U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Scientific Investigations Report 2012–5027

Prepared in cooperation with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Water Resources of the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, 

Genesee and Orleans Counties, New York, 2009–2010
Cover. All photos from the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge photo archives.

Upper Left - Cayuga Marsh overlook at NY-Route 77, autumn scene.

Right - Ice fog (hoar frost) view of wetland behind Iroquois Refuge office building along Casey Road, midwinter.

Lower left - Oak Orchard Creek looking downstream from Knowlesville Road, on the eastern side of the Refuge, early autumn.
Water Resources of the Iroquois National 

Wildlife Refuge, Genesee and Orleans 

Counties, New York, 2009–2010

By William M. Kappel and Matthew B. Jennings

Prepared in cooperation with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Scientific Investigations Report 2012–5027

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

KEN SALAZAR, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Marcia K. McNutt, Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2012

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Although this report is in the public domain, permission must be secured from the individual copyright owners to 

reproduce any copyrighted materials contained within this report.

Suggested citation:

Kappel, W.M., and Jennings, M.B., 2012, Water resources of the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, Genesee and 

Orleans counties, New York, 2009–2010: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2012–5027, 53 p., at 

http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2012/5027/.
iii

Contents

Abstract...........................................................................................................................................................1

Introduction.....................................................................................................................................................2

Purpose and Scope ..............................................................................................................................2

Description of Study Area ...................................................................................................................2

Data Collection...............................................................................................................................................4

Geologic Data........................................................................................................................................4

Well Inventory and Test Drilling .........................................................................................................4

Groundwater Level and Streamflow Measurements .....................................................................4

Water-Quality Sampling and Analyses..............................................................................................7

Geology............................................................................................................................................................9

Bedrock Geology...................................................................................................................................9

Glacial Geology .....................................................................................................................................9

Water Resources .........................................................................................................................................12

Surface-Water Flow System.............................................................................................................12

Groundwater-Flow System................................................................................................................12

Unconsolidated Aquifer............................................................................................................13

Bedrock Aquifer.........................................................................................................................13

Well Hydrographs .....................................................................................................................16

Natural Gas Discharges ..........................................................................................................16

Bedrock Aquifer Response at Local Lockport Quarries...............................................................17

Water Quality................................................................................................................................................18

Surface Water ....................................................................................................................................18

Groundwater........................................................................................................................................18

The Oak Orchard Acid Springs ........................................................................................................20

Water-Quality Concerns and the Proposed Lockport Quarry .....................................................20

Summary........................................................................................................................................................21

References Cited..........................................................................................................................................22

Appendix 1. Results of Water-Quality Analyses of Samples From Streams, Wells, and

Springs in and around the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, November 2008 to

November 2010. (Tables 1–1 through 1–10)................................................................................25

Appendix 2. Hydrographs of 17 Groundwater-Monitoring Wells in and around the Iroquois

National Wildlife Refuge, 3 Regional Groundwater Wells, and 2 Stream Sites of Oak

Orchard Creek at Sour Springs Road and Harrison Road, November 2008 to

November 2010. ..............................................................................................................................39

Appendix 3. Borehole geophysical logs for four test holes —OL27–Dunlap Road, OL37–Oak

Orchard Ridge Road, OL38–Salt Road, and GS286–Sour Springs Road—drilled in the

Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, Genesee and Orleans Counties, New York. .................49
Tables

1. Surface-water and groundwater sampling sites and station numbers at the

Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, Genesee and Orleans Counties, New York .................8

iv

Figures

1. Map showing the location of the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge and adjacent

New York State Wildlife Management areas (WMAs). the Lockport Dolomite and

Onondaga Limestone Escarpments, Lockport Dolomite quarries, and regional

groundwater-level monitoring wells, Genesee, Orleans, and Niagara Counties, 

New York ........................................................................................................................................3

2. Map showing the location of surface-water and groundwater sites and station

numbers used for water-quality sampling and flow monitoring in and around the

Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, Genesee (GS) and Orleans (OL) Counties, 

New York ........................................................................................................................................5

3. Photograph showing shale-packer assembly used to separate three Lockport

Dolomite test holes into two monitoring intervals in the Lockport Dolomite 

bedrock, Genesee and Orleans Counties, New York..............................................................6

4. Diagram showing stratigraphic columns for the western part of New York State

showing the summary of geologic units near the Iroquois National Wildlife 

Refuge, Genesee and Orleans Counties, New York..............................................................10

5. Map showing the extent of Glacial Lake Tonawanda and the location of the

Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge (red outline) in relation to the former Medina

Spillway, which is also the present location of Oak Orchard Creek as it leaves the

Refuge and crosses the Lockport (Niagara) Escarpment in Genesee and Orleans

Counties, New York ....................................................................................................................11

6. Map showing the approximate water table and the general direction of

groundwater flow in the unconsolidated and bedrock aquifers in the vicinity of 

the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, Genesee and Orleans Counties, New York ........14

7. Map showing approximate bedrock-surface contour and elevation in the vicinity 

of the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, Genesee and Orleans Counties, New York....15

8. Piper diagram of major cations and anions in surface-water and groundwater

samples collected in and around the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, Genesee

and Orleans Counties, New York, 2009–10 .............................................................................19
v

Conversion Factors, Datum, and Abbreviations

Multiply By To Obtain

Length

inch (in.) 2.54 centimeter (cm)

inch (in.) 25.4 millimeter (mm)

foot (ft) 0.3048 meter (m)

mile (mi) 1.609 kilometer (km)

mile, nautical (nmi) 1.852 kilometer (km)

yard (yd) 0.9144 meter (m)

Area

acre 4,047 square meter (m2)

acre 0.4047 hectare (ha)

Volume

gallon (gal) 3.785 liter (L) 

gallon (gal) 0.003785 cubic meter (m3) 

cubic foot (ft3) 0.02832 cubic meter (m3) 

Flow rate

cubic foot per second (ft3/s) 0.02832 cubic meter per second (m3/s)

gallon per minute (gal/min) 0.06309 liter per second (L/s)

gallon per day (gal/d) 0.003785 cubic meter per day (m3/d)

Vertical coordinate information is referenced to the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 

(NGVD 29).

Horizontal coordinate information is referenced to the North American Datum of 1983 (NAD 83).

Elevation, as used in this report, refers to distance above the vertical datum.

Specific conductance is given in microsiemens per centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius 

(μS/cm at 25°C).

List of Acronyms

DEIS Draft environmental impact statement 

ET Evapo-transpiration 

GPS Global Positioning System 

NWQL National Water Quality Laboratory 

NYSDEC New York State Department of Environmental Conservation 

PVC Polyvinyl chloride 

USGS U.S. Geological Survey

WMA Wildlife Management Area
This page has been left blank intentionally.
Water Resources of the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, 

Genesee and Orleans Counties, New York, 2009–2010

By William M. Kappel and Matthew B. Jennings

runoff from agricultural areas and the New York State Wildlife 

Management Area east of the Refuge.

Based on the results of the drilling program, the Lockport 

Dolomite underlies nearly all the Refuge. The Refuge 

wetlands lie within a bedrock trough between the Lockport 

Dolomite and Onondaga Limestone Escarpments, to the north 

and south, respectively. This bedrock trough was filled with 

mostly fine-grained sediments when Glacial Lake Tonawanda 

was present following the last period of glaciation. These 

fine-grained sediments became the substrate on which the 

wetlands were formed along Oak Orchard Creek and nearby 

Tonawanda Creek, to the south and west. Water quality in the 

unconsolidated and bedrock aquifers is variable; poor quality 

water (sulfide-rich “black water”) generally is present south of 

Oak Orchard Creek and better quality water to the north where 

the Lockport Dolomite is close to the land surface. A set of 

springs, the Oak Orchard Acid Springs, is present within the 

Refuge; the springs are considered unique in New York State 

because of their naturally low pH (approximately 2.0) and 

their continual discharge of natural gas. 

The potential development of a bedrock quarry in the 

Lockport Dolomite bedrock along the northern border of the 

Refuge may affect the nearby Refuge wetlands. The extent of 

drawdown needed to actively quarry the bedrock could change 

the local hydrology and affect groundwater-flow directions 

and rates, primarily in the Lockport Dolomite bedrock and 

possibly the Oak Orchard Acid Springs area, farther to the 

south. The effect on the volume of flow in Oak Orchard Creek 

would probably be minimal as a result of the poor interaction 

between the surface-water and the groundwater systems. 

Of greater potential effect will be the possible change in the 

quality of water flowing into the Refuge from the discharge of 

groundwater during dewatering operations at the quarry; this 

discharge will flow into the northern part of the Refuge and 

affect the quantity and quality of wetland areas downstream 

from the quarry discharge. These changes may affect wetland 

management activities because of the potential for poorquality water to affect the ecology of the wetlands and the 

wildlife that use these wetlands.

Abstract

A 2-year study of the water resources of the Iroquois 

National Wildlife Refuge (Refuge) in western New York was 

carried out in 2009–2010 in cooperation with the U.S. Fish 

and Wildlife Service to assist the Refuge in the development 

of a 15-year Comprehensive Conservation Plan. The study 

focused on Oak Orchard Creek, which flows through the 

Refuge, the groundwater resources that underlie the Refuge, 

and the possible changes to these resources related to the 

potential development of a bedrock quarry along the northern 

side of the Refuge. Oak Orchard Creek was monitored 

seasonally for flow and water quality; four tributary streams, 

which flowed only during early spring, also were monitored. A 

continuous streamgage was operated on Oak Orchard Creek, 

just north of the Refuge at Harrison Road. Four bedrock 

wells were drilled within the Refuge to determine the type 

and thickness of unconsolidated glacial sediments and to 

characterize the thickness and type of bedrock units beneath 

the Refuge, primarily the Lockport Dolomite. Water levels 

were monitored in 17 wells within and adjacent to the Refuge 

and water-quality samples were collected from 11 wells and 

6 springs and analyzed for physical properties, nutrients, major 

ions, and trace metals.

