accounting 

be established by postal convention. Any such convention must include provision for optional prepayment if the entire postage was to be "paid at the 

1

 U.S., 4 Statutes at Large 102-114. See bibliography (pp. 

194-195) for complete citations. 

=

 U.S. 5 Statutes at Large 718-719. 

place where they [letters] are respectively mailed or 

received." 

Since larger measures were being debated, Postmaster General Wickliffe did not immediately act 

upon the authorization granted by the joint resolution. At the time it was voted, there was a Whig 

Senate, a Democratic House, and President John 

Tyler, who was neither Whig nor Democrat. Despite 

this unpropitious political situation, Congress passed 

the postal act, which President Tyler signed in the 

waning hours of his administration. On the following 

day, James K. Polk became president, and shortly 

thereafter Cave Johnson became postmaster general. 

Although the act of 3 March 1845 was a product 

of the Tyler administration, it clearly reflects the 

nationalistic feeling that swept Polk into the White 

House. It authorized the postmaster general to make 

contracts for the transportation of the United States 

mail between any United States ports and those of any 

foreign power, such contracts to be made for a period 

of not less than four or more than ten years. All 

contracts were to be made with citizens of the United 

States, and the mail was to be transported in American 

vessels by American citizens. Preference was to be 

given to such bidder as proposed to carry the mail in 

steamships, and who stipulated that any of those 

steamships would be delivered to the United States 

Government, on demand, for the purpose of being 

converted into a vessel of war. Just compensation was 

to be paid the owner of any vessel so delivered.3 The 

'Ibid., 748-750. 
SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

act also provided for the subsidization of a line of 

American mail packets to ply between New York and 

such port or ports of foreign countries as the postmaster general deemed appropriate. In addition, new 

and lowered rates of domestic postage as well as a 

packet rate to be used by the American packets when 

they came into operation were provided. These rates 

are outlined in Table 1. 

In October 1845 Postmaster General Cave Johnson 

invited tenders for mail services from New York to 

Liverpool, Bristol, Southampton, Antwerp, Bremen, 

Hamburg, Havre, Brest, or Lisbon.4 Immediately there 

was considerable lobbying, not only by shipping people, but also by foreign commercial interests who 

sought to have a particular foreign port selected as 

a European terminus of the American steamship 

line.0 

The Belgian resident minister argued that Antwerp 

was the port of entry between Belgium and the countries of the Tariff Union, comprising twenty seven 

states and thirty million customers. Belgium offered 

remission of tonnage and ship duties and the sea 

postage charge. When bargaining got tight, Belgium 

offered to bear some of the expense of establishing 

the steamship line. 

The movement for the selection of Bremen was 

spurred by Senator Arnold Duckwitz, postmaster of 

the Free Hanseatic City of Bremen. Through the 

American consul, Colonel A. Dudley Mann, Duckwitz 

let it be known that Bremen offered a free port, 

tax-free loading of coal at Bremerhaven, and liberal 

trade laws. From Bremen there would be 21,000 

square miles of German trade territory, and beyond 

Bremen would be Austria, Italy, Switzerland, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and Russia. A railroad, in 

its last stages of completion, would unite Hanover 

with all parts of Germany and Austria; railroads, already in the process of construction, would soon connect Bremen with most of the countries beyond. 

Colonel Mann, ardent and articulate in his support 

of the selection of Bremen, was recalled to Washington. 

The Bremen senate, realizing the opportunity this fortuitous circumstance presented, sent with him C. Th. 

Gevekoht, a merchant who had spent a long time in 

Baltimore. Together they waged a campaign in behalf 

of Bremen. In this they were supported by the Prussian resident minister. Freiherr von Gerolt. and the 

4

 N. R. P. Bonsor, North Atlantic Seaway, p. 50. 

" Christian Piefke, Geschichte der bremischen Landespost, 

Chapter 22. 

efforts of the three were finally successful.6 

Lobbying for the steamship contract had begun 

long before the passage of the act of 3 March 1845. 

As early as 1841, E. K. Collins, who ran the Dramatic 

line of Liverpool packets, headed a lobby that "argued 

for government aid to build mail steamers as potential 

cruisers."

 7 After passage of the act the lobbies swung 

into high gear. Of the tenders received, that of Edward Mills was the most favorable. He asked for 

$300,000 a year for a steam service to Havre. As it 

was finally negotiated, Mills was awarded a five-year 

contract valued at $400,000 a year for a fortnightly 

service to Bremen with permission for alternate sailings to terminate at Havre.8

 Such a service would have 

required four steamships, and as it was finally arranged, $100,000 annually was allocated to each ship. 

Since Mills was a promoter with little experience 

in the shipping business, the award of the contract 

to him aroused a good deal of criticism. Mills organized the Ocean Steam Navigation Company in May 

1846 and immediately set out to secure subscriptions 

to its $1 million of authorized stock. 

While a good head of nationalistic steam had been 

generated for the subsidy of a steam packet line, Mills 

had trouble in raising capital. This may have been a 

vote of no-confidence in Mills. Albion states that "the 

Herald expressed the fear that the new company would 

become a Wall Street plaything like the Harlem and 

Erie railroads." ° Some American merchants preferred 

the Cunard line and looked upon the line to Bremen 

as unwanted competition.10 It is certain that American 

shipping interests did not share the public's enthusiasm 

for the Ocean line. With great difficulty Mills raised 

$200,000. Then the Germans chipped in. Bremen 

signed for $100,000; Prussia, $100,000; Hanover, 

$25,000; Saxony, $20,000; and lesser amounts from 

Oldenburg, Hesse-Nassau, Hesse-Darmstadt, Frankfort on the Main, and certain Thuringian states. The 

German states raised, in total, $289,000, which affected 

American investment so that $600,000 was finally subscribed. Mills, however, was able to build only two 

steamships and was forced to assign part of his contract to Messrs. Fox and Livingston who organized the 

New York and Havre Steam Navigation Company. 

0

 Ibid. 

7

 R. G. Albion, The Rise of New York Port, p. 323. 

8

 Bonsor, North Atlantic Seaway, p. 51. 

0

 Albion, New York Port, p. 323. 

10

 Piefke, Bremischen Landespost, Chap. 22. 
NUMBER 6 

The Ocean Steam Navigation Company (Ocean 

line) placed orders for two steamships of about 1,700 

tons each with Westervelt and McKay. The engines 

and boilers were produced by the Novelty Works. 

While this yard had built many sailing ships, they 

lacked experience in building steamships—a fact that 

later became evident. The first of these ships, the 

Washington, was launched in January 1847, and the 

Hermann, ten months later. 

Mail Between Great Britain and the 

United States Under the 1845 Rates 

Because much of the mail between the United States 

and Germany passed in transit through England, it is 

necessary to discuss the method by which mail was 

exchanged between the United States and Great Britain. The act of 3 March 1845 established new rates 

for domestic postage as well as a packet rate for mail 

to be conveyed by the proposed line of American 

steamers, whose subsidization was provided for by the 

act. In 1845 the steamers of the British-owned Great 

Western Steam Ship Company were still plying between New York and Liverpool, but the competition 

offered the Cunard line by the steamships Great Western and Great Britain of that company was on the 

wane, and in 1846 they left the Atlantic ferry. The 

770-ton auxiliary-screw United States-owned steamship Massachusetts made two voyages between New 

York and Liverpool during 1845 " while the 1,400-ton 

auxiliary-screw British steamer Sarah Sands made nine 

round voyages on the same run during 1847.12 As 

auxiliary steamers, they were primarily sailing ships 

that used steam when the wind failed, or to increase 

speed in a light breeze. They did not offer the Cunard 

line serious competition. After the Great Western and 

Great Britain left the scene, and before the Ocean 

line began to run in 1847 the Cunard line was operating the only full-fledged steamships plying the North 

Atlantic. They were also, during this period, the only 

steamers conveying mail at a packet rate. 

It is, therefore, desirable at this point to understand 

the method of handling mail between the United States 

and Great Britain under the provisions of the act of 

1845, as well as under the then existing British rates. 

As there was no accounting between the post offices 

of the two countries, each had to charge and retain 

its own postage. The British, for example, always had 

to collect their packet postage on letters received in 

Great Britain, as well as on letters posted there. Similarly, the Americans always had to prepay the domestic postage to the port (Boston) on letters posted in the 

United States, and to collect the domestic (inland) 

postage from Boston to destination. On these incoming 

letters a ship fee of 20 per letter was also charged and 

collected. The rates are best understood when presented in outline form, while the method of marking 

letters is best described by illustration. The rates are 

presented in Table 1. 

Covers 

Figure 1 illustrates a letter which was posted in 

Edinburgh, addressed to New York. The Is. packet 

postage was prepaid by a strip of six 2d. stamps issued 

in 1841. The letter left Liverpool on board the R.M.S. 

(Royal Mail Steamer) Acadia of the Cunard line on 

4 December and arrived in Boston on 19 December 

1845,13 whence it was forwarded to New York, a distance of less than 300 miles. It was, therefore, rated 

for a collection of 70, indicated by a manuscript 7. 

This represents 50 inland plus 20 ship postage. 

Figure 2 presents a letter posted in Wilmington, 

Delaware, on 13 August 1847, addressed to Liverpool. 

It is prepaid 100 for a distance of more than 300 miles 

between Wilmington and Boston by a 100 stamp of 

the 1847 issue. Both the town mark and the grid canceling the stamp are in dark olive-green.14

 On the reverse is an AMERICA/LIVERPOOL marking bearing the 

date of 28 August 1847, and on that date the R.M.S. 

Hibernia of the Cunard line, which had sailed from 

Boston on 16 August, arrived in Liverpool. The Liverpool office applied in black ink a handstamp that imitates a manuscript marking intended to indicate a 

postage due of Is. This peculiarly shaped marking 

is immediately to the left of the 100 stamp. The cover 

is in the collection of Mr. Creighton C. Hart and is 

presented here with his kind permission. 

Bonsor, North Atlantic Seaway, p. 49. 

Ibid., p. 50. 

13

 All sailing data related to the Cunard line have been taken 

from incomplete records of the Cunard line by Lester L. 

Downing. These records have been completed by the author 

from Custom House reports in the Shipping and Commercial 

List and New York Prices Current. 

14

 See Creighton C. Hart, "1847 Covers from Delaware," 

Chronicle 46 (Dec. 1963) ; see also "Early Transatlantic 1847 

Covers," Chronicle 20, 1, Whole No. 57 (Feb. 1968). 
SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

ssu~. 

FIGURE 1.—COVER, from Edinburgh to New York, 1845. 

In 1847 Great Britain issued a Is. stamp that was 

extensively used to prepay the packet rate. The stamp 

is hexagonal in shape, and most of these stamps have 

all margins meticulously cut away. Figure 3 presents 

a letter from a London merchant addressed to "Mess 

Abraham Bell & Son/New York." The clerk who applied the Is. stamp to this letter carelessly neglected 

to cut away the margins. On the reverse of the letter 

is a double-lined Maltese-cross marking inscribed LS / 

15 JA is/1848, applied in orange-red ink. This is a 

marking of the Lombard Street office at London, 

showing the letter was sent from there on 15 January 

1848. The letter was sent to Liverpool, whence it was 

conveyed to Boston by the R.M.S. Acadia of the Cunard line. Arriving in Boston on 1 February 1848, the 

letter was sent to New York where it was rated for a collection of 50 inland plus 20 ship postage, a total of 70. 

Mail Between Bremen and the 

United States Before the 

Postal Arrangement of 1847 

Prior to 1841, all mail between Bremen and the 

United States was conveyed by private sailing ships. 

On 30 August 1841, the General Post Office at London 

and the Post Office of Bremen signed a postal convention which made service by the Cunard packets available at reduced rates.1!i 

Article I set a sea rate of 6d. per half ounce for direct 

sea conveyance to or from London, via Cuxhaven, via 

Hamburg, or direct to Bremerhaven. "The British rate 

of transit postage to be taken on letters posted in or 

addressed to Bremen . . . passing through the United 

Kingdom to or from its colonies or foreign countries, 

shall be that which is now, or shall hereafter be, taken 

upon letters between the United Kingdom and such 

colonies or foreign countries." 

Article II set a transit rate between Cuxhaven or 

Bremerhaven and Bremen at 4 grote (2d.). Thus, a 

total rate of 8d. (16 grote) was established for transit 

between London and Bremen. Since the British transatlantic packet rate was ls. (24 grote), letters sent 

between Bremen and the United States frontier by 

this route required that 40 grote be prepaid in Bremen 

on letters sent, and collected there on letters received. 

The British share of this postage was ls. 6d. (36 grote). 

The London office appears to have performed the 

accounting on all letters sent by this route. Distinctly 

British 1/6 markings appear on all single-rate letters, 

' British and Foreign State Papers, vol. 30, pp. 338-340. 
NUMBER 6 

FIGURE 2.—COVER, from Wilmington, Delaware to Liverpool, 1847. 

(Creighton C. Hart collection) 

*fs. 

FIGURE 3.—COVER, from London to New York, 1848. 

372-C45 O—TO——2 
SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

TABLE 1.—United States and British Postal Rates {in Effect 1 July 184$) 

United States Rates

 a 

British Rates

 b 

(between any point in Great Britain and the U.S. frontier) 

Inland or domestic postage: 

Single rate for 2 letters not exceeding one-half ounce: 

If conveyed under 300 miles 5^ 

If conveyed over 300 miles 10 

Rate progression: 

For every additional half ounce or fraction thereof, 1 additional rate 

Packet postage (to or from port of arrival or departure): 

Not exceeding one-half ounce 24 

Exceeding one-half but not exceeding one ounce 48 

For every additional half ounce or fraction thereof 15 

Ship rates (for private ships, not under government contract): 

Addressed to the port of arrival 6 

Addressed to a destination beyond port of arrival 

Inland postage from port to destination, plus 2^ ship postage per letter 

Packet postage (by Cunard contract packets): 

Not exceeding one-half ounce 

Ship rates (for private ships, not under government contract): 

Not exceeding one-half ounce 

Rate progression (applicable to both packet and ship rates) 

Not over one-half ounce 

Over one-half but not-over one ounce 

Over one but not over two ounces 

For every additional ounce or fraction thereof, 2 additional rates 

ls. 0d. 

8d. 

1 rate 

2 rates 

4 rates 

NOTE: No triple rate or further odd-numbered rates existed. 

«• Rates as stated in act of 3 March 1845; 5 Statutes at large 733, 737. See also American Almanac, 

1850. 

b

 Rates were prepaid in Great Britain on letters sent, and collected in Great Britain on letters 

received. 

in red on those from Bremen and in black on those to 

Bremen. 

It might be well, at this point, to define the basic 

mail services then in use. "Direct mail," as the name 

implies, referred to mail conveyed directly from a port 

of one country to a port of another without passing 

in transit over the territory of an intermediate 

country. "Open mail" referred to letters routed by 

an exchange office to a foreign exchange office 

with whom it corresponded, which in turn, routed 

it to another office, and so on, until the letter 

reached its destination. This necessitated sorting of 

letters at each office and increased the probability 

that they would be mis-sent or charged with erroneous 

postage. It was also expensive and increased the time 

required in transit. This was in contrast to "closed 

mail" which was forwarded by an exchange office of 

origin in closed bags to an exchange office of distribution abroad. Such mail would pass in unbroken state 

through the territory of one or more foreign countries 

to a distributing exchange office where it would be 

opened and sorted for the first time. It was usually 

provided that closed mail be accompanied by a courier 

of the dispatching country when passing over foreign 

territory. 

Another avenue of mail between Bremen and the 

United States was opened by the Anglo-Prussian treaty 

of 1 October 1846.16 Under provisions of this convenIbid., vol. 34, pp. 34-38. 
NUMBER 6 

TABLE 2.— United States and Prussian Postal Rates {Under the 1846 Anglo-Prussian Treaty) 

Postage 

British transit 

Transatlantic packet 

Direct rate 

Belgian transit 

Closed-mail rate 

Up to 

5 OZ. 

0s.6d. 

1 0 

1 6 

0 2 

1 8 

Up to 

\ oz. 

0s.6d. 

1 0 

1 6 

0 4 

1 10 

Exactly 

\ oz. 

0s.6d. 

1 0 

1 6 

0 6 

2 0 

Up to 

J oz. 

ls.Od. 

2 0 

3 0 

0 6 

3 6 

Up to 

1 oz. 

ls.Od. 

2 0 

3 0 

0 8 

3 8 

Up to 

lio z 

2s.0d. 

4 0 

6 0 

0 10 

6 10 

tion, direct mail was routed via Hamburg or the 

Netherlands, closed mail, through Belgium. For direct 

mail, the Prussian exchange offices were Hamburg and 

Emmerich, and the British used London, Hull, and 

Dover. On closed mail, London was the only British 

office, while Prussia used Aix-la-Chapelle [Aachen] and 

Cologne. Rates to or from the United States were specifically provided for and are set forth in Table 2. 

The rates set forth in Table 2 indicate that the progression used for the British transit and transatlantic 

packet postages was the same as that then in force in 

Great Britain. It is included in Table 1 as applying 

to the British packet and ship rates. For letters exceeding one ounce in weight, this "British" progression prescribed that for each additional ounce or 

fraction thereof, two additional rates were charged. 

The Belgian transit postage, however, used a different progression. The lowest rate was for a letter 

weighing "up to, but not including one-fourth ounce." 

From this rate the progression increased in quarterounce increments, but a rate for a letter that weighed 

exactly half an ounce was allowed. The treaty provided that Id. (British) was equal to 10 pfennige 

(Prussian). It should be noted that there were 12 

pfennige to the silbergroschen, which, according to 

this formula, was worth 2.40. Prussia rated letters in 

multiples of 10 pfennige, that is, virtually in pence. 

On closed mail, London performed all the accounting 

necessary for the preparation of the monthly reports, 

which Prussia, after review, approved or rejected. The 

London office marked the cover to show the breakdown 

of the total British debit or credit to Prussia. To this 

postage was added German transit postage to destination or from point of origin.17 

After the United States-British treaty became fully 

effective on 1 July 1849, the ls. transatlantic packet 

postage included in Table 2 was reduced to 8d. for 

17

 See George E. Hargest, "Analysis of Foreign Rate and 

Route for Problem Cover," Chronicle 46 (Dec. 1963): 

a single rate, the progression remaining the same. 

Eightpence, or its proper multiple, therefore, can be 

substituted for the one-shilling rate in Table 2 to 

arrive at the proper rates after 1 July 1849. 

Covers 

Figure 4 illustrates a letter posted at the Bremen 

City Post Office on 27 August 1847, addressed to Baltimore. It was forwarded to England under provisions of the Anglo-Bremen convention of 1841 and 

was accordingly prepaid 40 Bremen grote. The prepayment does not show on the cover, but the Bremen 

Post Office marked it FRANCO, indicating that the 

required postage to the United States frontier had 

been paid. The Bremen double-circle marking, ST. 

P.A./BREMEN/2 7/8 abbreviates Stadt Post Abteilungj 

Bremen/21 /August, and literally means "State Post 

Department." The London office applied an orangered PAID/30AU3O/I84 7 marking and also marked it 

in red manuscript 1/6 to indicate the British share of 

the postage, that is, ls. transatlantic packet and 6d. 

Bremen-Britain transit postages. The oval L/AU 3O/H, 

applied in black at Liverpool, is a packet mark and 

shows the date the letter was included in the mail 

to be conveyed by the next packet sailing, which, 

in this case, was that of the R.M.S. Britannia from 

Liverpool on 5 September 1847. Arriving in Boston 

on 19 September (not shown), it was forwarded to 

Baltimore, a distance of over 300 miles. The blue 

handstamp 12 shows it was rated for a collection of 

12^, that is, lOc' inland postage plus 2c1 ship fee. 

Figure 5 presents a cover mailed at Dusseldorf, 

Prussia, on 14 June 1847, addressed to "Mr. Thomas 

Lamb/Boston" through his Philadelphia agents. This 

letter was forwarded to either the Aachen or the Cologne office, whence it was sent through Belgium to 

London in closed mail under provisions of the AngloPrussian convention of 1 October 1846. The Dussel-
10 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

/ ^ • Jy^tf *? If 1 ?c< St 'S%*i/ l/tr 

3Q i 

}^/r% '?,r-^ M/^Jk^ 

Fp* A I v tltl 

/ y///'1// 

FIGURE 4.—COVER, from Bremen to Baltimore, 1847. 

(Melvin W. Schuh collection) 

t-*^- Y^y £*>*+. ^ 

FIGURE 5.—COVER, from Diisseldorf, Prussia, to Philadelphia; 

forwarded to Boston, 1847. (Creighton C. Hart collection) 
NUMBER 6 11 

dorf office had marked it in manuscript at upper right, 

5/8, which indicated that it weighed five-eighths of a 

zoll loth. Since the zoll loth weighed about 14 grams, 

this letter weighed about 8 grams, over one-fourth 

but under one-half ounce. Prepayment of postage was 

compulsory, and the full rate to the United States 

frontier was prepaid. The amount of this prepayment 

is not shown, but the Dusseldorf office marked it with 

a large p in oval, indicating that the postage was paid. 

The Prussian exchange office credited Great Britain 

with 22d. (or 220 pfennige). This is indicated by a 

red-crayon 22 at lower left, which was placed beside 

a manuscript "franco/via England," probably written 

by the person who posted the letter. It was then sent 

in closed mail through Belgium to the London office. 

As the accounting was performed by the London office, 

it was marked 1-/10 in red ink, indicating the British postage of ls. lOd. (equivalent to 22d.), as is indicated on Table 2 for a letter weighing under one-half 

ounce. London forwarded the letter to Liverpool, after 

applying an orange-red circular PAID/ I 7 JULY/I8 4 7 

marking. Upon receipt in Liverpool, it was marked 

with a black oval L/J U 17/ H marking, and two days 

later, on 19 June, it was sent to Boston by R.M.S. Caledonia of the Cunard line, which arrived there on 3 

July 1847. 

The letter is addressed to a Philadelphia agent who 

paid 120 upon its receipt (10^ postage for a letter 

conveyed over 300 miles plus 20 ship fee). The agents 

crossed out their name and address, leaving the name 

and address of their client, "Mr. Thomas Lamb/Boston." The agents prepaid the letter for forwarding 

to Boston by affixing a5(J stamp of the 1847 issue in 

the upper left corner and posting the letter. Since 

Boston is over 300 miles from Philadelphia, a prepayment of 100 should have been made. The Philadelphia 

post office recognized the 50 prepaid by the stamp, but 

marked the letter in manuscript Due 5, which was 

to be collected from Mr. Lamb in Boston.18 

Figure 6 illustrates a cover (face only) posted in 

Baltimore, addressed to Bremen. It is endorsed "p 

America Str. of 31 July from N.YK," and is prepaid 50 

for a distance under 300 miles by a 50 stamp of the 

1847 issue. R.M.S. America of the Cunard line sailed 

from New York on 31 July 1850, thus determining 

the year of this cover. The letter evidently weighed 

over one-fourth ounce but less than one-half ounce 

and was sent from England in the Anglo-Prussian 

closed mail. Since this was posted after the United 

States-British treaty became effective, the packet rate 

was only 8d., which, if substituted in Table 2 for a 

letter of this weight, makes a total postage due to 

Great Britain of one ls. 6d. This amount is debited 

to Prussia by a manuscript 1/6. This was equal to 

36 Bremen grote to which was added the PrussianBremen postage of 8 grote; a total collection of 44 

grote is indicated by a 44 in red crayon. 

Ibid. 

/$,... ...u. ^,V-^-A^y£- 3£«_ 

FIGURE 6.—COVER, from Baltimore to Bremen, 1850. 

(Creighton C. Hart collection) 
12 

The 1847 Postal Arrangement 

With Bremen 

After it was decided that the United States' subsidized Ocean line was to run between New York and 

Bremen with a call at Southampton each way, negotiations for a postal convention between Bremen and 

the United States were immediately undertaken. When 

Gevekoht left Bremen for the United States on 28 November 1845, he carried with him instructions and 

the necessary credentials of authority from the Bremen 

senate for the negotiation of a postal convention. His 

instructions included the following provisions:

 19 

1. The City Post Office at Bremen was to become 

an American Agency for the receipt and delivery 

of all letters and other mail matter conveyed between the United States and the Weser by the 

American line of steamers. 

2. The mail bags arriving with the steamer were to 

be turned over to the Bremen City Post Office; 

mail bags for the United States were to be sealed 

at the Bremen City Post Office and pass unbroken 

through the German Postal Administration, directed to America, via Bremen. 

3. If the Weser is ice-free, one or more steamers are 

to be held ready to carry the mail and passengers 

in about 3/2 hours from the American steamer to 

Bremen. If the Weser is iced over, the mails are 

to be forwarded by courier. 

4. The Bremen City Post Office is to be in charge of 

mails dispatched and received from Hamburg as 

well as from Oldenburg and the Netherlands. Mail 

matter for other German states is to be turned over 

to the Hanover postal system, since it can be forwarded more rapidly by the Hanover railroad. 

5. For performing these services as an exclusive 

American Agency, the Bremen Post Office is to 

receive a portion of the American sea postage as 

commission, the amount of which is to be determined by the American Postmaster General. 

From these provisions, the desires of Bremen can 

be clearly seen. It wanted to be made the "depot" for 

United States mail to and from Central and Eastern 

Europe. It wanted the exclusive right to handle all 

mail conveyed by the American steamers. These instructions reflect the bitter commercial rivalry that 

existed between the several German states. For example, the closing of the mailbags prescribed in clause 

SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

2 of the provisions would avert possible diversion of 

letters from Prussia and the Thurn and Taxis posts by 

the Hanover postal administration. As clause 4 discloses, Bremen wanted to "be in charge" of the mails 

dispatched to and received from Hamburg so that this 

rival city state would not have the opportunity of 

routing and distributing it. By obtaining the establishment of Bremen as an exclusive American mail agency, 

a monopoly by Bremen over all German mail conveyed by the American steamship line was secured. 

As soon as Senator Duckwitz learned that Bremen 

had been selected as the European terminus of the 

Ocean line, he planned some far-reaching changes 

that he felt must-be realized before the first American 

steamer arrived. On 28 February 1846

 20

 he concluded 

a postal convention with Hanover which set up a 

post office at Bremerhaven and separately defined 

the postal responsibilities of Bremen and Hanover. 

It was imperative, he felt, that harbor improvements 

be made and that the railroad line between Bremen 

and Hanover be completed. In these matters, Duckwitz secured the cooperation of the Hanover minister 

of foreign affairs, Privy Councilor von Falcke,21 who 

won for him the support of the Hanover government. 

On 26 May 1847, Major Selah R. Hobbie, first assistant postmaster general of the United States, was 

given his instructions and credentials as special agent 

of the Post Office Department with power to formulate 

postal arrangements with Bremen and other European 

states. Specifically, he was instructed to proceed to 

Bremen on the maiden voyage of the Washington and 

also to visit Havre, London, and Paris to arrange for 

the reception, transmission, and delivery of the United 

States mail.22 

It is strange that the first Bremen postal arrangement is not published in the Statutes at Large. The 

omission probably resulted from the fact that Congress 

was not given the completed text with the regulations 

until 3 February 1849, and then only after a resolution 

of the Senate called for particulars of the arrangement.23

 The House of Representatives, however, had 

earlier made some inquiries about our foreign postal 

arrangements. On 17 January 1848, it had passed a 

resolution requesting a report "of such measures as 

are rendered necessary by the present state of our 

Piefke, Bremischen Landespost, Chap. 22. 

20

 Ibid. 

21

 Ibid. 

22

 U.S., Congress, Senate, Executive Document 25, 30th 

Cong., 2nd sess., serial 531, p. 5. 

" Ibid., p. 1. 
NUMBER 6 13 

foreign mail service."

 2i Postmaster General Cave 

Johnson made reply by reporting a twelve-page letter 

from Major Hobbie, dated 15 January 1848. Hobbie 

explained his part in the negotiation of the agreement 

and set forth a schedule of rates upon which tentative 

accord had been secured. Pertinent portions of his 

letter follow:

 25 

When I arrived at Bremen, in June last, I found a ready 

and willing consideration extended at once to the subject of 

our international mail intercourse with Germany, and to all 

suggestions for its improvement. Besides the post office authorities at Bremen, I met there the representatives from the 

post offices of Prussia, Hanover, Brunswick, and Hamburg; 

and a communication from the Directeur General of the 

Thurn and Taxis posts at Frankfort-on-the-Main, was 

brought to me by Charles Graebe, Esq., an American consul, 

and a zealous and devoted friend of American interests. The 

postal systems of Germany are a very complicated organization. The Prince of Thurn and Taxis (resident at Ratisbon, in 

the Kingdom of Bavaria) holds by ancient feudatory grant, 

revived at the Congress of Vienna, the exclusive right of mail 

conveyance in seventeen states of the German confederation; 

and in most of the remaining states, a right concurrent with 

the separate right of local governments. This circumstance I 

found, after my first visit to Bremen, and after I had an interview at Frankfort with the Directeur General of the Thurn 

and Taxis posts, embarrassed my operations with difficulties 

somewhat peculiar. The General and the local authorities 

entertained conflicting views. Deeming it unwise to excite 

jealousies, and not having time to follow out the negotiations 

with each, I judged it best to rely upon the agency of the 

government of Bremen, to effect the desired results of uniform and reduced postages in Germany upon American mails. 

I then adjusted with the post office authority of that government, all needful arrangements. 

The post office authority of the Hanseatic republic of Bremen is exercised by a committee of its Senate, the principal 

member of which is the Hon. Arnold Duckwitz. With him my 

business was transacted and arrangements made. Through 

him the applications were presented to the different governments to reduce the postages and establish uniform rates on 

American mails. 

It is undoubtedly fortunate that Hobbie delegated 

his authority for negotiation with the German states 

to Duckwitz, for this gentleman worked unremittingly 

and accomplished surprising results. When Hobbie arrived in Bremen, it was his intention to conclude an 

agreement with all Germany which would establish 

reduced and uniform postages. Duckwitz pointed out 

that if this were to be done, he would have to make 

separate agreements with at least seventeen German 

states. Hobbie is said to have described the separation 

of the German states as "humbug,"

 26

 but Duckwitz 

persuaded him that best results could be secured if 

negotiations were conducted by the Bremen agency. 

It was finally agreed that the German postage for 

a single letter of one-half ounce, or one German loth, 

should be 12^, equal to 12 Bremen grote, 5 Prussian 

silbergroschen, or 4 Hanoverian gute groschen.2. 

Added to this postage was the packet postage of 24^, 

and finally, the American inland postage of 5$S or 

10^. It was also agreed that only those German postal 

systems that would reduce their postage to 12^ would 

be allowed to exchange letters by direct steamship. 

In accordance with the principle established by the 

joint resolution of Congress of 15 June 1844, optional 

prepayment of the international rate was to be provided. At the end of the negotiations, Duckwitz and 

others suggested that it might be proper for Bremen 

to charge a postage of 2^ on letters conveyed between 

Bremen and Bremerhaven. Since Hobbie had no 

instructions on this point, he noted the request, and 

Duckwitz left the matter to be considered at a later 

date. 

Although all difficulties were not yet overcome, the 

arrangement was signed at Washington on 29 March 

and at Bremen on 26 June 1847. Excerpts of significant sections of the text follow:

 2S 

1. The Post Office Department at Washington appoints the 

postmaster at Bremen its sole and exclusive agent for the 

receipt and forwarding of mail conveyed by the American mail steamers between New York and Bremerhaven. 

2. On arrival of the steamers on the Weser, the captain 

will deliver the mail bags to the Bremen postal agent at 

Bremerhaven. 

3. During the season of the year that will admit it, a 

Weser steamboat will be held in readiness to take the 

mails to Bremen; when navigation in the Weser is interrupted, or when the steamer arrives at night, the mail 

bags will be dispatched to Bremen by courier, the time 

of such transit not to exceed five hours. 

4. All mail to America will be forwarded exclusively by the 

Bremen City Post Office, "the mail bags to be closed at 

the post office at Bremen, and all letters for steamers are 

to be delivered there." 

5. The Bremen Post Office agrees that a separate bag may 

be exchanged with the Hamburg Post Office, to contain 

only the Hamburg matter, and no mail for points beyond 

Hamburg. Such bag is to be under the control of the 

Bremen mail agent at Bremerhaven. 

6. The Bremen postmaster "is to take charge of the receiving, 

forwarding, and despatching of the mails, accounting to 

21

 U.S., Congress, House, Executive Document 35, 30th 

Cong., 1st sess., serial 516, p. 1. 

"'Ibid., pp. 8-9. 

"" Piefke, Bremischen Landespost, Chap. 22. 

27

 Ibid. 

28

 Senate Executive Document 25, 30 Cong., 2 sess., serial 

531, pp. 7-9. 
14 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

the Postmaster General of the United States for the 

United States postage received by the postmaster at 

Bremen." For this service he was to receive a commission of twenty percent, "to be cast upon the amount of 

postage collected and credited to the Postmaster General 

of the United States." 

7. The Post Office Department "of the Hanseatic republic 

of Bremen declares itself responsible for the Bremen postmaster in behalf of all services to be performed under this 

agreement." 

It should be noted that the above agreement closely 

parallels the instructions given Gevekoht by the Bremen 

senate in 1845. The rate structure was not included 

in the agreement itself, but was established by regulations, which were signed at Bremen on 13 September 

1847.20 Significant portions of the fourteen clauses 

of these regulations are excerpted below, as follows: 

1. Provided that the sender of a letter should have the 

option of 

(a) leaving the whole postage to be paid by the receiver 

(b) prepaying the whole postage to the place of destination 

(c) when sent from the United States, of paying the 

United States postage to Bremen, leaving the European postage unpaid; when sent from Bremen, of 

paying the European postage from Bremen, leaving 

the United States postage unpaid. 

4. Since the mail agent at Bremen would have difficulty in 

determining distances under or over 300 miles in the 

United States, it was provided that when he collected 

the United States postage, i.e., on prepaid letters sent 

from Bremen, or on unpaid letters from the United States, 

he was to collect it as follows: 

At 24tj: the single letter—from or to the City of New York 

At 294 the single letter—from or to any other part of 

the state of New York, or from or to the states of New 

Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, 

or the District of Columbia. 

At 34<f the single letter—from or to the remainder of the 

United States or Canada. 

NOTE: Since the preceding schedule for the collection of postage according to places or states has in 

some published works been applied to all mail under 

the United States-Bremen arrangement, it must be 

emphasized that it pertained only to postage collected 

by the mail agent in Bremen. United States postmasters 

collected inland postage according to distances under 

or over 300 miles. The above schedule was never published and issued to postmasters in the United States, 

and they, in general, had no knowledge of it. 

7. Established the progression at an additional rate for each 

additional unit of weight, or fraction thereof. 

10. Provided that each letter is to be marked with the stamp 

of the office mailing it on the face, and if from Europe 

with the stamp of Bremen on the back, and in case it is 

addressed to any other office in the United States than 

New York, then with the stamp of New York also on the 

back, the better to identify it for the accounts, in case it 

should be returned as dead or mis-directed. And if the 

letter is from the United States, it is to be stamped on 

the back by New York and Bremen in like manner. If it 

is an unpaid letter it should be marked on the face with 

the postage accruing to the country in which mailed, and 

chargeable to the country in which to be delivered. This 

entry should be made in figures in black ink. If the 

postage is prepaid to destination, it is to be marked in 

red figures with that proportion of the postage received 

which is to be accounted for to the country in which the 

letter is to be delivered, and stamped in red paid all. 

When the United States postage only is paid on letters 

going to Europe, or the European postage only is paid on 

letters going to the United States, the letter is to be 

stamped in black part paid and the amount is not to be 

stated on the letter, as it does not enter into the international account. The postmasters of Bremen and of New 

York will see that the entries on the letters are correct, 

and will supply all emissions of the mailing offices so 

far as in their power. 

12andl3. Mails between Bremen (city) and New York 

(city), and between New York and Hamburg (city) 

were to be made up in separate bags. 

After the regulations were agreed upon and signed, 

the question of the 2^ charge for postage between Bremen and Bremerhaven was again raised. Senator 

Duckwitz finally settled the matter by sending the 

following memorandum to Postmaster General Cave 

Johnson:

 30 

Memorandum.—A question having been raised and submitted to the Postmaster General of the United States 

respecting the postage in Bremen, and the compensation to 

that office, and the same to decide so as to have 'the regulations' unchanged, the charge of 2 cents postage in Bremen 

was formally relinquished by GUILDMEISTER 

Thus, no inland postage was charged either in 

Bremen or in New York City. While the omission of 

the United States inland postage "in the port" was by 

intent of Congress, the omission of the Bremen inland 

postage was originally an oversight. Breman could have 

insisted that the regulations be changed to include it. 

After the agreement was signed, Postmaster General 

Cave Johnson faced a problem. Wholly prepaid and 

unpaid letters could be sent to or received from Europe 

Ibid., pp. 9-13. Ibid., p. 13. 
NUMBER 6 15 

only under the rates of the United States-Bremen arrangement, and could be conveyed only by Ocean line 

steamer Washington. During 1847 there were only 

three sailings from New York by the Washington : on 1 

June, 23 September, and 18 November. Her first sailing in 1848 was on 20 February. On 20 March 1848, 

Hermann cleared New York for Bremen on her 

maiden voyage.31 It is suspected that Postmaster General Johnson did not wish to place the agreement in 

force until the proposed monthly service could be 

maintained. He therefore waited until the maiden voyage of Hermann was announced. Whatever the cause 

for delay might have been, notice to the public and 

instructions to postmasters were not published until 

1 March 1848,32 and did not actually become effective 

until Hermann sailed on 20 March 1848. 

Postal Rates Under the 

Arrangement With. Bremen 

The foreign postages agreed upon were included in 

clause 3 of the regulations and were additionally presented in tabular form in Exhibit D appended to the 

regulations. Total rates were arrived at by adding 

together the United States and foreign postages. The 

United States inland and packet postages, as well as 

the foreign postages, are summarized in Table 3. 

The act of 3 March 1851, effective on 1 July, established the United States postage at 200 per half ounce, 

to or from any point in the United States. Thus, the 

24-, 29-, and 34-cent rates were superseded by a sole 

rate of 200, to which the foreign postage was added to 

arrive at wholly unpaid or fully prepaid rates. In the 

accounts, 50 of the 200 rate was allocated as inland, 

and 150 as sea postage. 

Although it was reported that, effective 1 July 

1850,33 a new German-Austrian postal convention 

would reduce rates throughout most of the German 

states, such reductions were not reflected in rate tables 

presented in post office instructions issued to post-

=1

 Bonsor (North Atlantic Seaway, p. 52), gives the date as 

21 Mar. 1848. The Shipping and Commercial List, 18 Mar. 

1848, shows the Hermann ''up'' for sailing on 20 Mar. 1848, 

while the issue of 25 Mar. 1848 shows that it cleared New 

York 20 Mar. 1848. 

""Senate Executive Document 25, 30 Cong., 2 sess., serial 

531,p. 13. 

33

 Senate Executive Document 82, 32 Cong., 2 sess., serial 

660, p. 34 (Mr. Lawrence to Lord Palmerston). 

masters on 14 June 1851. With reference to mail by 

the Bremen line, however, the instructions stated: "It 

is supposed that these Foreign Rates have been reduced 

under a late postal treaty between the German States; 

but official information of it has not been received. By 

prepaying only the 20 cents United States postage, and 

leaving the balance unpaid, the advantage of such 

reduction (if any) may be secured." Reduced rates 

were presented in the Postal Laws and Regulations for 

1852 (as of 3 April 1852), as follows: 

Letters to the cities and countries in Germany here 

named, if sent by the Bremen line, can be pre-paid to 

destination, if desired, by pre-paying the amounts here 

stated in addition to the U.S. postage of 200 per single 

rate. . Prepayment of the whole postage to destination, 

the U.S. postage cnly, or to send the letter wholly unpaid, is 

optional. It is advised to pay the U.S. postage only. 

Single rate of one-quarter ounce: 

Cassel, Coburgh, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 

Darmstadt, and Wurtemberg 74 

Single rate of one-half ounce: 

Oldenburg 2 

Hamburg 5 

Altona and Hanover 6 

Brunswick, Gotha, and Prussia 7 

Kiel and Lubec 8 

Thurn and Taxis posts, and Saxony 12 

On letters to the cities and countries on the continent of 

Europe (and Africa) here named, if sent by the Bremen 

line, it is advised that the U.S. postage only be prepaid, if 

prepayment is desired, leaving the foreign postage to be 

collected from the receiver. But letters to these places can 

be sent wholly unpaid. 

Single rate of one-quarter ounce: 

Austria, Baden, and Bavaria 74 

Italy, eastern towns of 18 

Basle and other parts of Switzerland 21 

Alexandria, Cairo, and Greece 37 

Single rate of one-half ounce: 

Denmark 22 

St. Petersburg and Cronstadt 24 

Norway, (Bergen, Christiania, and "furthest" 

parts) 28 

Sweden, Stockholm, and "furthest" parts 39 

Operations Under the 

Bremen Arrangement 

Steamship Washington left New York on her maiden 

voyage on 1 June 1847, and on the same day Britannia 

of the Cunard line sailed from Boston. Britannia arrived at Liverpool two full days before the Washington 
16 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

TABLE 3.—Postal Rates Under the United States-Bremen Arrangement {1847) 

United States Rate s 

Inland postage (single rat e of one-half ounce): 

If posted or received unde r 300 miles from New York City 

If posted or received over 300 miles from New York City 

If posted or received in New York City 

Packet postage: 

For letters not exceeding one-half ounce 

For letters over one-half but not over one ounce 

For every additional half ounce or fraction thereof 

Total United States postage (for a single rate): 

If posted or received in New York City 

If posted or received unde r 300 miles from New York City 

If posted or received over 300 miles from New York City 

n 

10 

l ) 

24 

48 

15 

24 

29 

34 

Foreign Rate s 

Single rate of one-half ounce on letters addressed to: a 

Altona 

Bremen 

Brunswick 

Cassel

 c 

Coburg

 u 

Darmstad t

 c 

Frankfort-on-Main 

Goth a

 c 

Hambur g 

Hanove r 

Hesse-Homburg

 c 

Kiel 

Lippe-Detmold

 c 

Lube c 

6^ 

0 

b 6 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

6 

6 

12 

11 

12 

9 

Mecklenburg-Schwerin

 u 

Mecklenburg-Strelitz

 c 

Nassau

 c 

Oldenbur g 

Prussia (and provinces) 

Reuss

 c 

Saxe-Altenburg

 c 

Saxe-Meiningen

 c 

Saxe-Weima r

 c 

Saxony 

Schaumburg-Lippe

 c 

Schwartzburg-Rudolstadt

 c 

Schwartzburg-Sonderhausen 

Wurtember g

 c 

Single rate of one-half ounce on letters addressed to: f 

Denmark—Copenhage n and "furthest " parts 

Norway—Bergen and "furthest " parts 

St. Petersburg an d Cronstadt 

Sweden—Stockholm an d "furthest " parts 

Single rate of one-quarter ounce on letters addressed to: 

V2f. 

12 

12 

<*5 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

- 12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

22^ 

30 

24 

39 

Alexandria 

Austria 

Baden 

Basle and other parts of Switzerland 

37 

18 

18 

21 

Bavaria 

Cairo 

Constantinople 

Greece 

Italy, eastern towns 

22 

37 

37 

37 

18 

NOTE . Rates as set forth in Senate Executive Document 25, 30th Cong., 2nd sess., serial 531, pp . 

18-19. 

a

 Postage could be prepaid or left unpaid, or U.S . postage alone could be prepaid, at option 

of sender. 

b

 Reduce d from 8^ by 20 Marc h 1848. 

c

 Served by Thur n an d Taxis posts. 

d

 Reduce d to 2^ by 1851. 

e

 Reduce d from 18^ by 20 Marc h 1848. 

f

 U.S . postage only should be prepaid. 

e

 U.S. postage only should be prepaid. 
NUMBER 6 17 

reached Southampton on 15 June.34 Not only was the 

speed of Washington disappointing, but she rolled excessively, much to the discomfort of her passengers. 

Both Washington and Hermann were built with narrow bottoms that made them load deep, forcing adjustments to be made in Washington's paddle blades, 

which were originally too long.35 In appearance, they 

were described as ugly-looking, like men-of-war with 

the top decks cut off. Washington had a white gun 

strake which extended across her paddle box with a 

row of gun ports painted on it. 

Hermann sailed from New York on 20 March 1848 

and carried the first mail under the postal arrangement 

with Bremen. There are several "firsts" connected with 

this maiden voyage of Hermann. It carried the first 

mail under the first postal convention between the 

United States and a European country. This mail contained the first wholly unpaid and wholly prepaid letters sent from the United States to Europe. 

Figure 7 illustrates a cover which was included in 

this first mail to Bremen. The letter is dated "March 

17th" and was posted in New York, addressed to 

Berlin, Prussia. On its face are the figures 24 and 12 

31

 Bonsor, North Atlantic Seaway, p. 51. 

35

 C. R. Vernon Gibbs, Passenger Liners of the Western 

Ocean, p. 96. 

in lead pencil, which set forth the United States and 

foreign postages separately, and indicated a prepayment of 360. As required by clause 10 of the regulations, it was marked PAID ALL in red ink on its face. 

The credit for the foreign (German) postage is shown 

by a manuscript 12 in red ink. The AMERICA/UBER 

BREMEN handstamp was applied in black ink by the 

United States mail agent in Bremen and is, therefore, 

a marking of the United States post office. The New 

York circular town marking, applied in red on the 

face, shows the date of 20 March, the date of sailing 

of Hermann. At lower left is the endorsement "Per 

Steamer/Hermann." During the nine years in which 

Hermann plied between New York and Bremen, it 

sailed from New York on 20 March only in 1848. On 

the reverse is a small circular marking in black, bearing at its sides an N at left and a 1 at right, the significance of which is not known. In its center are the figures 16/4, which indicates the date of 16 April. This 

marking is believed to be Prussian, and shows the date 

the letter arrived in Berlin. 

All of the early steamships consumed enormous 

quantities of coal. Until 1850, when American supplies became available, coal used for the eastward runs 

was brought from England by sailing ships. Until about 

1860, salt water was used in boilers, which rapidly 

deteriorated, decreased their efficiency, and necessi4rf(t0 

f*C9 

AMP- R ITA**^* 

7a. 

JM > 'f% ~~^t~ Z *$**"* 

FIGURE 7.—COVER, from New York to Berlin, Prussia, 1848. 
18 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

tated frequent pauses to "blow out" salt sediment. The 

original boilers of Washington and Hermann were gigantic affairs that proved to be inefficient, and they 

were replaced by smaller ones in 1851. Since engines, 

boilers, and bunkers took up so much space, there was 

little left for passengers and cargo. The Atlantic crossings wore out the paddle steamers at a rapid rate, 

necessitating high repair and maintenance costs. "General experience up to 1850 established that an ocean 

steamship company had to earn an annual sum equal 

to 25% of its capital before beginning to show a 

profit."

 3G 

None of the early steamship lines wanted to run 

their ships during the winter months, particularly in 

December and January. Because winter weather on 

the North Atlantic was usually stormy, passengers and 

cargo were scarce. Only in dire necessity was a person 

willing to undertake a winter voyage, because ships 

were cold, the quarters cramped, and shipboard diseases were reputed to be more prevalent in winter. 

Merchants were unwilling to ship certain kinds of 

freight during the winter months because of the possibility of its freezing. Faced with greatly curtailed 

revenues and increased costs, only the heavily subsidized lines ran regularly throughout the year. 

The experiences of Hermann and Washington during the winter of 1848-49 may serve as an example of 

the conditions ships might expect to encounter on the 

North Atlantic in winter. 

The New York Tribune of Friday morning, 5 January 1849, carried the following news item: 

Arrival of the steamship Hermann at Boston—Boston, January 4th 

The steamship Hermann, Capt. Crabtree, which left 

Southampton, 12 December, arrived here this morning 

having experienced a constant succession of heavy westerly 

gales; put in for coals. Has 300 tons of freight. Anchored 

in Nantasket Roads last night at 9 o'clock. The following 

is a list of her passengers: [24 names were listed]. 

The Hermann's mails will be sent this afternoon via 

Stonington. 

The Shipping and Commercial List shows that 

Hermann arrived in New York on 6-7 January, that 

is, late Saturday evening or on Sunday. 

Washington, which arrived in New York on 8 January 1849, had suffered damage in the same storm. The 

13 January 1849 issue of the Shipping and Commercial 

List carried the following item under "Gales and 

Disasters:" 

The Steam ship Washington, Johnson, at this port from 

Southampton, 27th ult. lat. 51.28 Ion. 34.20 experienced 

a hurricane from S.W. which lasted twenty three hours, 

then shifted N.W. when she shipped a sea which carried 

away two forward scuttles, and booby hatches, stove bulwarks and forward sky light, filling the cabin with water 

three feet deep. 

Examination of the sailing dates of the Ocean line 

discloses that there was no sailing from New York 

during any January until 1854, and there were only 

two December sailings by the line from its inception 

in 1847 until it ceased operations in 1857.3r The return 

trip from the November sailing from New York usually brought the ships back to New York in late December or early January, and the next arrival was not until 

early April. The failure of these ships to sail in winter 

created difficult problems for the postmaster general. 

Until the harbor facilities at Bremerhaven were 

completed in September 1851,3S neither the United 

States nor Bremen could effectively protest the irregularity of sailings. Not only would the Ocean line ships 

have to face the gales and cold of the North Atlantic, 

but they also would find no adequate protection 

against ice and storm at Bremerhaven. The run between Bremerhaven and Southampton was subject to 

particularly severe weather in winter. Upon the return 

of Hermann to New York on 23 December 1851, it 

was found that she had "cracked" in the intense cold.39 

She underwent extensive repairs and was reported 

to be in the Navy Yard from 7 to 20 March 1852.40 

Although Bremen frequently protested the continued 

irregularity of sailings, these protests appear to have 

fallen on deaf ears. Only in the fiscal years of 

1855-56 and 1856-57 did the line make the twelve 

annual round voyages required by its contract. 

One reason for the omission of the winter sailings 

was the method adopted by the Post Office Department for paying the subsidies. The Ocean line contract called for a subsidy of $200,000 for twelve round 

voyages per year. Actually, this was calculated at 

$16,667 per round voyage, and the Company was paid 

for the number of round voyages made. Under the 

act of 27 June 1848, the postmaster general was authorized and required to levy fines upon the contractors 

Ibid., p. 52. 

37

 Sailing and arrival information for the Ocean line was 

taken from the appropriate editions of the Shipping and Commercial List. 

3S

 Piefke, Bremischen Landespost, Chap. 22. 

30

 Ibid. 

40

 Shipping and Commercial List, 20 Dec. 1851-24 Mar. 

1852. 
NUMBER 6 19 

for any unreasonable or unnecessary delay in performance of a trip, but such fine was not to exceed one half 

of the contract price paid for the trip.41 It appears that 

maximum fines were seldom levied, and it was cheaper 

for the contractor to forego the subsidy for the voyage 

and pay whatever fine was assessed than it was to make 

the trip. In his annual report for the year 1853-54, 

Postmaster General James Campbell complained that 

"on the Bremen line one of the monthly voyages has 

been omitted. These irregularities materially detract 

from the efficiency of our mail service across the 

Atlantic."

 42 

The Bremen Closed Mail 

The Post Office Department was trying to build an 

American packet service to England that would approximate that of the Cunard line. After the Havre 

and Collins lines started to run in 1850, it was planned 

that there would be twenty-six voyages by the Collins 

line, and twelve each by the Bremen and Havre lines, 

making a total of fifty round voyages by American 

steamers against a total of fifty-two by the Cunard line. 

Sailing dates were set on Saturdays for all lines, the 

Bremen and Havre lines' monthly sailings to alternate 

with the fortnightly sailings of the Collins line, so that 

there was a scheduled sailing from New York every 

Saturday, with the exception of one Saturday in the 

months of December and January. An act of 31 August 

1852

 l3

 authorized an added sailing by the Bremen and 

Havre lines, which brought the American packet 

scheduled sailings up to the fifty-two then being maintained by the Cunard line. The steamship companies, 

however, regarded the additional sailings as a privilege 

rather than an obligation, for only in the fiscal year 

of 1855-56 did the Havre line make its scheduled 

thirteen round voyages, while the Ocean line made no 

more than twelve round voyages in any fiscal year 

during the entire life of the line. With these irregularities in sailings, it was indeed difficult for the Post 

Office Department to realize its goal of having Americans patronize the American lines. 

During the winter of 1848-49, the Ocean line made 

11

 U.S., Postal Laws and Regulations, Chap. 8, sec. 176, 

1866, p. 45. 

*~ Senate Executive Document 1, 33 Cong., 2 sess., serial 

747, p. 631. 

43

 House Executive Document, 32 Cong., 2 sess., serial 674, 

p. 643. 

no sailing from New York between 20 November 1848 

and 20 February 1849. During these months letters 

wholly unpaid, or wholly prepaid with Bremen rates, 

as well as letters prepaid with the United States postage 

of 240, 290, or 340 were appearing at the New York 

office. These letters could not be sent by the Cunard 

line without forcing the mailers to suffer excessive 

overpayments of postage. How or when the letters were 

sent is not known. The evidence of one cover posted 

during this period and marked with a debit for the 240 

packet postage indicates it was sent by sailing ship. 

During the winter of 1849-50, the situation was even 

more acute. There was no sailing by the Ocean line 

between 20 October 1849 and 20 February 1850, the 

November sailing of Washington having been canceled. 

Postmaster General Jacob Collamer, however, now 

had a new avenue available to him for sending mail 

to Bremen. On 1 July 1849, the United States-British 

treaty had become fully effective. By Article VIII, the 

United States had the privilege of sending closed mails 

through England; by Article IX, closed mail was paid 

for by the ounce at two single-letter rates plus 25 

percent. Transatlantic packet postage was 160 per 

single-letter rate and, thus, would amount to 400 per 

ounce (2 x 160 plus 25%). By the Anglo-Bremen treaty 

of 1841, the single-letter rate between London and 

Cuxhaven or Bremerhaven was 6d. (120). Application of the Article IX formula to this rate resulted 

in a postage of 300 per ounce (2 x 120 plus 25%). 

These two rates added together resulted in a total 

postage to the Bremen frontier of 700 per ounce. This 

was high postage, but Postmaster General Collamer 

decided to make use of the route. After the agreement 

of Bremen was secured, Britain was notified that the 

United States would exchange closed mails via the 

London-Cuxhaven or Bremerhaven route.44 

The mail, already marked with Bremen rates, was 

forwarded in closed bags by the Cunard line to Liverpool, thence through London to Bremerhaven. The 

United States mail agent at Bremen rated, marked, and 

forwarded the letters as if they had been conveyed by 

the Ocean line, direct from New York. Except for the 

date of mailing, it is impossible to determine from the 

markings which route was used to convey a letter. On 

incoming mail by this route, however, endorsements 

"By closed mail, via London" are sometimes seen. 

In the following year, the Collins and Havre lines 

began to run, both subsidized by the United States. 

" Piefke, Bremischen Landespost, Chap. 22 
20 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

Shortly thereafter, the Bremen closed mail was sent 

by these lines, rather than by the Cunard Line, so that 

the 400-per-ounce packet postage could be levied 

against their subsidies. The Bremen closed mail made 

available a weekly service to Germany, by direct 

steamers once a month and via England in the remaining weeks. At the request of Dr. Bartsch,43

 director of 

Bremen Posts, the Bremen closed mail was used 

throughout the year, instead of only during the winter 

months. The service was continued until superseded 

by the Prussian closed mail on 16 October 1852.4C 

Schedules prepared by the auditor of the Treasury 

for the Post Office Department for the fiscal year ended 

30 June 1853—the last year the Bremen closed mail 

service was used—disclosed that mail was dispatched 

by this route during the third and fourth quarters of 

1852 and the first quarter of 1853, after which only 

Prussian closed mail is reported. During this last fiscal 

year, a total of 53,064 ounces of Bremen closed mail 

was exchanged, of which the Collins line conveyed 

27,290 ounces, and the Havre line carried 25,774 

ounces. Bremen sent 35,980 ounces to the United States 

by this route, while only 17,084 ounces were dispatched 

by the United States to Bremen.47 

Figure 8 presents a cover that was sent in the Bremen 

closed mail. A folded letter posted in Bremen on 30 

December 1851, addressed to Baltimore, it is endorsed 

btpr. closed Mail via London." Since no inland postage 

was charged in Bremen, only the United States postage 

was paid on a prepaid letter. At left is a red-crayon 

20, showing a prepayment of 20 Bremen grote (200). 

To the right of the 20 is a large manuscript 20 in red 

ink, indicating the Bremen credit of 200 to the United 

States. At lower left is a boxed PAID applied in red by 

Bremen. In red at lower right is a circular NEW-YORK/ 

JAN/ 2 1 marking which shows the date the letter was 

received by the New York office. Since there was no 

arrival by an Ocean line ship between 23 December 

1851 and 18 March 1852, the letter could not have 

been conveyed by a ship of that line. The Collins liner 

Arctic, however, arrived in New York on 21 January 

1852, the date in the New York postmark, and it is, 

therefore, presumed that it arrived by that ship. 

Figure 9 illustrates an unpaid letter that was posted 

in New York, addressed to Dresden, Saxony. The New 

" Ibid. 

iU House Executive Document 1, 32 Cong., 2 sess., serial 674, 

645. 

"House Executive Document 1, 33rd Cong. 1 sess., serial 

692, pp. 731,739. 

*C. >C^^^^-s&Z&<^ 

FIGURE 8.—COVER, from Bremen to Baltimore, 1851. 
NUMBER 6 21 

York office debited Bremen with the packet postage of 

24^ by stamping it with a 24 in black ink at upper 

right. It also marked the letter with a boxed NOT PAID 

in red. At lower left is the endorsement "pr Canada." 

The circular NEW-YORK/AUG/I4 postmark is applied 

in red, and Cunard sailing records show that the Canada sailed from New York on 14 August 1850.4S

 The 

cover is docketed in red New York-Dresden/1850, and 

this year date agrees with the endorsement to the Canada and the sailing date of this ship. The Bremen office 

marked the letter with a 9/AMERICA/UBER BREMEN in 

red. This 9 or a multiple of 9 has been seen on a number of covers rated by the Bremen office. It is suspected 

that it means 9 grote (90), and that it represents the 

Bremen share of the transit postage. Saxony marked 

the letter 16 3/10 in red crayon. This indicated a collection in Dresden of 16 neugroschen and 3 pfennige. 

This collection included a small delivery fee

 49

 which 

was added to the amount in neugroschen that Saxony 

held to be equal to the convention rate of 360. 

Figure 10 illustrates a letter posted in Schenectady, 

48

 Sailings of the Cunard line were taken from records of 

the line by L. L. Downing and are presented here with his 

kind permission. [See also in. 13.] 

i0 A. D. Smith, Development of Rates of Postage, pp. 107, 

257. 

New York, addressed to Baden. The letter weighed 

over half an ounce, or 14.18 grams, but not over 15 

grams. Since it weighed over half an ounce, two rates 

were required in the United States. The person posting 

the letter paid two 50 inland rates from Schenectady 

to New York city by affixing a 100- stamp of the 1847 

issue. The letter was, therefore, forwarded from New 

York as if it were a letter originating in that port. The 

New York office debited Bremen with double the 

single-rate packet postage of 240, or 480. Since the 

Schenectady postmark bears the date of 14 April 

(1851), it is assumed the letter was forwarded via the 

direct route by the Washington which sailed from New 

York on 19 April 1851. 

The foreign markings are of particular interest. 

The cover illustrates the complicated nature of the 

German rates, which involved several currencies. It 

might be well first to state the value in United States 

cents of the currencies appearing on this cover. In 

1850, the. thaler of northern Germany was worth 690; 

there were 30 silbergroschen to the thaler, worth 2.30 

each. In Prussia, there were 12 pfennige to the silbergroschen, but the groschen in other states was worth 

10 pfennige. The rix-dollar of Bremen was worth 78.30 

and there were 72 grote to the dollar, worth 1.090 

each, but generally considered to be worth 10. The 

>^c 94lic»s^g5 /%^«la*K 

*; //si <A 

Cls. 

FIGURE 9.—COVER, from New York to Dresden, Saxony, 1850. 
22 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

TT Blue £?4<?^'l71'1f, *mP7E.DC. 

3378 

FIGURE 10.—COVER, from Schenectady, N.Y., to Baden, 

Germany, 1851. (Ashbrook's Special Service) 

florin of Baden was worth 400, and there were 60 kreuzer to the florin, worth two-thirds of a cent each. Exact 

reconciliation of these amounts in United States currency is difficult because the Germans rounded off 

their small coin, creating minor discrepancies which 

became substantial when applied to high rates. The 

best that can be done is to approach an approximate 

agreement. 

The total postage for this letter, as calculated in the 

United States, would have been 580 plus the foreign 

postage which was at the rate of 180 per quarter ounce. 

Since the letter weighed over half an ounce (14.18 

grams), three 180 rates, or 540 foreign postage would 

have been charged. Hence, if the postage had been 

prepaid in the United States, $1.12 would have been 

required. On the continent, however, the quarter-ounce 

postage was rated at 7 J/2 grams, and the half-ounce 

at 15 grams. Since this letter did not weigh over 15 

grams, only two rates, or 360 were charged by Bremen. 

The total postage on this letter, as calculated by Bremen, was only 840. 

The 20 2/3 in red at upper left means 20 2/3 silbergroschen (47.50) and represents the 480 packet postage, which is charged to Baden and must have been 

included in the postage collected on delivery of the 

letter. 

The Bremen share of the postage was 18 grote for 

a double-rate letter, or two times 9 grote, and it is 

shown in red crayon to the left of the AMERICA/UBER 

BREMEN marking. This 9-grote rate appears to have 

been equated with 12 kreuzer, which was less than its 

actual value. 

The manuscript 89/11 is the foreign postage beyond 

the limit of Bremen's share of 18 grote. The marking 

indicates that two postal districts participated in the 

total amount. The sum of 89 and 11 is 100 kreuzer, 

which, at 60 kreuzer to the florin, is also equal to 1 

florin and 40 kreuzer. 

The marking i/40/24 expresses the preceding foreign postage over the 18-grote Bremen share expressed 

in kreuzer, 12 kreuzer to 9 Bremen grote. 

The amount to be collected is shown at right. It is 

the sum of 1 florin, 40 kreuzer, and 24 kreuzer, which 

is 2 florin and 4 kreuzer. This is expressed in the marking 2f 4c and represents a collection of about 830. 

If the recipient would rather pay in thaler, that 

amount is also shown over the Schenectady marking. 

At first glance it appears to be 1 J/4., but examination 

reveals that it was altered to IJ/5. This means one 

and one-fifth thaler, or a collection of 830. Since this 

is crossed out, the recipient evidently paid in florin 

and kreuzer. 
Chapter 2 

Negotiation of the United States'British 

Postal Treaty of 15 December 1848 

Postmaster General Cave Johnson's instructions to 

Major Hobbie regarding negotiations with the British 

were explicit. He was to go to London and arrange 

for the transmission, receipt, and dispatch of the 

United States mail. He was to use his best efforts to 

secure the abolition of the 8d. ship postage imposed 

upon letters entering or leaving the ports of the 

United Kingdom by other than contract packets. If 

this should fail, he was empowered to use the terms 

upon which the Canadian mails were forwarded 

through the United States as a basis for further negotiation. If the British refused to abolish the ship charge 

on mail brought to England by American steamers, 

then it was to be known that the United States would 

impose ship postage on mail brought to the United 

States by the Cunard line.1 Hobbie understood there 

had been some correspondence on the subject, and he 

anticipated little difficulty in negotiating with the 

British. 

Hobbie later explained to the House of Representatives what happened when he arrived at Southampton. 

His own words present a graphic description of the 

affair:2 

On arriving at Southampton, in England, on the 15th 

of June, I was shown an order of the British Post Office 

Department, issued on the 9th of that month, imposing the 

British packet postage of one shilling sterling for each 

letter of a half ounce, and two pence for each newspaper, 

brought in the United States mails by the Washington. 

This was made chargeable as well upon those destined for 

France as those deliverable in the United Kingdom; and 

the Postmaster of Southampton was required to forward 

to London all mailbags left by the Washington, without 

being opened. The effect of this order is to subject all 

letters and newspapers to double postage; and those addressed to France to additional delay, by being taken out 

of the direct course to their places of destination. 

Being required by [my] instructions to proceed with the 

Washington to Bremen, I addressed a full communication 

upon the subject to his excellency George Bancroft, our 

minister at London. 

Bancroft already knew of it, for he had obtained a 

copy of the order on 10 June. He wasted no time 

in attempting to see Viscount Palmerston, British 

foreign secretary, but Palmerston was out on the 11th, 

and he was also out on the 12th. Bancroft then sought 

and found the British postmaster general, Lord Clanricarde, and also Colonel Maberly, secretary of the 

British Post Office. In his dispatch of 17 June 1847 to 

James Buchanan, secretary of state, Bancroft said he 

was frankly told by Lord Clanricarde—and Colonel 

Maberly reiterated it—that packet postage was imposed on American packet letters because it was intended to "protect the Cunard line of steamers, and 

to derive for the British Treasury a revenue out of 

the Mail service of our packets as well as of his own."

 3 

1

 U.S., Congress, Senate, Executive Document 25, 30th 

Cong., 2nd sess., serial 531, p. 6. 

- U.S., Congress, House, Executive Document 35, 30th 

Cong., 1st sess., serial 516, p. 3. 

3

 U.S., Department of State, Treaties and other International Acts of the United States of America, vol. 5, document 

133, p. 471. [See also U.S., Department of State, 57 Despatches, Great Britain, 28, 17 June 1847.] 

372-645 O—70 3 23 
24 

Clanricarde also said he was desirous of forming a 

postal arrangement with the United States. 

Not being able to see Lord Palmerston, Bancroft 

addressed a note to him on the same day. Bancroft 

regretted the course taken by the British, objecting 

to it as "contrary to equity"; it also violated the spirit 

of the commercial convention of 3 July 1815 between 

the United States and Great Britain, which placed the 

United States on the footing of the "most favored 

nation." The United States alone was discriminated 

against; it was a protective tariff in its most objectionable form.4 

It is important, at this point, to note some fundamental differences that existed between the post offices of the two countries. In Great Britain the postal 

functions were administratively divided. The Lords 

of the Treasury, headed by the chancellor of the 

exchequer, then Sir Charles Wood, actually set postal 

rates. The Post Office administered postal affairs and 

made recommendations to the Lords of the Treasury 

and to the Admiralty. Contracts for sea conveyance of 

mail were made with the Admiralty. Postal agreements 

with foreign countries were of two forms: postal conventions in the form of agreements between the post 

offices of the contracting countries, and postal conventions resulting from diplomatic negotiations between the foreign offices of the contracting countries, 

which were, in fact, formal treaties. All agencies, of 

course, acted under laws passed by Parliament. 

In the United States, the laws of Congress governed postal affairs, including the setting of rates. 

The Postmaster General had been given authority to 

make postal arrangements with foreign countries by 

the act of 3 March 1825, but this was conceived to 

mean within the context of existing law. At the time 

these negotiations were undertaken, the authority of 

the postmaster general in regard to the making of 

postal conventions was an unsettled question. 

There was a difference in the concept of the function 

of postage held in the two countries. In the United 

States, postage rates were set at levels designed to yield 

revenues sufficient to cover the costs and expenses of 

furnishing the service. The Post Office Department 

was not to become a burden on the public treasury, 

but neither was it, except incidentally, to furnish revenue for general use. Postage was not conceived to be a 

basis for taxation, and this concept was applied to 

domestic and foreign mail services alike. 

SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

The British were far more pragmatic in their concept 

of the function of postage than were the Americans. 

While liberal policies were adopted for domestic postage in 1840, this liberal attitude did not extend to the 

foreign mail service. Many of Britain's foreign postal 

rates were set at levels designed not only to pay the 

cost of the service but also to produce revenue for 

the general treasury. Avowedly, these were looked upon 

as a use tax, but this was not uniformly the case. The 

"Colonial" packet rates produced revenues that just 

about covered costs, while the 8d. ship rate, for which 

Britain usually performed no service, was purely a tax. 

Foreign transit rates generally produced revenues in 

excess of costs. Postal rates, however, were conceived 

to have functions beyond those of paying for service or 

of producing a revenue. Postal rates could be used as 

an instrument in diplomacy; they could be used to 

promote trade; or, as in the present case, they could 

be used as a protective tariff. 

This difference in the concept of the function of 

postage was clearly brought out in an interview with 

Lord Palmerston, reported by Bancroft in his dispatch 

of 11 August 1848.5 

On my hinting that the difficulty lay in Great Britain's 

demanding pay for work which the United States had 

done: he said, that the Postage levied on letters brought 

into the United Kingdom, was to be considered as a revenue 

duty, and not as the price paid for service rendered. If it 

were so considered, then England, would certainly have 

committed an injustice in taking the price of another's 

labour: but that it is a revenue impost, or tax, to be levied 

equally on all letters brought into the United Kingdom 

whether by foreign or Home packets. 

On 3 July 1847, Major Hobbie arrived from Bremen, 

and negotiations were immediately opened for a postal 

convention between the two countries. At the British 

Post Office it was resolved to confine the negotiation to 

two points, namely, the reciprocal grant of closed mails, 

and the option as to prepayment. Hobbie was under 

instruction to use the transit rate on mail to or from 

Boston and Canada as leverage in securing a just settlement. To the British, this was not a separate issue and 

in any reciprocal arrangement would be covered by a 

general agreement concerning closed mails. At the time 

these negotiations were undertaken, the existing agreement was a postal convention between Great Britain 

and the United States, known as the Wickliffe Agreement, made on 14 February 1845 and dealing exclusively with the Canadian closed mail. The agreement 

4

 Ibid, p. 471 (enclosure). 

6

 Dept. of State, Treaties, p. 494. [See also Dept. of State, 

58 Despatches, G.B., 84, 11 Aug. 1848.] 
NUMBER 6 25 

was not published in either country; neither an original nor a copy has been found in the archives of the 

Post Office Department. A copy of the original signed 

agreement, which is in the archives of the British Post 

Office, was sent to the Department of State in 1932 

and is now in their files. The entire text is given in the 

Department of State's Treaties and Other International Acts of the United States of America, volume 5, 

pages 478-479. 

The transit rate set by the convention was, peculiarly, 1 franc (18%0$) per ounce for mail between 

Boston and St. Johns, Canada, during the season of 

steamboat navigation on Lake Champlain and Highgate, Vermont, in the remainder of the year. Notice 

of abrogation of this convention was sent to Bancroft 

on 17 July 1847, to be served on the British Post Office 

if no progress were made in the negotiations. Hobbie 

was unable to settle anything of importance; the position of the two governments remained the same, and 

the discriminatory charge continued to be collected on 

American packet mail. Bancroft, therefore, served the 

notice of abrogation on 16 August 1847 (effective 

three months thereafter). When Hobbie left England 

for America on 24 October 1847, on the Washington, 

negotiations had virtually ended. 

The matter rested there for several months. In his 

annual message of 7 December 1847,G President Polk 

called the matter to the attention of Congress and 

referred to the report of the postmaster general

 7 for 

a detailed account of the affair. Congress took action 

on the recommendation of the postmaster general on 

27 June 1848 by passing the following act:

 s 

That the Postmaster General, under the Direction of 

the President of the United States, be, and is hereby authorized and empowered to charge upon and collect from, 

all letters and other mailable matter carried to or from any 

port of the United States, in any foreign packet ship or 

other vessel, the same rate or rates of charge for American 

postage, which the government to which such foreign 

packet or other vessel belongs imposes upon letters and 

other mailable matter conveyed to or from such foreign 

country in American packets or other vessels, as the postage 

of such government, and at any time to revoke the 

same. 

It should be noted that British packets are not specifically mentioned, as American packets had been mentioned in the British Post Office order of 9 June 1847. 

Since the United States was protesting the British 

charge as a violation of the "most favored nation" 

clause included in the commercial convention of 3 July 

1815, the act of 27 June 1848 was carefully worded 

so that the law in no way appeared to discriminate 

against the British. Since, however, British packets 

were the only foreign packets then plying between 

Great Britain and the United States, the discriminatory effect was inevitable. 

This law is generally known to postal historians as 

the "reprisal" or "retaliatory" act, and covers showing 

its rating marks are popular with collectors. The first 

letters showing a superaddition of the 240-packet postage to the inland postage on mail from the United 

States were conveyed by the Cunarder Britannia from 

New York on 5 July 1848, arriving at Liverpool on 

17 July. The first mail so rated to the United States 

left Liverpool on the Cunarder Caledonia on 24 June 

1848 and arrived in New York on 8 July. From this 

time forward until after the signing of the United 

States-British treaty, all packet mail between the two 

countries required double sea postage. 

The reaction to the law in Britain was prompt. 

Commercial interests protested. Questions were put to 

the ministry in the House of Commons, and those to 

whom these questions were directed attempted to 

place responsibility on others. "Lord Palmerston 

seemed to think the matter belonged to the Chancellor 

of the Exchequer and with Lord Clanricarde. The 

Chancellor, on Friday last, said the matter lay with 

Lord Clanricarde. . . ."

 9 The London Times invited 

the government to state its case by publishing its 

correspondence.10 

Negotiations were reopened, and progress was now 

made. No useful purpose would be served by reporting 

the details of the vast amount of existing correspondence relating to these negotiations; the proposals, the 

counterproposals, and the impasses. Therefore, only 

those that appear to have been eventually significant 

will be mentioned. 

The inland rates proved to be an obstacle for a time. 

Clanricarde proposed that the inland rate be 3j£ in 

each country. To this Bancroft objected on two 

grounds, namely, that the great expanses of the United 

States, as compared with the United Kingdom, would 

require a higher rate, and that Britain would be charg6

 Senate Executive Document 1, 30 Cong., 1 sess., serial 

510, pp. 33-34. 

''House Executive Document 35, 30 Cong., 1 sess., serial 

516, pp. 748-749. 

8

 U.S., 9 Statutes at Large 241-242. 

"Dept. of State, Treaties, p. 492. [See also Dept. of State, 

58 Despatches, G.B., 82, 28 July 1848 (Bancroft to 

Buchanan).] 

10

 Ibid. 
26 

ing United States users more than her subjects were 

paying for the same service. Bancroft proposed that the 

existing inland rates in each country be used. Clanricarde objected to this on the ground that the variation 

in the United States rate would make it too difficult 

and expensive to account for international letters. Although Clanricarde was later willing to accept this 

proposal, Bancroft had reconsidered, for he was now 

thinking that the agreement should take a different 

form. 

It was in Bancroft's mind that it would be desirable 

to establish uniform rates. However, his concept of the 

powers of the postmaster general rested upon the act 

of 3 March 1825 and the joint resolution of Congress 

of 15 June 1844, neither of which gave the postmaster 

general authority to vary the postal rates set by Congress. As "agent of the Post Office Department," Bancroft did not feel he had authority to establish a 

uniform rate. Although it was an unsettled matter, 

Bancroft held that a treaty, signed by the president with 

the advice and consent of the Senate, was the supreme 

law of the land and could supersede an earlier and conflicting statute. Bancroft was able to sign an agreement 

between the two post offices as "agent of the Post Office 

Department," or he could sign a treaty as "Minister."

 a i

 If a treaty were signed, rates could be varied 

and arrangements made that would be impossible 

under existing law. It was Bancroft's decision that a 

treaty be sought. 

Britain's decision to enter into negotiations for the 

formation of a treaty rested largely with the personalities involved. Sir Charles Wood had never favored the 

order of 9 June 1847 and welcomed the opportunity of 

taking a larger part in the negotiations. Although 

Palmerston does not appear to have favored the Post 

Office order, he supported Clanricarde as a member of 

the ministry. But Palmerston was also irritated by 

recent American conduct. In an unguarded moment 

in an interview with Bancroft, he gave vent to his 

feelings:

 12 

To the suggestion that the course of the British Government on this subject might produce an unpleasant impression on the public mind in America, Lord Palmerston 

spoke with warmth: 'That is worn threadbare,' said he, 

with great emphasis. 'You want us always to yield to you, 

in order to keep you in an amicable mood. It has always 

been so; and we have always yielded to you. We did so 

on the North-Eastern-Boundary-question; we did so on the 

SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

Oregon question; and what is the Consequence? There 

never comes up any disturbance in this country but from 

one end of the United States to the other you begin an 

outcry against England. Your (naming one of the 

recent orators in behalf of Ireland), and so many others, 

are always and on every occasion uttering all manner of 

evil about us.' 

Palmerston did not oppose a treaty, but it is not 

known that he favored this form of agreement. In one 

of his dispatches, Bancroft referred to a note from 

Palmerston as "the apology of the Post Office for its 

unfriendly course."

 1S

 In a long interview with Prime 

Minister Lord Russell, Bancroft reports him as having 

said he "was sensible that no fit solution of the question was expected from the London Post Office Department, and promised as one of the Lords of the 

Treasury, himself to give immediate attention to the 

subject."

 14 

It is clear that the ministry was divided in its opinion 

of the propriety and wisdom of the Post Office order 

of 9 June 1847. Under this circumstance, Clanricarde 

did not wish to take sole responsibility for the framing 

of a postal convention. A treaty appealed to him because the ministry would then share the responsibility. 

Britain, therefore, also made the decision to form a 

treaty rather than a post-office agreement. 

Bancroft was now able to deal with the problem of 

the inland rates by proposing a new formula for uniformity. In his dispatch to Buchanan of 15 December 

1848, he explained the manner in which this was 

accomplished:

 1S 

To keep just accounts under so varying rates would have 

been difficult. I agreed, therefore, to make an average of 

the inland rates in each country, . . (California and 

Oregon excepted) . and to adopt uniformly these 

average rates. In England the inland rate on a letter, if 

paid in advance, is one penny: if not paid in advance, as 

most foreign letters are not, it is two pence. Three half 

pence, then, is a just and fair uniform British inland rate. 

For America an inland letter, if received at a Post Office, 

for delivery, and not for transmission, pays two cents; if 

transmitted it pays a varying rate of Five or Ten cents. 

The average is therefore Five and two thirds of a cent—• 

less than six cents. 

Hence, a uniform inland rate of 5c1 per single letter was 

adopted for all of the United States (California and 

Oregon excepted) regardless of distance; and for Great 

11

 Ibid., p. 503. 

12

 Ibid., p. 494 [see also Dept. of State, 58 Despatches, G.B. 

84, 11 Aug. 1848 (Bancroft to Buchanan).] 

13

 Ibid., p. 481. 

11

 Ibid. 

1=

 Ibid., p. 496. [See also Dept. of State, 59 Despatches, 

G.B., 108, 15 Dec. 1848 (Bancroft to Buchanan).] 
NUMBER 6 27 

Britain, a uniform rate of l/2d., or 30, from or to any 

point in the United Kingdom. 

Cave Johnson disapproved of it. In his letter to Bancroft of 28 November 1848, he said:

 1C 

I can never give my Consent to any Postal arrangement 

which will authorize the letters of the Citizens of the 

United States, when Conveyed in the English Mails, to be 

Charged more than is paid by British subjects for the same 

service and at the same time, undertake to Convey British 

letters in the Mails of the United States for less than the 

price paid by our own Citizens. 

That just about summed up the situation. A British 

subject in London would be able to mail a letter whose 

conveyance from Boston to New Orleans would cost 

him only 50, while a resident of Boston would have 

to pay 100 for the same service. At the same time, an 

American would have to pay 30 for conveyance of a 

letter from Liverpool to London, while a resident of 

Liverpool could prepay it there for 20. But Cave Johnson was no longer to have anything to say about what 

was done; neither was Clanricarde. While they would 

both continue to give advice, which need not be noted, 

the effective negotiations had passed out of their hands 

and into the hands of Sir Charles Wood and George 

Bancroft. The decision to form a treaty had made 

it possible to circumvent the postmasters of both 

countries. 

The United States-British. Treaty 

of 1848 

The completed treaty was signed on 15 December 

1848. The United States Senate consented on 5 

January 1849, and formal ratification took place the 

next day. Great Britain ratified it on 23 January, 

and ratifications were exchanged 26 January. It was 

proclaimed on 15 February 1849.17 Significant 

articles of the treaty are excerpted, as follows:18 

I. For a single rate of one-half ounce, "an uniform sea 

rate of 8d, or 16 cents; and such postage shall belong to 

the country by which the packet conveying the letters 

is furnished." 

II. For a single rate of one-half ounce, an inland postage 

rate of lj^d. (30) in Great Britain and of 50 in the 

United States. 

III. Provided that the above three rates be combined into 

one international rate of 240, "of which payment in 

advance shall be optional in either country. It shall 

18

 Ibid., p. 503. 

17

 Ibid., p. 470. 

18

 British and Foreign State Papers, vol. 36, pp. 443-449. 

however, not be permitted to pay less than the whole 

combined rate." 

IV. Each country was at liberty to use the scale of progression in use in its own territory for charging inland 

postage. 

V and VI. Each country granted to the other the right to 

send closed mails over the territory of the British North 

American provinces and of the United States at the 

rate of inland postage charged under the Convention. 

VII and VIII. Reciprocally granted the right to each 

country to send closed mails over the territory of 

the other, to or from colonies, possessions or foreign 

countries. 

IX. The rate per ounce, net weight, of closed mails was 

fixed at two single-letter rates "with the addition of 25 

percent on the amount of postage . . " 

X. Each country was to account to the other for closed 

mails. 

XI. Letters sent by one country, to pass in transit over the 

territory of the other, were to be delivered to the other 

country free of all postage, whether packet or inland. 

On letters to countries to which they cannot be forwarded unless the British postage is also prepaid, the 

United States is to collect and account for this postage 

to the British Post Office, and vice versa. 

XII. Provided "that the rate of postage to be taken for 

transit postage between Great Britain and foreign 

countries shall be the same as the rate now taken, 

or which may hereafter be taken, by the British 

Post Office upon letters to or from said foreign 

countries, when posted at die port of arrival or 

delivered to the port of departure of the packet 

conveying the mails between the United Kingdom 

and the United States. . . . 

The above rate is irrespective of and beyond the 

inland rate to be taken in the United States on letters 

posted or delivered therein, when conveyed by British 

packet, and also above the sea rate, when conveyed 

by American packet. 

An exactly similar provision secured the same 

conditions for letters posted or delivered in the United 

Kingdom. 

Letters to or from France were specifically exempted from the provisions of Article XII. The 

contracting parties, however, agreed to invite France, 

without loss of time, to enter into negotiations to 

effect an agreement for the mutual exchange of 

closed mails "as may be most conducive to the 

interest of the three countries." 

Articles for "carrying into execution the Postal Convention of December 15, 1848" were signed at Washington on 14 May 1849 and "so far as they are not 

already in force, shall come into operation on the 1st 

of July next."

 10

 These articles were agreed upon by 

10

 British and Foreign State Papers, vol. 37, p. 51. 
28 

the post offices of the two countries and take the form 

of what are usually called "detailed regulations." Such 

articles are considered to have the same force as if they 

had been inserted, word for word, in the original treaty. 

While the treaty was diplomatically negotiated and 

dealt with general arrangements, these articles were 

drawn by the post offices of the two countries and supplied the details necessary to implement the treaty. 

Certain of these articles will be mentioned as need 

Exchange Office Accounting 

and Accounting Marks 

The exchange office was the focal point of the foreign-mail service. All mail addressed to a foreign country was routed to one of the exchange offices. These 

offices were established by treaty or other postal convention, and each office in the United States had an 

office or offices in the foreign country with which it 

exchanged mail. The exchange offices made up the 

mails to be dispatched. This was governed by the letterSMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

bills, which were printed forms whose format had been 

designed in such a way as to account for the mail in 

the manner prescribed by the treaty provisions. 

Usually, letter-bills for ordinary mail showed the 

number of letters, the rate, and the amount of postage, 

while letter-bills for closed mail also showed the net 

weight of the mail. Letters were wrapped in packages 

and banded or labeled with paper of a distinctive color, 

such as pink for unpaid letters, yellow for prepaid, and 

so forth. A copy of the pertinent letter-bill was enclosed 

in each package, while a letter-bill for the whole mail 

was separately mailed to the exchange office to which 

the mail was directed. Upon receipt of the mail, the 

exchange office checked its contents against the letterbill, noted any discrepancies, and mailed an acknowledgment of receipt to the dispatching office. The 

amounts shown on the letter-bill were posted to the 

accounts, and account balances were settled between 

the countries at regular intervals prescribed by the 

treaty. 

While the actual accounting was performed on the 

letter-bill, it was also prescribed that the letter be so 

marked as to indicate the amount of debit or credit 

TABLE 4.—Exchange Office Accounting for the Twenty-four Cent International Postal Rate 

Postage Rate 

H 

16 

3 

24 

British 

Packet 

(

a

) 

160 

3 

19 

American 

Packet 

(

a

) 

(

a

) 

3 

3 

British 

Packet 

(

b

) 

(

b

) 

American 

Packet 

16 

(

b

) 

U.S. inland 

Packet 

British inland 

U.S. credit to G.B. on prepaid letters posted in U.S. (red), 

or British debit to U.S. on unpaid letters posted in G.B. 

(black) 

British credit to U.S. on prepaid letters posted in G.B. 

(red), or U.S. debit to G.B. on unpaid letters posted 

in U.S. (black) 21 

NOTE. The above rates applied to all of the United States 

except California and Oregon. At the time the treaty was 

signed, the domestic rate to California and Oregon was 400. 

If, in the above table, 400 is substituted for the 50 United States 

inland postage, the rate, debits and credits, and the retentions 

on mail to or from California and Oregon are secured. The 

act of 3 March 1851, effective on 1 July, required that double 

postage be charged for letters conveyed in excess of 3,000 miles. 

This was applied to the 50 inland rate of the United StatesBritish treaty and reduced the transit postage to California and 

Oregon to 100. On 1 April 1855, the domestic rate for distances 

in excess of 3,000 miles became 100 the single rate. Therefore, 

between 1 July 1851 and 1 July 1863, 100 should be substituted 

for the 50 United States inland postage in the foregoing table. 

On 1 July 1863, a uniform rate of domestic postage was established for all of the United States and the amounts shown in 

the foregoing table prevailed, no additional postage being 

charged on letters to or from the Pacific coast. Figure 11 

illustrates some of the markings used on single-rate covers. 

8

 Retained from prepayment or collection by the United 

States. 

b

 Retained from prepayment or collection by Great Britain. 
NUMBER 6 29 

entered in the letter-bill by the dispatching office. This 

was necessary because letters were sometimes missent, 

returned, or forwarded, and once they became separated from their original letter-bill, it was impossible 

to know how they had originally been accounted for, 

unless the letter were so marked. Table 4 shows the 

accounting for the 240 international rate. It presents 

the amount of postage retained from prepayments or 

collections, and the amount of debit or credit stamped 

on each letter. It was required that debits be shown 

in black and credits in red ink. Although it was not 

prescribed, it was customary to show amounts to be 

collected in black and prepayments in red ink. Restatements of prepaid rates were always shown in 

red ink. 

Exchange offices were established at New York and 

Boston in the United States and at Liverpool, London, 

and Southampton in Great Britain. All the British 

offices were to exchange mail with all the United 

States offices, except that Southampton was not to 

exchange mail with Boston. Until the Collins line 

began to run in 1850, therefore, Boston made up no 

American packet mail. Other exchange offices were 

added later, and they will be mentioned at the appropriate time. 

International Covers between the 

United States and Great Britain 

(The Retaliatory Period) 

Collectors have long been interested in covers during the period in which the Retaliatory Rate was in 

force and attempt to secure covers showing the 240, 

290, and 340 rates for both incoming and outgoing 

letters to or from the Boston and New York offices. As 

an aid to those who may wish to start such a collection, 

the sailing and arrival dates of the Cunard and Ocean 

lines for this period are reported in Table 5. The Ocean 

line sailings given are for the entire period during 

which the British charged packet postage on American 

packet letters. 

On 14 December 1848, Sir Charles Wood wrote 

Brancroft a note proposing that the double charge for 

sea postage be eliminated as early as possible. Bancroft accepted the proposal on the same day.20

 It was 

U. S.-BR I T I SM TREAT Y OF 184 8 

SOM E DE8I 7 iHD C R C 0 IT mOKIHSS l/SE O OH 5JKG U R & X C COI/CHS 

4 HE S I Ci H PACKET 

?x 4? 

t 71 SH Pi CK E 

<•<TN&^ s 

FIGURE 11.—DEBIT AND CREDIT MARKINGS used on singlerate covers under the United States-British treaty of 1848. 

ended in Great Britain by a treasury warrant dated 

22 December 1848, to become effective on 29 December,-1

 and in the United States by a post office order 

dated 3 January 1849.22 Between these dates and 

15 February 1849, there was a period in which the 

former rates were restored. Since covers showing these 

"restored" rates are also popular with collectors, the 

sailing and arrival dates of the Cunard line are presented in Table 6. There were no sailings or arrivals by 

the Ocean line during this period, hence it is not known 

whether Britain would have assessed the 8d. ship rate. 

Sailings of the first vessels of both the Cunard and 

Ocean lines under the new treaty are also given. 

Retaliatory Rate Covers 

Figure 12 illustrates a cover prepaid with a ls. and a 

Id. stamp. The ls. stamp paid the packet postage, 

while the Id. stamp paid a late-mailing fee for a letter 

posted at one of the London branch offices between 

6:00 P.M. and 7:00 P.M.23 On the reverse is a Maltesecross postmark reading LS/ISSP I 5/ 1 8 4 8, which is a 

marking; of the Lombard Street office and shows the 

20

 Dept. of State, Treaties, p. 499. [See also Leon Reussile, 

"Letters by Cunarders to the United States and There Retaliatory Rated," Postal History Journal 2, 1: 40.] 

"

l

 Edward Hertslet, ed., Commercial Treaties, vol. 8, pp. 

935-937. 

22 Shipping and Commercial List and New York Prices 

Current 35, 3 (10 Jan. 1849): 11. 

21

 W. G. Stitt Dibden, "The 6d. Fee," Great Britain Philatelist 4, 1 (Feb. 1964): 13. 
30 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

TABLE 5.—Cunard and Ocean Line Sailings {During the "Retaliatory Rate" Period) 

Departur e 

date, 

Liverpool 

1848 

24 Jun e 

ljul y 

8 Jul y 

15 Jul y 

22 Jul y 

1848 

29 Jul y 

5 Aug. 

12 Aug. 

19 Aug. 

26 Aug. 

2 Sept. 

9 Sept. 

16 Sept. 

23 Sept. 

30 Sept. 

7 Oct. 

14 Oct. 

21 Oct. 

28 Oct. 

4 Nov. 

11 Nov. 

18 Nov. 

25 Nov. 

2 Dec. 

16 Dec. 

Returne d 

'

:

 Maide n 

Arrival 

date , 

U.S . 

1848 

8 Jul y 

12 Jul y 

21 Jul y 

27 Jul y 

4 Aug. 

1848 

14 Aug. 

20 Aug. 

27 Aug. 

1 Sept. 

8 Sept. 

15 Sept. 

25 Sept. 

30 Sept. 

6 Oct. 

17 Oct. 

20 Oct. 

28 Oct. 

4 Nov. 

9 Nov. 

19 Nov. 

25 Nov. 

7 Dec. 

14 Dec. 

16 Dec. 

30 Dec. 

1847/48 

M / V • 

30 Jul y 

9 Nov. 

15 Jan . 

M / V « 

7 Apr. 

22 Apr. 

22 Ma y 

17 Jun e 

4 Aug. 

5 Sept. 

4 Oct. 

4 Nov. 

voyage. 

h

 Last voyage. 

Ship 

Cunar d Line 

Britannia 

Cambria 

Caledonia 

Niagara 

Hibernia 

Europa M/ V

 a 

America 

Acadia 

Cambria 

Britannia 

Niagara 

Hibernia 

Europa 

Acadia 

America 

Cambria 

Britannia 

Niagara 

Europa 

Hibernia 

America 

Acadia 

Cambria 

Britannia L/V

 u 

Canada M/ V " 

Niagara 

Europa 

Ocea n Line 

Washington 

Washington 

Washington 

Washington 

By Breme 

Hermann 

Washington 

Washington 

Hermann 

Washington 

Hermann 

Washington 

Hermann 

Washington 

Port 

New York 

Boston 

New York 

Boston 

New York 

Boston 

New York 

Boston 

New York 

Boston 

New York 

Boston 

New York 

Boston 

New York 

Boston 

New York 

Boston 

New York 

Boston 

New York 

Boston 

New York 

Boston 

New York 

Boston 

New York 

New York 

New York 

New York 

New York 

n treaty 

New York 

New York 

New York 

New York 

New York 

New York 

New York 

New York 

New York 

Departur e 

date , 

U.S. 

1848 

5 Jul y 

12 Jul y 

19 Jul y 

26 Jul y 

2 Aug. 

9 Aug. 

16 Aug. 

1848 

23 Aug. 

30 Aug. 

6 Sept. 

13 Sept. 

20 Sept. 

27 Sept. 

4 Oct. 

11 Oct. 

18 Oct. 

25 Oct. 

1 Nov. 

8 Nov. 

15 Nov. 

22 Nov. 

29 Nov. 

6 Dec. 

13 Dec. 

20 Dec. 

27 Dec . 

1847/48 

1 Jun e 

23 Sept. 

18 Nov. 

20 Feb . 

20 Mar. 

20 Apr. 

25 Apr. 

20 Jun e 

20 Jul y 

21 Aug. 

20 Sept. 

20 Oct. 

20 Nov. 

Arriva l 

date , 

Liverpool 

1848 

17 Jul y 

25 Jul y 

2 Aug. 

9 Aug. 

16 Aug. 

22 Aug . 

30 Aug. 

1848/49 

6 Sept. 

13 Sept. 

20 Sept. 

27 Sept. 

2 Oct. 

10 Oct. 

17 Oct. 

23 Oct. 

31 Oct. 

7 Nov. 

13 Nov. 

20 Nov . 

26 Nov . 

4 Dec . 

13 Dec . 

20 Dec . 

28 Dec . 

2 Jan . 

9 Jan . 

Sailed 
NUMBER 6 31 

TABLE 6.—Cunard and Ocean Line Sailings (During the "Restored Rate'" Period) 

Departure 

Date, 

Liverpool 

1848/49 

30 Dec. 

13 Jan. 

27 Jan. 

10 Feb. 

24 Feb. 

Arrival 

Date, 

U.S. 

1849 

12 Jan. 

29 Jan. 

11 Feb. 

24 Feb. 

9 Mar. 

13 Apr. 

Ship Port 

Restored Rates 

Cunard Line 

Europa 

America 

Canada 

Niagara 

Europa 

New York 

Boston 

New York 

Boston 

New York 

First under the Treaty 

Cunard Line 

Niagara 

America 

Ocean Line 

Hermann 

Hermann 

Boston 

Boston 

New York 

New York 

Departure 

Date, 

U.S. 

1849 

10 Jan. 

24 Jan. 

7 Feb. 

21 Feb. 

20 Feb. 

Arrival 

Date, 

Liverpool 

1849 

22 Jan. 

4 Feb. 

19 Feb. 

6 Mar. 

date the mail was made up. On the following day, 

16 September (a Saturday), this letter left Liverpool 

onboard the Cunarder America bound for New York 

where it arrived on 30 September. Since the letter was 

addressed to New York, it was marked for a collection 

of only the 240 packet postage. As the packet postage 

had already been paid in Britain, the collection of a 

packet postage in the United States represented the 

retaliatory charge authorized by the act of 27 June 

1848, which required the collection of packet postage 

on letters conveyed by foreign (British) packets. 

Figure 13 illustrates a cover posted in London, 

addressed to New York and prepaid with a ls. stamp. 

On the reverse is a Maltese-cross marking reading 

LS/17NO17/1848 , which shows that the mail was made 

up at the Lombard Street office on 17 November. 

The letter was conveyed to Boston by the Cunarder 

Britannia which sailed from Liverpool on 18 November on her last voyage for the Cunard line. Arriving 

in Boston on 7 December, this letter was forwarded 

to New York, a distance of under 300 miles and 

hence was rated for a collection of 290 (240 packet 

and 50 inland postages). Again, the letter bore a 

double charge for sea postage. 

Figure 14 illustrates a cover posted in Charleston, 

South Carolina, on 7 September 1848, addressed to 

Liverpool. It was prepaid 340 (240 packet and 100 

U.S. inland postages) for a letter posted over 300 

miles from the port of departure. The letter was conveyed to Liverpool by the Cunarder Niagara which 

sailed from New York on 13 September and arrived 

in Liverpool on 25 September 1848. The Liverpool 

office rated it for a collection of ls. packet postage. 

Thus, the packet postage was collected by each country. 

Figure 15 illustrates a letter posted in Liverpool, 

addressed to New York. This letter weighed over 

one half ounce and required a prepayment of 2s. in 

Liverpool, whence it was forwarded to Boston by the 

Cunarder Acadia which arrived there on 14 August 

1848. Since New York was under 300 miles from 

Boston, the letter was marked for a collection of 580 

(2 x 290), which represented a double-rate collection 

of inland and packet postages. 

Restored-Rate Cover 

Figure 16 illustrates a cover posted in Liverpool, 

addressed to Princeton, New Jersey. It was prepaid 

ls. in Liverpool, whence it was forwarded by the 

Cunarder Europa, which arrived in New York on 

24 February 1849. The New York office rated it for 

a collection of 70 (50 inland for a letter conveyed under 

300 miles plus 20 ship postage), the 240 packet postage 
32 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

fetfj/qJuUtct/ 

c^Z^rr/ -4mA r^ 

FIGURE 12.—COVER, from London to New York, 1848. 

v. 

»• 

\ 

FIGURE 13.—COVER, from London to New York, 1848. 
NUMBER 6 33 

*-

WJT^^ ^ 

FIGURE 14.—COVER, from Charleston, S.C., to Liverpool, 1848. 

(Melvin W. Schuh collection) 

no longer being assessed. This letter is an example of 

the last mail rated before the treaty became effective 

and the last mail rated according to the restored rates. 

The Progression 

Article IV of the treaty provided that "each country 

shall be at liberty to employ . the scale of progression in operation in its own territory for charging 

inland rates of postage." Immediately after the treaty 

was received in the United States, notice of this progression was published to the public and to postmasters through a post office announcement signed 

by Cave Johnson and dated 8 January 1849:

 24 

Letters posted or charged in the United States will be 

rated at a half ounce to the single letter, over a half ounce 

and not exceeding an ounce as a double letter, over an 

ounce and not exceeding an ounce and a half as a treble 

letter, and so on, each half ounce or fractional excess constituting a rate. 

-' Shipping and Commercial List, 35, 3 (10 Jan. 1849) : 11. 

The scale of progression in operation in Great Britain 

was: 

For a letter not over one half ounce—1 rate 

Over one half, but not over one ounce—2 rates 

Over one, but not over two ounces—4 rates 

and so on, 2 rates being charged for each additional ounce 

or fraction of an ounce. 

Since the United States progression allowed a triple 

rate (and further odd-numbered rates), while the 

British progression did not allow any odd-numbered 

rates after the first, attempts to apply this dual progression to the same letter produced some ludicrous situations. A good illustration would be an unpaid letter 

posted in Great Britain to be conveyed to the United 

States by British packet. It is presumed the letter 

weighed slightly over an ounce and, accordingly, the 

British Post Office would have debited the United 

States with four rates, or 760 (4X190). The United 

States exchange office, however, would only be able to 

charge three rates, or 720 (3X240). Thus, on one of 

the largest classes of mail, the United States would pay 

Great Britain 760 for each letter and only be able to 

collect 720 from the addressee. 
34 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

FIGURE 15.—COVER, from Liverpool to New York, 1848. 

(Photograph by Smithsonian) 

Obviously, the negotiation of this article was a 

blunder on Bancroft's part. It evidently represents an 

attempt to preserve the laws of Congress in the treaty, 

but after the decision to form a full-fledged treaty had 

been reached, existing United States law no longer 

needed to be preserved. It is certain that Bancroft did 

not work out the rates under Article IV, for had he 

done so, he could not have allowed it to stand. Before he submitted the final treaty to Secretary of State 

Buchanan, he must have realized that there was a 

defect in this article, for he appended the following 

postscript to his dispatch of transmittal:

 2a 

p.s. By Article IV, you will observe that I have reserved 

for our Country the liberty, on letters over a half ounce in 

weight, to employ the scale of progression in operation in 

its own territory. But, at the same time, I cannot but 

recommend the adoption of the English scale of progression. It would raise the rate on scarcely one letter in 

a hundred; at the same time it would save the Post Office 

a great deal of labour on every letter transmitted. The 

success of the cheap postage system depends on simplifying 

25

 Dept. of State, p. 498. [See also Dept. 

Despatches, G.B., 108, 15 Dec. 1848.] 

of State, 59 

the manual processes, and diminishing labor. Where rates 

are high it is proper to weigh each letter; and so to have 

a scale of progression by the half ounce. Where rates are 

uniform and low, the scale of progression should be by 

the ounce, so that the Post Office clerks may, without often 

using their scales, at once decide what rate attaches to each 

letter. 

While the above is an excellent general discussion of 

the advantages of rates based upon the ounce rather 

than the half ounce, it did not pertain to the British 

progression. The first two steps in that progression were 

based upon the half ounce, and these two steps would 

include all but a few letters. It is difficult to see how 

the adoption of the British scale of progression would 

have reduced clerical time spent in rating letters. One 

wonders if Bancroft did not wish to confess his real 

reason for recommending the adoption of the British 

progression. 

The Post Office Department, however, had to face 

the practical aspects of applying Article IV and shortly 

recommended to Congress the passage of a law that 

would make the British progression operative in the 

United States. Accordingly, the following clause was 
NUMBER 6 35 

f*^^>^*~^tScc^isy^ ^ 

^^~, /&^-e^ 

FIGURE 16.-—COVER, from Liverpool to Princeton, New Jersey, 1849. (Photograph by Smithsonian) 

appended to the Post Office Appropriations Act of 3 

March 1849:

 26 

That to better enable the postal treaty with Great Britain 

to go into full effect with equal advantage to both countries, letters shall be mailed as composing one rate only 

where the letter does not exceed the weight of half an 

ounce avoirdupois; where it exceeds half an ounce but does 

not exceed an ounce, as composing two rates; where it exceeds an ounce but does not exceed two ounces, as composing four rates . . . and in like progression for each additional ounce, or fraction of an ounce. 

While the Appropriations Act did not become effective until the beginning of the new fiscal year, 

1 July 1849, Postmaster General Jacob Collamer, who 

had succeeded Cave Johnson, lost no time in putting 

the law into effect. The following appeared in the New 

York Daily Tribune of Monday, 19 March 1849: 

Hereafter, when a letter exceeds an ounce in weight, but 

does not exceed two ounces, it will be rated with four 

"" 9 Statutes at Large 379. 

charges of single postage; when it exceeds two ounces, but 

does not exceed three, it will be rated with six charges of 

single postage, and so on, there being a single postage on the 

first half ounce, a double charge for the first ounce, and 

two additional charges for each succeeding ounce, or fraction of an ounce, beyond the first ounce. This is ordered 

in virtue of the Act of Congress approved March 3, 

1849. 

J Collamer, P.M. GENERAL 

P.O. Department, March 15, 1849. 

Thus, the blunder in negotiating Article IV of the 

treaty saddled all of the United States with the British 

progression, domestic letters as well as those between 

the United States and Great Britain, under the treaty. 

The American Almanac for 1850 duly shows the domestic progression as follows: 

A letter over half an ounce in weight, but not exceeding 

an ounce, is rated with two charges of single postage; 

over one ounce, but not exceeding two ounces, with four 

charges. 
36 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

Thus, on the following sailings and arrivals, a triple 

rate was possible: 

TABLE 7.—Cunard and Ocean Line Sailings 

Arrival 

date, U.S. 

1849 

9 Mar. 

Ship Port 

Cunar d Line 

Niagara Boston 

America New York 

Ocean Line 

Hermann New York 

Departur e 

date, U.S. 

1849 

21 Feb. 

7 Mar. 

20 Feb. 

Article IX of the Articles of Execution for carrying the treaty into effect made the British progression 

apply to all mail exchanged under the treaty. Once 

this had been firmly established by treaty, Congress 

was able to revert to the former progression for domestic mail, and did so in the act of 3 March 1851. 

Optional Prepayment 

The joint resolution of Congress of 15 June 1844 

authorized the postmaster general to make agreements 

with foreign countries in such a way that the entire 

postage could be paid where the letter was mailed or 

received. This was taken to mean that United States 

policy for postal agreements with foreign countries 

must provide for optional prepayment. Therefore, all 

postal conventions made by the United States during 

the period here considered provided for optional prepayment, at least, for the international rate. Transit 

rates under these agreements often required part payments or full prepayment of the entire postage. 

Coupled with the provision for optional prepayment in Article III of the United States-British treaty 

was the clause, "It shall, however, not be permitted to 

pay less than the whole combined rate." Regulations 

issued during the life of the treaty were usually careful to point out to postmasters and to the public something similar to the following, found in the 1859 

regulations: "If anything less than the whole is prepaid, no account is taken of it, and it is entirely lost 

to the sender." This provision was evidently made to 

prevent the public from making partial payments 

which would be very difficult and expensive for the 

exchange offices to handle in their accounting. But 

what was to happen when the local office in which a 

letter was mailed made an error and charged a person 

who presented it in good faith less than the whole 

postage? When the exchange office discovered such an 

error, was the person who had mailed the letter and 

paid the amount demanded by the local office to suffer 

the loss of his prepayment? The treaty seemed to say 

so. The Articles of Execution, however, provided an 

"escape" clause. Article XVII states: 

If, in checking the mails transmitted to the respective 

offices of exchange, the amount of postage of any of the 

articles shall be found to differ from that entered in the 

letter-bill by the dispatching office, such articles shall 

be checked by 2 officers, and the corrected amount, which 

is entered by them on the verification side of the letterbill, shall be accepted as the true amount. 

Figure 17 illustrates a cover that exemplifies Article 

XVII. It was accepted by the Liverpool office as a 

letter weighing not over one ounce and, accordingly, 

was prepaid by a pair of ls. stamps. When the letter 

arrived at the exchange office, it was found to weigh 

over one ounce. It was marked ABOVE 1 oz., the / being 

filled in in manuscript. A credit of 100 was given for 

the two rates prepaid (see 10/CENTS marking), and a 

debit was made for the two rates unpaid (see 3 8 /CENTS 

marking). At this point there are two possible explanations of the remaining markings. 

One explanation is that two officers of the Liverpool 

office examined and corrected the letter-bill on its 

verification side. They then marked the cover in manuscript Paid 24 [pence]/Un[paid] 24 [pence] for the two 

rates accepted and the two rates considered unpaid. 

The two officers then placed their initials on the letter, 

RIL under the o of oz. and IW at the top of the 

bracket before Paid 24. The letter was then forwarded 

to Boston by the R.M.S. Cambria, which arrived there 

on 14 November 1851. A confused Boston office 

charged only 240 instead of the 480 to which, by this 

procedure, it was entitled. 

The other explanation, suggested by the late Maurice C. Blake, is that after marking the letter with a 

credit of 100 and a debit of 380, two officers of the 

Liverpool exchange office corrected the letter-bill and 

forwarded the letter to Boston. The Boston office 

marked the letter in manuscript Paid 24/ Un[paid]24, 

and the two officers who examined the letter and the 

letter-bill marked their initials upon the letter. Boston 

then marked the cover for a collection of 240. 

Regardless of which of these explanations may be 

correct, it is agreed that the letter was rated under the 

provision stated in Article XVII of the Articles of 

Execution, quoted above. If the scarcity of covers of 

this kind is an indication, the exchange offices used the 

procedure sparingly. 
NUMBER 6 37 

^ LSi 

"&~ 

> 

W <?•/ ** AZ^rd*^ >?<&. *5L~V.^C 

%tm- <2^.^r 

&# 

£N^ 

FIGURE 17.—COVER, from Liverpool to Providence, Rhode Island, 1851. 

The Packet Rate 

Postmaster General Cave Johnson felt that the only 

leverage of importance held by the United States in 

bargaining with the British was the transit of the British mails between Boston and Canada. In his original 

instructions to Major Hobbie, he pointed out: "The 

terms upon which the Canadian mails are now transported through the United States may be made the 

basis of any further agreement with the British Post 

Office."

 27

 Bancroft used the transit of Canadian mails 

to "bargain" for a lower packet rate, but in so doing, 

he made an additional concession to the British. 

Clanricarde had proposed a sea rate of 10d.; Bancroft thought it ought to be 7d. At this point negotiations were deadlocked, but the impasse was broken by 

a British proposal of an 8d. packet rate if the United 

States would agree to Article V and the application of 

the uniform 50 inland postage to Article IX as the 

transit rate for Canadian mails. Bancroft explained his 

acceptance of these terms in his dispatch to Buchanan 

of 15 December 1848:

 28 

I did not think I should be justified in refusing to take 

the Canada mails across our Territory at the Uniform 

27Senate Executive Document 25, 30 Cong., 2 sess., serial 

531, p. 7. 

28

 Dept. of State, Treaties, p. 498. 

inland rate established by Article II. It seemed to me wise 

to treat our Canadian neighbors liberally: A special Act 

of Congress on the subject of mails in transit to Canada, 

favors such a policy: the concession of a sea rate of Eight 

pence was coupled with my assent to this Fifth Article. 

Thus the closed-mail transit rate for Canadian mails 

became 12^40 per ounce (2 x 50, plus 25 percent). 

Bancroft could have bargained for further concessions 

from the British. Cave Johnson thought he should 

have done so, as did his successors until 1857. Had 

Bancroft examined Article LI I of die Anglo-French 

treaty of 3 April 1843, he would have discovered that 

France was at that time paying Britain 160 per ounce 

for transit of mails between Boston and Canada, a 

service performed entirely by the United States. 

Transit Correspondence 

British Open Mail 

In negotiating Articles XI and XII of the treaty, 

Bancroft ignored that part of the joint resolution of 

Congress of 15 June 1844 which pointed to optional 

prepayment as the United States' policy in making 

postal agreements with foreign countries. Article XI 

specifically provided for part payment of postage, a 

procedure not designed to satisfy American commer-
38 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

cial interests. Although split rates were commonly used 

by the British Post Office, they had not previously had 

the added complication of rate variation because of 

the nationality of the conveying packet. In practice, 

this procedure proved to be confusing to the post 

offices in the colonies and in foreign countries. 

The usual procedure used by the British in setting 

rates to foreign countries for mail passing through England was to add the transit postages to and from Britain to the international rate. Clanricarde, accordingly, 

proposed that the current transit postages to and from 

colonies and foreign countries be added to the 24<i international rate to form total rates, the prepayment of 

which could be optional. He did, however, exempt 

those countries to which the prepayment of postage 

in Britain was compulsory, which were usually those 

with whom Britain had no postal convention. Since 

some of the postal conventions between Britain and 

foreign countries provided for transit rates that paid 

for the letter to destination in either country, Bancroft 

felt that, in these instances, Britain would be collecting 

its own inland postage twice. Bancroft proposed that 

the United States should have the right to bring its 

transit letters in its own packets to a British port and 

deposit them in the British Post Office, there to be 

treated as letters originating in England.29 Clanricarde 

would not agree to this, insisting that the international 

rate be used. When negotiations shifted from Clanricarde to Sir Charles Wood, Bancroft's proposal was 

accepted. 

Article XI, therefore, was developed, and provided 

that each country deliver to the other its transit letters 

free of all postage, whether packet or inland. This 

meant that on transit letters posted in the United 

States, a prepayment of 50 inland postage would pay a 

letter onboard a British packet in Boston or New York, 

whence it would be conveyed at British expense to a 

foreign destination. If the conveying packet were 

American, a prepayment of both the inland and packet 

postages of 210 would pay the letter to an English port 

where it would be deposited in the British Post Office 

there to be treated as a letter originating in England. 

In either case, the postage was split, part of it being 

prepaid in the United States and part of it being collected from the addressee abroad. 

By Article XII, the rates to be collected abroad were 

to be the same rates paid by British subjects for the 

same service. On incoming letters, foreign postage was 

Ibid. 

prepaid to Boston or New York if the conveying packet 

was to be British; and only to the British port of departure (then Southampton) if the conveying packet 

was to be American. Letters were to be rated by the 

exchange offices at Boston or New York for a collection 

of the United States postage, that is, 50 when brought 

there by a British packet, or 210 if the conveying 

packet had been American. 

British Mail 

Article XI also provided that on letters posted in the 

United States addressed to countries to which they 

could not be forwarded unless the British postage was 

prepaid, the United States was to collect and account 

for this postage to the British Post Office. Largely, 

such foreign destinations were in countries with whom 

Great Britain had no postal convention. Letters addressed to these destinations, therefore, required full 

prepayment in the United States of all postage on letters sent, and collection in the United States of all postage on letters received. On letters sent, the United 

States retained its share of 50 or 210 when the conveying packet was British or American, respectively, and 

accordingly gave Britain credit for the remainder of 

the postage. 

By Article XII, when the packet was American, the 

remainder of the postage represented the then current 

rate being paid by British subjects to that same foreign 

destination, except to France, which was exempted 

from Article XII. When the conveying packet was 

British, packet postage of 160 was added to this rate. 

On letters received in the United States, Britain 

debited the United States for all postage, except the 

United States share of 50 or 210, according to the 

nationality of the packet by which the mail was 

dispatched. 

The procedure just described was provided for by 

Articles XI and XII of the treaty, and the Articles of 

Execution supplied a list of countries falling under 

these provisions, together with the amounts of postage 

to be paid to the British Post Office, in each case 160 

more when conveyed by British packet. There was, 

however, an extension of British Mail that evolved 

and was not specifically provided for in the treaty. 

The post offices in the British colonies, and also in 

foreign countries, were confused by the open-mail procedure that required prepayment abroad of one rate 

to the British port of embarkation or a second rate to 
NUMBER 6 39 

the American frontier, according to whether transatlantic service was by the Cunard line or not. The 

postal officials in the colonies were not accustomed to 

having different rates according to the nationality of 

the conveying packet. Invariably they knew that the 

Cunarders left Liverpool every Saturday, but it is not 

likely they knew more about the Ocean Line than that 

it sailed from Southampton once a month. They did 

know, however, that a letter upon which postage was 

paid only to England could not be forwarded by the 

Cunard line and would have to await the next sailing 

of the Ocean Line, which meant that it might rest in 

Southampton for a month. 

It is, therefore, not strange that these offices developed the custom of quoting only the rate by the 

Cunard line. At least, several such instances came to 

the attention of the United States Post Office Department. Americans traveling abroad, some of them on 

diplomatic service, attempted to pay letters only to 

England at post offices in Aden, Ceylon, and Hong 

Kong, only to be told that prepayment to the American 

frontier was required. The American travelers were 

anxious to have their letters conveyed by American 

packets, but if prepayment to the American frontier 

was required, the British would be collecting postage 

for transatlantic service. This could only mean that the 

United States-British treaty had not settled the problem of the British charging double sea-postage. These 

Americans, individually, wrote letters to the United 

States Post Office Department, describing a grievance 

that was the same in these widely separated offices. 

On 6 August 1852 Postmaster General Samuel D. 

Hubbard wrote the British Post Office inquiring into 

the matter.30 The British reply of 24 September 1852 

did not specifically answer the question as to whether 

there was a double charge for sea postage on American 

packet mail. The matter was then referred to the 

Department of State. There ensued a considerable 

correspondence between J. R. Ingersoll, United States 

minister at London, W. L. Marcy, secretary of state, 

and Lord Clarendon, British foreign secretary.31 

Finally, on 25 May 1853 (and, curiously, again on 

22 December 1854), William L. Maberly, secretary 

of the British Post Office, wrote the following note to 

James Campbell, United States postmaster general:

 32 

In reply to your letter of the 17th ultimo, on the 

subject of the treatment at this office of letters from 

Hong Kong, addressed to the United States, I am directed by the Postmaster General to inform you that 

when such letters have been paid in advance at Hong 

Kong, and are conveyed across the Atlantic by United 

States packets, it is the practice of this office to credit 

the post office of the United States with the sea rate of 

16 cents on each single letter. 

The above statement raises several questions. Was 

this a general policy of the British Post Office, or did 

it apply only to Hong Kong mail? How long had the 

practice been in effect? Since the procedure had not 

been communicated to the United States Post Office 

Department, how did the exchange offices at Boston 

and New York rate such mail for collection? No official 

answers to these questions have been found. No cover 

posted prior to 1854, showing the application of this 

procedure, has been seen. Numerous covers after 1854 

indicate that the procedure was generally applied to 

letters of foreign origin addressed to the United States, 

prepaid to the United States frontier, and conveyed 

by American packet, except, of course, to letters from 

or through France. These covers show that the United 

States exchange offices rated them uniformly for a collection of 5^ without regard to the nationality of the 

conveying packet. 

The statement by Maberly appears to have settled 

the matter. Although the procedure was not authorized 

by treaty, the United States did not object to its use. 

An inkling of a possible reason for their not objecting 

is contained in a letter from Postmaster General Campbell to Secretary of State Marcy

 M in which he complains about the large amount of commissions that had 

to be allowed for the collection of postage on foreign 

mails. If the British were willing to collect and pay 

over to the United States the packet postage on such 

letters, commission payments to postmasters would be 

reduced, and a net savings to the United States Post 

Office Department would result. 

30

 Senate Executive Document 73, 33 Cong., 2 sess., serial 

756, p. 46. 

31

 Ibid., pp. 45-47. 

Ibid. 

Ibid., p. 49. 

372-645 O—70 4 
Chapter 3 

Postal Relations With France 

Mails via England 

At the time the United States-British treaty was 

signed on 15 December 1848, all mail between the 

United States and France, via England, was exchanged 

under provisions of Article LI I of the Anglo-French 

treaty of 3 April 1843.1 This article provided that 

France pay Great Britain 3s. 4d. (40d.) per ounce of 

letters for sea conveyance and transit through British 

territory to or from ''colonies and countries beyond the 

sea, wherever the same may be situated." A like provision required Britain to pay France 4 francs (40 

decimes) per 30 grams of letters for sea conveyance 

and transit through French territory. These amounts 

were to be paid when letters were "conveyed by private ships, by Government vessels, or by vessels freighted or maintained by order of Government." 

The Articles of Execution 2 for carrying the treaty 

into effect provided that one penny (British) be considered equal to one decime (French). The weight of 

a single letter was to be 7*/2 grams in France or onefourth ounce in Great Britain. The single-letter rate 

was to be arrived at by dividing the rate per ounce or 

per 30 grams by four. On letters from the United 

States, therefore, the postage from New York or Boston 

to the port of entry in France was 10 decimes per 7/2 

grams. Because the United States had no postal arrangement with France, all letters posted in the United 

States entered France unpaid, France collecting 10 

decimes per single rate plus French inland postage 

from the addressee. On letters posted in France addressed to the United States, prepayment of all postage 

to the United States frontier was compulsory. 

Until July 1849, French inland postage was determined according to the distance in a straight line between the point of posting and the point of egress from 

France, and vice versa on letters received.3 The progression of the inland rates differed from the progression of the Article LII 10-decime rate.4

 The combination of these two facts makes the analysis of French 

due-markings during this period an exceedingly difficult task. On 1 January 1849,5

 France abandoned distance as a basis for determining domestic rates, and 

on 23 July 1849

 6 inland postage on letters to or from 

the United States was set at 5 decimes for every 7^2 

grams, or fraction of 7/2 grams. 

On 31 March 1844,7 additional articles to the 1843 

treaty established a new system of accounting for 

mail exchanged between France and England. Essentially, this complicated system provided that the 

rates relating to particular places of origin and destination of mail be included under separate accounts 

which were called "the Articles in the Accounts." Each 

of these "accounting" articles was assigned a number, 

which was used in the preparation of the letter-bills. 

The numbers of the Articles in the Accounts should 

not be confused with the numbers of the articles in 

the treaty. In fact, the rates set in the treaty articles 

1

 Edward Hertslet ed., Commercial Treaties, vol. 6, p. 349. 

-British and Foreign State Papers, vol. 39, p. 1083. 

3

 Hertslet, Commercial Treaties (Art. 32), vol. 6, p. 357. 

1

 British and Foreign State Papers (Articles of Execution, 

Art. 50), vol. 39, p. 1102. 

5

 Georges Brunei, Le Timbre-Poste franqais, p. 49. 

Raymond Salles, La Poste maritime Franqaise Historique 

et Catalogue, vol. 4, p. 280. 

7

 British and Foreign State Papers, vol. 39, p. 1164. 

40 
NUMBER 6 41 

fell under certain accounting articles, and these rates 

were then designated by the accounting-article number which appeared on the letter-bill. Thus, the 3s. 4d. 

rate of Article LII of the treaty fell, originally, under 

Article 12 in the Articles in the Accounts. The Articles 

in the Accounts were later revised, and beginning 1 

January 1846, the 3s. 4d. rate of Article LII was placed 

under accounting-article 13. 

Appended to Article LII of the treaty was the provision that an additional 8d. per ounce be charged on 

letters forwarded from or addressed to Canada, New 

Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and 

Newfoundland, making in all a rate of 4s. per ounce. 

Article LVII of the Articles of Execution provided 

the following:

 s 

In order that, the transmission of letters originating in 

the colonies and countries beyond the sea, forwarded by 

the British Post Office to the Post Office of France, there 

may be no confusion between letters coming from the 

British possessions, which are to be accounted for at the 

rate of 4s. per ounce, and those coming from British possessions, or countries beyond the sea, which are to be 

accounted for at the rate of 3s. 4d. per ounce, such letters 

shall be marked on their face by the British Post Office 

with a special stamp, indicating, as below, the heading 

of the letter-bill of the said Office under which they are 

to be respectively inscribed, namely: 

1. North America, Canada, New Bruswick, &c. ( CANADA, 

&c.) 

2. Colonies and countries beyond the sea (COLONIES, 

&c). 

After 1 April 1844, the effective date of the additional articles of 31 March 1844, the accounting-article number was also included in the stamp. The British 

Post Office, therefore, on all letters from the United 

States which were forwarded to France, applied, in redorange ink, a handstamp reading, COLONIES /&C. ART. 

12, and after 1 January 1846, COLONIES /&c. ART. 13, 

reflecting the revision of the accounting articles made 

at that time (see markings A and B in Figure 18). 

The Exclusion of France From 

Article XII of the 

United States-British Treaty 

The existence of Article LII of the Anglo-French 

treaty of 1843 proved to be an obstacle in the negotiation of the transit rates of the United States-British 

COLONIES 

&CABI.12. 

COLONIES 

&cARTM 

L M N 

FIGURE 18.—MARKINGS on pre-treaty United States-French 

mail. 

treaty. Bancroft explained it to Secretary of State 

James Buchanan as follows:

 9 

A difficulty occurred in setting the rates to be paid for 

letters to France, passing through England. By the 52d. 

Article of the British and French Postal Convention, the 

French pay on letters, to the British Government one 

uniform rate of Forty pence per ounce, British net weight, 

for transit through the United Kingdom and sea conveyance to and from Countries beyond the sea. There is but 

one and the same rate for letters, whether from Brazil 

or Van Diemen's Land; from Boston or Calcutta. But by 

our present Treaty with England this rate becomes too 

high on letters between France and the United States 

passing through the United Kingdom. The Chancellor of 

the Exchequer is therefore willing, on his part, to reduce 

rates to be paid on such letters, and apply the principle 

of the Twelfth Article of the treaty to France [italics added 

for emphasis]. . . For this the concurrence of France 

is necessary. 

Article XII of the United States-British treaty provided, in effect, that the transit rates to foreign countries via England be the rate currently charged British 

subjects for the same service. Although France was 

specifically excluded from this article, it was agreed 

to invite her, "without loss of time," to enter into 

arrangements "as are most conducive to the interests of 

the three countries," for the mutual exchange of closed 

mails. In the meantime—that is, before such agreement was reached—Britain would forward mails to 

and from France under the rate of Article LII of the 

Anglo-French treaty of 1843. France, however, was not 

excluded from Article XI and, hence, the open-mail 

Ibid., pp. 1106-1107. 

9

 Dept. of State, Treaties, p. 497. 
42 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

rates of 50 or 210 by British or American packet, respectively, were prepaid or collected in the United States. 

T h e Bad Bargain 

Although Bancroft held the treaty to be one of "just 

and fair reciprocity," it soon became evident that the 

United States Post Office Department felt that it was 

not only unfair, but also unjust and definitely biased in 

favor of the British. The difficulty appears to have 

grown out of the fact that Bancroft, wherever possible, 

attempted to eschew detail and to establish general 

principles, which were to be reciprocally applied by the 

two countries. The Post Office Department, however, 

used a different method for measuring "reciprocity." 

Instead of viewing the reciprocal application of principles, the amounts paid by one country to the other 

were examined. It did not take the department long to 

discover that, while the United States would pay Britain 300 per ounce for transit of closed mails from 

Liverpool to Cuxhaven, Britain would pay the United 

States only 12/20 per ounce for conveying the mails 

between Canada and Boston or New York. In his 

Annual Report for 1853, Postmaster General Campbell complained:

 10 

Great Britain received for transit through that country 

of our Bremen closed mails, in the first quarter of the 

last fiscal year, thirty cents an ounce whilst the United 

States have received but twelve and a half cents an ounce 

for the British and Canadian closed mails, though performing a service at least equal in point of importance. 

As has been previously mentioned, Cave Johnson 

felt that the Canadian transit rate represented the only 

real "leverage" the United States held in bargaining 

with the British. This was bartered for a lower packet 

rate. It must be borne in mind that the Canadian 

transit rate of 12/40 rested upon the uniform inland 

rate" of the treaty, which Bancroft accepted in Article V 

as the basis for the application of the Article IX formula of taking two single-letter rates plus 25 percent 

for the setting of the rate per ounce on closed mails. 

Thus, the Canadian closed-mail rate was computed at 

two times 50 plus 25 percent of the product of 100. 

There can be little doubt that Colonel Maberly had 

had a hand in the maneuvering of Bancroft's acceptance of Articles V and IX. 

But Bancroft accepted Article XII on his own initiative. Colonel Maberly brought Bancroft for his consideration a detailed draft of a proposal that eventually 

became Articles XI and XII. Bancroft cavalierly 

penned the following memorandum to Maberly:

 xl 

Approved as far as 'the rates by sea'—what follows is 

superfluous and objectionable. Make your rates to your 

colonies and possessions and foreign countries what you 

please, high or low, one sea rate or a dozen, or not at all; 

what your people pay we are willing to pay, but not more, 

and vice versa. Our security is, that we pay what your 

people pay from the same place for the same benefit, and 

vice versa. 

This is the very principle agreed upon as the basis of 

this convention. 

The additions disagreed to are further objectionable, as 

introducing varying principles. 

Ordinarily, such a memorandum would not be preserved, but in this instance Maberly, probably with a 

smile, tucked it safely away in his files, whence it was 

brought out on occasion to embarrass future United 

States postmasters general. A fundamental, more basic 

than the principles negotiated in the treaty, was the 

fact that the British used transit postage as a basis for 

taxation. Application of the principle of Article XII 

forced United States citizens to pay to Britain whatever taxes Britain imposed upon its own subjects for 

transit postage. 

Postmaster General Samuel D. Hubbard put the 

matter succinctly in a letter to Edward Everett, secretary of state, dated 11 January 1853. After a recitation of the provisions of Article XII, he wrote:

 12 

Thus, while the United States mails sent through England 

are subject to the high rates established on correspondence 

between England and the continent, &c, the British mails 

sent through the United States have the advantage of our 

reduced rates. 

It appears to me it would have been more just to have 

secured for our mails advantages equal to those extended 

by the United States to the British mails. 

On 8 January 1849, President Polk appointed 

George Bancroft and Richard Rush, minister at Paris, 

as envoys extraordinary and ministers plenipotentiary 

for the negotiation of a tripartite agreement between 

Britain, France, and the United States.13 The United 

States felt that it was first necessary to develop a proposal with Britain which the two countries could 

jointly present to France. Accordingly, Bancroft 

10

 U.S., Congress, Senate, Executive Document 1, 33rd 

Cong., 1st sess., serial 692, pt. 3; 718. 

11

 Senate Executive Document 73, 33 Cong., 2nd sess., 

serial 756, p. 44. 

12

 Senate Executive Document 32, 32 Cong., 2 sess., serial 

660, p. 43. 

13

 Dept. of State, Treaties, p. 505. 
NUMBER 6 43 

opened negotiations with the British Post Office, but 

was not able to secure a reply from Lord Clanricarde. 

In October 1849

 14

 Bancroft was succeeded as minister 

at London by Abbott Lawrence. Up to that time, no 

progress had been made in the negotiations. 

The United States proposed that the transit rate 

between Britain and France be reduced to 6d. per 

ounce on closed mails between the United States and 

France, via England; that the rate between the American and French frontiers be 2s. 2d. per ounce when 

conveyance was by British packet, and that only the 

6d.-per-ounce transit rate be charged when conveyance was by American packet. The 6d. transit rate 

had no foundation in the closed-mail provisions under 

Articles VII, VIII, or IX of the United States-British 

treaty. The United States took the position that, since 

France had been excluded from Article XII and it had 

been agreed that "without loss of time" the three 

countries should come to an agreement mutually 

conducive to the interests of all, bargaining did not 

have to be within the context of the other treaty provisions. Further, the Americans argued acceptance of 

their proposal on the basis of its equity. Since Britain 

paid the United States only 6!/4d. per ounce for transit 

of the Canadian mails, a rate of 6d. between England 

and France was equitable. 

The British position was stated by Sir Charles Wood 

(then chancellor of the exchequer) at the time France 

was excluded from Article XII and before the treaty 

was signed. This was reported to Secretary of State 

James Buchanan by Bancroft in his dispatch transmitting the treaty, previously quoted, to the effect that 

he (Wood) was willing to "apply the principle of the 

twelfth article of the treaty to France." The then 

current rate between France and Britain was 5d. per 

half ounce, set by Article XXXIII of the Anglo-French 

treaty. To this rate the formula of Article IX of the 

United States-British treaty was applied. This resulted 

in a rate of ls. Y^d. per ounce (2 x 5d. plus 25 

percent). The same formula was also applied to the 

8d. packet rate, and resulted in a sea rate of ls.8d. per 

ounce. Thus, the British offered a rate of 2s.8^2d. per 

ounce by British packet and of ls.J/2d. by American 

packet. These rates treated France as if she had not 

been excluded from the twelfth article. The proposal 

was made by Lord Clanricarde on 26 August 1850

 15 

14

 Senate Executive Document 73, 33 Cong., 2 sess., serial 

756, p. 51. 

15

 Senate Executive Document 32, 32 Cong., 2 sess., serial 

660, p. 12. 

as a counterproposal to that made by Lawrence, the 

new minister in London, in a letter dated 19 August 

1850.1C Shortly thereafter, the British were willing to 

drop one halfpenny from each of the above rates. 

Until some agreement was reached between France 

and England, mails between the United States and 

France, via England, had to be dispatched under 

Article LII of the Anglo-French treaty. Since the sole 

rate of 3s.4d. per ounce applied to all mail dispatched, 

double sea-postage was being charged on mail conveyed by American packet. The United States, however, was not immediately aware of this fact. When 

Abbott Lawrence succeeded Bancroft, one of his first 

acts was to send John C. B. Davis, secretary of the 

United States legation at London, to Paris to inquire 

into certain aspects of the handling of the United 

States mail between England and France. It is significant that Lawrence did not know what rates existed 

in France on mail to or from the United States. These 

rates also had not been known by Bancroft. As one 

of his primary duties, Davis was charged with the 

responsibility of ascertaining the existing rates on letters and the division of the postage between France 

and England. 

Davis immediately sought out M. Maurin, chief of 

the Bureau of Foreign Correspondence, who promptly 

informed him that France already knew of Clanricarde's offer, had determined to accept it, and hoped 

the United States would also accept it. Davis also 

reported as follows:17 

The first question I asked him was as to the present rates 

between here and America. He answered: 'J4 oz., l/.50c.; 

J/2 oz., 3/.; % oz., 4/.50c.; 1 oz., 6/.; of which France takes 

one-third, and England two-thirds. This pays the letter to 

New York.' Then I asked: Suppose the letter is taken to 

New York in an American steamer: is it subject to a new 

sea-rate, or does England, in her turn, account to the 

United States?' To this he said he did not know, but perhaps Mr. Thayer (Director General of French Posts) 

would be able to tell me. Then I asked how the postage 

would be under the proposed arrangement, (with England). He answered: '/ 4 oz., If.30c; J/2 oz., 2/.60c; *A 

oz., 3/.90c; 1 oz., 5/.20c.' How would it then be with the 

American steamers?' 'There will be such provision made 

that a letter going by American steamer will be required 

to prepay only— / 4 oz., 80c ; / a oz., l/.60c; Y4 oz., 2fA0c.; 

1 oz., 3/.20c. 

Upon receipt of Davis's report, Lawrence immediately wrote to the director general for French Posts, 

M. Thayer, asking that France delay in accepting 

10

 Ibid, p. 8. 

17

 Ibid, pp. 14-15. 
44 

Clanricarde's proposal.18 Davis saw Thayer on 8 October 1850 and reported his reaction to Lawrence's request for delay:19 

America negotiates a convention with England for 

the regulation of the postal correspondence, in the 

twelfth article of which, after making provision for 

the correspondence passing through England to and from 

countries beyond, an exception is made in favor of 

France, in consequence of the existing relations with 

diat country. Provision is made for the conclusion at 

some subsequent time of a triple convention between 

the three powers. Things go on without any official steps 

being taken for carrying into effect that provision; and 

at length England, of her own accord, offers certain 

concessions to France with reference to such correspondence, without requiring any corresponding ones on her 

part, which France determines to accept. These concessions virtually do away with the distinctions made by 

the convention between French and other continental 

correspondence, and place all on the same footing— 

which England, perhaps, would claim as an execution of the convention. Then America comes in, asks 

France not to accept, and becomes for die first time a 

party. 

Now see the result. Had this been concluded, France 

and America would have been, let at once into the benefits of it, and the latter would not have been bound by it, 

not being party to it, but could still have insisted on the 

equitable execution of the convention of 1848, and 

threatened to annul it in case it was not done. Now, 

however, America, by asking France to delay, and by 

opening negotiations herself, has become a party, and, 

if France accepts, and England does not retract, America 

will be bound. 

Davis countered by saying that "the United States 

never would agree that England had executed the 

twelfth article in good faith by placing the French on 

the same basis with the other continental correspondence. The convention contemplated more."

 20

 It is evident that the United States felt that the convention 

was broader than the agreement between Bancroft and 

Wood. It is also evident that British policy was, in 

fact, the application of the principle of the twelfth 

article to France, which was reflected in the British 

offer to the United States and France. France's 

acceptance of this offer could not be effectually protested by the United States. 

The position of the three countries remained the 

same until the signing of the Anglo-French treaty of 

24 September 1856. The United States continued to 

demand that the British reduce the transit rate to 

SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

France to 6d. per ounce. England and France proceeded to work out an arrangement for closed mails 

on terms offered by the British. On 15 April 1851, 

Thayer addressed Maberly with the suggestion that:

 21 

the transmission of the correspondence in question might 

be regulated in the following manner: 

The French post office to make up the correspondence 

for Boston and New York offices in closed mails, a statement of the contents thereof to be furnished to your 

department in the regular form. 

With regard to the return corespondence from the 

United States, until arrangements shall have been made 

with the American department for having the same forwarded in closed mails to France, it should be made up 

under care of the British offices, in separate parcels, addressed to the offices of Calais and Paris, marked according 

to the place whence the corespondence was forwarded and 

the route by which it had been carried. 

Maberly, in his reply of 26 April 1851, accepted 

Thayer's proposal, and then added:

 22 

I beg leave to add, that any delay which may take place 

in concluding this matter is not owing to any difficulty 

anticipated, but to the necessity for the American minister 

being party to the arrangement. 

This peculiar arrangement was placed in operation 

on 1 May 1851. From that date forward, mails from 

France, via England, entered the United States as 

closed mails, while letters from the United States to 

France continued to be sent in the open mail. Hence, 

covers from France after 1 May 1851 do not show 

British markings. Although France paid Britain the 

lowered rates, no reduction in letter postage was immediately made. 

It appears that about the middle of 1851 Great 

Britain and France made a provisional agreement by 

which the rates offered by the British and already 

being used on closed mail from France were applied 

to the open mail sent from the United States to 

France. This agreement was placed in effect in France 

by French circulaire 67 (instructions to postal agents), 

dated 1 September 1851.23 This circular reduced the 

rate on letters conveyed by American packets from 15 

to 8 decimes per 7/ 2 grams. From this time forward, 

mail ceased to be exchanged under Article LII of the 

Anglo-French convention of 1843, or under the accounting and letter-bill arrangements of Article 13 of 

the Articles in the Accounts. The COLONIES/&C. ART. 

I 3 marking was, therefore, discontinued on mail from 

18

 Ibid, pp. 7-8. 

10

 Ibid, p. 16. 

20

 Ibid. 

51

 Ibid., p. 27. 

22

 Ibid, p. 28. 

23

 Salles, La Poste maritime franqaise, vol. 4, p. 280. 
NUMBER 6 45 

the United States. Replacing the COLONIES marking 

were markings C, D, E, and F of Figure 18. Marking 

C was applied in red by the Paris office, while marking 

E was applied in black by the traveling (ambulant) 

post office, Calais to Paris, on American packet mail. 

Although the single rate by British packet remained at 

15 decimes, the COLONIES marking was, nevertheless, 

replaced by markings D and F (see Figure 18) on mail 

conveyed by British packets. These markings carried 

out the instructions issued by Thayer. 

On 19 November 1851 the French president, Louis 

Napoleon Bonaparte, signed a decree which became 

effective on 1 December 1851,24 definitively establishing rates on letters between the United States and 

France, via England. This decree set a rate per 7/2 

grams at 1 franc 30 centimes (13 decimes) on letters 

between France or Algeria and the United States, when 

conveyed by British packet. It also repeated the existing 80-centime (8 decimes) rate by American packet 

set by circulaire 67 of 1 September 1851. Rates were 

also set for letters originating in or destined for those 

parts of the Mediterranean where France maintained 

post offices. These rates were 1 franc 80 centimes (18 

decimes) when conveyance was by British packet, and 

1 franc 30 centimes (13 decimes) when conveyed by 

American packet. 

The rates reflected in the preceding decree were 

developed from those agreed upon between France 

and Great Britain in the provisional agreement. Utilizing the principle established for the setting of singleletter rates under Article LII of the Anglo-French 

treaty, the closed-mail-per-ounce rates were divided by 

four to arrive at the single-letter rates. Thus, the sea 

rate of ls.8d. per ounce, plus the England-France 

transit rate of ls. per ounce yielded rates as set forth 

in Table 8. 

The United States was aware that Britain and 

France had agreed to send mail from France closed 

through England. Colonel Maberly notified the Post 

Office Department to this effect on 22 August 1851.25 

Neither England nor France, however, notified the 

United States of the provisional agreement or of the 

decree rates. In this regard the United States was 

completely ignored. The Post Office Department 

learned of these arrangements in a peculiar way. 

In January 1853 Postmaster General Hubbard was 

TABLE 8.— United States and French Postal Rates via 

England (Under the 1851 French Decree) 

21

 Hertslet, Commercial Treaties, vol. 9, pp. 269-270. [See 

also Chronicle 37, (22 Sept. 1960), for English translation 

of the text of this decree.] 

25

 Senate Executive Document 73, 33 Cong, 2 sess, serial 

756, p.51 . 

British Packet 

U.S. inland postage (prepaid or 

collected in U.S.) — 

Sea postage (J of ls.8d. or 400) 5 decimes 

Transit postage (j of ls. or 240) 3 

French inland postage 5 

Prepaid or collected in France 13 decimes 

Total postage 

100 

6 

10 

— 

50 

26 

310 

American Packet 

U.S. inland postage (U.S.-

British treaty) 

Sea postage 16 

Prepaid or collected in U.S. 

Transit postage (i of ls. or 240) 3 decimes 

French inland postage 5 10 

Prepaid or collected in France 8 decimes 

Total postage — 

21 

16 

370 

NOTE: The 60 differential in rates is due to a reducdon in 

sea postage on letters by British packet. 

unaware of the provisional agreement or of the decree 

rates. He thought double sea-postage was still being 

charged by Britain and decided (at the wrong time) to 

do something about it. On 26 January 1853, the 

following appeared in the New-York Tribune: 

Foreign Postage 

The following official notice and order in relation to 

foreign postage has been issued by the Postmaster-General: 

Post-Office-Department, Jan. 24, 1853. 

Pursuant to authority vested in the Postmaster-General, 

and by and with the advice and consent of the President 

of the United States (which advice and consent more 

fully appear by an instrument in writing this day filed in 

the Department), it being understood that the British 

Post-Office charges the same rate of postage on letters and 

newspapers to and from France, through England, whether 

the same are conveyed across the Atlantic by British or 

United States packets: thus making a discrimination of 

16 cents (sea postage) in favor of the British line, 

It is hereby ordered, That on all letters to or from France, 

through England, the single rate of United States postage 

be twenty-one cents and on all newspapers transmitted 
46 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

four cents each, from and after the date hereof, such postage to be collected in and retained by the United States. 

S. D. Hubbard, POSTMASTER-GENERAL 

On 19 July 1853 Postmaster General James Campbell reviewed the matter for Secretary of State W. L. 

Marcy:

 2G 

The effect of this order, it was supposed, would be to 

render the postage to and from France the same by both 

the United States and British lines. Before the order could 

go generally into operation, however, at the earnest solicitation of the French minister, Count de Sartiges, who 

promised to communicate with his government, urging a 

speedy settlement of the matter on a just basis, Mr. Hubbard, on the 10th of February, suspended the order for 

two months. 

No order of suspension was found in the New York 

Tribune, or in the Weekly New York Times. The following news item appeared, however, on 26 February 

1853 in the New York Recorder: 

Transatlantic Postage—The Washington papers contain 

an official notice from Postmaster General Hall [?], suspending for three [?] months, at the request of the French 

Minister, the order equalizing the rate of postage on all 

letters between the United States and France, via 

England. 

The preceding is, of course, somewhat inaccurate. 

Nathan K. Hall had not been postmaster general since 

14 September 1852, and the order was suspended for 

two, not three, months. The significant aspect of this 

news item is that its source was the Washington newspapers. Evidently, broad publicity was not given to the 

suspension of the order. 

Any letter addressed to France, via England, posted 

in the United States between 24 January and 10 February 1853, that shows a prepayment of 210 and bears 

a British packet marking, would be an example of a 

cover sent during this "retaliatory" Post Office order. 

There were three sailings from the United States by 

the Cunard line during this period: Arabia from New 

York on 26 January (maiden voyage), Europa from 

Boston on 2 February, and Africa from New York on 

9 February. Unfortunately, no cover addressed to 

France and conveyed on any of the above three sailings has been seen. The influence of the above order, 

however, may have extended beyond the suspension 

date. The order of 24 January appears to have been 

sent to the newspapers in the large cities, while the 

notice of suspension seems to have been published 

only in the Washington newspapers. Of course, the exIbid, p. 52. 

change offices were notified, and any person taking a 

letter for mailing to the general post offices of Boston 

or New York would have been informed of the order 

of suspension. This is attested by a cover in the Smithsonian collection which was conveyed from Boston on 

16 February 1853 by Cunarder Canada and was prepaid with 5^. A few persons, however, placed postage 

stamps upon their letters and posted them without taking them to the post-office window, and these persons 

may not have learned of the suspension of the order. 

Figure 19 presents a cover posted in Philadelphia on 

5 April 1853, addressed to Mr. Charles Toppan in 

Paris. The letter is signed by Samuel Carpenter. These 

gentlemen were members of the firm of Toppan, Carpenter, Casilear and Company, which printed the 

stamps appearing on the letter. These stamps represent 

a prepayment of 210, normally the required prepayment for a letter sent by American packet, but Mr. 

Carpenter endorsed the letter "Pr Steamer/Asia/April 

6th." This endorsement indicates that reference was 

made to one of the notices of mail sailings, which 

would also have informed him that the Asia was a 

British packet. The New York British packet marking 

also bears the date of 6 April, the date upon which the 

Asia, according to the Cunard records, sailed from 

New York. Since other letters in this correspondence 

are endorsed to British packets and prepaid with 50, 

normally the required prepayment on British packet 

letters, the only logical explanation for the prepayment 

of 210 on this letter is that Mr. Carpenter thought it 

necessary to prepay it in that amount. 

This was not the only occasion upon which 

Mr. Carpenter prepaid a letter to Mr. Toppan in Paris 

with 210 and endorsed it to a British packet. Lot no. 51 

of the Bruce G. Daniels sale of 24 November 1959 is 

illustrated in the sale catalogue. That cover is similar 

to the one described above, except that it is endorsed 

"Pr Steamer/23 Feby" and bears a British packet mark 

of the same date. The records of the Cunard line show 

that the Niagara sailed from New York on that date. 

The French receiving mark clearly shows the year to 

be 1853. Again, the prepayment of 210, on this cover 

as well as on the one previously described, is suspected 

to have been influenced by the Post Office order of 

24 January 1853. 

On 18 February 1853 Colonel Maberly addressed a 

letter to the United States Post Office Department in 

which he stated that since the middle of 1851 a provisional arrangement had existed between Great 

Britain and France, by which no charge was made for 
NUMBER 6 47 

V- J>/£/zi+*^~ frCJt* 

FIGURE 19.—COVER, from Philadelphia to Paris, 1853. 

sea postage on letters to and from France, via England, 

by American packet.27 Thus, over a year and a half 

after the fact, the United States Post Office learned 

of these arrangements between Britain and France. 

On 1 May 1853

 28

 the Count de Sartiges also wrote 

the Department explaining that there was only a 60, 

not a 160, difference in the American and British 

packet rates. He further explained that the difference 

was the result of the lowering of the sea postage to 

100 on British packet letters. 

In his annual report for 1854 Postmaster General 

Campbell reviewed the situation for Congress. The 

British postmaster general took exception to certain 

statements made by Mr. Campbell. He stated that it 

was inconsistent on the part of the United States to 

complain that the British government enabled French 

subjects to receive their American letters at a sea rate 

of 100, while the United States demanded 160 from 

its own citizens for a like service by United States 

packets; and at the same time to complain that the 

British charges were too high.20 In his annual report 

for 1855 Postmaster General Campbell answered the 

British postmaster general:

 30 

It is sufficient answer to say that the only controversy 

has been with reference to a reduction of the British transit 

postage, that the sea postage has not been a point of dispute, and that were our reasonable demands for a reduction of the transit postage acceded to, the reduction of die 

sea postage by the United States lines would follow of 

course, since the United States and French mails would 

then be treated as closed mails, and all letters between the 

two countries passing through England would be transmitted at a uniform rate of postage. 

Citing Mr. Bancroft's memorandum to Maberly, 

the British pointed out that the demand by the United 

States for a reduction of the transit rate to France was 

"clearly in contradiction to the spirit of the convention 

of December, 1848, and to the basis on which it was 

negotiated . . ." 3 1 The memorandum clearly precluded a contest of the transit rates. It was thus that 

both parties rested their cases until the matter was 

settled by the signing of the Anglo-French convention 

of 24 September 1856. 

' Ibid. 

' Ibid. 

Annual Report of the Postmaster General, 1855, p. 18. 

30

 Ibid. 

31

 Senate Executive Document 73, 33 Cong., 2 sess., serial 

756, p. 42 (Lord Clarendon to Mr. Ingersoll). 
48 

Covers 

Figure 20 illustrates a cover posted in New York, 

addressed to Paris. It bears a New York postmaster's 

Provisional 50 stamp, which paid the letter to Boston, 

a distance of under 300 miles. The New York office 

canceled the stamp with a square grid, and applied 

a PAID in arc marking as well as a NEW YORK/ 5 CTS/1 5 

DEC marking, all of which are in red. On this date 

(15 December 1846) the mails were made up in New 

York for the sailing on the following day from Boston 

of R.M.S. Caledonia, as in indicated by the endorsement. The letter was sent through Liverpool to the 

London office, which applied the COLONIES/&c. ART. 

13 marking (see B of Figure 18), and forwarded the 

letter to the French office at Boulogne. By Article 

XXXII 3 2 of the Anglo-French convention of 1843, 

French territorial (inland) postage was set according 

to the distance in a straight line between the point 

at which the letter entered France and its destination. 

This letter is rated for a collection of 15 decimes, 10 

decimes of which were paid to Great Britain under 

Article 13 of the Articles in the Accounts, and 5 demimes were for French territorial postage. 

Figure 21 illustrates a cover posted in Boston, addressed to Paris. It is endorsed "per Steamer 'America' 

from Boston to Liverpool/March 6, 1850." The letter 

bears a 10 carrier stamp of the Boston Penny Post (Scott 

no. 3LB1), which paid the letter to the Boston post 

32

 Hertslet, Commercial Treaties, vol. 6, p. 357. 

SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

office, and a 50 stamp of the 1847 issue, which paid 

the United States-British treaty's open-mail rate by 

British packet for a letter not exceeding one half ounce. 

The letter was forwarded from Boston by R.M.S. 

America on 6 March, as the endorsement indicates, 

and arrived in Liverpool on 19 March 1850, whence 

it was sent to the London office. The London office 

applied marking B of Figure 18 and a packet marking 

on the reverse (not shown), and sent it to the French 

office at Calais. That office applied a double-circle 

2ANGL.2/CALAIS/2O/MARS/5 0 marking and rated the 

letter for a double-rate collection of 30 decimes. This 

collection was for a letter that weighed over 7 J/2 

but not over 15 grams. Of the 30 decimes, 20 paid 

the British for sea and British transit postage (including channel transit), and 10 decimes paid the French 

inland postage. 

Figure 22 presents a cover posted in New Orleans on 

25 January 1851, addressed to Paris. This letter weighed over one half but not over one ounce, and was 

prepaid 420 (2X210) to be sent from New York by 

American packet. This 210 single rate represented 160 

for sea postage and 50 for United States inland postage. The letter was sent from New York on 5 February 

1851 by the U.S.M. steamer Arctic of the Collins 

line, which arrived in Liverpool on 16 February, 

whence it was sent to the London office. The London 

office marked it with B of Figure 18, and sent it on 

17 February to the French office at Calais (London 

marking on the reverse). The Calais office marked it 

with a 2 ANGL. 2/CALAIS/is FEVR./SI marking and 

y 

, h V ..•• 

FIGURE 20.—COVER, from New York to Paris, 1846. (Courtesy of J. David Baker) 
NUMBER 6 49 

I / <uLe-v jJ^e^c<^ v i Ma L.c bl&. &j 

ttUuJ 

l""——"""WBffm 

FIGURE 21.—COVER, from Boston to Paris, 1850. {Arthur E. Beane, Jr., collection) 

r A 

v Hi 

FIGURE 22.—COVER, from New Orleans to Paris, 1851. 
50 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

rated it for a collection of 45 decimes. This collection 

was for a letter weighing over 15 but not over 22/2 

grams. Of the 45 decimes, 30 decimes paid the British 

for sea and British transit postage, and 15 decimes paid 

the French inland postage. Since the sea postage had 

been paid in the United States, and charged again by 

France, the United States-British treaty did not settle 

this issue for mail to France. Clearly there was no 

difference made in the postage collected in France for 

letters conveyed by American packets. 

Figure 23 illustrates a cover posted in Paris on 10 

July 1851, about two months after England and France 

had agreed to send closed mail to the United States. 

The letter weighed over 7/2 grams in France but not 

over one half ounce in the United States. A doublerate letter in France, it is prepaid 3 francs (30 decimes) by a strip of three of the "Ceres'' 1/. carmine 

(Scott no. 9). On the reverse is a double circle LIGNEDE-CALAIS/N° 1 marking, used by the traveling post 

office, Paris to Calais. This office made up the mail in 

which the letter was included, and closed the bags 

and forwarded them through England to the Boston office, where they were opened for the first time 

after leaving France. Boston marked the letter for a 

single-rate collection of 50. The cover bears no British 

marking. Transatlantic conveyance was from Liverpool by R.M.S. America which sailed from there on 

12 July and arrived in Boston on 24 July 1851. The 

prepayment would have been the same if the letter had 

been endorsed to, and sent by, an American packet. 

In that event, however, 210 would have been collected 

in the United States. 

Figure 24 illustrates a cover posted in Charlottesville, 

Virginia, on 30 August 1851, addressed to Paris. It was 

prepaid 50 for British packet service. The letter 

weighed over 7/2 grams in France but not over one 

half ounce in the United States. It arrived at the Paris 

office on 16 September 1851; the Paris office applied 

marking D of Figure 18. This marking was introduced 

on 1 September 1851, when the COLONIES/&C. ART. 13 

marking (B of Figure 18) was discontinued. From 

I September to 1 December 1851, letters by British 

packet continued to be rated at 15 decimes per 7 J/2 

grams. This letter was conveyed from Boston on 3 September 1851 by R.M.S. Canada, which arrived in 

Liverpool on 16 September 1851 and in Paris on the 

same day. The Paris office marked it for a double-rate 

collection of 30 decimes. 

Figure 25 illustrates a cover posted in New Orleans 

on 2 June 1856, addressed to Bordeaux. It is prepaid 50 

for British packet service by two 10 stamps and a 30 

stamp of the 1851 issue. It was conveyed from New 

York to Liverpool by R.M.S. Africa, which sailed on 

II June and arrived in Liverpool on 23 June 1856. It 

FIGURE 23.—COVER, from Paris to Philadelphia, 1851. 
NUMBER 6 51 

/ •>" 

f/?* , 

0 U i 

f h^s> 

+& 

i • 

/ / / '. 

// y -y- r t? r* £- £• 

'-. r r3> <r J -^z. <r <*--/*. 

* t? ,,X 7" ' r a. - /? ^> -r r; 

FIGURE 24.—COVER, from Charlottesville, Va., to Paris, 1851. (Photograph by Smithsonian) 

sjg. S"s?s?* y S* *jjp* 

• & 

^ ^ 

/4J& * V ^^h? 

FIGURE 25.—COVER, from New Orleans to Bordeaux, France, 1856. 
52 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

was forwarded through the London office to the traveling office, Calais to Paris, arriving there on the same 

day, and it bears a marking similar to M in Figure 18 

with the date of 23 June 1856. It is marked for a 

single-rate collection of 13 decimes, established by the 

decree of 19 November 1851, effective 1 December 

1851, for letters conveyed by British packets. 

Figure 26 illustrates a cover posted in Le Havre on 

14 March 1855, addressed to New York. It is endorsed "pr str. Asia/via Calais," probably so that it 

would not be held for a Havre line steamer. Prepayment to the United States frontier of 130 centimes 

(13 decimes) was made by an 80-a 40-, and two 

5-centimes imperforate "Empire" stamps. It was sent 

in closed mail through England, and bears no British 

marking. The Boston office marked it for a collection 

of 50. 

Figure 27 presents a cover posted in New Orleans 

on 1 November 1856, addressed to Nantes. It is endorsed "Steamer/Atlantic" and is prepaid 210 by a 

strip of four 50 stamps issued in 1856, and a 10 plate II 

stamp (Scott no. 12 and no. 7, respectively). The New 

York American packet marking bears the date of 

8 November (1856), and, as the indorsement indicates, 

the U.S.M. steamer Atlantic of the Collins line sailed 

from New York on that day. The marking of the 

traveling office, Calais to Paris (L of Figure 18), shows 

the date of 21 November 1856. The same office also 

marked the letter for a single-rate collection of 

8 decimes. 

Figure 28 illustrates a cover posted in Paris on 

25 July 1855, addressed to Baltimore. It is prepaid by 

a single 80-centimes imperforate Empire stamp. It 

bears no French exchange-office marking, and, evidently in error, was marked with a small boxed P.P. 

Similar covers by American packet bear a boxed PD 

marking. While PD means "paid to destination,", the 

United States frontier must have been considered 

"destination," for covers from France conveyed by 

British packets usually have this marking. It is not 

unlikely that, in carrying out M. Thayer's instructions 

for marking letters under the provisional agreement, 

P.P. signified port paye partiellement, ("postage paid 

for part of the transit"). The stamp is canceled with 

a roller cancellation, and there are no markings on the 

reverse of the cover. The 2 I/N . YORK AM. PKT marking 

is in black and shows the date of 8 August (1855). On 

that date U.S.M. steamer Atlantic of the Collins line 

arrived in New York with a closed mail from France 

in which this cover was included. The 27 in the New 

York marking indicates that 210 were to be collected 

from the addressee in Baltimore. 