Flow in Oak Orchard Creek is from two different sources. 

During spring runoff, flow from the Onondaga Limestone 

Escarpment, several miles south of the Refuge, supplements 

surface-water runoff and groundwater discharge from the 

Salina Group to the south and east of the Refuge. Flow to Oak 

Orchard Creek also comes from surface-water runoff from the 

Lockport Dolomite Escarpment, north of the Refuge, and from 

groundwater discharging from the Lockport Dolomite and 

unconsolidated deposits that overlie the Lockport Dolomite. 

During the summer and fall low-flow period, only small 

quantities of groundwater flow from the Salina shales and 

Lockport Dolomite bedrock and the unconsolidated sediments 

that overlie them; most of this flow is lost to wetland 

evapotranspiration, and the remainder enters Oak Orchard 

Creek. Water quality in the Oak Orchard Creek is affected 

not only by these groundwater sources but also by surface 
2 Water Resources of the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, Genesee and Orleans Counties, New York, 2009–2010

Introduction

In fall 2008, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), in 

cooperation with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service-Iroquois 

National Wildlife Refuge, (referred to throughout this report 

as the “Refuge”) commenced a study of the surface-water and 

groundwater resources within and surrounding the Refuge 

in western New York. The Refuge straddles the boundary 

between Genesee and Orleans Counties in northwestern New 

York, and is located between the cities of Rochester, N.Y., to 

the east and Buffalo, N.Y., to the west. On either side of the 

Refuge, the New York State Department of Environmental 

Conservation (NYSDEC) maintains wildlife management 

areas along Oak Orchard Creek to the east of the Refuge and 

adjacent to Tonawanda Creek to the southwest of the Refuge 

(fig. 1). 

The Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge was created in 

1958 as the Oak Orchard National Wildlife Refuge but was 

renamed Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge in 1964 so as 

to not confuse it with the neighboring New York State Oak 

Orchard Wildlife Management Area (WMA). These wildlife 

management areas serve the western portion of the Atlantic 

Flyway (a major water-fowl and song-bird migration route) 

and the Refuge encompasses more than 10,200 acres of land, 

including forest, grassland, emergent marsh, and hardwood 

swamp. These habitats serve as nesting, resting, staging, and 

feeding areas for 268 species of migratory birds, including 

many threatened and endangered species in the State. The 

Refuge is also a year-round home to hundreds of species 

of birds, mammals, amphibians, fish, reptiles, and insects: 

(Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, undated).

In 2010, the Refuge began the development of a 15-year 

Comprehensive Conservation Plan that will serve as a guide 

to current and future management of the various habitats that 

support numerous species of migratory and permanent wildlife 

that use the Refuge. The interconnection of the surface-water 

and groundwater systems affects water levels and wildlife- and 

habitat-management operations within the Refuge. An issue of 

importance to future comprehensive conservation planning is 

a proposed bedrock quarry along the Refuge’s northern border. 

This quarry has the potential to affect the natural hydrology 

of the Refuge and the water quality of its wetlands, streams, 

springs, and Oak Orchard Creek, which flows through the 

middle of the Refuge.

Purpose and Scope

This report describes the hydrogeology of the 

unconsolidated glacial deposit and underlying bedrock 

aquifers within and near the Refuge and includes descriptions 

of (1) the glacial and bedrock geology; (2) the groundwaterflow system, including water levels and groundwater and 

surface-water interaction; and (3) the water quality of 

both surface water and groundwater, including nutrients 

and common ions. Also included in this report are figures 

and tables that indicate the location of (1) wells used to 

determine groundwater level and groundwater quality in the 

unconsolidated and bedrock aquifers; (2) streamflow sites 

used to determine flow and collect water-quality samples; 

(3) results of water-quality analyses for surface water and 

groundwater; and (4) hydrographs of water-level fluctuations 

in 17 wells in and around the Refuge and at three other 

regional locations, in addition to stage hydrographs for Oak 

Orchard Creek at Sour Springs and Harrison Roads.

Description of Study Area

The Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge is located on the 

Lake Ontario Plain about 15 miles south of Lake Ontario 

(fig. 1). The wetlands, which are partly within the State 

and Federal wildlife management areas, are also within 

the boundary of former Glacial Lake Tonawanda, which 

existed about 10,000 years ago as glacial ice was receding 

into Canada. This glacial lake initially extended from the 

present-day Niagara River, eastward through the Refuge to 

near Holley, N.Y. (fig. 1), as described in greater detail in a 

“Glacial Geology” section. As the glacial ice receded north, 

the Earth’s surface slowly rebounded, and the glacial lake 

began to shrink in size from east to west until the entire lake 

drained at the Niagara River Gorge, leaving a flat lacustrine 

clay and silt lakebed where the State and Federal wetlands are 

present today.

The glacial lake was bounded on the south by the 

Onondaga Limestone Escarpment and on the north by the 

Lockport Dolomite Escarpment. Between these two carbonate 

rock units lie the shales and evaporites of the Salina Group, 

which are more easily eroded by glacial activity than the 

carbonate bedrock. A natural east-west trending bedrock 

trough was created in which the glacial lake formed and 

the wetlands presently reside. The Refuge complex lies on 

the northern side of the glacial lake, therefore most of the 

Refuge overlies the Lockport Group. Further to the south, 

the remaining wetland and upland areas overlie the Salina 

Group. The glacial landforms include silty clay bottomlands; 

clayey, silty, and sandy beach ridges; and some small till-cored 

moraines. To the north of the Refuge, the Lockport Dolomite 

crops out at land surface and forms the Lockport Escarpment 

in this area. 

Oak Orchard Creek rises near the Onondaga Limestone 

Escarpment, flows into the southeastern edge of former 

Glacial Lake Tonawanda, and continues northwestward into 

the Refuge. The creek then turns north toward Shelby, N.Y., 

and follows the former Medina Spillway of Glacial Lake 

Tonawanda over the Lockport Escarpment, gaining additional 

flow from its remaining watershed as the creek flows to Lake 

Ontario at Point Breeze, N.Y. (fig. 1).
Introduction 3 Kappel_fig 01

0 10 20 MILES 5

0 20 KILOMETERS 5 10

Onondaga Escarpment

Lockport Escarpment

BarreQuarry

ShelbyQuarry

Lake Ontario

LakeErie

Tonawanda

WMA

Oak Orchard

WMA

River

Murder

Creek

Creek

Barge Canal

Tonawanda Creek

Medina

Batavia

Rochester

Buffalo

Point Breeze

Holley

Middleport

Gasport

90

NYS THRUWAY

Iroquois National

Wildlife Refuge

Lockport NI 869

GS 217

OL 20

Barge Canal

Genesee

Black Creek

Oatka Creek

Ellicott

Tonawanda Creek

Johnson Creek

Creek

Cayuga Creek

Oak Orchard Creek West Creek

Salmon Creek

Honeoye Creek

Buffalo Creek

Sandy Creek

Eighteenmile Creek

Marsh Creek

Cazenovia

Twelvemile Creek

Buffalo

River

ERIE

MONROE

NIAGARA

GENESEE

ORLEANS

LIVINGSTON

WYOMING

ONTARIO

78° 78°30'

43°30'

43°

NEW YORK

PENNSYLVANIA

VERMONT

NEW

JERSEY

MA

CT

NEW

HAMPSHIRE

Location Map

CANADA

Lake Ontario

ALBANY

Buffalo

Lake Erie Base from U.S. Geological Survey, Seamless Data Distribution System, 

accessed in 2010 at http://seamless.usgs.govUniversal Transverse Mercator projection, Zone 18, North American Datum 1983

Small CityQuarryRegional groundwater well and county well number

EXPLANATION

Iroquois National Wildlife RefugeNew York State Wildlife Management Area (WMA)Former extent of Glacial Lake TonawandaLarge City areas - Buffalo and RochesterBedrock escarpments (Onondaga and Lockport)Interstate 90 - New York State Thruway

Figure 1. The location of the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge and adjacent New York State Wildlife Management areas (WMAs). the Lockport Dolomite and Onondaga Limestone Escarpments, Lockport Dolomite quarries, and regional groundwater-level monitoring wells, Genesee, Orleans, and Niagara Counties, New York.. 
4 Water Resources of the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, Genesee and Orleans Counties, New York, 2009–2010

Data Collection

During the 2-year field study of the Refuge, various 

types of data were collected to assess the water resources. 

Meteorological data were supplied by the Refuge weather 

station located at the headquarters building. Soil, geologic, 

and hydrogeologic data were determined from (1) existing 

reports, (2) four bedrock wells drilled within the Refuge, 

and (3) 17 continuous-water-level monitors use to determine 

seasonal water-level fluctuations in the unconsolidated 

and bedrock aquifers underlying the Refuge. Water-quality 

samples were collected from streams and existing and newlydrilled test wells across the Refuge. A continuous streamgage 

was established on Oak Orchard Creek at Harrison Road 

(station 04220045; fig. 2) just north of the Refuge to monitor 

flow from the Refuge and to relate flow to precipitation and 

management activities in the Refuge.

Geologic Data

Data were collected to determine the types and extent of 

glacial deposits present in the Refuge and surrounding region. 

Records from drinking-water wells, test holes for bridges 

and roadways, and test wells drilled by the Refuge and the 

USGS provided information on the glacial deposits and the 

underlying bedrock. 