FIGURE 26.—COVER, from Le Havre to New York, 1855. 
NUMBER 6 53 

2 y ^ ' 

2 

FIGURE 27.—COVER, from New Orleans to Nantes, 1856. (Arthur E. Beane, Jr., collection) 

ftUdd J/t^ z^^ c /fo^/yV 

sH*t^'fe%4€s\ 

•C*J 

FIGURE 28.—COVER, from Paris to Baltimore, Maryland, 1855. 
54 

Mails Direct to France 

The French Bid for a Transatlantic Service 

Early in the year of 1847 the French firm of Herout 

et de Handel was awarded a subsidy by the French 

government to operate a line of steam packets between 

Havre and New York. For this purpose, the firm was 

to use four converted French steam frigates which were 

released from the French navy. Although these ships 

were termed "frigates," they were actually in the 

nature of supply ships rather than full-fledged vessels 

of war. The first sailings of the line were advertised in 

New York in the Shipping and Commercial List and 

Prices Current on 16 June 1847, under the name of the 

Transatlantic General Steam Packet Company, and in 

the Journal du Havre in France on 28 May 1847.33 

Although Havre was to be the terminus of the line, 

the bassin de la Floride could not accommodate vessels 

with so great a draught until it was dredged,34 and 

sailings were actually made from Cherbourg. Havre 

continued, however, to be advertised as the port, and 

freight, mail, and passengers were transshipped from 

Havre to Cherbourg. The following is an annotated 

list of the sailings of the line:

 35 

Union, Captain Hebert, 1st voyage (formerly 

French frigate Canada) : 

From France 

Sailed from Cherbourg 22 June 1847; freight 

and mail were transshipped from Havre to 

Cherbourg in the Calibri (4 voyages). 

Arrived in New York 8 July 1847. 

Returning 

Sailed from New York 24 July 1847. 

Arrived in Havre 7 August 1847; did not 

enter port; cargo was discharged by the 

Colibri. 

Arrived in Cherbourg 10 August 1847. 

Philadelphie, Captain Besson, 2nd voyage (formerly 

French frigate Christophe Colomb) : 

From France 

Sailed from Cherbourg 15 July 1847; freight, 

mail, and passengers transshipped from 

Havre by Commerce-de-Lille (2 voyages), 

3,1

 Raymond Rousselin, L'Acheminement des correspondances entre Le Havre et les pays d'outre-mer, p. 75. 

3i Bonsor, North Atlantic Seaway, p. 52. 

35

 Rousselin, Correspondances entre Le Havre et les pays 

d'outre-mer, pp. 77-79. 

SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

Courrier (1 voyage); passengers by the 

Finistere (1 voyage). 

Arrived in New York 2 August 1847. 

Returning 

Sailed from New York 15 August 1847. 

Arrived at Cherbourg 1 September 1847. 

Missouri, Captain Morin, 3rd voyage (formerly 

French frigate Ulloa) : 

From France 

Sailed from Cherbourg 31 July 1847; ran out 

of coal; put in at Halifax. 

Arrived in New York 21 August 1847. 

Returning 

Sailed from New York 31 August 1847. 

Arrived at Cherbourg 15 September 1847. 

New York, Captain Pacini, 4th voyage (formerly 

French frigate Darien) : 

From France 

Sailed from Cherbourg 15 August 1847. 

Arrived at New York 4 September 1847. 

Returning 

Sailed from New York 15 September 1847. 

Arrived at Cherbourg 18 October 1847. 

Missouri, 6th voyage: 

From France 

Sailed from Cherbourg 30 September 1847. 

Arrived in New York 19 October 1847. 

Returning 

Sailed from New York 25 October 1847. 

Arrived at Havre 11 November 1847. 

Philadelphie, 7th voyage: 

From France 

Sailed from Cherbourg 10 October 1847; ran 

out of coal; put in at Halifax 29 October. 

Arrived in New York 3 November 1847. 

Returning 

Sailed from New York 10 November 1847. 

Arrived at Havre 28 November 1847. 

New York, 8th voyage: 

From France 

Sailed from Havre 24 October 1847; ran out 

of coal; put in at Newport 12 November. 

Arrived in New York 14 November 1847. 

Returning 

Sailed from New York 25 November 1847. 

Arrived at Havre 12 December 1847. 

Union, 9th voyage: 

From France 

Sailed from Havre 24 November 1847; 

gales; put in at Cherbourg because of sea 
NUMBER 6 55 

damage; remained there and did not sail 

again. 

Missouri, last voyage: 

From France 

Sailed from Havre 23 December 1847; ran 

out of coal; put in at Halifax on 13 January 

1848. 

Arrived in New York 18 January 1848. 

Returning 

Sailed from New York 6 February 1848. 

Arrived at Havre 23 February 1848. 

Not only did the ships of this line frequently run 

out of coal, but they also clumsily caused a number of 

accidents in New York harbor, most of which resulted 

from the helmsmen's not knowing English and being 

unable to understand the orders of the pilots. So many 

jokes were directed at the line that Frenchmen who 

lived in New York were piqued. They organized a 

mass meeting to protest the jokes, but abandoned the 

effort when they learned about the poor quality of 

food served by the line. 

Albion relates an amusing incident that occurred 

when one of these ships put to sea with no table sugar 

on board.30 When the captain discovered the oversight 

at breakfast, he offered to put back for sugar if the 

passengers desired, "but it was too late. The passengers 

had already become sour. This sugar business broke 

up the line." The French government evidently despaired of the enterprise when it was announced early 

in 1848 that the company had incurred losses of £80,-

000.3T The postal administration, in circular 19, dated 

18 January 1848, announced the temporary suspension of the line's service.38

 It was not revived. 

No cover actually conveyed by this line has been 

seen by the author. Such covers, however, are reported 

to bear a Le Havre marking which includes the abbreviation PAQ. REG.39

 One cover endorsed to the 

Philadelphie has been seen. This cover shows a New 

York marking dated 14 August (1847), the day before 

Philadelphie sailed. Unfortunately, the New York 

office forwarded it to Boston, whence it was conveyed 

to Liverpool by Cunarder Hibernia, which left Boston 

on 16 August, and according to Cunard records arrived in Liverpool on 28 August. Since the cover 

r10

 Robert Greenhalgh Albion, Square Riggers on Schedule, 

p. 264. 

'"' Bonsor, North Atlantic Seaway, p. 52. 

"

8

 Ibid., p. 53. 

S9

 Rousselin, Correspondances entre Le Havre et les pays 

d'outre-mer, p. 79. 

372r-645 O—.70—5 

bears a red-orange British mark dated 2 8AU28, as well 

as a COLONIES/&c. ART. I 3 marking, there can be little 

doubt that it did not go by the Philadelphie. 

Mails by the New York-Havre Line 

When Edward Mills failed to raise sufficient capital 

to build the four steamships called for by the Ocean 

Steam Navigation Company's contract, he assigned 

half of it to Messrs. Fox and Livingston. The effective 

member of this firm was Mortimer Livingston, who, 

unlike Mills, had considerable experience in the shipping business. The firm of Fox and Livingston operated the Union line of Havre sailing packets and continued to do so until the early 1860s. Gibbs suggests 

that the letters U.S.M. emblazoned upon the paddle 

boxes of the steamers of this line stood for Union 

Steam Mail.40 The part of the contract assigned to 

Fox and Livingston related to a service between New 

York and Havre, touching at Cowes each way. The 

port of Cowes was on the northern tip of the Isle of 

Wight in the Southampton harbor complex. The 

assigned subsidy was in the amount of $150,000 for 

twelve round voyages per annum. 

Fox and Livingston organized the New York and 

Havre Steam Navigation Company which ordered 

two steamers of about 2,200 tons from Westervelt and 

McKay. The first of these, Franklin, was an improved 

version of Washington, while the second, Humboldt, 

was straight-stemmed and a reduced edition of the 

Collins line steamers.41 

The service was opened by Franklin which sailed 

from New York on her maiden voyage on 5 October 

1850. Humboldt followed on 6 May 1851. Thus, these 

two ships would augment the service of the Ocean line 

to England, making possible semimonthly sailings 

from New York for Southampton. When the Collins 

line service to Liverpool was opened in April 1850, the 

sailings of all the American lines were scheduled on 

Saturdays. As in the case of the Ocean line, the subsidy was divided by twelve and accounted for at 

$12,500 per voyage. Although the Havre line sailed 

with greater regularity than the Ocean line, some 

winter voyages were avoided, and it was not until 

1853 that the full $150,000 was earned. 

Since the United States had no postal convention 

with France, United States inland and packet postages 

10

 Gibbs, Passenger Liners, p. 97. 

11

 Ibid., p. 99. 
56 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

had to be prepaid on letters sent and collected on letters 

received. Until 1 July 1851, the rates set by the act of 

3 March 1845 prevailed in the United States. Since 

these 240, 290, 340 rates were effective for this service 

between 5 October 1850 and 1 July 1851, their progression was according to the British scale, then operative in the United States. On 1 July 1851, the above 

rates were superseded by the 200-per-half-ounce rate, 

effective from or to any point in the United States. 

The French private-ship rate of 30 centimes per 

7/ 2 grams for letters posted in or addressed to the port 

of arrival or departure of the conveying ship, and of 

60 centimes per 7/2 grams if posted or received in 

another part of France, had been in effect since 1849. 

These rates were prepaid or collected in France on 

direct mail to or from the United States until the 

United States-French treaty became effective on 1 

April 1857. 

The rate by direct packet to France was cheaper 

than by American packet through England, almost 

as cheap as by British packet, and actually cheaper if 

addressed to Havre. For example, a letter that weighed 

7 grams posted in New York and addressed to Paris 

would have incurred a total postage, if conveyed by 

the Cunard line, of 5^ in the United States and 13 

decimes or about 260 in France for a total of 31^. 

If the letter had been conveyed by the Collins line, 

210 would have been charged in the United States 

and 8 decimes, or 16(Z", in France for a total of 370. 

If conveyed by the Havre line the postage in the 

United States would have been 200, while the French 

would have collected 6 decimes, or 12(z", for a total of 

320. Thus, there was only a one-cent differential between the rate by British packet and the rate by the 

Havre line. 

For a letter that weighed 8 grams, however, the 

situation was entirely different. By British packet, 50 

would be prepaid in the United States, while 26 

decimes, or 520, would have been collected in France 

for a total postage of 570. By a Collins line packet, 

210 would have been paid in the United States, while 

16 decimes, or 320, would have been collected in 

France for a total postage of 53 cents. By the Havre 

line, 200 would have been paid in the United States, 

while 12 decimes, or 240, would have been collected 

in Paris, for a total of 440. If, in the latter case, the 

letter was addressed to Havre, the total postage would 

have been only 320, that is, 200 United States and 

120 French postage. 

It is, therefore, evident that the American packet 

postage for letters above the weight of 7/2 grams, 

but not over half an ounce, were cheaper than by 

British packet, and the rate by the Havre line was 

cheaper than the American packet rate, via England. 

Since all transit postage was avoided on mail by the 

direct route to Havre, it would have been in the best 

interests of the Post Office Department to have augmented this service at every opportunity. There is 

evidence that such an opportunity did present itself, 

but the United States was thwarted in its attempt to 

secure direct-service rating on letters for France conveyed to Southampton by the Bremen (Ocean) line 

by either Britain or France, or perhaps by both. 

While in Paris during the fall of 1850, Mr. Davis 

brought the matter to the attention of Mr. Lawrence. 

After a long conversation with M. Maurin, chief of 

the Bureau of Foreign Correspondence for France, 

Davis, on 24 September 1850 reported the following:

 42 

The mails for France, at New York, &c., by the 

Southampton steamers (Ocean line), are made up in the 

English bag. They used to be made up in a separate bag; 

the English very shrewdly got instructions at Washington 

to have them made up as at present, and the result is, England gets a transit and a sea-rate on all such letters. 

M. Maurin suggests that this may be remedied by fresh 

instructions from Washington to make up the bag separately for France, and that France will take it directly from 

the steamer at Southampton, and, if England charges any 

postage, will discuss the matter with her. 

On 24 October 1850, Lawrence wrote Daniel Webster, 

secretary of state,43 that 

If the post office at New York, instead of mixing the 

French and English mails, (as I am told they do,) would 

put up the French mails by themselves, and instruct the 

mail-agent to put them on board the Havre steamer at 

Southhampton, there could be no just pretence for the 

English government to charge even a transit rate. 

It appears that the Post Office at New York did 

receive instructions from Washington to have the mail 

for France by the Bremen line made up in a separate 

bag and sent closed to Havre. On 7 February 1851, 

Lawrence again wrote Webster,44 

I learn, indirectly, that, by an arrangement between the 

French and English governments, our closed mails to 

Havre via Southampton [italics added for emphasis] are to 

be exempted from the claim for postage by this [British] 

government. You will remember I alluded to this tax in 

my despatch No. 83 (quoted above). If my information is 

correct, one very just cause of complaint is removed. 

12

 Senate Executive Document 32, 32 Cong., 2 sess., serial 

660, p. 15. 

43

 Ibid., p. 6. 

11

 Ibid., p. 20. 
NUMBER 6 57 

Further official comment upon the matter has not 

been found. Mr. Lawrence must have had some information regarding the negotiation of the provisional 

agreement that culminated in the French circulaire 

67 of 1 September 1851 and the decree of 19 November 1851. The evidence of covers, however, indicates 

that the advantage of the direct rate was not extended 

to mail conveyed to Southampton by the Bremen 

(Ocean) line. The author has seen only seven covers 

addressed to France with markings whose dates indicate service to Southampton by the Ocean line. All of 

these covers show a collection in France of 8 or multiple 

of 8 decimes. Two of them were sent in the open mail 

through England and bear the marking shown as 

C or L in Figure 18. Four of the remaining five covers 

have the following characteristics: (1) markings whose 

dates indicate service by the Bremen (Ocean) line; 

(2) a prepayment of 210 per half ounce in the United 

States; (3) a Havre marking inscribed ETATS-UNIS 

PAQ.AM.A./LE HAVRE with date in center (see marking I 

of Figure 18); (4) a collection in France of 8 or 

multiple of 8 decimes; (5) no British marking on face 

or reverse of the cover. 

The absence of a British marking on these four 

covers leads to the conclusion that they were sent in 

a separate bag which was placed onboard a small 

English steamer at Southampton and sent directly to 

Havre.43 Perhaps this British service between Southampton and Havre necessitated that the transit rate 

be charged. 

A cover in the Smithsonian collection, however, 

indicates that all such covers were not sent directly 

to Havre. This cover bears the frank of Senator 

Underwood and is addressed to "Hon Wm C Rives/ 

Envoy Extraordinary etc./Paris/France." It is illustrated as Figure 29. The letter was posted on 21 May 

1852 and bears no New York packet marking because 

that marking had not yet been introduced (earliest 

seen 4 September 1852). The Havre office applied 

marking I of Figure 18, with the date 6/MAI/ 5 2, which 

is obviously an error, since the letter was not posted 

until 21 May 1852. Evidently the postal clerk at 

Havre neglected to change the month in the marking 

from May to June. On the reverse of the cover is a 

blue SOUTHAMPTON/5 JU 5/1852 marking which confirms the June date. The presence of this marking indicates that this letter was sent to the Southampton 

14

 This service is disclosed in a letter from R. Salles to 

the author. 

fcSS. 

FIGURE 29.—COVER, from Washington, D.C, to Paris, France, 1852. 

(Photograph by Smithsonian) 
58 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

office, whence it was forwarded to Havre. It bears 

a double-rate manuscript due marking of 16 decimes. 

This letter was undoubtedly conveyed to Southampton 

by Washington of the Ocean line which sailed from 

New York on 22 May 1852. This is the only cover 

seen that bears marking / of Figure 18 and also a 

British marking. 

It has been observed that all of the covers noted 

bearing marking / of Figure 18 were conveyed to 

Southampton by the Bremen (Ocean) line. This observation has also been made by ,M. Raymond Salles 

of Paris. Mr. Walter Hubbard of London has submitted a list of eleven covers compiled by M. Salles, 

all of which bear marking J of Figure 18 and were 

conveyed to Southampton by either the Washington 

or Hermann. 

Of the five covers seen by the author addressed to 

France which bear marking / of Figure 18, three are 

stampless and two bear stamps. Figure 30 illustrates 

a cover posted in New Orleans on 17 January 1856, 

addressed to Bordeaux. The cover itself is a 30 stamped 

envelope and is additionally franked with a 120 and a 

pair of the 30 stamps of the 1851 issue. The New York 

American packet marking bears the date of 26 January 

(1856), and on that date Hermann of the Ocean line 

sailed from New York. The cover bears no British 

marking. The Havre marking (7 of Figure 18) is dated 

12/JANV./56, which is obviously an error. As in the 

cover shown in Figure 29, the clerk evidently neglected 

to change the month in the marking from January to 

February. The cover is marked for a double-rate collection of 16 decimes. 

A cover in the collection of Mr. Lester L. Downing 

bears a marking as in I of Figure 18. This is a printed 

circular that was posted in New Orleans on 3 July 

1855, prepaid by a pair of 10 type IV stamps of the 

1851 issue, addressed to Belgium. It bears no New 

York or British marking. Marking I of Figure 18 is 

dated 31 July 1855. 

Covers by the New York-Havre Line 

Covers showing direct service between New York 

and Havre by the ships of the Havre line prior to the 

United States-French convention appear to be scarce. 

Although such covers to France having the United 

States postage prepaid by stamps are much sought 

after, they seldom appear in auction sales. Covers 

showing the 240, 290, 340 rates of 1845 are rarely seen. 

There were only six sailings from New York and four 

sailings from Havre by the Havre line steamers prior 

to 1 July 1851 (Table 9). 

Figure 31 illustrates a cover posted in Paris on 

30 December 1850, addressed to Georgetown, D.C, 

and endorsed "per steamer Franklin/via Havre." On 

the reverse is a manuscript 6 which indicates that 6 

decimes were prepaid. It was the custom of the French, 

FIGURE 30.—COVER, from New Orleans to Bordeaux, France, 1856. (Walter Hubbard collection) 
NUMBER 6 59 

TABLE 9.—Havre Line Sailings 

Arrival 

Date, 

N.Y. 

1850 

17 Nov. 1850 

17 Jan. 1851 

19 May 1851 

17 June 1851 

Ship 

Franklin 

Franklin 

Franklin 

Humboldt 

Franklin 

Humboldt 

Departure 

Date, 

N.Y. 

1850 

5 Oct. 

5 Dec. 

5 Apr. 

3 May 

31 May 

28 June 

1850 

1850 

1851 

1851 

1851 

1851 

at that time, to indicate prepayments on the reverse 

and amounts due on the face of letters. Six decimes 

was the private-ship-beyond-the-port rate for a letter 

that did not weigh over lx/i grams. Also on the reverse is a marking of the maritime office at Havre, 

similar to H of Figure 18, but inscribed HAVRE instead of LE HAVRE, bearing the date of 31 December 

1850. This marking (with HAVRE or LE HAVRE) is 

characteristic of all private-ship- or direct-mail-service 

covers forwarded from the Havre office. On the face is 

a boxed P.P. marking in red, which means port paye, 

and indicates that the French postage was paid. The 

large circular NEW-YORK/SHIP/JAN I7/29CTS black 

marking shows that 290 were to be collected at a 

destination under 300 miles from New York: 17 January (1851) was the date Franklin arrived in New 

York, terminating her second round voyage. 

Covers showing direct service by the Havre line 

after 1 July 1851 went under the 200-per-half-ounce 

rate, effective on that date, to or from any part of the 

United States. The vessels of the Havre line sailed only 

once a month, with some irregularity during the winter. For the fiscal year of 1852-53, as reported by the 

auditor of the treasury for the Post Office Department,46

 the value of the postage on all mail conveyed 

from New York to Havre by this line was only 

$9,018.93, despite the efforts of the Post Office Department to persuade the public to favor the American 

lines. Few covers have been seen which bear a prepayment of 200. Even when letters were endorsed to be 

sent by this line or its ships, the usual prepayment was 

210, since, by paying that amount, the letter could be 

sent by the next Collins line steamer if the Havre 

line ship failed to sail. 

Figure 32 illustrates a very attractive Havre line 

cover. It bears a strip of three of the 30 1851 stamps 

in the orange-brown shade and a single 120 stamp. 

The 30 stamps are of a rich color and are particularly attractive because they are canceled with a red 

grid. The letter was posted in New York, addressed 

to Lyon. It bears a red New York town postmark 

dated 23 August (1851), and on that date Humboldt 

sailed from New York. It should be noted that the 

New York American packet marking did not make 

its appearance until mid-1852. Characteristic of Havre 

line covers is a double circle OUTRE-MER/LE HAVRE 

marking (G of Figure 18) applied in red-orange, with 

date in center, in this case 4/SEPT./SI. It is marked 

48

 U.S., Congress, House, Executive Document 1, 33rd 

Cong., 1st sess., serial 692, p. 734. 

• r , / » 

- <•}/!-> * 

~~7^nj> 

'ys-v 

, 17) / ' / 

f&hufc 

1 \ S 17 F 

FIGURE 31.—COVER, from Paris to Georgetown, D.C, 1850. 
60 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

FIGURE 32.—COVER, from New York to Lyons, France, 1851. (Melvin W. Schuh collection) 

for a collection of the single beyond-the-port rate of 

6 decimes, indicated by a 6 in manuscript. 

Figure 33 illustrates a cover posted in New York, 

addressed to Lyons, France, and endorsed "Pr. Humboldt." It is prepaid 200 by a 120, two 30, and a pair 

of 10 stamps of the 1851 issue. The New York marking bears the date of 13 December and on 13 December 

1851, the Humboldt of the Havre line sailed from New 

York. The OUTRE-MER/LE HAVRE marking is faintly 

applied, its date not being legible. This letter weighed 

over 7 J/2 grams and required a double-rate collection 

of 12 decimes. Covers by the Havre line actually prepaid with 200 are seldom seen. 

Figure 34 illustrates a cover posted in New Orleans 

on 28 December 1855, addressed to Nantes. It is endorsed to Pacific of the Collins line, and is prepaid 210 

by a pair of 100 type III stamps and a 10 type IV 

stamp of the 1851 issue. Since Pacific sailed from New 

York on 5 January 1856, this letter evidently arrived 

too late to be included in its mail. It was therefore 

sent by the next American packet to sail, which was 

Arago of the Havre line. As is indicated by the New 

York packet marking, this vessel sailed from New York 

on 12 January 1856. The cover bears the characteristic 

OUTRE-MER/LE HAVRE marking (G of Figure 18) and 

shows a single rate collection of 6 decimes. 

Figure 35 illustrates a cover from tbe ToppanCarpenter correspondence. It was posted in Philadelphia on 8 April 1853, addressed to Paris. It is prepaid 210 by a strip of three of the 30 stamps and a 

single 120 stamp of the 1851 issue. It is endorsed "Pr 

Steamer Franklin/April 9," and the American packet 

marking bears the same date. An orange-red OUTREMER/LE HAVRE marking shows the date of 21 April 

1853, while a Paris receiving mark on the reverse indicates it arrived at its destination on the same day. 

There is a manuscript marking on the face that resembles a W. This marking has been noted on some 

covers whose weight was in excess of 7}4 grams. The 

Havre office, therefore, rated it for a collection of 

double the beyond-the-port postage of 6 decimes. This 

is shown on the face of the cover by a 12 in manuscript. 

Figure 36 shows a letter posted in Sharon Springs, 

New York, on 29 July 1853, addressed to Paris. It is 

suspected that it was presented to the post office clerk 

with 240 in stamps affixed to the letter, that is, a strip 

of six and two single 30 stamps. The post office clerk 

determined that it weighed over half an ounce and 
NUMBER 6 61 

FIGURE 33.—COVER, fromNew York to Lyons, France, 1851. (Walter Hubbard collection) 

FIGURE 34.—COVER, from New Orleans to Nantes, 1855. (Arthur E. Beane, Jr., collection) 
SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

FIGURE 35.—COVER, from Philadelphia to Paris, 1853. 

(From the Toppan-Carpenter correspondence) 

thus would require two rates. It must have been known 

that Franklin of the Havre line would sail from New 

York on the following day, and that the rate by this 

route was 200 for a single rate. Since the required 

postage amounted to 40$, the person who mailed the 

letter evidently paid the additional 16^ in cash. The 

clerk, not finding room for the additional stamps, on 

the face of die cover, marked it PAID/40 and indicated 

the additional payment by a lead pencil 16. Then, 

to clarify the matter, he marked in red ink, Stamps 

24/Cash 16/404. 

The letter left New York on the Franklin on 30 July, 

as is indicated by the New York packet mark, and 

arrived at Havre on 11 August 1853. The Havre office 

rated it as a letter weighing over 15 but not over 221/% 

grams, and marked it for a collection of 18 decimes. 

Although the condition of this cover leaves much to be 

desired, it is undoubtedly unique, not because of the 

triple-rate collection (the Smithsonian collection contains a cover showing 18 decimes due), but because 

the postage is part-paid by stamps. 

Figure 37 presents a cover posted in Havre, addressed to New York. It is endorsed to Fulton of the 

Havre line which sailed from Havre on 22 October 

and arrived in New York on 9 November 1856, as is 

indicated by the BUREAU MARITIME/LE HAVRE and 

2O/N. YORK AM. PKT markings, respectively. The letter 

must have weighed over 7/ 2 but not over 15 grams, 

requiring a prepayment of double the 3-decimes inthe-port rate, since it is franked with a 40- and a 20-

centime imperforate Empire stamp. Twenty cents were 

collected from the addressee in New York. 

The Three-Months' Period 

1 January 1857-1 April 1857 

As early as May 1853, the British and the French 

were attempting to negotiate a new postal convention. 

Lord Clarendon, at that time, suggested to Mr. J. R. 

Ingersoll, United States minister at London that the 

United States press France to accept British proposals 

for a reduction of rates on all mail between Great 

Britain and France, rather than persist in its demand 

that the British reduce their transit rate to France to 

6d. per ounce.47 By 1854, the British and the French 

had agreed upon new rates for letters passing between 

the two countries only, that is, new international rates. 

It was decided that these rates should be placed in 

force immediately without waiting for the completion 

of the negotiation of the remainder of the convention. 

On 12 December 1854, additional articles to the convention of 1843, which were to become effective on 1 

January 1855, were signed at Paris.48 By these articles, 

a

 Senate Executive Document 73, 33 Cong., 2 sess., serial 

756, p. 42. 

*

8

 British and Foreign State Papers, vol. 44, pp. 43-45. 
NUMBER 6 63 

Bs&3§r3> 

Sy 

f^s§f ,r.y 

• •< laBoeg ^ '"i!^r*r3CEra: ^ 

• • > 

. 11 * 

#f/y?/?^' 

FIGURE 36.—COVER, from Sharon Springs, N.Y., to Paris, France, 1853. 

T

9 ^-r & €&&&&& / 

*. er r \ ' 1 

( \ * \ 

' % | R ft V 

FIGURE 37.—COVER, from Havre to New York, 1856. 
64 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

the international rate upon prepaid letters was reduced 

from 5d. in Great Britain and 50 centimes in France 

to 4d. in Great Britain and 40 centimes in France for 

single-rate letters of one-fourth ounce (British) or 

7y2 grams (French). Unpaid letters, however, were 

to be charged with double the prepaid rates. Since 

these articles altered only the international rates, transit mail was unaffected, and there was no change in 

rates charged on mail between the United States and 

France. 

The new Anglo-French convention was finally completed and signed at Paris on 24 September 1856, 

ratifications were exchanged on 19 November, and 

the treaty became effective on 1 January 1857.49 

Articles significant in their application to mail between 

the United States and France are summarized as 

follows: 

XIII. Incorporated into the convention the international 

rates established by the additional articles to the 1843 

convention of 12 December 1854. 

XIV. The French Post Office paid the British Post Office, 

for letters exchanged in ordinary mail, 1 franc per 

ounce for paid letters and 2 francs per ounce for 

unpaid letters. 

XVII. Registered letters could be sent by the inhabitants 

of either country. Postage had to be prepaid and 

was double that of ordinary letters. 

XX. Each country had the right of conveyance of closed 

mails over the territory of the other. 

XXI. The French Office paid the British Office, for transit 

through England, 40 centimes per 30 grams of letters 

in closed mails. 

XXII. The French Office paid the British Office, for sea 

conveyance, 1 franc, 20 centimes per 30 grams of 

letters in closed mails. 

XXVII. Made the conditions set forth in Articles XXI and 

XXII apply to mail originating in or addressed 

to colonies and countries beyond the sea. 

XXVIII. Set the letter rate for transit through France on 

mail passing through the Isthmus of Suez, as 

follows: "[that it] shall not in any case exceed 

3d. per quarter of an ounce, British, or fraction 

of a quarter of an ounce, British." 

XXXI. The two offices were to determine by mutual consent the conditions upon which open mail was to 

be exchanged between colonies and countries 

beyond the sea and between the two countries. 

Detailed regulations for the execution of the convention were signed at Paris on 27 October 1856

 50 

and became effective with the convention on 1 January 1857. Following is an excerpt from a significant 

article of these regulations: 

XXXII. Ordinary unpaid letters "charged with transit or 

sea rates, which shall be exchanged in ordinary 

mails between the Post Office of France and the 

Post Office of Great Britain, shall receive, in some 

conspicuous part of the address, the impression in 

black ink of a stamp intended to show the rate at 

which the dispatching office shall have delivered 

those letters and printed papers to the other office." 

Illustrated

 51

 in the article were eleven marks to 

be used by the French Post Office and seven similar 

marks for use by the British Post Office on letters 

exchanged. Marks to be used on printed papers were 

also illustrated. Each of these marks had an outer 

frame line of a distinctive and different shape. All were 

divided horizontally by double lines at about the center, and in the upper portion of each were the letters 

F.R. (on those for use by the French Office) or G.B. 

(on those to be used by the British Office). Each bore 

in its lower portion an amount expressed in French 

currency showing the rate per 30 grams or per ounce at 

which the mail containing the letter had been dispatched. Collectors have variously called these "currency marks," "partitioned marks," or "tray marks." 

It has been suggested that the reason for having a 

mark of distinctive shape for each rate was to enable 

postal clerks to recognize the rate without reading 

what was written on the mark. This undoubtedly 

speeded the sorting of and accounting for mail, especially in those colonies and countries where native 

clerks did not ordinarily read English or French.52 

Only two of these markings were used on mail from 

the United States regularly during this three-month 

period and occasionally thereafter on letters missent 

or intentionally forwarded in the open mail. To letters 

charged with transit postage only, that is, those conveyed by American packet, the British Post Office applied a marking showing G.B. at top and 40c

 at bottom (see marking O of Figure 18). To letters charged 

with both transit and sea postage, that is, those conveyed by British packet, the British Post Office applied a marking bearing G.B. at top and lf

 60c at 

bottom (see marking: P of Figure 18). 

"Ibid., pp. 195-224. 

5

°Ibid., vol. 52, pp. 1123-1141. 

01

 Ibid., pp. 1133-1135. [See also George E. Hargest, "Unpaid and Part-Paid Rates Between the United States and 

France," Postal History Journal 7, 1 (June 1963) : 4-6, for 

reproduction of these markings.] 

D2

 W. Skrine, and F. W. Webb, "Anglo-French Currency 

Handstamps, 1857-75," The Philatelist 27, 9 (June 1961): 

222. 
NUMBER 6 65 

Mail from France to the United States had to be 

prepaid to the United States frontier when conveyed 

by British packet, or to the British port of embarkation 

when conveyed by American packet. In either case 

postage was prepaid through Great Britain, and unpaid currency stamps were, therefore, not applied. 

Article XXI of the detailed regulations provided 

that ordinary mails passing through Great Britain, to 

or from France and Algeria and countries enumerated 

in an appended Table I, would be exchanged between 

the post offices of the two countries in accordance with 

conditions set forth in that table. For single-rate (7^4 

grams) letters from or to the United States, Table I 

prescribed that the amount to be collected in France 

and Algeria on unpaid letters received or on prepaid 

letters sent was to be 80 centimes when conveyance 

was by British packet, and 50 centimes when the letter 

was conveyed by American packet. 

Since the post offices of the two countries were able, 

under Article XXXI of the treaty, to establish by mutual consent the rates to be used for the exchange of 

open mail, it would appear that they had agreed to 

apply the rates set forth in Articles XXI and XXII of 

the treaty to open mail as well as to closed mail. Because mail originating in France, addressed to the 

United States, was closed through England, the application of the closed-mail rates to open mail originating 

in the United States and addressed to France continued the practice established by the provisional agreement and the decree rates established in 1851. Table 

10 shows the method by which the British and French 

Post Offices arrived at the amounts of postage to be 

prepaid or collected in France on letters between the 

United States and France, via England. 

TABLE 10.— United States and French Postal Rates via 

England (1 January-1 April 1857) 

Rate per 7% grams 

British 

Packet 

American 

Packet 

Article XXI—Transit postage of 40 

centimes per 30 grams. Single rate, 

\ thereof 

Article XXII—Sea postage of 1 franc 

20 centimes per 30 grams, single 

rate, \ thereof 

French inland postage, single rate 

Prepaid or collected in France 

10c 

30 

40 

10c 

40 

From 1850 the United States had been demanding 

that the British reduce their transit rate to France to 

6d. per ounce. Although the Anglo-French convention of 1856 reduced this transit rate to only 4d. per 

ounce, the United States did not avail itself of the 

reduction. By the effective date of the Anglo-French 

convention, 1 January, 1857, the United States and 

France were nearing agreement on a postal convention 

between the two countries, and it is suspected that they 

did not wish to make an interim arrangement for what 

they anticipated would be a very short period of time. 

By Article XLIV of the detailed regulations of the 

Anglo-French convention, provision was made for 

closed mail between the United States and France, via 

England. It would appear that the French negotiated 

this article with the United States-French convention 

in mind. 

Whatever the reason the United States may have 

had for delay, the rates of the new Anglo-French convention had a devastating effect upon American packet 

mail-service between the United States and France, 

via England. It will be noted in Table 10 that sea 

postage by British packet was only 30 centimes per 

7/ 2 grams, or 60 in United States currency. The United 

States, however, continued to require a collection on 

American packet letters received, or a prepayment on 

American packet letters sent, of 210, which included 

a sea postage of 160. Thus, the rate by British packet 

was 100 lower than by American packet. It is small 

wonder that few people elected to send letters by 

American packet during this three-month period. 

The scarcity of covers showing American packet 

service, via England, during the three-month period 

may also be attributed to a decline in Collins line service. Arctic had been lost in 1854 and Pacific "went 

missing" in early 1856. Because it was believed that 

Pacific had struck an iceberg, the line's management 

decided to fit the remaining two ships with watertight 

compartments. For this purpose, Baltic was out of 

service from 6 February to 15 August 1857, while 

Atlantic went into drydock on 5 March and did not 

sail again until 11 April.53 Ever since 1855, the line 

had been using some chartered vessels which were 

definitely inferior to the original ships. Although the 

line continued to use Ericsson, it did not, at this time, 

charter additional ships, and its service was necessarily curtailed. During this period (from January to 

March) there were only five sailings by American pac80c 50c TM Shipping and Commercial List and New York Prices 

Current, 11 Mar. 1857. 
66 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

kets which conveyed mail via England. They are presented in Table 11.C1 

To the date of this writing, only five covers showing 

American packet service, via England, during this 

three-month period have been noted. Three of them 

bear stamps, two are stampless, and all five are by 

Collins line ships. 

Figure 38 illustrates a cover showing markings characteristic of American packet letters, via England, during the three-months period. Posted in New Orleans on 

25 December 1856, addressed to Garonne, France, it 

was prepaid with 210 by a pair of 100 type II stamps 

and a 10 type II of the 1851 issue. The New York 

American packet mark bears the date of 3 January, 

the date Baltic sailed on the first voyage conveying 

mail to France under the rates of the new AngloFrench convention. On its reverse is a circular British 

marking applied in dark brown bearing the date of 17 

January 1857, while on its face is a GB/40 0 currency 

mark applied in black ink by the London office, indicating that the letter was included in a mail dispatched 

to France charged only with transit postage of 40 

centimes per 30 grams, bulk weight, of such mail. The 

French exchange office marking (see marking L of 

Figure 18) is that of the travelling office, Calais to 

Paris and reads ETATS-UNIS PAQ. AM./A. CALAIS D/IS / 

JANV./5 7, meaning "From the United States by 

American packet through the abulant office from 

Calais, the mail being processed by a mail crew (briTABLE 11.—American Packet Sailings via England 

(7 January-1 April 1857) 

Arrival 

Date, 

New York 

1856/57 

25 Dec. 

13 Jan. 

23 Jan. 

6 Feb. 

5 Mar. 

25 Feb. 

20 Jan. 

a

 Sailing announced 

b

 Did not sail. 

Ship 

Collins Line 

Baltic 

Ericsson 

Atlantic 

Baltic Up

 a 

Atlantic Up

 a 

Ericsson 

Ocean Line 

Washington 

at New York. 

Departure 

Date, 

New York 

1857 

3 Jan. 

17 Jan. 

31 Jan. 

14 Feb. Dns.b 

14 Mar. Dns.b 

14 Mar. 

21 Feb. 

"' Shipping and Commercial List, appropriate issues. 

gade) identified by the letter D." This cover is owned 

by Walter Hubbard of London, England, and is 

reproduced through his kindness. 

Figure 39 illustrates a cover showing dissimilarities 

in the British and French exchange office markings. 

Originating in New Orleans on 7 January 1857, addressed to Bordeaux, this letter was prepaid 210 by 

seven 30 stamps of the 1851 issue, a strip of six (95 to 

100L4) and a single (94L4). The New York packet 

mark is dated 17 January, indicating conveyance to 

Liverpool by Ericsson, then under charter to the Collins line. The London marking on the reverse is of the 

usual circular type applied in orange ink, and bears 

the date of 2 February. The French exchange office 

mark reads ANGL./AMB. CALAIS [?]/2/FEVR./ S 7, and is 

in black ink. This marking was used on mail dispatched 

by British exchange offices to France without regard to 

the mail's origin (see marking N in Figure 18). This 

cover is owned by Mr. Tracy W. Simpson of Berkeley, 

California, and is reproduced with his kind permission. 

A third cover bearing 240 in stamps (30 overpaid) 

and markings identical with those shown on Figure 38 

is in the collection of Dr. Robert de Wasserman of 

Brussels, Belgium. It is illustrated in Chronicle 39, 

April 1961. 

Covers showing British packet service during these 

three months are scarce. The Cunard line made sixteen voyages with mails rated under terms of the new 

1856 Anglo-French convention. They are listed in 

Table 12. Since the United States was not a party to 

this convention, no change was made in the prepayment or collection of postage in this country. Those 

letters from the United States, addressed to France, 

that arrived at the London exchange office on or after 

1 January 1857 were forwarded by that office to 

France under conditions and rates set forth in the 

new Anglo-French convention and its detailed regulations. Regular use of these conditions and rates on mail 

between the United States and France was terminated 

when the United States-French convention became effective. While the rates of this convention came into 

operation on letters posted in either the United States 

or France on 1 April 1857, the effective date on letters received in each country is indefinite. Letters 

posted in New York on 1 April were rated and marked 

according to the United States-French convention by 

the New York exchange office and were dispatched on 

that same day by the Africa (see Table 12). Those 

posted in places remote from New York or Boston 

as late as 31 March, however, may not have arrived 
NUMBER 6 67 

FIGURE 38/—COVER, from New Orleans to Garonne, France, 1856. (Walter Hubbard collection) 

FIGURE 39.—COVER, from New Orleans to Bordeaux, 1857. (Tracy W. Simpson collection) 

at one of these exchange offices in time to catch the 

sailing of Europa from Boston on 8 April, or possibly 

that of Asia from New York on 15 April. The last 

sailing shown in Table 12 is based upon the latest cover 

noted at this time. It is possible that one showing a 

later date will be found. 

Markings characteristic of letters conveyed by British packets during this three-month period are found 

on the cover illustrated in Figure 40. The letter was 

posted in New Orleans, addressed to Bordeaux, on 

10 March 1857. It was forwarded from New York 

on 18 March 1857 by R.M.S. Persia, as is indicated 

by the date in the New York packet marking. Since 

Liverpool was not an exchange office for AngloFrench mail, the bags were sent directly to the London office. That office applied a GB/I F

6 0 C marking 

in black (see P in Figure 18) to the face of the cover 

and a marking on the reverse (not shown), and dispatched it to the traveling office, Calais to Paris, which 

applied marking N of Figure 18 on 30 March 1857 

and also marked the cover for a single-rate collection 

of 8 decimes. The letter is franked with a single 5^ 

imperforate stamp issued in 1856 (Scott no. 12). The 

New Orleans post office appears to have been well 
68 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

TABLE 12.—Cunard Line Sailings 

(December 1856-April 1857) 

Departure 

Date, 

Liverpool 

Arrival 

Date, U.S. Ship Port 

Departure Arrival 

Date, U.S. Date, 

Liverpool 

1957 

3 Jan. 

10 Jan. 

17 Jan. 

24 Jan. 

31 Jan. 

7 Feb. 

14 Feb. 

21 Feb. 

28 Feb. 

7 Mar. 

14 Mar. 

21 Mar. 

28 Mar. 

4 Apr. 

1857 

16 Jan. 

24 Jan. 

30 Jan. 

6 Feb. 

16 Feb. 

22 Feb. 

2 Mar. 

6 Mar. 

14 Mar. 

24 Mar. 

29 Mar. 

4 Apr. 

11 Apr. 

18 Apr. 

Africa 

Asia 

Europa 

Niagara 

Asia 

America 

Persia 

Arabia 

Africa 

Canada 

Asia 

Niagara 

Persia 

America 

Africa 

Europa 

Asia 

Niagara 

Arabia 

New York 

Boston 

New York 

Boston 

New York 

Boston 

New York 

Boston 

New York 

Boston 

New York 

Boston 

New York 

Boston 

New York 

Boston 

New York 

Boston 

New York 

1856/57 

24 Dec. 

31 Dec. 

7 Jan. 

14 Jan. 

21 Jan. 

28 Jan. 

4 Feb. 

11 Feb. 

18 Feb. 

25 Feb. 

4 Mar. 

11 Mar. 

18 Mar. 

25 Mar. 

1 Apr. 

8 Apr. 

1857 

6 Jan. 

13 Jan. 

20 Jan. 

27 Jan. 

3 Feb. 

11 Feb. 

17 Feb. 

24 Feb. 

3 Mar. 

10 Mar 

17 Mar 

24 Mar 

30 Mar 

7 Apr. 

14 Apr. 

21 Apr. 

NOTE. Sailings taken from incomplete records of the Cunard line by Lester L. Downing, completed and confirmed by the author from appropriate issues of Shipping and Commercial List and 

New York Prices Current. 

€^d^f (^fe^fc ^ #*^ 

V0y<3& CtUOe^ <&4affr&?*9 

FIGURE 40.—COVER, from New Orleans to Bordeaux, 1857. (Lester L. Downing collection) 
NUMBER 6 69 

supplied with this stamp. It has been noted that more 

covers posted in New Orleans addressed to France 

during this three-month period are franked with 50 

stamps than are franked with any other combination 

of stamps. This is not, however, intended to imply that 

such covers bearing a 5 4 stamp are not scarce. 

Covers from France addressed to the United States 

during this period are difficult to find. No cover showing a prepayment of 50 centimes in France and a collection of 210 in the United States has been seen by 

the author. Only two covers showing a prepayment 

of 80 centimes in France and a collection of 50 in the 

United States have been noted. These covers, however, have been collected for their rates by only a few 

collectors and are not offered as such in auction sales. 

That they are scarce is not doubted, but it is not believed they are as rare as is indicated by the preceding 

statement. 

Figure 41 illustrates a cover posted in Bordeaux on 

25 March 1857, addressed to New York. It is franked 

with two 40-centimes imperforate Empire stamps. It is 

struck with a boxed P.P. marking indicating that postage was "prepaid for some part of the distance beyond 

the territory of the dispatching office."

 55

 Since mail 

from France was closed through England there is no 

British marking. A circular BOSTON BR. PKT./S/APR/I I 

in black on the face of the cover indicates that 50 were 

to be collected in New York. The date of 11 April shows 

that it was conveyed by R.M.S. Nigara (see Table 12). 

35

 British and Foreign State Papers, vol. 52, p. 1136. Detailed regulations for the execution of the convention of 24 

Sept. 1856, Article 34. Although this statement appears in 

the article for the first time, covers indicate that the marking 

was used to indicate a payment of postage for part of the 

distance when the Anglo-French provisional agreement became effective in 1851. 

^f/^fi />< < • 1 '?''• •'~v v $S* >f" / 

9

 * M •Mra 

°^-s^#; 

/tf^S? Syyf*lC*)<? =Z-^_J 

* _ 

- * ~ *m 

FIGURE 41.—COVER, from Bordeaux to New York, 1857. 
Chapter 4 

The United States'French Postal Convention 

of 2 March 1857 

As early as 1849, the United States was attempting 

to negotiate a postal convention with the French. The 

negotiations, however, remained stagnant for years because the French refused to consider the adoption of 

rates based upon the weight of half an ounce, and also 

because no way could be found of circumventing the 

existing high transit-rate between Great Britain and 

France. Another obstacle was the French inland rate, 

which was high on domestic letters but even more expensive on foreign correspondence. 

In his annual report for 1854, Postmaster General 

Campbell said, "No satisfactory progress has been 

made, since my last report, toward effecting a postal 

convention with France."

 a In the following year, however, he reported: -

One of the obstacles to an arrangement with France consisting of the unwillingness of the French government to 

adopt the half instead of the quarter-ounce scale for letters 

passing between the two countries, in the month of May 

last I embraced a favorable opportunity to propose that, 

rather than the negotiation should fail, I would yield my 

objection to the quarter-ounce scale. To this proposition 

I have received no reply. 

But the acceptance by the United States of the 

quarter-ounce scale settled only one of the impediments 

to agreement. There still remained the high AngloFrench transit and French inland rates. The former 

1

 "Report of the Postmaster General, 1854," U.S., Congress, 

Senate, Executive Document 1, 33rd Cong., 2nd sess., serial 

747, p. 631. 

' Report of the Postmaster General, 1855, p. 19. 

had to await the signing of the Anglo-French convention of 24 September 1856 and the latter a willingness 

on the part of the French to reduce their inland rate 

before final agreement could be reached. As previously mentioned, the French negotiated the final provisions of the Anglo-French treaty with the United StatesFrench convention in mind. By admitting the United 

States to its closed-mail provisions as set forth in Article XLIV of the detailed regulations, the "via England" 

provisions of the United States-French convention became possible.3 

The final draft of the United States-French postal 

convention was signed at Washington on 2 March 

1857,4 and according to Article XVII was to become 

effective on the following first day of April. The 

provisions of this convention are laboriously detailed, 

probably because sea and French inland postages 

differed according to the routes established. Following 

is a resume of the articles of the convention: 

I. The United States and French Post Offices would 

exchange correspondence by means of the following: 

A. By packets and other steam vessels performing 

regular service between the ports of the United 

States and France 

B. By United States mail packets plying between the 

ports of the United States and Great Britain 

C. By British packets and other British steam vessels 

plying between the ports of Great Britain and the 

United States 

3

 British and Foreign State Papers, vol. 52, p. 1139. 

4

 U.S., 16 Statutes at Large 871. 

70 
NUMBER 6 71 

II. The French Post Office was to pay all expenses of direct 

conveyance of the mails, except for mail transported 

directly in United States packets, and was also to pay 

the following: 

A. The expenses of transportation of mail between 

France and England 

B. The transit charges due the British Post Office on 

said mails 

C. The expenses of sea transportation by means of 

British packets and other British steam vessels 

The United States Post Office would pay as follows: 

A. The expenses of direct conveyance by United 

States mail packets 

B. The expenses of conveyance between the United 

States and Great Britain in United States mail 

packets 

III. Established exchange offices in France, as follows: 

A. Havre 

B. The travelling office from Calais to Paris 

Established exchange offices in the United States, as 

follows: 

A. New York B. Boston C. Philadelphia D. San 

Francisco 

IV. All United States and French exchange offices were to 

correspond with each other by the routes mentioned in 

Article I. 

V. Refers to an appended table which set forth the manner 

in which the exchange offices were to correspond with 

each other: by what steamship lines and according to 

the origin and destination of which mail. 

VI. Established for France and Algeria an international rate 

of 80 centimes for a single letter of 7y2 grams, or fraction 

of 7l/i grams. 

Established for the United States an international 

rate of 150 for a single letter of one quarter ounce, or 

fraction of one quarter ounce. 

Prepayment was made optional, but the whole postage 

to destination was to be prepaid, if prepayment was 

desired. 

VII. The rates of postage to be paid by the French Post 

Office to the United States Post Office on prepaid 

letters sent from France and Algeria, as well as on 

unpaid letters received in France and Algeria were 

fixed as follows: 

A. At 30 per single rate for each letter conveyed 

between the French and American frontiers at 

French expense 

B. At 90 per single rate for each letter conveyed 

between the American and British frontiers at 

United States expense 

C. At 120 per single rate for each letter conveyed 

between the American and French frontiers 

direct, or when touching only at one intermediate 

English port without passing through England, 

at United States expense 

The rates of postage to be paid by the United States 

Post Office to the French Post Office on prepaid 

letters sent from the United States as well as on unpaid 

letters received in the United States were fixed as 

follows: 

372-645 O—70 16 

A. At 30 per single rate for each letter conveyed 

between the American and French frontiers 

direct, or when touching only at one intermediate 

English port without passing through England, at 

United States expense 

B. At 60 per single rate for each letter conveyed 

between the American and British frontiers at 

United States expense 

C. At 120 per single rate for each letter conveyed 

between the American and French frontiers at 

French expense 

VIII. Referred to tables which set forth the i-ates, via 

France, to certain designated foreign countries. 

(These rates will be presented later, in Table 17, 

the exchange office accounting for the rates, in 

Table 18.) 

IX. Badly addressed and undeliverable letters were to be 

returned for the sum that the sending office allowed 

the other office, if prepaid, or charged with the postage 

that should have been paid by the addressee, if unpaid. 

Letters addressed to persons who had changed their 

residence would be delivered or returned, charged 

with the postage which should have been paid by die 

person addressed. 

X. Provided that letters be marked by the sending office 

with the amount credited to, or charged to, the corresponding office, debits to be made in black and credits 

in red ink. 

XI. Provided that the United States exchange offices mark 

PAID in red ink on prepaid letters dispatched to France; 

the French offices were to mark PD in red ink on prepaid letters sent to the United States. 

XII. The exchange offices were to mark letters received 

by them with a stamp indicating the date of receipt 

and the way by which the mail had been forwarded to 

them. The stamp that was to be placed upon letters 

that had been conveyed between the American and 

French frontiers at French expense was to bear, independendy of the name of the exchange office of destination, the characters SERV. FR. or BR. ("French or 

British service"). This stamp was to be placed in blue 

ink on letters transmitted direcdy, and in red ink on 

letters transmitted by way of England. 

On letters to be conveyed between the American 

frontier and the French frontier, or the British frontier, 

at United States expense, a similar stamp bearing the 

characters SERV. AM. ("American service") was to be 

used. It was to be applied in blue ink to letters that had 

been transmitted directly and also upon the mails of 

or for the office of Havre that had been conveyed by 

packets of the New York-Bremen line, or by packets 

that plied between Havre and Southampton without 

touching British territory. It was to be applied in red 

ink to letters that had been transported by the aid 

of the British Post Office. 

It will be noted that Article VII sets forth the 

specific amount to be debited or credited for each service provided for in Articles I and II. There is no 

statement as to the division of the international rate 
72 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

into inland, sea, and transit postages. Such a division, 

usually stated in postal conventions, was carefully 

avoided because these postage amounts were different 

for direct mail and for mail via England. Postal historians have deduced the division of the rate from the 

total figures included in Article VII. It has been deduced that inland postage was 30 in each country; 

that sea postage was 60 on mail via England and 90 

on direct mail; and that transit postage was the residual of 30 on mail via England. Although this division has worked very well for purposes of explaining 

the debit and credit markings, it is incorrect as far as 

mail via England is concerned. The above division 

does not give consideration to the amounts paid by 

France to Great Britain under the closed-mail provisions of the Anglo-French convention of 1856, which 

governed mail exchanged between the United States 

and France, via England. 

While correspondence or other documentary evidence regarding the negotiation of the via-England 

rates has not been found, certain facts are known. 

Miller5 states that the United States-French postal 

convention was made possible by the Anglo-French 

convention of 1856 and points to Articles XXI and 

XXII as the pertinent provisions. As previously mentioned, under Article XXI, France paid Great Britain 

40 centimes per 30 grams of closed mail for British 

transit, and by Article XXII, 1 franc 20 centimes per 

30 grams for sea postage. Applying the prescribed procedure for ascertaining the single rate of 7J

/2 grams, 

these postages when divided by four yielded a transit 

rate of 10, and a sea rate of 30, centimes, respectively. 

Since France paid Great Britain on the basis of the 

bulk weight of mail, but accounted to the United 

States on the basis of the individual letter, she must 

have attributed single-letter rates of 10 centimes for 

transit postage and 30 centimes for sea postage. 

How the international rate of 150 in the United 

States or 80 centimes in France was arrived at is not 

known. It is suspected that the direct-mail provisions 

of the United States-French convention had been 

agreed upon before the Anglo-French convention was 

signed. For direct mail, the debits and credits established by Article VII indicate that an inland postage 

of 30 was set for either country, while sea postage was 

to be 90. It is also suspected that it was decided 

that the rate by all routes be made uniform and hence 

the 150 or 80-centime rate agreed upon for direct mail 

was also applied to mail via England. 

The direct rate allowed the French only 30 for inland postage, which was less than their 20 centimes 

prepaid domestic rate. A possible reason for this concession on the part of France was the determination 

of Emperor Napoleon III to establish a line of French 

packets to the United States. Although then nonexistent, provision was made for French packets in Articles VII and XII of the convention. In the event that 

such a line were established, it would have been of 

advantage to the French to have the packet postage 

as high as possible. In other words, if a total rate had 

been agreed upom, it would have been to their advantage to sacrifice some inland postage and account for 

the sacrificed portion as an addition to packet postage. 

It will be noted that only the total international rate 

of 80 centimes is expressed in French currency. All 

debits and credits were to be made in United States 

cents. Although this, at first glance, appears to have 

been a concession to the United States, it operated 

to the advantage of France. A rate of 150 in the United 

States and 80 centimes in France made the United 

States cent equal to 5]/$ centimes and the French 

centime equal to 0.1875 of a cent. The Anglo-French 

convention, however, equated 10 centimes (French) 

with Id. (British), while the United States-British 

treaty equated Id. (British) with 20 (American). Thus, 

the United States Post Office normally held the French 

decime (10 centimes) to be worth 20. These exchange 

differences operated to conceal the amount France was 

receiving as inland postage on the via-England route. 

The division of the 80-centime rate for mail via England was as is shown in Table 13. 

TABLE 13.—Division of French Rate 

Postage Rate, 

centimes 

U.S. inland (3X5 ^ centimes) 

Sea (per single rate; paid to Britain) 

Transit (per single rate; paid to Britain) 

French inland (residual of rate) 

Total rate 

16 

30 

10 

24 

80 

° U.S. Department of State, Treaties and Other International Acts of the United States, p. 506. 

Considering the differences in conversion under the 

applicable treaties, the division in United States 

cents (rounded to the whole cent) was as follows: 
NUMBER 6 

TABLE 14.—Division of United States Rate 

Postage Rate, 

cents 

U.S. inland (U.S.-French Convention) 

Sea (Anglo-French Convention) 

Transit (Anglo-French Convention) 

French inland (residual of rate) 

Total rate 

3 

6 

2 

4 

15 

It matters little whether an extra cent is added to the 

transit and deducted from the inland postage, as the 

French were realizing at least 40 for their share of 

the postage. Actually, they were receiving a greater 

amount, for it is certain that the number of letters 

per 30 grams would average more than four. It was 

undoubtedly this situation that led Postmaster General Greswell in 1869, at a time when the United 

States was attempting to negotiate a new convention 

with France, to say of the 1857 convention, "In its 

details and practical operation it is very unequal, 

giving unfair advantages to the French post 

department."

 6 

No inequity is apparent if the rate division allows each 

country an inland postage of 30. 

The division of the direct rate in centimes and in 

cents was as follows: 

TABLE 15.—Division of United States and French Rates 

Postage 

U.S. inland 

Sea 

French inland 

Total rate 

Rate, cents 

3 (3X5}<; centimes) 

9 (9X5/3 centimes) 

3 (3 X 5J/3 centimes) 

15 

Rate, 

centimes 

16 

48 

16 

80 

The exchange office accounting for the preceding 

rates is presented in Table 16. The time-honored division of the rates via England is altered to reflect the 

amounts actually paid by France to Great Britain. 

From its inception, the United States Post Office Department found the United States-French convention 

an unsatisfactory instrument. While mail via England 

was exchanged between France and the United States 

in closed bags and France paid Great Britain on the 

basis of the bulk weight of the mail, the accounting 

73 

between France and the United States was on the 

basis of the individual letter. Neither the United States 

nor France was able to avail itself of the simplified 

accounting procedures made possible by closed mail. 

In addition to the cumbersome accounting procedures, 

the making up of the mails was further complicated 

by extremely detailed instructions regulating the forwarding of mail between the exchange offices by prescribed packet routes. The complicated nature of the 

accounting procedure, as well as the inflexibility of 

the regulations, led the exchange offices to establish 

schedules by which the time required for making up 

French mails was planned in advance. Some mail 

packets leaving New York or Boston, therefore, did 

not carry French mail. As the volume of mail increased 

during the late 1860s, these French-mail omissions 

were noted in the U.S. Mail and Post Office Assistant. 

The convention was deficient because it did not provide for the exchange of newspapers, pamphlets, or 

printed papers of any kind. These continued to be 

forwarded under the United States-British and AngloFrench conventions, via England, or direct, paid only 

as far as the French frontier. The United States-French 

convention was also deficient because it made no provision for the registration of mail. 

The rates to foreign countries beyond France were 

set forth in an appended Table B, as provided in Article VIII of the convention. The format of this table 

has been revised and is presented here as Table 17, 

while the exchange office accounting for the rates is 

set forth in Table 18. It will be noted that a simple 

schedule of only four rates was developed for mail to 

points ranging from Luxembourg to China. France 

had postal conventions, either directly or indirectly, 

with most of the countries with which it exchanged 

mail, that is, with the country itself or with one that, in 

turn, held a convention with the country in question. 

It is obvious that so simple a schedule of rates for mail 

in transit through France would not agree with the 

many rates contained in these conventions. It is suspected that these rates were arrived at by an averaging process.7 

The international rate of 150 or 80 centimes was 

basic to all French-mail rates. To the international rate 

one of the four transit charges was added to arrive at 

the total rate. Since all postage beyond France was at 

French expense, on prepaid letters posted in these 

foreign countries addressed to the United States only 

0

 Report of the Postmaster General, 1869, p. 14. 

7

 See George E. Hargest, "French Mail Rates," Chronicle 

45 (July 1963): 27. 
74 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

TABLE 16.—Exchange Office Accounting for the French Mail International Rate 

Postage 

Via England 

Rate British 

Packet 

American 

Packet 

British 

Packet 

U.S. inland 

Sea 

Transit 

French inland 

Single rate 

U.S. credit to France on prepaid letters posted in U.S. 

(red); or French debit to U.S. on unpaid letters posted 

in France (black) 

U.S. debit to France on unpaid letters posted in U.S. 

(black); or French credit to the U.S. on prepaid 

letters posted in France (red) 

U.S. inland 

Sea 

French inland 

Single rate 

U.S. credit to France on prepaid letters posted in U.S. 

(red); or French debit to U.S. on unpaid letters posted 

in France (black) 

U.S. debit to France on unpaid letters posted in U.S. 

(black); or French credit to U.S. on prepaid letters 

posted in France (red) 

3^ 

6 

2 

4 

C) 

6fi 

2 

4 

(

a

) 

(

a

) 

n 4 

(

b

) 

(

b

) 

(

h

) 

H 

15 

12 

Direct 

Rate French 

Packet 

American 

Packet 

French 

Packet 

H 

9 

3 

(

a

) 

9 

3 

(

a

) 

(

a

) 

3 

(

b

) 

(

b

) 

H 

15 

12 

American 

Packet 

H 

6 

(

b

) 

(

b

) 

American 

Packet 

9 

(

b

) 

12 

Retained out of prepayment or collection by the United States. 

Retained out of prepayment or collection by France. 

the international rate of 150 was usually restated by the 

United States exchange officers. Several exceptions to 

this procedure, however, have been noted on mail processed by the Philadelphia office. For the same reason, 

only the United States share of the international rate 

was debited to France on unpaid letters posted in the 

United States and addressed to these same countries. 

On prepaid letters posted in the United States, addressed to foreign countries, the transit postage from 

France to destination was added to the basic credit 

for the international rate, as presented in Table 18. 

Only on unpaid letters addressed to the United States 

are the totals of these four rates reflected in the United 

States postmarks, and a collection of them makes an 

interesting exhibit. 

Since it appears that an averaging process was used 

to arrive at these four rates, it is certain that France 

lost on some and gained on others. For example, the 

rate between France and Belgium was of such amount 

that only 2 decimes were added to the 8-decime international rate, hence, only 1 franc was collected in 

Belgium on an unpaid letter posted in the United 

States, or was prepaid in Belgium on a letter addressed 

to the United States. Since 1 franc was worth only 190, 
NUMBER 6 75 

TABLE 17.—French Mail Rates to Countries Beyond France 

Rate Destination of Letters Posted in U.S. Prepayment Limit of Prepayment Rate per 

1 France and Algeria (international rate) 

2 Great Britain, Belgium, Low Countries, Luxemburg, 

Switzerland, Sardinia, and German States (except 

Austria) 

Spain, Portugal, and Gibraltar 

3 Denmark, Austria, Servia, Tuscany, Roman states, Parma, 

and Modena 

Ionian Islands 

4 Russia, Poland, Two Sicilies, Malta, Greece, Alexandria, 

Jaffa, Beyrout, Tripoli in Syria, Latakia, Alexandretta, 

Messina, Rhodes, Mitylene, Dardanelles, Gallipoli, 

Constantinople, Tunis, Tangiers, Pondicherry, Karikal, 

Yanaon, Mahe, and Chandernagor 

Aden, East Indies, Ceylon, Mauritius, Reunion, Penang, 

Singapore, Hong Kong, Shanghai, China, and Batavia, 

via Suez 

Countries beyond the seas, other than those designated: 

Letters from U.S. 

Letters for U.S. 

5 Sweden and Norway 

Optional 

Optional 

Obligatory 

Optional 

Obligatory 

Optional 

Obligatory 

Obligatory 

Obligatory 

Optional 

Destination 

Destination 

Behobia 

Destination 

Trieste 

Destination 

Seaport to which 

English packets ply 

Port of arrival 

Port of departure 

Destination 

15, 

21 

21 

27 

27 

30 

30 

30 

30 

33 

. NOTE: Postage on letters to or from Moldavia, Wallachia, or Turkey in Europe, via Austria, was always paid by the inhabitants 

of Moldavia, Wallachia, or Turkey in Europe. 

TABLE 18.—Exchange Office Accounting for French Mail Rates to Countries Beyond France 

(Prepaid Letters Posted in the United States) 

Rate 

Direct 

French 

Packet 

(Credit) 

American 

Packet 

(Credit) 

Via England 

British 

Packet 

(Credit) 

American 

Packet 

(Credit) 

International rate 

21c rate: 

Excess over international rate 

Rate and credit 

27c rate: 

Excess over international rate 

Rate and credit 

30c rate: 

Excess over international rate 

Rate and credit 

33c rate: 

Excess over international rate 

Rate and credit 

15$ 

6 

21 

12 

27 

15 

30 

18 

33 

\2i 

6 

18 

12 

24 

15 

27 

18 

30 

H 

6 

9 

12 

15 

15 

18 

18 

21 

\2i 

6 

18 

12 

24 

15 

27 

18 

30 

6| 

6 

12 

12 

18 

15 

21 

18 

24 
76 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

the rate from Belgium to the United States was 190, 

while the rate to Belgium was 210. The bajocchi of 

Rome was worth about one cent in United States currency. The rate from Rome to the United States was 32 

bajocchi, while the rate from the United States to 

Rome was only 270. The rate from Sardinia to the 

United States was 1 lira 20 centesimi (230), and from 

the United States to Sardinia, 210. France broke even 

on letters prepaid in Switzerland where the rate to 

the United States was 11 decimes (210), and the rate 

from the United States to Switzerland was also 210. 

In these calculations, 8 decimes are equal to 150, and 

additional decimes are taken at 20 each. 

Article VIII contained a clause allowing the rate 

to foreign countries to be altered if "the conventions 

which regulate the relations of France with the foreign 

countries . . . should be modified in such manner as 

to affect the (stated) conditions of exchange." Relatively few changes in the original rates were made. All 

changes in rates to European countries were made 

within the context of the four original rates, that is, 

270 rates were changed to 210 or 300, or mandatory 

prepayment was changed to optional prepayment, but 

rates of new and different amounts were not introduced. 

A word about optional prepayment on French mail 

letters: When regulations indicated, through published 

tables of postal rates to foreign countries, that prepayment was optional to a particular foreign country, if 

the sender elected to prepay the postage, the whole 

rate had to be prepaid. A partial payment was ignored, 

the letter being forwarded as an unpaid letter with 

the whole postage to be collected upon delivery. Prepayment of only the international rate of 150 was not 

recognized. For example, the rate to Switzerland was 

210, either prepaid or unpaid, prepayment being optional. A prepayment of only 150 would not pay the 

letter through France, and if prepayment were made 

in that amount, it would be entirely lost to the sender. 

This differed from the procedure used under the 

Bremen and Prussian closed-mail conventions. Under 

those agreements, nonrecognition of a partial payment 

applied only to the international rate. 

French Mail Covers 

Because the United States-French convention was 

in effect for nearly thirteen years, covers showing use 

of the 150 international rate are relatively common 

today. The markings presented in Figure 42 are typical 

FIGURE 42.—MARKINGS on French mail by United States 

exchange offices. 

of those used by the original United States exchange 

offices. Markings A, B, and C were applied in black 

to unpaid letters posted in the United States and reflect debits to France for mail conveyed on the three 

routes presented in Table 16. Markings D, E, and F 

were applied in red to prepaid letters and reflect the 

credits to France made by these exchange offices to 

letters conveyed on the same routes, that is, markings 

A and D by British packet; B and E by American packet 

through England; and C and F by direct service to 

France.8 

When San Francisco officially became an exchange 

office for United States-British mail on 19 October 

1863,9 it was specifically provided that it should handle 

incoming mail addressed to California, Oregon, Washington territory, the Sandwich Islands, British Columbia, and Vancouver Island. It was not, however, to 

dispatch mails to the British offices. The United 

States-French convention restricted the San Francisco 

office to the exchange of mail to or from California 

and the territories of Oregon and Washington, but it 

8

 For more complete illustrations of the exchange office 

markings used by the U.S. offices see Tracy W. Simpson, 

United States Postal Markings and Related Mail Services 

1851-1861, pp. 91-108. 

8

 16 Statutes at Large 830. 
NUMBER 6 77 

did not restrict that office only to the receipt and 

distribution of mail. The evidence of covers, however, 

indicates that the San Francisco office did not, in fact, 

make up and dispatch French mail, for no cover seen 

shows a debit or credit to France. Marking G of Figure 42 (also showing 3 0 PAID) was applied in red to 

stampless prepaid letters dispatched by San Francisco 

in French mail, but these letters usually also bear a 

New York exchange office marking. 

Prepaid letters dispatched by the French exchange 

offices, regardless of their rate and point of origin, 

usually bear a United States exchange office marking 

in red, showing a restatement of the 150 rate. Restatements of the 210, 270, 300, or 330 rates are rarely 

seen. Since all postage beyond France was at French 

expense, there was no need for the United States 

offices to indicate any amount other than the 150 international rate. Marking H shows a restatement of 

the international rate applied by the Philadelphia 

office. 

All of the United States offices applied either marking / or K of Figure 42 to incoming French-mail letters. Marking / was applied in blue to letters arriving 

by the direct route, in red to American packet letters 

through England. Marking K was applied in red to 

those received by British packet. After about the middle of 1864, many prepaid incoming letters do not 

show either marking / or K. 

After the French line between Havre and New York 

started to run in 1864, markings showing French 

packet service appear. Marking / of Figure 42 is an 

example of one of these markings which were applied 

to incoming letters. 

Some markings used by the French exchange offices 

are illustrated in Figure 43

 10

 It should be noted that, 

until the French line between Havre and New York 

started to run in 1864, all French exchange office markings applied to French mail had somewhere in their 

inscriptions the abbreviation SERV. for "service." Both 

the French and United States exchange offices had 

special handstamps available for use on 1 April 1857. 

A double-rate unpaid letter is endorsed p Arago and 

bears a marking similar to A of Figure 42, but with a 

debit of 240, and is dated 4 April. It also bears a marking (A of Figure 43) dated 18 April 1857. This was 

the first direct sailing from New York after the convention became effective on 1 April 1857. 

10

 For a more complete listing of French exchange office 

markings see Raymond Salles, "La Poste maritime francaise 

historique et catalogue," vol. 4, pp. 224-298. 

FIGURE 43.—MARKINGS on French mail by French exchange 

offices. 

Marking A of Figure 43 was applied in indigo ink to 

letters received at the Havre office by direct service 

until late in 1858 or early in 1859, when it was superseded by marking B which was applied in blue ink. All 

direct service ceased in November 1861 when the Havre 

line ships Arago and Fulton were taken over by the 

United States for the duration of the Civil War. The 

Vanderbilt European line and the North Atlantic 

Steamship Company had ceased to run their ships at an 

earlier date. The direct service by American packets 

of the Havre line was revived in November 1865 by 

Arago and Fulton. In 1867 the Havre line fleet was 

augmented by Mississippi and Guiding Star, but at the 

end of 1867 the line discontinued operations. During 

this period of revival, marking B of Figure 43 was 

again used on mail conveyed to Havre by these ships, 

but was applied in red instead of blue. The D in markings A and B abbreviates "direct." Prepaid letters by 

direct service also bear marking M in red. 

The Havre office also applied markings C and D of 

Figure 43 to letters received at that office by way of 

England. The inscription in marking C, ET. UNIS SERV. 

AM. V.A. means "From the United States by American 

packet via England," while the inscription in marking 

D means "From the United States by British service." 

It would appear that marking C was intended to be 

used on mail conveyed by American packet and passing 

through England to Havre, while marking D was to be 

used on mail conveyed by British packet and forwarded 

from England to Havre. If this is so, the Havre office 
78 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

made an exceedingly large number of errors in applying these markings. 

M. Salles11 considers that marking C (Figure 43) 

was reserved for mail originating in the United States 

and entering Havre by way of Southampton, while 

marking D was used on mail conveyed only by the 

Cunard line. He notes that marking C was used on 

mail conveyed by several Inman line ships, but he 

also remarks that through error it was struck on letters 

conveyed by several ships of the Cunard line. The 

author records marking C used on a cover conveyed by 

the Bremen of the North German Lloyd and rated in 

the United States at the direct rate; he also notes marking D on a cover conveyed by Hansa of the North 

German Lloyd and rated in the United States as by 

American packet through England. Marking D has 

been noted on two covers conveyed by the ships of the 

Inman line. All of these markings were applied in 

red. The instructions for marking letters included in 

Article XII of the convention contain the phrase "It 

was to be applied in red ink upon letters which had been 

transported by the aid of the British Post-Office." It 

may be that marking D did not refer only to transatlantic service. 

Markings E and F of Figure 43 were used by the 

travelling post office, Calais to Paris. The A. c. in these 

markings abbreviates "ambulant Calais." An octagonal 

center indicates day service, while the double-circle 

mark refers to night service. The letters at the base of 

these markings identify the mail crew (brigade) that 

processed the mail. 

Paris became an exchange office for French mail 

on 1 April 1861. While there are no markings inscribed 

PARIS, the Paris office applied markings G and H in 

red to mail arriving by way of Calais. Marking G is 

known in blue as well. These were used from 1861 

to 1866.12 Marking / was also applied by the Paris 

office in blue from 1867 to 1869. 

Marking / was applied by the mail agents on board 

the steamers of the Compagnie Generale Transatlantique, Ligne H, plying between Havre and New York.13 

Four mail agents were assigned to the line by the 

French Post Office. The markings appear with N° 1, 

N° 2, N° 3, and N" 4, and were applied in black or 

red. The dates of these markings coincide with the 

dates in the New York packet markings, and indicate 

the date of sailing from New York. From June 1865 

11

 Salles, La Poste maritime francaise, p. 295. 

12

 Ibid., p. 291. 

13

 Ibid., p. 233. 

the ships of this line called at Brest, and marking K 

is a receiving mark used at that port. 

Figure 44 illustrates a cover posted in New Orleans 

on 17 November 1857, addressed to La Rochelle, 

France. The 150 international rate is prepaid by a 

strip of three of the 50 red-brown stamps issued in 

1857. The New York exchange office marking bears 

a credit to France of 120 (type F of Figure 42), while 

the French exchange office marking (type F of Figure 

43) shows British packet service. The date of 25 November in the New York marking shows that this 

letter was dispatched to Liverpool by R.M.S. Arabia 

of the Cunard line which sailed from New York on 

that date. A strip of three of 50 stamps was a common 

method of prepaying the 150 international rate. 

Figure 45 presents the front (A) and back (B) of 

a cover posted in Baltimore on 2 November 1960, 

franked with a 300 stamp issued in 1860 for a doublerate letter. It was addressed to Miss M. M. Tompkins, 

care of Dr. J. S. Wellford, Poste Restante, Paris, 

France. The New York exchange office marking shows 

a credit to France of 120 (2 x 60) for a double-rate 

letter to be conveyed to England by an American 

packet. The date of 3 November in the New York 

exchange office marking indicates that the letter was 

forwarded to Liverpool by City of Washington of the 

Inman line. The French exchange office marking is 

of type E of Figure 43 and shows that the letter arrived at the ambulant office on 19 November. A Paris 

POSTE RESTANTE marking indicates it was at the Paris 

office on 20 November. Miss Tompkins, however, had 

evidently returned to the United States. Somone called 

for and secured the letter, crossed out the address on 

its face, and wrote at the top, Regardez Vautre cote 

("see the other side"). This expression would not have 

been written by a French postal official, for its connotation would lead a Frenchman to look at the edge, 

rather than the reverse, of the letter. A French postal 

official would simply have written Au dos ("to the 

back"). The person who retrieved the letter turned 

it over and readdressed it on the reverse to Miss Tompkins who was now in Richmond, Virginia. A small 

note was also penned at lower left. 

Article IX of the convention provided that letters 

addressed to persons who had changed their residence 

would be returned "charged with the postage which 

should have been paid by the persons addressed," that 

is, the postage on unpaid letters. Article XV provided 

that letters which cannot be delivered for any cause 

would be returned. "Those which shall have been 
NUMBER 6 79 

7 

m,-. '/&/ 7 s . ^ ^ 

•. - • KJ % \4* * X 4v/ 

FIGURE 44.—COVER, from New Orleans to La Rochelle, France, 1857. 

delivered prepaid to destination shall be returned 

without charge or deduction." Thus, this letter was 

started on its return trip, the Paris office marking it 

at upper right on its reverse with the postmark of that 

office dated 20 November 1860. On the face is the 

marking of the ambulant office PARIS A CALAIS with 

the date of 21 November 1860. Since the letter was 

being returned without charge, the ambulant office 

made no debit to the United States. The letter was forwarded to Liverpool, whence it was conveyed to New 

York again by City of Washington which arrived on 

6 December. Unaccountably, the letter was sent to the 

Boston office. As a returned letter no charge should 

have been made. While the Paris office overlooked the 

note penned on the reverse, "Emmy has received your 

letter today Nov 20 & will write soon—," the Boston 

office considered this a message and therefore marked 

the letter for a collection of 300. Thus, there is on the 

face of this cover markings characteristic of a prepaid 

letter to France, and on the reverse, the markings of 

an unpaid letter from France (except that there is no 

debit to the United States). 

Figure 46 presents a cover posted in New Orleans 

on 12 June 1860, addressed to Bordeaux, France. The 

150 international rate is prepaid by a 30 and a 120 

stamp of the 1857 issue, a common combination for 

paying the 150 rate. The New York office forwarded 

the letter directly to Havre by Vanderbilt of the Vanderbilt European line which sailed from New York 

on 16 June 1860, the date in the New York postmark. 

This cover shows the markings characteristic of direct service to Havre by French mail, that is, a United 

States exchange office marking with a credit of 30 

(usually New York, but rarely Boston or Philadelphia), 

a French exchange office marking of type A or B of 

Figure 43, and a small PD marking of type M of Figure 43. 

Figure 47 presents a cover to a point beyond France 

at the 210 rate. This letter was posted in Highland, 

Illinois, on 1 June 1860, addressed to Neuchatel, 

Switzerland. The 210 rate was prepaid by a pair of 

the 100 type V stamps and a single 10 type V stamp 

of the 1857 issue. The New York office forwarded it 

to Liverpool by R.M.S. Persia which sailed from New 

York on 6 June 1860. Because this ship was a British 

packet, the New York office credited France with 180 

(see Table 18). The letter arrived at the travelling 

office, Calais to Paris, on 17 June 1860, and that office 

applied a marking in black similar to F of Figure 43. 

Figure 48 illustrates a cover posted in Boston, addressed to Rome. The 270 French mail rate to Rome 

was prepaid by a pair of 120 and a single 30 stamp 

of the 1861 issue. These stamps bear a black grid with 

PAID in center. Although Boston used a number of simi-
80 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

^-^>=HL/"'1 M i u > ' 

FIGURE 45, FACE OF COVER (above), from Baltimore to Paris, 1860. REVERSE of same (below), redirected. 

Ch <& 

f % * y ". / ..' 

%. % '^J.^/: H> '< .-<- '7Z*. 
NUMBER 6 

FIGURE 46.—COVER, from New Orleans to Bordeaux, France 1860. 

(Photograph by Smithsonian) 

yz> 

? 

,yO * >» 

:<rrj^ 

/ • 

//^7^/3A 

FIGURE 47.—COVER, from Highland, Illinois, to Neuchatel, Switzerland, 1860. 

(Photograph by Smithsonian) 
82 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

/43.M 

*^r~t~t+^r h/£t+~ 

t_^£ /&y£tU-. 

FIGURE 48.—COVER, from Boston to Rome, Italy, 1862. (Melvin W. Schuh collection) 

lar grid markings, this particular one was reserved for 

use on foreign mail.14 The Boston packet marking bears 

the date of 25 March (1862), and on this day the mails 

were made up at Boston for the sailing of R.M.S. 

Africa on the following day from New York. Because 

this ship was a British packet, the Boston office credited 

France with 240 (see Table 18). The letter arrived at 

the travelling office, Calais to Paris, on 8 April 1862, 

and diat office applied a marking in black similar to F 

of Figure 43 and a boxed P.D. marking similar to L of 

Figure 43, which indicated that the letter was paid to 

destination. In 1862 there was an additional 460-perhalf-ounce rate to Rome by Prussian closed mail and 

a 280-per-half-ounce rate by Bremen-Hamburg mail, 

both of which paid the letter only to the Roman frontier. Only the 270-per-one-fourth-ounce rate by French 

mail paid the letter to destination. It has been observed 

that French mail letters bear a diagonal manuscript 

line that was applied at Rome, and was evidently intended to indicate that no additional postage was due. 

Figure 49 illustrates a cover addressed to a point 

beyond France to which the rate was 300. This cover 

was posted in New Orleans on 19 May 1858, addressed 

to Palermo (Sicily). It is prepaid by a strip of three of 

the 100 stamps of the 1857 issue (positions 2, 12, and 

22RI), a combination of two type II and a type III 

11

 M. C. Blake and W. W. Davis, Postal Markings of Boston, 

Massachusetts, to 1890, marking 625, Plate 35, p. 133. 

stamp. The single-letter rate to the kingdom of the Two 

Sicilies by French mail was 300, prepayment compulsory, from 1 April 1857 until January 1862, shortly 

after Sicily and Naples were incorporated into the 

kingdom of Italy, when the rate was reduced to 210, 

prepayment optional. The New York office forwarded 

this letter directly to Havre by Fulton of the New YorkHavre Line, which sailed from New York on 29 May 

1858. France was given credit for 180 by use of a manuscript marking in red ink (see Table 18). The cover 

bears markings characteristic of those by direct service, as in markings A and M of Figure 43, which were 

applied by the Havre office on 13 May 1858. On the 

reverse is a 20 GIU" 185 8 straight-line marking in 

magenta indicating that the letter arrived in Palermo 

on 20 June 1858. Covers between Sicily and the United 

States prior to Sicily's unification with the kingdom of 

Italy are seldom seen. 

Figure 50 presents a cover to a point beyond France 

to which the single French-mail rate was 330. This 

letter was posted in Boston, addressed to Norway, and 

was prepaid by a pair and single of the 100 type V, and 

a single of the 30 type II stamp of the 1857 issue. As on 

the cover illustrated in Figure 48, the stamps are canceled with a grid with PAID in center. The Boston packet 

marking bears the date of 8 June (1860). On that date 

the mails were made up at Boston for the sailing of 

Glasgow of the Inman line from New York on the 

following day. Since the Inman line was under con-
NUMBER 6 83 

FIGURE 49.—COVER, from New Orleans to Palermo (Sicily), 1858. (Photograph by Smithsonian) 

FIGURE 50.—COVER, from Boston to Laurvig [Larvik], Norway, 1860. 

(Melvin W. Schuh collection) 
8 4 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

tract to the United States Post Office and, although the letter with marking F of Figure 43, then, discoverBritish-owned, considered an American packet, the ing that it had marked it for British service, superBoston office gave France a credit of 240 (see Table imposed marking E over the marking F originally 

18). The letter arrived at the travelling office, Calais applied. Marking L (Figure 43) was also applied, into Paris, on 23 June 1860. That office, in error, struck dicating that the letter was paid to destination. 
Chapter 5 

The Prussian Closed-Mail Convention 

Shortly after the American Collins and Havre lines 

began to run in 1850, the Bremen closed mail (discussed in Chapter 1) was sent only by these lines. 

Cunard line service to Germany was available only on 

letters sent in the British open mail, and much mail 

was sent by this route. The London office usually forwarded open mail addressed to the northern German 

states in the Anglo-Prussian closed mail, via Belgium, 

which was faster than the direct route from England 

to Cuxhaven or Bremerhaven. Mail addressed to the 

southern German states was usually sent through 

France. 

Although the route through Belgium was faster than 

the direct route, which was the route used for the 

Bremen closed mail, it was also more expensive, because 

of the high British and Belgium transit rates. These 

high rates were set by the Anglo-Prussian convention 

of 1846 and are presented in Table 2, Chapter 1. 

As with all British open mail, the burden of high 

transit charges fell upon the correspondent in the 

foreign country. Regardless of what the charges abroad 

might be, Americans paid only 50 for a letter conveyed 

by British packet, or 21 (^ when transatlantic service was 

by American packet. In this particular case, the Germans either prepaid these high transit rates on letters 

posted in Germany, or the rates were collected from 

them upon delivery of letters posted in the United 

States. Prussia had good reason to seek a postal convention with the United States that would more 

equitably distribute postage costs between correspondents in the two countries. 

On 1 July 1850, a new posal convention between 

the states of Germany brought into existence the German-Austrian Postal Union, and greatly simplified and 

reduced rates between these countries. Prussia now 

worked for an agreement that would utilize the reduced 

rates, as well as make use of the Cunard line, and the 

Anglo-Prussian closed mail, via Belgium. Such a service would supersede the slower Bremen closed mail. 

By mid-1851 a closed mail agreement between the 

two countries which included the above features was 

all but complete. On 21 June 1851, Postmaster General Nathan K. Hall wrote Secretary of State Daniel 

Webster: * 

Articles of agreement between this department and the 

post office of Prussia have been prepared, providing for 

the reciprocal receipt and delivery of letters and packets in 

closed mails between the United States and Prussia, to be 

conveyed through England; but their final execution has 

been postponed for several months, in the confident hope 

and expectation that the British government would finally 

yield to the reasonable demands of the contracting parties 

for a reduction in their transit postage, and thus facilitate 

the communication so much desired by either side. 

Mr. Lawrence, United States minister at London, 

addressed a note to Lord Palmerston on 8 August 1851, 

in which he explained:

 2 

by the German-Austrian convention which went into operation on the first of July, 1850, it is understood that the 

rates of postage throughout Prussia, Austria, and indeed in 

most, if not all, the States of Germany, have been greatly 

reduced, and that it is represented that the high transit 

rate through England is the only obstacle in the way of 

rendering that convention available to parties corresponding between the United States and those countries. 

The British did indeed reduce the transit rate 

through a new postal convention with Prussia. AlXU.S., Congress, Senate, Executive Document 32, 32nd 

Cong., 2nd sess., serial 660, p. 31. 

3

 Ibid., p. 34. 

85 
86 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

though Mr. Lawrence was not aware of it at the time 

he addressed the above note to Lord Palmerston, a new 

Anglo-Prussian convention was then in the process of 

negotiation. It was completed early in 1852, signed at 

London on 2 July, at Berlin on 7 July, and became 

effective on 1 August of that year.3 It established a 

reduced international rate between the two countries 

which was, by Articles II and III, also set for transit 

mail, via Belgium, to or from colonies or foreign countries. The single-letter rate for the weight of one-half 

ounce (British), or of one zoll loth (Prussian), was set 

at 8d. (British) and 7 silbergroschen (Prussian). The 

rate was divided as shown in Table 19. 

TABLE 19.—Division of the British and Prussian Rates 

Postage 

British 

Belgian transit 

German 

Total rate 

British 

penny 

3H 

H 

4 

8 

Rate 

Prussian 

silbergroschen 

3 

7 

The rates set by this convention were evidently acceptable to the Prussian and United States post offices, 

for the United States-Prussian closed-mail convention 

was signed at Washington on 17 July and at Berlin on 

26 August 1852.4 Prussia and the United States utilized 

provisions of both the United States-British and the 

new Anglo-Prussian conventions to complete the pending agreement. Articles I, VIII, and IX of the United 

States-British treaty were used to fix the rate for sea 

postage. By Article I, sea postage was 8d., or 160 for 

a single letter of half an ounce; by Article VIII, the 

United States had the privilege of sending closed mails 

over British territory; and by Article IX, closed mails 

were paid for by the ounce at a rate determined by 

taking the postage of two single-letter rates plus 25 percent. Thus, a sea rate of 400 per ounce was set (2 x 160 

plus 14). 

British transit postage was established by applying 

the same formula to the British postage included in the 

international rate set by the Anglo-Prussian convention. The postage was 3/ 2 d. per single rate and yielded 

a transit postage per ounce of 834d., or l7/ 2 0 (2 x 

8

 British and Foreign State Papers, vol. 59, p. 893. 

1

 U.S., 16 Statutes at Large 963. 

3/ 2 d. plus J4). These rates were directly incorporated 

into Article VI of the Prussian closed-mail convention. 

Strangely, the Belgian transit postage, which Prussia 

held at

 l/2 silbergraschen and Great Britian at / 2 d. for 

a single rate, was to cost 80 per ounce. 

At the time the convention was framed, one Prussian silbergroschen was worth about 2.30 in United 

States currency. The rate within the German-Austrian Postal Union had been uniformly established at 

2 silbergroschen by the German-Austrian convention, 

effective on 1 July 1850. In setting the German inland 

postage, 2 silbergroschen were rounded to 50. The 

United States also adopted an inland postage of 50. 

Article II established an international postage of 

300 for a single rate of half an ounce (American) or 

one loth (German). In setting this rate, "the Article 

stated, sea and British and Belgian transit postage, 

will be . . . 200." Article VII stated that letter rates 

were established "on the supposition that four letters 

to the ounce will be about the average number," and 

it was agreed that if the number proved to be less, 

rates were to be adjusted accordingly. The rate per 

ounce for sea, British, and Belgian transit postages 

totaled 65/ 2 0 (sea, 400; British transit, 17/ 2 0; and 

Belgian transit, 80). This amount divided by four 

yields only 16.40, whereas the convention set an undivided postage of 200 for these services. Thus, a 

"cushion" was built into the rate in case the average 

number of letters was fewer than four to the ounce. 

The accounting between the post offices was set 

forth in Article VI, as follows: 

The Prussian Post-Office is to account to the United 

States Post-Office in respect to all letter postages collected 

by Prussia from closed mails, as follows, viz.: 

On mails sent from the United States, for each unpaid 

letter weighing half an ounce or less, twenty-three cents 

And also on mails sent from Prussia, for each prepaid 

letter of half an ounce or under, twenty-five cents 

And, in addition thereto, the Prussian office is to account 

to Belgium for its transit rate on all letters received in said 

closed mails from the United States 

The United States Post-Office, when it collects the postage on letters sent in the closed mails, is to account to the 

Prussian Post-Office, as follows, viz.: 

On mails sent from the United States, for each prepaid 

letter weighing half an ounce or less, seven cents 

And also on mails sent from Prussia, for each unpaid 

letter of half an ounce or under, five cents 

And the United States Post-Office is to account to the 

British Post-Office for British transit postage at the rate 

of fifty-seven and one half cents per ounce when mails 

are conveyed by British packets across the Atlantic, and at 

the rate of seventeen and one half cents per ounce when 

conveyed by United States packets across the Atlantic, in 
NUMBER 6 87 

either direction; in addition to which, the United States 

Post-Office is to account to the British Post-Office for Belgian transit postage, at eight cents per ounce, on all letters 

in said closed mails from Prussia; that is, whenever, in all 

of the above cases, the British and Belgian conveyances are 

used. 

Thus, the United States paid the British Post Office 400 per ounce for all Prussian closed-mail letters 

conveyed by British packet; it also paid the British 

Post Office 17/ 2 0 per ounce for transit through England on all letters conveyed in the Prussian closed mail; 

additionally, it paid the British Post Office 80 per ounce 

for transit through Belgium on all letters posted in 

Prussia addressed to the United States. Prussia made no 

payments to the British Post Office, but paid Belgium 

directly for transit through that country on all letters 

posted in the United States addressed to Prussia. The 

Belgian transit postage was 20 for a single rate and 

was evidently arrived at by dividing the 80-per-ounce 

rate by four. The exchange office accounting for Prussian closed mail is set forth in Table 20. 

Article I established exchange offices at Boston and 

New York in the United States and at Aix-la-Chapelle 

(Aachen) in Prussia. Article IX stated: 

The closed mails will be made up at the office of New 

York or Boston, in the United States, respectively, as the 

conveyance may be directed by the United States PostOffice from either of said ports, to Aix-la-Chapelle 

(Aachen), in Prussia, and at Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen) to 

New York or Boston, according as the conveyance may be 

directed as aforesaid. 

It was the British Post Office, however, who exercised the option of sending the closed bags by British 

or American packet.3 In his annual report for 1853, 

Postmaster General Campbell complained bitterly 

about British discrimination against the Collins line 

steamers in this regard. He pointed out that from 16 

October 1852 to 30 June 1853, sea postage charged 

against the United States on Prussian closed mail dispatched from Great Britain was eight times more than 

that earned by the Collins line steamers which performed half as many voyages as the Cunard line. During this same period, the postage on Prussian closed 

mails disptached by the United States, considering 

the difference in the number of voyages performed, was 

about equally divided between the Cunard and Collins line services. 

By Article II, prepayment of the 300 international 

rate was made optional, but 

it shall not, however, be permitted to pay less than the 

whole combined rate. If the letter is of the weight of half 

an ounce or under, the combined rate is 30 cents. Above 

half an ounce and not over an ounce, 60 cents. Above 

one ounce, but not exceeding two ounces, $1.20. And the 

postage will increase in this scale of progression, to wit: 

An additional 60 cents for each ounce, or fraction of an 

ounce. 

A partial payment of the international rate was not 

recognized, but the letter was forwarded as an unpaid letter. The nonrecognition of a payment of less 

than the whole rate, however, applied only to the in5

 Since the Aachen office made up mails to be sent by 

either British or American packet and, accordingly, made 

out the letter-bills for one or the other service, the British 

office furnished the Aachen office schedules of sailings by 

which it would disptach Prussian closed mails to the U.S. 

TABLE 20.-—Exchange Office Accounting for Prussian Closed Mail 

U.S. inland 

Sea and British 

Belgian transit 

Prussian inland 

International 

Postage 

transit 

rate 

Debit to Prussia by U.S. 

Credit to Prussia by U.S. 

Debit to U.S. 

Credit to U.S 

by Prussia 

. by Prussia 

Rate 

18 

2 

5 

30 

— 

— 

— 

Letters from U.S. 

Unpaid 

la 

(

b

) 

23 

— 

— 

Prepaid 

(

a

) 

5 

— 

7 

— 

Letters from Prussia 

Unpaid 

(•) 

5c 

— 

— 

5 

Prepaid 

18 

2 

(

b

) 

— 

— 

— 

25 

a

 Retained from collection or prepayment by the United States. 

b

 Retained from collection or prepayment by Prussia. 

372-645 O—70 7 
SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

ternational rate. Tables of postal rates to foreign 

countries were published in the United States from 

time to time, in postal guides, almanacs, postal directories, and in post office broadsides, as well as in editions of the Postal Laws and Regulations. After October 1860 these tables were published monthly in the 

U.S. Mail and Post Office Assistant, a private publication having official sanction. Prussian closed-mail rates 

included in these tables to countries beyond the German-Austrian Postal Union indicated the amount of 

postage to particular countries and whether prepayment was optional. When prepayment was optional, 

it was possible to pay only the 30^ international rate, 

which paid the letter to the border of the GermanAustrian Postal Union; it was forwarded from there 

with the remaining foreign postage to be collected 

from the addressee. These letters were rated and 

marked by the Aachen office which also applied 

special handstamps to indicate that the postage was 

paid only to the border of the postal union. Marking Q 

of Figure 51 is an example of one of these markings. 

It is inscribed FRANCO/PREUSS. RESP. VEREINS/AUSGANGS-GRENZE. This translates literally as "Paid/Prussian, and so forth, Union/Exit-Border." A free transFRANCO 

AACHEN 11 1 

FRANCO 

TRANCO 

PftF.U&S.ftlSUVKUINS 

JkVNfiAlRS-GRENZE 

lation would be "Paid to the point of exit on the border 

of the German-Austrian Postal Union." 

Information as to whether a rate paid to destination in or to the frontier of a particular country is 

not disclosed by the published tables of postages. 

In regard to Prussian closed mail, where optional prepayment is shown, the rate usually paid the letter 

to its destination. In those cases where prepayment was 

compulsory, the rate usually paid the letter only to the 

frontier of the country of destination. 

The convention does not mention German currency, or any equivalent in United States money. All 

of the rates were expressed in, and all of the accounting was to be performed in United States currency. 

Since there was a welter of currencies circulating 

throughout Germany, it is doubtful that any particular 

currency could have been used. In general, the Prussian closed-mail rate was 13 silbergroschen in the 

northern states and 45 kreuzer in the southern states. 

There was, however, a special fee for delivery which 

was collected from the addressee. This charge appears 

to have varied in amount. Unpaid letters from the 

United States show a superaddition to the 13-silbergroschen rate, sometimes expressed as a fraction of a 

silbergroschen, and sometimes expressed in pfennige. 

Smith states:

 G 

The existence of this charge was found to be specially 

unfortunate in regard to foreign letters, since its collection 

was regarded by foreign administrations as an addition 

to the ordinary postage and consequently an evasion of 

the terms of the agreements under which foreign rates had 

been fixed. 

Beginning in 1862, this fee was to be gradually abolished and by 1864 was no longer to exist.7

 There was, 

however, a fee for rural delivery which was not abolished until 1 January 1872.8 

As already mentioned, the Prussian closed-mail rate 

in the southern German states of Baden, Bavaria, and 

Wurttemberg appears to have been 45 kreuzer. The 

currency in these states was based upon 60 kreuzer 

to the florin or gulden, either of which was worth 

about 400 in United States currency, and each kreuzer 

was, therefore, worth about two thirds of a cent. Until 

1858 the florin of Austria was worth 480, and its 

kreuzer about four fifths of a cent. An 1851 almanac 

(its title page is missing and full citation cannot be 

given) in a table entitled "Value of Silver Coin & 

FIGURE 51.—MARKINGS on Prussian closed-mail covers. 

A. D. Smith, Development of Rates of Postage, p. 107. 

Ibid. 

Ibid., p. 110. 
NUMBER 6 89 

Foreign Currencies" shows 20 kreuzer to be equal to 

160. The Prussian closed-mail rate in Austria was, 

therefore, 38 kreuzer. In 1858 Austria increased the 

number of kreuzer to the gulden from 60 to 100. 

It was the custom of the Aachen office to show the 

Union and foreign postages on letters prepaid in Germany or on unpaid letters from the United States. The 

Union postage was 2 silbergroschen, or 6 kreuzer, while 

the remaining postage was 11 silbergroschen, or 39 

kreuzer. One, and sometimes both, of these amounts 

appear on letters prepaid in Germany. Unpaid letters 

from the United States usually show a 2, or a 6, applied 

in manuscript or by use of a handstamp. 

Prussia paid the postage on letters to or from places 

beyond the German-Austrian Postal Union. When the 

postage to these places was prepaid in the United 

States, the exchange offices increased the credit to 

Prussia above the 70 applicable to the 300 rate by the 

amount of postage beyond the border of the Union. 

Thus, a letter to Switzerland would bear a credit of 

120, the postage beyond the border being 50, and the 

total postage set at 350. 

The effective date of the convention as provided by 

Article XX was to be one month from the time notice 

was received of its being concluded. The annual report 

of Postmaster General Campbell for the year ended 

30 June 1853 gives the effective date as 16 October 

1852. This was undoubtedly determined by the sailing 

date of the first American packet at the expiration of 

one month after notification was received. The Collins 

line steamer Atlantic sailed from New York on that 

date, and it is presumed she carried the first Prussian 

closed mail dispatched from the United States. 

Prussian Closed-Mail 

Markings and Covers 

Because the Prussian closed mail was sent in closed 

bags between New York or Boston and Aachen through 

England and Belgium, its covers do not bear British or 

Belgian markings. At least as early as 12 January 1853, 

the New York office used a marking on letters prepaid 

in the United States similar to A of Figure 51, applied 

in red. The Boston office applied marking C in red to 

the face and a marking similar to B of Figure 51 (with 

either BR. or AM. PKT.) in black to the reverse of prepaid letters forwarded from that office. At a later date 

(uncertain) a marking similar to A of Figure 51, but 

inscribed BOSTON instead of N. YORK was introduced. 

The Aachen office marked prepaid letters received from 

the United States with markings showing the word 

FRANCO. The earliest and latest uses of these markings 

noted to the date of this writing are as follows (letters 

in parentheses refer to Figure 51) : 

Marking 

Large FRANCO (M) 

Small FRANCO (N) 

Boxed Franco (O) 

Boxed AACHEN/FRANCO (P) 

In red 

In blue 

Earliest Latest 

24 Jan. 1853 12 Dec. 1854 

26 Dec. 1854 5 Apr. 1855 

19 Jan. 1855 (one seen) 

29 Apr. 1854 1 Dec. 1863 

10 Mar. 1865 22 Apr. 1867 

Until marking P of Figure 51 came into use, the 

Aachen office applied either marking / or K to the 

reverse of prepaid letters received at that office. 

Unpaid letters posted in the United States show a 

debit of 230 for a single rate in black ink on the face 

of the letter. Marking D of Figure 51 is typical of 

these markings.9 To these unpaid letters the Aachen 

office applied either marking / or K of Figure 51 to the 

reverse of the cover. 

Markings F and G were applied to early prepaid 

letters posted in Germany, addressed to the United 

States. A marking similar to G of Figure 51 shows 

AMERIC for American packet service, instead of the 

BRIT illustrated. These markings were applied in red, 

marking F to die face, and G to the reverse of such 

letters. At a later date (uncertain) markings F and G 

were superseded by marking L. It must be noted that, 

since all postage beyond the German-Austrian Postal 

Union was at Prussian expense, all Prussian closedmail prepaid letters sent by the Aachen office, regardless of their point of origin, bear a credit to the 

United States of 250 per single rate. Prepaid letters 

received by the New York or Boston offices usually 

show a restatement of the 300 international rate 

marked in red ink. Marking / is a typical marking 

showing a restatement of rate. 

Unpaid letters forwarded by the Aachen office to 

the United States show a debit of 50 per single rate, 

usually similar to marking H applied in black. To 

these unpaid letters, the United States offices applied 

black markings indicating a collection of 300 per 

0

 For a more complete presentation of postal markings 

used on Prussian closed mail see Tracy W. Simpson, "United 

States Postal Markings and Related Mail Services, 1851 to 

1861," pp. 91-109. For markings of the Boston office see 

M. C. Blake and W. W. Davis, "Boston Postal Markings 

of Boston, Massachusetts, to 1890," pp. 157-189. 
90 

single rate. Marking E is a typical marking indicating the postage to be collected. 

Figure 52 presents a very early Prussian closed-mail 

cover. It is the only cover seen by the author which 

has the 300 rate prepaid by stamps and which bears 

the large FRANCO marking (M of Figure 51). Posted 

in Baltimore, Maryland, on 7 January 1853, it was 

forwarded to the New York office where marking A 

of Figure 51 (with the date of JAN/12) was applied 

in red. This letter was placed in a bag which was 

closed at the New York office and forwarded to Liverpool by R.M.S. Asia of the Cunard line which sailed 

from New York on 12 January 1853. The Liverpool 

office forwarded the closed bag through London and 

Ostend directly to the Aachen office where the bag 

was opened. On the reverse of this letter is an Aachen 

marking in orange ink (marking / of Figure 51) 

which bears the date of 24/1, indicating that it arrived at the Aachen office on 24 January. As is true 

of many Prussian closed-mail letters, there is nothing 

in either the United States or German markings to 

indicate the year. In this case, however, the cover is 

a folded letter whose heading shows the year to be 

1853. 

Figure 53 illustrates a letter posted in Warsaw, IlliSMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

nois, on 17 July (1857), prepaid 300 by a strip of three 

of the imperforate 100 stamps of the 1851 issue, positions 1L, 2L (type II), and 3L (type III) of plate I. 

The letter was forwarded to the New York office which 

applied marking A of Figure 51 in red ink, with the 

date of JUL/ 2 2. Since there is nothing on the cover to 

indicate the year, it is necessary to determine it from 

the New York postmark. The marking shows British 

packet service, and this means service by the Cunard 

line. The date of 22 July, therefore, could be a Tuesday if the packet sailed from Boston on 23 July, or it 

could be a Wednesday if the packet sailed from New 

York on 22 July. In 1855 all sailings were from Boston, 

America sailing from there on 18 July. Thus, the year 

was not 1855. In 1856 Africa sailed from New York on 

23 July, which eliminates 1856. In 1857 Arabia sailed 

from New York on 22 July, which indicates that this 

is the year in which the letter was mailed. Marking P 

of Figure 51 was applied in red by the Aachen office, 

and this marking shows the date of 4/8, which means 

that it arrived there on 4 August. The letter was, therefore, thirteen days in transit from New York to Aachen. 

Surface mail is seldom faster than that today. 

Figure 54 illustrates an unpaid letter posted in Columbia, Maine, on 8 October (1853), addressed to 

.,4 

1 

v ^ ^ ^ &£&$%> 

7 i /2tt£y?~< 

FIGURE 52.—COVER, from Baltimore to Munich, Bavaria, 1853. 

{Melvin W. Schuh collection) 
NUMBER 6 91 

Sj*4S ^Lx^^ee ^ -*£^W ^ sW «^*L ^ 

FIGURE 53.—COVER, from Warsaw, Illinois, to Osnabriick, Germany, 1857. 

(Mortimer L. Neinken collection) 

/ 

?6b. 

r/MCt/it/. 

fS/l 

//. '//{/// 

v v. -v. ^. 

r 

FIGURE 54.—COVER, from Columbia, Maine, to Weimar, Germany, 1853. 

(Photography by Smithsonian) 
92 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

Weimar, Thuringia. The cover is a 30 Nesbitt 

envelope (seal of G. F. Nesbitt/N.Y., on reverse) which 

prepaid the letter with 30. Since this was a partial payment of the 300 rate, the New York office did not 

recognize it (see Article II, above, page 87) and 

marked the letter with the unpaid debit of 230. The 

New York marking shows British packet (Cunard line) 

service and die date of 19 October. This indicates that 

die letter was forwarded to Liverpool by R.M.S. 

Arabia which sailed from New York on 19 October 

1853. On the reverse is an orange Aachen marking (K 

of Figure 51) bearing the date of l/ i l (1 November). 

There are several other transit marks and a Weimar 

receiving mark showing the date of 2 November. 

Of particular interest are the foreign rate markings. 

At left is a blue manuscript 45 which shows that the 

letter was rated for a collection of 45 kreuzer, the 

equivalent of 300. This is crossed out in red crayon, and 

it is marked with 13 9, which indicates that 13 silbergroschen and 9 pfennige were to be collected. In 

Thuringia both the silbergroschen and the kreuzer 

were in circulation, and the recipient evidently preferred to pay in silbergroschen. The Prussian closedmail rate, however, was only 13 silbergroschen, and 

diis letter shows a surcharge of 9 pfennige. The surcharge evidently represents the delivery fee previously 

mentioned in this chapter. The 45 kreuzer represented 

the rate to be charged while the letter was held in the 

post office, but when delivery was made, the additional 

9 pfennige were added. This cover is illustrated as 

photo 22 in the first section of the late Stanley B. Ashbrook's Special Service. Mr. Ashbrook indicated that 

the circular marking with 2 3 in the center was a Prussian marking. It may be; the author does not know 

whether it is. On the reverse is a blue manuscript 11, 

which indicated the foreign portion of the 13-silbergroschen rate, the remaining 2 silbergroschen representing the Union postage. 

Figure 55 illustrates a cover posted in Munich, addressed to New York. It is prepaid 45 kreuzer by a 

strip of three and a pair of 9 kreuzer Bavarian stamps 

(Scott no. 6). The date in the Munich postmark is 

4 October, while an Aachen marking (L of Figure 

51) shows that it passed through that office on 7 October. The Aachen office indicated the foreign postage 

in silbergroschen by marking it 11 in red crayon. The 

New York office restated the 300 rate by striking it 

with a marking similar to / of Figure 51, but showing 

FIGURE 55.—COVER, from Munich to New York, 1856. (Photograph by Smithsonian) 
NUMBER 6 93 

N. YORK instead of BOSTON. The date in this marking 

is OCT/25 , and steamer Ericsson, then in Collins line 

service, arrived in New York on 25 October 1856. 

Figure 56 illustrates a double-rate cover to Norway 

by Prussian closed mail. This cover was posted in San 

Francisco on 18 April 1862, prepaid 920 by a pair of 10 

and a single 900 stamp of the 1861 issue. The Prussian 

closed-mail rate to Norway at that time was 460, prepayment optional, for a single rate. The foreign postage, tiiat is, postage in excess of the 300 international 

rate, was 160 per single rate. The single-rate credit for 

die international postage of 70, dierefore, should be 

augmented by 160, and die total single-rate credit 

should be 230. Thus, the New York office marked this 

cover in red manuscript with a 46, representing a 

double-rate credit to Prussia. At the time Mr. J. David 

Baker illustrated this cover in the Chronicle,10 he asked, 

"Is this die only 900 cover known used to Norway?" To 

die date of this writing no other has been reported. 

Covers by British Open Mail 

From 1849 until 1856 tables of postages to foreign 

countries published in United States official and semiofficial sources show the open-mail rates of 50 by 

10 Chronicle of the U.S. Classic Issues 17, 1 (Oct. 1964) 

37. 

British packet or of 210 by American packet as being 

available for letters addressed to the various German 

states and to most of the countries in central and 

eastern Europe. The table included in the 1857 edition 

of the Postal Laws and Regulations deletes the openmail rates to most of those destinations and introduces 

rates by French mail. The deletion does not mean diat 

open-mail rates to those countries were no longer available for use by the United States exchange offices; it 

simply means that the Post Office Department no 

longer recommended this route for mails addressed to 

tiiose destinations. After the Prussian closed-mail convention became effective on 16 October 1852, little 

mail between the northern German states and the 

United States was sent in the British open mail. The 

few covers seen were forwarded by the London office 

to the Prussian office at Aachen in the Anglo-Prussian 

closed mail under terms of the Anglo-Prussian convention of 2/7 July 1852. This route proceeded from London through Ostend and Venders to Aachen, and 

thence to the second Prussian exchange office for 

Anglo-Prussian closed mail at Cologne. Letters from 

the United States were usually put off at Aachen, while 

letters to the United States usually entered the closed 

mails at Cologne. The United States-Prussian closed 

mail also followed this route, but Aachen was the exchange office for mail sent in either direction. 

Prior to the effective date of the United Statesy

 Ahc^^/A f?> 

js//< >< 

FIGURE 56.—COVER, from San Francisco to Thronjem [Trondhjem—Trondheim], Norway, 1862 

(Courtesy of J. David Baker) 
94 

French convention, 1 April 1857, mail addressed to the 

southern German states, Switzerland, and the northern 

Italian states was usually sent in the British open mail 

through France or in the Prussian closed mail. Bremen 

rates, and after 1 July 1857, rates by the Bremen and 

Hamburg services, were also available to these destinations. After the United States-French convention became effective, open-mail covers to these destinations 

are seldom seen. 

Figure 57 illustrates a cover posted in Rochester, 

New York, on 14 February 1853, addressed to Berlin. 

It is prepaid 210 by a strip of seven 30 stamps of the 

1851 issue. A New York American packet marking 

dated 19 February indicates service to Liverpool by 

U.S.M. (United States Mail) steamer Atlantic of the 

Collins line. The cover bears on its face markings B, 

C, and E of Figure 58. Marking B is the British debit 

to Prussia for British and Belgian transit postage (see 

page 86. This marking does not appear on several 

covers used during 1856, and it is not known whether 

the use of the marking was discontinued, or whether 

it was omitted on covers in error. Marking E is in blue 

manuscript and indicates that 7 silbergroschen were 

to be collected (see page 86). On the reverse of the 

cover is a circular British marking BX/3 MR 3/1853 

applied in orange-red ink, and marking A of Figure 

58 dated 4/3, that is 4 March. These markings are 

SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

characteristic of open-mail letters forwarded by the 

London office in the Anglo-Prussian closed mail. 

Figure 59 illustrates a cover posted in Mainz on 29 

April 1856, adderssed to New York. The letter is prepaid 47 kreuzer by a strip of five of the 9-kreuzer and 

two single 1-kreuzer stamps (Scott nos. 46 and 42, 

respectively, of the Southern District of Thurn and 

Taxis posts of Germany). On die face is a P. in a circle 

and a PD marking which indicated that the postage 

was paid to destination, in this case, the United States 

frontier. 

On the reverse is a double circle COELN/5- 6 marking with date of 30/4 (30 April) in the center. This 

indicates that the letter entered the Anglo-Prussian 

closed mail at the Cologne office on 30 April 1856. 

The Cologne office marked the letter 10y4 gn in 

manuscript in red ink to show a credit to Great Britain 

of IO34 groschen. This was for sea postage which was 

8d. under the United States-British treaty, and was 

evidently held at 7% silbergroschen, plus 3/2 silbergroschen for British and Belgian transit (see page 86). 

These same rates in British pence were 8d. and 4d., 

respectively, and the London office, which performed 

the accounting, marked the letter ls. in red manuscript. 

The German postage was also 3 J/2 silbergroschen or 

4d., which would make the total postage to the 

United States frontier amount to 32^ (24^ British and 

u&gmst wwm^' iP^ ^ ffi^SSPI fl^l S 1^^^ . 

*&>: 

' .;;4^f*^f; lfflRti@$&&' .^&&&!sBs: SdM^ s -mr^^^-i^rrj^^-^^ 

FIGURE 57.—COVER, from Rochester, N.Y., to Berlin, Prussia, 1853. (Melvin W. Schuh collection) 
NUMBER 6 95 

B 

U.S.P?T 

c 

FIGURE 58.—MARKINGS on open-mail covers to Germany and 

Switzerland. 

80 German). Since 1 kreuzer was equal to about two 

thirds of a United States cent, 47 kreuzer were equal 

to about 31^3^, the discrepancy undoubtedly being due 

to rounding off the rates and coin. 

The London office marked the letter PAID and forwarded it to Liverpool on 2 May 1856 (see circular 

PAID/2 MY 2/1856 on face of cover). The New York 

office marked the letter in black with a circular 5/N. 

YORK BR. PKT. marking dated MAY/I6 . The R.M.S. 

Asia of the Cunard line arrived in New York on that 

date, confirming the endorsement to that ship. Five 

cents were collected in New York. 

Figure 60 illustrates a most unusual cover. It was 

posted in New Orleans on 27 December 1856, addressed to Basle, Switzerland. It is endorsed "p. first 

Steamer via Liverpool/p. prussian closed mail." Since 

the first steamer to Liverpool may not have carried a 

Prussian closed mail, the two portions of the endorsement were ambiguous. The single rate by Prussian 

closed mail to Switzerland was 35^. This letter is prepaid 700 by stamps of the 1851 issue, which apparently 

indicates that the mailer's intention was to send it in 

the Prussian closed mail, and that the letter weighed 

over half an ounce, requiring two rates. For a reason 

upon which it is futile to speculate, the New York office 

sent the letter in the British open mail to Liverpool, 

instead of in the Prussian closed mail. A New York 

American packet marking dated 17 January signifies 

service to Liverpool by steamer Ericsson, then running 

for the Collins line. Since this was an American packet, 

only 420 of the 700 prepayment was utilized. On the 

reverse is a London marking FD/2 FE 2/185 7 applied 

in orange-red. The London office evidently intended to 

send the letter through France, but, after applying a 

GB/4 00 marking (O of Figure 18), changed the routing and sent it in the Anglo-Prussian closed mail to 

Aachen. On the face of the cover is marking C and on 

the reverse, marking A of Figure 58 dated 3/2 (3 

February). 

Rates for transit mail were established by Articles 

II and III of the Anglo-Prussian convention. Transit 

letters were to be liable for the 8d. or 7 silbergroschen 

international rate and "be further liable to the rates 

which are now or which shall hereafter be taken from 

FIGURE 59.—COVER, from Mainz [Germany], to New York, 1856. 
96 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

Z4^Z^>' 

FIGURE 60.—COVER, from New Orleans to Basle, Switzerland, 1856. 

(Hugh J. Baker, Jr., collection) 

British subjects, upon letters . . passing in transit 

through any of the States of the German Postal Union, 

and also the United Kingdom"; the foreign rates "are 

to be calculated from the port of departure or arrival 

of the packet." Article II refers to an appended table 

which gives the rate to Switzerland as 5d. foreign 

postage and 4d. British and Belgian transit for a total 

of 9d. Since Id. (British) was equal to 10 rappen 

(Swiss), a double-rate letter should be rated for a 

collection of 180 rappen in Switzerland. On the face 

of the cover (Figure 60) is a red crayon 180, and 

since it was the custom of the Swiss to show postage 

due in red crayon, it is presumed that this marking indicated the amount to be collected. Also on the face 

of the cover are blue manuscript markings which 

are presumed to be German. The author has not been 

able to determine the nature of these markings in 

regard to either the currency they represent or their 

significance. 

Figure 61 illustrates an open-mail cover that was 

forwarded through France. This letter was posted in 

Philadelphia on 21 November 1851, addressed to 

Nuremburg [sic], Bavaria. It is prepaid 210 for American packet service by a strip of four and a strip of three 

of the 30 stamps in the orange-brown shade. The Philadelphia postmark is in blue as are also the grids canceling the stamps. The New York American packet marking had not yet been introduced, but it is presumed this 

letter was conveyed to Liverpool by U.S.M. steamer 

Baltic which sailed from New York on 22 November 

1851. Although the provisional agreement between 

France and England which culminated in the decree 

of 19 November 1851 fixed rates only between England 

and France and those places on the Mediterranean 

where France had post offices, the COLONIES/&c. 

ART. 13 was no longer used on mail in transit through 

France from the United States. On this cover, marking 

E of Figure 18 with the date of 6 December 1851 was 

applied in black. Marking E was introduced at the time 

the COLONIES/&C. ART 13 (B of Figure 18) was discontinued on mail from the United States. The cover 

bears a manuscript / /30 marking, which it is presumed 

signified that one florin thirty kreuzer were to be collected in Bavaria. This was equal to 600 in United 

States currency and to 90 Bavarian kreuzer. The southern German states charged postage on the quarterounce basis, and it is suspected that this represented a 

collection of two single rates of 45 kreuzer. 

Figure 62 illustrates a most unusual cover which 

was sent through France in the open mail as late as 

1865. This letter originated in a town named Mishicott, 

but the name of the state is off the letter. There was 

a town by the name of Mishicot (spelled with one t) 

in Wisconsin, and this is the only town by that name 
NUMBER 6 97 

'jf/j^diL <^£^^&^s£r 

&ra5?~^ ^^ f 

'CCV&z*^ 

£2&t&t<.ckFIGURE 61.—COVER, from Philadelphia to Nuremburg [Nuremberg], Bavaria, 1851. 

(Melvin W. Schuh collection) 

that has been found in any of the listings to which 

reference has been made. The state of origin is, therefore, uncertain. If the state was Wisconsin, however, 

much about the cover can be explained. As will be 

more fully examined later, the additional articles to 

the United States-French convention, effective 1 April 

1861, which created an exchange office at Detroit, provided that all French mail originating in Wisconsin be 

sent to that office, whence it was to be forwarded by 

the Allan line from Portland or River du Loup. The 

Detroit office could not send French mail to Boston or 

New York for transmission, but it could send British 

mail to the offices at Boston or New York to be included in mails made up at those offices. The Detroit 

office made up no mails for conveyance to Europe 

that were not to be forwarded by the Allan line. 

It is assumed that this letter was sent by the Mishicott office to the office at Detroit prepaid with 210 

in stamps and without the required endorsement if it 

were to be sent by French mail. Although the table 

of postages to foreign countries does not show the 

open-mail rates as being available on mail to Switzerland, they were available to the exchange offices, 

and the public was admonished to endorse its letters 

to be sent by French mail, or they might be sent in die 

open mail to Liverpool.11 

Whether it was the intention of the person who 

mailed this letter to send it by French mail is not 

known. The Detroit office determined that it weighed 

over one-fourth ounce and would require two French 

mail rates of 210 to be prepaid. If it were sent by 

French mail it would have to be forwarded as an unpaid letter, the 210 prepaid not being recognized. 

Since the letter was not endorsed to be sent by French 

mail, it was sent in the British mail, directed to the 

New York office. At the New York office it was 

included in the Liverpool mail and entered on 

the letter-bill as an open-mail letter addressed 

to Switzerland. The New York packet marking 

was applied lightly in red over the Mishicott marking and shows the date of 4 November. On 4 November 1865, the City of New York of the Inman line 

sailed from New York for Queenstown with die British 

mail, and it is assumed she carried this letter to 

Liverpool. Since Liverpool was not an exchange office 

11

 U.S. Mail and Post Office Assistant on page 4 under 

"Foreign Miscellany." All issues from October 1860 through 

December 1867. 
98 

A* 

4 

K

J*2**J 5 

SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

*-w r ? ...••- • 

FIGURE 62.—COVER, from Mishicott [state unknown] to Martigny, Switzerland, 1865. 

for Anglo-French mail, this letter was forwarded to 

the London office, whence it was forwarded to France 

on 17 November 1865 (London marking bearing this 

date on reverse of cover). The London office also 

marked the cover with the GB/4 0C marking (O of 

Figure 18), showing that it was forwarded to France 

charged with transit postage only. The ambulant office, Calais to Paris, marked the letter with marking 

N of Figure 18 dated 17 November 1865. The Paris 

office (marking on reverse, date 18 November 1865) 

forwarded the letter to a French border exchange 

office designated by the marking F./2 7. 

Maury

 12

 lists thirty-nine such markings, each with 

12

 Author Maury, Catalogue descriptif de toutes les marques 

postales de la France, pp. 48-50. 

the single letter F. and a numeral, and having a border 

of a different shape. He notes that they were introduced in 1857 and that they were applied by the 

French exchange offices on letters passing in transit 

through France (see marking D of Figure 58). On 

the reverse of the letter is a marking of the Swiss AMBULANT-CIRCULAIRE dated 19 November 1865 and a 

Martigny town marking of the same date. On the face 

at upper left is a small manuscript 2 signifying a double-rate letter, and a 140 in red crayon. This latter 

marking indicates that 140 centimes were to be collected in Switzerland. Very few letters were sent in the 

open mail to points on the continent through France as 

late as 1865. 
Chapter 6 

Postal Relations With Belgium 1844-1868 

On 19 October 1844, a postal convention between 

Great Britain and Belgium was signed at London.1 This 

convention governed the exchange of mail between the 

United States and Belgium, via England, until after the 

United States-British treaty became effective in 1849. 

During this period, mails to or from the United States 

were sent in the ordinary or "open" mail. The rates 

to be charged in Belgium on letters to or from "colonies 

and countries beyond the sea" were set forth in Article 

XXIV, as follows: 

1. Eightpence per single letter, for transit mrough the 

territory of the United Kingdom. 

2. The packet rate the inhabitants of Great Britain have 

to pay on letters coming from or addressed to colonies 

and countries beyond the sea. 

The detailed regulations, in an appended table,2 

specifically provided a rate for the United States of 

ls. 8d., which was to be prepaid in Belgium on letters 

sent, or collected there on letters received. Since this 

rate covered only British transit and packet postages, 

it paid the letter no farther than the frontiers of the 

two countries. Inland postage in either country was 

required to be prepaid on letters sent, or collected on 

letters received. The inland postage to be prepaid or 

collected in Belgium was set by Article XIX at 4 

decimes, or 4d. 

Article X of the detailed regulations established the 

progression of the Belgian postage, as follows: 

1. Under 10 grams, one single rate 

2. From 10 grams to 15 grams inclusively, one rate and 

a half 

1

 British and Foreign State Papers, vol. 32, pp. 66-77. 

(According to a letter from Jacques Stibbe of Brussels this 

convention was placed in force in Belgium on 1 Dec. 1844.) 

2

 Ibid., pp. 78-85. 

3. From 15 grams to 20 grams inclusively, two rates 

4. From 20 grams to 30 grams inclusively, two rates and 

a half, and so on; one half rate being added for every 

10 grams 

The British postage was calculated upon the progression then in force in Great Britain, which was: 

1. For every letter not exceeding half an ounce in weight, 

one single rate 

2. Above half an ounce, but not exceeding one ounce, 

two rates 

3. Above one ounce, but not exceeding two ounces, four 

rates and so on, two rates being added for 

every ounce, or fraction of an ounce. 

Article I of the detailed regulations required that the 

Belgian office at Ostend exchange mails with the 

British offices at Dover and London. The Belgian office at Antwerp was to exchange mails only with the 

British office at London. By additional articles signed 

at London on 18 June 1845,3 the office at Antwerp 

was also to correspond with a new British office at 

Hull. 

The advent of the American contract packets of the 

Ocean Steam Navigation Company in June 1847 created a number of problems for the British Post Office. 

As explained in Chapter 2, it was the desire of the 

United States Post Office that letters conveyed by 

American packets be delivered to the British Post Office 

at Southampton to be forwarded from that office as 

letters originating in the United Kingdom. It was 

hoped that the British would relinquish their 8d. ship 

letter fee on these letters. Had the British Post Office 

acceded to this American wish, the inhabitants of the 

United Kingdom would, have paid no packet postage 

Ibid., vol. 33, p. 35. 

NUMBER 6 99 
100 

on letters conveyed by the American steamers. Under 

XXIV of the Anglo-Belgian convention (previously 

outlined), no packet postage, under this circumstance, 

would have been levied in Belgium on letters conveyed 

by the American line. Implementing Article XXIV of 

the convention, the detailed regulations, however, provided a sole rate of ls. 8d. for mail to or from die 

United States. This provision would have required 

amendment so that it applied only to mail conveyed by 

British packets, and an additional rate of 8d. for letters 

by American packet would have to have been introduced. It will be remembered that the Anglo-Prussian 

convention of 1 October 1846 and the Anglo-French 

convention of 3 April 1843 also provided for sole openor closed-mail rates between the frontier of the United 

States and the frontiers of Prussia or France. 

On 9 June 1847, the British Post Office solved its 

problem. As will be remembered from Chapter 2, on 

that date the British Post Office issued an order requiring the inhabitants of the United Kingdom to pay the 

ls.-packet postage on letters conveyed by the American line. Thus, the inhabitants of Belgium were also 

required to pay it, and the sole rate of ls. 8d. prevailed. 

In issuing this order, the British Post Office was 

primarily, and avowedly, motivated by a desire to 

protect the Cunard line of contract packets. It cannot 

be doubted, however, tiiat a desire to maintain die 

existing mail arrangements the British Post Office held 

with the corridor countries on the continent was also 

an influencing factor. 

While the United States "retaliatory" act of 27 

June 1848 required that 240-packet postage be collected in the United States on letters conveyed by the 

Cunard line, it had no effect on the postage prepaid or 

collected in Belgium. After the United States-British 

treaty was signed on 15 December 1848, and before it 

became effective on 15 February 1849, it will be remembered, the former rates were restored; in Britain on 29 

December 1848 by a treasury warrant, and in the 

United States on 3 January 1849 by a post office order. 

Between 29 December 1848 and 15 February 1849, 

therefore, the ls. charge for packet postage on mail 

between the Belgian and United States frontiers, when 

conveyed by American packets, should have been 

dropped. Since there were no sailings by the American 

Ocean line between 20 November 1848 and 20 February 1849,4

 the British Post Office did not have to face 

this issue. 

SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

From 1844 until the United States-British treaty 

became effective on 15 February 1849, therefore, there 

was a sole rate of ls. 8d. between the United States and 

Belgian frontiers, whether the letter was conveyed by 

a British or an American packet. When the United 

States-British treaty became effective in Great Britain, 

the packet rate was reduced to 8d., and according to 

Article XXIV of the Anglo-Belgian convention, should 

have immediately reduced the rate between the United 

States and Belgian frontiers to Is. 4d. by British packet, 

and to 8d. by American packet. No covers passing between the United States and Belgium during this period, however, have been seen, and it is not known 

whether this reduction was immediately recognized.5 

Figure 63 illustrates a letter posted in Charleston, 

South Carolina, on 21 February 1848, addressed to 

Gand, Belgium, and endorsed to Cunard steamer 

Hibernia. The inland rate from Charleston to New 

York, a distance of over 300 miles, was 100, which was 

prepaid by use of a pair of 50 stamps of the 1847 

issue. The letter was conveyed by Hibernia, which 

sailed from New York on 26 February and arrived 

in Liverpool on 11 March 1848. Since Liverpool was 

not an exchange office for Anglo-Belgian mail, this 

letter was sent directly to the London or Dover office, 

probably the foreign office at Lombard Street, London. 

J^fy'j. 

FIGURE 63.—COVER, from Charleston, S.C., to Gand [Ghent], 

Belgium, 1948. (Photograph by Ashbrooke. Courtesy of 

Creighton C. Hart) 

4

 Shipping and Commercial List and New York Prices Current, arrival and clearance dates reported in appropriate 

issues. 

6

 A letter from Stibbe states that the reduction in rate 

following the U.S.-British treaty was placed in force in 

Belgium after 29 Mar. 1849. An official circulaire concluded: 

"A new convention between Great Britain and the United 

States of America has reduced the rate on correspondence 

exchanged, via England, between the United States and the 

continent. This correspondence can be sent by English or 

American packets, at the choice of the senders. However, those 

intended to be sent by the latter, must bear in the upper part 

of the address the words: 'Par paquebot des Etats Unis'. . . . 

Followed by the postage to the benefit of Great Britain." 
NUMBER 6 101 

The back of the cover is not shown, but it should bear 

a British exchange office marking showing a date of 

11 or 12 March. The British exchange office debited 

Belgium with ls. 8d.3 which is indicated by the manuscript 1/8 on the face at right. The letter was then 

forwarded to either the Ostend or the Antwerp office, 

which marked it for a collection in Belgium of 24 

decimes. This is shown by the manuscript marking 

in blue, which looks something like 9N, but is the 

way the Belgians and the French wrote 24. The ls. 

8d., of course, was equal to 20d., or 20 decimes, to 

which was added 4 decimes for Belgian inland postage. 

Figure 64 presents a cover to which the late Stanley 

B. Ashbrook devoted considerable space in his Special 

Service* As Mr. Ashbrook pointed out, this letter originated in Charleston, South Carolina, on 28 October 

1848, during the retaliatory period, and required a prepayment of 100 inland (for a distance beyond 300 

miles), and a packet postage of 240, for a total of 340. 

This postage was prepaid by use of a strip of three of 

the 100 stamps and a single 50 stamp of the 1847 issue. 

Thus, the letter was 10 overpaid. It was conveyed, in 

some manner not apparent on the cover, to New York, 

where it was posted and the stamps canceled with the 

well-known square grid. It is endorsed to steamer 

Niagara, which sailed from Boston on 1 November and 

S. B. Ashbrook, Special Service, issue 20, pp. 137-144. 

arrived in Liverpool on 13 November 1848. Mr. Ashbrook photographed the back of the cover (not shown 

here), and this bears what appears to be a London 

marking with the date of 14 November 1848, indicating the date it was dispatched from that office. Shown 

is an Ostend marking dated 15 November and a Gand 

receiving mark bearing the date of 18 November. On 

the face of the cover is a manuscript yk in black ink, 

indicating the British debit to Belgium. 

Also on the face of the cover is a rectangular box 

marking, bearing three lines of type. Because the impression is somewhat blurred, these cannot be read 

from the photograph, but Mr. Ashbrook was able to 

decipher them from the original. They read (with a 

literal translation), as follows: DEBOURS ETRANGER 

("Foreign disbursement")

 J/Q [inserted]/TAXE REDUITE 

("Rate converted") 20 [inserted]/PORT BELGE ("Belgian postage") 4 [inserted]. 

The inserted figures show the British postage of ls. 8d. 

and its equivalent of 20 decimes brought down. The 

Belgian postage of 4 decimes indicates that the letter 

weighed under ten grams. This marking was undoubtedly developed to assist in computing and explaining 

the amount to be collected, which, because of the differences in the British and Belgian progressions, would 

become complicated on letters above ten grams in 

weight. Also on the face is a manuscript 24, which indi-

.«*!**.'. 

FIGURE 64.—COVER, from Charleston, S.C., to Gand [Ghent], Belgium, 1848. 

(Photograph by Ashbrook. Courtesy of Creighton C. Hart) 
102 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

cated that 24 decimes were to be collected from the 

addressee in Gand [Ghent]. 

The covers illustrated in Figures 63 and 64 both 

show the same rate to be collected in Belgium, as would 

any cover whose weight was under ten grams, sent 

from the United States to Belgium, via England, between 1844 and 15 February 1849. The photographs of 

these covers were taken from the late Stanley B. Ashbrook's Special Service, and are presented here through 

the courtesy of Mr. Creighton C. Hart. 

On 27 November 1849,7 an additional postal convention between Great Britain and Belgium was signed 

at London. Although this convention was considered 

as additional to the convention of 19 October 1844, 

many changes in the original arrangements were made. 

Article I reduced the Belgian inland postage to 2 

decimes, or pence, and changed the progression for the 

Belgian postage to the following: 

1. Under 7/2 grams, one single rate 

2. From 7l/i grams to 15 grams exclusively, two rates 

3. From 15 grams to 2 2/a grams exclusively, three rates, 

and so on, one rate being added for every 7^2 grams 

Article V set the rates for ordinary transit correspondence as follows: 

1. Fourpence per single letter for transit through the 

territory of the United Kingdom, when the letter 

shall be posted in or addressed to Belgium . . 

7

 British and Foreign State Papers, vol. 37, pp. 11-19. (According to a letter from Stibbe this convention became effective in Belgium on 1 Feb. 1850.) 

2. The packet rate which the inhabitants of Great Britain have to pay on letters coming from or addressed 

to colonies and countries beyond the sea 

Article VIII made the rates established in Article 

V apply to closed mails. 

For a letter that weighed less than 7l/3 grams, therefore, the rate to be prepaid or collected in Belgium was 

the sum of 2 decimes for inland, 4 decimes for British 

transit, and 8 decimes for packet postages. Thus, a total 

of 14 decimes would have paid such a letter posted in 

Belgium to the United States frontier when conveyance was by a British packet. On such a letter, Belgium 

would have given Great Britain a credit of 12 decimes, 

the equivalent of ls. After 1854, if the British Post 

Office elected to send the above letter by an American 

packet, it would have given the United States a credit 

of 160 for packet postage (see Chapter 2, p. 39). 

Figure 65 illustrates a cover posted in Deep River, 

Connecticut, on 28 April 1856, addressed to Antwerp. 

It is prepaid 210 by a single 10 type IV stamp, and a 

pair of 10^ type II stamps of the 1851 issue. It was sent 

to the New York exchange office which forwarded it on 

3 May 1856 to Southampton by the Arago of the Havre 

line. From Southampton it was sent to the London 

office which applied a straight-line u.s. pKT marking in 

black (C of Figure 58, Chapter 5) and debited Belgium 

in black manuscript with 4 (pence) transit postage. 

The Ostend exchange office applied a rectangular 

marking to the face of the letter, similar to that shown 

FIGURE 65.—COVER, from Deep River, Ct. [Connecticut], to Antwerp, 1856. 

(Courtesy of John A. Fox) 
NUMBER 6 103 

in Figure 64. The manuscript insertions (in blue ink) 

in this marking are: DEBOURS ETRANGER 4 [inserted]/ 

TAXE REDUITE 4 [inserted]/poRT BELGE 2 [inserted]. 

Below this marking is a blue manuscript 6 which signifies a collection of 6 decimes (4 decimes transit and 2 

decimes inland postage). The inland postage of 2 

decimes was for a letter that weighed under 7/ 2 grams.s 

A new postal convention between the post offices of 

Great Britain and Belgium was signed at London on 28 

August 1857.° This convention was preceded by one 

signed at London on 8 January 1857,10 which simply 

gave the post offices of the two countries the right to 

make a postal convention. The previous conventions, 

signed by the British secretary of foreign affairs and 

the Belgian minister at London, were diplomatically 

negotiated, but the two post offices were allowed to 

settle matters of detail. Evidently, a quirk of Belgian 

law required special permission for its postal authorities 

to make a postal convention. 

Article II established Belgian exchange offices at 

(1) Ostend, local office and travelling office; (2) Antwerp; (3) travelling office on railway between Ghent 

and Mouscron; (4) travelling office between Brussels 

and Quievrain. The British offices remained (1) 

Dover, (2) London, and (3) Hull. Others could be 

established by agreement between the two post offices. 

Article VII set the international rate at 40 centimes, 

or 4d., which included Belgian postage of 20 centimes, 

or 2d., and British postage of 20 centimes, or 2d., for 

prepaid letters. Unpaid letters were at double the above 

rates, and insufficiently prepaid letters by means of 

postage stamps were charged double the amount of the 

deficiency. Dr. Robert de Wasserman of Brussels has 

kindly submitted a copy of Belgian Post Office order 

413 which explains by several examples how the 

amount due on insufficiently paid letters was to be 

computed. One example will suffice. It translates: 

A single-rate letter, addressed from Belgium to England, 

and prepaid by postage stamps to the value of 10 centimes, 

will arrive at destination marked by the Belgian exchange 

office for a collection of 6d. (60 centimes), as follows: 

One single rate 

Value of postage stamps 

Insufficiency 

Double the insufficiency 

40 

10 

30 

60 

8

 This cover is in the collection of L. L. Downing. 

"British and Foreign State Papers, vol. 56, pp. 989-997. 

(According to a letter from Stibbe this convention became 

effective in Belgium on 1 October 1857.) 

10

 Ibid., vol. 47, pp. 9-11. 

372-645 Cv—70 8 

Article VII also established the progression for both 

countries as that used in Great Britain, as follows: 

1. For every letter of which the weight shall not exceed 15 

grams (half an ounce), one single rate 

2. Exceeding 15 grams (half an ounce) and not exceed 

ing 30 grams (I ounce), two rates 

3. Exceeding 30 grams (1 ounce) and not exceeding 

60 grams (two ounces), four rates, and so on, adding 

two rates per 30 grams or fraction of 30 grams (1 

ounce or fraction of 1 ounce) 

Article XI set the rates for ordinary letters to or 

from colonies or countries beyond the sea, as follows: 

1. For transit over the territory of the United Kingdom, 

2d. per single letter 

2. The sea rate paid by the British public upon letters 

originating in or addressed to the colonies or countries beyond the sea 

Article XV applied the rates of Article XI to 

closed mail. By a table appended to the detailed regulations, special rates for letters between Belgium and 

the United States were fixed at 10 decimes by British 

packet, and 2 decimes by United States packet.11 

These rates were required to be prepaid and accounted 

for by the Belgian office to the British office on correspondence originating in or addressed to British 

colonies, possessions, or foreign countries. The above 

rates were made applicable to unpaid letters forwarded 

by the British office to Belgium by Article XI of the 

convention. 

Thus, on letters posted in Belgium, addressed to the 

United States, a prepayment of 12 decimes, that is, 2 

decimes Belgian inland, 2 decimes British transit, and 

8 decimes sea postage, would pay the letter to the 

United States frontier by a British packet. By an American packet the prepayment would be only 4 decimes 

(2 decimes Belgian inland and 2 decimes British transit 

postages). Letters posted in the United States, addressed to Belgium, would require a prepayment of 5$ 

in the United States and a collection in Belgium of 12 

decimes, if conveyed by British packet. If conveyance 

was by American packet, a prepayment of 2l£ in the 

United States was required, and 4 decimes would be 

collected in Belgium. Letters posted in Belgium prepaid with the British packet rate of 12 decimes, if sent 

by American packet by the British Post Office, would 

receive a credit to the United States from the British 

Post Office of 160 for the packet postage. 

11

 Ibid., vol. 56, p. 611. 
104 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

Article XVI provided for mails which were to be 

sent by way of France: 

The mails which shall be exchanged in conformity with 

Article II of the present convention between the Belgian 

Post Offices established on the lines of railway from Ghent 

to Mouscron, and from Brussels to Quievrain, on the one 

side, and the British Post Offices of London and Dover, on 

the other side, shall be forwarded through the medium of 

the Post Office of France. 

In addition to the rates fixed by Article VII of the present Convention the correspondence, whether paid or unpaid, which the public of the two countries may wish to 

send by the route of France, shall be subject to a supplementary rate of 2 decimes, or pence, per single letter. 

Figure 66 illustrates an open-mail cover from the 

United States to Belgium by American packet. Posted 

in San Antonio, Texas, on 10 June (1859), addressed 

to Mons, Belgium, this letter is prepaid with 210 in 

stamps. It was forwarded from New York by steamer 

Fulton of the Havre Line, which sailed on 25 June 

1859 for Cowes (Southampton) and Havre. The letter was sent through the Southampton office to London 

or Dover, and thence to Belgium. The back of the 

cover is not shown, but it must bear both British and 

Belgian markings. On the face appears what looks like 

a 24. It is, however, composed of two markings, a 2 

and a 4. If the cover had been marked for a collection 

of 24 in Belgium, the marking would appear as it does 

on Figures 63 and 64. The 2 in the marking on 

diis cover is not written as die Belgians or the 

French would have written it, but it is the way the 

British would have written a 2. The 2, therefore, is 

the British debit of 2d., while die 4 indicates that 4 

decimes were to be collected on delivery. The photograph of this cover is taken from the late Stanley B. 

Ashbrook's Special Service 12 and is presented here 

through the courtesy of Mr. Creighton C. Hart. 

Figure 67 presents a cover posted in Antwerp on 

28 July 1863, addressed to New York. It is prepaid by 

one 20- and three 40-centime perforated stamps issued 

in 1863 for a total of 140 centimes. At upper left it is 

endorsed "Via Calais," indicating it was to be sent 

by die route of France which required the prepayment 

of an additional 20 centimes. The 140-centime rate is, 

therefore, divided into: Belgian inland, 20 centimes; 

French transit (paid to France), 20 centimes; British 

transit, 20 centimes; and packet postage, 80 centimes. 

To the right of the endorsement is a red manuscript 

10, which is the Belgian credit to the British Post 

Office for the British transit and packet postages. The 

letter arrived at the London office prepaid with the 

postage required for transmission by a British packet. 

The London office, however, included it in mail to 

be sent by an American contract packet, and credited 

the United States Post Office with the packet postage 

of 160. This is shown by a red crayon 16 on the face. 

1

 Ashbrook, Special Service, issue 53, p. 420. 

IVJF 

& 

FIGURE 66.—COVER, from San Antonio, Tex., to Mons, Belgium, 1859. 

(Photograph by Ashbrook. Courtesy of Creighton C. Hart) 
NUMBER 6 

/ £ » Cct-(a<J 

r

 J.CORNF' \¥fi\ 

A H v t-fi S 0h 

FIGURE 67.—COVER, from Antwerp to New York, 1863. 

On 29 July the London office sent the letter to Liverpool, whence it was conveyed by Glasgow of the Inman line which arrived in New York on 11 August 

1863. The New York office marked it for a collection 

of 50 United States inland postage.13 

The United States'Belgian Convention 

of 21 December 1859 

As early as 1854 the United States and Belgium were 

attempting to form a postal arrangement.14 Satisfactory progress toward this end was not made until the 

railway lines connecting Antwerp with the principal 

cities of Belgium, the Netherlands, and the western 

states of Germany had been completed in 1855.15 The 

attractiveness of Antwerp as a trading port for goods 

and emigrants led to the formation of the Compagnie 

Transatlantique Beige for the purpose of operating a 

line of steamships between Antwerp and New York. 

Two iron screw steamers were ordered from the van 

Vlissingen yards at Amsterdam, a firm with little experience in building diis class of vessel. 

In his annual report for 1855, Postmaster General 

James Campbell stated: 

"According to Stibbe, letters from Belgium for the U.S. 

could not be prepaid by postage stamps but had to be paid 

in money. After 1857 letters found in the boxes were tolerated 

if prepayment by postage stamps was correct. Beginning 

1 June 1864, prepayment by postage stamps was compulsory 

on all letters, and insufficiently paid letters were sent to the 

dead-letter office. 

14

 U.S., Congress, Senate, Executive Document 1, 33rd 

Cong., 2nd sess., serial 747, p. 631. 

16

 N. R. B. Bonsor, North Atlantic Seaway, p. 107. 

105 

In view of the establishment of a line of steamships 

between New York and Antwerp, I have intimated my 

readiness to conclude the pending convention with Belgium by fixing the rate of postage for letters between any 

part of the United States and any part of Belgium at 

fifteen cents, which rate shall combine five cents United 

States to two cents Belgium inland, and eight cents sea 

postage. 

The convention, however, was not concluded. The 

poor performances of Belgique and Constitution, both 

of which had to be extensively rebuilt, forced delays 

and irregularities in sailings. Between November 1856 

and September 1857, the above two ships and Leopold 

I made about ten round voyages for the line before 

the service was withdrawn. The firm, having suffered 

heavy financial losses, went into liquidation. 

Belgium and the United States finally concluded a 

convention on 21 December 185916 which provided 

for closed mails through England as well as for a direct 

service in the event that a direct line of steamers should 

be established between the two countries. The principal articles of this convention are summarized as 

follows: 

I. Provided for a regular exchange of mails between the 

United States and Belgium in closed mails, via England, 

or by the direct route. All mail between the two countries was to be sent in the closed mails, via England, 

unless the letters were endorsed to be sent by another 

service. 

II. Provided that Belgium was to pay Great Britain the 

charges for transit over British territory in conformity 

with the Anglo-Belgium convention of 14-28 August 1857, 

while the United States was to bear the expense of sea 

transportation across the Atlantic by United States or 

British packets (closed-mail provisions of the United 

States-British treaty of 1848). 

III. Established United States exchange offices at New York 

and Boston; Belgian offices were set up at the local office 

at Ostend, the travelling Ostend office, and at Antwerp. 

By Article IV, others could be established by mutual 

consent. 

V. Provided for optional prepayment of postage, but no 

account was to be taken of a payment of less than the 

whole rate. 

VI. Established the progression for letters not exceeding 15 

grams (half an ounce) at a single rate; over 15 grams 

(half an ounce), but not over 30 grams (1 ounce), 

2 rates; over 30 grams (one ounce), but not over 60 

grams (two ounces), 4 rates; and so on, adding two rates 

for every 30 grams (one ounce, or fraction of an ounce). 

VII. Set the closed-mail postage for prepaid or unpaid 

letters for a single rate at 1 franc 40 centimes in Belgium, 

or 27ji in the United States, divided as shown in Table 

21. 

U.S., Statutes at Large, vol. 16, pp. 899-905. 
106 

TABLE 21.—Division of United States and Belgium Rates 

Postage Rate, cents 

United States 

Sea 

British transit 

Belgian 

Total rate 

5 

15 

4 

3 

27 

IX. Provided that each office account to the other for letters 

exchanged in closed mails for the actual postage set 

forth in Article VII and according to the progression 

set by Article VI, "letter by letter." 

X. Provided for transit mail through Belgium or through 

the United States. 

XXIII. Provided that in the event of a direct line or lines 

of steamships between the United States and Belgium 

being established the postage for a single rate, according to the progression set by Article VI, was to be 

15^ divided as shown in Table 22. (Article XXIV): 

TABLE 22.—Division of United States and Belgium Rates 

Postage Rate, cents 

United States 

Sea 

Belgian 

Total rate 

5 

7 

3 

15 

It will be noted that Article IX required that the 

accounting between the two offices be on the basis of 

the individual letter and not on the basis of the bulk 

weight of mail. This was made necessary because Belgium paid Great Britain for the British transit postage 

on the basis of the individual letter, but it destroyed 

the advantage of simplified accounting procedures usually accompanying the exchange of closed mails. The 

Prussian closed-mail convention, on the other hand, 

did provide for the settling of accounts on a bulkweight basis. This may point to the reason for the 

United States not availing itself of the transit-mail 

privileges offered by Article X. Until the expiration of 

the convention on 31 December 1867, the only transit 

mail exchanged under its provisions was mail to the 

Netherlands after July 1866. 

Although this convention was made between the 

post offices of the two countries, the formalities of 

exchanging ratifications and of proclamation were 

SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

observed. Article XXVIII stated that it was to be 

placed in operation one month after the exchange of 

ratifications. Dr. Robert de Wasserman has called the 

author's attention to the fact that the convention was 

placed in force at an earlier date. While he notes that 

the ratifications were not exchanged until 19 October 

1860, and the convention was proclaimed in the United 

States on 20 October 1860, he finds in the Recueil 

administratif des Lois, Arretes et Decisions concernant 

le Chemin de fer, Postes & Telegraphes no. 472, that 

it was placed in force in Belgium on 1 March 1860. 

According to the annual report of Postmaster General 

Holt for 1860, it was placed in force in the United 

States on 24 January 1860. This was the date the mails 

were made up in New York for the sailing on the 

following day of the Europa from Boston. 

The exchange office accounting for Belgian closed 

mail is presented in Table 23. The United States paid 

Great Britain 400 per ounce for mail conveyed by 

British packet. Foreign steamships under contract to 

the United States were paid the actual sea postage on 

mail conveyed, while American vessels under contract 

to the United States received the sea postage and also 

the inland postage. 

Prussian closed-mail service was never made available to Belgium. A rate by Bremen-Hamburg mail was 

not introduced until February 1867. The rate by this 

route was 180 per half ounce, prepayment optional; 

no cover showing it has been noted. French mail between Belgium and die United States became available 

on 1 April 1857, at a rate of 21^ per quarter ounce in 

the United States and of 1 franc per 7 J/2 grams in 

Belgium. 

Belgian Closed-Mail Covers 

Although the Belgian closed mail was in operation 

between 24 January 1860 and 31 December 1867, 

covers showing its use are very scarce. They are rare 

when prepaid with stamps of the 1860 issue, and none 

is illustrated here. One is illustrated on p. 101 of 

United States Postal Markings . . . 1851 to 1861 by 

Tracy W. Simpson, to which the reader may make 

reference. 

Figure 68 presents a Belgian closed-mail cover which 

was forwarded to Brazil. Posted in Philadelphia on 

31 August 1865, the letter was prepaid 270 by a 240 

red lilac and a 30 rose stamp of the 1861 issue. The 

letter is addressed to Lieut. B. J. Cromwell/U.S.S. 
NUMBER 6 107 

TABLE 23.—Exchange Office Accounting for Belgian Closed Mail 

Postage 

U.S. inland 

Sea 

British transit 

Belgian inland 

Total 

Credit to Belgium by U.S. (red) 

Debit to Belgium by U.S. (black) 

Credit to U.S. by Belgium (red) 

Debit by Belgium to U.S. (black) 

Rate 

H 

15 

4 

3 

27 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Letters from U.S. 

Prepaid 

(

a

) 

(

a

) 

40 

3 

— 

7 

— 

— 

— 

Unpaid 

H 

15 

(

b

) 

(

b

) 

— 

— 

20 

— 

— 

Letters from Belgium 

Prepaid 

H 

15 

(

b

) 

(

b

) 

— 

— 

— 

20 

— 

Unpaid 

(•) 

(

a

) 

H 

3 

— 

— 

— 

— 

7 

- Retained from prepayment or collection by the United States. 

b

 Retained from prepayment or collection by Belgium. 

Shawmut/Care American Consul/Antwerp/Belgium. 

Since Philadelphia was not an exchange office for Belgian closed mail, the letter was sent to New York 

where it was marked in red with a circular N. YORK 

AM. PKT./T PAID marking of the New York exchange 

office, and indicated a credit of 70 to Belgium. The 

date in tiiis marking in 2 September, and on that date 

City of Baltimore of the Inman line sailed from New 

York to Liverpool. The closed-mail bag was sent directly to Ostend where the letter was marked on its 

reverse with a circular ETATS-UNIS PAR OSTENDE/S 

li/i e marking in black which showed that it arrived at the Ostend office between eight and eleven 

o'clock on 16 September. The Ostend office also applied a straight line AM. PACKET marking in black. 

These two markings, together with a New York or Boston exchange office marking showing a credit of 70, are 

characteristic of the Belgian closed mail. Also on the 

reverse is an Antwerp (Anvers) receiving mark dated 

16 September. The remaining markings on the cover 

relate to its conveyance from Antwerp to Brazil. 

By the time the letter arrived, Shawmut had evidently sailed for Brazil. The American Consul's office 

readdressed the letter to "Rio de Janeiro/Barsil" and 

posted it. It bears two travelling post office markings: 

BELG. A QUffiVRAIN an d FRANCE PAR AMBT MIDI 1, bot h 

of which bear the date of 17 September. There are two 

Paris markings, one applied upon receipt, the other on 

FIGURE 68.—COVER, from Philadelphia to Antwerp, Belgium, forwarded to Brazil, 1865. 
108 

dispatch of the letter, and each bears the date of 18 

September. Paris forwarded the letter to Bordeaux, 

whence it was sent to Brazil by a steamer of the 

Messageries Imperiales. On the reverse is an octagonal 

marking inscribed POSTE FRANgAisE/NAVARRE with the 

date of 18 October 1865 in the center.17 This indicates 

that the letter was conveyed to Brazil by steamship 

Navarre. The line ran from Bordeaux, via Lisbon, St. 

Vincent (Cape Verde Islands), Bahia, and Pernambuco, to Rio de Janeiro. On the face of the cover is 

a manuscript 240, which indicates that 240 reis were to 

be collected from the addressee. It is indeed unusual to 

find these markings on a cover from the United States. 

French^Mail Covers to Belgium 

Covers showing French-mail service to or from Belgium are seldom seen. Figure 69 illustrates a letter 

posted in New York, addressed to Brussels and endorsed to "Steamer Fulton" of the Havre line. It is 

prepaid 210 by a pair and single of the 30 stamps and 

a single 120 stamp of the 1857 issue. It bears a NEW 

PAID YORK/9 exchange office marking in red which 

17

 Raymond Salles, La Poste Maritime Franqaise Historique 

et Catalogue, vol. 3, p. 17 (Fig. 1.008). [See also V. Bourselet 

et al., Les Paquebots frangais et leurs cachets, 1780-1935, 

pp. 29-31.] 

SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

^'s*>. "-^'. M \ 

MhiOt \ ft' r\ 

'^ril^y* 

FIGURE 69.—COVER, from New York to Brussels, 1858. 

shows the date of 6 February, the date Fulton sailed 

from New York in 1858. The Havre exchange office 

marking, applied in indigo ink, is of the type shown as 

A in Figure 43 (Chapter 4), and the small boxed PD 

marking, also applied by the Havre office, is type M in 

Figure 43. The Havre marking shows the date of 22 

February 1858, as does also a LE HAVRE A PARIS marking on the reverse. Also on the reverse is a Paris marking with the date of 23 February. It was forwarded by 

the travelling post office AMB. DU MIDI NO. 2 on the same 

day and arrived in Brussels on 25 February 1858. The 

9 in the New York marking represents a credit of 30 

for the international rate plus 60 postage from France 

to destination in Belgium. 
Chapter 7 

Amendments, New Conventions, and the 

Operations of the Steamship Lines 

Additional Articles to the 

United States-Bremen 1847 Convention 

As one of the measures taken to strengthen the authority of the German Confederation (the Bund), under the aegis of Admiral Brommy a navy was created 

in 1849. Subsequent disagreement between the Frankfurt parliament and Prussia over schemes for the unification of the German states,1

 forced the parliament 

to dissolve, and the navy was disbanded.2 At the auction of its ships, a Bremen syndicate, headed by W. A. 

Fritze and Company and Karl Lehmkuhl, purchased 

two frigates for £26,250.3 One of these was Hansa, 

which had been Admiral Brommy's flagship (formerly 

United States of the Black Ball line), and the other 

was Erzherzog Johann (formerly Cunard's Acadia).4, 

Lehmkuhl's interest appears to have been primarily 

financial, with little activity in management. At least, 

a painting of the two ships clearly shows the Fritze 

house flag and the iron cross repeated on their paddle 

boxes.5 Hansa was allowed to retain her name, but 

Erzherzog Johann was rechristened Germania. 

Senator Arnold Duckwitz was interested in strengthening transatlantic communication, and above all, of 

1

 William L. Langer, An Encyclopedia of World History, 

pp. 675-677. 

- Frank C. Bowen, A Century of Atlantic Travel: 1830-

1930, p. 72. 

3C. R. Vernon Gibbs, Passenger Liners of the Western 

Ocean, p. 195. 

4

 N. R. P. Bonsor, North Atlantic Seaway, p. 79. 

0

 Gibbs, Passenger Liners, p. 195. 

preserving and augmenting, if possible, the service 

rendered by the Ocean Steam Navigation Company. 

He proposed to W. A. Fritze and Company that they 

place their two ships, Hansa and Germania, on the 

Bremen-New York run. At about the same time, the 

Bremen senate requested its resident minister in 

Washington, R. Schleiden, to try to have the Ocean 

Steam Navigation Company augment the service of 

Washington and Hermann by two additional steamers 

with the same specifications as those of the Fritze 

ships. If the United States postmaster general would 

not agree to this, Schleiden was then to attempt to secure a reduction in postage on mail conveyed directly 

between New York and Bremen. This was felt to be 

a necessary measure if the direct service was to compete equitably with the Prussian closed mail.6 

Whether the Ocean line was, at that time, prepared 

to build new ships is not known. They were prepared 

to do so in 1856 when their subsidy was threatened. 

Postmaster General Campbell then reported: "The 

present contractors state that they are prepared to 

build new and swifter ships than those now on their 

lines, provided their contract is renewed."

 7 Additional 

ships, however, would have meant an additional subsidy, which the postmaster general could recommend 

but only Congress and the President could grant. 

No documentary evidence relating to these negotia0

 Christian Piefke, Geschichte der Bremischen Landespost, 

Chap. 22. 

7

 U.S., Congress, Senate, Executive Document 5, 34th 

Cong., 3rd sess., serial 876, pt. 2: 772. 

109 
110 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

tions has been found. Piefke, however, states:

 8 "The 

diplomatic measures of the wise and energetic Bremen 

business leader resulted in the production of a short 

written agreement, by which steamers Germania and 

Hansa were to take over the Atlantic traffic." This 

must be the agreement referred to in Article IX of the 

formal Additional Articles signed at Washington on 4 

August 1853,9 which referred to "this arrangement, 

which supersedes the temporary arrangement of July 

6, 1853." While a copy of this temporary arrangement 

has not been found, its terms must have been similar 

to those of the final formal arrangement. 

It will be remembered that the 1847 postal arrangement with Bremen dealt only with procedures for 

handling mail. The rate structure was included in the 

regulations. The Additional Articles of 4 August 1853 

altered only Article VI of the 1847 arrangement, which 

dealt with the compensation of the Bremen mail agent. 

Primarily they were concerned with a complete revision of the rate structure originally included in the 

regulations. The provisions of the Additional Articles 

of 4 August 1853 are summarized as follows: 

I. Established exchange offices at New York and Bremen. 

II. Set an international rate for letters between all of the 

United States (including its territories) and Bremen 

For a letter not exceeding half an ounce 100 

Above half an ounce but not over one ounce 20^ 

Above one ounce but not over two ounces 400 

And 200 for each additional ounce or fraction thereof 

Prepayment was optional, but a partial payment of the 

international rate was not to be recognized. 

III. All of the states of the German Austrian Postal Union 

were to have the advantage of the 100 rate whenever 

their postage to or from Bremen was reduced to 50 or 

less. On correspondence between Bremen and those 

states that did not reduce their postage to 50 or less, 

the international rate for a single letter became 150. 