Well Inventory and Test Drilling

Data from the Water-Well Reporting Program of the 

NYSDEC-Division of Water, (2000–2009) were retrieved for 

Genesee and Orleans Counties. Individual well records were 

reviewed, and 11 wells located near the Refuge provided 

information on the depth to bedrock, types of unconsolidated 

deposits and bedrock, estimated water yield from wells 

(gallons per minute), and general water quality (rated “good” 

to “poor” by the well driller). Records of wells drilled before 

the creation of the Refuge were not available as these wells 

were drilled prior to the Water-Well Reporting Program, which 

began in 2000, and the Refuge did not have any historic well 

data on file. 

 Four deep test holes were drilled on the Refuge for 

this study to further characterize the nature of the bedrock 

and the regional character of the groundwater-flow system 

within the bedrock of the Lockport Group dolomites. Three 

of the four test holes were drilled into the upper Rochester 

Shale to determine the regional dip of the bedrock, as well 

as the changes in groundwater quality with depth. A fourth 

test hole was drilled with the assistance of the Friends of the 

Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, but due to limited funding, 

the hole was drilled only into the middle of the Lockport 

Dolomite sequence. 

 Unconsolidated deposits were characterized by 

inspecting the drill cuttings as the hole advanced into the 

bedrock. A steel casing was set in the upper bedrock, and 

the casing driven until refusal. Drilling then continued in 

bedrock to the desired depth or until the Rochester Shale was 

penetrated. The bedrock penetrated by each test hole was 

characterized by (1) inspecting the drill cuttings, (2) testing 

the quality of water returned to the surface for specific 

conductance, temperature, and salinity, and (3) borehole 

geophysical logging once the test holes were completed. This 

information was used to separate the open bedrock portion of 

each test hole into two distinct intervals for water-quality and 

water-level monitoring. 

To separate the bedrock portion of each test hole into 

two monitoring intervals, a shale-packer assembly (fig. 3) 

was attached to a 2-inch polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe and 

lowered to a designated depth in the well. The 2-inch pipe 

string was held in place at the top of the well, and the shalepacker assembly was initially backfilled with about 2 feet of 

sand, and then about 5 feet of bentonite-cement grout was 

pumped on top of the sand layer to seal and separate the 

borehole into two monitoring sections. The lower interval 

of the borehole was accessed through the 2-inch PVC pipe, 

whereas the upper bedrock interval was accessed in the 

annular space between the 6-inch dilled hole and the 2-inch 

PVC casing. The test holes at Oak Orchard Ridge Road (OL37 

and OL41), Sour Springs Road (GS286 and GS288), and 

Dunlap Road (OL42 and OL27) were completed using this 

method. The test hole at Salt Road (OL38) was not separated 

because the only source of water for this location came from 

the upper bedrock and a small lens of sand and gravel at the 

bedrock surface; the bedrock part of the test well did not yield 

any measurable water down into the Rochester Shale.

Two additional pairs of wells were installed within the 

Refuge using a small truck-mounted drilling rig. The wells 

were drilled to monitor shallow water-level fluctuations 

because they might be affected by nearby water bodies. One 

well pair was installed adjacent to Oak Orchard Creek near 

the former Sour Springs Road bridge over the creek. The first 

set of wells (GS245 and GS246; fig. 2) was installed at depths 

of 6.5 feet and 16.0 feet, respectively, and for each casing, 

a bentonite seal was placed above the 2.5-foot-long well 

screen. The second set of wells (OL32 and OL33 on fig. 2) 

was installed near the Feeder Channel on the west side of the 

Refuge in Sutton Marsh. The wells were 7.0 feet and 14.5 feet 

deep, respectively, and each casing had a bentonite seal above 

the 2.5-foot-long well screen.

Groundwater Level and 

Streamflow Measurements

Continuous groundwater-level monitoring was 

accomplished by using downhole data loggers that recorded 

water-level fluctuations to a hundredth of a foot (accuracy 

to the nearest tenth of a foot) on an hourly basis. Data 

from the loggers were downloaded every 3 to 4 months for 

processing. Groundwater-level measurements to a hundredth 

of a foot were made during site visits using an electric tape 

from a known reference point at the top of each well casing. 

The reference point was leveled, in most cases, to a stable 

benchmark located in proximity to the well, although in 
Data Collection 5Figure 2. The location of surface-water and groundwater sites and station numbers used for water-quality sampling and flow monitoring in and around the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, Genesee (GS) and Orleans (OL) Counties, New York.

HAM

LEWISTON

ALLEGHANY

ROBERTS

KNOWLESVILLE

CASEY

MEADVILLE

BLISS

SKYE

CROSBY

LONE

LOCKPORT

SOUR SPRINGS

SHELBY

OWEN

KLOSSEN

SALT WORKS

CHURCH

MEADVILLE

FEEDER CHANNEL

SHELBY

GRAVEL

RYAN

CRANE

TOWNLINE

SALT WORKS

BIGFORD HARRISON

FLETCHER CHAPEL

TIBBITS

SOUR SPRINGS SMITH

DUNLAP

PASK

SOUTHWOODS

POSSON

JOHNSON

COUNTYLINE

EDWARDS

HELLERT

CREEK

BARBER

HEMLOCK RIDGE

JACKSON

PODUNK

LETTS

TRENSCH

BELL

CREEK

SHELBY

04220045

04219997

04219998

0421999720

04219979

0421999750

04219999

#

GS287

GS244

OL38

OL40

OL39

OL37 & OL41

OL42 & OL27

GS286 & GS288

OL43

Refuge Office

OL44

OL32 & OL33

GS245 & GS246

GS294

OL31

OL28 OL29

OL30

Proposedquarry

78°27'30" 78°22'30"

43°10'

43°07'30"

00

1 2 MILES 0.5

1 2 KILOMETERS 0.5

Base from U.S. Geological Survey, Seamless Data Distribution System, accessed in 2010 at http://seamless.usgs.govUniversal Transverse Mercator projection, Zone 18,North American Datum 1983

OL25

 Iroquois Job Center 

Oak

Orchard

Creek

STATE ROUTE 63

Groundwater site and County well numberassigned by the U.S. Geological Survey

—

Surface water site and site numberOL - Orleans County GS - Genesee County

OL43

EXPLANATION

Continuous streamgageStreamflow measurement site Unconsolidated sediment well or springBedrock well or spring

04219998

OL40

04220045
6 Water Resources of the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, Genesee and Orleans Counties, New York, 2009–2010

Figure 3. Shale-packer assembly used to separate 

three Lockport Dolomite test holes into two monitoring 

intervals in the Lockport Dolomite bedrock, Genesee 

and Orleans Counties, New York. 

(PVC, polyvinyl chloride).

Kappel_fig 03

2-inch 

PVC

pipe

4-inch 

PVC

pipe

Rubber shale

catcher for a

6-inch diameter

well bore
Data Collection 7

several cases, the elevation-level surveys were several miles 

in length. In a few cases, there was no nearby benchmark so a 

Global Positioning System (GPS) unit was used to determine 

a local reference elevation. Although measurements from the 

GPS unit were considered reliable to a hundredth of a foot, 

the accuracy was again considered to be to the nearest tenth 

of a foot. The computed local elevation was then converted 

from the North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD88) 

to the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 (NGVD29) 

(Refuge datum) to provide the elevation of the remote well 

sites on the Refuge. 

Streamflow measurements were made seasonally 

along Oak Orchard Creek from November 2008 through 

November 2010. Several tributary streams to Oak Orchard 

Creek were measured only during spring runoff in 2009, 

because most tributary channels to Oak Orchard Creek are 

usually dry by early summer, with flow returning to them 

late in the fall or winter. Streamflow-measuring techniques 

are described by Buchanan and Somers (1982). The seasonal 

measurements for Oak Orchard Creek were made at three 

locations: Knowlesville Road on the eastern side of the Refuge 

(04219997); State Route 63, located approximately in the 

middle of the Refuge (04219998); and Harrison Road, just 

north of the Refuge (04220045; fig. 2). The other measurement 

sites were on Brinningstool Creek entering the Refuge to 

the southeast (04219979), Tributary 3 at Shelby Road to the 

northeast (0421999720), Schoolhouse Marsh Tributary to 

the north (04219999), and Tributary 2 at Roberts Road to the 

south (0421999750; fig. 2; table 1). 

A continuous streamgage was installed just north of the 

Refuge on Oak Orchard Creek at Harrison Road, near Shelby, 

N.Y., on December 3, 2008. The gaging equipment records 

nearly-continuous stage (water level) data from a pressuresensor located in the creek at 15-minute intervals on an 

electronic data logger. These data were manually downloaded 

every 2 months for analysis and posted on the USGS New 

York Water Science Center’s Web page (http://ny.water.usgs.

gov/). Streamflow measurements were collected on a routine 

basis to develop a stage-discharge relation. Using the stage 

data collected at the site and the stage-discharge relation, the 

continuous record of stage is converted to a continuous record 

of discharge. More detailed information about the USGS 

stream-gaging program is presented by Blanchard (2007).

Water levels at the Harrison Road gage are normally 

controlled by a bedrock riffle under the bridge at lower flows 

and by the downstream channel at mid-to-high flows. During 

the first year of streamgage operation, an unknown condition 

downstream apparently created substantial backwater; a 

debris jam or beaver dam located some distance downstream 

is suspected. This condition cleared after high flows the 

following spring. On May 15, 2009, the stage of Oak Orchard 

Creek dropped below that of the pressure sensor. This 

condition was not discovered until the next scheduled site visit 

on June 11, 2009. At that time, the pipe housing the sensor 

was extended lower into the water. Therefore, there is a gap in 

the continuous record between the May 15 and June 11, 2009, 

however, most of the streamflow measurements collected at 

Harrison Road provided a definitive stage-discharge relation, 

and the gage record is rated “good,” that is, 95 percent of the 

daily streamflow values are within 10 percent of the stagedischarge relation (Rantz, 1982).