IV. The postage from or to countries beyond the United 

States or Bremen was to be added to the applicable 

international rate as set forth in Article II, or in Article 

III. The two post offices were to furnish each other with 

lists stating the foreign countries to which the foreign 

postage, and the amount thereof, must be absolutely 

prepaid, or left unpaid. Until such lists were furnished, 

mail to or from these countries was not to be exchanged. 

VI. Established the accounting as follows: The Bremen 

office was to pay the United States office per singleletter rate for unpaid letters posted in the United States, 

or prepaid letters posted in Bremen, when conveyed 

Under Article II, by U.S. steamer 90 

Under Article II, by Bremen steamer 50 

Under Article III, by U.S. steamer 140 

Under Article III, by Bremen steamer 50 

8

 Piefke, Bremischen Landespost, Chap. 22. 

0

 U.S., 16 Statutes-at-Large, 953-956. 

The United States office was to pay the Bremen office 

per single rate for unpaid letters posted in Bremen, or 

for prepaid letters posted in the United States, when 

conveyed 

Under Article II, by U.S. steamer 10 

Under Article II, by Bremen steamer 50 

Under Article III, by U.S. steamer 10 

Under Article III, by Bremen steamer 100 

"It is understood and agreed that, of the portion of the 

postage for which the United States office is to account 

to Bremen, as well as of what Bremen may collect, all 

but one cent a single letter is to go to the benefit of the 

proprietors of the Bremen line of steamers." 

VII. Arranged for the settlement of accounts between the 

two post offices. It also provided that: "the 20 per cent 

commission to the postmaster of Bremen, stipulated in 

Article VI of the arrangement of 1847, is to cease from 

and after the date these articles take effect." 

VIII. Provided for the mutual conveyance of dead and 

returned letters, and of official communications between the two post offices, free of charge. 

IX. The arrangement, which superseded the temporary 

arrangement of 6 July 1853, was to go into effect on 

15 August 1853, and was to continue in force unless 

annulled by mutual consent or three months notice by 

either party; "and it may also cease whenever the 

Bremen steamers cease running." 

Article VI shows only the gross debits and credits 

to be made by the two offices. The division of these 

rates between inland and sea postages has to be deduced. For the 100 international rate the division was 

apparently 50 for United States inland, 40 for sea 

postage, and 10 for Bremen inland. In the event that 

the international rate became 150 when a German 

state did not reduce its Bremen transit postage to 50, 

the additional 50 postage included in the international 

rate belonged to the country that furnished the packet. 

The exchange office accounting for these rates is presented in Table 24. 

In all of the countries which did not reduce their 

transit postage to or from Bremen to 50 or less, the 

rate was 70. All of the states made the reduction with 

the exception of Baden, Wurttemberg, and the Thurn 

and Taxis posts. In most of these states the monetary 

unit was the kreuzer and the florin. The 220 rate, 

therefore, was equated to 33 kreuzer, of which 9 

kreuzer represented the transit and 24 kreuzer was 

attributed to sea and other postages. 

The only state to have a transit postage of less than 

50 was Oldenburg. When this arrangement became 

effective, the transit rate between Bremen and Oldenburg was 30. 

As pointed out in Article VI, the steamship line 

was to receive as compensation all but one cent of the 
NUMBER 6 111 

TABLE 24.—Exchange Office Accounting for United States-Bremen Mail 

(Under the 1853 Convention) 

Postage 

When addressed to Bremen: 

U.S . inland 

Packet 

Bremen inland 

Internationa l rat e 

U.S . debit to Bremen 

U.S . credit to Bremen 

When addressed to rest of German 

Austrian Postal Union: 

U.S . inland 

Packet 

Bremen inland 

Internationa l rate 

Unio n transit 

Rat e 

U.S. debit to Bremen 

U.S . credit to Bremen 

When addressed to those countries 

under Article III: 

U.S . inland 

Packet 

Bremen inland 

Internationa l rat e 

Unio n transit 

Rat e 

U.S . debit to Bremen 

U.S . credit to Bremen 

Rat e 

Unpai d 

American 

Packet 

from U.S. 

Bremen 

Packet 

International Rat e of Te n Cents 

50 

4 

1 

10 

— 

— 

5 

4 

1 

10 

5 

15 

— 

— 

50 

4 

(

b

) 

9 

— 

5 

4 

(

b

) 

(

b

) 

9 

— 

5c 

(

b

) 

(

b

) 

5 

— 

5 

(

b

) 

(

b

) 

(

b

) 

5 

— 

Internationa l Rat e of Fifteen Cents 

falling 

50 

9 

1 

15 

7 

22 

— 

— 

50 

9 

(

b

) 

(

b

) 

14 

— 

50 

(

b

) 

(

b

) 

(

b

) 

5 

— 

Prepaid 

American 

Packet 

(

a

) 

(

a

) 

lc 

— 

1 

(

a

) 

(•) 

1 

5 

— 

6 

(•) 

(

a

) 

1 

7 

— 

8 

in U.S . 

Bremen 

Packet 

(

a

) 

4 c 

1 

— 

— 

5 

(

a

) 

4 

1 

— 

5 

— 

— 

10 

(

a

) 

90 

1 

— 

7 

— 

— 

17 

a

 Retained from prepayment by United States. 

b

 Retained from collection by Bremen. 

Bremen share of the postage. The agreement between 

Duckwitz and W. A. Fritze and Company provided 

that the sailing dates for Hansa and Germania be fitted 

in with those of Washington and Hermann so that a 

ship would leave every fourteen days from New York 

and Bremen.10 This schedule could not be maintained. 

Germania left Bremen on 3 August 1853 and did not 

arrive in New York until 26 August. Hansa left Bremen 

on 31 August 1853 and arrived in New York on 20 

September. Since the normal run for the Ocean line 

ships was seventeen days, these long passages required 

that the schedule be readjusted. It appears that the 

Fritze Company did not maintain sailings for the purpose of carrying mail; they merely carried mail when 

they did sail. At the request of Postmaster General 

Campbell, Hansa made a round voyage during November-December 1853,11

 after which the ships were laid 

up. Duckwitz expected a sailing in February which did 

not materialize, and only after repeated efforts was he 

able to induce Fritze and Company to establish a schedule of five sailings during 1854, beginning with a sailing of Germania in June and ending with a sailing of 

the same ship in October.12 On 26 October 1854, the 

Bremen City Post Office announced that the scheduled trip of Germania on that day would not be underPiefke, Bremischen Landespost, chap. 22. 

11

 Ibid. 

12

 Ibid. Piefke states there was a schedule of 4 sailings, 3 of 

which were made. The Shipping and Commercial List shows 

4 sailings actually made (see Table 25, this work). 
112 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

taken "due to changing circumstances," and further 

sailings of the Bremen steamships would not take place 

that year. Piefke explains:

 13 

Fritze himself had decided this, because the 

Germania was once again in need of repair and the 

Hansa had no cargo of goods or passengers. To add 

to the serious embarrassment of the New YorkBremen Line, the steamers Washington and 

Hermann had discontinued trips for the winter 

months.14 A way out was found; unpaid letters went 

by the Prussian-American Line,15 paid letters went 

via England to Liverpool to New York by American 

steamers,16 and foreign letters were despatched by 

sailing vessels. 

It is suspected that the United States sent unpaid 

letters posted during this period as unpaid in the 

Prussian closed mail; letters prepaid with Bremen rates 

and endorsed to go via Bremen were sent as fully prepaid in the Prussian closed mail. At least, they were 

treated in this manner in other years when the Ocean 

line ships failed to sail in winter. 

In January 1855 the two Fritze ships were chartered to the British Government as troopships for the 

duration of the Crimean War. Upon their return, it 

was intended that the line and its mail service be revived. Germania was scheduled for a sailing in March 

1857, which it did not make. Hansa made a round 

voyage during April-May and was scheduled to make 

another during June, which was canceled. In October 

1857 they were chartered to the British East India 

Company as troopships for service in the Indian Mutiny. Upon her return to Bremen Hansa was sold, and 

as Indian Empire opened the Galway line's service to 

New York; Germania, now unseaworthy, was broken 

up on the Thames.17 The sailings of this line are 

presented in Table 25. 

Figure 70 illustrates a cover posted in Oxford, Ohio, 

on 14 September 1853, addressed to Hamburg. It is 

prepaid 150 by a strip of five 30 stamps of the 1851 

TABLE 25.—W. A. Fritze & Company Sailings 

13

 Ibid. 

14

 There was no sailing from New York by the Ocean line 

between the Washington on 4 Nov. 1854 and the Hermann 

on 27 Jan. 1855. The Washington arrived in New York on 

24 Dec. 1854, and the next arrival was by the Hermann on 

18 Mar. 1855. 

lo

 This must refer to Prussian closed mail. 

10

 It is not clear whether this was a revival of the Bremen 

closed mail, or use of the open mail. The U.S. did not use 

cither of these routes for mail sent to Bremen. 

17

 Bonsor, North American Seaway, p. 80. 

Arrival 

Date, 

New York 

Ship 

Departure 

Date, 

New York 

1853 

26 Aug. 

20 Sept. 

17 Nov. 

20 Nov. 

10 July 

6 Aug. 

21 Sept. 

9 Oct. 

Dna. a 

2 May 

Dna. a 

Germania 

Hansa 

Hansa 

Germania 

1854 

Germania 

Hansa 

Germania 

Hansa 

1857 

Germania Up 

Hansa 

Hansa Up

 b 

19 Sept. 

3 Oct. 

29 Nov. 

3 Dec. 

20 July 

26 Aug. 

3 Oct. 

17 Oct. 

10 Apr. Dnsc 

7 May 

29 June Dnsc. 

a

 Did not arrive. 

b

 Sailing scheduled in Shipping and Commercial List. 

c

 Did not sail. 

issue. The New York marking is of type A of Figure 

71 and shows a credit to Bremen of 100, indicating 

that the United States retained 50 for its inland postage. The date in the New York packet marking is 19 

September, which coincides with the date of sailing 

from New York of W. A. Fritze and Company's Germania (see Table 25), which conveyed the first mail 

to Bremen under the convention of 1853. In accordance with the mail arrangements established by the 

convention of 1847, and not disturbed by the convention of 1853, the New York exchange office made up 

a separate bag for mail addressed to the city of Hamburg, which passed through the Bremen office as closed 

mail. This cover, therefore, bears no Bremen markings, not even marking / of Figure 71, which usually 

appears on covers in transit through Bremen. Upon 

the reverse of the cover are two oval markings, 

ST.P.A./9 OCT. 53 and ST.P.A./1 0 OCT. 53 which are 

markings of the Hamburg City (state) Post Office 

(see N of Figure 71). There is also a double circle 

marking HAMBURG/2-3/20/10 , which is a marking of 

the Hamburg local office dated 20 October. Evidently, 

the addressee had departed from Hamburg before the 

letter arrived. Delivery was attempted on 9 October, 

and on the following day the letter was sent to the 
NUMBER 6 113 

mixKm7mjify/wrtt /J^rfm 

FIGURE 70.—COVER, from Oxford, O. [Ohio], to Hamburg, Germany, 1853. 

Hamburg local office where it waited until a forwarding address was received. On 20 October it was forwarded to Post restante, Berlin, charged with the 

transit rate of 3 silbergroschen. There is a 3 in blue 

manuscript on the face of the cover. Only on letters 

conveyed by the Fritze Company ships does the credit 

of 100 to Bremen appear. 

Figure 72 presents a cover posed in Columbia, South 

Carolina, on 29 November 1853, prepaid 150 in stamps 

of the 1851 issue. It bears marking A of Figure 71 with 

the date of 3 December which indicates that it was sent 

by Germania on its 3 December 1853 sailing from New 

York (see Table 25). This cover passed in transit 

through the Bremen office and bears marking / of 

Figure 71 applied in red. 

Abandonment of Steamship Mail 

Subsidies by Congress 

After intensive and very expensive lobbying by E. 

K. Collins,18 Congress, on 21 July 1852, increased the 

subsidy granted the Collins line from $385,000 to $858,-

000 a year. During the next two years, opposition to 

the increased subsidy began to make itself evident. In 

his annual report for 1854 Postmaster General Camp18

 Robert G. Albion, Square Riggers on Schedule, pp. 327— 

328. 

bell called the attention of Congress to the great discrepancy between the subsidy granted to the Collins 

line and those given the other United States transatlantic lines, but rapid crossings of the Collins steamers were at the time inflating American prestige, and 

nothing was done about it. 

In his annual report for 1855, however, Campbell 

made specific recommendations to Congress. He asked 

that the six months' notice required by the act of 21 

July 1852 be given and the increase in the Collins line 

subsidy withdrawn. He felt that Congress had already 

dealt very liberally with the line. He pointed out that 

Congress had relieved the line of the necessity for 

maintaining four passed midshipmen, which had been 

specified in the contract; that the Post Office Department had not sent out mail agents, whom the line was 

bound to accommodate and subsist. The Collins line 

was receiving $858,000 a year for performing only 

twenty-six trips, while the British gave the Cunard line 

$866,700 for performing fifty-two. He considered the 

increased compensation a mere gratuity, destroying all 

competition, attended by the most pernicious influences, 

and creating a monopoly having injurious effects upon 

the commercial interests of the country. In the following year the increase in the subsidy was withdrawn. 

Since all of the transatlantic lines ran to New York, 

commercial interests in other eastern and in soudiern 
114 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

FIGURE 71 .•—MARKINGS on Bremen-Hamburg mail. 

ports felt that the subsidies were inflating the importance of the port of New York to their detriment. 

While it was believed that subsidies were necessary 

to maintain the lines, it was also felt that some of them 

should run to other ports. This feeling was reflected 

by Postmaster General Campbell in his report for 1856. 

He first called the attention of Congress to the fact 

that the contracts with the Bremen and Havre lines 

would expire on 1 June 1857. If these services were to 

be continued, he should be authorized to advertise and 

take such steps as were necessary to have them continued. He then went on to say: 

In relation to these mail lines to foreign ports no 

reason is perceived why one port of the United States 

should be preferred to the exclusion of others. From the 

port of New York there now run four lines, embracing the 

branch from New Orleans to Havana, which receive from 

the treasury the yearly sum of one million four hundred 

and ninety-eight thousand dollars, and appropriations continue to be asked for other lines running from the same port. 

The establishment of steam lines from any port adds considerably to its trade and importance, and the advantages 

arising therefrom should be distributed equally, as far as 

practicable, among the different States of the Union. 

In expressing this opinion, Campbell was reflecting 

the growing jealousy of the ports of Boston, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, as well as those of the southern 

states. 

Congress did not renew the contracts of the Bremen 

and Havre lines. The Collins line contract, which was 

with the Navy Department, was to run until 1860. The 

appropriations bill for paying the annual mail subsidies for 1858, including that of the Collins line, 

touched off a long congressional debate. It was,during 

this debate that Congress changed its policy regarding 

the subsidization of mail steamship lines. 

It was alleged in the Senate by Toombs of Georgia 

and in the House by Davis of Mississippi that the subsidized mail lines to California, that is, the U.S. Mail 

Steamship Company running from New York to Aspinwall and the Pacific Mail Steamship Company plying 

between Panama and San Francisco, had paid Cornelius Vanderbilt $40,000 a month for not competing 

with them, in other words, for not placing his ships on 

the Panama run after he closed his Nicaragua Transit. 

The payments were said to have been made to Vanderbilt during a year, beginning in May 1856, at the end 

of the year the payments increasing to $56,000 a 

month.19 While these were only allegations (they were 

not substantiated until 1860), they were believed. Although the standard of business and political ethics of 

that time did not allow great condemnation of Vanderbilt for his "blackmail" (for example, Toombs said he 

admired him) ,

20

 the allegations led Congress to believe 

that mail subsidies were no longer necessary. If tiiese 

steamship companies could pay over to Vanderbilt their 

entire subsidy and still operate at a profit, there was no 

need for the Treasury to support them. 

Although Vanderbilt's "blackmail" pertained to die 

lines carrying the California mail, the attitude created 

by the allegations carried over to the transatlantic lines. 

Fifty years later, during the "muckraking" period, 

Gustavus Myers wrote:

 21

 "There were indications tiiat 

for years a secret understanding had been in force 

between Collins and Vanderbilt by which they divided the mail subsidy funds. Ostensibly, however, in 

order to give no sign of collusion, tiiey went through 

the public appearance of warring upon each other." 

Myers does not document this statement, and no evidence of the existence of such an agreement has been 

found. Senator Toombs, however, intimated that such 

"U.S. , Congress, Congressional Globe, 1857-58, pt. 3: 

3029. 

20

 Ibid., p. 2843. 

21

 Gustavus Myers, History of Great American Fortunes, 

p. 284. 
NUMBER 6 115 

ftS 

(y* J' 6 

^^/r 

v*< 

&;&•?? .& £$. s 

FIGURE 72.—COVER, from Columbia, S.C., to Bremervorde ?), Hannover, 1853. 

(Melvin W. Schuh collection) 

collusion might exist.22 It was in an atmosphere of suspicion and jealousy, perhaps of revulsion, that Congress acted. Little of the nationalism that had had so 

much to do with the creation of the subsidies was 

evident. Senator Toombs said, in effect, that if foreign 

steamers would carry the United States mails cheaper 

than American steamers, they should be allowed to 

do it.23 This point was not debated. A clause, however, 

was inserted in the act that would force the postmaster general to prefer American over foreign steamers if they departed from the same port for the same 

destination within three days of each otiier. 

On 14 June 1858, Congress passed the Appropriations Act, which provided (in addition to the clause 

just cited) that it would be unlawful for the postmaster general to make any steamship or other new 

contract for carrying the mail on the sea for a longer 

period than two years, or for any compensation other 

than the sea and inland postages on the mails so transported, when conveyed in American steamers.24

 The 

compensation was limited to the sea postage only when 

conveyance was by a foreign steamer. The compensation for steamship lines provided by this act had 

been recommended by Postmaster General Aaron V. 

Brown in his annual report for 1857, and was already 

22

 Congressional Globe, 35 Cong., 1 sess., 1857-58, pt. 3: 

2844. 

23

 Ibid., 2841. 

21

 11 Statutes at Large 364. 

being used on contracts with Cornelius Vanderbilt and 

the New York and Havre Steamship Company. 

The Vanderbilt European Line 

When Congress failed to renew the contracts of the 

Ocean and Havre lines in 1857, the postmaster general was faced with the problem of maintaining the 

United States packet service to Europe. In his annual 

report for 1857, he explained how he met the situation. 

He called attention to the fact that the contracts expired on 1 June 1857, but it did not appear to him 

that Congress intended the service to Europe to be 

discontinued after their expiration. He, therefore, 

deemed it his duty to make temporary arrangements 

for the continuation of the service until Congress could 

take action. He then stated: 

The temporary contract for service on the Breman line 

is with Cornelius Vanderbilt, and upon the Havre line 

with the New York and Havre Steamship Company. Each 

contract provides for thirteen round trips annually; and 

the compensation to be paid is limited to the United 

States postages, sea and inland, accruing from the mail 

conveyed. . . Moreover, it appeared a fit occasion to 

inaugurate a system of self-sustaining ocean mail service; and I shall esteem it fortunate if the present temporary arrangements lead, as I trust they may, to the 

adopted of this as a permanent system. 

In 1855 Commodore Vanderbilt placed his North 

Star, which had served as his private yacht in 1853, 
116 

and Ariel on the run to Havre, via Southampton. He 

then attempted to secure a subsidy for a fortnightly 

service to Liverpool to alternate with the sailings of 

the Collins line.25 He failed in this attempt and discontinued his sailings to Havre in the summer of 1856. 

On 13 June 1857 Ariel sailed from New York for 

Breman, via Southampton and Havre, carrying the 

first mail under Vanderbilt's contract. Although his 

contract provided for the conveyance of mail between 

New York and Breman, his ships also carried British 

and Prussian closed mail to Southampton, and French 

mail direct to Havre. Vanderbilt must have found the 

returns on the run to Havre satisfactory, but the 

run from Havre to Breman appears to have been unprofitable. North Star and Ariel carried steerage passengers, something that the Collins line never did and 

that the Cunard line, up to this time, had refused 

to do.26 His new ship, Vanderbilt, one of the largest 

and speediest of her time, was not allowed to carry 

steerage passengers, was not allowed to sail in winter, 

and only on one occasion was allowed to make the 

run to Bremen. 

Vanderbilt had competition on the run between 

Bremen and New York during 1857. The Britishowned European and American Steam Shipping Company ran steamers Queen of the South, Indiana, Argo, 

and Jason between Bremen and New York, via Southampton, for eleven round voyages between May and 

October 1857. At the end of that time these ships were 

taken over as troop transports in the Indian Mutiny. 

Postmaster General Brown explained to Congress the 

decrease of $5,491.74 in postage on the Bremen line 

as "owing to the fact that much of the time there have 

been several foreign steamers running and carrying ship 

letters on this line."

 2T 

The Vanderbilt European line maintained its scheduled sailings from New York from June through December 1857, but in January 1858 the service collapsed. 

Ariel sailed from New York on 28 November 1857 and 

suffered sea damage on the run to Bremen. She did not 

return to New York until 4 May 1858. North Star 

sailed from New York on 26 December 1857, had 

similar difficulties, and did not arrive back in NewYork until 13 February 1858, so badly in need of repair 

that she did not sail again until 17 April 1858. The 

scheduled sailings of 23 January and 20 February 1858 

SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

were not made. It also appeared that the scheduled 

sailing of 20 March would not be made. When Vanderbilt refused to run Vanderbilt to Bremen, the postmaster general, in exasperation, made a trip contract 

with the Inman line for steamer Kangaroo to carry 

the Bremen mail to Liverpool.28 Letters prepaid with 

Bremen rates were sent in the Prussian closed mail as 

fully paid. If Vanderbilt was fined for this default, no 

record of it has been found. 

Piefke gives the Bremen reaction to this situation:29 

So the Bremen-United States line was dependent upon the 

inferior Vanderbilt steamers, which were soon driven by 

sea damage into this or that harbor of refuge—and suddenly, at the start of winter, their runs ceased altogether. As 

a consequence of these constant troubles one could not 

talk of a regular postal service. Even the American Postmaster General confided to the Bremen Minister Resident 

that Vanderbilt had cheated him. Due to a sea accident 

of the Ariel, Post Director Dr. Bartsch announced that on 

the return journey to New York a large mail would, lacking other means, have to be sent as 'closed mail' by the 

Hapag steamer Hammonia.TM Bartsch spoke of the 'necessity caused by Vanderbilt's breaking his word' and concluded, 'the weight presses on our breast in this moment, 

and each day brings new trouble.' From a letter of Burgomeister Duckwitz we find how 'odious' the thought has 

been that the Bremen mail had to be sent by a Hapag 

steamer. 

Not only does the above explain how the Bremen mail 

was sent to New York during this crisis, but it also gives 

some insight into the intense rivalry existing between 

Bremen and Hamburg. 

Figure 73 illustrates a cover posted in Baltimore, 

Maryland, on 19 March 1858, addressed to Prussia. It 

was prepaid 150, which is indicated by a PAID applied 

in red and a red crayon 15. It is endorsed "Via Bremen 

Steamer," which clearly shows that the mailer of die 

letter intended that it be sent by the Vanderbilt line 

to Bremen. The Vanderbilt ships, however, had not 

sailed from New York since 26 December 1857 and 

would not again sail until 17 April 1858. The New 

York office sent this letter as fully prepaid in the Prussian closed mail. This route is evidenced by the New 

York packet marking, similar to A of Figure 51, but 

showing American packet service and the boxed 

Aachen marking (P in Figure 51). The credit of l<f in 

the New York marking shows that the United States 

25

 Bonsor, North Atlantic Seaway, p. 104. 

20

 Gibbs, Passenger Liners, p. 106. 

2

' Senate Executive Document 11, 35 Cong., 1 sess., serial 

921, pt. 3: 969. 

28

 U.S., Congress, House, Executive Document 2, Report 

of the auditor of the Treasury for the Post Office Department, 

35 Cong., 2 sess., serial 1,000, p. 862. 

20

 Piefke, Bremischen Landespost, chap. 22. 

30

 The Hammonia arrived in New York 1 Apr. 1858. [For 

definition of "Hapag" see p. 119.] 
NUMBER 6 117 

*^ ^/*g<a&*>j>A S? s 

/ J £t y+S* /* SJ$ / • v *?^v i•>. 

S Ss * ^f> 

FIGURE 73.—COVER, from Baltimore, Md., to [?], Prussia, 1858. 

(Melvin W. Schuh collection) 

accepted it as a fully paid Prussian closed-mail letter. 

The date in die New York marking is 20 March, the 

date Kangaroo sailed with a special mail intended to 

be sent via Bremen but forwarded as Prussian closed 

mail. While the auditor of the Treasury for the Post 

Office Department lists Kangaroo among the Bremen 

steamers for that year, this letter shows that she carried a Prussian closed mail to Liverpool. 

During the summer of 1858, not only were the 

scheduled Vanderbilt sailings made, but additional 

sailings were added, the fleet being augmented by 

steamer Northern Light. In the fall, however, Vanderbilt decided to quit the Bremen run. On 2 October 

1858, Vanderbilt sailed from New York on her only 

trip to Bremen. On 30 October 1858, Ariel sailed with 

the last mail conveyed to Bremen by the Vanderbilt 

European line. The voyage, however, was not completed. Piefke explains:

 31 

Although the captain had to deliver the mail to the 

Weser, he landed her in Le Havre, 'because there was no 

hope of finding passengers in Bremen for the return trip.' 

Due to his arbitrary action, the letter bag had to be sent by 

rail via Belgium and Aachen to Bremen. Since the captain 

had no legitimate reason for his conduct, the company was 

liable for the high transit costs. 

During 1857 steamer Vanderbilt made six round 

trips to Havre. Five of them were made in head-on 

competition with the Collins line steamers, Vanderbilt 

leaving New York on the same day as the Collins line 

ships. The postmaster general appears to have been 

extremely cooperative with Vanderbilt, for despite die 

fact that a heavy subsidy was being paid to die Collins 

line for carrying the mail, nevertheless, mails were sent 

to Southampton and Havre by Vanderbilt. During 1858 

Vanderbilt made five round voyages to Havre. During 

1859, after the Bremen run was discontinued, there 

were fifteen round voyages to Havre by Vanderbilt, 

Ariel, and Ocean Queen. During 1860 Vanderbilt ran 

Vanderbilt and Illinois to Havre for eleven round 

voyages. At the end of October he decided to quit the 

run and placed Illinois on the Panama service. The 

Post Office had scheduled a mail by Illinois to sail from 

New York on 3 November 1860. This mail was sent 

to Southampton by Borussia of the Hamburg-American Line.32

 Illinois' mail on the return trip was brought 

by Saxonia which arrived in New York on 6 December 1860. 

31

 Piefke, Bremischen Landespost, chap. 22. 

32

 Report of Treasury auditor for Post Office Dept. appended to Annual Report of the Postmaster General for 1861. 
118 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

Problems of the Postmaster General 

During 1858 

In his annual report for 1858, Postmaster General 

Brown explained his difficulties. He stated that since 

the expiration of the Bremen and Havre line contracts 

the United States mail service to Europe had not been 

established on a permanent basis. The Collins line contract was with the Navy Department and he, therefore, had no power to enforce fulfillments or to annul 

the contract. Since the Navy Department had taken 

no action, and the temporary contracts for service to 

Southampton, Bremen, and Havre had expired on 1 

June 1958, it was out of his power to engage other than 

temporary service by the single trip, "and the result 

has been that all service performed has been entirely 

of a temporary character." Commenting on the terms 

of the act of 14 June 1858, he asked: 

Can the service be obtained upon these terms? I believe 

it may be. If deemed expedient to employ foreign vessels, 

it is certain that parties now stand ready to take the mails 

for the sea postage. But shall this service be relinquished 

entirely to foreign steamers? and if not, will American 

lines contract under existing law? . . . Save during the 

winter months, there would be no difficulty in getting the 

mails carried on these terms; but for a period so short 

as two years, it is hardly probable that contracts with 

American lines could be obtained to carry regularly the 

year round. . The want of regularity heretofore has 

had the effect to give the advantage to the British lines. . 

Why may not the same regularity be established and maintained by American ships? Let this be done, and no good 

reason is perceived why they may not carry an equal 

proportion of the mails, the postage of which would afford a fair compensation for the service. 

To supply a substitute service for the defunct Collins 

line, Postmaster General Brown made up what he 

called a "miscellaneous line." The lines, ships, and 

sailings utilized by him for this purpose are presented 

in Table 26. Examination of the list shows that the 

TABLE 26.—Collins Line and "Miscellaneous Lines'''' Sailings 

Arrival Date, 

New York Ship 

Departure 

Date, 

New York 

Comments 

1857/58 

7 Dec. 

1858 

18 Feb. 

3 Feb. a 

5 Mar. a 

30 Mar. a 

13 Apr.a 

30 Apr. 

12 May 

9 May

 a 

23 May 

9 June 

19 June 

6 July 

1 Aug. 

18 Aug. 

13 Sept. 

27 Sept. 

12 Oct.a 

26 Oct. 

9 Nov. 

23 Nov. 

12 Dec. 

26 Dec. 

Baltic 

Baltic 

Edinburgh 

New York 

City of Baltimore 

City of Washington 

Kangaroo 

City of Baltimore 

Vanderbilt b 

City of Washington 

Kangaroo 

Vanderbilt b 

City of Washington 

Vanderbilt b 

City of Washington 

Vanderbilt b 

Vigo 

City of Washington 

City of Baltimore 

Vigo 

Kangaroo 

City of Baltimore 

City of Washington 

Kangaroo 

1858/59 

16 Jan. 

13 Feb. 

13 Mar. 

10 Apr. 

24 Apr. 

8 May 

22 May 

22 May 

5 June 

17 June 

3 July 

17 July 

14 Aug. 

28 Aug. 

2 Oct.8 

25 Sept. 

9 Oct 

23 Oct. 

6 Nov. 

20 Nov. 

4 Dec. 

18 Dec. 

1 Jan. 

Last outward voyage for Collins line 

Last inward voyage for Collins line 

Glasgow & New York Steam Ship Company 

Glasgow & New York Steam Ship Company 

Inman (Dales) line—to Liverpool 

Inman—to Liverpool 

Inman—to Liverpool 

Inman—from Liverpool 

Vanderbilt line—to Southampton 

Inman—NY. & Liverpool 

Inman—from Liverpool 

Vanderbilt—N.Y. & Southampton 

Inman—N.Y. & Liverpool 

Vanderbilt—N.Y. & Southampton 

Inman—N.Y. & Liverpool 

Vanderbilt—from Southampton 

Inman—first voyage 

Inman—N.Y. & Liverpool 

Inman—to Liverpool 

Inman—N.Y. & Liverpool 

Inman—N.Y. & Liverpool 

Inman—N.Y. & Liverpool 

Inman—N.Y. & Liverpool 

Inman—N.Y. & Liverpool 

a

 Not designated by the auditor of the Treasury for the Post Office Department as carrying mail on this trip. 

b

 The Vanderbilt continued to Havre and may have carried French mail to that port on trips not designated as carrying 

mail to Southampton. 
NUMBER 6 119 

only American ship to serve in this "line" was Vanderbilt. The list also shows the increasing reliance he 

placed upon the British-owned Inman line (called 

Dales line in the United States). By 1860 this line was 

matching the mail sailings of the Cunard line to and 

from Liverpool under contracts with the United States 

Post Office Department. By the time the Civil War 

began, the United States mail service to Europe was 

entirely in the hands of foreign steamers. 

The United States-Hamburg 

Convention 

The Hamburg Amerikanische Paketfahrt Aktien 

Gesellschaft was organized in 1847 for the purpose of 

running a line of sailing packets between Hamburg 

and New York. From its inception it was known in 

Germany as "Hapag,'J a contraction formed by the 

first letter of each word in its official name. In the 

United States and Great Britain it was called the 

Hamburg-American line. In 1853 the line decided to 

convert to steam, and after many delays ordered two 

iron screw steamers of about 2,000 tons from Caird & 

Co. of Greenock.33 The first of these, Borussia, sailed 

from Hamburg for New York on 1 June 1856, followed 

in the next month by the second ship, the Hammonia. 

The impending stringency in packet service led Postmaster General Campbell to seek an agreement that 

would allow these ships to carry mail. In his annual 

report for 1856 he stated: 

An informal arrangement has been entered into with 

the free city of Hamburg for the exchange of mails, by the 

direct line of Hamburg steamers plying between that 

city and New York. The single rate of postage for letters 

is ten cents; no mails for places beyond Hamburg being 

transmitted by this line. 

The auditor of the Treasury for the Post Office Department reported that during the fiscal year ended 

30 June 1857, the Hamburg line carried a total of 

10,606 letters, 1,504 of which were sent to Hamburg, 

while 9,102 were received from Hamburg.34 Since the 

ships of this line, at that time, did not call at Southampton, all the letters were between the city of Hamburg and the United States. On 12 June 1857, a formal 

postal convention was signed in duplicate at Washington.35

 In his annual report for 1857, Postmaster 

33

 Bonsor, North Atlantic Seaway, p. 111. 

M

 Senate Executive Document 11, 35 Cong., 1 sess., serial 

921, p. 1118. 

33

 16 Statutes at Large 958-960. 

372-645 O—70-^—3 

General Aaron V. Brown announced that a convention had been concluded between the United States 

and Hamburg, and further stated that it was "similar 

in all respects to that existing between the United 

States and Bremen—the rates of postage under both 

being the same. It was finally executed in June last, and 

went into effect on the first of July." 

While the rate structure of the two conventions was 

identical, they differed in one major and in two minor 

respects. The clause that provided for paying the proprietors of the steamship line, included in Article VI 

of the United States-Bremen convention, was omitted 

in the United States-Hamburg convention. Under this 

clause the proprietors of the Bremen steamship line 

were to receive all but one cent a single letter of the 

postage accounted for by the United States to Bremen, 

as well as of the postage collected by Bremen. The 

omission of the clause from the United States-Hamburg convention can only mean that the compensation 

of the Hamburg-American line rested upon a different 

kind of financial arrangement between the line and 

Hamburg. 

Minor differences resulted from the insertion of 

Article IX in the United States-Hamburg convention. 

This article provided that the sailing days of the Hamburg-American ships were not to conflict with those of 

the Bremen and Havre lines. Article VII of the United 

States-Bremen convention had a clause that rescinded 

the twenty percent commission of the Bremen mail 

agent. This clause, of course, was excluded from the 

convention with Hamburg. In all other respects die 

United States-Hamburg convention was a verbatim 

copy of the United States-Bremen convention. 

What was the nature of the informal agreement that 

existed between the United States and Hamburg from 

June 1856 to 1 July 1857? Did New York apply a 

Hamburg packet marking? Was there an accounting 

between the post offices of the two countries? Prepaid 

covers addressed to Hamburg or unpaid letters marked 

for collection in the United States could explain how 

the New York office handled this mail. Unfortunately, 

none has been seen. 

The North German Lloyd 

The North German Lloyd had been plying between 

Bremen and London since 1856. In 1858 it announced 

a service between Bremerhaven and New York. This 

service, however, had been contemplated for some 

time. In 1857 Postmaster General Brown gave as one 
120 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

of his reasons for concluding a temporary arrangement 

with Vanderbilt the fact that he "had official information of the intention of a Bremen company to put 

on a line of semi-monthly steamers, so as, in connexion 

with an increased American line, to secure a weekly 

communication with the United States."

 3G 

On 19 May 1858, the Bremen authorities notified 

the German-Austrian Postal Union that the North 

German Lloyd steamers Bremen, Hudson, New York, 

and Weser would carry the mails every fourteen days 

to New York at the same low rates as the American 

steamers.37 On 19 June 1858, Bremen sailed from 

Bremerhaven inaugurating the service. She arrived in 

New York on 4 July 1858 and was scheduled to sail 

for Bremen on 10 July, but the sailing was postponed 

until 30 July, when she sailed from New York with 

the first mail conveyed by the Lloyd to Bremen. New 

York left Bremen on 14 August 1858 and arrived in 

New York on 28 August. She sailed from New York 

for Bremen on 11 September 1858.38 

Article IX of the United States-Bremen convention 

provided that it might be terminated "whenever the 

Bremen steamers cease running." The agreement was 

not terminated, however, when Germania and Hansa 

stopped running. This is verified by the fact that additional articles to the convention were signed in 1860 

and in 1864. What arrangements were made with the 

North German Lloyd in regard to its compensation are 

not known. Certain it is they were not the same as 

those made with W. A. Fritze and Company. 

The evidence of numerous covers carried by the 

ships of the North German Lloyd indicates that the 

United States reduced its inland postage from 50 to 30. 

It had been generally believed, however, by the author 

as well as by others,39 that the United States retained 

3c1 on prepaid letters, but charged 5c" on unpaid letters. 

This is now known not to be true. Evidence shows that 

the United States inland postage was 3$ on unpaid 

as well as on prepaid letters. 

Since the United States-Bremen convention remained in force, the reduction of the United States 

inland postage to 30 had the effect of increasing the 

sea postage from 40 to 60 the single rate. This in-

"

a

 Senate Executive Document 11, 35 Cong., 1 sess., serial 

921, pt. 3: 968. 

n7

 Piefke, Bremischen Landespost, chap. 22. 

38

 Shipping and Comercial List appropriate issues. 

30

 See George E. Hargest, "The U.S.-Bremen Postal Convention of 1853 and the North German Lloyd Line," Chronicle, 17, 1 (Oct. 1964): 35. 

crease was the result of no reduction being made in 

the 100 internatioanl rate, and all but 10 of the Bremen 

share of the postage was to go to the benefit of the 

proprietors of the Bremen line of steamships. 

There are no additional articles to the 4 August 

1853, United States-Bremen convention that would 

allow this change. Whatever was done to create it was 

arranged by correspondence, or by agreement between 

the Bremen resident minister and the United States 

postmaster general. No documentary evidence of such 

an agreement and no correspondence relating to this 

change have been found. Certain facts, however, should 

be mentioned. 

The United States-Bremen convention was the only 

postal convention entered into by the United States 

that prescribed the method of paying the steamship line 

that conveyed the mail. United States packets were paid 

according to contracts made between the Post Office 

Department and the American steamship line. The 

provisions relating to inland and sea postage contained 

in the postal conventions determined the amounts to 

be settled between the post offices of the contracting 

countries. A contract with a steamship company was a 

separate agreement, not necessarily affected by the 

postal convention governing the mails conveyed by the 

steamship line. Bremen contracted with the North German Lloyd for the direct mail service between New 

York and Bremen. The United States, however, contracted with the same line for a service between New 

York and Southampton, and under that agreement the 

Lloyd conveyed British treaty mail, Prussian closed 

mail, Belgian closed mail, and French mail. The compensation was the sea postage accruing on these mails. 

On 21 December 1857, steamship Borussia of the 

Hamburg-American line arrived in New York from 

Southampton, the line having introduced an intermediate call at this port.40

 The postmaster general, 

however, did not immediately contract with the line 

for a service to England. He did not do so until May 

1861. On 4 May 1861 Bavaria sailed from New York 

carrying the first United States mail to Southampton. 

With this sailing, the line changed its sailing dates to 

Saturdays, alternating with those of the North German 

Lloyd so that the two lines maintained a weekly 

service to that port. Direct mail from Hamburg for 

New York did not show debits or credits on letters 

dispatched to the United States. Normally, postal 

conventions prescribed the manner in which letters 

Bonsor, North Atlantic Seaway, p. 111. 
NUMBER 6 121 

were to be marked so that proper charges could be 

made, or credits taken, on dead or returned letters. The 

actual accounting for the mails was performed on the 

letter-bills, whose format was usually prescribed in the 

convention or in its regulations. Under the 4 August 

1853 United States-Bremen and the United StatesHamburg conventions, letter-bill forms were not prescribed, and the conventions were mute on the matter 

of markings. Since Article VIII of each of these conventions provided for the mutual conveyance of dead 

or returned letters free of charge, there was, in reality, 

no reason for marking the letters with debits or credits. 

The Bremen and Hamburg offices did mark letters 

with amounts of postage that would assist them in their 

accounting and in the preparation of letter-bills. Some 

time during 1864 the Hamburg office introduced 

packet marks that showed debits or credits to the 

United States office, but this procedure was not 

adopted by the Bremen office. 

The 150 rate, which included 50 transit postage, was 

equated with 6/ 2 silbergroschen, or with 22 kreuzer. 

The 100 rate was equated with 10 grote in Bremen, and 

with 6 schillings in Hamburg. It was the custom of the 

Bremen and Hamburg offices to mark the letters with 

the German-Austrian Postal Union (transit) postage 

and with the postage representing the international 

100 rate. On prepaid letters dispatched by the Bremen 

office to the United States, markings C and D of Figure 71 were applied in red. Marking D indicated the 

international rate of 10 grote (100), which was the 

only part of the 150 rate in which the United States 

participated. Additionally, when the currency was silbergroschen, marking H was usually applied in red or 

blue ink or crayon. This set forth the Union postage 

of 2 silbergroschen and the international postage of 

4y2 silbergroschen as separate items. Marking / expresses the same division in kreuzer. The Union postage 

of 6 kreuzer is written over the international postage of 

16 kreuzer. Sometimes the amount indicating the international postage is preceded by an F which abbreviates the word FRANCO ("paid"). 

There was considerable irregularity in these markings. Frequently letters will show only the Union postage and sometimes only the international postage. In 

some cases, markings H and I (Figure 71) appear on 

the same letter. Usually letters prepaid in Germany do 

not bear a United States marking, and it is seldom 

possible to say whether they were conveyed by an 

American or German packet. 

Unpaid letters originating in the city of Bremen addressed to the United States bear a black 10 (D of 

Figure 71), and a Bremen marking (E or F of Figure 

71). Many of these covers do not show a United States 

marking, the 10 already on the letter being allowed to 

indicate the amount to be collected. After depreciated 

currency markings were introduced, the New York 

office applied markings in black similar to G of Figure 

71. Markings D, F, and M of Figure 71 are the only 

ones that appear on a letter originating in Bremen 

addressed to San Francisco. This letter was conveyed 

by steamer A riel of the Vanderbilt European line which 

arrived in New York in the evening of 29 June 1858, its 

mail being processed the following day. 

An unpaid letter originating in Syke, Prussia, on 

1 October 1858, is addressed to Louisville, Kentucky. 

It bears a circular BREMEN/2/IO marking in blue, 

showing that it arrived at the Bremen office on 2 October. It also bears the marking of the Bremen City Post 

Office (E of Figure 71) with the date of 2/10, showing 

that it was dispatched from that office also on 2 October. The Bremen City Post Office applied marking 

K of Figure 71 in blue ink. This shows the 5 grote (50) 

Union postage over the 10 grote (100) international 

rate. The Bremen office also applied a 2 in red crayon, 

indicating the Union postage in silbergroschen. The 

New York office marked the letter as in L in Figure 

71 to indicate that 150 were to be collected in Louisville. This letter was conveyed by steamer North Star 

of the Vanderbilt European line which arrived in New 

York on 22 October 1857. 

Figure 74 illustrates a cover posted in New York, 

addressed to Bremen. It is franked with a 100 type V 

stamp of the 1857 issue. The New York office applied 

a marking similar to A in Figure 71, but with a credit 

7, which shows that the United States retained only 30 

out of the 100 rate for inland postage. There is no other 

marking on the cover. This cover is endorsed to 

steamer Bremen which sailed from New York on 29 

September 1860. 

Figure 75 presents a cover posted in New York addressed to Hamburg. It is franked with a 100 type V 

stamp of the 1857 issue. The New York office applied 

a marking similar to Q of Figure 71, but showing a 

credit 5, which indicates that the United States retained 50 out of the 100 prepayment as its inland 

postage. On the reverse is a marking of the Hamburg 

City Post Office (A7 of Figure 71) with the date of 

16 December 1860. The letter is endorsed to Teutonia 

of the Hamburg-American line which sailed from New 

York on 1 December 1860. 
122 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

V. - ^ 

//•->s~is\. — 

tZ *_ 

<uk ^ (/' 2SJ> ? , 

< 

f. * , . , 

/ 

FIGURE 74.—COVER, from New York to Bremen, Germany, 1860. 

/ 

fatSLy^fQ^ 4^tsCsC<>~**-« •<* "f; 

FIGURE 75.—COVER, from New York to Hamburg, Germany, 1860. 
NUMBER 6 123 

Figure 76 illustrates a cover posted in Allentown, 

Pennsylvania, on 6 May 1862, addressed to Hanover. 

It is franked 150 by a 100 type / stamp and a 50 

brown-yellow stamp of the 1861 issue. Although it is 

endorsed "p. Hamburg Steamer," the New York office 

sent it by a steamer of the North German Lloyd. It 

bears a marking similar to B of Figure 71 but is dated 

10 May, without the year. On 10 May 1862, steamer 

Bremen sailed from New York. The Bremen office 

applied marking / of Figure 71 in blue ink. Figure 

74 does not bear this marking because it was addressed 

to Bremen and did not pass in transit through the 

Bremen office. The credit of 12 in the New York marking shows that the United States retained only 30 for 

its inland postage. 

Figure 77 illustrates a cover prepaid with the rare 

220 rate. It was posted in Staunton, Virginia, addressed to Hesse. Since the Grand Duchy of Hesse 

utilized the services of the Thurn and Taxis posts, 

which had not yet reduced their transit rate to that 

duchy to 50, the transit rate remained at 70, and the 

international rate became 150 under the provisions of 

Article III of the convention. Thus, the international 

rate of 150 plus 70 transit postage yielded a total rate of 

220 (see Table 24). The letter is franked by a 120 

stamp and a 100 type II stamp of the 1857 issue. The 

New York office applied a marking in red similar to Q 

of Figure 71 but with a credit 17 and the date 1 March. 

There is nothing on die cover to indicate the year 

date. Since the steamers of the Hamburg-American 

line sailed on the first of each month from 1858 to 

1861, neither the year date nor the name of the steamer 

that conveyed this letter can be determined. 

Figure 78 presents a cover posted in Clermont, New 

York, addressed to Hanover. It is franked with a 100 

type III stamp of the 1851 issue, and is endorsed "via 

Bremen." It bears a N. YORK I u.s. PKT/PAID marking 

dated 19 April. On 19 April 1856, the Washington of 

the Ocean line sailed from New York, and it is presumed that she conveyed this letter to Bremen. The 

New York office credited Bremen with 10 of the 100 

rate and marked the letter PAID TO BREMEN. Since the 

rate to Hanover was 150, this letter shows that the 

nonrecognition of a partial payment applied only to 

the 100 international rate. The gute groschen of Hanover was worth 30 in United States currency, and 

there were 12 pfennige to the gute groschen. The 

Bremen office applied an AMERICA/UBER BREMEN marking to the letter, and rated it for a collection of 12

/$ gute 

groschen in red crayon. The Hanover office crossed this 

out and marked it in blue crayon 1-8, meaning 1 gute 

groschen 8 pfennige, which, of course, was equal to 13^3 

gute groschen or 50 in United States currency. Covers 

showing a credit of 10 to Bremen (see Table 24) are 

seldom seen. 

m 

/ 

<£&JS/4<, 

% < 

\ * 

FIGURE 76.—COVER, from Allentown, Pa., to Hannover [Hanover], Germany, 1862. 
124 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

FIGURE 77.—COVER, from Staunton, Va., to Hessen, Germany, (Melvin W. Schuh collection) 

* y / &*"" 

x 

°

 4J> 3* 

'/J " y 

&#zjr&€* 

~M. 

FIGURE 78.—COVER, from Clermont, N.Y., to Hanover, 1856. (Melvin W. Schuh collection) 
NUMBER 6 125 

Revival of American Packet Service 

to Bremen 

After the Vanderbilt European line stopped its runs 

to Bremen in 1858 there was no American packet service to Bremen until 1866. In 1865 the Ruger Brothers 

of New York organized the North American Lloyd 

to operate a line of steamships between New York, 

Southampton, and Bremen. Their fleet was made up, 

for the most part, of steamers that had been released 

from service in the Civil War, and included the exCollins line steamers Atlantic and Baltic; the Ericsson, which had been chartered by the Collins line; and 

Mississippi and Merrimack, sister ships, which, like 

Western Metropolis, had served as troop transports. 

While primarily interested in the emigrant trade, 

the Ruger Brothers also sought and secured a mail 

contract. The Shipping and Commercial List and New 

York Prices Current listed their sailings as by "U.S.M." 

steamers. Some of their sailing dates coincide with 

those listed in the U.S. Mail and Post Office Assistant 

as by the Bremen line, under contract to the United 

States. The mail sailings of this line are presented in 

Table 27, as reported by the Shipping and Commercial 

List and New York Prices Current. 

The North American Lloyd suspended operations 

in the fall of 1866, and evidently was reorganized by 

the Ruger Brothers as the New York and Bremen 

Steamship Company.41 In March of 1867, the U.S. 

Mail and Post Office Assistant listed sailings by the 

North German Lloyd and by a Bremen line. The sailing for 7 March 1867, listed in the U.S. Mail as by a 

Bremen line, coincides with a scheduled sailing of 

Western Metropolis of the New York and Bremen 

Steamship Company. The Shipping and Commercial 

List, however, does not show this scheduled sailing of 

Western Metropolis as by a U.S.M. steamer. If the 

postmaster general made a trip contract with the New 

York and Bremen Steamship Company for this voyage, 

he was disappointed, because the ship failed to sail. 

Although this line continued to operate until 1870, 

there is no evidence that its ships carried mail after 

March 1867. 

Figure 79 illustrates a cover posted in New York, 

addressed to Schwartzburg-Sonderhausen, Thuringia. 

The 150 rate under the United States-Bremen convention of 4 August 1853 is prepaid by a 150 stamp issued 

in 1866. The proper credit of 60 is included in the New 

York postmark (see Table 24). This N. YORK 6 u.s. 

PKT./PAID marking bears the date of 20 September, but 

TABLE 27.—North American Lloyd Sailings 

Arrival 

Date, 

New York 

1866 

F/V" 

F/V » 

9 Apr. 

F/V

 a 

F/V a 

F/V a 

2 May 

27 May 

9 June 

F/V ' 

12 July 

16 July 

6 Aug. 

6 Aug. 

12 July 

6 Aug. 

25 Sept. 

(•) 

Ship 

Atlantic 

Ericsson 

Atlantic 

Baltic 

Mississippi 

Merrimack 

Ericsson 

Atlantic 

Baltic 

Western Metropolis 

Western Metropolis 

Atlantic 

Baltic Dns.

 b 

Baltic Dns.

 b 

Western Metropolis 

Baltic 

Atlantic 

Western Metropolis Dns.

 b 

Departure 

Date, 

New York 

1866/67 

22 Feb. 

15 Mar. 

12 Apr. 

26 Apr. 

10 May 

17 May 

24 May 

31 May 

14 June 

28 June 

Returned 

19 July 

9 Aug. 

16 Aug. 

30 Aug. 

20 Sept. 

4 Oct. 

7 Mar. 

a

 First voyage for the line. 

b

 Scheduled; did not sail. 

c

 Scheduled for the New York & Bremen Steamship Company; date shown in U.S. Mail. 

there is nothing on the cover to indicate the year of use. 

There was, however, no sailing by an Ocean line ship 

from New York on 20 September in any year after 

1850, and no ship of the Vanderbilt European line 

sailed from New York on 20 September in any year. 

As is indicated in Table 27, Baltic of the North American Lloyd sailed from New York on 20 September 

1866, which determines the year date of this cover. 

Since it has been thought that all American packet 

service ceased in 1858, this cover could have been, at 

some time in the past, condemned as fraudulent. 

The Galway Line 

The Irish migration to the United States during the 

1850s led to the demand that steamship service between the United States and a port in Ireland be 

established. Situated as it was on the west coast of 

Ireland, 300 miles nearer New York than Liverpool, 

the port of Galway attracted the attention of a group 

of businessmen who, in 1850, sought to run a line 

11

 Ibid., p. 240. 
126 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

-7» S* 

V *?-?& 

FIGURE 79.—COVER, from New York to Schwartz[burg-]Sondershause[n], Thuringen [Thuringia, 

Germany], 1866. 

of steamers between Galway and New York. Although 

their efforts in this regard have been described as 

"farcical,"

 42

 they did succeed in securing the completion of the Midland and Great Western Railway which 

connected Galway with Dublin. 

In 1858 John Orr Lever, a Manchester business 

man, and a group of associates, organized the Atlantic 

Steam Navigation Company for the purpose of operating a line of steamships between Galway, Halifax, 

and New York.43 From its inception the company 

was known as the Galway line. Lever's plans extended 

far beyond the emigrant traffic. Since the steaming 

time from New York to Galway was twenty-four hours 

less than to Liverpool, he hoped by the use of steamers 

of the highest speed and excellent accommodations to 

outstrip the Cunarders. Also involved in his scheme 

was a call at St. Johns, Newfoundland, whence the 

latest news could be telegraphed to the United States. 

He planned that the passage time from Galway to St. 

Johns would be only six days.44 

By various means he secured financial backing, and 

through the support of Irish Nationalists, a mail contract from the British government. Under the terms of 

"Gibbs, p. 141. 

43

 Bonsor, p. 161. 

"Gibbs, p. 141. 

this contract, there would be sailings twice a month 

from Galway, to Boston or New York, alternately. The 

passage time to Newfoundland was to be six days, and 

New York was to be reached in another six days. The 

contract was to become effective in June I860.45 

Although four vessels were ordered built by the 

company, it was decided to start operations with chartered tonnage. Hansa (formerly the United States), 

chartered from W. A. Fritze and Company, was renamed Indian Empire, and made die initial sailing for 

the line. She sailed from Galway on 19 June 1858 and 

required twelve instead of the forecasted eight days 

to reach Halifax. The next voyage was taken by Prince 

Albert, which required ten days to reach Halifax. Altogether eleven vessels were chartered, most of which 

made only one or two voyages for the line, and none 

were able to meet the time-schedule prescribed by the 

contract. 

The first of the four vessels ordered by the company, 

the Connaught, was not delivered in time to make a 

scheduled sailing on 26 June, and did not sail until 

10 July 1860. Her speed was disappointing, since she 

required eight instead of six days to reach St. Johns. 

On her second voyage she was destroyed by fire in midIbid. 
NUMBER 6 127 

Atlantic.,G The speed of the remaining three vessels, 

Hibernia, Columbia and Anglia, was equally disappointing. In March 1861 the company purchased exCollins liner Adriatic, then running for the North 

Atlantic Steamship Company. Adriatic proved to be 

the only ship in the company's fleet able to meet the 

terms of the mail contract, but she arrived on the scene 

too late. In June 1861 the British postmaster general 

announced that he had canceled the mail contract of 

the Galway line.47 

In August 1863 the British Post Office revived the 

mail contract of the Galway line. Although Liverpool 

was to be the British terminal port, the vessels were to 

call at Galway outwards and homewards. The revived 

sailings continued until the company, always in financial difficulties, collapsed in February 1864. 

Figure 80 illustrates a cover posted in Boston addressed to Tunis. It is prepaid 330 by a strip of three 

of the 100 type V stamps and a 30 stamp of the 1857 

issue. On the reverse is a BOSTON BR. PKT/AUG/ 7 marking in black. Of particular interest is the endorsement 

TABLE 28.— The Mail Sailing of the Galway Line 

Arrival 

Date , 

U.S . 

9 Jul y 

23 Jul y 

4 Aug. 

18 Aug. 

9 Sept. 

7 Nov. 

15 Mar. 

27 Apr. 

2 Ma y 

18 Ma y 

11 Sept. 

26 Sept. 

12 Oct. 

23 Oct. 

10 Nov. 

3 Jan . 

3 Feb. 

40 Bonsor 

17

 Gibbs, 

Ship 

Parana 

Connaught 

Prince Albert 

Parana 

Prince Albert 

Prince Albert 

Adriatic 

Prince Albert 

Columbia 

Adriatic 

Parana 

Hibernia 

Adriatic 

Anglia 

Columbia 

Hibernia 

Adriatic 

Adriatic 

Columbia 

Hibernia 

, p . 163. 

p . 142. 

1860 

1861 

1863 

1864 

Port 

New York 

Boston 

New York 

Boston 

New York 

New York 

New York 

New York 

Boston 

New York 

Boston 

Boston 

New York 

Boston 

New York 

Boston 

New York 

New York 

Boston 

New York 

Departur e 

Date , 

U.S. 

16 Jul y 

7 Aug. 

14 Aug. 

27 Aug. 

12 Sept. 

20 Nov. 

13 Mar. 

26 Mar. 

30 Apr. 

13 Ma y 

28 Ma y 

8 Sept. 

21 Sept. 

6 Oct. 

19 Oct. 

3 Nov. 

17 Nov. 

12 Jan . 

25 Jan . 

9 Feb . 

"pr Galway Line." The London marking on the face 

shows the year to be 1860. 

In 1860 there were two available routes and rates to 

Tunis: (1) British mail, via Southampton, to Marseilles, and thence by French packet to Tunis at a 

rate of 330 for a quarter-ounce letter, prepayment compulsory; (2) French mail at a rate of 300 per quarter 

ounce, prepayment optional. The United StatesFrench convention of 2 March 1857 provided for mail 

by British packet from Boston or New York to Liverpool, but made no provision for mail from New York 

to Galway. French mails were therefore not made up 

for conveyance by the ships of the Galway line. 

Since this cover is endorsed to the Galway line, it 

could be sent only at the British mail rate. The Boston 

office retained the United States inland postage of 

50 and gave Great Britain credit for the remainder of 

the prepayment. This is indicated by a red crayon 28 

on the face. The date of 7 August in the Boston marking on the reverse indicates that it was conveyed across 

the Atlantic by Connaught on its only eastward 

voyage. 

Irregularities in Sailings of the 

Steamship Lines 

Some irregularities in the sailings of the steamship 

lines and the resultant effect on the carriage of mail 

have already been noted. There were, however, other 

sailing irregularities, failures, and changes of sailing 

dates that should be mentioned. These will be considered as nearly as possible in chronological order. 

R.M.S. Hibernia of the Cunard line arrived in Boston on 16 August and sailed for Halifax and Liverpool 

on 29 August 1849. Maginnis notes "Hibernia on this 

trip sprang a leak, and returned to Halifax and left 

passengers and mails; then she came to New York for 

repairs, and sailed on 29 September for Liverpool direct with 19 passengers."

 4S

 How the mails were forwarded from Halifax to Liverpool is not known, and 

Cunard records are not helpful on this point. 

On 7 December 1850, Atlantic of the Collins line 

sailed from New York for Liverpool. On her return 

voyage, when far out in the Atlantic, she fractured her 

paddle shaft and was forced to return to Queenstown 

under sail.49 As a result of this accident, she was long 

48

 Arthur J. Maginnis, The Atlantic Ferry, Its Ships, Men 

and Working, footnote, p. 26. 

49

 Bonsor, North Atlantic Seaway, p. 56. 
128 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

/y>^£y~. tAy^y r- r *<£ < 

K

*-v 

't2"^7t^- ^ <f 

/ c't^c £*<!_*_ 

FIGURE 80.—COVER, from Boston to Tunis, 1860. 

(Robert de Wasserman collection) 

overdue in New York, and as time passed with no word 

of her safety, concern mounted. It was feared she had 

suffered the fate of President, which had sailed from 

New York on 11 March 1841 with 136 passengers and 

crew and '"went missing," that is, she disappeared and 

was never heard of again. When the news that Atlantic 

and her passengers were safe in Queenstown was finally 

received, there was great rejoicing in New York. So 

moved was a New York musician by the name of 

Johann Munck that he composed a schottische and 

entitled it "Atlantic's Return," dedicating the piece to 

Captain James West, skipper of Atlantic. Jaques and 

Brother, who published it, had William Endicott and 

Company of New York prepare a lithograph of Atlantic 

to be used as the front cover of the selection. This was 

reproduced in black and white but was finished by 

hand-coloring. It is presented here as Figure 81. 

Atlantic did not arrive back in New York until 

3 August 1851. During her absence, the mail service of 

the Collins line had to be maintained by Pacific, 

Baltic, and Arctic. A rearrangement of scheduled sailings was made. Sailing days were changed from Saturdays to Wednesdays for the following trips: Baltic, 

8 January; Pacific, 22 January; Arctic, 5 February; 

Baltic, 5 March; Pacific 19 March; Arctic, 2 April; 

and Baltic, 16 April 1851. With the sailing of Pacific 

on 10 May 1851, sailing days were returned to Saturdays. It will be noted that a second voyage in February 

was omitted. Unfortunately, the American packet 

marking of the New York office was not introduced 

until 1852 (earliest seen, 2 September 1852), and 

covers by the sailings listed here can usually be identified only by their arrival dates or by endorsements 

to one of the above ships. 

During the Crimean War, many of the Cunard 

ships were taken over by the Allies as troop transports. 

The Cunard line, therefore, discontinued its service 

to New York after the sailing of Niagara on 20 December 1854 and did not revive it until the sailing of 

Africa from New York on 6 February 1856. During 

this period, the Cunard line maintained its fortnightly 

sailings from Boston with steamers Asia, Africa, Canada, and America. As soon as the Cunard line discontinued its New York runs, the Collins line, perhaps by 

prearrangement, changed its sailing days from New 

York to Wednesdays. In this way a weekly service to 

Liverpool on Wednesdays was maintained. The first 

Wednesday sailing from New York by die Collins line 

was taken by Pacific on 27 December 1854, while the 

first Saturday sailing after the Cunard line returned 

to the New York service was also by the Pacific on 5 

January 1856, on her last outward voyage. 

In regard to American packet covers prepaid with 

210 in postage stamps, and used during the year of 

1855: those showing dates in their American packet 

markings that indicate a Saturday sailing were con-
NUMBER 6 129 

ft 

NEW YORK, PUBLISHES BY .MfCEC 3; SP.OTH^P. N? 38S BP0ADWA1 

FIGURE 81.—LITHOGRAPH of the Collins line ship, Atlantic. (Courtesy of James E. Schofield) 

veyed either by the Havre line or by the Ocean (Bremen) line. Those conveyed by the Havre line bear 

French markings for direct service to Havre, while 

those conveyed by the Ocean (Bremen) line were 

rated by France for American packet service through 

England. Most of the American packet covers seen 

which can be attributed to Collins line service were 

used during 1855 and show American packet marks 

whose dates indicate a Wednesday sailing. 

On 1 November 1856, steamship Hermann of the 

Ocean line sailed from New York for Southampton 

and Bremen. The following appears in the 21 January 

1857 issue of the Shipping and Commercial list and 

New York Prices Current under a section headed 

"Gales and Disasters":

 50 

Southampton, December 20 (1856)—The Hermann, 

United States Mail Steamship, Captain Higgins, put back 

to Southampton, Sunday, December 14th. with center shaft 

broken, side lever carried away, and port engine damaged 

and useless.—The starboard engine remained available, the 

50

 Shipping and Commercial List and New York Prices Current, 11 Feb. 1857. 

hull was not much damaged, but the repairs of the engine 

will require at least six weeks. The accident took place 

about 1000 miles from Southampton. She was laboring 

heavily, and only just able to make headway in the recent 

gales. 

Hermann did not arrive back in New York until 12 

March 1857. Washington sailed from New York on 

29 November 1856, arrived back in New York on 20 

January 1857, and did not sail again until 21 February 

1857. There was no sailing by the Ocean line during 

December 1856 or January 1857. 

What happened to the Bremen mail during this period is explained by the cover illustrated in Figure 82. 

This letter originated in Taunton, Massachusetts, on 12 

December 1856, addressed to Halle, Prussia. It was prepaid 150 by a 30 and a 120 stamp of the 1851 issue. 

The prepayment indicated that the letter was intended 

to be sent by the Ocean (Bremen) line, the only route 

to Germany to which a 150 prepayment pertained. It 

was known, however, that the Ocean line ships would 

not sail until Washington returned some time in January. The letter was, therefore, sent as fully paid in the 
130 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

/r:. 

<s» 

^ 

jk. ( ? 

1 <s 1 

• 

" • -USBSUUIBSIW I"1» ~ 

FIGURE 82.—COVER, from Taunton, Ms. [Massachusetts], to Halle, Prussia, 1856. 

(Melvin W. Schuh collection) 

Prussian closed mail by Atlantic of the Collins line 

which sailed from New York on 20 December 1856. 

The New York American packet marking shows a 

credit of 70, which was all that the Aachen office considered; proper prepayment by stamps was regarded 

as the problem of the American exchange office. The 

Aachen office applied the boxed AACHEN/FRANCO 

marking, characteristic of Prussian closed-mail covers. 

This bears the date of 3 January (3/1), and a circular 

AUSG. (Ausgabe) marking on die reverse was applied 

on 4 January (4/1). Thus, the person who mailed this 

letter, inadvertently had the advantage of a 300 rate 

for a 150 prepayment, and of much faster service than 

the letter would have received if the Ocean line ships 

had been running. It also demonstrates that the post 

office relied on the Prussian closed mail when the 

Ocean line service failed, as the Bremen closed mail 

had been previously relied upon for the same reason. 

It also brings into question the saying, Do not buy a 

cover if the rate is not right, which is a perfectly good 

rule to follow if the buyer has sufficient knowledge. 

The original fleet of the North German Lloyd consisted of Bremen, New York, Hudson, and Weser. On 

4 December 1858, Weser sailed from Bremen for New 

York on her maiden voyage. She encountered heavy 

seas, was forced to put back to Queenstown for repairs, 

and did not arrive in New York until 18 March 1859. 

She made two further voyages for the Lloyd after 

which she was sold to France.51 On the night of 2 

November 1858, Hudson was destroyed by fire at her 

pier at Bremerhaven.52 Thus, by die end of 1859 the 

North German Lloyd fleet was reduced to Bremen and 

New York, and these two ships were maintaining 

a monthly service. Bremen sailed from New York on 

24 December 1859, broke a shaft on the run to Bremen, 

and did not arrive back in New York until 25 July 

1860. During the period in 1860 in which Bremen was 

out of service, New York made die following voyages: 

arrived in New York on 17 January and sailed 21 

January; arrived 11 March and sailed 17 March; arrived 1 May and sailed 12 May; arrived 25 June and 

sailed 7 July. On 25 July Bremen arrived again in New 

York and sailed on 4 August 1860, restoring die 

monthly service. 

Piefke relates how Bremen sent the mail during this 

period:53 

During this period it was impossible .. . to forward the 

mails regularly. These sad events caused Post Director Dr. 

Bartsch to utter the lament, 'What will they think of us in 

a

 Ibid., p. 182. 

32

 Ibid. 

M

 Piefke, Bremischen Landespost, chap. 22. 
NUMBER 6 131 

America when we, disregarding our public announcements 

and promises, delay letters for six weeks?' There remained only one unlovely way out—the same used when 

the Vanderbilt ships failed—to use the Hapag Line. 

The report of the auditor of the Treasury for the 

Post Office Department, appended to the annual report of the postmaster general for 1860, discloses that 

the postage on letters sent from Bremen by the Hamburg-American line amounted to $3,837.69, whereas 

no mail from the United States is reported as being 

sent to Bremen by the Hapag ships. 

Figure 83 illustrates a cover posted in Augusta, 

Georgia, on 12 January 1860, prepaid 270 by two 120 

stamps and a 30 stamp of the 1857 issue, and addressed to Switzerland. At the time the letter was 

posted, the rate to Switzerland by Bremen or Hamburg mail was 270 per half ounce. It is not unlikely 

that this letter arrived at the New York office before 

New York arrived on 17 January 1860, and, in any 

event, it was uncertain as to when she would sail. 

There was no scheduled sailing by the HamburgAmerican line during January I860.54

 The letter was, 

therefore, sent in die Prussian closed mail as fully 

61

 Sailing data reported in Shipping and Commercial List 

(appropriate issues) disclose that there was no sailing from 

New York during any January until 2 Jan. 1861. 

paid. The Prussian closed-mail rate to Switzerland 

was 350. The basic credit of 70 for the 300 international rate was increased by the postage of 50 beyond 

the 300 rate, making a total credit of 120. The New 

York office, therefore, marked the letter P.D. ("paid 

to destination"), with a red 12 next to it, and forwarded it in the Prussian closed mail to Aachen. The 

Aachen office applied marking P of Figure 51, which 

indicated that the letter was paid, and that it was 

received at that office on 31 January. It also marked 

the letter in blue manuscript / 2, showing that the 

postage beyond the German-Austrian Postal Union 

border of 2 silbergroschen (50) had been paid. These 

markings are typical of those applied to Prussian 

closed mail. If the letter had been sent in the Hamburg 

mail, the credit would have been 220, or if in the 

Bremen mail, 240 would have been credited to Bremen. 

Early in 1860 the North Atlantic Steamship Company acquired the services of ex-Collins liners Adriatic 

and Atlantic and placed them on the run from New 

York to Havre, via Southampton. Their sailing dates 

were set on Saturdays so that they augmented the service of Vanderbilt steamers Illinois and Vanderbilt. The 

postmaster general made trip contracts with this line 

for service to Southampton and Havre. The sailings of 

the line are presented in Table 29. 

FIGURE 83.—COVER, from Augusta, Ga., to Geneva, Switzerland, 1860. 

(Melvin W. Schuh collection) 
132 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

TABLE 29.—North Atlantic Steamship Company 

Sailings 

Arrival 

Date, 

New York 

Ship 

Departure 

Date, 

New York 

(New York, Southampton, and LeHavre) 

1860 1860/61 

F/V * Adriatic 14 Apr. 

15 May Adriatic 7 June 

I July Adriatic 14 July 

II Aug. Adriatic 25 Aug. 

24 Sept. Adriatic 6 Oct. 

F/V

 a Atlantic 7 Nov. 

5 Nov. Adriatic Dns.b 29 Dec. 

19 Dec. Atlantic Dns.b 29 Dec." 

5 Nov. Adriatic Dns.b 9 Mar.d 

5 Nov. Adriatic 13 Mar.° 

a

 First voyage for line. 

b

 Scheduled; did not sail. 

c

 Announced as substituted for the Adriatic; did not sail; 

mail sent by Etna of the Inman line. 

d

 Adriatic sold to Galway line; mail rerated and sent by the 

Edinburgh of the Inman line. 

" Adriatic sailed as British steamer for delivery to Galway line. 

Figure 84 presents a cover (face only) in the Smithsonian collection that shows the transfer of Adriatic to 

the Galway line. It was posted in New Orleans on 1 

Ma.rch 1861 (when Louisiana was a Confederate state) 

prepaid 150 to be sent by French mail. It is franked by 

a 100 type V and a 50 type II stamp of the 1857 issue. 

New York first applied marking F of Figure 42, bearing 

the date of 9 March and a credit of 30 for direct service 

to Havre. This marking was obliterated by a red grid, 

and a second marking similar to F of Figure 42 was 

applied bearing the same date, but with a credit of 60 

for service to France, via England. Adriatic was scheduled to sail on 9 March 1861 as a United States mail 

steamer. With the exception of the sailing of Adriatic 

on 13 March 1861, all of the sailings reported in Table 

29 are designated in the Shipping and Commercial List 

as either "U.S.M. steamer Adriatic," or "U.S.M. 

steamer Atlantic." The sailing on 13 March 1861 is 

shown simply as "steamer Adriatic" among the ship 

clearances for that day. 

What happened is evident on the face of the cover. 

After Adriatic was scheduled to sail and after her mails 

were made up, she was sold to the Galway line.55 

Since she would not again sail for Havre, her mails 

were rerated. The presence of the date of 9 March in 

the second application of the New York marking indicates that the mail was sent on that day (the same 

day as the scheduled sailing by Adriatic) by a different ship. The only mail steamer to sail from New 

York on 9 March 1861 was Edinburgh of the Inman 

line, and it is presumed that she conveyed this letter 

to Liverpool. This would verify the use of die credit 

of 60 in the second New York marking. The letter was 

evidently sent from Liverpool through the Southampton office to Havre. The Havre office applied marking 

D of Figure 43 bearing the date of 28 March 1861. 

The "Miscellaneous line" developed by the postmaster general for 1859

 5G

 discloses that he contracted 

with the Cunard line for one trip to Liverpool by 

steamer Lebanon which sailed from New York on 

26 February 1859, conveying United States mail. Lebanon was a freighter and was not used by the Cunard 

line as a mail carrier. This was her only transatlantic 

mail voyage. 

After the loss of Indian on 21 November 1859 and 

Hungarian on 20 February 1860, the Allan line had 

difficulty in maintaining its service between Liverpool 

and Portland or Rivier du Loup (Quebec). After the 

collapse of the European and Australian line, Allan 

chartered that line's screw steamer Australasian for one 

voyage. She arrived in Portland, Maine, on 23 April 

1860, and sailed on 5 May conveying the last mail of 

the winter of 1859-60 from Portland; 5 7 on the following voyages the ships ran to Quebec. Late in 1860 

Australasian was purchased by the Cunard line. The 

Allan line chartered Melita from the Cunard line for 

one trip to Liverpool. Since Melita was a freighter, she 

sailed from Quebec on 6 July 1860, on her only mail 

voyage to Liverpool.58 

In October 1863 Africa of the Cunard line was disabled off Cape Race. H.B.M.S. Vesuvius came to her 

rescue. The Africa was scheduled to sail from Boston 

with a mail on 28 October 1863, but of course did not 

arrive to take the sailing. H.B.M.S. Vesuvius arrived 

in Boston on 21 October 1863 with Africa's mail. The 

Olympus of the Cunard line arrived in New York on 

22 October 1863 and sailed for Boston on 25 October 

"" Bonsor, North Atlantic Seaway, p. 163. Dates from 

Shipping and Commercial List. 

58

 Senate Executive Document 3, 36 Cong., 1 sess., serial 

1025, p. 1498. 

"Shipping and Commercial List (appropriate issues). 

M

 Report of Treasury auditor for Post Office Dept. appended to Annual Report of the Postmaster General for 

1861, p. 124. 
NUMBER 6 133 

^S^ZsJ?^ 

: \ 

O 

r^4 

\ i ,5 

• ' -

FIGURE 84.—COVER, from New Orleans, La. [then a Confederate State], to France, 1861. 

(Photograph by Smithsonian) 

1863. On 28 October 1863, Africa's scheduled sailing 

date, Olympus sailed from Boston for Liverpool with 

Africa's mails.59 Since Olympus normally carried 

freight and steerage passengers, this was her only mail 

voyage. Also, the bringing into Boston of Africa's mails 

by H.B.M.S. Vesuvius is the only instance in which a 

naval vessel carried mail for the Cunard line. 

The Additional Exchange Offices 

Under the United States-British 

Treaty of 15 December 1848 

Additional articles to the United States-British 

treaty of 15 December 1848 were signed at London 

on 25 November and at Washington on 12 December 1853, which created an exchange office at Philadelphia.60

 These article were to come into operation 

on 1 January 1854. The Philadelphia office was to 

correspond with the British exchange offices at Liverpool, London, and Southampton. Mails sent in transit through England were to be directed to the London 

'Shipping and Commercial List (appropriate issues). 

' 16 Statutes at Large 814. 

office when conveyed from Boston or New York by 

mail packets to Liverpool, or to the Southampton office when conveyed by United States mail packets 

plying between New York and Southampton. The 

mails made up at the three British offices were to be 

forwarded in separate bags addressed to the Philadelphia office and were to comprise all correspondence 

for the city of Philadelphia. It was not specified, however, that mails dispatched by the Philadelphia office 

comprise only mails originating in the city of Philadelphia. 

Figure 85 illustrates a cover posted in Philadelphia 

on 14 October 1857, addressed to Liverpool. It is 

endorsed "per City of Washington/from N.York to 

Liverpool." The subsidized Collins line had taken 

Baltic and Atlantic out of service temporarily so diat 

they could be fitted widi watertight compartments, 

and had delayed the maiden voyage of Adriatic for the 

same purpose. Ericsson and Columbia, chartered by 

the line, were attempting to maintain the fortnighdy 

schedule, together with the Collins line ships as tJhey 

were returned to service. However, diere had been no 

sailing by the line in February and only one sailing 

in each of the months March, April, and May. 

Atlantic, which was scheduled to sail on 10 October 
134 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

' " X^WM^"''"4I"V~' >' ¥^^r S • 

/fa~-/z*te**L £~~o&rJ^' 

FIGURE 85.—COVER, from Philadelphia to Liverpool, 1857. (Melvin W. Schuh collection) 

1857, did not arrive back in New York until diat day, 

and did not sail until 24 October 1857. There was, 

therefore, to be only one sailing by die line during 

October. 

Although there is nothing relating to it in the report 

of the auditor of the Treasury for the Post Office 

Department, this cover indicates that the postmaster 

general made a trip contract with the Inman line for 

the services of City of Washington to convey the mail 

to Liverpool. The credit 3 in the Philadelphia packet 

marking indicates American packet service by a contract packet. This marking is dated 14 October, and 

City of Washington sailed from New York on Thursday, 15 October 1857. Since the cover bears an 

endorsement, the sailing must have been publicly announced. This is the earliest cover noted by die author 

showing service by an Inman line ship as a contract 

packet. 

In June 1857 the provisional government of Canada 

arranged with the Montreal Ocean Steam Ship Company (Allan line) for a weekly conveyance of mail to 

Liverpool. In order to increase the service from fortnightly to weekly, new steamships had to be built. An 

annual subsidy of £42,000 was granted, and shortly 

thereafter it was increased to double that figure. The 

line was plying between Liverpool and Quebec between April and October, inclusive, and between Liverpool and Portland, Maine, during the remainder of 

the year when the St. Lawrence River was closed to 

navigation. The weekly service came into operation in 

April 1859.61 

In his annual report for 1859 Postmaster General 

Joseph Holt said of the Allan line: 

This line is hereafter to run weekly, Portland being the 

terminus on this side during the winter, and Quebec during 

the summer season; and in connexion with the Grand 

Trunk railway, over the Victoria bridge at Montreal, now 

completed, it will afford the means of the most direct and 

probably the most expeditious communication between 

Chicago and Liverpool. Arrangements have been made 

with the Canadian post office department to transport, for 

the sea postage, any mails it may be desirable to send by this 

line; and, in order to give them as much expedition as 

possible, it is intended to have Chicago and Detroit, as well 

as Portland, constituted offices of exchange for United 

States and British mails. Bags will then be made up at each 

of these offices, and will not be opened until they reach 

Liverpool. The running time from Chicago to Portland, 

via Detroit, Toronto, &c, is not to exceed forty-eight hours; 

and either from Portland or from the contemplated terminus of the railway, near the mouth of the St. Lawrence, 

where the mails are to be transferred to and from the 

steamships, the distance to Liverpool is several hundred 

miles less than from New York. 

Additional articles to the United States-British 

treaty of 15 December 1848 creating Portland, Maine, 

an exchange office were signed at Washington on 

Bonsor, North Atlantic Seaway, p. 84. 
NUMBER 6 135 

11 January and at London on 3 February 1859.62 

Significant portions of these articles are summarized 

as follows: 

I. Established an exchange office at Portland for the exchange of United States and European mails with the 

British offices of Liverpool and London by means of 

United States, British, or Canadian mail packets plying 

between Liverpool and Portland. 

II. Provided that the offices of Boston, New York, and 

Philadelphia might exchange mails with the offices of 

London and Liverpool, respectively, by way of Portland, 

in the same manner as mails are now being exchanged by 

United States and British packets plying between New 

York and Liverpool, and Boston and Liverpool. 

III. The mails forwarded by the Portland Office to the 

Liverpool office were to comprise the correspondence 

for all parts of the United Kingdom, except the city of 

London and its suburbs. 

The mails for London would comprise all correspondence for that city and its suburbs, and for countries 

in transit through the United Kingdom. 

IV. Mails forwarded from the offices of London and Liverpool to Portland would comprise all the correspondence 

for the United States, except the cities of Boston, New 

York, and Philadelphia. 

The mails forwarded by the offices of London and 

Liverpool to Boston, New York, and Philadelphia would 

comprise the mails destined for each of those cities, 

respectively. 

Aldiough the reports of the auditor of the Treasury 

for the Post Office Depatrment show that the Canadian (Allan) line carried much American packet British mail after 1860, Portland exchange office markings 

are scarce. The above mail arrangements point to the 

reason for their scarcity. 

The offices of Boston, New York, and Philadelphia 

could make up a mail, direct it to one of the British 

offices, and send it to Portland for conveyance to Liverpool. The mail so sent was not confined to that originating in the respective city, and would bear the marking of the office that sent it to Portland. The only mail 

made up at Portland was mail specifically directed to 

that office by the local offices. On the other hand, mails 

received from the British offices at Portland and directed to the New York, Boston, or Philadelphia offices 

contained only the mail addressed to those cities. Mail 

addressed to other parts of the United States passed 

through the Portland office and bore a Portland marking. This may explain why Portland markings are more 

frequently seen on incoming than on outgoing mail. 

Additional articles to the United States-British 

treaty were signed at London on 25 November, and at 

Washington on 14 December 1859,63 creating exchange offices at Chicago and Detroit in the United 

States and at Cork, Dublin, and Galway in the United 

Kingdom. These offices were to exchange mails with 

each other by means of British, United States, and 

Canadian mail packets. It was not prescribed that the 

packet ply between Liverpool and Portland or River 

du Loup. The Portland office was also to exchange 

mails with the offices at Dublin, Cork, and Galway, 

but was henceforth to exchange mails with the offices 

at London, Liverpool, and Cork only by means of the 

Canadian mail packets (Article III). 

Article IV provided that the "description of letters, 

&c, of the mails exchanged shall be arranged by correspondence between the British and United States 

Post-Offices." What these arrangements were is not 

known. The very few British mail covers seen which 

bear a Chicago or Detroit packet marking originated 

in midwestern towns. It has been noted, however, that 

some British mail covers posted in Chicago were sent 

to Boston or New York and bear markings of those 

exchange offices. It is evident, therefore, that letters 

posted in the midwestern towns and sent in British 

mails did not have to be conveyed by the Canadian 

(Allan) line. 

At the time these articles were signed, the Allan line 

did not call at Queenstown, the port for the city of 

Cork. Mails exchanged between Portland and Cork, 

therefore, were routed from Liverpool to Holyhead, 

and thence across the Irish sea by the packets of the 

City of Dublin Steam Packet Company, a twice-a-day 

service, to Kingstown (near Dublin)64 and thence by 

rail to Cork. Both the Inman and Cunard lines introduced a call at Queenstown in 1859.65

 In June 1860 

the Allan line started to call at Moville, the port for 

the city of Londonderry, which was made an exchange 

office on 21 July I860.66 In 1861 a direct Allan line 

service to Glasgow was inaugurated. In anticipation of 

this announced service, additional articles creating an 

exchange office at Glasgow were signed at London on 

13 August and at Washington on 1 September I860.67 

On 26 September at London and on 19 October 

1863 at Washington, additional articles to the United 

States-British treaty were signed creating an exchange 

e

2

 16 Statutes at Large 824. 

372-645 0—70 10 

"

3

 Ibid., 825. 

04

 Thomas Rainey, Ocean Steam Navigation and the Ocean 

Post, paper by Pliny Miles, appendix, p. 193. 

05

 Bonsor, North Atlantic Seaway, pp. 16 and 63. 

00

 16 Statutes at Large, 826. 

07

 Ibid., p. 827. 
136 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

office at San Francisco,68 which was to receive and 

distribute mails. It was not, however, to dispatch mails 

to die British offices. There are, therefore, no San 

Francisco markings that show debits or credits to 

Great Britain. 

In the boom days immediately following the Civil 

War, the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad availed itself 

of the opportunity of purchasing from the United 

States Navy four vessels whose services the Navy no 

longer required. According to Bonsor, these ships were 

renamed Somerset, Carroll, Worcester, and Allegany 

after four Maryland counties.69 Although built for 

coastal service, the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad organized the Baltimore and Liverpool Steamship Company with a view to placing these 1,250-ton wooden 

screw steamers on the transatlantic ferry for the purpose of carrying freight and mail, if a mail contract 

could be secured. 

The Post Office Department appears to have given 

the line its full cooperation, for not only was a mail 

contract awarded, but Baltimore was made an exchange, office by additional articles to the United 

States-British treaty, signed at Washington on 11 November 1865.70

 Staff reports a British Post Office 

order of 23 April 1866, which notes the establishment 

of the new line of packets and states that sailings 

would be at "irregular intervals."

 71

 Of greater interest, 

however, it the fact that all correspondence addressed 

to the city of Baltimore, the District of Columbia, and 

all southern, southeastern, and central states bordering 

the Mississippi—nineteen in all—would be sent by this 

line, "if not specifically addressed to be otherwise 

sent." 

During 1865 Allegany was placed on the New YorkBaltimore run and was wrecked off Long Island on 

5 December 1865. When die mail service was inaugurated, therefore, it was maintained by the three remaining ships. During 1866 twelve round voyages were 

made between Liverpool and Baltimore, but during 

1867 only seven were made, and in 1868 the service 

was discontinued.72 Numerous covers posted in the 

area to be served by this line have been noted. Most 

of them bear an endorsement indicating that they were 

to be sent through New York or Boston. Even when 

08

 Ibid., p. 830. 

68

 Bonsor, North Atlantic Seaway, p. 233. 

70

 16 Statutes at Large, p. 832. 

71

 Frank Staff, The Transatlantic Mail, pp. 152-153. 

72

 Cedric Ridgely-Nevitt, "The Baltimore and Liverpool 

Steamship Line," Steamboat Bill 95 (Fall 1965) : 85. 

such letters were not so endorsed, their early dispatch 

required that they be sent to New York or Boston. As 

a result, covers showing a Baltimore exchange office 

marking for British mail service are rare, and none is 

illustrated here. 

Although there were no additional articles to die 

United States-French convention of 2 March 1857, 

creating Baltimore an exchange office, the U.S. Mail 

and Post Office Assistant in repeated issues during 

1867 notes Baltimore as an exchange office for French 

mail. That it was an exchange office at least for the 

receipt and distribution of French mail is attested by 

Figure 86. This double-rate letter was posted in Paris 

on 25 June 1867, addressed to New Orleans. It bears 

a double-rate credit of 180 for American packet service through England. The BALTIMORE AM. PKT./PAID/ 

JUL/9/1 8 6 7 marking (which ties the French stamps) is 

in red. On 9 July 1867, Worcester of the Baltimore 

and Liverpool Steamship Company arrived in Baltimore from Liverpool. This is the only cover known 

to the author whose conveyance can definitely be attributed to this steamship line. 

The Additional Exchange Offices 

Under the United States^French 

Convention of 2 March 1857 

Additional articles to the United States-French convention of 2 March 1857 were signed at Washington 

on 22 February and at Paris on 8 March 1861.73 The 

modifications made by these articles to the arrangements included in the original convention were 

extensive. 

Article I provided for the exchange of correspondence "by Canadian mail packets plying between Liverpool and Portland, or between Liverpool and River du 

Loup." 

Article II provided that the articles of the convention which applied to letters exchanged between the 

French and United States post offices "by means of 

British packets and other British steam-vessels performing regular service between the ports of Great 

Britain and the ports of the United States, shall apply 

to letters which shall be exchanged between the two 

post-offices" when conveyed by Canadian packets. This 

article created the peculiar situation of treating French 

73

 16 Statutes at Large 890. 
NUMBER 6 137 

*^'dL.<=>/4l <£^^^ V tS-tsty^LX 

to 7 ^ 

b'y 

^ ^ k±y/2 6&£Z4^ 

i 

FIGURE 86.—COVER, from Paris to New Orleans, 1867. (James E. Schofield collection) 

mail conveyed by the Canadian (Allan) line as being 

conveyed by British packets, while British and Prussian closed-mail letters conveyed by the same line were 

treated as being conveyed by American packets. 

Article III established an additional exchange office 

at Paris, for France, and created offices at Portland, 

Detroit, and Chicago, for the United States. The 

office at San Francisco was discontinued. 

Article IV provided that the three French offices 

correspond with the offices at New York, Boston, and 

Philadelphia by means of United States, British, and 

Canadian packets; and with the offices of Portland, 

Detroit, and Chicago by means of the Canadian 

packets only. 

Article V referred to an appended table which described the origin and destination of mails and the 

packet lines by which the mails were to be exchanged. 

The packet lines included were: New York and 

Havre; Bremen and New York, via Southampton; 

Liverpool and New York; Liverpool and Boston; and 

Liverpool and Portland or River du Loup. It should 

be noted that the New York and Hamburg packet line 

is not included. It was provided, however, that these 

arrangements could be modified by correspondence between the two post offices. 

Although the mail arrangements set forth in the 

table are exceedingly complicated, the relations between the French offices and the offices at Portland, 

Detroit, and Chicago may be summarized as follows: 

The French exchange offices were to correspond with 

the offices at Detroit by means of Canadian packets for 

mails originating in or destined for the States of Michigan, 

Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky; with the office at Chicago 

by means of Canadian packets for mails originating in or 

destined for the States of Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, 

Iowa, and Missouri, and the Territories of Kansas and 

Nebraska; and with the office at Portland by means of 

Canadian packets for mail originating in or destined for 

all of the United States and its territories (except those 

mentioned above as related to the offices of Detroit and 

Chicago, and mails to or from the cities of New York, 

Boston, and Philadelphia, as well as mails to or from 

California, Oregon, and the territory of Washington, which 

were to pass through the New York office). 

The mails sent from or received at the Boston Office, 

via Portland or. River du Loup, were to comprise of the 

mails of the city of Boston only; the mails sent from or 

received at the Philadelphia office, via Portland or River 

du Loup, were to comprise of the mail of the city of 

Philadelphia only; the mails sent from or received at the 

New York office, via Portland or River du Loup, were to 

comprise of the mails of the city of New York, California, 

Oregon, and the territory of Washington. 

By Article VI these articles were to come into operation on 1 April 1861. 
138 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

The Additional Exchange Offices 

Under the United States-Prussian 

Closed-Mail Convention 

Additional articles to the United States-Prussian 

closed-mail convention were signed at Washington on 

28 December 1860, and at Berlin on 24 April 1861, 

creating United States exchange offices at Portland, 

Detroit, and Chicago which were to correspond with 

the Prussian office at Aachen by means of Canadian 

mail packets.74 By Article II, "The description of letters, &c, which shall comprise the closed mails (exchanged between the above offices) . shall be 

from time to time arranged by correspondence between the Post-Office Departments of the two countries.'' By Article III, the two post offices were to account to each other for the mail exchanged by means 

of Canadian packets, "precisely in the same manner 

as if the sea transportation were performed by a 

United States packet between New York and Liverpool." By Article IV, these articles were to "go into 

effect in each country at the expiration of fifteen days 

from the time notice is received of their being concluded." The exact date upon which these articles went 

into effect is not known, but considering the preceding 

provision, they probably went into effect in the United 

States about the middle of May 1861. 

What arrangements were made between the post 

offices of the United States and Prussia regarding the 

origin and destination of mail exchanged between the 

offices of Portland, Detroit, and Chicago and the office 

at Aachen are not known. It must be emphasized, however, that by Article I, the exchange of Prussian closed 

mails between these offices could only be effected by 

Canadian mail packets. In his annual report for 1861, 

Postmaster General Montgomery Blair mentioned the 

additional articles to the United States-French convention, and then went on to say, "Additional articles to 

the postal convention with Prussia, of the same character, have been agreed upon with the general post 

office at Berlin. . . These arrangements have greatly 

expedited the transmission of European correspondence to and from the western States." This leads one 

to conclude that it is not unlikely that similar conditions for mail originating in or destined for the same 

places as set forth in the United States-French convention were applied to the Prussian closed mail. 

71

 Ibid., 978. 

Covers Conveyed by the Allan Line 

Figure 87 illustrates a cover posted in Bath, Maine, 

addressed to Liverpool. It is prepaid 240 by two 120 

stamps (Plate III) issued in 1860. The postal clerk 

evidently had difficulty in canceling the black stamps, 

struck the left stamp twice, and then struck the postmark at bottom center of the cover. This cover passed 

through the Portland office in British mail and received 

a PORTLAND ME. AM. PKT./ 3 /MAR/ I 6 / I 8 6 I marking in 

red. The 3 in this marking indicates a credit to Great 

Britain for her inland postage, the United States retaining 160 packet and 50 inland postages. North 

Briton of the Allan line sailed from Portland on 16 

March 1861, and it is presumed that this ship conveyed 

the letter to Liverpool. 

The Allan line packets sailed from Portland or River 

du Loup on Saturdays. According to the French mail 

arrangements, Boston could send a bag to Portland 

which was to include only mail originating in that city. 

The Boston exchange office markings for mail thus 

sent show Saturday dates. These markings, of course, 

show credits indicating British packet service by French 

mail. When Boston forwarded French mail by the Cunard line, its markings bear Wednesday dates when the 

ship sailed from Boston, or Tuesday dates when the 

ship sailed from New York. A Boston marking showing 

a credit that indicates British packet service by French 

mail and a Saturday date, therefore, discloses that the 

cover was sent by Boston to Portland for conveyance by 

the Allan line. Few covers endorsed to Allan line ships 

have been noted, and all of them were posted during 

the "winter" season when the ships ran from Portland. 

Figure 88 illustrates a cover which originated in Boston, addressed to Paris. It is prepaid 150 by stamps of 

the 1861 issue, and is endorsed to Norwegian of the 

Allan line. The Boston marking shows a single-rate 

credit of 120 to France, indicating British packet service. The date in the Boston marking is 26 April (1862), 

a Saturday, and the Shipping and Commercial List 

and New York Prices Current discloses that Norwegian 

sailed from Portland on that date. 

Figure 89 illustrates a cover posted in Fond du Lac, 

Wisconsin, on 26 August 1861, addressed to Switzerland. It is prepaid 210, the single rate via French mail, 

by two 100 stamps and a 10 stamp of the 1861 issue. 

This is a very early use of the stamps on a cover to a 

foreign country. The Fond du Lac post office sent the 

letter to the Detroit exchange office, complying with 

the requirement that letters from Wisconsin to be sent 
NUMBER 6 139 

£aA rlnwt 4^'f^p j^/i^^t^ 

#0 & fi^r^ L 

fj /Jr^I^f/i^ijAy/j/rt^c^^ 

yu f < /jLai *~ & 

J ^f,lW~/'^r 

FIGURE 87.—COVER, from Bath, Me. [Maine], to Liverpool, England, 1861. 

Cl2 HS ^ 

in French mail be forwarded to that office for transmission by Canadian packets. The Detroit office applied in red a DETROIT MICH/PAID IS/AUG/2 9 exchange-office marking, the 18 indicating the correct 

credit to France for a single-rate letter conveyed by 

British packet. The exchange office marking did not 

show whether conveyance was by British or American 

packet, and, in order to emphasize that the letters were 

rated as by British packet, the boxed BR. SERVICE marking (K of Figure 42) was applied in red. This marking 

was designed for use on incoming letters, and it is 

unusual to find it on a letter forwarded from the United 

States. The date of 29 August (1861) in the exchange 

office marking shows the date on which the mails were 

made up at die Detroit office for the sailing of Bohemian from River du Loup on 31 August 1861. 

Figure 90 illustrates an unpaid letter posted in 

Kanalle Depot, Illinois, on 11 November 1865, addressed to Paris. As was required by regulations, the 

postal clerk marked the rate on the letter by use of a 

handstamp containing the figure 15 in an oval, but applied it in blue instead of the required black ink. He 

also wrote France upon the letter. Since this letter 

originated in Illinois, it was sent to the Chicago exchange office. The Chicago office ascertained that the 

letter weighed over a quarter ounce, and the rating 

by the Kanalle Depot post office was, therefore, incorrect. Not having a stamp inscribed insufficiently 

rated, it was marked INSUFFICIENTLY/PREPAID in blue 

ink. Since a partial payment was not recognized, this 

marking would not confuse the French. The letter 

was also struck with an exchange office marking inscribed CHICAGO ILL/6, which bears no date and is in 

blue. The 6 in this marking indicates a double-rate 

debit to France of 60 for British packet service. The 

French exchange office marking (H of Figure 43) 

was applied at Paris, and that office rated the letter 

for a collection of two 8-decime rates by applying a 

16 in black. 

Figure 91 illustrates an unpaid letter posted in Ottawa, Illinois, on 1 December 1862, addressed to 

Wiborg, Finland. The postal clerk at the Ottawa post 

office endorsed the letter via Prussian Close mail, and, 

complying with regulations, applied a 30 to indicate 

the 300 international rate for a single-rate Prussian 

closed-mail letter. Both the Ottawa postmark and the 

30 are in blue ink. The letter was forwarded to the 

Chicago exchange office for the required transmission 

by Canadian packet. The Chicago office applied an exchange office marking inscribed CHICAGO ILL AM. 

PKT./ 2 3 in blue ink. As is die case with the exchange 

office marking shown on the cover illustrated in Figure 
140 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

( / c ( r < -^ ^ <. c<. t • 

7

 :&L '. 6 

t^Z T < ^/ '"" ^ 

"&<y*-rt Ce & ru g S 

FIGURE 88.—COVER, from Boston to Paris, 1862. 

89, this marking also shows no date. While one may 

speculate upon the reason for this omission, no evidence 

has been found that explains it. The 2 3 in this marking 

is the single-rate debit to Prussia for an unpaid letter 

by Prussian closed mail. The manuscript 12/2 on the 

face of the cover is in blue ink and represents the Prussian debit to Russia (Finland) of 12 silbergroschen 

foreign and 2 silbergroschen Union postage (about 

330). On the reverse is a manuscript 56 in red ink 

which indicated that 56 kopeck were to be collected in 

Finland (about 400). 

Changes in the Prussian Closed-Mail 

Rates 

The significant provisions of the Anglo-Prussian additional postal convention of 2-7 July 1852 have been 

presented in Chapter 5, dealing with the Prussian 

closed-mail convention. On 13 June at Berlin and on 

20 June 1859 at London, Great Britain and Prussia 

signed an additional postal agreement75 which reduced the international rate from 8d. to 6d. in Great 

Britain and from 7 to 5 silbergroschen in Prussia on 

prepaid letters originating in or destined for the states 

of Prussia, Austria, Bavaria, Saxony, Wurttemberg, 

Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Oldenburg , Luxembourg, 

Brunswick, or Liibeck. Unpaid letters remained at 

the former rates. Under this agreement, Belgian transit 

postage of J/2 d. was to be paid to Belgium by the British, but was to be repaid to Great Britian by Prussia 

(Article IV). Prussia was then to pay Britain 3d. for 

every single-rate prepaid letter, which included ]Ad. 

for Belgian transit. The net British transit postage thus 

became 2I/£d. per single rate of half an ounce, representing a reduction of Id. from the former rate. 

Although the above agreement became effective on 

1 July 1859 (Article X), it was over two years before 

there was an adjustment in the United States-Prussian 

closed-mail rate. The U.S. Mail and Post Office 

Assistant contains the following announcement:

 76 

A reduction of one penny (two cents) the single rate 

having been made by Great Britain on prepaid letters 

mailed in the United Kingdom and addressed to Prussia, 

Austria, Bavaria, Saxony, Wurtemberg, MecklinburgStrelitz, Luxemburg, Brunswick, Lubeck, Hamburg, or Bremen, the British office has consented to extend the benefit 

thereof to the paid correspondence between the United 

States and those countries respectively, transmitted through 

England in the United States and Prussian closed mail, 

by reducing the British territorial transit rate in respect to 

such prepaid letters, from 8^4d. to 6}4d. per ounce. 

The 6I4d.-per-ounce rate was arrived at by applying the formula of Article IX of the United States75

 British and Foreign State Papers, vol. 59, p. 900. U.S. Mail and Post Office Assistant 2, 1 (Oct. 1861): 2. 
NUMBER C 141 

3& 

fcfc 

? * 

a / / *• £• * 

--

FIGURE 89.—COVER, from Fond du Lac, 

British treaty to the 2j4d. single-letter rate for British 

transit postage. Article IX, it will be remembered, set 

the closed-mail rate per ounce at two single-letter rates 

plus 25 percent. The British transit rate, therefore, 

became 6j4d. per ounce (2 x 2j4d. plus J4). In terms 

of United States currency this represented a reduction 

from 17j/20tol2^0 per ounce. 

An additional agreement signed at Berlin on 8 March 

1862 between Prussia and Great Britain applied the 

reduced prepaid rate "from the 1st of April .. . to 

correspondence exchanged via Belgium, between the 

postal district of the Prince of Thurn and Taxis and 

the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland."

 77 

Further additional articles signed at Berlin on 12 April 

1862 extended the privilege of the reduced prepaid 

rate to Mecklenburg-Schwerin after 1 May 1862.78 A 

United States Post Office Department announcement 

dated 17 May 1862 and published in the June 1862 

issue of the U.S. Mail and Post Office Assistant, stated 

that the 280 rate on prepaid letters was extended to all 

of the German states, except Baden, via Prussian closed 

mail. 

A new postal convention between Great Britain and 

Prussia was signed in duplicate at London on 13 OcWis., to Fribourg, Switzerland, 1861. 

tober 1862.79 This convention consists of forty articles, 

the first twelve of which largely consolidate the scattered additional articles already in effect into a single 

agreement. One change worthy of note, however, was 

the substitution of the travelling office between Verviers 

and Cologne for Aachen as an exchange office. The 

route taken by the Anglo-Prussian and die United 

States-Prussian closed mails extended from Ostend to 

Verviers, Belgium, and thence through Aachen to 

Cologne. Prior to this agreement these mails were 

put off at the Aachen office. From 1 November 1862, 

when this portion of the convention became effective, 

the United States-Prussian closed mail continued to be 

put off at Aachen, but the Anglo-Prussian closed mail 

was sorted en route between Verviers and Cologne. 

Also of particular interest are those articles dealing 

with the expansion of correspondence in transit through 

the German Postal Union. Article XIX granted the 

British office the transit of closed mails through the 

German Postal Union from the frontier of Belgium 

to any part of the German frontier or vice versa, as 

well as conveyance by German mail packets for mail 

exchanged with India, Australia, Russia, or Russian 

Poland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Constantinople, 

Smyrna, or the Ionian Islands; also, "the transit of 

77British and Foreign State Papers, vol. 59, p. 903. 

78

 Ibid., p. 904. Ibid., vol. 52, p. 1148. 
142 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

C \ 

<r 4 

.-

FIGURE 90.—COVER, from Kanallee Depot, III., to Paris, 1865. 

British closed mails through the territory of Turkey, 

whether by land or water, or partly one and partly 

the other, so long as German closed mails can be sent 

through Turkish territory." 

Articles XXVII to XXX provided for the use of 

British packets to or from the port of Trieste for the 

conveyance of closed mails, while Article XXVI provided for an exchange of letters between the Austrian 

Post Office at Alexandria (Egypt), and the British post 

offices of Aden, Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, Point de 

Galle, Port Louis, Penang, Singapore, Hong Kong, 

King George's Sound, Adelaide, Geelong, Melbourne, 

Hobart Town, Launceston, Sydney, Brisbane, Auckland, and Wellington. 

Article XL provided that the convention come into 

operation on 1 November 1862, but that none of the 

provisions relating to transit mail (mentioned above) 

. . . shall take effect until each of the Contracting Parties 

has announced to the other that satisfactory arrangements 

arising out of the Convention, on the side of the British 

office with the Post Offices of Austria, Hamburg, Bremen, 

and the United States, and on the side of the Prussian 

office with the Post Offices of Austria and the United 

States, have been concluded. 

The pending agreement between the British and 

United States post offices just referred to, consisted of 

additional articles to the United States-British treaty 

which were signed at London on 26 December 1862 

and at Washington on 12 March 1863.80 These articles 

provided that the transit rate for closed mails, eithei 

through the United States or through the United 

Kingdom, be at the rate of 80 or 4d. per ounce, "and 

they [these articles] shall be carried into effect as soon 

as the British Post-Office has announced to the United 

States Post-Office that the negotiations now pending 

between the British Post-Office and the German PostOffices, on the subject of the mutual exchange of closed 

mails, have been satisfactorily concluded." 

Although Article XL of the Anglo-Prussian convention of 13 October 1862 provided that it become effective on 1 November 1862, an agreement signed at 

London on .22 October and at Berlin on 25 October 

1862 deferred the date until 1 January 1863.81 

Evidently, all negotiations were completed and all 

announcements made before 1 May 1863, for the May 

issue of the U.S. Mail and Post Office Assistant carried 

the following:S2 

We are requested to state that the reduced postage 

charge of two cents the single rate on prepaid letters, will, 

in future, be extended to the entire correspondence exchanged in the United States and Prussian closed mails, so 

that letters to or from Baden, Russia (including Poland), 

Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and all other countries beyond 

Germany, will have the benefit of the reduced rate. 

' 16 Statutes at Large 829. 

British and Foreign State Papers, vol. 52, p. 1161. 

U.S. Mail 3, 8 (May 1863): 2. 
NUMBER 6 143 

is -

V . 

; ^C4S(^ jy\yljU4<Ca*^ ^^Odi 

Henceforth, to most places served by Prussian closed 

mail, the prepaid rate was two cents cheaper than the 

unpaid rate. To some places in the Far East, to some 

Turkish towns, and to Rome, prepayment of postage 

was compulsory. Beginning in June 1865, on mail to 

Norway and Sweden the differential between prepaid 

and unpaid rates became 40 instead of 20. In March 

1867, for a reason unknown to the author, the rate to 

all Turkish towns became 350. To some towns prepayment was compulsory, but to others prepayment was 

optional, there being no difference made between the 

prepaid and unpaid rate. 

Covers 

Few covers posted prior to May 1863 that show a 

prepayment of the 28$* rate have been seen. A possible 

reason for this may rest upon the manner in which 

the rate was presented in the tables of postages to 

foreign countries published in the U.S. Mail and 

Post Office Assistant.& Using Saxony as an example, 

these tables, beginning with the October 1861 issue, 

presented the rates as follows: 

Saxony, Kingdom of, Prussian closed mail *30 

do. do. do. when prepaid 28 

FIGURE 91.—COVER, from Ottawa, 111., to Wiborg, Finland, 1862. 

The asterisk indicates diat prepayment was optional. 

This presentation was ambiguous, and it is feared 

that few referred to die second line. While the 

individual states were separately listed, the entry for 

the German states until June 1862 was as follows: 

83

 This explanation was suggested by C. J. Starnes in a letter 

to the author. 

German States, Prussian closed mail *30 

There was no reference to the prepaid rate. The May 

issue, however, placed ail information on a single 

line: 

German States, Prus. closed mail (if prepaid, 280) *30 

After this rate announcement appeared, covers showing a 280 prepayment are more frequently seen. 

Figure 92 illustrates a cover posted in New York, 

addressed to Brunswick. It is prepaid 280 by stamps 

of the 1861 issue and is endorsed "via Boston, /per 

Str. Europa." The New York exchange office marking shows the date of 2 September (1862), and on that 

date the mails were made up at New York for the sailing from Boston of Europa on 3 September 1862. 

Since the reduction in rate occurred in the British 

transit postage, there was no change in die 70 credit 

to Prussia. On incoming letters, prepaid in Germany, 

however, the credit to the United States was reduced 

from 250 to 230. 

Figure 93 illustrates a cover posted in Virginia City, 

Nevada Territory, on 7 August 1863, addressed to 
SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

FIGURE 92.—COVER, from New York to Brunswick, Germany, 1862. 

(Melvin W. Schuh collection) 

Geneva, Switzerland. It is prepaid 300 by a 300 stamp 

of the 1861 issue. This paid the letter only through the 

German-Austrian Postal Union. The New York office credited Prussia with 70 and forwarded the letter 

on 29 August 1863, by City of Washington of the Inman line. Although the person who mailed this letter 

may not have known it, 280 would have been sufficient postage. The Aachen office received the letter 

on 12 September (12 9 in marking P of Figure 51) 

and also applied marking Q of Figure 51, indicating 

that postage was paid only to the point of exit from 

the German-Austrian Postal Union. The Aachen office also marked it in blue manuscript 0/6, indicating 

that there was no postage due to the border but that 

6 kreuzer were due in Switzerland. At this time, the 

prepaid rate from the United States to Switzerland 

by Prussian closed mail was 330, or 50 in excess of the 

280 prepaid international rate. The 6 kreuzer charged 

by Aachen was worth slightly more than 40. The Swiss 

marked the letter for a collection of 20 rappen, which 

was also equal to slightly more than 40. 

Changes in Progression 

The postal conventions of 4 August 1853 with 

Bremen and of 12 June 1857 with Hamburg provided 

for use of the "British" progression, which allowed no 

triple rate. On 23 August 1860, identical additional 

articles to both of these conventions were signed at 

Washington, providing that die progression be one 

rate for every half ounce, or fraction of a half ounce.84 

As has been previously mentioned, the progression 

used on letters between the United States and Great 

Britain after 15 March 1849 was also the British progression, which allowed no triple rate. In 1864 die 

British Post Office began to adopt the progression of 

one rate for every half ounce, or fraction of a half 

ounce, on mail between certain of its colonies and some 

foreign countries and the United Kingdom. On 3 

March 1866 a British treasury warrant provided that 

on letters from the United Kingdom addressed to the 

United States (among other countries), die progression was to be one rate for every half ounce, or fraction of a half ounce, on and after 1 April 1866.85 

Simultaneously, the April 1866 issue of the U.S. Mail 

and Post Office Assistant announced the same progression for letters from the United States. Since the 

United States-British treaty of 15 December 1848 

remained in force for only another twenty-one months, 

covers showing a triple rate, either from or to the 

United States, are very scarce.86 

Figure 94 illustrates a triple-rate cover from the 

United States. This letter was posted in Philadelphia 

M

 16 Statutes at Large 956, 960. 

85

 Hertslet, Commercial Treaties, vol. 12, p. 121. 

80

 Stanley B. Ashbrook, Special Service 5: 29. Mr. Ashbrook 

considered triple rate covers to England rare. 
FIGURE 93.—COVER, from Virginia City, Nevada Territory, to Geneva, Switzerland, 1863. 

I |iittif|eil0er9 k 

* * GEORGE W. CHILDS, Prop'r. 

PBILAPELPBJA. 

*>3 . ..."- </• 

+v$F5F^5l---

g»§»<^^»g3g»< 

»«W&^s 

^ &-K& i 

<? 

FIGURE 94.—COVER, from Philadelphia to London, 1866. (Photograph by Smithsonian) 
146 SMITHSONIAN STUDD3S IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

and passed through the Philadelphia exchange office 

on 8 June 1866 (the exchange office marking is indistinct, but the date is decipherable). It is prepaid 720 

by a block of three 240 stamps (Scott's no. 78), for 

three times the 240 rate. The Philadelphia exchange 

office marked it 9/3 in red manuscript. The 9 in this 

marking indicates a credit of three times 30, die credit 

for a single rate by American packet. The 3 shows die 

number of rates. On 9 June 1866, the City of London 

of the Inman line sailed from New York for Liverpool as an American contract packet, and it is presumed she conveyed this letter to England. The 

London marking on the face shows that it arrived at 

that office on 21 June 1866. 

Figure 95 illustrates a triple-rate cover from England to the United States. It was posted in Liverpool 

(4 66 in killer), prepaid three ls. rates, and passed 

through the Liverpool Packet Letter Office on 11 July 

1866, which is indicated by a circular (18-mm) 

2c/LIVERPOOL/i i JY 66P.L.0. marking on the reverse. The letter is endorsed "p City of Paris/via 

Queenstown," a ship of the Inman line under contract to the United States. The Liverpool office credited the United States with 630 (3 x 21), a proper 

credit for service by American packet. The cover bears 

a PAID in arc marking which is in brown and was apparently applied at New York. 

V * 

^+4v* \ 

y^Ct^^ 

k>V * 

*£* 

FIGURE 95.—COVER, from Liverpool to New York, 1866. 
Chapter 8 

Postal Conventions Effective After 

1 January 1868 

The Paris Conference 

Sir: Many embarrassments to foreign correspondents 

exist in this, and probably in other postal departments, 

which can be remedied only by international concert of 

action. The difference in postal principles, as well as postal 

details or arrangement, in the several countries of both 

continents contributes to the result. Great diversity in rates 

prevails between the same points, in some instances as many 

as six different rates, according to the route of transit. Mistakes are perpetually recurring, arising from the complexity 

of present arrangements, and operate to serious delay and 

expense of correspondents. . 

It is believed that a conference between fit representatives delegated by the several post departments of the 

principal corresponding countries of Europe and America, 

and to meet at some convenient point in Europe, would 

greatly facilitate the postal arrangements in which they are 

respectively interested. 

Thus did Postmaster General Montgomery Blair 

write to Secretary of State William H. Seward on 

4 August 1862.1 As a result of this letter a call for an 

international conference was issued, and on 11 May 

1863, delegates from eighteen postal administrations 

assembled at Paris. After a general exchange of ideas 

and much deliberation, a list of thirty-one rules (or 

principles) was agreed upon.2 Only those sections that 

relate to letter mail are here summarized: 

2. Prepayment should be optional, but unpaid letters must 

bear a moderate additional charge. 

3. Letters insufficiently prepaid by postal stamps must be 

rated as unpaid, deducting, however, the value of the 

stamps affixed. 

1

 Annual Report of the Postmaster General for 1862, p. 165. 

2

 Ibid., 1863, pp. 11-13. 

6. Letters prepaid to destination shall not be charged 

with any additional rate whatever on delivery. 

7, 8, and 9. The single rate upon international letters 

shall be applied to each standard weight of 15 grammes 

(metric system) or fractional part of it, to the exclusion 

of all other weight systems. 

12. The weight stated by the despatching office must be 

accepted by the receiving office, except in case of manifest error. 

16. The rates upon international letters should be the 

same, by whatever route the mails may be conveyed. 

17. Where different routes exist, the sender may indicate 

the route desired on the address, or by the rate prepaid. In the absence of such indication the despatching office will determine the route most advantageous 

to the public interest. 

18. Unpaid letters addressed to a country to which prepayment is compulsory, shall be returned as wrongly 

sent. 

21. International post offices shall account to each other 

by the piece of letters in open mails, and by the net 

weight of correspondence in closed mails. 

25. The transit charge should never be higher than onehalf of the interior rate of the transit country, and 

for countries of small territorial extent diis transit 

charge should be even less. 

26. The cost of sea conveyance claimed by one country 

from another shall in no case be higher than the rate 

charged upon its own correspondence by the country 

by whose vessels the conveyance shall be effected. 

"I deem it proper," said Postmaster General Blair, 

"in concluding my remarks on this subject [the Paris 

conference], to make known the fact that the public 

owes the suggestion to invite this international con147 
148 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

ference to the Hon. John A. Kasson, who represented 

our government in it."

 3 Although the letters relating 

to the call for an international conference bear Blair's 

signature, there can be little doubt that Kasson was 

the moving force in initiating it. He had been a first 

assistant postmaster general, and as a member of the 

American equivalent of the "permanent establishment" 

was intimately familiar with the problems related to 

foreign mails. Kasson remainded in Europe after the 

Paris conference closed and negotiated postal conventions with Belgium * and the new Kingdom of Italy,5 

neither of which were effective. In February 1867 it 

was learned through the State Department tiiat the 

government of the French emperor, Napoleon III, was 

desirous of forming a new postal convention with the 

United States.6 Kasson was again appointed a special 

commissioner of the Post Office Department and sent 

to Paris. Although he was unable to reach agreement 

with the French, he remained in Europe and negotiated new postal conventions with Great Britain.7

 the 

North German Union,8 Belgium,0 the Netherlands,10 

Switzerland,11 and Italy.12 

The New Postal Conventions 

Effective in 1868 

In all of the new conventions of 1868 Kasson attempted to negotiate the principles adopted by the 

Paris conference. There was also an additional principle which was introduced for the first time: a recognition of the reciprocal nature of letter mail, which 

Postmaster General Alexander W. Randall expressed 

succinctly in his annual report for 1867: "the principle 

that every letter receives an answer, and that the labors 

of each office are substantially equal." Although each 

of these conventions had articles which were adapted 

to the peculiar conditions of the country with which 

the convention was negotiated, many of the articles 

were common to all. The common elements of these 

articles are here discussed as a unit, while those that 

3

 Ibid, p. 13. 

4

 16 Statutes at Large 918. 

5

 Ibid, p. 1005. 

8

 Annual Report of the Postmaster General for 1868, p. 18. 

7

 16 Statutes-at-Large 833. 

8

 Ibid, 979. 

"Ibid., 923. 

10

 Ibid, 1063. 

"Ibid , 1031. 

12

 Ibid, 1009. 

were unique to particular conventions are considered 

separately. 

In all of the conventions the United States adopted 

15 grams (metric system) as the standard weight for 

a single-rate letter and a progression of one additional 

rate for each additional standard weight or fraction 

thereof. Before this provision could be included in 

these conventions, however, it was necessary that Congress pass a law authorizing the use of the metric system of weights in the United States, which it did on 

28 July 1866.13 Since the local post offices in the 

United States were not equipped to weigh in grams, 

all of these 15-gram rates were stated as rates per half 

ounce when they were published to postmasters and 

to the public. Because the half ounce weighs only 14.18 

grams, a discrepancy in rating occurred between the 

local offices and the exchange offices which weighed 

in grams. For example, a letter that weighed 14.30 

grams (over one half ounce) would have required a 

payment of two rates at a local office, but the exchange office, since the letter weighed less than 15 

grams, could have forwarded it for a single rate. Thus, 

there was a built-in provision for overpayment of postage on marginal-weight letters, a condition that exists 

today. Except on letters to France after 1 January 

1870 (which will be discussed later), this discrepancy 

caused no difficulty because all of die conventions provided that the weight stated by the dispatching office 

be accepted, except in the case of manifest mistake. 

Of all the countries with whom these conventions were 

made, only Great Britain refused to adopt a standard 

weight of 15 grams, steadfastly adhering to a single 

rate per half ounce. 

Each country was to make its own arrangements for 

the dispatch of mail, and at its own cost pay for intermediate transportation. But the country that secured 

the best pecuniary arrangement was to pay for the service and be compensated by the other country. Sea 

postage was to belong to the dispatching country. 

While none of the countries was willing, at that time, 

to go as far as to allow each country to retain the 

postage it collected, the reciprocal nature of letter mail 

was, nevertheless, recognized. All of the conventions 

provided that the postage on international mail be 

divided equally between the post offices of the two contracting countries, except in the conventions with 

Switzerland and the Netherlands, in which the division 

13

 Irving S. Kull, and Nell M , An Encyclopedia of American History, p. 231. 
NUMBER 6 149 

was three-fifths to the United States and two-fifths to 

the other country. Thus, debit and credit markings 

were no longer necessary on international letters. Such 

markings, however, continued to be used on transit 

letters. 

In all cases prepayment was optional, but unpaid 

letters were subject to a fine per letter of 50 in the 

United States and of 2d. in Great Britain; 2 silbergroschen in the North German Union; 30 centesimi in 

Italy; 25 centimes in Switzerland; 30 centimes in Belgium; and 15 cents (Dutch) in the Netherlands. All 

fines were to be retained by the office collecting them. 

Insufficiently paid letters were subject to deficient postage as well as the unpaid-letter fine. 

The United States-British Postal 

Conventions 

On 25 June 1866,14 the British Government served 

notice to the United States of its intention to terminate 

the postal convention of 15 December 1848 on 1 January 1868, simultaneously with the expiration of the 

mail subsidy contract with the Cunard line.15 A new 

convention was completed and signed at London on 

18 June 1867, the provisions relating to letter mail to 

become effective on 1 January 1868.1G 

Before this convention came into operation, however, the British, on 13 December 1867, served notice 

of their intention to terminate it on 31 December 

1868.17 This notice was accompanied by the announcement that the British Post Office would send Mr. Anthony Trollope to Washington in the spring of 1868 

with full powers to negotiate a new convention.18 The 

new convention was signed at London on 7 November 

and at Washington on 24 November 1868, and became 

fully effective on 1 January 1869.19 It was agreed to 

consider a further reduction of the international rate 

at the expiration of twelve months from the date the 

convention came into operation. 

Much of the second convention was a verbatim copy 

of the first, but the few changes made were significant, 

the convention of 18 June 1867 stated that the single 

international rate "shall not exceed 6d. in the United 

11 Annual Report of the Postmaster General for 1866, p. 6. 

16

 Ibid. 

10

 16 Statutes at Large 837. 

17

 Annual Report of the Postmaster General for 1868, p. 17. 

18

 Ibid. 

10

 16 Statutes at Large 851. 

Kingdom, or 12 cents in the United States." This was 

changed to "shall be" 6d., or 12 cents. The convention 

made in 1867 held that "the charge for sea conveyance 

of letters across the Atlantic shall be computed on the 

basis of 4d, or 8 cents, per single letter rate." The convention made in 1868 provided that "the charge for 

sea conveyance of letters in closed mails across the Atlantic shall be computed at 20 cents per ounce, or per 

30 grammes.'' 

An anomalous situation, however, was created by 

Article XIV of the convention of 18 June 1867 : 

The amount of postage chargeable by The United States 

Post Office, on its own account, upon every single letter 

sent through the United Kingdom in ordinary mails addressed to The United States, shall be 3 cents, and the 

amount chargeable by the British Post Office, on its own 

account, upon every single letter sent through The United 

States in ordinary mails addressed to the United Kingdom shall be Id. 

It is not clear what postage the above amounts represented. If it was intended to be inland postage, the 

United States would receive a credit of 30 on incoming 

letters, but would only retain 2$ on outgoing letters. 

Regardless of how it was computed, the United States 

retained 100 as its share of the total postage on letters 

posted in the United States addressed to foreign countries and sent in transit through England. It is suspected 

that this amount was arrived at by subtracting the 

British postage of Id. (20) from the 120 international 

rate. On letters posted in foreign countries addressed to 

the United States, via England, the British Post Office 

credited the United States with 30 per single rate. 

The above arrangement was changed by Article XV 

of the convention of 7-24 November 1868 to the 

following: 

The British Post Office shall account to The United 

States' Post Office for the sum of two cents upon every 

single paid letter sent through the United Kingdom in 

ordinary mails addressed to The United States, and The 

United States' Post Office shall account to the British Post 

Office for the sum of Id. upon every single paid letter 

sent through The United States in ordinary mails addressed 

to the United Kingdom. 

After this convention became effective on 1 January 

1869, the British Post Office credited the United States 

with only 20 per single rate. On outgoing letters, however, the United States continued to retain 100 as its 

share of the total postage. Only during the year of 

1868, therefore, do incoming letters show a British 

credit to the United States of 30, and these are far from 

common. 
150 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

Total rates were arrived at by adding to the 100 

United States postage whatever postage was paid by 

the inhabitants of Great Britain on letters to or from 

a particular foreign country. Thus, on letters to or 

from those places to which the 6d. (120) "Colonial" 

rate prevailed, the total rate in the United States was 

220 and in the foreign country, li d (or its equivalent). 

The foreign postages (between Great Britain and particular destinations) were listed in a table appended 

to the detailed regulations. 

T h e United States-North German 

Union Postal Convention 

On 23 August 1866, the Treaty of Prague brought 

to a close the Seven Weeks' War between Prussia and 

Austria, Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, and several other 

German states.20 Victorious Prussia directly absorbed 

the duchies of the Elbe, Hanover, Electoral Hesse, the 

Grand Duchy of Hesse, Nassau, and Frankfort onthe-Main.21

 Early in 1867 a North German Confederation (Union) was formed through treaties made between Prussia and the remaining German states north 

of the Main. A federal constitution, primarily the work 

of Bismarck, established a federal council (Bundesrat), effectively controlled by Prussia, and a lower 

house (Reichstag), which shared the legislative function equally with the Bundesrat. The presidency was 

held by the King of Prussia, represented by a chancellor (Bismarck), who was responsible only to the 

King.22 Prussia assumed control of the posts in the 

absorbed territories which had formed a large part 

of the Thurn and Taxis system. While this system had 

provided a unified postal service for Germany, and 

had avoided the problem of arranging such a service 

between the various states, the formation of the confederation made this function of the Thurn and Taxis 

posts no longer necessary. Additionally, these posts 

had been considered an infringement upon the sovereignty of the states they served. Prussia, therefore, negotiated with the Taxis family for a transfer of the 

whole system to Prussia for a money payment of three 

million marks.23 The sum was voted by the Prussian 

20

 William L. Langer, An Encyclopedia of World History, 

p. 686. 

21

 A. D. Smith, The Development of Rates of Postage, pp. 

354-55. 

22

 Langer, World History, p. 686. 

23

 Smith, Rates of Postage, p. 355. 

legislature without debate, and on 1 July 1867 the 

Thurn and Taxis administration was amalgamated 

with the ordinary Prussian posts. The postal administrations of Prussia and the other states of the North 

German Union were then organized into the North 

German Postal District, in which uniform rates and 

services were established. This was achieved by a law 

passed on 4 November 1867, which became effective 

on 1 January 1868.24 

When John A. Kasson entered into negotiations in 

1867 for a postal convention between the United 

States and the North German Union, he negotiated 

with the Prussian Post Office which acted for the 

Union. The completed convention was signed at Berlin on 21 October 1867,25

 but the regulations were 

arranged with the new post office of the North German Union and were not signed until 30 June at 

Berlin and 22 July 1868 at Washington.26 Because the 

United States, in maintaining its postal communication with Europe, placed great reliance upon the German steamship lines, this convention was fully as important to the Post Office Department as were those 

held with the British. 

In addition to the provisions held in common with 

the other conventions, which have already been discussed, there were articles which were unique to this 

convention, or were related to transit mails which 

have not previously been considered. These may be 

summarized as follows: 

Exchange offices in the United States were established 

at New York, Boston, Philadelphia, and Chicago; and in 

the North German Union at Bremen, Hamburg, and the 

Travelling Post-Office No. 10, between Cologne and 

Verviers, which was to correspond only with New York, 

via England and Belgium. Bremen and Hamburg were to 

correspond with all of the United States offices. 

The international rates for single letters of 15 grams 

were: 

Direct, between Bremen or Hamburg and the United 

States: 

On letters from the United States, 10 cents 

On letters from Germany, 4 silbergroschen 

Closed mail, via England: 

On letters from the United States, 15 cents 

On letters from Germany, 6 silbergroschen 

All of the conventions, except that with the British, 

provided the same procedure for setting the rates on openmail letters. In this convention it is stated in Article XII: 

Such letters [open-mail letters] were to be charged with 

the direct international rate, augmented by the postage 

u

 Ibid. 

25

 16 Statutes at Large 979-982. 

26

 Ibid. 984-985. 
NUMBER 6 151 

due to foreign countries, and by any other tax for exterior service. 

Thus the international rate was basic to all openmail rates, the postage between the North German 

Union and the particular foreign country merely being 

added to it. The international postage was retained by 

the dispatching office, and finally accounted for by 

dividing the total collected in both countries equally 

between the two post offices. On letters posted in the 

United States, the North German Union was given 

credit for the foreign postage. Appended to the regulations was a table which set forth the amount of the 

foreign postage (in silbergroschen) to be paid by the 

United States to the North German Union on letters 

addressed to a number of destinations. The regulations 

also provided that credits were to be made, on prepaid 

letters, in the currency of the dispatching country, and 

in doing so the cent (U.S.) was to be considered as 

equivalent to five pfennige (German). 

The total rates on letters sent in closed mails, via 

England, were also arrived at by adding to the 150 international rate the postage beyond the North German 

Union. In the U.S. Mail and Post Office Assistant 

tables of postages to foreign countries, these rates are 

shown for the particular countries as "via North German Union, direct," and "via North German Union, 

closed mail, via England." In each case the latter rate 

was 50 higher than the former. 

The regulations provided that letters be marked to 

show the office of origin. Correspondence fully paid to 

destination was to be marked PAID ALL in the United 

States, and FRANCO in the North German Union. All 

of the conventions, except that with the British, provided for the marking of prepaid letters with PAID ALL. 

Correspondence insufficiently paid was to be marked 

INSUFFICIENTLY PAID in the United States, and UNZUREICHEND FRANKIRT in the North German Union. 

The amount of deficient postage was to be expressed 

in black figures on the face in the currency of the 

receiving office. The treatment prescribed by the regulations for insufficiently paid transit letters differed 

from that to be used on international letters. Insufficiently paid transit letters were to be sent as wholly 

unpaid, partial payments not being recognized. But if 

one or more full rates were prepaid, the number of 

rates fully prepaid was to be recognized. 

The exchange offices were to mark in red ink in 

the upper part of the address of prepaid letters sent 

in transit in the open mail the amount of postage due 

to the foreign office of destination, and in black ink 

372-645 0—70^—1 1 

on unpaid transit letters the amount of postage due to 

the office of origin. Although this procedure was prescribed only for open-mail letters, covers indicate tiiat 

it was also used on letters sent in closed mails, via 

England. 

While it was not prescribed by the regulations, the 

exchange offices customarily placed their mark upon 

letters when they were received. Until 1 July 1870, letters sent from the United States in closed mail, via 

England, bear the marking of the travelling post office, 

Verviers to Cologne. This marking was inscribed (in 

four straight lines) VERVIERS, B./[date]m/coELN/ 

FRANCO and was applied in red to prepaid letters. A 

similar marking without FRANCO was applied in blue 

to unpaid or insufficiently paid letters. The Hamburg 

office used rectangular boxed markings of at least two 

types inscribed HAMBURG/[date]/FRANCO applied in 

red. The Bremen office also used a boxed marking 

inscribed BREMEN/[date]/FRANCO which was applied 

in purple until early 1869, and thereafter in red. The 

United States offices applied to incoming North German Union mail a variety of circular markings inscribed with the name of the office, the date, and 

PAID ALL OR PAID. 

To prepaid letters dispatched by the New York office 

to the travelling office, Verviers to Cologne, a circular 

marking inscribed NEW YORK PAID ALL/[date]/BR. 

TRANSIT was applied in red. Letters sent to the offices 

of Bremen or Hamburg bear circular markings showing the United States exchange office, the date, and 

PAID ALL. Those from the New York and Boston offices 

are also inscribed DIRECT. 

Although the United States offices marked prepaid 

transit letters with the amount of credit to the North 

German Union for the foreign postage in United States 

cents, the German offices also marked the letters with 

the same amount in silbergroschen. These German 

markings are usually preceded by the letter /, abbreviating franco (meaning "paid") or by Wfr, abbreviating weiterfranco (literally meaning "paid 

beyond"). 

Rates and Special Provisions of the 

Other Conventions Effective in 1868 

The conventions with Belgium, the Netherlands, 

Switzerland, and Italy provided that the single rate 

of postage on direct correspondence exchanged between the two administrations be 150 in the United 
152 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

States on prepaid letters. The corresponding rates in 

the other countries were: Belgium, 80 centimes; the 

Netherlands, 40 cents (Dutch) ; Switzerland, 80 

centimes; and Italy, 80 centesimi. In relation to these 

rates, the conventions speak of direct correspondence. 

Formerly, the term "direct" referred to mail conveyed 

by direct steamer between New York and a European 

port without passing through England. The term 

"direct" as here used takes on a new meaning. The 

tables of postages to foreign countries included in the 

U.S. Mail and Post Office Assistant for January 1868 

show the rates to Belgium and the Netherlands as 

follows: 

Belgium *15 

Netherlands *15 

* Indicates optional prepayment, and rates are for 

letters not exceeding one-half ounce in weight. 

While the Belgian and Netherlands conventions became effective on 1 January 1868, the conventions with 

Switzerland and Italy did not come into operation 

until 1 April 1868. The table of postages of the June 

issue

 27

 lists, among others, the convention rates, as 

follows: 

Italy (direct closed mail via England) *15 I 

Switzerland (direct closed mail via England)- *15 / 

(*Optional prepayment.) 

(/ indicates a fine on unpaid or insufficiently paid 

letters.) 

According to the previous terminology, "direct 

closed mail via England" is a contradiction. It now 

meant that the bags were closed in the United States 

and were conveyed in closed condition through England and the other intermediate countries until they 

reached their destination in Switzerland or Italy. In 

regard to mail for Belgium and the Netherlands, that, 

too, was sent in closed bags directly to the corresponding exchange office in Belgium or the Netherlands. 

Articles Relating Only to 

United States-Belgian Mail 

Exchange offices in the United States were established at New York and Boston; and in Belgium at 

Antwerp, Ostend (travelling office), and Ostend (local 

" O n the tables for April and May the mail services are 

listed, but the figures for the rates, obviously through error, 

are omitted. 

office). A table appended to the detailed regulations, 

however, provided that New York and Boston correspond only with the offices at Antwerp and Ostend 

(travelling office). The exchange of mails was to be 

effected by means of the steamship lines plying between 

Liverpool and New York, Bremen and New York by 

Southampton, Hamburg and New York by Southampton, and by Canadian packets. While the convention 

allowed either country to select its route for the dispatch of mail, these regulations limited the choice to 

specific lines, all of which conveyed mail via England. 

While Article V set the single rate on prepaid letters 

from the United States at 150 and on prepaid letters 

from Belgium at 80 centimes, Article VI provided: 

Whenever there shall be established a direct line of steam 

communication between the ports of the United States and 

Belgium .. . it is agreed that the international single 

letter rate applicable to this route shall be reduced to 10 

cents in the United States and 50 centimes in Belgium. 

After the Ruger Brothers abandoned the run to 

Antwerp in 1866, only City of Cork and Kangaroo of 

the Inman line were plying between Antwerp and 

New York. The steamship lines listed in the annual 

reports of the postmaster general do not show service 

to Antwerp by the Inman line, nor do the tables of 

postages to foreign countries of the U.S. Mail and 

Post Office Assistant show a 100 direct rate to Belgium. It is not known, however, whether Belgium 

dispatched mail to the United States by this line. 

Exchange Offices Established by the 

Other Conventions 

Under the convention with the Netherlands, exchange offices were established at New York and Boston in the United States, and at Moerdyke (travelling 

office) in the Netherlands. 

The convention with Switzerland established an exchange office at New York in the United States, and 

at Basle and at "Geneva (when the Swiss Confederation shall find it expedient)." 

The United States-Italian convention of 8 November 1867 established an exchange office in the United 

States at New York and in Italy at (1) Susa—travelling office, (2) Camerlata—travelling office, and (3) 

Arona—travelling office. The United States-Italian 

convention of 8 July 1863, which did not become effective, had established these same offices for Italy, but 
NUMBER 6 153 

had been more explicit regarding the mails which were 

routed through them:

 28 

First, the travelling office from Turin to Susa, when 

transit is by way of France and England 

Second, the travelling office from Milan to Camerlata, 

or the travelling office from Arona to Magadino, when 

transit is by way of Germany and Switzerland. 

Later Modifications in the Conventions 

Great Britain 

As had been agreed, the United States and British 

post offices considered a further reduction of the international rate during 1869. Additional articles to the 

convention of 7-24 November 1868 were signed at 

Washington on 3 December and at London on 14 December 1869.29

 These articles reduced the international 

rate to 3d. per half ounce in the United Kingdom, and 

to 60 per 15 grams in the United States. The fine for 

insufficiently paid and unpaid letters was set at 3d. 

in Great Britain and at 60 in the United States. Sea 

postage was to be computed at 60 per ounce or per 30 

grams. Although sea postage was computed on the 

weight of mail, Postmaster General Creswell in his 

annual report for 1870 stated that the rate was 

divided, "2 cents being designated as sea postage, and 2 

cents the inland postage of each country." 

Although these articles mention only the international 

rate, the postage on transit letters was also affected. 

The United States now retained 20 inland postage as well as 20 sea postage on each single letter it 

dispatched in British mails. Thus, its share of the total 

postage on a transit letter sent under this convention 

was reduced from 100 to A<f, resulting in a reduction of 

60 per single rate in the postage of all such letters. 

While the act of 14 June 1858 had required that the 

postmaster general pay the steamship lines the postage accruing on mails conveyed (paying American 

ships the sea and inland postages, and foreign ships the 

sea postage only), an act of 3 March 1865

 30

 had allowed him to make contracts for amounts not exceeding these postages. As a result, he had contracted with 

some lines for less than the postage accruing on the 

mails they conveyed. When the above additional articles became effective on 1 January 1870, the postmaster general could pay the lines no more than 60 

per an ounce or per 30 grams for the letters they 

conveyed. The Cunard, North German Lloyd, die 

Hamburg-American, and the Inman lines refused to 

transport the American mails for the reduced sea postage.31

 The Allan line appears to have continued to 

carry British mails, but from New York or Boston the 

dispatch of mails to Great Britain ceased. The requirement that each country make its own arrangements 

and pay for the dispatch of its mails rested upon the 

assumption that each country would provide about the 

same amount of service. The failure of the United 

States to render service angered the British. Questions 

were put to the British postmaster general in the House 

of Commons:

 32 

Mr. Bains said he would beg to ask the Postmaster General, If he has received any reply from the Postmaster 

General of the United States, in regard to the more speedy 

conveyance of the mails from America? 

The Marquess of Hartington replied that he had received an answer from the Postmaster General of the 

United States; but he was sorry to say it held out no hopes 

of an acceleration in the transmission of the mails from 

America as long as the packet companies refused to accept 

the remuneration which he was empowered by law to 

offer. 

The stalemate was broken by the Liverpool and 

Great Western Steamship Company, Limited (called 

the Guion line), which signed a contract with the 

United States postmaster general on 23 February 1870 

for a weekly service, sailing from New York on 

Wednesdays for Queenstown and Liverpool.33 With 

this breaking of the ice, both the North German Lloyd 

and the Hamburg-American lines signed a contract 

with the postmaster general on 15 April 1870.34 The 

North German Lloyd was to convey mails from New 

York on Saturdays for Southampton and Bremen, 

while the Hamburg-American line would sail on Tuesdays for the ports of Plymouth, Cherbourg, and Hamburg. Thus, the American packet service to England 

was partially, if inadequately, restored. 

~j\qrth German Union 

On 7 April at Washington and on 23 April 1870 at 

Berlin, additional articles to the United States-North 

German Union convention of 21 October 1867 were 

signed.35 The preamble explains that these articles 

28

 16 Statutes at Large 1005. 

29

 Ibid. 869. 

30

 13 Statutes at Large 506. 

31

 Annual report of the Postmaster General for 1870, p. 17. 

32

 Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, vol. 201, p. 631. 

33 Annual Report of the Postmaster General for 1870, 

appendix, p. 147. 

"Ibid., pp. 149-150. 

35

 16 Statutes at Large, p. 1003. 
154 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

were concluded because the additional convention between the United States and Great Britain had reduced the closed-mail sea rate to 60 per ounce or per 

30 grams, and subsequently the steamship lines running 

between New York and Bremen and Hamburg had 

agreed to reduce their compensation for direct conveyance of mails between those ports. The articles are 

summarized as follows: 

1. Provided for reduced single-letter rates, as follows: 

A. In direct exchange via Bremen or Hamburg 

1. For letters from the North German Union 

a. When prepaid in Germany, 3 silbergroschen 

b. When paid in the United States, 14 cents 

2. For letters from the United States 

a. When prepaid in America, 7 cents 

b. When paid in Germany, 6 silbergroschen 

I. B. In direct exchange in closed transit through England 

1. For letters from the North German Union 

a. When pepaid in Germany, 4 silbergroschen 

b. When paid in the United States, 20 cents 

2. For letters from the United States 

a. When prepaid in America, 10 cents 

b. When paid in Germany, 8 silbergroschen 

II. Provided that insufficiently paid letters be charged with 

the postage of unpaid letters, after deduction of the 

amount prepaid. 

IV. Provided that the amounts of foreign postage on letters 

in open transit be accounted for at full rates. 

V. Provided that these additional articles be placed in 

operation on 1 July 1870. 

The Franco-Prussian War played havoc with the 

German steamship service between New York and 

Europe. Although France did not declare war on 

Prussia until 19 July, the decision for war was made on 

15 July 1870.36 While France had a large navy, the 

German states had none worth mentioning. Danger 

of the German ships being captured while at sea led 

the North German Lloyd and the Hamburg-American 

lines to hold their ships in the neutral ports of Southampton and New York and to cease operations. The 

following notice appeared in the August 1870 issue of 

the U.S. Mail and Post Office Assistant: 

Mails for Germany—Important Notice to Postmasters and 

the Public. 

Post Office Department, Office of Foreign Mails. 

July 23, 1870. 

The direct line of German steamers heretofore plying 

between New York and Bremen and Hamburg, respectively, 

having suspended their trips to those ports, in consequence 

of the Franco-Prussian War, the reduced rates of postage 

chargeable under the existing Postal Convention with 

North Germany on letters and other correspondence for 

the North German Union and countries beyond, forwarded 

by the direct route are, for the present, inoperative. 

All correspondence for North Germany will, consequently, until direct steamship service is resumed, be forwarded by closed mail via England, subject to the rates 

of international postage established for that route of transmission, viz.: 

For letters, 10 cents per each /a oz. or under, prepayment optional. . . . 

Letters insufficiently paid at the above rates will be 

charged on delivery with the postage for unpaid letters, 

after deduction of the amount prepaid. 

Although the above notice is dated 23 July 1870, 

the German lines stopped operating at an earlier date. 

On 28 September 1870, Postmaster General Creswell 

abrogated the contract with the North German Lloyd 

in order to make a two-year contract with the Inman 

line for a weekly service to Queenstown and Liverpool 

from New York on Saturdays, beginning on 1 October 

1870. The order abrogating the contract with the 

North German Lloyd is illuminating:

 3T 

Whereas the North German Lloyd of Bremen . . . have 

withdrawn their steamships . . . and failed, since the 9th 

of July, 1870, to perform any of the weekly trips from New 

York to Southampton and Bremen. 

The preceding indicates that the last sailing before 

the war by the North German Lloyd was on 9 July 

1870. The next sailing by this line was scheduled for 16 

July, and by that time war, although not yet declared, 

had become a certainty. Undoubtedly, the North German Lloyd management cabled their New York office 

to hold the ships in port. Only two trips, therefore, were 

made by the North German Lloyd after the 70 direct 

rate became effective on 1 July 1870, that is, on 2 July 

and 9 July 1870, before service was suspended. The 

Hamburg-American line, after 1 July 1870 had sailings 

scheduled on 5, 12, and 19 July, the first two of which 

were probably made, and possibly the last. No more 

than three trips, therefore, were made by this line upon 

which letters prepaid at the 70 direct rate could have 

been conveyed before the line suspended operations. In 

total, there were only five trips (or fewer) upon which 

letters prepaid with the 70 direct rate could have been 

conveyed before operations were suspended. This may 

account for the scarcity of covers prepaid with the 70 

direct rate and used during July 1870. 

In October 1870 the North German Lloyd decided 

it might be safe to send its ships from Bremen around 

the north of Scotland and thence to New York. The 

Langer, World History,-p. 688. 

37

 Annual Report of the Postmaster General for 1870, appendix, p. 152. 
NUMBER 6 155 

November 1870 issue of the U.S. Mail and Post Office 

Assistant carried the following notice: 

Resumption of Direct North German Union Mail Route, 

October 29, 1870. 

This department having been advised that the steamers 

of the North German Lloyd Company have resumed their 

regular departures from New York to Bremen, direct mails 

for Germany will hereafter be made up and dispatched by 

the steamers of that company sailing from New York on 

Saturdays direct. 

Thus, the 70 direct rate was revived. Sailings around 

Scotland, however, were irregular, and after the wreck 

of Union near Rattray Head on 28 November 1870 

they were virtually abandoned. Normal service was 

restored in February 1871.38 

The Baltischer Lloyd (Baltic Lloyd) was founded 

in Stettin during 1870 with the intention of establishing a regular passenger and cargo service between Stettin and New York.39

 On 31 March at Washington and 

on 14 May 1871 at Berlin, an additional article to the 

United States-North German Union convention of 21 

October 1867 was signed.40 The preamble states: 

As a regular steamship line between a port of Germany 

and a port of the United States of America can be employed for the transportation of the German-American 

mails . . . 

There then followed: 

Sole Article 

The single rate on correspondence exchanged directly 

between the two administrations by means of such steamship line shall be as follows, viz.: — 

1. For letters from Germany to the United States 

a. When prepaid in Germany, 2 \A silbergroschen 

b. When paid in the United States, 12 cents 

2. For letters from the United States to Germany 

a. when prepaid in the United States, 6 cents 

b. When paid in Germany, 5 silbergroschen 

This additional article takes effect on the date of the 

dispatch of the first mail by such steamship line, and 

from that date forward has the same duration as the 

convention of the 21st October, 1867, and the additional 

convention of 7-23 April, 1870. 

It should be noted that this article did not supersede, but was to operate concurrently with, the additional articles of 7-23 April 1870, which had established the 70 direct rate. The July issue of the U.S. 

N. R. P. Bonsor, North Atlantic Seaway, p. 169. 

Ibid., p. 275. 

' 17 Statutes-at-Large, 859. 

Mail and Post Office Assistant contained the following announcement: 

Important arrangement, establishing a direct exchange of 

mails with Germany by the Baltic Lloyd mail steamships, 

via Stettin, of a reduced rate of letter postage. June 21, 

1871. 

An additional article to the Postal Convention between the United States and the Empire of Germany has 

recently been concluded, to take effect immediately, which 

establishes a reduced international postage charge of six 

(6) cents per single rate on the direct correspondence exchanged with Germany, Austria, and Luxemburg by 

means of steamers of the Baltic Lloyd Line, plying between New York and Stettin . . . 

The departure from New York of the steamers of the 

Baltic Lloyd Line will be so arranged as to perform at 

least a monthly mail service in each direction. The sailing 

days from New York, as far as reported, are as follows, 

viz.: July 12, August 10, August 31, September 28, October 19, and November 16, 1871. Further days of sailing 

from this side will from time to time be published for 

the information of the public. 

The tables of postages to foreign countries published in the July and August issues of the U.S. Mail 

and Post Office Assistant (the author has not seen the 

September issue) show the following rates: 

Austria, via North German Union direct .. . *7 

do. do. closed mail, via England . . *10 

do. do. via Stettin, once a month .. . *6 

(*Optional prepayment.) 

Identical rates are listed for the German states. 

These tables indicate that the 1^ and a 6<£. direct rate 

to Germany were in force at the same time. 

In his annual report for 1871 Postmaster General 

Creswell said: 

An additional article to the postal convention between the 

United States and Germany was signed at Washington 

March 3, and at Berlin on May 14, 1871, reducing the 

postage on direct letter mails between the two countries, a 

copy of which is annexed. Arrangements have also been 

concluded with the German postal administration, and 

carried into operation on the 1st of October, 1871, further 

reducing the postage charge for prepaid letters between the 

United States and Germany transmitted by closed mail via 

England from 10 to 7 cents per single rate, and also the 

postage charges for prepaid letters by the direct routes via 

Bremen and Hamburg, respectively, from 7 to 6 cents per 

single rate. 

Duly, the table of postages to foreign countries 

published in the October 1871 issue of the U.S. Mail 
156 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

and Post Office Assistant shows rates for Austria as well 

as for the German states as follows: 

Austria, via North German Union, direct . . . *6 

do. do. closed mail 

via England . *7 

do. do. via Stettin, 

once a 

month . . . *6 

(•Optional prepayment.) 

To summarize the situation just described, regarding the rates between the United States and the 

German states: On 1 July 1870, the single-letter rate 

for North German Union closed mail via England 

became 10^. Also on the same date, the direct rate by 

North German Lloyd and Hamburg-American steamers became 7£. Although the direct rate was inoperative during the Franco-Prussian War, no change was 

made in this rate until 1 October 1871. With the 

sailing on 12 July 1871 from New York of either 

Franklin or Humboldt of the Baltic Lloyd, the direct 

rate by steamers of that line became 6^ per single 

rate.41 Between 12 July and 1 October 1871 there 

were concurrently available a If and a 6^ direct 

rate to Germany. From 1 October 1871 to 1 July 

1875 the direct rate by any steamship line was 6£, 

and the closed mail rate via England was If. 

Change in the United States-Italian Convention 

On 16 January at Florence and on 8 February 1870 

at Washington additional articles to the United StatesItalian convention of 8 November 1867 were signed.42 

The single rate of postage was reduced to 100 in the 

United States and to 55 centesimi in Italy. Sea postage 

for closed mails conveyed across the Atlantic was to be 

paid to the United States at the rate of 60 per ounce 

or per 30 grams. Since this was the reduced rate included in the United States-British convention of 3-14 

December 1869, it is thus indicated that direct closed 

mails for Italy were to be sent via England. These 

articles became effective on 15 February 1870. 

Change in the United States-Swiss Convention 

Additional articles to the United States-Swiss convention of 11 October 1867 were signed at Berne on 7 

February and at Washington on 13 April 1870.43 The 

single-letter rate of postage was reduced to 100 in the 

United States and to 50 centimes in Switzerland. 

Transatlantic sea postage for closed mails was set at 60 

per ounce or per 30 grams. At the time the articles were 

signed, this sea rate applied only to mail via England, 

but after 1 July 1870 the same rate applied also to mail 

via the North German Union. Several types of markings on Swiss convention mail show service via England 

and Ostend, which indicates the mail was routed from 

England to Ostend, and thence through Germany to 

the Basle office. Some mail for Italy also took this route. 

The articles came into operation on 1 May 1870. 

Changes in the United States-Belgian 

Convention 

On 1 March 1870, additional articles to the convention of 21 August 1867 were signed at Washington.44 

These articles, which became effective on 15 March 

1870, reduced the rate on prepaid letters from the 

United States to 100 and on prepaid letters from 

Belgium to 50 centimes. Transatlantic sea postage 

was reduced to 60 per ounce or per 30 grams, which 

the United States paid on all mail via Great Britain, 

Belgium repaying the United States for mail which it 

dispatched. 

On 9 May 1873, a second group of additional articles to the convention of 21 August 1870 was signed 

at Washington.45 These articles reduced the rate on 

direct mails, via England, to 40 centimes for prepaid 

letters from Belgium and to 80 on prepaid letters 

from the United States. Rates by direct steamship 

plying between the United States and Belgium of 60 

in the United States and of 30 centimes in Belgium 

were also provided. Article III held that when the two 

administrations considered it advisable to exchange 

closed mails with foreign countries by direct packets 

plying between the two countries, the maritime rate 

was to be 30 (15 centimes) per 30 grams for letters. 

These articles became effective on 1 July 1873. 

In 1872 the White Cross line began to ply between 

New York and Belgium.46 The annual reports of the 

postmaster general listed the packet lines by which 

the United States mails were dispatched. None of these 

show that mail was carried by this line. On 19 January 

41

 Bonsor, North Atlantic Seaway, p. 275. The first 2 ships of 

the fleet were Franklin and Humboldt; subsequently added: 

Thorwaldsen, Ernst Moritz Arndt, and Washington. 

42

 16 Statutes at Large 1029. 

"Ibid. 1061. 

"Ibid. 951. 

45

 18 Statutes at Large 795. 

48

 Bonsor, North Atlantic Seaway, pp. 276-268. 
NUMBER 6 157 

1873, Vaderland of the Red Star line opened a service 

between Antwerp and Philadelphia.47 While the annual report of the postmaster general for 1873 does not 

list this line among the mail carriers, the report for 

1874 shows that the Red Star line made fourteen trips 

from Philadelphia to Belgium, and the value of die 

sea postage on the mails conveyed amounted to $17.74. 

In the report for 1875 the line is listed as also having 

made fourteen trips, but the value of the sea postage 

increased to $42.51. It is, therefore, not strange that 

this author has not seen a cover prepaid 60 in the 

United States, addressed to Belgium. 

Changes in the United States-7\[etherlands 

Convention 

Additional articles to the United States-Netherlands 

convention of 26 September 1867, similar to those 

made with Belgium, were signed at The Hague on 

10 January and at Washington on 29 January 1870. 

They set a single rate of 100 on prepaid letters from 

the United States, and of 25 cents (Dutch) on letters 

from the Netherlands. A second group of additional 

articles was signed at The Hague on 19 June and at 

Washington on 14 September 1874.48 The preamble 

stated: 

Whereas a regular line of direct steamers is soon to be 

established between the port of New York and the port 

of Rotterdam, which can be employed for the transportation of Netherlands-American mails, at a compensation for 

sea conveyance between the two frontiers not to exceed 5 

cents (Dutch), or 2 cents (United States), for each single 

letter: 

Now, therefore, the undersigned . . have agreed upon 

the following additional article. 

This article established a single-letter rate of 60 

(U.S.) on letters from the United States and of 15 

cents (Dutch) on letters from the Netherlands, when 

conveyed directly by steamers of the before-mentioned 

line. 

The line referred to was the Netherlands-American 

Steam-Navigation Company, called the Holland America line.49

 The annual report of the postmaster general 

for 1874 does not list this line among the mail carriers, 

but the report for 1875 shows that it made four trips, 

and the value of the sea postage on mail conveyed 

amounted to $86.80. 

The United States-Danish Convention 

A United States-Danish postal convention was signed 

at Copenhagen on 7 November and at Washington on 

1 December 1871.50 In its letter-mail arrangements it 

was similar to that between the United States and the 

North German Union, hence only the points of difference will be discussed. 

The preamble stated that the two post offices had 

agreed upon an exchange of mails by employing the 

steamers in regular service between their territories, 

as well as those running between Bremen or Hamburg 

and American ports.51 Each office was to retain the 

postage it collected, and no accounts were to be kept 

for international correspondence. Closed mails to or 

from Sweden and Norway were provided for at a rate 

of 4 skilling rigsmont per 30 grams of letters. 

The international rate for single letters of 15 grams 

was set at 12 skilling rigsmont in Denmark or at 70 

in the United States. Insufficiently paid letters were 

subject to the deficient postage and a fine of 6 skilling 

in Denmark or of 40 in the United States. These fines 

also applied to unpaid letters. 

The detailed regulations established exchange offices 

at New York and Chicago in die United States, and 

at Copenhagen and the travelling office between Korsor and Kiel in Denmark.52

 Letters fully paid to destination were to be marked PAID ALL in the United 

States and FRANKO in Denmark. Insufficiently paid 

letters were to be so marked in the United States and 

UTILSRAEKKELIG FRANKERET in Denmark. Letters dispatched by the direct line were to be marked DIRECT 

SERVICE, or SERVICE DIRECT, while those dispatched via 

Germany were to be so stamped as to indicate German 

transit. 

The United States cent was equated to 1 ^ skilling 

of Denmark, but on 1 January 1875 Denmark changed 

its unit of currency from the dollar, which had been 

equal to 96 skilling, to the crown, equal to 100 ore. 

Additional articles to the convention altered the Danish 

rates to conform with this currency change.53 The international rate, which had been 12 skilling, now became 25 ore. The fine on insufficiently paid or unpaid 

letters was changed from 6 skilling to 12 ore, and the 

United States cent was now held to be worth 3 % ore. 

47

 Ibid., pp. 284-293. 

48

 18 Statutes at Large 831. 

49

 Bonsor, North Atlantic Seaway, p. 294. 

60

 17 Statutes at Large 903. 

51

 The American ports at that time were New York, Baltimore, and New Orleans. 

62

 17 Statutes at Large 908-911. 

53

 18 Statutes at Large 832. 
158 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

The convention was to come into operation on a 

date to be agreed upon between the two office, and 

according to Postmaster General Creswell it became 

effective on 1 January 1872.54 

The Convention Between the 

United States, Sweden, and Norway 

On 15 March 1873, the United States signed a postal 

convention with the kingdoms of Sweden and Norway.55

 Although each had its own constitution and its 

own postal administration, Norway was united with 

Sweden under the same king, at that time, Oscar II. 

Arrangements for the exchange of mails were similar to 

those of the United States-North German Union convention of 21 October 1867. The rates of postage were 

as follows: 

I. For a single letter of 15 grams: 

A. By closed mail via England, regardless of the route 

between England and Sweden or Norway 

1. For letters from Sweden for the United States 

a. When prepaid in Sweden, 36 ore 

b. When paid in the United States, 14 cents 

2. For letters from the United States for Sweden 

a. When prepaid in the United States, 9 cents 

b. When paid in Sweden, 56 ore 

3. For letters from Norway to the United States 

a. When prepaid in Norway, 12 skilling 

b. When paid in the United, States 15 cents 

4. For letters from the United States for Norway 

a. When prepaid in the United States, 10 cents 

b. When paid in Noiway, 18 skilling 

B. By direct steamship between ports of the United 

States and Swedish or Norwegian ports 

1. For letters from Sweden for the United States 

a. When prepaid in Sweden, 24 ore 

b. When paid in the United States, 9 cents 

2. For letters from the United States for Sweden 

a. When prepaid in the United States, 6 cents 

b. When paid in Sweden, 36 ore 

3. For letters from Norway for the United States 

a. When prepaid in Norway, 7 skilling 

b. When paid in the United States, 9 cents 

4. For letters from the United States for Norway 

a. When prepaid in the United States, 6 cents 

b. When paid in Norway, 10 skilling 

II. Insufficiently prepaid letters were to be charged with the 

postage of unpaid letters, after deducting the prepaid 

amount. 

The detailed regulations required that letters prepaid to destination be marked PAID ALL in the United 

States and FRANKO in Sweden.56 Insufficiently paid 

letters were to be so marked in the United States, and 

OFULLSTANDIG FRANKERAD in Sweden, and the 

amount of deficient postage was to be marked in 

black ink on the face. Letters dispatched by direct 

steamers were to be marked DIRECT SERVICE, or 

SERVICE DIRECT. Letters dispatched via England, or 

via Germany and Denmark, were to be stamped to 

indicate British, or German and Danish, transit. The 

convention was to come into operation on 1 July 1873. 