Water-Quality Sampling and Analyses

Water quality was determined across the Refuge for both 

surface water and groundwater (appendix 1). Surface-waterquality samples were collected seasonally in Oak Orchard 

Creek between November 2008 and September 2010, and a set 

of spring runoff samples was collected from several tributary 

streams in late March 2009. The samples were analyzed for 

inorganic constituents and nutrients by the USGS National 

Water Quality Laboratory (NWQL) in Denver, Colorado. 

In addition, the last three Oak Orchard Creek sample sets in 

2010 were analyzed for trace metals. Field measurements of 

pH, specific conductance, salinity, temperature, and dissolved 

oxygen were made for each sample. The stream samples 

were collected using the equal-width-increment method and 

processed following methods described in the USGS National 

Field Manual for the Collection of Water-Quality Data (U.S. 

Geological Survey, variously dated).

Groundwater-quality samples collected from eight wells 

across the Refuge during 2009–10 were analyzed for nutrients, 

inorganic constituents, and trace metals. Three samples were 

collected from the lower Lockport Dolomite section of the 

Dunlap Road (OL42), Sour Springs Road (GS286), and Oak 

Orchard Ridge Road (OL37) wells. Six samples were collected 

from the upper Lockport Dolomite section of the Dunlap 

Road (OL27), Sour Springs Road (GS288), Salt Road (OL38), 

and Oak Orchard Ridge Road (OL41) wells and from two 

production wells at the Iroquois Job Corps Center (OL39 and 

OL40). Samples also were collected from the sand and gravel 

zone on top of bedrock at the Sour Springs Road (GS244) and 

Refuge office wells (GS287). Water from all these wells was 

pumped through a 2-inch submersible pump, and the sample 

was collected after several (at least three) casing-volumes 

of water were removed and field measurements of specific 

conductance, salinity, and temperature had stabilized. 

Six springs were sampled in the Refuge in 2009 and 

2010—a sulfur-water spring along Oak Orchard Creek at the 

Dunlap Road Bridge (OL43), a fresh-water spring discharging 

from the Lockport Dolomite near the intersection of Dunlap 

and Shelby Roads (OL44), and four of the Oak Orchard Acid 

Springs located near Oak Orchard Creek on the eastern side 

of the Refuge (GS290, GS291, GS292, and GS293). The 

spring samples were collected from either the discharge of the 

spring or, in the case of the Acid Springs, from each spring 

pool, at a depth of about 6 inches below the water surface. 

Field measurements of pH, specific conductance, salinity, 

temperature, and dissolved oxygen were made at all the 

springs. (At the request of the Refuge, the location of the Oak 

Orchard Acid Springs is not shown in this report because of 

the Springs’ remote location and historic importance.)
8 Water Resources of the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, Genesee and Orleans Counties, New York, 2009–2010

Table 1. Surface-water and groundwater sampling sites and station numbers at the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, Genesee and 

Orleans Counties, New York.

Surface water sites

Station number Station name

04219979 Brinningstool Creek at Wheatville, NY

042199H97 Oak Orchard Creek near Wheatville, NY (Knowlesville Road)

0421999720 Oak Orchard Creek Tributary near East Shelby, NY

0421999750 Oak Orchard Creek Tributary at Roberts Road near Alabama, NY

04219998 Oak Orchard Creek at SR63 near West Shelby, NY (NYS Route 63)

04219999 Oak Orchard Creek Tributary near Shelby, NY

04220045 Oak Orchard Creek near Shelby, NY (Harrison Road)

Groundwater sites - wells

County number Site number Site location name Geologic unit monitored

GS244 430721078221401 Sour Springs Road Lacustrine sand and gravel

GS245 430732078221001 Oak Orchard Creek well pair Lower unconsolidated sediment

GS246 430732078221002 Oak Orchard Creek well pair Upper unconsolidated sediment

GS286 430720078221501 Sour Springs Road Lower Lockport Dolomite

GS287 430643078241501 Refuge Office well Lacustrine sand and gravel

GS288 430720078221502 Sour Springs Road Upper Lockport Dolomite

GS294 430635078345501 Casey Road Lacustrine sand and gravel

OL25 430931078214201 Proposed quarry Lockport Dolomite

OL27 430924078241301 Dunlap Road Upper Lockport Dolomite

OL28 430938078220601 Fletcher Chapel Road Lacustrine sand and gravel

OL29 430943078222301 Fletcher Chapel Road Lockport Dolomite

OL30 430954078205301 Fletcher Chapel Road Unconsolidated sediment - dug well

OL31 430957078203801 Fletcher Chapel Road Lacustrine sand and gravel

OL32 430758078250201 Feeder Canal well pair Lower unconsolidated sediment

OL33 430758078250202 Feeder Canal well pair Upper unconsolidated sediment

OL37 430852078221101 Oak Orchard Ridge Road Lower Lockport Dolomite

OL38 430755078271301 Salt Road Upper Lockport Dolomite

OL39 430826078213701 Job Corps Center Upper Lockport Dolomite

OL40 430828078214101 Job Corps Center Upper Lockport Dolomite

OL41 430852078221102 Oak Orchard Ridge Road Upper Lockport Dolomite

OL42 430924078241302 Dunlap Road Lower Lockport Dolomite

Groundwater - springs

County number Site name Site location name Geologic unit monitored

GS290 Spriing #1 Oak Orchard Acid Springs Lacustrine sediments

GS291 Spriing #2 Oak Orchard Acid Springs Lacustrine sediments

GS292 Spriing #3 Oak Orchard Acid Springs Lacustrine sediments

GS293 Spriing #4 Oak Orchard Acid Springs Lacustrine sediments

OL43 430933078243001 Sulfur Spring Lacustrine sediments

OL44 430938078243001 Fresh water Spring Upper Lockport Dolomite
Geology 9

Geology

The bedrock in this part of western New York includes 

Upper Silurian (Lockport Dolomite) to Middle Devonian 

(Onondaga Limestone) strata that are roughly 400 million to 

350 million years old and comprised mostly of shale between 

two units of carbonate bedrock. The stratigraphic column for 

western New York showing former and current nomenclature, 

specifically the units between the Rochester Shale and the 

Lockport Dolomite, is presented in figure 4. The bedrock 

sequence, originally laid down in horizontal beds in a shallow 

inland sea, has been modified by plate tectonics and other 

geologic processes, and now these bedrock units gently dip to 

the south-southeast at about 40 to 50 feet per mile. Repeated 

glacial ice advances and retreats have resulted in modification 

to the bedrock surface and variable thicknesses and types 

of glacial and post-glacial sediments that cover most of 

the region.

Bedrock Geology

The surficial bedrock in the vicinity of the Refuge is 

Vernon Shale and Lockport Group of Silurian age. The 

bedrock units generally lie in east-west bands with the 

Lockport Group lying in the northern and central part of the 

study area and with the Vernon Shale lying just south of the 

Refuge, with Onondaga Limestone of Devonian age cropping 

out several miles further to the south. The nomenclature for 

the description of Lockport and Clinton Groups used in this 

report is that of Brett and others (1995).

The deepest unit drilled during this study is the Clinton 

Group, and just the upper part of the Burleigh Hill Member 

of the Rochester Shale was penetrated (fig. 4). Overlying the 

Rochester Shale is the DeCew Dolomite, which is also part of 

the Clinton Group. Above the Clinton Group is the Lockport 

Group, which underlies most of the Refuge. The Lockport 

Group consists of about 160 feet of massive to mediumbedded argillaceous (shaley) dolomite with minor amounts 

of dolomitic limestone and shale (Brett and others, 1995, 

p. 45). The Lockport Group is subdivided into four formations, 

starting from the bottom: the Gasport Dolomite, the Goat 

Island Dolomite, the Eramosa Dolomite, and the Guelph 

Dolomite. From the bedrock cuttings recovered during the 

drilling of the USGS test holes and the subsequent borehole 

geophysical testing of each test hole, the Goat Island and 

Eramosa units were present in all test holes, whereas the lower 

part of the Guelph Dolomite through the remaining Lockport 

sequence is present in the Sour Springs Road test hole.

Overlying the Lockport Group is the Upper Silurian 

Salina Group, which is comprised of the Vernon Shale, the 

Syracuse Shale, and the Camillus Shale. Along the southern 

boundary of the Refuge, the Vernon Shale unit is likely 

present, whereas farther to the south, the upper units (Syracuse 

and Camillus) begin to crop out near land surface. Overlying 

the Salina Group, the Akron Dolomite of the Salina Group 

generally crops out south of Oakfield, N.Y. (fig. 1). Finally, 

south of Oakfield, N.Y., the Onondaga Limestone of Middle 

Devonian age is present and forms a subtle escarpment in the 

area. There is an unconformity (erosional surface) typical of 

this part of New York State, whereby Lower Devonian-aged 

bedrock is not present between the Salina Group and the 

overlying Onondaga Limestone. 

Glacial Geology

 New York was repeatedly covered by continental ice 

during the past 2.5 million years (Teller, 1987). The advance 

of major ice sheets scoured away soil and vegetation then 

began to erode the underlying bedrock. The results of this 

erosion left the glacial ice mass heavily loaded with sediment 

that was eventually deposited as glacial “drift” as the ice 

mass melted and receded. The most recent glacial period 

(Wisconsinan) reached its glacial maximum about 21,000 

years ago (Michelson and others, 1983; Stone, 1995) and 

covered most of New York with ice. 