The tables of postages to foreign countries published 

in the U.S. Mail and Post Office Assistant show that a 

70 rate became available to Denmark for closed mail 

via Bremen or Hamburg on 1 January 1872. The rate, 

"via Stettin, once a month," however, was not reduced from 100 to 70 until some time between July 

and October 1872, and it remained at that amount 

until September 1874. The rate, via Stettin, to Norway was reduced from 100 to 60, prepayment compulsory, on 1 October 1871, and it remained at that 

level until some time between February and October 

1872, when the tables discontinued the reporting of a 

via-Stettin rate to Norway. The convention rates to 

Norway of 100, via England, Bremen, or Hamburg, 

and of 60 by direct service (prepayment of both rates 

optional), were introduced in the table for July 1873, 

as were also the 90 via England, Bremen or Hamburg, 

and the 60 direct rates to Sweden. The via-Stettin, 

once-a-month rate to Sweden, however, continued to 

be reported at 100 until September 1874. 

The reason for the introduction of a 6^ rate, via 

Stettin, to Norway on 1 October 1871, and its discontinuance some time between February and October 

1872 is not known. It is known, however, that a new 

direct line of steamships started to run between London, England, Bergen, Norway, and New York in 

1871.57 Its New York agents were evidently Funch, 

Edye and Company, who also handled the White 

Cross line to Belgium. The line, Norwegian owned, 

was officially known as the Norse American Line. The 

annual report of the Postmaster General for 1874 lists 

"Steamers of Funch, Edye & Co., for 5 trips from 

New York to Norway." This was for the fiscal year beginning 1 July 1873 and ending 30 June 1874. The 

value of the sea postage on all mail carried by the 

line during that year is reported at $13.01. The annual reports of the postmaster general for 1872 

through 1875 disclose that the Baltic Lloyd did little 

Annual Report of the Postmaster General for 1872, p. 17. 

18 Statutes at Large 762—767. 

6« Ibid. 767-770. 

67 Bonsor, North Atlantic Seaway, p. 271. 
NUMBER 6 159 

better. For the fiscal year ended 30 June 1872, the 

sea postage on all the mail it conveyed (letters, newspapers, etc.) amounted to $92.62; for die fiscal year 

ended 30 June 1873, $12.07; for 1874, nothing is reported, but for the fiscal year of 1875, die combined 

sea postage on letters sent and received amounted to 

$1.50. 

According to Bonsor, die line abandoned its run 

to Norway in 1873, and ran between London, Havre, 

and New York until 1876, when its fleet was sold.58 

The September 1874 edition of the U.S. Mail and 

Post Office Assistant contained the following announcement: 

Mail for Sweden and Norway 

The attention of postmasters and the public is called 

to the fact that there is at present no direct steamship communication between the United States and 

Sweden and Norway, and that correspondence mailed 

in the United States addressed to those countries can, 

therefore, only be forwarded in the closed mails by 

way of England and Germany. 

Covers 

Figure 96 illustrates a cover posted in New York, 

addressed to Berlin, and endorsed "p. Westphalia," 

"Ibid., p. 271. 

a steamer of the Hamburg-American line which sailed 

from New York on Tuesday, 12 September 1871. The 

cover is prepaid 70 for direct service to Germany. 

While covers showing use of the 70 direct rate during 

July 1870 are rare, those showing use of this rate prior 

to 1 October 1871 are seldom seen. Many covers prepaid 70 and intended to be sent via England were sent 

by die direct route. Thus, covers showing a 70 prepayment and direct service markings after 1 October 1871 

are 10 overpaid and are not scarce. 

Figure 97 illustrates a cover posted in Washington, 

D.C, addressed to Contantinople. The schedule of 

foreign postages to be paid by die United States to die 

North German Union, appended to the regulations to 

the 21 October 1867 United States-North German 

Union convention, indicates the postage to be 2 silbergroschen. The convention makes no provision for these 

foreign postages to be expressed in United States currency. Two silbergroschen are equal to twenty-four 

pfennige, and at the agreed 5 pfennige to die United 

States cent, equal about 50. There were diree parts to 

the total rate, that is, (1) the direct international 

rate, (2) the foreign postage, and (3) any other tax 

for exterior service. While tiiis division is given for 

open-mail rates, the markings on covers indicate tiiat 

it was also applied to closed mails. In tiiis case, the 

rate was developed: 100 for the direct international 

c t y 

s" 

f" &-6</'n^L< 1^1^ 

VC i 

FIGURE 96.—COVER, from New York to Berlin, 1871. (Melvin W. Schuh collection) 
160 SMITHSONIAN STUDD3S IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

• -<v y 

FIGURE 97. -COVER, from Washington, D.C, to Constantinople, 1871. 

(Lester L. Downing collection) 

rate; 50 for foreign postage; and 50 for British transit, 

an exterior service. Thus, the cover is prepaid with 200 

in stamps. 

The cover was sent in closed mail to die office, Verviers-Cologne, and received the marking of that office, 

which also marked it in red crayon f2, and P.D. The 

5 encircled on these covers is a mystery. On this cover, 

it could be a United States credit of 50. It has been 

noted, however, on covers at the 190 rate which were 

marked FI 1/ ^ . It has only been noted on covers that 

were sent via England, and covers by the direct route 

whose foreign postage was 2 silbergroschen do not show 

it. One is, therefore, led to suspect that it is a statement of the 50 charge for exterior British transit service. This marking and the Verviers-Cologne marking 

were not used after 1 July 1870. 

Figure 98 illustrates a cover posted in Bishop Hill, 

Illinois, on 26 March 1868, addressed to Sweden. The 

cover is prepaid 160 for direct service by North German Union mail. The rate was divided: 100 international rate and 60 {2l

/2 silbergroschen) foreign postage. 

Evidently there was no exterior service charge. 

The New York office simply marked it with a credit 

of 60. The Bremen office marked it with the characteristic boxed BREMEN/[date]/FRANCO marking, this 

time in purple. Also in purple is the boxed WEITERFR : 

2

l

/% SGR. marking, evidently applied at Bremen. This 

abbreviates Weiterfranco which literally means "paid 

beyond." There is a Swedish receiving mark on die 

reverse dated 16/4/186 8. 

Figure 99 illustrates a cover posted in Otsego, Wisconsin, on 10 August 1870, addressed to Norway. It is 

prepaid 150 for service by North German Union closed 

mail, via England. After 1 July 1870, the direct international rate was 70, the British transit 30, and the 

foreign postage 50 (2 silbergroschen). The New York 

office applied in red a NEW YORK/AUG/I 7/5 marking, 

indicating a credit of 50 for the foreign postage. A 

German office (perhaps Verviers-Cologne) marked it 

with WFRO 2 in red to indicate foreign postage of 2 silbergroschen. It was received in Christiania, Norway, 

on 5 September 1870. 

Figure 100 illustrates another cover to Norway. It 

was posted in Woodstock (?) on 18 May 1873, addressed to Norway. It is prepaid 220 by a 100 and a 

120 stamp of the 1870 issue (Nationals), affixed to a 

small mourning envelope. This was a double-rate letter, and the New York office marked lightly with a 2 

in blue crayon at upper left. In May 1873 the North 

German Union closed-mail-via-England rate to Norway was 110, but the direct rate was 100. While tiiis 

letter was prepaid to be sent via England, the New 

York office elected to send it by the direct route. By 

either route the foreign postage was the same: V/2 
NUMBER 6 

161 

•^i^z^C^ ^^J^pre^^Z' 

FIGURE 98.—COVER, from Bishop Hill, 111., to Tyby, Soderhamn, Sweden, 1868. 

A 

«* < 

f> 

«5 • Q 

^ft*S$S 1* -. m 

/l£My^(y W'M 

y' I % ^N . y/ . / / y 

I A\<?A <A-./B^/V

 # 

'• -j 

<^<? 

( 

S%.S 

FIGURE 99.—COVER, from Otsego, Wis., to Sogn, Norway, 1870. 
162 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

FIGURE 100.—COVER, from Woodstock to Bergen [?], Norway, 1873. 

silbergroschen (40) per single rate. Since this is a 

double-rate letter, the New York office marked it witii 

a credit of 80. The 110 rate represented 60 direct 

international postage, 10 British transit, and 40 foreign postage, while the 100 rate comprised 60 direct 

international postage and 40 foreign. The Bremen 

office applied to the letter its boxed BREMEN/3/4 

7 3/FRANCO marking in red and marked it in red 

crayon Wf 3/ (2 x 1 x/z silbergroschen). It was received at Christiania on 7 April 1873. There are no 

markings on the reverse. 

Figure 101 illustrates a cover addressed to Constantinople, Turkey. In 1774 the Treaty of Kainardji 

conceded to Austria a special service of overland messengers between Vienna and Pera.59

 Out of this grew a 

postal service administered by Austria through its 

many post offices established in Turkey. But Austria 

was not to hold a monopoly on this extraterritorial 

right. By the time Turkey signed the treaty of Berne 

in 1874, France, England, Russia, Germany, and Italy 

had also established post offices in Turkey.60 Postmarks on covers indicate that as early as 1869 the 

North German Union had a post office in operation 

in Constantinople. This became a German post office 

after the formation of the German Empire in 1871. 

The Germans must have charged an internal postage 

in Constantinople equal to 10. This "tax for exterior 

69

 One Born in Turkey. "The Turkish Situation," American 

Review of Reviews (Feb. 1902) : p 185 

60

 Ibid. 

service" was combined with the international rate, as 

were like charges on mail to other countries; it was 

accounted for by dividing the sum of all of these postages equally between the two offices. Thus, each 

country would retain an additional cent on mail to 

or from Constantinople. The United States, therefore, retained the direct international rate, plus 10 

"exterior service" charge on direct North German 

Union letters to Constantinople, and also the British 

transit on closed mail, via England. 

The cover illustrated in Figure 101 was posted in 

Cornwall-on-the-Hudson, New York, on 25 May 

1872. It is prepaid with 120, which in May 1872 was 

the North German Union closed-mail rate, via England. The New York office marked it PAID ALL and 

credited Germany with 40 by marking the cover 4 in 

red crayon. The German office simply marked it Wfr. 

meaning "paid beyond." On the reverse is a circular 

marking inscribed KAISEREICH DEUTSCHES POSTAMT 

which literally means "Imperial German Post Office." 

The rate was divided: 60 direct international rate, 10 

British transit, and 10 for German postage in Constantinople, all of which was retained by the United 

States. To this 80 retention was added 40 foreign 

postage to arrive at the 120 rate. 

Figure 102 illustrates a cover posted in Middleborough, Massachusetts, on 19 June (1874 or 1875), 

addressed to Constantinople and endorsed "via England." It is prepaid 110 by a 20, a 30, and a 60 stamp 

of the 1873 issue (Continentals). On 1 February 1873, 

the rate to Constantinople by North German Union 
NUMBER 6 

163 

From 

W M . H. VAIL, M. D. 

CORNWALL-ON-HUDSO N 

N Y. 

e 

FIGURE 101.—COVER, from Cornwall-on-Hudson, N.Y., to Constantinople, Turkey, 1872. 

, f 1 \ L. • , 

f t 

1 

: ••» 

Cs 

- • • 

FIGURE 102.—COVER, from Middleborough, Mass., to Constantinople, Turkey, 1874 or 1875. 

(Photograph by Smithsonian) 

closed mail, via England, was reduced from 120 to 110, New York office marked the cover PAID ALL and credevidently by the abandonment of the exterior service ited Germany widi 40 foreign postage by marking it 

charge for German postage in Constantinople. The 110 widi a 4 in red crayon. The only other marking on die 

rate was divided: 60 for the direct international rate, cover is that of die Imperial German Post Office on 

10 for British transit, and 40 for foreign postage. The the reverse. 
Chapter 9 

Postal Relations with France, 1870-1876 

Dissatisfaction with the United States-French postal 

convention of 2 March 1857 led the United States Post 

Office Department in December of 1866 to make it 

known to the French that a new and more liberal convention was necessary. On 4 February 1867, the government of the French emperor, Napoleon III, communicated to the United States Department of State 

that it, also, was of the belief that a new postal convention could be mutually advantageous, and requested 

that the United States Post Office Department send a 

special delegate to Paris. On 5 April 1867, the Honorable John A. Kasson was appointed a special commissioner of the Post Office Department and instructed to 

proceed to Paris and there negotiate and arrange the 

conditions of a more liberal postal convention. 

After several months of fruitless effort Kasson became convinced that the French Post Office was unwilling to accept the liberal proposals of the United 

States, and he broke off negotiations. On 8 January 

1868, the United States Post Office Department gave 

the French the required notice to terminate the convention of 2 March 1857 as of 1 February 1869. Later, 

at the request of the French Post Office, it was prolonged to 1 April 1869, and by mutual consent was 

further extended to 1 January 1870, at which time 

it finally expired.1 

T h e Open Mail and Direct Rates 

The December 1869 issue of the U.S. Mail and 

Post Office Assistant carried the following: 

Post Office Department, Office of Foreign Mails, November 30, 1869. 

On and after January 1, 1870, the exchange of mails 

1

 Annual Report of the Postmaster General for 1869. 

between the United States and France will cease in consequence of the abrogation of the present convention between the two countries, to take effect on that date. 

The correspondence addressed to France or received 

from France on and after the 1st of January, sent by 

steamships or other vessels running direct between the two 

countries, will therefore be subject to the following rates 

of postage, to be prepaid by stamps at the office of mailing 

on matter set, and collected at the office of delivery on 

matter received: 

Letters, 100 per single rate of half an ounce or 

under. . . . 

Letters for France may also be sent from the United 

States in the ordinary open mail to England without prepayment of postage. But printed matter and samples cannot, 

under existing regulations, be so sent. 

Inasmuch as all direct postal relations between the Post 

Departments of the United States and France will cease on 

the 1st of January next, it will not be practicable to forward correspondence after that date to any foreign country 

or place 'by French Mail.' The rates of postage 'by French 

Mail,' as stated in the 'Table of Postages to Foreign Countries' will therefore be suspended after the 31st December 

proximo. 

By order of the Postmaster General 

Joseph H. Blackfan, SUPERINTENDENT OF FOREIGN MAILS. 

The ordinary open-mail rate became 4$ per half 

ounce on 1 January 1870 the effective date of the additional United States-British convention of 3-14 December 1869. The rate of 4<f represented 2<f inland 

and 2<f sea postages, which were claimed by the United 

States on letters dispatched. Thus, when 4c' were prepaid in the United States, the letter was paid only to 

England.2 The London office forwarded such letters to 

France under the same articles and conditions of the 

2

 For a discussion of the open-mail rate, see Millard H. 

Mack, "United States 4c Part Payment Rate to France, 1870-

74," The Collectors Club Philatelist 38, 4 (July 1959) : 159-

164. 

164 
NUMBER 6 165 

Anglo-French convention of 24 September 1856 as 

had been used to forward letters that arrived in England by American packet during the period 1 January 

to 1 April 1857. These covers bear a GB/4 0C marking 

similar to O of Figure 18, an ANGL./AMB. CALAIS marking similar to N of Figure 18, and a due marking of 5 

decimes or a multiple of 5 decimes, exactly as American 

packet covers had been marked during the first three 

months of 1857. 

The 10$ rate, referred to in the Post Office Department announcement, was based upon Section 8 of the 

act of 1 July 1864.3 That section provided a rate of 

100 for letters of one-half ounce or under when addressed to or received from foreign countries with 

whom the United States had no postal convention, 

and when conveyed by vessels regularly employed in 

the transportation of the mails. On letters posted in 

the United States, a prepayment of 100 paid the letter 

to the French frontier; on letters posted in France, 

postage from the French frontier of 100 was collected 

in the United States. 

The direct service just described was performed by 

the French Ligne H between Havre and New York. 

Between 1 January 1870 and 3 January 1873 these 

vessels carried mail agents, and until 7 November 1874 

they called at Brest.4 The vessels of this line sailed 

from New York weekly on Saturdays. The HamburgAmerican line, plying between New York and Hamburg with calls at Plymouth, England, and Cherbourg, 

France, also conveyed direct service mail between New 

York and Cherbourg. Because of the Franco-Prussian 

War this service was suspended between July 1870 and 

February 1871. The vessels of this line sailed from 

New York weekly on Tuesdays. 

By an imperial decree of 22 December 1869, effective 

on 1 January 1870,5 letters arriving in France by the 

direct route were subject to a collection in France of 

80 centimes (8 decimes) per 10 grams. On 1 July 

1871, this collection was reduced to 50 centimes (5 

decimes) .

6 

On unpaid letters forwarded from the United States 

in the open mail, via England, the United States 

debited the British Post Office with 40 per half ounce. 

These covers bear a "currency" marking GB/2F, indicating that Great Britain forwarded such letters to 

3

 John N. Luff, Postage Stamps of the United States, appendix, p. 395. 

* Raymond Salles, Laposte Maritime., vol. 4, p. 238. 

5

 Ibid., p. 228. 

"Ibid., p. 229. 

France at the rate of 2 francs per 30 grams, bulk 

weight. Covers indicate that the French collected 8 

decimes per single rate on these unpaid open-mail 

letters. It is presumed that this collection was for a letter of ll

/z grams, since the Anglo-French additional 

convention,7 which established the one-third ounce or 

10 gram weight for a single rate, did not become effective between Great Britain and France until 1 July 

1870. About the middle of 1871 the collection was increased to 12 decimes per single rate, evidently of 10 

grams, on these unpaid open-mail letters. 

Figure 103 presents a cover posted in New Orleans 

on 8 April 1870, addressed to Bordeaux. It is prepaid 

40 by two pairs of the 10 stamp of the 1869 issue. The 

markings on this cover are typical of those used on 

open-mail letters to France, via England, at the prepaid 40 rate. Note the GB/40C, the ANGL./AMB. CALAIS, 

and the 5 decimes French due marking.8 

Figure 104 illustrates an unpaid letter to France sent 

in the open mail, via England. It was posted in New 

York, addressed to Bordeaux, and endorsed to the 

Nevada, a ship of the Guion line which sailed from 

New York on Wednesday, 5 October 1870. Note the 

NEW YORK/BR. TRANSIT and i markings applied in 

black by the New York office. The GB/2F and a London 

marking (on the reverse) were applied by the British, 

the ANGL./AMB. CALAIS and the 8 by the French. 

Figure 105 illustrates a cover posted in San Francisco on 11 June 1872, addressed to La Rochelle, 

France. The debit of 40 is now included in the New 

York marking, and the collection in France has been 

increased from 8 to 12 decimes. In other respects the 

markings on this cover are the same as those on Figure 

104. 

Figure 106 illustrates a cover posted in Philadelphia 

on 20 June 1870, addressed to Paris, and endorsed Per 

Steamer Cimbria—via Cherbourg, June 21. Cimbria 

was a steamer of the Hamburg-American line which 

sailed from New York on Tuesday, 21 June and arrived in Cherbourg on 3 July 1870. This letter was 

prepaid 100 for direct service by a 100 National 

(grilled), and in this respect is unusual, since most 

covers showing a French due of 8 decimes were prepaid with a 100 stamp of the 1869 issue. The cover is 

also unusual because it shows die marking (in purple) 

of the Philadelphia office. The Cherbourg marking is 

in blue. 

7

 British and Foreign State Papers, vol. 59, p. 19. 

8

 See Millard H. Mack, "Four Cent Part-Payment Rate to 

France," Chronicle of the U.S. Classic Issues 17, 2 (Feb. 

1965): 72. 
166 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

FIGURE 103.—COVER, from New Orleans to Bordeaux, France, 1870. (Karl Jaeger collection) 

u uyje^r-nci^y. 

—~ 

FIGURE 104.—COVER, from New York to Bordeaux, France, 1870. (Photograph by Smithsonian) 
NUMBER 6 167 

i 

( 

a 

' ty*^ 

PiliV' ' 0 

Z*zv£ / - ^ 

UJ^— -

FIGURE 105.—COVER, from San Francisco to La Rochelle, France, 1872. 

(Photograph by Smithsonian) 

/&A. i/rCA^vU- v 

0 

C--^-C^v—^v»»<u~k-*r f 

/ /^ \ 

FIGURE 106.—COVER, from Philadelphia, Pa., to Paris, France, 1870. 

(Photograph by Smithsonian) 

372-H&45 0—ffOi 12 
168 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

!

0r :^M 

/ 

FIGURE 107.—COVER, from New York to Angouleme, France, 1874. (Photograph by Smithsonian) 

Figure 107 illustrates a cover posted in New York, 

addressed to France, and endorsed "per Str. 'Ville de 

Paris,' " a steamer of die French line. The Brest marking indicates that the letter entered France at that 

port, but the marking itself was applied at Paris.9 

Five decimes were collected in France. 

When the United States-French convention expired 

on 31 December 1869, there was confusion among 

local postmasters and the public regarding the rates 

to France. Numerous covers indicate that many people 

continued to prepay tiieir letters with the former convention rate of 150. It must be remembered that a new 

rate of 60, which paid a letter to destination in Great 

Britain, also became effective on 1 January 1870. In 

structions to pay open-mail letters to England appear 

to have been frequently misunderstood, and letters 

were prepaid with 60 instead of 40, which paid the 

letter through England, rather than to England. Figure 

108 illustrates one of the many covers showing this error. The cover bears a marking applied in red, NEW 

YORK/PAID TO ENGLAND, which appears on all covers 

seen which were prepaid with 60. Otherwise, die 

markings are the same as those appearing on Figure 

103. 

The Phantom Rate 

The open-mail and direct rates were those announced by the postmaster general as being available 

on letters to France on 1 January 1870, and these remained the only rates reflected in the tables of postages 

to foreign countries published in the U.S. Mail and 

Post Office Assistant until the issue of November 1871. 

The New York exchange office, however, used a fully 

prepaid rate to France, via England, which was never 

published to local postmasters or to the public. The 

evolution of this rate is an interesting story.10 

The United States-British convention of 18 June 

'Raymond Salles, La Poste Maritime, vol. 4, p. 236. 

10

 For a more extensive discussion of the "phantom" rate 

see George E. Hargest, "United States Mails to France in 

1870—The 'Phantom' and Actual Prepaid Rates," The Collectors Club Philatelist 42, 6 Nov. 1963): 333-344. Reference to the "phantom" rate was first made in this article. 
NUMBER 6 169 

f

c 

i 'M^> 

\ 

\ ui. 

V. / 

»' ft») 

j)///<T///"'\ C' »/£ / 

.x/?M 

FIGURE 108.—COVER, from Richmond, Mass. to Point-Aven, Finistere, France, 1873. 

(Photograph by Smithsonian) 

1867, appended a table to the detailed regulations. The 

table showed the rates of postage to be accounted for 

by the United States to die British Post Office on letters conveyed in transit through England in ordinary 

mails between die United States and twenty-six listed 

countries.11 The amount set beside the name of each 

country represented the existing rate between that 

country and Great Britain. In each case, the prepaid 

rate shown for the designated country in the tables 

of postages to foreign countries published in the U.S. 

Mail and Post Office Assistant was 100 higher than the 

rate reflected in the table appended to the detailed 

regulations. The twenty-six countries included in this 

table were largely British colonies traditionally served 

by British mail. 

While Anthony Trollope represented Great Britain 

in die negotiation of the United States-British convention of 7-24 November 1868, the detailed regulations, 

signed at the same time, were negotiated by Joseph H. 

Blackfan for the United States and John Tilley for 

Great Britain.12 Blackfan was superintendent of Foreign Mails, and Tilley was secretary of the General 

Post Office at London. Both of these gentlemen were 

1116 Statutes-at-Large 842. 

13

 Ibid. 860-862. 

intimately acquainted with the details of the foreignmail services. Appended to these detailed regulations 

was a table similar to that appended to the detailed 

regulations for the 18 June 1867 convention. The list, 

however, was expanded to 155 countries and destinations, and included, as far as possible, the countries 

that were then being served by French mail. Since 

these detailed regulations were signed at Washington 

on 24 November 1868, about ten months after the 

United States had served notice to France of its intention to terminate the United States-French convention, there can be little doubt that the United 

States was preparing an alternate service to replace 

French mail. 

The list included an entry for France and a separate 

entry for Algeria. It should be emphasized that Algeria 

was considered by die French a part of metropolitan 

France and all postal conventions after that of 3 April 

1843 had joined France and Algeria as one contracting 

party, setting the same rate for each. Besides the names 

of both France and Algeria were entered the notation 

(a) 8. The 8 indicated that the United States was to 

credit Great Britain with 80, while the (a) denoted 

"Increase by an additional rate for every 7^4 grams, 

or fraction thereof." This was die existing international 
170 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

rate between Great Britain and France and Algeria of 

4d. per one-fourth ounce in Great Britain, or 40 

centimes per 7/2 grams in France and Algeria. It had 

been established for prepaid letters through additional 

articles to the Anglo-French treaty of 3 April 1843, and 

became effective on 1 January 1855.13 Unpaid letters 

were at double this rate. The rate was unchanged by 

Article XIII of the Anglo-French convention of 

24 September 1856, which superseded these articles.11 

The United States-French convention expired on 31 

December 1869, and on the following day, 1 January 

1870, the additional United States-British convention 

of 3-14 December 1869, which reduced the United 

States share of the international rate from 100 to 4<f, 

became effective. Thus, on 1 January 1870, there was 

available by postal convention a fully prepaid rate to 

France and Algeria of \2<f for a single letter of 7I/2 

grams. On letters dispatched from the United States to 

France, via England, the rate to the British frontier 

under the United States-British convention was 4-<f per 

15 grams, and this amount was to belong to the dispatching office. Great Britain was to receive a credit of 

8<f per 7/2 grams from the United States to pay the 

then current international rate between Great Britain 

and France as prescribed by Article XIII of the AngloFrench convention of 24 September 1856. Although 

this rate was 4d. per one-fourth ounce in Great Britain, 

or 40 centimes per 7*/2 grams in France and Algeria, 

on prepaid letters, the weight stated by the dispatching 

office was accepted by the receiving office, except in 

case of manifest mistake. The combined prepaid rate, 

and its progression, was as follows: 

TABLE 30.— The Division and Progression of the "Phantom" 

Rate 

Postage 

Not over 7}$ grams 

Over 7lA but not over 15 grams 

Over 15 but not over 22}^ grams 

Over 22}^ but not over 30 grams 

Although this rate represented the only possible 

fully prepaid rate to France and Algeria, United 

States Postmaster General J. A. J. Creswell failed to 

make it available to France; he did, however, anU.S. 

(per 15 

grams) 

n 

4 

8 

8 

British 

(per l,i 

grams) 

u 

16 

24 

32 

Total 

Postage 

m 

20 

32 

40, 

etc. 

British and Foreign State Papers, vol. 44, pp. 43-47. 

Ibid., vol. 46, p. 202. 

nounce it for Algeria. The "Table of Postages to 

Foreign Countries" included in the April 1870 issue 

of the U.S. Mail and Post Office Assistant gives the 

entries for France and for Algeria as follows: 

Not exceeding Not exceeding 

quarter ounce half ounce 

Algeria, via England 120 20jj 

* * * 

France 10 

do. open mail, via 

England *^ 

•Indicates that in cases where it is prefixed, unless the letter is 

registered, prepayment is optional; in all other cases prepayment is required. 

If the 12£ rate was announced for Algeria, it would 

appear that it also should have been announced 

for France. On 1 January 1870, however, Postmaster 

General Creswell had a serious problem in regard to 

the mails sent to England. As has been pointed out in 

Chapter 8, all of the packet lines sailing from New 

York refused to carry the United States mails at the 

reduced rate of 6<f. per ounce or per 30 grams established by the additional United States-British convention of 3-14 December 1869. Until the Guion line 

signed a contract with the postmaster general on 23 

February 1870, the United States mails were conveyed 

to England exclusively by the Allan line from Portland, Maine. Prior to 31 December 1869, mails had 

been dispatched to England on Tuesdays, Wednesdays, 

Thursdays, and Saturdays.15 The postmaster general 

was now able to offer only a Saturday service. Faced 

with this inadequacy in the means of conveyance, he 

may not have wished to introduce a 12^ fully prepaid 

rate to France, via England. 

On the other hand, the ordinary British mail to 

Algeria was sent to the Mediterranean by the packet 

from Southampton. After the abrogation of the United 

States-French convention, this was the only route practical for its dispatch. The 12^ rate was, therefore, announced for Algeria. The 4£ open-mail rate should 

also have been available to Algeria, but it was not announced by the postmaster general. 

There may, however, have been another reason for 

the postmaster general not announcing the 12^ rate 

to France. On 21 September 1869, while the United 

States was still in negotiation with the French, and 

before the United States-French convention expired, 

France signed an additional postal convention with the 

Annual Report of the Postmaster General for 1870, p. 17. 
NUMBER 6 171 

British which reduced the international rate between 

those two countries and abandoned the 7l/2 grams 

weight base.16 This additional convention superseded 

Article XIII of the Anglo-French convention of 24 

September 1856. 

As has been pointed out, Article XIII was the convention provision upon which the United States and 

Great Britain had based the 80 credit included in the 

120 rate. The additional convention set a rate of 3d. 

for every one-third ounce in Great Britain, or of 30 

centimes for every 10 grams in France and Algeria. 

This change meant that the United States would 

credit Great Britain with only 60 instead of 80, and 

that the total rate would be reduced from 120 for a 

single letter of 7/ 2 grams to 100 for a single letter of 

10 grams. 

Although this convention was signed on 21 September 1869, it was not to come into operation until the 

ratifications were exchanged. This could have required 

only a few days, and it may have been anticipated that 

the convention would become effective before the 

United States-French convention expired. Nine months 

were to elapse, however, before ratification was 

achieved. Postmaster General Creswell may have preferred to wait and place the 100 rate in force, rather 

than introduce the 120 rate for what was anticipated 

would be a short time. Whatever his motives may have 

been, the 120 rate was not announced to the public or 

to local postmasters as being available on letters to 

France. 

While there was no announcement of a 120 rate to 

France, the evidence of covers indicates that at least 

by March 1870 (perhaps earlier) the New York exchange office began to forward some letters to France, 

via England, by crediting Great Britain with 80, provided they were prepaid with at least 120. Since the 

two published rates to France were less than 120, 

these letters were usually prepaid with the old convention rate of 150, or occasionally with double the 100 

direct rate. These covers indicate that both Great 

Britain and France accepted them as fully prepaid to 

destination. The London office marked them PAID, 

while the French marked them PD, that is, paid to 

destination. The rarity of covers showing the 80 credit 

to Great Britain is such as to indicate that it was used 

sporadically rather than regularly. 

There is no documentary evidence that explains 

this anomalous situation. There was no officially announced rate, but there was an 80 credit and a 40 

postage to the British frontier established by postal 

conventions with Great Britain. The rate was available to and used by the New York exchange office, but 

unknown to local postmasters or to the person mailing 

the letter. Yet what was thought, in some cases, to be 

a partial payment turned out to be a prepayment to 

destination, but only at the caprice of the New York 

exchange office. The illusionary nature of this rate 

suggests the term "phantom" as being descriptive of it. 

Figure 109 illustrates a cover posted in Eufaula, 

Alabama, on 18 May 1870, addressed to France. It is 

prepaid 150 which was the old convention rate, and it 

is suspected that the mailer did not know the rate had 

changed. The New York office forwarded it as fully 

prepaid to destination by crediting Great Britain with 

80 (large 8 in red on face), and marked it NEW 

YORK/BR. TRANSIT on the reverse. The London office 

marked it PAID, while the French travelling office, Calais to Paris, used a double circle ANGL./AMB. CALAIS 

marking, and a PD ("paid to destination") marking 

applied in red. These markings are typical of phantomrate covers. 

Figure 110 presents a letter posted at Cape Elizabeth 

Depot, Maine, post office on 10 June 1870, addressed 

to Paris. The letter evidently weighed over half an 

ounce (14.18 grams) and required a prepayment of 

200 for twice the 100 "direct" rate, and it was undoubtedly intended that it be sent by that route. At 

the New York exchange office (NEW YORK/BR. TRANSIT marking on reverse), however, the letter did not 

weigh over 15 grams, and it was sent fully prepaid to 

destination, via England. Great Britain was credited 

wtih 160 (2 x 80) by marking the cover on its face with 

a large 16 in red. Again, the London office marked it 

PAID, and die French office applied ANGL./AMB. CALAIS 

and PD markings. 

Although it was undoubtedly anticipated that the 

ratification of the additional Anglo-French convention 

of 21 September 1869 would shortly be achieved, an 

obstacle was encountered. A British law required that 

any change in a secondary standard of length, weight, 

or capacity should be duly authenticated by comparison with the imperial standard;17

 that it should be made 

effective by an order in council which was to be laid 

before both Houses of Parliament and published in the 

London, Edinburgh, or Dublin Gazette.18 The order 

18

 British and Foreign State Papers, vol. 59, p. 19. 

17

 The Standards of Weights, Measures and Coinage Act, 

1866, sec. 6 (29 and 30 Vict. c82, sec. 6). 

18

 Ibid., sec. 8. 
172 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

ffTN 

FIGURE 109.—COVER, from Eufaula, Ala., to France, 1870. (Lester L. Downing collection) 

FIGURE 110.—COVER, from Cape Elizabeth Depot, Me., to Paris, France, 1870. 

(Photograph by Smithsonian) 
NUMBER 6 173 

in council appears to have taken some time to secure, 

but was finally issued on 4 June 1870:

 10 

Whereas the Lords of the Committee of the Privy Council for Trade have represented to her Majesty that, in order 

to carry out the terms of a Postal Convention with France, 

it is expedient that secondary standards of the weight of 

one-third of an ounce avoirdupois, and two-thirds of an 

ounce avoirdupois, should be legalized. 

The preceding order in council was debated in the 

House of Commons on 13 June 1870,20 and the ratifications of the convention were exchanged on 16 June 

1870.21 In answer to questions put to him in the House 

of Commons, the British postmaster general, Lord 

Hartington, said the additional Anglo-French postal 

convention would come into operation on 1 July 

1870.22 

Postmaster General Creswell, however, did not announce the 100 fully prepaid rate, via England, as 

being available to France in the July issue of the U.S. 

Mail and Post Office Assistant. There could have been 

several reasons for his not doing so. He may not have 

wished to introduce a rate based upon the peculiar 

weight base of one-third ounce at the local post offices 

(most of whom were not equipped to determine this 

weight), and of 10 grams at the exchange offices. He 

evidently preferred that mails, via England, be sent in 

the open mail, thus avoiding the unusual third-ounce 

weight base. He may also have wished to avoid the 

introduction of a 100 fully prepaid rate, via England, 

that would compete with a 100 direct rate, which paid 

a letter only to the French frontier, especially at a time 

when the packet service to England was inadequate. 

Whatever his reasons may have been, die 100 fully 

prepaid rate, via England, was not announced to local 

postmasters, or to the public, so they were not aware 

that such a rate existed. 

The New York exchange office, however, continued 

to send some letters to France, via England, as fully 

prepaid to destination, provided the postage prepaid 

on them was of sufficient amount. In most cases, these 

letters were prepaid 100 and were intended to be sent 

by the direct route. The earliest cover showing a prepayment of 100 and a credit of 60 to England, reported 

by the late Stanley B. Ashbrook, was dated 28 June 

1870.M Since any departing steamer would require at 

least a week to reach England, the New York office 

could have anticipated the effective date of the AngloFrench convention (1 July 1870) by a few days. 

The November 1871 issue of the U.S. Mail and Post 

Office Assistant carried the following: 

Office of Foreign Mails. October 28, 1871. 

Inasmuch as correspondents in the United States are 

subjected to inconvenience because of their inability, since 

the abrogation of the Postal Convention with France, to 

fully prepay postage on letters for France and Algeria, the 

Postmaster-General has decided to so modify the existing 

regulations governing the collection of postage thereon as to 

permit the prepayment in full to destination of the postage 

on such letters for France and Algeria, as may hereafter be 

forwarded through the British mails. 

Notice is therefore given that the following prepaid rates 

of postage are in full of all charges to destination on letters 

for France and Algeria, via England. 

For letters not exceeding

 l/$ oz. in weight, 10f£; exceeding 

Y$, but not over

 x/a oz., 160; exceeding l/i, but not over 2/z 

oz., 200; exceeding

 2/z, but not over one oz., 260; and so 

on, adding four cents for each

 l/i oz. for United States and 

ocean postage, and 60 for each

 l/z oz. for British postage. 

This modification of existing regulations does not interfere with the mailing of letters for France and Algeria, 

either wholly unpaid, or partially prepaid, the United 

States inland and sea postage of 40 per single rate of ^2 oz. 

Although the United States-British convention stated 

rates in grams for the United States postage, local offices 

were not equipped to weigh in grams. The preceding 

rates, therefore, represent a translation of grams into 

ounces at the rate of 30 grams to the ounce. The exchange offices, of course, weighed letters in grams. This 

again caused a discrepancy in weight between the local 

offices (ounce held at 28.35 grams) and the exchange 

offices (rates based on grams at 30 grams to the ounce). 

See Table 31. 

Beginning with the issue of November 1871, the 

tables of postages to foreign countries published in the 

U.S. Mail and Post Office Assistant showed the fully 

TABLE 31.—The Division and Progression of the Fully 

Prepaid Rate, via England 

19

 British and Foreign State Papers, vol. 65, p. 1213. 

29

 Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, vol. 201, p. 1944. 

21

 Hertslet, Commercial Treaties, vol. 13, p. 546. 

22

 Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, 1944. 

23

 Ashbrook, Stanley B., Special Service, 6th series, p. 568. 

Local Offices, 

ounces 

Over 

% 

y* 

% 

Not 

over 

% 

Vi 

% 

1 

Exchange Offices, grams 

Over Not 

over 

10 

10 15 

15 20 

20 30 

Postage 

U.S. 

(retained) 

H 

4 

8 

8 

Shares 

British 

(credit) 

60 

12 

12 

18 

Total 

Postage 

100 

16 

20 

26 
174 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

prepaid rates to France, via England, in a footnote 

designated as "CC." The 40 open-mail rate was also 

included in the footnote, while the 100 direct rate 

was included in the tables. The table of postages to 

foreign countries published in the Postal Laws and 

Regulations, stated to be "correct up to May 1, 1873," 

omitted the 40 open-mail rate, as did also the table 

included in the Postal Guide, 1 July 1873. The 40 openmail rate, however, continued to be listed in the CC 

rates published in die U.S. Mail and Post Office 

Assistant, at least until the issue of March 1875. 

Figure 111 illustrates a cover posted in New Orleans 

on 28 July 1870, addressed to Paris. It is prepaid 100 

by a 100 stamp of the 1869 issue, which was undoubtedly intended to prepay the "direct" rate. The 

New York exchange office, however, forwarded it as 

fully prepaid to destination, via England. A large numeral 6 was applied in red to indicate a credit of 60 

to Great Britain. On the reverse is a NEW YORK/BR. 

TRANSIT marking also applied at New York. London 

marked the letter PAID, while the French applied a 

double circle ANGL./AMB. CALAIS marking in black and 

a red PD. These markings are the same as those used 

during the phantom-rate period, and indicate that 

the service was the same. Only the rate had changed. 

Covers showing tins rate during the period in which 

it was unannounced, tiiat is, prior to 1 November 1871 

are very scarce and of great historical interest. Characteristically, the credit to Great Britain was shown by 

the large numeral 6. 

Figure 112 illustrates a cover posted in New Orleans 

on 12 September 1872, addressed to Rouen, France. 

It is prepaid 100 by a 70 and a 30 National. The New 

York exchange office had revived the markings that 

had been used on United States-French convention 

mail, and credited Great Britain with 60 by applying 

in red a marking that had formerly indicated British 

packet service through England on single-rate Frenchmail letters. These markings appear to have been revived about die time of the announcement of the 

rate by the Postmaster General. In other respects the 

remaining markings are similar to those tiiat appear 

on Figure 110, except that the NEW YORK/BR. TRANSIT 

marking on the reverse is omitted. 

Figure 113 illustrates a cover tiiat passed through 

the Boston exchange office. There is no Boston postmark, but a Boston foreign mail killer was used to 

cancel die stamps.24 The letter weighed over one-diird 

but not over one-half ounce and required a prepayment of 160. The Boston office used no handstamps 

showing credits, but throughout die period marked 

credits in red crayon. Note the crayon 12 on this cover, 

which is in red. 

Figure 114 illustrates a cover that passed through 

the New York exchange office on 16 May 1874, addressed to Paris. The letter weighed over one-half 

but not over two-thirds of an ounce and is prepaid 

widi 200 in stamps. The credit of 120 is now included 

in a specially prepared handstamp that came into use 

some time after the middle of 1873. 

21

 Maurice C. Blake and W. W. Davis, Postal Markings 

of Boston, Massachusetts, to 1890, Plate 59, no. 976, p. 195. 

<- <&%&L<tZ<^ 

<2/ 

FIGURE 111.—COVER, from New Orleans, La., to Paris, France, 1870. 

(Robert de Wasserman collection) 

- i*fc 
NUMBER 6 175 

t 

/if v A 'tr ^ r t « /r-'-t f £ * 

Ktfi 

^//? //-/"<: 

FIGURE 112.—COVER, from New Orleans, La., to Rouen, France, 1872. 

(Photograph by Smithsonian) 

/fl /f v^ . £S**f /• /jr^ 

A4£> COC^p^p6^^ 

FIGURE 113.—COVER, from Boston [?] to Paris, France, 1874. (Photograph by Smithsonian) 
176 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

FIGURE 114.—COVER, through New York to Paris, 1874. (Melvin W. Schuh collection) 

Marginal-Weight Letters 

Covers showing overpayments of postage in relation to the credits shown upon them are frequently 

seen. Some of these letters when weighed in ounces at 

the local offices required a prepayment of postage in 

excess of what was required when they were weighed 

in grams at the exchange offices. For example, a few 

covers have been seen that are prepaid with 160, but 

show an exchange office credit of only 60. Undoubtedly, these letters weighed over 9.45 grams (one-third of 

an ounce) at the local offices and required a 160 prepayment. At the exchange offices, however, these letters did not weigh over ten grams and required a credit 

of only 60. While some overpayments may be explained as marginal-weight letters, there are others 

which are prepaid with inexplicable amounts, and 

some of these may be fraudulent. 

T h e Exchange Offices 

The 40 open-mail rate was available at all of the 

exchange offices that made up British mails. Very few 

covers, however, bear an exchange office marking other 

than New York. One cover showing a Boston marking 

and one cover bearing a red PHIL'A/[DATE]/PA. have 

been seen. These two covers are the only ones showing 

exchange office markings other than New York recorded by die audior. Certainly, covers showing markings of the Baltimore, Portland, Chicago, Detroit, or 

San Francisco offices should exist. 

After 1 November 1871, the CC rates were also 

available at all of the exchange offices. Strange as it 

may seem, however, all covers seen by the author showing these rates bear New York or Boston markings. 

Only the markings of the New York and Philadelphia 

offices have been seen on covers by the direct route. 

Rates from France to the United States 

By imperial decree of 22 December 1869 and 31 

January 1870,25 a rate of 70 centimes per 10 grams 

was set for letters posted in France addressed to the 

United States and sent via England.26 Prepayment of 

this rate was compulsory, and it became effective on 1 

January 1870. Great Britain forwarded these letters to 

the United States under terms of the United States23

 Salles, La Poste Maritime, vol. 4, p. 282. 

26

 It is doubted that this rate could have been for a letter of 

10 grams until after the effective date (1 July 1870) of the 

Anglo-French convention of 21 Sept. 1869. 
NUMBER 6 177 

British convention of 7-24 November 1868, and 

credited the United States with 20 per half ounce. 

About the middle of 1871 this rate was increased 

to 1 franc 20 centimes (12 decimes) for a letter of 

10 grams. According to Smith,27 M. Caillaux introduced in the National Assembly on 23 August 1871 a 

bill to increase French domestic postal rates, "solely 

as a fiscal measure." Since there is nothing to indicate 

that there was a change, at this time, in the amount of 

postage paid by France to Great Britain on letters dispatched from France through England, it is presumed 

that the increase in rate from 70 to 120 centimes was 

also a fiscal measure.28 The U.S. Postal Guide for 1873 

(rates as of 1 July) states: 

The postage on letters from France to the United 

States sent, via England, is 24 cents (1 franc, 20 centimes) 

per J/3 ounce and letters so prepaid should be delivered 

in the United States free of charge, but letters sent by 

direct steamer are subject to postage of 10 cents per 

half ounce on delivery; no matter what amount of postage 

has been prepaid in France. Letters insufficiently prepaid 

for transmission, via England, are treated by the French 

Post Office as wholly unpaid and reach the United States 

with a claim for French and British postage, which must 

be collected on delivery. 

Since there was no accounting between the post 

offices of the United States and France, all unpaid 

letters had to be sent via England. Letters insufficiently 

prepaid were sent as unpaid via England regardless of 

the route indicated by the mailer. Unpaid and insufficiently paid letters posted in France addressed to the 

United States bear "currency" markings which indicate 

they were forwarded by France to England charged 

at the rate of 2 francs per 30 grams, bulk weight of 

such letters. Great Britain evidently divided the bulk 

rate by 4 to arrive at a single rate of 50 centimes (100) 

per one-fourth ounce. To this rate was added the 

British postage of 40 per half ounce (20 British inland 

and 20 sea postage). Thus, on a single-rate letter, the 

British debited the United States with 140, while on 

a double-rate letter only the postage charged by France 

was double, and the British debit was 240. On these 

letters the United States postage was 20 per half ounce, 

and the total postage for a single rate was 160 and for 

a double rate, 260. Since collections in the United 

States were made in depreciated currency, the exchange 

office markings do not show the true rate. Support 

for this statement will be presented in Chapter 10 

which deals with depreciated currency covers. 

By an imperial decree of 22 December 1869, effective 1 January 1870, letters to be sent by direct steamer 

from France to the United States required a prepayment in France of 60 centimes per 10 grams. This paid 

the letter to the port of departure, and such letters 

were marked P.P. 2 9 A law of 21 April 1871, effective 

on 1 July 1871, and placed in force by a notification 

issued at Verseilles on 25 May 1871, reduced the direct rate from 60 to 50 centimes.30

 On these direct letters, 100 per half ounce was collected on delivery in 

the United States. 

Figure 115 illustrates a cover posted in Paris on 24 

February 1870, addressed to New York, and endorsed 

VOIE ANGLAISE ("By English line"). It is prepaid 70 

centimes, the fully prepaid rate, via England. The 

Paris office marked it PD ("paid to destination"). The 

London office marked it PAID on 25 February and 

credited the United States with 20. From the London 

office it was sent to Liverpool to be conveyed to New 

York by the R.M.S. Samaria of the Cunard line, which 

sailed from there on 26 February 1870. Unfortunately, 

the Samaria became disabled on 3 March and returned 

to Queenstown where it arrived on 1 April 1870.31 

Undoubtedly its mails were forwarded by the next 

steamer which was R.M.S. Cuba, which sailed from 

Liverpool on 2 April and arrived in New York on 

13 April 1870. Usually these covers bear a NEW YORK/ 

PAID ALL marking showing the date of arrival. On this 

cover there is no New York marking, and one wonders 

if it was omitted intentionally. 

Figure 116 illustrates a cover posted in Paris on 

9 February 1872, addressed to New York. It is prepaid 

120 centimes to be sent fully prepaid to destination, 

via England. All British and French markings are 

similar to those appearing on Figure 115, except that 

New York marked it PAID ALL. 

Figure 117 illustrates a cover posted in Paris on 19 

September 1873, addressed to New York. It is prepaid 50 centimes to be sent by the direct route. The 

Paris office marked it in red P.P. (marking on left 

stamp). The New York office applied a circular N.Y. 

STEAMSHIP/ 10 marking in black, indicating that 100 

were to be collected in United States notes on 

delivery. 

27

 A. D. Smith, Development of Rates of Postage, p. 

28

 Salles makes no mention of the 120-centime rate. 

29

 Salles, La Poste Maritime, vol. 4, p. 228. 

30

 Ibid., p. 229. 

31

 Taken from records of the Cunard line by Lester L. 

Downing. 
178 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

*£/*>•?*? 

«** 

"faa. Cu^iucoi. 

<o 

FIGURE 115.—COVER, from Paris to New York, 1870. (Photograph by Smithsonian) 

COHERCECE'CHEVE —"• > 

^vt>L^L/^ ^ 

FIGURE 116.—COVER, from Paris to New York, 1872. (Photograph by Smithsonian) 
NUMBER 6 179 

V §r^"*^ 

Kit 

1 

LEON PELLEUAY 

/ J 

<*// 

'7 fYf/ C ^^w 

« / i 

FIGURE 117.—COVER, from Paris to New York, 1873. (Photograph by Smithsonian) 

The United States^French 

Convention of 28 April 1874 

On 28 April 1874, the United States and France, 

after years of negotiation, signed a new postal convention at Washington.32

 The detailed regulations were 

signed at Washington on 9 June and at Paris on 24 

June 1874,33 and it was agreed that die convention 

come into operation on 1 August 1874. 

Exchange offices were established in France at Paris, 

Le Havre, Cherbourg, Brest, die travelling office, Paris 

to Calais, and the travelling office, Lille to Calais. In 

the United States, offices were established at Boston 

and New York. 

By Article 2 of the detailed regulations the exchange 

of mails was to be effected as follows: 

By way of French mail-packets—The offices of Paris, 

Le Havre, and Brest shall correspond with the office of 

New York. 

By way of packets of the Hamburg line—The offices of 

32

 18 Statutes at Large 810. 

33

 Ibid. 816. 

Paris and Le Havre shall make up mails for the office of 

New York, and the office of New York shall make up mails 

for the offices of Paris, Le Havre, and Cherbourg. 

By way of England—The offices of Paris and Le Havre 

and the travelling offices of Paris to Calais and Lille to 

Calais shall correspond with the offices of Boston and 

New York. 

Thus, all mail passing through the Boston office was 

sent or received by way of England. A table appended 

to the detailed regulations states the origin and destination of the mails sent from or received at the offices 

of Boston or New York by the various routes.34 This 

table discloses that the Boston office was to forward or 

receive letters posted in or addressed to the states of 

Massachusetts, Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, and 

Rhode Island, only. No mail was to be dispatched by 

packets from Boston, but mail would be received by 

packets arriving at Boston. The New York office was 

to forward or receive letters posted in or addressed to 

any part of the United States. Letters, by any route, 

were exchanged in closed mails between the exchange 

office of origin and the exchange office of destination. 

34

 Ibid. 420. 
180 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

Article III of the convention set the rates of postage. 

On letters posted in France or Algeria, addressed to 

the United States, the rate was set at 50 centimes per 

10 grams or fraction of 10 grams. On letters posted in 

the United States, addressed to France or Algeria, the 

rate was 90 per 15 grams or fraction of 15 grams. Unpaid letters were to bear a fine of 25 centimes per letter 

in France, or of 50 per letter in the United States. Insufficiently paid letters were to be treated as unpaid, 

but the amount of postage prepaid by postage stamps 

was to be deducted. 

Since each country was to retain the postage it collected, there was no accounting for international letters 

between the two post offices, and debit and credit 

markings were unnecessary. There is, therefore, no 

evidence of weight discrepancy between the local offices 

which rated letters per half ounce and the exchange 

offices which rated them per 15 grams. It was provided, 

however, that the United States exchange offices mark 

prepaid letters dispatched to France and Algeria PAID 

in red ink, while the French offices were to mark letters 

prepaid to United States destinations PD in red ink. 

Insufficiently prepaid letters were to be so marked by 

the dispatching offices. 

There were elaborate provisions for the exchange of 

open mails which were to pass in transit through 

France or the United States to or from foreign countries. Similar provisions were made for closed mails. 

The conditions upon which these mails would be exchanged were set forth in tables appended to the 

detailed regulations.35 The official Postal Guide for October 1874, makes no mention, either in its text or in 

its "Foreign Postage Table," of rates "by French Mail," 

or "via France," as shown in the detailed regulations. 

This is also true of the tables of postages to foreign 

countries published in various issues of the U.S. Mail 

and Post Office Assistant. It appears, therefore, that 

the postmaster general preferred not to make use of 

these transit provisions on mail dispatched from the 

United States. 

Of the delegates from the twenty-one countries assembled at the Berne Postal Congress in 1874, only the 

delegate from France did not have the necessary 

powers to sign a treaty.36 The Berne Postal Treaty was 

signed on 9 October 1874, and through a final protocol France was allowed to sign at a later date. On 3 

May 1875, France's delegate, B. d'Harcourt, signed 

the treaty37 on condition that France be allowed to 

place it in force on 1 January 1876, instead of 1 July 

1875; that the rate would not be changed before the 

next congress; and that France be permitted to charge 

transit rates on the basis of the actual distance the 

mails were carried.38 

Thus, the rates of the convention of 28 April 1874 

were superseded on 1 January 1876 by the General 

Postal Union rates of 50 in the United States, or 40 

centimes in France, per 15 grams. Since the convention of 28 April 1874 was in force for only seventeen 

months, covers showing its rates are scarce, and those 

showing the 90 rate from the United States are popular with collectors. 

Figure 118 illustrates a cover posted in New York, 

addressed to Ain, France. The NEW YORK/PAID marking was introduced when the convention became effective. The date in this marking is 2 December 1874, 

a Wednesday, and according to the "Sailing of Mail 

Steamers" published in the October 1874 issue of the 

official Postal Guide, Wednesday sailings from New 

York were by steamers of the Cunard line. The doublecircle ETATS-UNis/[date]/v. ANGL. AMB. CAL. B marking which was applied in black by the travelling office, 

Calais to Paris, was introduced with the convention. 

This office also applied a P.D. marking in red. 

Figure 119 illustrates a cover posted in New York, 

addressed to Ain, France, and forwarded to Paris. This 

letter weighed over half an ounce and was prepaid 180 

by a pair of 30 and a pair of 60 stamps (Continentals). 

The New York office applied a foreign-mail killer 

(Milliken no. 16, Herst-Sampson no. 844) in black, 

and a NEW YORK/PAID marking bearing the date of 

18 May (1875), a Tuesday. According to the "Sailing 

of Mail Steamers" included in the April 1875 issue of 

the official Postal Guide, Tuesday sailings, via England, 

were by steamers of the Guion line. The French markings are similar to those appearing on Figure 118, 

except that the P.D. marking was applied in black. 

Figure 120 illustrates a cover posted in the New 

York "supplementary mail" on 21 October (1875). At 

dockside a mailbag was kept open after the regular 

mail had closed. Letters posted late to be sent in this 

supplementary mailbag required a prepayment of 

double postage for a single-rate letter. This letter is 

prepaid 180 (2 x 90) by a pair and a single of the 60 

stamp (Continental). The New York office applied a 

foreign-mail killer (Milliken no. 50) in black, and a 

35

 Ibid. 821-822. 

36

 Arthur George Codding, Jr., The Universal Postal Union, 

pp. 27, 34. 

19 Statutes at Large 587. 

1

 Codding, Universal Postal Union, p. 34. 
NUMBER 6 181 

\ ^UVXAJ r* 

tfPzs*— 

(S^^ 

FIGURE 118.—COVER, from New York to Ain, France, 1874. (Photograph by Smithsonian) 

&-/> 

n 

/ 

FIGURE 119.—COVER, from New York to Ain, France, forwarded to Paris, 1875. 

(Photograph by Smithsonian) 
182 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

FIGURE 120.—COVER, from New York to Richmond (Ain), France, 1875. 

(Photograph by Smithsonian) 

AUX HUiT BOULES D'OR 

MAGASIN DE CHEVE^UX 

COMMISSION-EXPORTATION 

V

VE

 F. ANTOINE & C " 

4 . Hu<> <ln l»<.i:?<»i 

PABIS 

UL^ 

/ g' /^y /^- /^/ S Z^-X? 

FIGURE 121.—COVER, from Paris to New York, 1875. (Photograph by Smithsonian) 
NUMBER 6 

New York supplemtnary-mail marking in red (Scott's 

type E). On 21 October 1875 (see date in New York 

marking), Klopstock of the Hamburg-American line 

sailed from New York for Plymouth and Cherbourg. 

The Cherbourg receiving marking is unusual because it 

is applied in red. 

Figure 121 illustrates a cover posted in Paris on 21 

May 1875, addressed to New York. This letter did not 

weight over 10 grams and was prepaid 50 centimes in 

French stamps. It was marked PD and probably for183 

warded to New York by Pereire of the French line 

which sailed from Havre on 22 May 1875.39 On the 

reverse is a circular NEW YORK/JUN / I /PAID ALL marking in red. Covers showing the convention rate of 50 

centimes per 10 grams are not easy to find. Apparently, 

however, collectors have not realized this and these 

covers are not sought after as are their United States 

counterparts. 

30

 Salles, La Poste maritime, vol. 4, p. 238. 

372-645 O—7C 
Chapter 10 

Depreciated Currency Covers 

Brief Survey of United States 

Monetary History—1792-1862 

On 2 April 1792, Congress enacted a mint act which 

adopted a decimal system of coinage and a bimetallic 

standard with silver and gold granted full legal tender 

at a ratio of 15 to 1, and established a United States 

mint. Some time after this act became effective, the 

market ratio between silver and gold became about 

15 J/2 to 1. On the market, 15 J/2 ounces of silver could 

be purchased for 1 ounce of gold, but at the mint only 

15 ounces of silver were required to buy 1 ounce of 

gold. Such a transaction would yield a profit of about 

one half ounce of silver. Under those conditions silver 

was brought to the mint for coinage, and gold was 

converted into bullion for the market. Silver overvalued at the mint was driving undervalued gold out 

of circulation. 

Portions of this chapter appeared in the Chronicle of the 

U.S. Classic Issues, 20, 3, Whole No. 59 (Aug. 1968) : 110— 

115; 20, 4, Whole No. 60 (Nov. 1968) : 146-151. 

In order to remedy this situation, laws were enacted 

in 1834 and in 1837 which established a new mint 

ratio of 15.988 to 1, usually expressed as 16 to 1. 

According to this new mint ratio, the standard silver 

dollar was to contain 371.25 grains of pure silver, or 

412.5 grains of coin silver 0.9 fine, while the standard 

gold dollar was to contain 23.22 grains of pure gold, 

or 25.8 grains 0.9 fine. 

This new coinage ratio undervalued silver at the 

mint, for the market ratio remained about 15^2 to 1. 

At the mint, about 16 ounces of silver exchanged for 

1 ounce of gold, but in the market only 15 J/2 ounces of 

silver would buy 1 ounce of gold. Thus, overvalued 

gold was taken to the mint to exchange for undervalued silver, and silver, in consequence, gradually disappeared from circulation. This was the situation at 

the beginning of the Civil War.1 

T h e "Greenbacks" and 

Fractional Paper Currency 

On 30 December 1861, the banks in New York City 

suspended specie payments, and on 1 January 1862, 

the federal government also suspended payments in 

specie.2 On 25 February 1862, the Legal Tender Act 

was passed by Congress which, among other things, 

authorized the issuance of $150 million in noninterestbearing United States notes which were made legal 

tender for all debts, public and private, except customs 

duties and interest on public debt. The United States, 

therefore, adopted a de facto inconvertible paper 

standard for these notes, and through the operation of 

Gresham's law,3 forced the gold coin out of circulation. 

During the first quarter of 1862 the average price of 

United States notes (greenbacks) in gold declined to 

97.5.4 

Until 1853 the silver content of a dollar's worth of 

1

 See J. Laurence Laughlin, Principles of Political Economy 

by John Stuart Mill, pp. 344-364. 

2

 Ibid. 

3

 As stated by Sir Thomas Gresham (a merchant at the 

time of Elizabeth I), "Money of less value drives out money 

of more value." As usually stated, "Bad money drives good 

money out of circulation." Ibid., p. 313. 

4

 Wesley C. Mitchell, Gold, Prices, and Wages under the 

Greenback Standard, p. 5. 

184 
NUMBER 6 185 

subsidiary coins

 a of the United States was the same 

as that of a silver-dollar piece. Because of the discrepancy between the mint and market ratios of silver, these 

coins were disappearing from circulation. On 21 February 1853, a new coinage act was passed which reduced the silver content of a dollar's worth of subsidiary coins to 345.6 grains of pure silver, as compared 

with 371.25 grains in the silver-dollar piece. This 

represented a reduction of 6.91 percent, and made the 

silver content of a dollar's worth of subsidiary coins 

93.09 percent of die silver-dollar piece. 

While this reduction was barely sufficient to keep the 

subsidiary coins in circulation at that time, the suspension of specie payments and the introduction of 

United States notes, whose gold value soon fell below 

the gold value of the subsidiary coins, forced the latter 

out of circulation. By June 1862 a crisis developed because tiiere was no small change available. Immediately a welter of fractional paper currency appeared, 

issued by private individuals and business firms which, 

perforce, temporarily served as money.6 The Currency 

Act of 17 July 1862 sought to alleviate the stringency 

in small change by authorizing the use of postage 

stamps as currency. Stamps prepared for postage uses, 

however, were not adapted to the purposes of currency, and on 21 August the Treasury began die distribution of fractional postage currency notes which 

replaced the use of postage stamps as money.7 On 

3 March 1863, Congress further acted by authorizing 

the issuance of fractional United States notes of different design to replace the postage currency then in 

circulation.8 

By the acts of 11 July 1862 and 17 January 1863, 

Congress authorized the further issuance of $300 million in United States notes. Thus, by the end of the 

first quarter of 1863 the issuance of a total of $450 

million in greenbacks had been authorized, and their 

average price in gold for that quarter had fallen to 

65.2.9 

The silver subsidiary coins were, at this time, the halfdollar, the quarter-dollar, the dime, the half-dime, and the 

silver three-cent piece. 

8

 These private fractional notes were popularly called "shinplasters." 

7

 Neil Carothers, Fractional Money, p . 177. 

8

 "A treasury official named Clark had his portrait engraved on one of the new fractional notes. This so incensed 

Congress that by a law of April 7, 1866, it was provided 

that portraits of living persons should not appear on any 

securities or currency of the United States." Ibid., note, p. 

180. 

0

 Mitchell, Greenback Standards, p. 5. 

Depreciated Currency and the Post 

Office Department 

As the inflation progressed, the Post Office Department realized that it was suffering a severe loss in 

revenue through the collection of postage on unpaid 

letters from foreign countries in depreciated paper, 

while international settlements with these same countries had to be made in specie. It also noted that foreign correspondents were taking advantage of the situation by sending more of their letters to the United 

States unpaid. Postmaster General Blair called the attention of Congress to the matter and asked that measures be taken to alleviate it. 

On 17 February 1863, Mr. Collamer of the Senate 

Committee on the Post Office and Post Roads reported 

to Congress a joint resolution which authorized the 

Post Office Department to collect the postages due on 

unpaid-mail matter from foreign countries in coin. 

In presenting the measure he pointed to the great loss 

suffered in settling balances with foreign governments 

on unpaid-mail matter. He stated: "It gets to be a 

pretty severe operation when it [the Post Office Department] has to pay forty or fifty thousand dollars a 

year discount on the paper it receives, with which to 

get gold to pay back the balance of postage."

 10

 Mr. 

Trumbull recognized the gravity of the loss, but objected to the measure on the grounds of the great 

inconvenience it would cause the public. He felt it 

would be most onerous on the poor, for example, 

servants who were corresponding with relatives in Europe. "Where would they secure the coin," he asked, 

"when there was none in circulation?" Mr. Wilson 

moved that it lay on the table for the present. To this, 

Congress agreed.11 

On 3 March 1863, a similar measure, which granted 

the postmaster general discretionary power in making 

collections on such mail matter, was introduced and 

approved:

 12 

No. 35 A Resolution Authorizing the Collection in Coin 

of Postages Due on Unpaid Mail Matter from Foreign 

Countries: 

Whereas, the failure to prepay foreign correspondence 

throws upon the Post Office Department of the United 

States large balances, which have to be paid in coin: 

Therefore, 

10

 U.S., Congress, Congressional Globe, 37th Cong., 3rd 

sess., p. 1017. 

"Ibid., p. 1018. 

u

 Ibid., appendix, p. 240. 
186 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

Be it resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States in Congress assembled, That the 

Postmaster General be and is hereby authorized to take 

such measures as may seem advisable to him to collect 

postages on letters from abroad not prepaid, in order to 

avoid loss in payment of such balances. 

On 1 April 1863, Postmaster General Blair issued 

an official circular which was distributed to all postmasters throughout the Loyal States. After some explanatory remarks he quoted the above joint resolution and issued the following order:

 13 

In pursuance of the provisions of the resolution, you are 

hereby directed, from and after the first of May next, to 

collect in gold or silver coin all postages due on unpaid 

letters received from foreign countries in mails dispatched 

to this country from Great Britain and Ireland, France, 

Prussia, Hamburg, Bremen or Belgium and to hold the 

coin so collected subject to the special drafts or orders of 

the Department. Should however payment of such postage 

and of the premium on a corresponding amount of coin 

be tendered in United States notes, you are authorized to 

accept the same in lieu of coin. . . . 

For the present this order will apply exclusively to the 

mails from the countries above mentioned. On outgoing 

letters the existing regulations remain unchanged. 

The public was thus relieved of the absolute necessity of paying the postage due on unpaid letters from 

foreign countries in coin, if the equivalent (which 

included the premium on coin) was paid in United 

States notes. 

The method to be used by the post offices in collecting the coin equivalent in United States notes must 

have caused some confusion, for editor Holbrook 

found it necessary to explain the procedure in the June 

issue of the U.S. Mail and Post Office Assistant:14 

Collection in coin. It may be of service to some postmasters 

to explain the plan adopted in the New York Office in 

carrying out the recent ORDER to collect postage on unpaid foreign leters, in coin or its equivalent. [Italics added 

for emphasis throughout.] 

Letter stamps are prepared with changeable figures, with 

which all such letters for this delivery are rated, as soon as 

they arrive by steamer; the premium on silver at that time 

being adopted as a basis. Thus on a letter from Great Britain 32 cts. would be stamped, if the coin then ruled at 

33 per cent. No matter when the letter is called for, the 

rate stamped on the letter must be paid, unless the gold or 

silver is offered, when, of course, only 24 cts. can be demanded if the letter weighs a single rate only. This has been 

the practice up to the 1st inst., in the New York office 

respecting letters for delivery here, as before stated; but by 

order of the Department it was on the 1st inst., extended 

13

 U.S. Mail and Post Office Assistant 3, 8 (May 1863) : 2. 

" Ibid. 9, p. 2. 

to all such foreign letters passing in transit through the 

other offices. 

We mention this in order that distant postmasters may 

understand the new ruling, and collect accordingly. The 

arrangement will no doubt relieve them of some trouble. 

Similar instructions have been given to the postmasters of 

Philadelphia, Boston, Portland, Detroit, Chicago, and San 

Francisco, there being the regular United States Exchange 

offices for foreign mails. 

If any coin had been offered to pay the postage 

due on unpaid letters from foreign countries, it would 

undoubtedly have been in the form of silver subsidiary 

coins. As has been previously pointed out, the silver 

content of these coins was 93.1 percent of that of the 

silver-dollar piece. On the other hand, in 1863 the 

market price of silver was higher than the mint price. 

This is reflected in columns 1 and 2 of Table 32. On 

the average during that year, only 15.37 ounces of 

silver would have bought one ounce of gold on the 

market, but 15.988 ounces were required to exchange 

for an ounce of gold at the mint. To state it another 

way, $1,039 in gold was required to buy $1.00 in silver 

(column 2). The price of silver in greenbacks (column 

3) was, therefore, higher than the price of gold in 

greenbacks (column 4) in 1863. Column 5 of Table 

32 presents the gold value of a dollar's worth of silver 

subsidiary coins. If, in 1863, the market and the mint 

ratios between silver and gold had been the same, the 

figure in column 5 for that year would have been 0.931, 

reflecting the lesser amount of silver in die subsidiary 

coins. The increase from 0.931 to 0.967 represents die 

higher market price of silver. This is clearly observed 

in the figures for 1873 when (column 1) die market 

ratio approached the mint ratio of 15.988, the market 

value of silver in gold (column 2) approached 100, 

and the gold value of silver subsidiary coins (column 

5) approached 0.931. 

Procedure Followed in Rating Letters 

Although the preceding description of the procedure to be followed in rating these unpaid letters from 

abroad states that the premium on silver at the time of 

the steamer's arrival was to be used as the basis for 

rating, tests made on numerous covers indicate that 

this could not have been so. One is led to the conclusion 

that editor Holbrook did not fully explain what was 

meant by "premium on silver." More explicitly, he 

should have stated it as "premium on silver subsidiary coins." This is implied in his next sentence when 
NUMBER 6 187 

TABLE 32.—Prices in Greenbacks of Gold, Silver, and Silver Subsidiary Coins* 

Column 1 Market Ratio of Silver to Gold; Column 2 Market Value of Silver in Gold; Column 3 

Price of Silver in Greenbacks; Column 4 Price of Gold in Greenbacks; Column 5 Gold Value of a 

Dollar's Woith of Silver Subsidiary Coins; Column 6 Price of Silver Subsidiary Coins in Greenbacks. 

Year 

1863 

1864 

1865 

1866 

1867 

1868 

1869 

1870 

1871 

1872 

1873 

1874 

1875 

1876 

1877 

1878 

1 

15.37 

15. 37 

15.44 

15.43 

15.57 

15.59 

15. 60 

15.57 

15.57 

15.63 

15.92 

16. 17 

16.59 

17.88 

17.22 

17.94 

2 

103.9 

103.9 

103.5 

103.6 

102. 7 

102.6 

102.5 

102.7 

102.7 

102.3 

100.4 

98.9 

96.4 

89.4 

92.8 

89. 1 

Annual A 

3 

150.9 

211.2 

162.8 

146.4 

141.9 

143. 3 

136. 3 

117.3 

114. 7 

114.9 

114.3 

109.9 

110.8 

99.3 

97. 3 

89.8 

verages 

4 

145.2 

203. 3 

157. 3 

140.9 

138.2 

139.7 

133.0 

114.9 

111. 7 

112.4 

113.8 

111.2 

114.9 

111. 5 

104.8 

100.8 

5 

0.967 

0.967 

0.963 

0.964 

0.956 

0.955 

0.954 

0.956 

0.955 

0.952 

0.938 

0.925 

0. 888 

0.842 

0.869 

0.834 

6 

140.2 

196.6 

151.5 

133.8 

132. 1 

133.4 

126.9 

108. 8 

106.6 

107.0 

106. 7 

102.9 

103.5 

93.9 

91. 1 

84. 1 

*Derived from table published in Hargest, George E., "Depreciated Currency Covers," The 

Chronicle of the U.S. Classic Issues (August 1968), vol. 20, no. 3, p. 113. 

Source: Columns 1 and 5: Carothers, Neil, 1930, appendix F, p. 323; Column 4: Mitchell, 

Wesley C, 1908, p. 4; Column 2: 15.988 divided by the figures in Column 1 ; Column 3: figures in 

Column 4 multiplied by figures in Column 2; Column 6: figures in Column 4 multiplied by figures 

in Column 5. 

he speaks of the coin (not the silver) ruling at 33 

percent. While many examples could be cited, several 

will suffice to illustrate how these covers were rated. 

Marking A of Figure 122 appears on a cover posted 

in London on 10 June 1867, addressed to Boston.15 

This marking indicates that 24c' were to be collected 

in coin, or 3l£ in United States notes (greenbacks). 

On 13 June (the date of the steamer's arrival as indicated in the postmark) the lowest and highest prices 

of gold in greenbacks were, respectively, 137 and 

137%.1C If the premium on gold had been used as 

the basis for calculation, the lowest possible amount 

to be collected would have been 33^ (24 X 137 = 

32.88), or 2<f higher than the amount shown in the 

postmark. Since the price of silver in greenbacks 

(column 3) was higher than the price of gold (column 

4), the amount to be collected would have been higher 

10

 Courtesy of Lester L. Downing. 

"Mitchell, Greenback Standards, pp. 291-338, presents 

the daily lowest and highest premium on gold and price of 

greenbacks in gold for the period 1862 through 1878. 

than 32.88, if the premium on silver had been used as 

the basis for calculation. 

It is evident that neither the premium on gold nor 

the premium on silver was used as the basis for calculating the amount due in United States notes on these 

covers. The price of silver subsidiary coins in greenbacks, however, not only reflects the lesser amount of 

silver they contain, but also the higher market price 

of silver (column 6). It appears that the premium on 

gold was reduced by applying the percentages shown 

in column 5 in order to secure the premium on silver 

subsidiary coins. Thus, 137 (premium 37) was multiplied by 24 and the product multiplied by 0.956 

(column 5 figure for 1867), the final product of which 

is 31.43, or 31#, which agrees with the amount shown 

in the postmark. It must be borne in mind that the 

figures in column 5 are annual averages and at any 

particular time could be more or less than the amount 

shown. Although declining gradually until 1873, this 

series shows great stability, and its application to daily 

figures appears justified. Undoubtedly, the exchange 
188 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

FIGURE 122.—MARKINGS on unpaid letters during depreciated 

currency period. 

offices were furnished the price of silver subsidiary 

coins in greenbacks on a daily basis, but such a series 

has not been found in the government records to which 

reference has been made. 

Applying the same procedure to marking B of 

Figure 122, a similar situation arises. The letter showing this marking was posted in Bremen on 20 May 

1865, addressed to Philadelphia. The postmark indicates that 100 were to be collected in coin, or 130 in 

United States notes. On 5 June 1865 (the date in the 

postmark), the lowest and highest prices of gold in 

greenbacks were 1357/8 and 136/ 2 , respectively. The 

product of 10X135% is 13.59, or 140, which is 10 

higher than the 13 in the postmark. When, however, 

13.59 is multiplied by 0.963 (column 5 figure for 1865) 

the product is 13.08, or 130, which agrees with the 

amount shown in the postmark. 

Marking C of Figure 122 appears on a cover posted 

in Minorca, Spain, on 21 December 1867, addressed 

to Pottsville, Pennsylvania.17 The postmark indicates 

that the British open-mail rate of 210 by American 

packet was to be collected in coin, or 280 in United 

States notes. On 8 January 1868 (the date in the postmark), the lowest and highest prices of gold in greenbacks were 136J4 and 137%, respectively. The product 

of 136/ 8X21 is 28.58, or 290, which is one cent 

higher than the amount in the postmark. When, 

however, 28.58 is multiplied by 0.955 (the 1868 figure 

in column 5) the product is 27.29, less than the indicated collection. In this case, however, the highest, or 

higher, price for the day was used. The product of 21 

X 137% X 0.955 is 27.69, or 280, which agrees with die 

amount in the postmark. 

Marking F of Figure 122 appears on a cover posted 

in Germany on 5 September 1867, addressed to Alabama. On 28 September 1867, the lowest and highest 

prices of gold in greenbacks were 143 and 143^6, respectively. The product of 15X143 is 21.45, or 210, 

which is 10 more than the 200 shown in the postmark. 

The product of 21.45X0.956 is 20.51, which would 

also round to 210. Since 0.956 is an annual average, at 

any particular time this figure could be more or less 

than 0.956. It appears that on 28 September 1867, it 

was less. If it were only 0.955, the 200 indicated for 

collection would have been validated. 

A number of new postal conventions between the 

United States and European countries became effective during 1868. Each of these conventions prescribed 

a fine on unpaid letters which was to be assessed and 

retained by the country collecting the postage. In the 

United States this fine was always payable in United 

States notes, that is, it was not assessable in coin. As a 

result, dual-rate postmarks applied to letters from these 

countries disappeared during 1868. They were replaced 

by new postmarks which showed the amount to be 

collected in United States notes only. 

Marking D of Figure 122 appears on a cover posted 

in Liverpool on 15 October 1870, addressed to Boston.ls

 On 29 October 1870 (the date in the postmark), 

the lowest and highest prices of gold in greenbacks 

were, respectively, 111J4 and 111^ . The collection on 

this cover was evidently computed at the highest price 

for the day. The rate after 1 January 1870, was 60 per 

half ounce and, hence, 6X 1115/3 is 6.7, or 1$. To this 

70 was added the unpaid letter fine of 60 (which was 

always payable in notes) to produce a rate of 130, 

which is the amount indicated for collection in die 

postmark. 

As explained in Chapter 9 (page 165), section 8 of 

the Act of 1 July 1864 provided a 100 rate per half 

ounce on letters addressed to or received from foreign 

countries when conveyed in vessels regularly employed 

17

 Cover lent through courtesy of Melvin W. Schuh. Cover lent through courtesy of Lester L. Downing. 
NUMBER 6 189 

in the transportation of the mails. This act particularly pertained to those countries with whom the 

United States had no postal convention.1" When the 

United States-French convention expired on 31 December 1869, this 100 rate was immediately applied to 

mail between the United States and France, when conveyed by steamers plying directly between the ports of 

the two countries. The 100 rate under this act was 

always collectible in United States notes. Marking E of 

Figure 122 illustrates one of several N.Y. STEAMSHIP 

markings that appear on these covers. Evidently, there 

was some confusion about this rate being collected in 

coin. Marking G of Figure 122 settled the matter by 

indicating that the rate was to be collected in 

currency. 

Change in the Basis of Rating 

The Coinage Act of 21 February 1873 removed 

from the list of legal coins the silver dollar-piece, which 

had not been in circulation since long before 1853. This 

was, in fact, the demonetization of silver. At about 

the same time this act was passed, several European 

countries also demonetized silver, and large deposits 

were discovered in the United States. This increased 

production of silver coupled with its loss of utility as 

money, forced the price to decline rapidly. The sharp 

decrease in the market price of silver after 1873 is 

observed in columns 2 and 3 of Table 20. It appears 

that about this time the exchange offices began to 

use the premium on gold instead of the premium on 

silver subsidiary coins as the basis for determining the 

amount due in United States notes on unpaid letters 

from foreign countries. In 1874 the Post Office Department authorized the publication of a United States 

Official Postal Guide, which was "revised and published quarterly, by authority of the Post Office Department." In the first issue, which is dated October 1874, 

the following appeared: 

The Postmaster General is by law authorized to collect 

unpaid postages due on correspondence from foreign countries, in gold or its equivalent in currency, in order to 

secure the Department from loss on balances due foreign 

offices. Under this law, unpaid postages on correspondence 

from Great Britain and Ireland, Belgium, the Netherlands, 

Germany, Switzerland, Sweden and Norway, are calculated at gold rates. 

"Joh n N. Luff, Postage Stamps of the United States, 

appendix, p. 395. 

Earliest Depreciated Currency Covers 

While the Post Office order issued by Postmaster 

General Blair required depreciated currency rating on 

and after 1 May 1863, the description by editor Holbrook of die procedure to be used by the exchange 

offices indicates that it came into force during May 

only at the New York office. It was to become effective 

at the other offices on 1 June 1863. Since no steamer 

arrived at New York or Boston on 1 May 1863, the 

earliest possible rating at the New York office for mail 

by British packet would have been for the arrival in 

Boston of R.M.S. Europa on 2 May, the mail being 

rated at New York on 3 May 1863. The first rating 

at New York for American packet mail would have 

been on 4 May for the arrival on that date of Etna of 

the Inman line. 