During the last recession of Wisconsinan glacial ice in the 

western part of New York, several “short-term” ice readvances 

left additional glacial deposits, such as small, local, recessional 

moraines, some of which contain (or are part of) beach ridges 

that formed in shallow proglacial lakes. Between these ridges, 

lacustrine silt and clay settled out of the turbid glacial waters 

to the lake bottom. 

Successive proglacial lakes developed in the Lake Erie 

basin, as much of the glacial waters drained to the west and 

the Mississippi River. As the glacial ice continued to melt back 

to the north, eastward drainage developed into Glacial Lake 

Tonawanda (Cadwell, 1988), which discharged to Glacial 

Lake Iroquois (a progenitor of Lake Ontario). Glacial Lake 

Tonawanda (fig. 5) developed in a glacially-excavated trough 

within the erodible Salina Group, between the Onondaga 

Limestone and Lockport Dolomite Escarpments.

Initially Glacial Lake Tonawanda drained through an 

outlet at Holley, N.Y. (fig. 5), but the land surface slowly rose 

in response to the ice front receding to the north. Therefore, 

the Holley outlet was abandoned as the surface area of the 

lake shrank back to the west. The next lake outlet formed at 

Medina, N.Y., with a secondary channel located at presentday Middleport, N.Y. (fig. 5). The Medina outlet channel 

is the present-day location of Oak Orchard Creek where 

it drains north over the Lockport Escarpment. Continued 

glacial recession and land-surface rebound further reduced 

the elevation and extent of Glacial Lake Tonawanda, as three 

additional outlets for the lake —at present day Gasport, N.Y., 

then Lockport, N.Y., and finally at Lewiston, N.Y.—developed 

toward the west. The lake then disappeared entirely as Lake 

Erie drained through the Niagara River gorge, to a lower level 

of Glacial Lake Iroquois, which subsequently became Lake 

Ontario.

Wetland areas in the study area, including the Oak 

Orchard Creek wetland and farther to the south and west the 
10 Water Resources of the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, Genesee and Orleans Counties, New York, 2009–2010

Kappel_fig 04

SALINA

BERTIE

DOLOMITE

AKRON

DOLOMITE

EASTERN NORTH

AMERICAN SERIES

GROUP

UPPER MIDDLE

CLINTON

FORMATION MEMBER

ROCHESTER 

 SHALE

LOCKPORT

DOLOMITE

OAK

ORCHARD

ERAMOSA

GOAT

ISLAND

GASPORT

DECEW

BURLEIGH

HILL

LEWISTON

ONONDAGA

 LIMESTONE

ONONDAGA

LIMESTONE

SALINA

CAMILLUS SHALE 

SYRACUSE SHALE

VERNON SHALE

BERTIE

DOLOMITE

AKRON

DOLOMITE

MIDDLEMIDDLE

Former stratigraphic nomenclature

for the Clinton Group in the Niagara

region of western New York by 

Zenger (1962)

CAMILLUS SHALE 

SYRACUSE SHALE

VERNON SHALE

GROUP

FORMATION

GUELPH

DOLOMITE

ERAMOSA

DOLOMITE

GOAT ISLAND

DOLOMITE

GASPORT

DOLOMITE

DECEW

DOLOMITE

ROCHESTER 

SHALE

BURLEIGH HILL

LEWISTON

CLINTON LOCKPORT

UPPER LOWER

VINEMOUNT

ANCASTER

NIAGARA FALLS

PEKIN

GOTHIC HILL

MEMBER

Revised stratigraphic nomenclature

for the Lockport and Clinton Groups 

in the Niagara region of western New 

York by Brett and others (1995)

EASTERN NORTH

AMERICAN SERIES

SYSTEM SILURIAN DEVONIAN

Unconformity in western New York geology

Figure 4. Stratigraphic columns for the western part of New York State showing the summary of geologic units near 

the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, Genesee and Orleans Counties, New York. Stratigraphic nomenclature for the 

Clinton Group in the Niagara region of Western New York is by Zenger (1962). Changes in nomenclature (in red) for the 

Clinton and Lockport Groups are by Brett and others, (1995).
Geology 11 Kappel_fig 05

Iroquois NationalWildlife Refuge Figure 5. The extent of Glacial Lake Tonawanda and the location of the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge (red outline) 

in relation to the former Medina Spillway, which is also the present location of Oak Orchard Creek as it leaves the Refuge and crosses the Lockport (Niagara) Escarpment in Genesee and Orleans Counties, New York. (Extent of Glacial Lake Tonawanda modified from Kindle and Taylor, 1913).
12 Water Resources of the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, Genesee and Orleans Counties, New York, 2009–2010

Tonawanda Creek wetland, are underlain by silt and clay 

deposited in Glacial Lake Tonawanda. Upland areas are 

former beach ridges and small moraines and are now generally 

forested or support modest residential development; the 

intermediate lands are gently sloping and used primarily for 

agricultural purposes.

Water Resources

The surface-water resources of the Refuge include Oak 

Orchard Creek, its tributaries, and the adjacent wetlands that 

are managed by the Refuge and NYSDEC. The groundwater 

resources include the unconsolidated and bedrock aquifers. 

Understanding the interconnection within and between the 

surface-water and groundwater flow systems is critical to 

the management of the Refuge and the development of their 

15-year conservation plan.

Surface-Water Flow System

The surface-water flow system of the Oak Orchard 

Creek, its tributaries, and wetlands is primarily driven by 

precipitation and surface runoff, and to a lesser extent, 

groundwater discharge as baseflow to the streams and 

wetlands. Depending on antecedent water levels within and 

upgradient from the Refuge, the New York State Oak Orchard 

WMA, and the agricultural areas farther up in the watershed, 

the amount of water flowing into and out of the Refuge can 

vary based on the management of water levels in the State 

and Federal wetland-management units and the upgradient 

agricultural areas. Depending on management activities in the 

Refuge and farther upstream, a large amount of water flowing 

in Oak Orchard Creek can be diverted into or out of these 

wetlands, altering the amount and timing of flow entering and 

leaving the Refuge. 

During the spring runoff, flow in Oak Orchard Creek 

and its tributaries is derived from snowmelt runoff, early 

spring rainfall, and a modest amount of shallow groundwater 

discharge from scattered upland sand and gravel deposits. 

During the spring 2009 runoff period, flow at the three 

Oak Orchard Creek sites averaged about 800 cubic feet per 

second (ft3/s) or about 7 cubic feet per second per square mile 

(ft3/s/mi2) of the watershed. 

Water-quality data (appendix 1) substantiate the 

composition of water in Oak Orchard Creek as both surface 

water and groundwater. The quality of water during the spring, 

as measured by the carbonate-to-sulfate ratio, indicated a 

predominant carbonate excess (more carbonate than sulfate) in 

the runoff that most likely comes from additional groundwater 

discharge from the Onondaga Limestone Escarpment, which 

has more carbonate than water flowing from the Salina Group 

Shale bedrock unit. 

Following spring runoff and the establishment of wetland 

management-pool levels, water levels within the wetlands 

remain fairly steady until the wetland vegetation breaks 

dormancy and the evapo-transpiration (ET) process begins. 

Once air temperatures rise and wetland plants are fully leafedout, the rate of ET will usually be greater than the amount 

of precipitation that falls in this part of New York State. 

Subsequent wetland water levels may fall slowly, especially 

if a wetland is not hydraulically connected to Oak Orchard 

Creek or a tributary stream. Furthermore, groundwater 

discharge (water moving slowly upwards through the finegrained lacustrine sediments into the overlying organic soils) 

is quite slow and will not keep up with the rate of ET. 

During the summer, flow in Oak Orchard Creek and its 

tributaries decrease because ET increases and precipitation 

decreases. During this period, the wetlands have reduced 

hydrologic interaction with Oak Orchard Creek as flow along 

the entire length of the Creek within the Refuge is generally 

confined within the banks of the creek and does not interact 

with adjoining wetlands. On July 19, 2010, the average 

flow measured in Oak Orchard Creek at the three creek sites 

(Knowlesville Road in the east, Route 63 in the central, and 

Harrison Road in the northwest) was about 20.5 ft3/s or about 

0.16 ft3/s/mi2, or about 2 percent of the peak flow measured 

in spring 2009. Correspondingly, on September 17, 2010, 

the average flow in Oak Orchard Creek at the three sites was 

about 15 ft3/s or about 0.12 ft3/s/mi2. The very low rate of flow 

measured on these 2 days across the Refuge indicates that 

groundwater discharge to the surface-water system within the 

Refuge is low and is likely lost through wetland ET. When 

looking at the carbonate-to-sulfate ratio in Oak Orchard Creek 

during low-flow conditions, sulfate enrichment over calcium 

is observed (opposite of the spring ratio), which indicates that 

the low flow in Oak Orchard Creek is more likely derived 

from small amounts of seepage from adjacent wetland areas 

and even less groundwater discharge from the underlying 

Salina Group and Lockport Dolomite bedrock.

The transition to cooler fall temperatures, decreased 

ET, and increased precipitation causes greater surface-water 

flow and groundwater discharge, which fills the channel 

of Oak Orchard Creek and its tributaries and allows the 

adjacent wetlands to again interact with the creek. Because 

groundwater levels are lowest at this time of the year, the Oak 

Orchard Creek system is dominated by surface-water runoff 

and precipitation that falls directly on the watershed and 

wetland areas. Discharge of groundwater to the surface-waterflow system, be it to the tributaries or the main stem of Oak 

Orchard Creek, continues to be small. The degree of wetland/

stream interaction depends on how the wetland units are 

managed and the variability of seasonal climate conditions. 