The earliest possible rating at the Boston office 

would have been on 4 June for the arrival in New York 

on 3 June of R.M.S. Persia of the Cunard line. Edinburgh of the Inman line also arrived in New York on 

3 June, and the earliest rating at the Boston office for 

American packet mail would also have been on 4 June 

1863. It is assumed that the depreciated currency ratings were actually placed in force at the New York 

office on 1 May and at the other offices on 1 June 1863. 

Figure 123 presents the earliest depreciated currency 

cover rated by the Boston office seen by the author. It 

was posted in Paris on 25 May 1863 and arrived in 

New York on 7 June 1863 by either Hammonia of the 

Hamburg-American line, or by America of the North 

German Lloyd, both of which arrived on that date. 

As a French-mail letter by American packet through 

England, it bears a French debit of 60. Boston evidently did not yet have dual-rate markings showing 

collections in coin and in notes. This cover was, therefore, marked for a collection of 200 in United States 

notes, instead of the convention rate of 150 which was 

collectible in coin. Since 7 June was a Sunday, it was 

rated according to the quotations of 8 June 1863. On 

that date both the lowest and highest price of gold in 

greenbacks was 143. The product of 15X143X0.967 

is 20.740, which may indicate that the gold value of 

silver subsidiary coins (column 5) on that date was 

slightly less than its annual average of 0.967. 

Although there was nothing stated in the Legal 

Tender Act of 1862 regarding the redemption in specie 

of the greenbacks, it was always tacitly assumed that 

they would at some time be redeemed. Their value, 

therefore, rested upon the public confidence in their 
190 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

FIGURE 123.—COVER, from Paris to Boston, 1863. 

ultimate redemption. That they did not become worthless, as so many other inconvertible currencies had become, attests to the faith of the public that the Union 

cause would eventually prevail. Every act of the Civil 

War, military, political, and financial, affected tiieir 

value. Collectors may like to collect these covers to 

demonstrate the effect specific events had upon the 

premium. 

The height of the inflation occurred on 11 July 

1864, when the price of gold in greenbacks reached 

285. The immediate cause of this rise in premium was 

General Jubal Early's raid into Maryland and his 

attack on Washington on 9 July 1864. Since no 

steamer arrived in New York or Boston on 11 July, 

there are no covers tiiat reflect the highest point of the 

inflation. Etna arrived in New York on the following 

day when the prices of gold in greenbacks ranged from 

271 to 282, and Australasian of the Cunard line arrived in New York on 13 July, but by that time the 

prices ranged from 268^4 to 273. Throughout most of 

August die highest daily prices hovered around 255. 

Covers during this period of high premium are scarce 

and interesting. 

Figure 124 illustrates a cover posted in Newcastleon-Tyne, England, on 28 July 1864, addressed to Providence, Rhode Island. It is prepaid Is., but weighing 

over a single rate of half an ounce was marked INSUFFICIENTLY PREPAID, and the prepayment was not 

recognized. Considered as an unpaid letter, it was given 

a double-rate debit of 60 for American packet service 

to the United States. It is endorsed to City of London 

of the Inman line which arrived in New York on 8 

August 1864. The New York office marked it for a 

collection in coin of 480, and with u.s. NOTES/ 120. On 

8 August 1864, the price of gold in greenbacks ranged 

from 256^4 to 259^ . City of London must have arrived when the highest price prevailed, for 259 J^X 

48X0.967 is 120.44, or $1.20. 

Figure 125 illustrates another highly rated cover. It 

was posted in Hamburg on 7 August 1864, addressed to 

New Bedford, Massachusetts. It arrived in New York 

on 22 August, onboard Etna of the Inman line, in the 

Prussian closed mail, and was rated for a collection 

of 300 in coin or 750 in United States notes. On 22 

August 1864, the price of gold in greenbacks ranged 

from 256% to 257.5. The product of 256%X30X 

0.967 is 74.52, or 750. 

Figure 126 illustrates a cover showing the rare triple 

rate from England. It was prepaid two rates by two 

ls. stamps, but was found to weigh over one ounce 
NUMBER 6 191 

&&3rZ 12P' 

// 

TLto^^-n^ . f 

FIGURE 124.—COVER, from Newcastle-on-Tyne, England, to Providence, R.I., 1864. 

W ; t » 1 hSn A 

\ a 6& 

FIGURE 125.—COVER, from Hamburg to New Bedford, Mass., 1864. 
192 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

/&* ^ X X^ / 

FIGURE 126.—COVER, from Dundee, Scotland, to Andover, Massachusetts, 1866. 

(Melvin W. Schuh collection) 

which required three rates. The letter was marked 

over 1 oz. and INSUFFICIENTLY PREPAID, and was also' 

marked by the British office: 57/3. This was a debit 

for British packet service of 570 (3X19), the 3 indicating the number of rates. The Boston office marked 

it 72/.91, that is, 3X24, or 720 if paid in coin, 910 

if paid in notes. Since the price of gold in greenbacks 

on 21 June 1866 ranged from 148/2 to 151J4, the 

lowest possible collection on this letter (148^X72 X 

0.964) should have been 103.07, or $1.03. One can 

only conclude that the clerk made an error in computing the amount to be collected in United States 

notes. 

Although the Specie Resumption Act was passed 

on 14 January 1875, to become effective on 1 January 

1879, there was no permanent reduction of the premium until April 1876, due largely to the fact that it 

was not taken seriously by the public at the time of its 

passage. After April 1876 the premium gradually declined until the price of gold in greenbacks reached 

100 on 17 December 1878. "The reason for this 

decline—at least after March, 1877, when John 

Sherman became secretary of the treasury—is obviously 

found in the effective preparations to execute the 

resumption act of 1875, and the fortunate turn of 

foreign trade which facilitated Sherman's operations."

 20

 With the resumption of specie payments, 

depreciated currency markings finally expired. 

The Exchange Offices 

The markings designated as H in Figure 122 are 

on a cover belonging to Mr. William C. Coles, Jr., who 

has an extensive collection of depreciated currency 

covers. This letter was posted in England and arrived 

at the Chicago exchange office on 22 May 1871. On 

that date, the price of gold in greenbacks ranged from 

111.625 to 112. The international rate between the 

United States and England was 60. Thus, 60 X 1.12 X 

0.955 (Table 20, column 5 figure for 1871) amounts 

to 6.4, shown as 70, and to this was added an unpaid 

letter fine of 60, the sum of which is 130. Evidently, 

the Chicago office did not have dual-rate markings, but 

showed the 130 to be collected in notes by use of a 

handstamp separately applied. 

Mr. Coles also reports the cover upon which the 

Mitchell, Greenback Standard, p. 14. 
NUMBER 6 193 

markings designated as / in Figure 122 appear. This 

letter was posted in London on 3 December, and arrived at the Detroit office on 21 December 1867. On 

that date the lowest and highest prices of gold in 

greenbacks were 133^4 and 133^ , respectively. Thus, 

240 x 1.33J/4 x 0.956 is equal to 30.6, or 310. Like the 

Chicago office, the Detroit office did not use a marking 

showing dual rates, but applied the amount to be collected in United States notes separately by use of a 

handstamp designed for that purpose. 

Marking / of Figure 122 appears on a cover posted 

in Bremen on 2 February 1868, addressed to Philadelphia, and endorsed "Sir. Hansa," a vessel of the North 

German Lloyd. By the "Regulations" for the execution 

of the United States-North German Union convention 

of 21 October 1867 (effective 1 January 1868), Philadelphia became an exchange office for North German 

Union mail. Philadelphia had not previously been an 

exchange office for any of the German mails. The 

direct international rate between the North German 

Union and the United States was 100 per half ounce. 

This letter arrived at the Philadelphia office on 24 

February 1868, and on that date the price of gold in 

greenbacks ranged from 142% to 144. Thus, 10 x 

1.42J4 x 0.955 is equal to 13.6, or 140. To this 140 was 

added an unpaid letter fine of 50, which resulted in 

a collection of 190 in United States notes, indicated in 

the postmark. This cover is also in the collection of 

Mr. Coles. 

Marking K of Figure 122, also in the collection of 

Mr. Coles, illustrates a dual-rate marking of the Portland office. This is of a different type from that illustrated as marking C. 

Since the greenbacks never circulated on the Pacific 

coast, it is unlikely that any markings showing depreciated currency ratings from the San Francisco office 

will be found. Cut off as it was by the mountains, with 

its own supply of metals and a mint at San Francisco, 

the Pacific coast circulated coin during the entire period, 1863 through 1878. 

Unpaid Letters From France, 1870-1874 

Markings designated as L in Figure 122 appear on 

a cover posted in Bordeaux, France, on 6 August 1873, 

addressed to New York, and sent as an unpaid letter. 

The rate represented on this cover was in effect from 

1 January 1870 until 1 August 1874. These unpaid 

letters bear currency markings of various types applied 

in France to indicate that the letters were forwarded 

to England charged at the rate of 2 francs per 30 

grams, bulk weight, of such mail. London markings 

appear on the reverse of these letters, and on the face 

all are marked 14 for a single rate. Until the daily 

prices of gold in greenbacks became available, it was 

thought that the 14 on these covers was applied by the 

United States and represented the amount to be collected in coin, while the amount to be collected in 

United States notes was shown in the exchange office 

marking.21 It is now known that the 14 represents a 

British debit to the United States, and the true rate on 

these letters was 16, and not 140. 

The New York marking on the cover from which 

marking L is taken bears the date of 20 August (1873), 

and on that date the price of gold in greenbacks 

ranged from 1153/6 to 115/2. Thus, 16X1.15 ^ 

amounts to 18.46, or 180. The application of these 

gold prices to 140 does not produce the indicated 

collection of 180. On this cover, it is also evident that 

the amount due was calculated at gold rates. This same 

situation has been noted on a number of unpaid letters 

from France during this period. 

Reconstruction of the British debit of 140 indicates 

that the British divided die 2 francs per 30 grams 

rate by 4 to arrive at a single rate per one-fourtii ounce 

of 50 centimes, or 100.22 To this 100 were added 20 

sea and 20 British postage per one-half ounce, for a 

total British share of 140. The United States collected 

the 140 British postage plus 20 United States inland 

postage, for a total of 160 in coin. On letters weighing 

over one-fourth but not over one-half ounce, only the 

French postage of 100 was doubled, and these letters 

show a British debit of 240, and a collection in the 

United States of 260 in coin. The 2 francs per 30 grams 

rate under the Anglo-French convention was for unpaid letters, and was twice the rate of prepaid letters. 

Since the unpaid letter was already penalized, die 

United States did not collect an unpaid-letter fine. 

51

 George E. Hargest, "Unpaid and Part-Paid Rates Between United States and France, 1870-74," Postal History 

Journal 1, 1 June 1963: 10. 

22

 Anglo-French postal convention of 24 Sept. 1856, Art. 

14, clause 3, British and Foreign State Papers, vol. 46, p. 203. 
Bibliography 

Boo\s 

ALBION, ROBERT GREENHALGH. Square Riggers on Schedule. 

Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1938. 

. The Rise of New York Port. New York: Charles 

Scribner's Sons, 1939. 

ASHBROOK, STANLEY B. The United States One Cent Stamp 

of 1851-1857. Vol. 2. New York: H. L. Lindquist, 1938. 

BLAKE, MAURICE C., and DAVIS, WILBUR W. Postal Markings 

of Boston, Massachusetts, to 1890. Portland, Maine: SevernWylie-Jewett Co., 1949. 

BONSOR, N. R. P. North Atlantic Seaway. Prescot: T. Stephenson & Sons, 1955. 

BOURSELET, V.; MARECHAL, G. FRANgois, L.; and GILBERT, 

G. Les Paquebots franqais et leurs cachets, 1780—1935. 

Published by the authors, undated. 

BOWEN, FRANK C. A Century of Atlantic Travel: 1830-1930. 

Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1930. 

BROOKMAN, LESTER G. The United States Stamps of the 

19th Century. Vols. 1-3. New York: H. L. Lindquist, 

1966. 

BRUNEL, GEORGES. Le Timbre-Poste franqais. Paris: Librairie chez Delagrave, 1896. 

CAROTHERS, NEIL. Fractional Money. New York: John Wiley 

&Sons, 1930. 

CHASE, CARROLL. The 34 Stamp of the United States, 1851-

1857 Issue. Reprint. Springfield, Mass.: Tatham Stamp and 

Coin Co., 1842. 

CODDING, GEORGE A., Jr. The Universal Postal Union. New 

York: New York University Press, 1964. 

DOE, F. Les Estampilles postales franqaises. Amiens: Yvert & 

Tellier, 1900. 

GIBBS, C. R. VERNON. Passenger Liners of the Western 

Ocean. 2nd ed. London: Staples Press, 1957. 

KULL, IRVING, and KULL, NELL M. An Encyclopedia of 

American History. Popular Library ed., New York: 1952. 

HERST, HERMAN, JR., and SAMPSON, E. N., eds. Fancy Cancellations on Nineteenth Century United States Postage 

Stamps. Published by the authors, Shrub Oak, N.Y.: 1963. 

LANGER, WILLIAM L., ed., An Encyclopedia of World History. 

Rev. ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. 1948. 

LAUGHLIN, J. LAURENCE. Principles of Political Economy by 

John Stuart Mill, as abridged and annotated. New York: 

D. Appleton & Co., 1887. 

LUFF , JOHN N. The Postage Stamps of the United States. 

New York: SCOTT STAMP AND COIN CO., 1902. 

MAGINNIS, ARTHUR J. The Atlantic Ferry, Its Ships, Men 

and Working. New York: Macmillan Co., 1893. 

MARVIN, WINTHROP L. The American Merchant Marine: Its 

History and Romance from 1620 to 1902. New York: 

Charles Scribner's Sons, 1910. 

MAURY, ARTHUR, Catalogue descriptif de toutes les marques 

postales de la France. Paris: Arthur Maury, circa 1900. 

MITCHELL, WESLEY C. Gold, Prices, and Wages under the 

Greenback Standard. Berkeley: The University Press, University of California Publications in Economics, 1908. 

MORRISON, SAMUEL ELIOT. The Maritime History of Massachusetts, 1783-1860. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1921. 

MYERS, GUSTAVUS. History of Great American Fortunes. 

New York: Random House, Modern Library Ed., 1936. 

NEINKEN, MORTIMER L. The United States Ten Cent Stamps 

of 1855-1859. New York: The Collectors Club, 1960. 

PIEFKE, CHRISTIAN. Geschichte der bremischen Landespost. 

Bremer Schliissel Verlag Hans Kasten: 1947. (Translated 

by C. J. Starnes.) 

RAINEY, THOMAS. Ocean Steam Navigation and the Ocean 

Post. New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1858. 

ROBERTSON, ALAN W. The Maritime Postal History of 

London. London: Robson Lowe, 1960. 

ROBINSON, HOWARD. Carrying the British Mails Overseas. 

New York: New York University Press, 1964. 

ROUSSELIN, RAYMOND. L'Acheminement des correspondances 

entre Le Havre et les pays d'outre-mer. Le Havre: Imprimerie Rolland, 1957. 

SALLES, RAYMOND. La Poste Martime Franqaise Historique et 

Catalogue. Edited by the author. Vol. 3, Les Paquebots de l'Atlantique Sud. Vol. 4, Les Paquebots de l'Atlantique Nord. Paris: 1961. 

SIMPSON, TRACY W. United States Postal Markings and Related Mail Services, 1851 to 1861. Berkeley, California: 

American Philatelic Society, U.S. 1851-60 Unit No. 11, 

1959. 

SMITH, A. D. The Development of Rates of Postage. London: 

George Allen & Unwin, 1917. 

STAFF, FRANK. The Transatlantic Mail. London: Adlard 

Coles, 1956. 

TAYLOR, GEORGE R. The Transportation Revolution. New 

York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1951. 

Periodicals 

American Philatelist, American Philatelic Society. 

American Review of Reviews (particularly February 1902) 

Balasse Magazine, Willy Balasse, Brussels. 

194 
NUMBER 6 195 

Chronicle of the U.S. Classic Issues, U.S. Philatelic Classics 

Society, Unit 11 of American Philatelic Society (Referred 

to in die text as the Chronicle). 

The Collectors Club Philatelist, The Collectors Club, New 

York. 

The Philatelist, Robson Lowe, London. 

The Postal History Journal, Postal History Society of the 

Americas. 

Postal History Society Bulletin, Postal History Society, Great 

Britain. 

Postscript, Society of Postal Historians, Great Britain. 

Specialites, M. Jamet, Paris (particularly June 1955). 

The Stamp Lover, National Philatelic Society, Great Britain. 

S.P.A. Journal, Society of Philatelic Americans. 

Steamboat Bill, Steamship Historical Society of America. 

Newspapers 

The New York Tribune (daily). 

The New York Recorder (weekly), 1853. 

Shipping and Commercial List and New York Prices Current, every Wednesday and Saturday, 1840-1868. 

Stamps, weekly magazine of philately. 

U.S. Mail and Post Office Assistant, semiofficial. Privately 

published, but information furnished by the Post Office Department. Distributed monthly to subscribing postmasters. 

Weekly New York Times. 

paginated. Appendices, Reports of the Auditor of the 

Treasury for the Post Office Department, not included in 

abridged editions. 

Congress, Executive Documents and Reports, House and 

Senate. 30th to 43rd Congress. 

Congressional Globe. 36th to 38th Congress. 

Department of State, Treaties and Other International Acts 

of the United States of America. Edited by Hunter Miller. 

Washington, D.C: (Government Printing Office, 1937). 

Postal Laws and Regulations. 1847-1859 and 1866-1875. 

Official Postal Guides. Quarterly, October 1874 and 

April 1875. 

Statutes at Large. 

British 

British and Foreign State Papers. 

Hansard's Parliamentary Debates. 

Hertslet, Edward, ed. Commercial Treaties. 

Semiofficial 

Information furnished by Post Office Department 

American Almanac. Privately published (1850-1857). 

Postal Directories. Various publishers in different years. 

Postal Guides. Various publishers in different years. 

Government Sources 

United States 

Annual Reports of the Postmaster General. Published as 

House Documents, as Senate Documents, separately published, and published in abridged editions; variously 

Private Publications 

ASHBROOK, STANLEY B. Special Service, Series 1-7. Distributed to subscribers. 

PERRY, ELLIOTT. Pat Paragraphs, Nos. 1-58. Distributed to 

subscribers. 
Appendix 

Postal Rates to Foreign Countries, 1848-1875 

The postal rates to foreign destinations are given (e) 

in two tables: Table A covers the period from 1848 

to 1 January 1868, Table B, 1868 to 1 July 1875. (f) 

When available, the date of introduction or change (g) 

in rate is given by month and year, otherwise only 

the year is given. While in many cases the day of the (h) 

month of introduction or change in rate is known, (i) 

only the month and year are given. (j) 

These tables should be traced from left to right. (a) 24 

The mail service and route are first noted, next the 

date the rate was introduced, followed by dates of 

and changes in rates. The last column gives the date 5/21 

the rate was discontinued. If the rate was continued 

beyond 1 January 1868, in Table A, or beyond 1 July 28/30u 

1875, in Table B, "Continue" is written in the last 

column; if, on either table, there are more changes 

than there are columns, "Next line" is written in the 

last column, and subsequent changes should be traced * 

on the following line. f 

Except Yucatan, Matamoros, and 

Pacific coast 

Matamoros and Pacific coast 

Except Aspinwall, Panama, Bogata, 

and Buenaventura 

U.S. postage to San Francisco 

Gulf coast, San Jua n del Norte 

Except Cuba 

U.S. rates of 1845—24?$ in the 

port; 29^ under 300 miles, 34j6 

over 300 miles 

5fi by British packet; 2\£ by 

American packet 

28j£ when prepaid; 30^ when unpaid, and all rates presented in 

like manner show prepaid and 

unpaid rates 

Prepayment optional 

Rate according to distance 

Abbreviations and notations 

Table A 

Br./Am. Pkt. 

B.O.M. 

Brem./Hamb. 

Br. M. 

Fr. M. 

Hapag 

H. & de H. 

P.C.M. 

St. T. 

d 

f 

(c) 

(d) 

By British or American packet 

British open mail 

Bremen or Hamburg service 

British mail 

French mail 

Hamburg-American Line 

Herout et de Handel 

Prussian closed mail 

St. Thomas 

Paid to destination 

Paid to frontier 

Except Lombardy and Venice 

Except Lombardy, Modena, 

Parma, Tuscany, and Papal 

States 

a 

Am. Pkt. \ 

N.O. 

C M . v. E 

N.G.U. 

(r) 

NOTE. / 

Table A, c 

Table B 

When the rate was prefixed by the 

letter a the United States postage was by the half ounce, while 

the foreign postage, until 1 July 

1870, was by the quarter ounce; 

after 1 July 1870, the foreign 

postage was by the one-third 

ounce. 

American packet via New Orleans 

Closed mail via England 

North German Union 

Special prepaid rates for registered 

letters 

NOTE. All other abbreviations are as given for 

196 
NUMBER 6 197 

Designation of Special Rates 

AA Following are the rates of letter postage to 

Spain, Gibraltar, and the Canary and Balearic Isles 

via BELGIUM: 

On letters for Spain (except Gibraltar) and her 

possessions, including the Canary and Balearic Isles, 

when not over one-third ounce, 160; over one-third 

but not over one-half ounce, 22^; over one-half, but 

not over two-thirds ounce, 32^; over two-thirds, but 

not over one ounce, 380, and the same charge and 

progression for each succeeding ounce or fraction 

thereof: prepayment optional. 

On letters for Gibraltar, of one-third ounce or 

under, 180; over one-third but not over one-half 

ounce, 260; over one-half but not over two-thirds 

ounce, 360; over two-thirds but not over one ounce, 

44^, and the like charges for each additional ounce, 

or specified part thereof: prepayment optional. 

To Spain and the Canary Islands, via Marseilles, 

the rates are as follows: For not over one-third oz., 

160; over one-third but not over one-half oz., 280; 

over one-half but not over two-thirds oz., 320; over 

two-thirds but not over one oz., 440. 

BB Following are the rates used by the New York 

exchange office on letters sent via England when 

prepaid with sufficient postage, and when the exchange office elected to use this route (the "phantom" 

rate): iy2 grams or under, 120; over !}{ but not over 

15 grams, 200; over 15 but not over 22}{ grams, 320; 

over 22% but not over 30 grams, 400. 

CC Open mail to England, 40 per one-half oz., 

prepayment optional. Via England: For one-third 

oz. and under, 100; over one-third but not over 

one-half oz., 160; over one-half but not over two-thirds 

oz., 200; over two-thirds but not over one oz., 260; 

prepayment compulsory. 

List A—Adrianople, Antivari, Beyrout, Burgas, 

Caifia, Cavallo, Candia, Canea, Constantinople, 

Czernarroda, Dardanelles, Durazzo, Gallipoli, 

Jaffa, Janina, Jerusalem, Ineboli, Kustendji, Lagos, 

Larnica, Mitilene, Phillippopolis, Prevesa, Rhodes, 

Rustchuck, Salonica, Samsaun, Seres, Santi Quaranti, 

Sinope, Smyrna, Sophia, Sulina, Tenedos, Trebizond, 

Tchesme, Tulcha, Valona, Varna, Valo, and Widdin. 

Sources 

Table A 

1848 Bremen rates as set forth in Senate Executive 

Document 25, 30th Congress, 2nd session, 

serial 531, pp. 18-19. 

1849 American Almanac for 1850. Rates as of 1849. 

1850 Broadside of the Post Office of the City of New 

York. William V. Brady, Postmaster. 13 February 1851; rates as of 1850. 

1851 Post Office Department Instructions to Postmasters. 

14 June 1851; rates as of 1 July 1851. 

1852 Postal Laws & Regulations, 1852. Rates as of 

3 April 1852. 

1854 Postal Directory & Postal Guide, 1 April 1854. 

1855 List of Post Offices in the United States, also 

Principal Regulations of the Post Office 

Department. Table of postages to foreign 

countries as of 1 July 1855. 

Table of postages to foreign countries, American 

Almanac for 1856. Rates as of October 1855. 

1856 Post Office Directory for 1856. Rates as of 1 July 

1856. 

American Almanac for 1857. Rates as of October 

1856. 

1857 Postal Laws & Regulations, 1857. Rates as of 

1 September 1857. 

1858 Postal Laws & Regulations for 1858. Rates as of 

1 September 1858. 

1859 Postal Laws & Regulations, 1859. No date 

indicated for rates. 

U.S. Mail and Post Office Assistant, tables of postages 

to foreign countries. Published monthly—All issues 

from October 1860 through December 1867. 

The above information is supplemented by the 

effective dates of the various postal conventions to 

which reference has been made. 

Table B 

While it has been possible to see tables of postages 

to foreign countries for every month from October 

1860 through December 1867, the same is not true 

for the period from January 1868 through December 

1875. Why the later issues of the U.S. Mail and Post 

Office Assistant are so difficult to find is somewhat of a 

mystery. It is true that after 1872 they were printed 

on a cheap newsprint which has not been able to 

withstand the passage of time. Many of the original 

copies of the later issues seen are brown with age 

and break up when handled. Disintegration may be 

one of the causes for their scarcity. There must, however, be other reasons which can only be surmised. 

Of the eighty-four months between January 1868 
198 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

and December 1875, tables of postages for fifty-seven 

months have been seen. They are as follows: 

1868 All months 

1869 January, February, March, April, May, June, 

August, September, and December. 

1870 April, May, June, July, August, September, 

October, November, and December. 

1871 April, May, June, July, August, October, 

November, and December. 

1872 January and October. 

1873 January, February, May, and July. 

1874 January, May, June, September, October, 

and November. 

1875 January, February, April, July, August, 

October, and December. 

Supplementing the above information are the effective dates as set forth by the various postal conventions 

to which reference has been made. Additional information regarding effective dates of rates is also 

occasionally supplied in the annual reports of the 

postmaster general. As will be noted, however, there 

is a nine-month period during 1872 in which rate 

information is not available. The dates given for 

Table B, therefore, should be interpreted as occurring 

on the date given, or at least by the stated date. 
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Index 

Aachen, 9, 87, 141. See also Exchange offices 

Accounting, international, 3 

Acknowledgment of receipt, 28 

Adelaide, British Post Office at, 142 

Aden, British Post Office at, 142 

Admiralty, British, 1 

Agency, U.S. Postal, atBremen, 12, 13, 14, 119 

Agents, forwarding, 2, 9, 11 

Agents, mail, 78, 165 

Ain, France, 180 

Aix-la-Chapelle. See Aachen 

Algeria, 169, 170 

Allentown, Pa., 123 

Anglo-Belgian mail. See Mail services 

Anglo-Bremen mail. See Mail services 

Anglo-Prussian mail. See Mail services 

Alexandria, Egypt, Austrian Post Office at, 142 

American Almanac, 35 

American packets, 4, 5, 25, 29, 38, 39, 43, 44, 45, 47, 48, 50, 

63, 65, 85, 93, 100, 102, 103, 110, 111, 115, 116, 120, 123, 

125, 128, 130, 134, 135, 146, 153, 188, 189, 190 

Amsterdam, Netherlands, 105 

Antwerp, Belgium, 4, 102, 104, 105, 106, 157. See also 

Exchange offices 

Articles in the accounts, 40, 41 

Article LII of Anglo-French (1843) convention, 37, 40, 41, 

44, 45 

Article XII of U.S.-British (1848) treaty, 27, 38, 41, 42, 

43, 44 

Article XVII, articles of execution, U.S.-British (1848) treaty, 

36 

Ashbrook, Stanley B., 92, 101, 173 

Ashbrook's Special Service, 92, 101, 102, 104 

Atlantic's Return—Schottische, 125 

Auckland, British Post Office at, 142 

Auditor of the Treasury for the Post Office Department, 

reports of, 20, 131, 134, 135 

Au dos, 78 

Augusta, Ga., 131 

Australia, 141 

Austria, 4, 140, 155; Post Office of, 142; Post Office in 

Turkey, 162 

Baden, 21, 110, 141, 142 

Bahia, Brazil, 108 

Baltimore, Md., 4, 9, 11, 20, 52, 78, 90, 116. See also Exchange 

offices 

Baker, J. David, 93 

Bancroft, George: Canadian mails, 37; decision for treaty, 26; 

exclusion of France, 41; memo to Maberly, 42, 43, 47, 

negotiations with British, 23, 24, 25; optional prepayment, 

37, 38; packet rate, 37; progression, 34; treaty of reciprocity, 42; uniform rates, 26 

Bartsch, Dr., Director of Bremen Posts, 20, 116, 130 

Basle, Switzerland, 95. See also Exchange offices 

Bates, Barnabus, 2 

Bath, Me., 138 

Bavaria, 140 

Belgian closed mail. See Mail services 

Berlin, Prussia, 17, 94, 113, 159 

Berne Postal Congress, 180 

Bishop Hill, 111., 160 

Blackfan, Joseph H., 164, 169 

Blair, Montgomery, 138, 147, 185, 186, 189 

Blake, Maurice C, 36 

Bombay, India, British Post Office at, 142 

Bordeaux, France, 50, 58, 66, 67, 69, 79, 108, 165 

Boston, Mass., 36, 46, 79, 82, 126, 127, 137, 187, 188; steamship arrivals in, 5, 6, 9, 11, 18, 30, 31, 68, 127, 189; steamship sailings from 5, 16, 30, 31, 46, 48, 55, 67, 68, 90, 106, 

135, 138, 143. See also Exchange offices 

Bremen, Free Hansiatic City of, 4, 11, 12, 13, 14, 17, 20, 121, 

125, 140, 142, 153, 154, 155, 187, 193. See also Exchange 

offices 

Bremen closed mail. See Mail services 

Bremen-Hamburg mail. See Mail services 

Bremen mail. See Mail services 

Bremen packets, 110, 111, 112, 113, 120, 121, 123 

Bremerhaven, 6, 12, 13, 14, 18, 19, 85, 119, 130 

Brest, France, 4, 78, 165. See also Exchange office 

Brigade, 66, 78 

Brisbane, British Post Office at, 142 

Bristol, England, 4 

British Columbia, 76 

British East India Company, 112 

British mail. See Mail services 

British open mail. See Mail services 

British packets, 1, 5, 38, 39, 43, 45, 46, 47, 48, 50, 63, 85, 93, 

100, 102, 103, 127, 138, 139, 189, 192 

British Post Office, 38, 87, 99, 100, 127,144 

Brown, Aaron V., 116, 119; contract with Vanderbilt, 115; 

single trip contracts, 118; "Miscellaneous" line, 118 

Brunswick, 13, 140, 143 

Buchanan, James, 26, 41, 43 

Burritt, Elihu, 2 

227 
228 INDEX 

Caillaux, M., 117 

Caird&Co., 119 

Calcutta, British Post Office at, 142 

California, 26, 28, 76, 137 

Campbell, James, 89, 105, 111; arrangement with Hamburg, 

119; Collins line subsidy, 113; credit for sea postage, 39; 

French scale, 70; New York port, 114; "retaliatory" order, 

46; sailing irregularities, 19; sea postage, 47; transit rates, 

42 

Canada, provisional government of, 134 

Canadian mail packets, 134, 135, 137, 152. See also Steamship lines. 

Canadian mails, 23, 24, 37, 42, 43 

Canadian Post Office Department, 134 

Cape Elizabeth Depot, Me., 171 

Carpenter, Samuel, 46 

Charleston, S.C., 31, 100, 101 

Charlottesville, Va., 50 

Cherbourg, France, 54, 153, 165. See also Exchange offices 

Chicago, 111., 134, 135. See also Exchange offices 

Christiania, Norway, 160, 162 

Civil War, 77, 119, 125, 136, 184, 190 

Clanricarde, Lord, 27, 37, 38; decision for treaty, 26; desired 

postal convention, 24; offer to France, 43, 44; proposals, 

25; protection of Cunard line, 23 

Clarendon, Lord, 39, 62 

Clermont, N.Y., 123 

Closed mail: defined, 8 

Coal, British: for steam packets, 1, 17; consumption of, 17 

Coinage: Mint and market ratios, 184; silver subsidiary, 185, 

186 

Coles, William C, Jr., 192, 193 

Collamer, Jacob, 19, 35, 185 

Collins, E. K.. packets as cruisers, 4; lobbied for subsidy, 

113, 114, 115 

Cologne, Prussia, 9, 141. See also Exchange offices 

Colonial rate, 24, 150 

Columbia: Me., 90;S.C, 113 

Commission of Bremen agent, 14, 119 

Commissions of postmasters, 39 

Compulsory prepayment, 11, 38, 76, 82, 88, 127, 140, 143, 

155, 156, 176 

Congress, U.S., 1, 2, 12, 14, 24, 34, 46, 113-115 passim, 

183-185 passim 

Congress of Vienna, 13 

Constantinople, 141, 159, 162 

Consuls, U.S.: as forwarding agents, 2 

Convention, commercial: U.S.-Great Britain (1815), 24, 25 

Conventions, postal, 2, 24; Anglo-Belgian (1844), 99; (1849), 

102; (1857), 103; Anglo-Bremen (1841), 6, 7, 8, 19; 

Anglo-French (1843), 40, 41, 43, 62, 170; (1856), 44, 63, 

64, 65, 70, 165, 170; (1869), 169, 171; Anglo-Prussian 

(1846), 8, 9, 85; (1852), 86, 93, 95, 140; (1859), 140; 

(1862), 141, 142; common provisions of, 148, 149; Berne, 

treaty of, 162, 180; Bremen-Hanover, 12; German-Austrian 

(1850), 15, 85, 86; Kainardji, treaty of, 162; U.S.-

Belgium (1859), 105, 106; (1863), 148; (1867), 148, 151, 

152; (1870), 156; (1873), 156; U.S. Bremen (1847), 12, 

13, 14, 15, 16, 112; (1853), 110, 111, 112, 120, 144; U.S.-

Denmark (1871), 157, 158; U.S.-France (1857), 56, 66, 

70-78, 93, 94, 136, 138, 164, 167, 169, 170, 189; (1874), 

179 180; U.S.-Great Britain (1848), 9, 19, 24-28, 36, 38, 

99, 100,133-136, 140, 142; (1867),149, 169; (1868),149 

169, 177; (1869), 153, 167, 170; U.S.-Hamburg (1857), 

119^ 144; U.S.-Italy (1863), 148, 152, 153; (1867), 148, 

151; (1870), 156; U.S.-Netherlands (1867), 148, 151, 

152; (1870), 157; (1874), 157; U.S.-North German Union 

(1867), 148, 150, 151, 193; (1870), 153, 154; (1871), 

155; U.S.-Prussia (1852), 20, 82, 85, 86, 93, 106, 138; 

U.S.-Sweden and Norway (1873), 158; U.S.-Switzerland 

(1867), 149, 151; (1870), 156; Wickliffe Agreement, 24 

Corn laws, 1 

Cornwall-on-the-Hudson, N.Y., 162 

Corridor countries, 100 

Covers (by Mail services): Anglo-Bremen mail, 9; AngloPrussian closed mail, 9-11; Belgian closed mail, 106-108; 

Bremen mail, direct, 17, 21, 22, 112, 113; Bremen closed 

mail, 20, 21; Bremen-Hamburg mail: Bremen service, 121, 

123; Hamburg service, 121, 123; U.S. service, 121, 123, 

125. British closed mail from France: American packet, 

52; British packet, 50, 52; three months' period, 69. 

British open mail: to Bavaria, 96; to Belgium, 100, 101, 

102, 104; from Belgium, 104; to France, 46, 48, 50, 52, 

66, 67, 165, 167; to Germany, 94, 95; to Switzerland, 95, 

96, 97, 98. New York-Havre line, direct, 58, 59, 60, 62; 

Direct service to France (1870-74), 165, 167, 177. British 

mail—international: partial payment recognized, 36; 

Philadelphia exchange office, 133, 134; Portland exchange 

office, 138; triple rate, 144, 145. British mail, via Southampton, 127. Depreciated currency: Bremen-Hamburg 

mail, 188; British mail—international, 187, 188, 190, 192; 

British open mail, 188; Boston exchange office, 189; Chicago exchange office, 192; Detroit exchange office, 193; 

Philadelphia exchange office, 193; Portland exchange office, 193; Prussian closed mail, 190; Unpaid letter from 

France, 193. French mail—international: American packet, 

direct, 79; American packet, via England, 78; British 

packet, 78; Baltimore exchange office, 136; Chicago exchange office, 139, Direct service, rerated, 132; (1874), 

180, 183. French mail-transit: to Belgium, 108; to Norway, 

82, 84; to Rome, 79, 82; to Sicily, 82; to Switzerland, 79, 

138, North German Union mail—international, 159. North 

German Union mail—transit: to Constantinople, 159, 160, 

162, 163; to Norway, 160, 162; to Sweden, 160. Ocean 

line service to France, via Southampton, 57, 58. Prepaid 

to France, via England (1870-74) : "phantom rate," 171; 

"CC" rates, 174. Prepaid from France, via England, 177. 

Prussian closed mail: international, 90, 92, 93, 143; 

Bremen service intended, 116, 129, 130, 131. Prussian 

closed mail—transit: to Finland, 139; to Norway, 93; to 

Switzerland, 131, 143, 144. United States-Great Britain: 

"restored" rates, 31, 33; "retaliatory" rates, 29, 31 ; 1845 

rates, 5, 6. U.S. to France (1846), 48. 

Cowes, England, 55 

Creswell, John A. J., 73, 153, 154, 155, 158; "phantom rate" 

to France, 170, 171; prepaid rate to France, 173 

Crimean War, 112, 128 

Cuxhaven, 6, 19,42,85 
NUMBER 6 229 

Daniels, Bruce G., 46 

Davis, Congressman from Mississippi, 114 

Davis, Joh n C. B., 43, 44, 56 

Decrees of France , 45, 5 7, 96, 165, 176, 177 

Denmark, 4. See also Conventions, postal 

Deep River, Conn., 102 

Delivery fee, 21,88,9 2 

Depreciated currency: exchange office procedure, 186; unpaid 

letters, collections on, 185, 186. See also Greenbacks 

De Sartiges, Count, 47 

De Wasserman, Dr. Robert, 66, 103, 106 

Direct closed mail, via England, 152. See also Mail services 

Direct mail: defined, 8, 9 

Double sea postage, 23, 25, 29, 31 , 39, 45, 50 

Dover, England, 9. See also Exchange offices 

Downing, Lester L., 58 

Dresden, Saxony, 20 

Duckwitz, Arnold, 4, 12, 13, 109, 110, 116 

Diisseldorf, Prussia, 9 

Early, General Jubal, 190 

Edinburgh, Scoltand, 5 

Emigrant trade, 125, 126 

Endicott, William and Company, 128 

Eufaula, Ala., 171 

Everett, Edward, 42 

Exchange office accounting, 28 ; Belgian closed mail, 107; 

French mail-internationa l rate, 74; French mail to countries beyond France , 75 ; Prussian closed mail, 87; U.S.-

Bremen (1853), 111 ; U.S.-British (1848)—internationa l 

rate, 28 

Exchange offices: Unde r the Conventions: Anglo-Belgian 

(1844), 99 ; (1857), 103 ; Anglo-Bremen (1841), 6; AngloPrussian (1846), 9; (1862), 141 ; U.S.-Belgium (1859), 

105; (1867), 152; U.S.-Bremen (1847), 13, 14 (1853), 

110; U.S.-Denmark (1871), 157; U.S.-France (1857), 

71,73 , 136, 137; (1874), 179; U.S.-Great Britain (1848), 

29, 133-136 ; U.S.-Italy (1863), 153; (1867), 152, 153; 

U.S.-Netherlands (1867), 152; U.S.-North Germa n Union 

(1867), 150; U.S.-Prussia (1852), 87, 138; U.S.-Switzerland (1867), 152. Functions of, 28, 29; procedures, 186, 

187; relations between, 137. Individua l offices: Aachen, 

9, 87, 88, 89, 90, 92, 93, 95, 129, 138, 144; Antwerp 99, 

100, 103, 105, 152; Arona travelling office, 152, 153; Baltimore, 136, 176; Basle, 152; Boston, 29, 36, 38, 39, 44, 50, 

52, 71, 79, 84, 87, 97, 105, 135, 137, 150, 152, 174, 176, 

179, 186, 189, 192; Boulogne, 48 ; Bremen, 150; Bremen 

City Post Office, 9, 12, 13, 110, 111, 112, 113, 121 : Brest, 

179; Brussels-Quievrain travelling office, 103; Calais, 44, 

4 8 ; Calais-Paris travelling office, 50, 52, 66, 67, 71, 78, 79, 

84, 171, 179; Camerlat a travelling office, 152, 153; Cherbourg, 179; Chicago, 134, 135, 137, 138, 150, 157, 176, 

186, 192; Cologne, 9, 93, 94 ; Copenhagen, 157; Cork, 135; 

Detroit, 97, 134, 135, 137, 138, 176, 186, 193; Dover, 9, 

99, 100, 103, 104; Dublin, 135; Emmerich, 9; Galway, 

135; Geneva, 152; Glasgow, 135; Ghent-Mouscron travelling office, 103; Hamburg , 9, 150; Hambur g City Post 

Office, 121 ; Hull, 9, 99, 103; Korsor an d Kiel travelling 

office, 157; Le Havre , 71, 77, 78, 108, 132, 179; LilleCalais travelling office, 179; Liverpool, 29, 36, 90, 100, 

133, 135; Liverpool Packet letter office, 146; London, 9, 

48, 66, 67, 93-100 passim, 102, 103, 104, 105, 133, 135, 

146, 164, 171, 177; Londonderry, 135; Moerdyke travelling 

office 152; New York, 29, 38, 44, 52, 66, 71, 77, 78, 79, 82, 

87, 90, 93, 95, 97, 102, 105, 107, 110, 112, 116, 119, 121, 

123, 131, 132, 135, 137, 143, 144, 146, 150, 152, 157, 160, 

162, 163, 167, 171, 173, 174, 176, 179, 189; Ostend— 

local office, 99, 100, 102, 103, 105, 152; Ostend travelling 

office, 103, 105, 152; Paris, 44, 78, 79, 137, 139, 177; Philadelphia, 71, 74, 77, 79, 107, 133, 137, 146 150, 165, 176, 

186, 193; Portland, 134, 135, 137, 138, 176, 186, 193; San 

Francisco, 71, 76, 77, 136, 137, 176, 186, 193 : Southhamp -

ton, 29, 57, 99, 104, 132, 133; Susa travelling office, 152, 

153; Verviers-Cologne travelling office, 141, 150 

Far East, places in, 143 

Fond du Lac, Wis., 138 

Foreign currencies: Austria, 88, 89 ; Baden, 21 , 22, 88, 110: 

Bavaria, 88, 92, 96 ; Belgium, 74, 75, 100, 102, 103, 149, 

152, 156; Brazil, 108; Bremen, 6, 9, 11, 13, 20, 21 , 22, 

121 ; Denmark, 157; France, 40, 43, 45, 48, 50, 52, 56, 

57, 58, 62, 65, 67, 69, 71, 72, 73, 74, 76, 139, 165, 176, 

177, 180, 183; Germany, northern, 21, 88, 131 ; Germany, 

southern, 88, 94, 110, 144; Great Britain, 5, 6, 8, 9, 11, 

3 1 , 40, 43, 86, 94, 99, 100, 101, 102, 149; Hamburg , 121 ; 

Hanover, 13, 123; Italy, 149, 152, 156; Netherlands, 149, 

152, 157; North German Union, 149, 150, 151, 154, 155, 

159, 160, 162; Prussia, 9, 11, 13, 21 , 86, 88, 90, 92, 94, 

95, 131, 140, 144; Rome , 76; Russia, 140; Sardinia, 76; 

Saxony, 21 ; Switzerland, 76, 96, 98, 144, 149, 152, 156: 

Thuringia , 92 ; Wurttemberg, 88, 110 

Foreign trade, 1, 192 

Fox and Livingston, 4, 55 

Fractional postage currency notes, 185 

Franco-Prussian War, 154, 156, 165 

Frankfort-on-the-Main, 4, 13 

French mail. See Mail services 

French packets, 71,72,75,17 9 

French Post Office in Turkey, 162 

Funch, Edye and Company, 158 

Galway, Ireland, 126. See also Exchange offices 

Gand, Belgium, 100 

Garonne , France, 66 

Geelong, British Post Office at, 142 

General Postal Union, 180 

Geneva, Switzerland, 144. See also Exchange offices 

Georgetown, D.C , 58 

German-Austrian Postal Union, 85-8 9 passim, 92, 120. 131, 

141, 144 

German mail packets, 141 

Germany, Post Office in Turkey, 162 

Gevekoht, C Th., 4, 12, 14 

Glasgow, Scotland, 135. See also Exchange offices 

Graebe, Charles, 13 

Greenbacks, 184, 185; issuance authorized, 184; height of 

inflation, 190; prices of, 186, 187; redemption, 189 

Halifax, Nova Scotia, 1, 54, 55, 126 

Hall, Natha n K., 46, 85 
230 INDEX 

Halle, Prussia, 129 

Hamburg, Free Hansiatic City of, 4, 6, 9, 12, 13, 112, 140, 

142, 153, 159,165, 190. See also Exchange offices 

Hamburg packets, 119, 121, 123 

Hanover, 4, 12, 13, 123 

Hart, Creighton C, 5, 102, 104 

Hartington, Marquess of, 153, 173 

Havre, France. See Le Havre 

Hesse-Darmstadt, 4 

Hesse, Grand Duchy of, 123 

Hesse-Nassau, 4 

Hobart Town, British Post Office at, 142 

Hobbie, Major SelahR., 12, 13, 23, 24, 25, 37 

Holbrook, James, 186, 189 

Holt, Joseph, 106, 134 

Holyhead, England, 135 

Hong Kong, British Post Office at, 39, 142 

House of Commons, 153, 173 

Hubbard, Samuel D., 39, 42, 45 

Hubbard, Walter, 58, 66 

Hull, England, 9. See also Exchange offices 

Illinois, 137 

India, 141 

Indiana, 137 

Indian Mutiny, 112, 116 

Ingersoll, J. R., 39, 62 

Instructions to postmasters, 15 

Insufficiently paid letters, 103, 139, 149, 151, 153, 154, 157, 

158, 177, 190 

Ionian Islands, 141 

Iowa, 137 

Irish nationalists, 126 

Italy, 4; Post Office in Turkey, 162. See also Conventions, 

postal 

Johnson, Cave, 3, 4, 13, 14, 23, 27, 33, 35, 42 

Kanalle Depot, 111., 139 

Kansas territory, 137 

Kasson, John A., 148, 150, 164 

Kentucky, 137 

King George's Sound, British Post Office at, 142 

Kingstown, Ireland, 135 

La Rochelle, France, 78 

Late-mailing fee, 29 

Launceston, British Post Office at, 142 

Lawrence, Abbott, 43, 44, 56, 85, 86 

Leavitt, Joshua, 2 

Legislation: Great Britain: Standards act (1866), 17In; 

order in council, 173. U.S.: Coinage acts, 184, 185, 189; 

Currency act, 185; issuance of notes, 185; Legal Tender 

act, 184, 189; metric system, 148; Mint act, 184; Specie 

Resumption act, 192. 

Legislation, postal: France: Decrees of, 45, 57, 96, 165, 176, 

177; Law of 1871, 177. U.S.: Acts of (1825), 3, 24, 26; 

(1845), 2, 3, 4, 5; (1848), 25, 100; (1849), 35; (1851), 

15, 36; (1852), 19; (1858), 115, 153; (1864), 165, 188; 

(1865), 153. Joint resolutions of Congress: (1844), 2, 3, 

13, 36, 37; (1863), 153. Resolution of the House, 12; 

Resolution of the Senate, 12. 

Le Havre, 4, 12, 52, 54, 77, 78, 116, 117, 129, 131, 132, 165. 

See also Exchange offices 

Lehmkuhl, Karl, 109 

Letter-bills, 28, 36, 40, 97 

Letters, duplicate copies of, 2 

Lever, John Orr, 126 

Lisbon, Portugal, 4, 108 

Liverpool, England, 4, 5, 15, 50, 67, 78, 79, 97, 100, 127, 

133, 134, 136, 138, 146, 153, 154, 177, 188. See also Exchange offices 

Livingston, Mortimer, 55 

Lobbying, 4, 113 

London, England, 6, 9, 12, 19, 31, 65, 135, 158, 159, 187, 

193. See also Exchange offices 

Louisville, Ky., 121 

Lubeck, 140 

Luxembourg, 140, 155 

Lyons, France, 59 

Maberly, William L.. protection of Cunard line, 23; credit 

for sea postage, 39; memo to Bancroft, 42, 47; closed mail 

to France, 45; provisional Anglo-French agreement, 46 

Madras, British Post Office at, 142 

Mail agents, 78, 113, 165 

Mail, closed: defined, 8 

Mail, direct: defined, 8, 9 

Mail, open: defined, 8 

Mail services: Anglo-Belgian, 99-104; Anglo-Bremen, 6; 

Anglo-Prussian closed mail, 9, 93-95; Baltic Lloyd, via 

Stettin, 155, 158; Belgian closed mail, 105, 120; Bremen 

closed mail, 19, 20, 42, 85, 130; Bremen-Hamburg mail, 

94, 106, 119-125, 131; Bremen mail, 12-19 passim, 109, 

110, 120; British closed mail from France, 44, 45; British 

open mail, 37, 38; British open mail to Belgium, 99-104 

passim; British open mail to France, 41-52 passim, 62-65 

passim; British open mail to France (1870-74), 164, 165; 

British open mail to Germany, 85, 93-95 passim; British 

open mail to Spain, 188; British mail, 38, 39, 97, 116, 135; 

British mail to France (1870-74), 167-174 passim; British mail, via Southampton, 170; Direct to France, via 

Havre line, 55; Direct to France (1870-74), 165; French 

mail, 70-84 passim, 97, 106, 108, 120, 127, 131, 137, 138, 

139, 169; North German Union, closed mail, via England, 

151, 160; North German Union, direct mail, 151, 159; 

Ocean line to France, via Southampton, 56-58; Prussian 

closed mail, 20, 82, 85-93 passim, 95, 106, 109, 112, 116, 

117, 120, 129, 130, 131, 138, 139, 140, 142, 143, 190; 

U.S.-Bremen (1841), 6; U.S.-Prussia (1846), 9 

Mainz, Germany, 94 

Mann, Colonel A. Dudley, 4 

Marcy, W. L., 39, 46 

Marginal weight letters, 176 

Maurin, M., 43, 56 

Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 141 

Mecklenburg-Strelitz, 140 

Melbourne, British Post Office at, 142 
NUMBER 6 231 

Metric system: use authorized, 148 

Michigan, 137 

Middleborough, Mass., 162 

Mills, Edward, 4, 55 

Minnesota, 137 

Minorca, Spain, 188 

Mishicott (Wisconsin ?), 96 

Missouri, 137 

Mons, Belgium, 104 

Moville, Ireland, 135 

Munck, Johann, 128 

Munich, Bavaria, 92 

Myers, Gustavus, 114 

Napoleon III, Louis, 45, 148, 164 

Nantasket Roads, 18 

Nantes, France, 52 

Nationalism, 1, 3, 4, 115 

Navy: Department of, 114, 118; United States, 136 

Nebraska territory, 137 

Netherlands, 12. See also Conventions, postal 

New Bedford, Mass., 190 

Newcastle-on-Tyne, England, 190 

New Orleans, 48, 50, 52, 58, 66, 67, 78, 79, 82, 95, 131, 165, 

174 

Newport, R.I., 54 

New York, NY.,17, 19, 20, 21, 46, 56, 59, 69, 92, 94, 104, 

105, 108, 113, 114, 116, 119, 120, 125, 126, 134, 143, 153, 

154, 155, 156, 158, 159, 165, 177, 180; steamship arrivals 

in, 18, 20, 54, 55, 59, 62, 66, 68, 79, 93, 95, 105, 111, 112, 

117, 120, 121, 130, 134, 135, 177, 189, 190; steamship 

sailings from, 11, 15, 17, 21, 46, 48, 50, 54, 55, 57, 58, 66, 

68, 77, 78, 79, 82, 89, 90, 96, 100, 101, 112, 113, 116, 117, 

120, 121, 123, 130, 132, 137, 153, 155, 156, 159, 165. See 

also Exchange offices 

New York Recorder,, 46 

New York Times (Weekly), 46 

New York Tribune (Daily), 36, 45, 46 

News by telegraph, 126 

North German Confederation (Union), formation of, 150 

North German Postal District, 150 

North German Union mail. See Mail services 

Norway, 4, 82, 93, 141, 142, 143, 160. See also Conventions, 

postal 

Novelty Works, 5 

Nuremburg, Bavaria, 96 

Ohio, 137 

Oldenburg, 4, 12, 110, 140 

Open mail, 8 

Optional prepayment, 3, 11, 13, 14, 36-38 passim, 76, 82, 

87, 88, 93, 105, 110, 127, 140, 143, 155, 156, 176 

Oregon, 28, 76, 137 

Ostend, Belgium, 141. See also Exchange offices 

Otsago, Wis., 160 

Ottawa, 111., 139 

Oxford, Ohio, 112 

Palermo, Sicily, 82 

Palmerston, Lord, 23, 24, 25, 26, 85, 86 

Paris: conference, 147; France, 12, 46, 48, 50, 78, 138, 139, 

164, 165, 171, 174, 177, 183, 189. See also Exchange offices 

Partial payments, recognition of, 36, 76, 87, 92, 97, 105, 110, 

123, 139, 151, 192 

Penang, British Post Office at, 142 

Pernambuco, Brazil, 108 

Philadelphia, Pa., 9, 46, 60, 96, 106, 133, 135, 137, 144, 157, 

165, 187, 193. See also Exchange offices 

Plymouth, England, 153, 165, 183 

Point de Galle, British Post Office at, 142 

Polk, James K., 3, 25, 42 

Portland, Me., 97, 132, 134, 136. See also Exchange offices 

Port Louis, British Post Office at, 142 

Postage: as protective tariff, 24; basis of taxation, 24, 42; 

function of, 24 

Postage stamps: Belgium: 1863 issue, 20c, 40c, 104. France: 

1849 issue, 1/, 50; 1853 issue, 5c, 52; 20c, 62; 40c, 52, 62, 

69; 80c, 52. Great Britain: 1841 issue, Id., 29; 2d., 5; 

1847 issue, Is., 6, 29, 31, 36. Thurn and Taxis-southern 

district: 1852 issue, Ik, 9k, 94. United States: Boston 

penny post, 48; New York postmaster's, 48; "Nesbitt" 

stamped envelope, 58, 91; 1847 issue, 50, 11, 48, 100, 101; 

10?!, 5, 21, 101; 1851 issue, 10, 50, 60; 10, type II, 52, 66; 

10, type IV, 60, 102; 30, orange brown, 59, 96, 112; 30, 

red, 50, 58, 60, 66, 94; 50, 52, 67; 100, type II, 66, 90, 

102; 100, type III, 60, 90, 123; 120,58,59,60; 1857 issue, 

10, type V, 79; 30, type II, 79, 82, 108, 131; 50, type I, 

red brown, 78; 50, type II, brown, 132; 100, type II, 82, 

123; 100, type III, 82; 100, type V, 79, 82, 121, 132; 120, 

79, 108, 123, 131, 138; 300, 78; 1861 issue, 10, 93, 138; 

30, 79, 106; 50, brown yellow, 123; 100, type I, 123; 100, 

type II, 138; 120, 79; 150, 125; 240, red lilac, 106; 240 

lilac, 146; 300, 144; 900, 93; 1869 issue, 10, 165; 100, 174; 

1870 issue, grilled, 100, 165; ungrilled, 30, 174; 70, 174; 

100, 160; 120, 160; 1873 issue, 20, 162; 30, 162, 180; 60, 

162, 180 

Postal Guide: (1873), 174, 177; (1874), 180, 189 

Postal Laws and Regulations: (1857), 93; (1873), 174 

Postal markings: accounting markings, 28; "America/uber 

Bremen," 17, 21, 114, 123; Anglo-Bremen (1841) 6, 8, 9; 

Anglo-French (1843) 41, 44, 45, 50; (1856) 63, 69, 165; 

Anglo-Prussian (1846) 9-11; Anglo-Prussian closed mail, 

94; Belgian boxed rate marking, 101, 103; Belgian closed 

mail, 107; Boston "PAID" grid, 79, 82; Bremen-Hamburg 

mail, 114, 120, 123, 125; Bremen mail (1847) 14, 19, 21; 

(1853) 112, 113; British open mail to Belgium, 101, 102, 

103, 104; British open mail to France: "Colonies/&c ART 

13," 41, 44, 45, 50, 65, 96; provisional agreement, 44; 

decree (1851) 45, 51, 52; three months' period, 63, 65-67, 

69, 95, 165; (1870-74) 165, 167. British open mail to 

Germany and Switzerland, 94-97; British mail to Tunis, 

127; British treaty mail (1848) 29, 30, 134, 138, 146, 190, 

191; currency, tray or partitioned marks, 63, 95, 165, 177, 

193; depreciated currency markings, 187-189, 193; direct 

service from France, 177; direct service to France, 55, 58, 

59, 60, 62, 165, 167. Exchange offices, 29, 76, 77: Baltimore office, 136; Boston office, 138, 176; Bremen City Post 

Office, 9, 121; Chicago office, 135, 139, 140, 192; Detroit 

office, 135, 138, 139, 193; Hamburg City Post Office, 112, 

121; Liverpool office, 5, 11, 31; London office, 6, 9, 11, 31; 
232 INDEX 

Postal Markings—Continued 

Philadelphia office, 134, 165, 176, 193; Portland office, 135, 

138, 193; San Francisco office, 136, 193. French mail: 

(1857) 71, 76, 79, 82, 84, 108, 132, 138, 139, 189; (1874) 

180, 183 ; by Allan line, 138, 139; American packet through 

England, 76, 78', 79; British packet, 76, 78; direct service, 

76, 79; Exchange offices; 76, 77; to Belgium, 108; to 

Norway, 82, 83; to Rome, 79, 82; to Sicily, 82; to Switzerland, 79, 138, 139; unpaid letter, 79. Havre maritime 

office, 59, 62; Imperial German Post Office in Constantinople, 162, 163; New York American packet, 57, 59, 60, 

62, 66, 128, 129; New York foreign mail, 180; New York 

"PAID ALL," 14, 162, 163, 177, 183; New York square 

grid, 48, 101; New York "supplementary mail," 180, 183; 

N.Y. Steamship, 189. North German Union mail: 151, 159, 

160, 162, 163; to Norway, 160, 162, to Turkey, 162, 163. 

Ocean line service to France, 57, 58; "phantom rate" to 

France, 171; prepaid to France, via England, 174; 

Prussian closed mail, 88, 89, 90, 92, 93, 94, 116, 130, 131, 

140, 144, 190. Restatements of rate, 77, 92; U.S.-Denmark, 157; U.S. and Great Britain (1845) 5, 6; U.S.-

Sweden and Norway, 158; U.S.-Switzerland, 156; Unpaid 

letter from France (1870-74), 177, 193 

Poste Restante, 78, 113 

Post Office announcements, 33, 141, 165 

Post Office Department, U.S., 2, 18, 19, 24, 34, 39, 42, 45, 

46, 47, 59, 73, 93, 113, 116, 118, 136, 142, 150, 164, 165, 

185, 189 

Post Office Orders: Belgian, 103; Great Britain, 1, 23, 26, 

100, 136; U.S., 29, 35, 45, 46, 186, 189 

Pottsville, Pa., 188 

Princeton, N.J., 31 

Progression of rates, 8, 9, 33, 36, 87, 99, 101-105 passim, 144, 

146, 170, 173, 190 

Providence, R.I., 190 

Provisional agreement, Anglo-French, 44, 45, 46, 50, 52, 

57, 96 

Prussia, 4, 12, 13, 85, 116, 140. See also Conventions, postal 

Prussian closed mail. See Mail services 

Quebec, Canada, 132, 134 

Queenstown, Ireland, 97, 127, 128, 130, 135, 146, 153, 154, 

177 

Railroads: Antwerp and Belgium, Netherlands and Germany, 105; Baltimore and Ohio, 136; Hanover and countries beyond, 4, 12; Midland and Great Western, 126; 

Grand Trunk, 134 

Randall, Alexander W., 148 

Rates of postage: Bremen closed mail, 19, 42; BremenHamburg mail, 82, 120-123, 125, 131; Bremen mail, 13-

16, 19, 110, 111, 112, 113; British closed mail from France, 

44, 45, 50; British open mail to Belgium, 100, 101, 103, 

104. British open mail to France: American packet, 42, 

45, 46, 48, 50, 52; Anglo-French (1843), 40, 41, 48, 50; 

British packet, 42, 45, 46, 48, 50, 52; French circulaire 

44, 57, 67; decree (1851), 45, 52, 56; provisional agreement, 44, 45, 52, 56; "retaliatory" order, 45, 46; sea 

postage, 45, 46, 47; three months' period, 65, 66, 67, 69, 

71, 72, 82, 165; from Germany, 94, 95; to Germany, 94, 

96; to Switzerland, 95, 96, 97, 98. British mail: credit for 

sea postage, 39, 102, 103, 104; via Southampton to Tunis, 

127. British transit rate: to Bremen, 19, 42; to France, 

43, 44, 47, 48, 56, 58, 62, 65, 66, 70; to Prussia, 85, 86. Colonial rate, 24, 150. Rates by Convention: Anglo-Belgian 

(1844) 99; (1849) 102; (1857) 103; Anglo-Bremen 

(1841) 6; Anglo-French (1843) 40, 41 (1855) 62, 63 

(1856) 63-65 (1869) 169, 171; Anglo-Prussian (1846) 9 

(1852) 86, 93, 94, 95, 96 (1859) 140; German-Austrian 

(1850) 15, 85, 86; U.S.-Bclgian (1859) 105, 106, 107 

(1867) 151, 152 (1870) 156 (1873) 156; U.S. Bremen 

(1847) 13-16, 19 (1853) 110, 112, 120, 125, 129; U.S.-

Denmark, 157; U.S.-French (1857) 71-73, 75, 82, 97, 131, 

138, 139 (1874) 180, 183; U.S.-Great Britain (1848) 26-

28, 33, 38, 133, 138, 144-146, 190 (1867-68) 149, 150, 

169, 170 (1869) 153; U.S.-Hamburg (1857) 119, 144; 

U.S.-Italy (1867) 151 (1870) 156; U.S.-Netherlands 

(1867) 151 (1870) 157 (1874) 157; U.S.-North German 

Union (1867) 150, 151, 159 (1870) 154, 156 (1871) 155, 

156; U.S.-Prussia (1852) 86-90, 92, 93, 129, 130, 139, 140, 

143, 144, 190; U.S.-Sweden and Norway (1873) 158; U.S.-

Switzerland (1867) 151 (1870) 156. Delivery fee, 21, 88, 

92. Depreciated currency: calculation of rates, 186, 187, 

188; highest ratings, 190, 192; unpaid letters from France, 

193. Direct service, U.S.-France, 55, 56, 58, 59, 60, 62, 164, 

165, 177, 189. Double sea postage, 23-35 passim, 28, 29, 

31, 39, 45, 50. Fines or postage on unpaid letters, 63, 149, 

152-155 passim, 157, 188, 193; French inland, 40, 43, 48, 

50, 70, 177; French mail: international, 71, 72, 73, 75, 82, 

97, 131, 138, 139; to Belguim, 108; to countries beyond 

France, 75; to Switzerland, 79, 138, 139; to Tunis. General 

Postal Union, 180; German-Austrian Postal Union, 86, 121; 

German Post Office in Constantinople, 162; Insufficiently 

paid letters, 103, 139, 149, 151, 153, 154, 157, 158, 177, 

190; Marginal weight letters, 176; North German Union 

mail: international, 150, 151, 154, 155, 156, 159; to Constantinople, 159, 160, 162, 163; to Norway, 160; to Sweden, 

160; open mail to France (1870-74), 164, 165, 167; Partial payments, recognition of, 36, 76, 87, 92, 97, 105, 110, 

123, 139, 151, 192; "phantom" rate to France, 167-173; 

prepaid from France (1870-74), 176, 177; prepaid to 

France (1870-74), 170, 173, 174; Prussian closed mail: 

international, 86, 87, 88, 90, 92, 93, 129, 130, 139, 140, 

141, 142, 190; to Finland, 139, 140; to Rome, 82, 143; 

to Switzerland, 131, 144. Private ship: British, 8, 24, 29, 

99; French, 56, 57; U.S., 5, 11. Progressions: Belgian, 

9, 99, 101-105 passim; Bremen-Hamburg, 144; British, 

8, 9, 33, 34, 35, 36, 101, 103, 144-146, 190; French, 170-

173; Prussian, 9, 87. "restored" rates, 29, 31, 100; "retaliatory" rates, 25, 29,31, 100, 101; Sole rates, 11,41,43, 100; 

split rates, 38; Triple rate, 36, 144, 146, 190, 192; U.S. 

(1851), 15, 56; U.S. and Great Britain (1845), 5, 8., 56, 

58; U.S. and Prussia (1846), 9; Unpaid letters to France, 

165, 177, 193 

Ratisbon, Bavaria, 13 

Reform, postal, 1, 2 

Returned letters, 78, 79 

Richmond, Va., 78 

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 107 

Rivalry between Bremen and Hamburg, 116 
NUMBER 6 233 

River du Loup. See Riviere du Loup 

Riviere du Loup, 97, 135, 136, 139 

Rochester, N.Y., 94 

Rome, Roman States, 79, 143 

Rouen, France, 174 

Routes: Anglo-Prussian closed mail, 141; Bremen closed 

mail, 19, 20, 141; U.S.-Prussian closed mail, 141 

Ruger Brothers, 125 

Rush, Richard, 42 

Russell, Lord John, 26 

Russia, 4, 141, 142; Post Office in Turkey, 162 

Russian Poland, 141, 142 

Sailing packets, 1, 4, 55 

Saint Vincent, Cape Verde Islands, 108 

Salles, Raymond, 58, 78 

Salt water, used in boilers, 17 

San Antonio, Texas, 104 

San Francisco, 76, 93, 121, 165. See also Exchange offices 

Sandwich Island, 76 

Saxony, 4, 140 

Schenectady, N.Y., 21 

Schleiden, R., 109 

Seward, William H., 147 

Sharon Springs, N.Y., 60 

Sherman, John, 192 

Shipping and Commercial List and New York Prices Current, 

18,54, 125, 128, 132, 138 

Ship postage, 5, 6, 8, 9, 11, 23, 56, 57 

Simpson, Tracy W., 66, 106 

Singapore, British Post Office at. 142 

Smith, A. D., 177 

Smithsonian collection, 46, 57, 62, 132 

Sole rates, 11,41, 43, 100 

Southampton, England, 4, 17, 18, 23, 38, 39, 55, 56, 78, 102, 

116, 117, 119, 120, 125, 131, 153. See also Exchange 

offices 

Southern Germany, 94 

Specie payments suspended, 184 

State Department, 25, 39, 164 

Staunton, Va., 123 

Steamship companies. See Steamship lines. 

Steamship contracts: compensation of lines, 115, 120; conditions for making, 3. Contracts between: Collins line and 

U.S., 114, 118; Cunard line and U.S., 132; Galway line 

and Great Britain, 126, 127; Guion line and U.S., 153; 

Hamburg-American line and U.S., 120, 153; Havre line 

and U.S., 114, 115, 118; Inman line and U.S., 154; Mills, 

Edward, and U.S., 4; New York and Bremen Steamship 

Company and U.S., 125; North American Lloyd and U.S., 

125; North German Lloyd and U.S., 120, 153; Ocean 

line and U.S., 114; Vanderbilt, Cornelius, and U.S., 115, 

118. Fines for non-performance, 18, 117, 119; tenders 

under Act of 1845, 4. See also Steamship subsidies 

Steamship lines: Allan line also Canadian line (Montreal 

Ocean Steam Ship Company), 97, 132, 134-138 passim, 

153; Baltic Lloyd (Baltischer Lloyd), 155, 156, 158, 159; 

Baltimore and Liverpool Steamship Company, 136; City 

of Dublin Steam Packet Company, 135; Collins line, 19, 

20, 28, 55, 66, 85, 95, 113, 116, 118, 128, 133; Compagnie 

Transatlantique Beige, 105; Cunard line, 1, 4, 5, 6, 11, 15, 

19, 20, 23, 30, 39, 66, 68, 85, 90, 100, 118, 128, 132, 133, 

135, 138, 153, 180; European and American Steam Shipping Company, 116; European and Australian line, 132; 

French line also Ligne H (Compagnie General Transatlantique), 77, 78, 165, 179; Fritze, W. A. and Company, 109, 

111," 112, 113, 120, 126; Galway line (Atlantic Steam 

Navigation Company), 112, 125, 126, 127, 132; Glasgow 

& New York Steam Ship Co., 118; Guion line (Liverpool 

and Great Western Steamship Company), 153, 165, 170, 

180; Hamburg-American line also Hapag (Hamburg 

Amerikanische Paketfahrt Aktien Gesellschaft), 116, 119, 

120, 123, 131, 153, 154, 156, 165; Herout et de Handel 

(Transatlantic General Steam Packet Company), 54, 55; 

Holland-American line (Netherlands-American Steam Navigation Company), 157; Inman line also Dales line, 78, 82, 

118, 132, 133, 135, 152, 153, 154; Messageries Imperials, 

108; "Miscellaneous" line, 118, 132; New York and Bremen Steamship Company, 125; New York-Havre line also 

Havre line (New York and Havre Steam Navigation Company), 4, 19, 20, 55, 58, 59, 77, 85, 102, 114, 115, 129, 

137; Norse American line, 158, 159; North American 

Lloyd, 125, 152; North Atlantic Steamship Company, 77, 

131, 132; North German Lloyd, 78, 119, 120, 123, 130, 

153-156 passim; Ocean line also Bremen line (Ocean 

Steam Navigation Company), 3-5 passim, 15, 18, 19, 20, 

30, 39, 55-58 passim, 99, 100, 109, 112, 125, 129, 130, 137; 

Pacific Mail Steamship Company, 114; Red Star line, 157; 

U.S. Mail Steamship Company, 114; Vanderbilt European 

line, 77, 115, 116, 117, 125, 131; White Cross line, 156, 

158. Lack of regularity, 118; refused to carry U.S. mail, 

153; winter voyages avoided, 18, 19, 55, 112, 118 

Steamships: Acadia, 5, 6, 30; Adriatic (Collins line), 127; 

Adriatic (North Atlantic SS Company), 131; Adriatic 

(Galway line), 127, 131; Africa, 46, 50, 66, 68, 82, 90, 128, 

132; Allegany, 136; America (Cunard line), 11, 30, 31, 

48, 50, 68; America (North German Lloyd), 189; Anglia, 

127; Arabia, 46, 68, 78, 90, 92; Arago, 60, 77, 102; Arctic, 

20, 48, 65, 128; Argo, 116; Ariel, 116, 117, 121; Asia, 46, 

52, 68, 90, 95, 128; Atlantic (Collins line), 52, 65, 66, 67, 

89, 94, 127, 128, 133; Atlantic (North American SS Company), 131, 132; Atlantic (North American Lloyd), 125; 

Australasian, 132, 190; Baltic (Collins line), 65, 66, 96, 

118, 128, 133; Baltic (North American Lloyd), 125; 

Bavaria, 120; Belgique, 105; Bohemian, 139; Borussia, 117, 

119, 120; Bremen, 78, 120, 121, 123, 130; Britannia, 1, 9, 

15, 25, 30, 31; Caledonia, 11, 25, 30, 48; Cambria, 30; 

Canada, 21, 30, 31, 46, 50, 68, 128; Carroll, 136; Cimbria, 

165; City of Baltimore, 107, 118; City of Cork, 152; City 

of London, 146, 190; City of Paris, 146; City of New York, 

97; City of Washington, 78, 79, 118, 133, 134, 144; Columbia (Collins line), 133; Columbia (Galway line), 127; 

Connaught, 126; Constitution, 105; Cuba, 177; Edinburgh 

(Glasgow & New York Steam Ship Company), 118; Edinburgh (Inman line), 132; Edinburgh (North American 

Lloyd), 125; Ericsson (Collins line), 65, 66, 93, 95, 133; 

Ernst Moritz Arndt, 156n; Etna, 132, 189, 190; Europa, 

30, 31, 46, 67, 68, 106, 143, 189; Franklin (Baltic Lloyd), 
234 INDEX 

Steamships—Continued 

156; Franklin (Havre line), 55, 58, 60, 62; Fulton, 62, 

77, 82, 104, 108; Glasgow, 82, 105; Germania, 109, 110, 

111, 112, 113, 120; Great Britain, 5; Great Western, 5; 

Guiding Star, 77; Hammonia, 116, 119, 189; Hansa 

(Fritze Co.) 109-112 passim, 120; Hansa (North German 

Lloyd), 78, 193; Hermann, 5, 15, 17, 18, 30, 31, 58, 109, 

111, 112, 129; Hibernia, (Cunard line), 5, 30, 55, 100, 

127; Hibernia (Galway line), 127; Hudson, 120, 130; 

Humboldt (Baltic Lloyd), 156; Humboldt (Havre line), 

55, 59, 60; Hungarian, 132; Illinois, 117, 131; Indian, 

132; Indiana, 116; Indian Empire, 112, 126; Jason, 116; 

Kangaroo, 116, 117, 118; Klopstock, 183; Lebanon, 132; 

Leopold I, 105; Massachusetts, 5; Melita, 132; Mirrimack, 

125; Mississippi (Havre line), 77; Mississippi (North 

American Lloyd), 125; Missouri, 54, 55; Navarre, 108; 

Nevada, 165; New York (Glasgow & New York SS Co.), 

118, New York (Herout et de Handel), 54; New York 

(North German Lloyd), 120, 130, 131; Niagara, 30, 31, 

46, 68, 69, 101, 128; North Briton, 138; Northern Light, 

117; North Star, 115, 116, 121; Norwegian, 138; Ocean 

Queen, 117; Olympus, 132; Pacific, 60, 65, 128; Pereire, 

183; Persia, 67, 68, 79, 189; Philadelphie, 54, 55; President, 128; Prince Albert, 126; Queen of the South, 116; 

Sarah Sands, 5; Samaria, 177; Saxonia, 117; Shawmut, 

U.S.S., 107; Somerset, 136; Teutonia, 121; Thorwaldson, 

156n, Union (Herout et de Handel), 54; Union (North 

German Lloyd), 155; Vaderland, 157; Vanderbilt, 79, 116, 

117, 118, 119, 131; Vesuvius, H.B.M.S., 132; Fz'^o, 118; 

Fi^e _?_• Paris, 167; Washington (Baltic Lloyd), 156n; 

Washington (Ocean line), 5, 12, 15, 17, 18, 21, 23, 25, 

30, 58, 66, 109, 111, 112, 123, 129; Weser, 120, 130; 

Western Metropolis, 125; Westphalia, 159; Worcester, 136 

Steamship sailings: American packet, via England (1 Jan.-

1 April 1857), 66; Collins line, 1851, 128; Cunard line 

"retaliatory" to France, 46; Cunard line, Dec. 1856-Apr. 

1857, 68; Cunard and Ocean lines—triple rate, 36; Cunard 

and Ocean lines—restored rates, 31; Cunard and Ocean 

lines—retaliatory rates, 30; W. A. Fritze and Company, 

112; Galway line, mail sailing of, 127; Havre line to July 

1851, 59; Herout et de Handel, 54, 55; irregularities in, 

18, 19, 116, 117, 127, 129, 130; Miscellaneous line, 118; 

North American Lloyd, 125; North Atlantic Steamship 

Company, 132; North German Lloyd, 1860, 130 

Steamship subsidies: Abandoned, 115; Allan line, 134; 

American mail packets, 2-5 passim; Collins line, 112, 113, 

114; Cunard line, 1, 113, 149; Herout et de Handel, 54; 

lines to California, 114; method of paying, 18, 55; New 

York-Havre line, 55, 78; no longer necessary, 114; Ocean 

line, 4, 109 

Steerage passengers, 116 

Stettin, Prussia, 155 

Stibbe, Dr. Jacques, 99n 

Stonington, Mass., 18 

Subsidiary coins, 185-187 passim 

Supplementary mail, New York, 180 

Sweden, 4, 141, 142, 143, 160 

Switzerland, 4, 94, 97, 131, 138 

Sydney, British Post Office at, 142 

Syke, Prussia, 121 

Taunton, Mass., 129 

Thayer, M., 43, 44, 52 

Thuringian states, 4, 125 

Thurn and Taxis posts, 12, 13, 110, 123, 141, 150 

Tilley, John, 169 

Toombs, Robert A., 114, 115 

Toppan, Carpenter, Casilear and Company, 46 

Toppan-Carpenter correspondence, 46, 60 

Toppan, Charles, 46 

Treasury Warrants (British), 29, 100, 144 

Treaties, postal. See Conventions, postal 

Trieste, Austria, 142 

Triple rate, 36, 144, 146, 190, 192 

Trollope, Anthony, 149, 169 

Tunis, Africa, 127 

Turkish towns and territory, 141, 142, 143 

Tyler, John, 3 

Underwood, Senator, 51 

U.S. Mail and Post Office Assistant, 73, 88, 125, 136, 140, 

142, 144, 151, 152, 154, 156, 158, 159, 164, 167, 170, 173, 

174, 180 

U.S. Official Postal Guide (1874), 189 

U.S. postal agency at Bremen, 12, 13, 14, 119 

Unpaid letters, fines or postage on, 63, 149, 152-155 passim, 

157, 1583 188, 193 

Vancouver Island, 76 

Vanderbilt, Cornelius, 114, 115, 116, 117 

Van Vlissingen yards, 105 

Verviers, Belgium, 141 

Vessels of war, mail packets as, 3, 4 

Victoria Bridge, Montreal, 134 

Virginia City, Nevada Territory, 143 

VonFalke, Privy Councilor, 12 

Von Gerolt, Freiherr, 4 

Warsaw, 111., 90 

Washington, D.C, 1, 36, 159, 190 

Washington territory, 76, 137 

Webster, Daniel, 1, 56, 85 

Weimar, Thuringia, 91 

Wellington, British Post Office at, 142 

Weser river, 12, 13 

West, Captain James, 128 

Westervelt and McKay, 5, 55 

Wiborg, Finland, 139 

Wickliffe agreement, 24, 25 

Wickliffe, Charles A., 3 

Wilmington, Del., 5 

Winter voyages, 18, 19, 20, 55, 112, 118 

Wisconsin, 137, 139 

Wood, Sir Charles, 24, 26, 27, 28, 38, 41, 43 

Wurttemberg, 110, 140 

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1970 O 372-64 5