Groundwater-Flow System

The groundwater-flow system in and around the Refuge 

is comprised of a glacial, unconsolidated aquifer, underlain 

by a bedrock aquifer. Within the glacial sediments, there 

are lenses of sand and gravel that sit directly over bedrock, 
Water Resources 13

whereas in nearby locations, the sand and gravel is absent 

and only fine-grained sediments (clays, silts, and silty sands) 

are present. On top of the fine-grained sediments, some of 

the beach ridges are covered by permeable sand and gravel 

deposits that may be till-cored moraines. Each type and 

combination of glacial sediments mentioned above has various 

hydraulic characteristics that contribute to the overall volume, 

timing, and direction of groundwater flow within the regional 

aquifer system (fig. 6). Also, the mineralogy of the deposits 

through which the groundwater moves and the interaction with 

various land uses (wetlands to agriculture to forest) can affect 

the quality of water.

Groundwater levels were determined during this study 

from wells within and near to the Refuge and from waterlevel data derived from the NYSDEC Water Well Reporting 

Program for areas outside the Refuge boundary. These data 

allowed the development of a regional water-table map for 

wells in both the unconsolidated and bedrock aquifers (fig. 

6); as these data were collected in the two aquifers at various 

times during the past several decades, this map can only be 

considered a generalized depiction of the regional water-table 

configuration. The regional map indicates that water levels are 

highest south and east of the Refuge and become progressively 

lower to the north and west. This pattern follows, for the most 

part, the elevation change from the Onondaga Limestone 

Escarpment to the south (at an elevation of approximately 

900 feet) to the Lockport Dolomite Escarpment north of 

the Refuge (at an elevation of approximately 625 feet). 

Groundwater flow appears to follow the general trend 

of the east-to-west dipping bedrock trough between the 

two carbonate escarpments (fig. 7) but groundwater-level 

information for areas farther to the west is not available to 

determine whether there are possible outlets for groundwater 

flow northward toward the escarpment or southwestward 

toward Tonawanda Creek or a combination of the two. 

Unconsolidated Aquifer

The unconsolidated sediments within the Refuge form 

aquifers that are unconfined to semiconfined. Data collected 

from two very-shallow well pairs—one along Oak Orchard 

Creek (GS245 and GS246) and the other along the Feeder 

Channel (OL32 and OL33; fig. 2)—indicate a small, upward 

gradient, approximately a tenth of a foot difference in water 

level (hydraulic head) between the deeper and shallower 

wells, with a distance of about 6 feet between the well screens 

(appendix 2, hydrographs P and Q). Along Sour Springs 

Road, south of Oak Orchard Creek, the water-level elevation 

in a homeowner-well finished in a lens of sand and gravel 

at the bedrock surface (GS244) is higher than the waterlevel elevation of water in the shallow well pair along Oak 

Orchard Creek (GS245 and GS246). These different water 

levels indicate a 4-foot upward gradient from the sand and 

gravel lens deposit overlying bedrock, up through the finergrained unconsolidated sediments in which the Oak Orchard 

Creek well pair are finished, over a distance of about 48 feet 

between the deeper and shallower wells. A slight upward 

gradient is present within the very-shallow well pair (appendix 

2, hydrograph G for the sand and gravel well, hydrograph 

N for the shallow well, and hydrograph O for the deep 

lacustrine well).

Bedrock Aquifer

The Salt Road well (OL38) on the west side of the 

Refuge did not yield measurable water from just below the 

bedrock surface down to the top of the Rochester Shale. 

It is not uncommon to drill a “dry hole” in the bedrock of 

upstate New York, although it is more common in shale 

than in carbonate rock, which typically has water-bearing 

bedding planes. Water entering the Salt Road well comes 

from the weathered and fractured bedrock surface and a small 

sand and gravel lens lying on top of the bedrock. Water that 

entered the well at the base of steel casing (top of bedrock 

was at a depth of 70 feet) at the time of drilling filled the well 

over several hours, coming to equilibrium at about 30 feet 

below land surface. The water levels at Salt Road (OL38; 

appendix 2, hydrograph C) from November 2008 to October 

2010 fluctuated in a manner similar to that of other bedrock 

and unconsolidated wells across the region.

Water levels in the bedrock wells finished with upper and 

lower bedrock monitoring zones that indicate two different 

water-level relations. Each well pair—Sour Springs Road 

(GS245 lower bedrock and GS246 upper bedrock), Oak 

Orchard Ridge Road (OL37 lower bedrock and OL41 upper 

bedrock), and Dunlap Road (OL42 lower bedrock and OL27 

upper bedrock)— was separated into two monitoring zones on 

the basis of the location of water-bearing zones detected by 

borehole geophysics at each well (appendix 3, figs. A through 

D). In the Dunlap Road and Sour Springs Road well pairs, the 

gradient between the lower bedrock zone and upper bedrock 

zone indicated upward movement of water in the bedrock 

because the water level in the lower zone was consistently 

higher than that in the upper zone. The head difference was 

about 4 feet, on average, at the Dunlap Road wells during 

the period of measurement and about 2 feet, on average, at 

the Sour Springs Road wells. The well pair at Oak Orchard 

Ridge Road had the opposite hydraulic head gradient than the 

other well pairs—the water level in the upper zone was, on 

average, about 4 feet higher than the water level in the lower 

zone, indicating a downward gradient for groundwater flow. 

The reason for the downward hydraulic-head gradient at Oak 

Orchard Ridge Road could be (1) the well was not drilled 

deep enough and (or) the packer was not placed deep enough 

to isolate a lower bedding plane with a higher head, (2) the 

open test holes for the proposed quarry just north of the Oak 

Orchard Ridge Road well could be locally affecting the head 

relation in the Oak Orchard Ridge Road wells, or (3) the 

production wells at the Iroquois Job Corps Center (OL39 and 

OL40; fig. 2) might be affecting the hydraulic-head relation. 

To eliminate one of the possibilities, the two zones at Oak 

Orchard Ridge Road wells were closely monitored during the 
14 Water Resources of the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, Genesee and Orleans Counties, New York, 2009–2010

Figure 6. Approximate water table and the general direction of groundwater flow in the unconsolidated and bedrock aquifers 

in the vicinity of the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, Genesee and Orleans Counties, New York. Elevations are in feet. (NYSDEC, 

New York State Department of Environmental Conservation).

Kappel_fig 06

Proposed 

quarry

624

621

617

617

688 637

681

698

691

631

634

 627

695

625

620

625

618

Dug well

 653 636

628

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

Base from U.S. Geological Survey, Seamless Data 

Distribution System, accessed in 2010 at 

http://seamless.usgs.gov

Universal Transverse Mercator projection, Zone 18,

North American Datum 1983

690

650

630

620

610

ERIE COUNTY

NIAGARA COUNTY

GENESEE COUNTY

ORLEANS COUNTY

GENESEE COUNTY

ORLEANS COUNTY

0

0

0.5 1 2 MILES

0.5 1 2 KILOMETERS

EXPLANATION

593

Well location and water-table

elevation—from a well monitored

during this study

593

Well location and water-table

elevation—from NYSDEC waterwell records

620 Approximate water-table

surface contour and 

elevation

Boundary of the Iroquois

National Wildlife Refuge

Direction of groundwater flow

78°27'30" 78°22'30"

43°10'

43°07'30"
Water Resources 15

Kappel_fig 07

600

580

580

600

620

640

680

78°27'30" 78°22'30"

43° 

10'

43° 

07' 

30"

Proposed 

quarry

597

563

593

606

625 667

677

688

604

622

609

617

<600

701

579

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

0

0

0.5 1 2 MILES

0.5 1 2 KILOMETERS

Base from U.S. Geological Survey, Seamless Data 

Distribution System, accessed in 2010 at 

http://seamless.usgs.gov

Universal Transverse Mercator projection, Zone 18,

North American Datum 1983 ERIE COUNTY NIAGARA COUNTY

GENESEE COUNTY

ORLEANS COUNTY

GENESEE COUNTY

ORLEANS COUNTY

EXPLANATION

593

Well location and bedrock

surface elevation—from a well

drilled on the Refuge

593

Well location and bedrock

surface elevation—from 

NYSDEC water-well records

620 Approximate bedrock

surface contour and 

elevation

Boundary of the Iroquois

National Wildlife Refuge

610 598

<622 <606

<608

Figure 7. Approximate bedrock-surface contour and elevation in the vicinity of the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, Genesee 

and Orleans Counties, New York. Elevations are in feet. (NYSDEC, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation).
16 Water Resources of the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, Genesee and Orleans Counties, New York, 2009–2010

winter and summer vacation periods at the Job Corps Center, 

when water use is greatly reduced. No perceptible change 

was noted in the Oak Orchard Ridge Road wells monitoring 

zones and therefore, one or both of the two remaining theories 

may indicate the conditions affecting the head gradient at 

this location.

Well Hydrographs 

Water-level fluctuations in 17 wells, including unused 

homeowner wells were monitored throughout the Refuge 

area (appendix 2). One dug well (OL30) north of the Refuge 

on Fletcher Chapel Road was also monitored (appendix 2, 

hydrograph A). The annual water-level fluctuation was almost 

20 feet. The well was responsive to spring recharge and 

showed a slow water-level decline during the summer; water 

levels for this well during summer 2010 were not collected 

due to equipment malfunction. 

Water-level fluctuations varied depending on the aquifer 

monitored and the topographic position of the well. In four 

wells that tap an apparently discontinuous layer of sand and 

gravel that overlies bedrock (GS244, GS294, OL28, and 

OL31), water-level fluctuations during the 2-year monitoring 

period ranged from 3 to 8 feet. In the four wells finished 

in the upper Lockport Dolomite bedrock (GS288, OL41, 

OL27, and OL38), water-level fluctuations ranged from 3 to 

6 feet, whereas in three wells finished in the lower Lockport 

Dolomite bedrock (GS286, OL37, and OL42), water-level 

fluctuations ranged from 4 to 8 feet. The amount of fluctuation 

varied depending on the topographic position of the wells. 

Those closest to the creek and lowest in land-surface elevation 

varied the least; those farther from the creek and at higher 

elevations varied the most over the 2 years of monitoring.

The water levels in two well pairs located along Oak 

Orchard Creek (GS245 and GS246) and the Feeder Channel 

(OL32 and OL33) fluctuated by about 4 feet and 1 foot, 

respectively. The water-level fluctuations for these well 

pairs reflect the interactions of the well pairs with those 

in the nearby surface-water body; the water level at the 

Feeder Channel is generally maintained at a prescribed 

management level, whereas the water level at Oak Orchard 

Creek is minimally regulated at the downstream end of the 

Refuge, several miles away from this second well pair. The 

shallower well in each pair also fluctuates more, albeit by 

only an additional 0.5 foot. This was most likely related to the 

fluctuation in the nearby stream, such as spring flooding of the 

marsh, which overtopped the land surface at both well sites. 

These wells indicate that, while the local groundwater gradient 

is upward in the fine-grained lacustrine soils, the rate of flow is 

likely small because the rate of change in the upper zone when 

overwhelmed by the water level of the adjacent water body is 

not transferred to the lower zone immediately.

The annual pattern of water-level fluctuation in the wells 

monitored in this study is affected by (1) the topographic 

position of the well in the Refuge area (land-surface 

elevation and proximity to the wetlands) and (2) the regional 

groundwater response to seasonal changes in precipitation 

and recharge. Wells on the north side of the Refuge (Fletcher 

Chapel and Dunlap Road areas, fig. 2) that receive water from 

either the upper bedrock or the sand and gravel just above the 

bedrock reflect regional water-level fluctuations, especially 

where the bedrock or sand and gravel lens is close to land 

surface. Results of a comparison of well hydrographs from 

Fletcher Chapel and Dunlap Road wells in the northern part of 

the Refuge with those from a Lockport Dolomite well located 

about 25 miles to the west of the Refuge (Niagara County 

well NI869, fig. 1) indicate a regional pattern of fluctuation as 

opposed to a local pattern (appendix 2, hydrographs D, E, F, 

and R). Water levels in wells on the southern and western side 

of the Refuge that have a greater thickness of unconsolidated 

deposits and are closer in elevation to the wetlands appear 

to follow a diminished seasonal water-level fluctuation that 

is not as greatly affected by rapid recharge of surface water 

to groundwater.

Natural Gas Discharges 

Water-level fluctuation in the lower Lockport Dolomite 

zone of the Sour Springs Road (GS286) and Oak Orchard 

Ridge Road (OL37) wells (appendix 2, hydrographs I and 

K, respectively) are similar to those in their upper Lockport 

Dolomite companion zones (wells GS288 and OL41, appendix 

2, hydrographs H and J, respectively). However, the lower 

zones display a greater amount of fluctuation due to the 

presence of natural gas (methane and hydrogen sulfide) 

exsolving (coming out of solution) from the water in the 

lower bedrock zone of these two test holes. The discharge of 

natural gas makes the water level fluctuate rapidly (making 

a “boiling” noise in the well) as the natural gas bubbles-up 

and out of the water column. This discharge causes the well 

hydrograph to have a “painted” appearance rather than a 

smooth line as seen in most of the hydrographs in appendix 2. 

In contrast, the lower zone of the Dunlap Road (OL42) well 

(hydrograph M in appendix 2) does not exhibit this “painted” 

pattern because the Lockport Dolomite in this location is at 

a higher elevation and does not have a gas discharge; most 

likely any gas that might have been present has migrated out 

of the bedrock through bedding-plane and other fractures 

to the nearby Lockport Dolomite Escarpment. The Salt 

Road well (OL38, hydrograph C in appendix 2) exhibits an 

intermittent natural-gas response, as, during drilling, the smell 

of hydrogen sulfide gas was present, but disappeared quickly 

as the well filled with water. The hydrograph for the Salt 

Road well does display periods where the hydrograph has a 

“painted” appearance, and at times, a low rate of bubbling can 

be heard in this well.
Water Resources 17

Bedrock Aquifer Response at Local 

Lockport Quarries

 One of the concerns in the long-term planning process 

for the Refuge is the possible effects of the development of a 

bedrock quarry along the northern border of the Refuge, east 

of Sour Springs Road (fig. 2). The quarry may be more than 

120 feet deep, and during dewatering operations, which might 

need to occur year round, large quantities of groundwater 

(Continental Placer, 2008) of unknown quality, could be 

discharged to wetlands in the northern part of the Refuge. To 

assess the possible effects on the Refuge, two nearby Lockport 

quarries were visited, and discussions with the quarry 

managers were held in 2009. 

Northwest of the Refuge is the Shelby Crushed Stone 

quarry, and to the northeast is the Barre Stone Products quarry 

(fig. 1). Both quarries mine the lower extent of the Lockport 

Dolomite Group; the Gasport and DeCew Formations are 

mined in the Shelby quarry. Although visits were made to 

both quarries, only the Shelby Crushed Stone quarry supplied 

detailed stratigraphic and hydrologic information. The 

proposed quarry north of the Refuge would be farther south 

of the other quarries and would intersect more of the Lockport 

Dolomite Group if mining proceeded there; the Eramosa 

Dolomite (formerly the lower part of the Oak Orchard 

Dolomite) and all the Goat Island, Gasport, and DeCew 

Dolomites (Continental Placer, 2008). 

Groundwater inflow to the Shelby and Barre quarries 

occurs along bedding planes at the quarry walls, generally 

in the southern half of each quarry. Groundwater-discharge 

rates seasonally vary from several hundred to several 

thousand gallons per minute according to the quarry 

managers. However, there is an unknown amount of water 

that reenters each quarry through leakage of discharge 

pipes and channels, and therefore, an accurate assessment 

of groundwater discharged from these quarries could not be 

made. Groundwater quality has not been extensively tested 

at either quarry, but the water flowing from the quarry walls 

appears to be fresh and probably has a quality similar to that 

from the Dunlap Road bedrock well because the quarries and 

the Dunlap Road well are close to the Lockport Dolomite 

Escarpment. A testhole drilled into the Rochester Shale on 

the floor of the Shelby quarry yielded sulfate-rich “black 

water.” This type of water quality was found in the Oak 

Orchard Ridge bedrock well, which is located about a half 

mile southwest of the proposed quarry. Natural gas (hydrogen 

sulfide and possibly methane) is seasonally present in both 

quarries, but only the smell of hydrogen sulfide has been noted 

at times (methane has no odor), and the amount of gas has not 

been a concern for the quarry managers. 

Water levels are monitored at the Shelby quarry in open 

bedrock holes near the quarry walls and at several homes 

distant from the quarry. Homes several hundred feet east and 

west of the quarry have not lost or noted changes in their 

water supplies, but homeowners south of the quarry have 

reported changes in their water supplies; these changes have 

not been confirmed. Groundwater studies at other Lockport 

Dolomite quarries report modest decreases in water levels near 

active Lockport quarries (Gowan, 1988; Continental Placer, 

2008). but according NYSDEC, other studies documented that 

drawdowns have occurred near Lockport Dolomite quarries 

at distances of as little as 50 feet from a quarry wall to as 

far as 1,200 feet (D.L. Bimber, New York State Department 

of Environmental Conservation, written comm., December, 

2009). A USGS study in the Niagara Falls area (Miller and 

Kappel, 1987) noted that the construction and operation of 

the Niagara Power Project, where major excavations into the 

Lockport Dolomite occurred, did affect groundwater levels at 

distances up to one-half mile from the bedrock excavations. 

In comparison to the above water-level drawdown 

assessments in Lockport Dolomite quarries, another USGS 

study near an Onondaga Limestone quarry (Staubitz and 

Miller, 1987) noted that groundwater levels experienced 

greater water-level decline at greater distances from an 

Onondaga Limestone quarry than those observed in Lockport 

Dolomite quarries. Groundwater-level fluctuations also 

differ between Onondaga Limestone and Lockport Dolomite 

quarries as shown in the annual hydrographs in appendix 

2. Groundwater fluctuations in Lockport Dolomite wells 

(appendix 2, hydrographs H, J, or L) are about half of those 

in well GS217, which is drilled into the Onondaga Limestone 

(appendix 2, hydrograph T). The greater range in groundwaterlevel fluctuation reflects a greater degree of permeability and 

hydraulic connection in the limestone bedrock rather than in 

dolomite bedrock. 

The effects of development of any bedrock quarry and 

the effects of dewatering the quarry on local water resources 

will depend on (1) the type of bedrock being quarried, (2) 

how well developed the groundwater-flow system is within 

the bedrock sequence, and (3) the relative position of the 

quarry in the regional groundwater-flow system. In regard to 

number two above—a well-developed fractured-rock flow 

system would more likely be present in highly solution-prone 

limestone bedrock, as compared to less soluble dolomitic 

bedrock. In relation to number three above—regarding relative 

position, if a quarry is located relatively high in the regional 

topography, where groundwater would be flowing away from 

the quarry, water-level drawdown during dewatering would be 

less than that for a quarry located in a low-lying area, where 

groundwater would naturally flow toward the quarry. The 

quarry at the lower elevation would most likely experience 

greater groundwater-level decline and a greater volume of 

water having to be discharged during annual dewatering 

operations. The proposed quarry site on the north side of the 

Refuge is located in the (lower elevation) hydrologic position.
18 Water Resources of the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, Genesee and Orleans Counties, New York, 2009–2010

Water Quality

The quality of water within and below the Refuge 

depends on the source and the flowpath taken as water moves 

through the Oak Orchard Creek watershed. Surface water 

is affected by precipitation and flow through the soils and 

shallow glacial deposits. Any anthropogenic activity at or 

below the soil surface can alter the quality of surface water 

or groundwater as it moves through the wetlands upstream 

from and within the Refuge. Any interaction with groundwater 

that discharges to the surface-water system can also affect 

the surface-water system. Water-quality changes in either the 

surface-water or groundwater system are dependent on the 

flowpath taken, be it shallow through the soils and glacial 

deposits, slightly deeper through the upper Lockport Dolomite 

bedrock aquifer, or through a deeper bedrock aquifer, such as 

the Salina Group Shale further to the south.

Surface Water 

Results of the surface-water-quality analyses for Oak 

Orchard Creek and several of its tributaries within the Refuge 

are consistent with others for this part of New York. The pH of 

surface water is nearly neutral with a median of about 7.2. The 

specific conductance of the water ranges from 200 to 2,000 

microsiemens per centimeter (μS/cm) at 25 degrees Celsius 

with the smaller tributaries having slightly less conductance. 

There is a slight downward trend in specific conductance 

along Oak Orchard Creek as it flows through the Refuge from 

east to west.

Nutrient concentrations in samples from Oak Orchard 

Creek were slightly elevated, which is not unusual for a 

watershed with areas of major agricultural land use above 

the Refuge (Makarewicz and Lewis, 2009). Concentrations 

of various forms of phosphorus and nitrogen are somewhat 

elevated from natural background conditions, but not as 

elevated as the concentrations in water discharged to Oak 

Orchard Creek upstream from the Federal and State WMAs 

(Makarewicz and Lewis, 2009). Inorganic constituent 

concentrations (metals such as magnesium, lead, iron, and 

zinc; appendix 1) are somewhat greater than what would be 

considered background levels in most of New York State, 

but this condition might be related to the quality of water 

discharged from bedrock, such as the Lockport Dolomite 

and Salina Shale units, up through glacial sediments to Oak 

Orchard Creek.

Groundwater

Groundwater quality is highly variable in the region 

surrounding the Refuge. The quality of groundwater south of 

the Refuge is poor because it interacts with minerals present 

within the Salina Group that impart a strong sulfur taste and 

smell to the water and because it interacts with trace metals 

and halite (sodium chloride). The slow movement of water in 

shales of the Salina Group causes trace metal concentrations 

to increase and therefore results in limited availability of 

potable water (Bill Frey, Frey Well Drilling, April 2009, 

oral commun.). Any fresh water found in wells is usually 

found at the shallowest depths and might require some sort 

of treatment before it can be used for drinking water or other 

residential uses. 

In the central part of the Refuge, roughly east-west 

along the Genesee-Orleans County line, the quality of water 

from bedrock does not improve as the depth to bedrock 

increases; flow from bedrock bedding planes and fractures 

usually leaches sulfide-bearing minerals into the slow-moving 

groundwater. Groundwater from the shallower bedrock 

generally has a mild-to-strong sulfide taste and smell; stronger 

sulfide concentrations are present at depth. Also at depth are 

various forms and quantities of natural gas, primarily methane 

and hydrogen sulfide gas. The presence of ferrous sulfide 

produces “black water,” which is highly corrosive to many 

metals, stains clothes and skin, and makes water quite difficult 

to treat in order to make it potable.

Farther to the north where the Lockport Dolomite is 

at or near land surface, groundwater flows quickly through 

the bedrock fractures, and the quality and quantity of water 

improves. This shallow groundwater is generally quite fresh 

because it is in the active part of the groundwater-flow system. 

Even though groundwater in the northern part of the Refuge 

may interact with the sulfide minerals along bedrock fractures, 

the short contact time that the groundwater has with these 

minerals produces low concentrations of sulfide in this part of 

the groundwater system.

The water-quality data collected during this study 

(appendix 1) are summarized through the use of a Piper or 

trilinear diagram (Piper, 1944) to determine which samples 

have similar ionic composition that may reflect a similar 

source. The Piper diagram for the Refuge data (fig. 8) 

shows the relative percentages of major cations (calcium, 

magnesium, and sodium plus potassium) plotted on the lower 

left triangle and relative percentages of anions (chloride, 

bicarbonate, and sulfate) plotted on the lower right triangle. 

These percentages are then projected to the diamond plot 

above where certain data points may cluster in a common 

water type or show a mixing trend of different water types. 

The water-quality samples of the Oak Orchard Acid Springs 

are clustered in the upper right corner of the diamond as 

calcium-sulfate dominated water (see a further description 

of the Acid Springs below). The groundwater from the 

sand and gravel well (GS244) along Sour Springs Road is a 

sodium-bicarbonate-type water as seen on the lower part of 

the diamond plot, whereas the groundwater from the lower 

Lockport bedrock well (GS286) at Sour Springs Road is a 

sodium-chloride-type water. Therefore, the quality of water in 

the two wells differs. The two springs on the northwest side of 

the Refuge appear to serve as approximate chemical-mixing 

endpoints for both surface water and groundwater. A spring 

located in the Lockport Dolomite (OL44) represents a fresh, 

calcium-bicarbonate-type water discharging directly from the 
Water Quality 19

Figure 8. Piper diagram of major cations and anions in surface-water and groundwater samples collected in and 

around the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, Genesee and Orleans Counties, New York, 2009–10.

Friesz_fig 08

Well in sand and gravel

Well in lower Lockport

Well in upper Lockport

Oak Orchard Creek

Spring (fresh) in lake deposits

Spring (acid) in lake deposits

Spring (fresh) upper Lockport

EXPLANATION

Tributary to Oak Orchard Creek

PERCENT

Calcium

100

80

60

40

20

0

0

20

40

60

80

100

Magnesium

0

20

40

60

80

100

Sodium plus Potassium

Chloride

0

20

40

60

80

100

100

80

60

40

20

0

Bicarbonate

100

80

60

40

20

0

Sulfate

0

20

40

60

80

100

Sulfate plus Chloride

0

20

40

60

80

100

Calcium plus Magnesium

100

80

60

40

20

0

100

80

60

40

20

0

PERCENT

PERCENT

GS 244

GS 286

OL 44

OL 43

Acid Springs
20 Water Resources of the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, Genesee and Orleans Counties, New York, 2009–2010

bedrock at land surface, whereas the nearby Sulfur Spring 

(OL43) represents a calcium-sulfate-rich water discharging 

from lacustrine sediments, although the actual source of this 

water is unknown; locally, some residents speculate the water 

might be discharging from an old, unplugged gas well. The 

remaining water samples appear to align, for the most part, 

between these two water types.

The water types of three of the four tributary samples 

are close to the water quality of the OL44 endpoint (more 

bicarbonate than sulfate), but the water types of the remaining 

stream samples range from bicarbonate- to sulfate-dominated 

water, depending on the time of year. During high surfacewater-runoff periods in the spring, the samples from Oak 

Orchard Creek exhibit either a bicarbonate- or sulfatedominated ionic composition. During low-flow conditions in 

the summer, sulfate-type waters dominate in surface-water 

samples. These trends in seasonally different surface-water 

quality indicate that the two water types contribute to the 

flow in Oak Orchard Creek. The bicarbonate-type water 

likely originates from springs and streams discharging from 

the Onondaga Limestone on the south side of the watershed, 

generally during the spring peak-runoff period, when the 

sulfate-type water from the Salina Group is diluted by water 

from a limestone source. During summer low-flow periods, 

the sulfate-type water is often dominant because the discharge 

from the Onondaga Limestone is greatly reduced, if not 

totally absent. 

The different sources of water were described in an 

independently produced Surface Water Assessment Tool 

(SWAT) model of the Oak Orchard Creek watershed, 

developed by Richards and others (2010). To have the SWAT 

model reproduce realistic spring-runoff volumes in Oak 

Orchard Creek, the model needed additional surface-water 

flow from outside the Oak Orchard Creek watershed to be 

properly calibrated; that flow was described as groundwater 

discharge originating from the Onondaga Limestone 

Escarpment. This additional flow was modeled only for the 

spring runoff period. Simulated flow in Oak Orchard Creek 

during other seasons was only from within the Oak Orchard 

Creek watershed, which flows across and through Salina 

Group shale bedrock. 

Similar water-quality conditions were noted across these 

same bedrock units in Monroe County, N.Y., east of the study 

area (Hayhurst and others, 2010, p. 18). This study found 

that large sulfate concentrations measured in samples from 

Irondequoit Creek were the result of dissolution of gypsum 

layers found in Silurian shale (Salina Group) that crops out in 

that part of that watershed. Therefore, this dual-source flow 

system (seasonally-produced surface-water and groundwater 

flow from limestone and shale bedrock) produces seasonally 

different water quality in these watersheds and most likely 

elsewhere in north-central New York State where these 

bedrock units are present. 

The Oak Orchard Acid Springs 

The Oak Orchard Acid Springs are a unique feature in 

New York State because of their naturally low pH (about 

2.0) and their location deep within the Oak Orchard Creek 

wetlands. Since their discovery in the early 1800s, these 

springs have been a source of curiosity and, for a time, 

a source of “medicinal healing” according to those who 

promoted their use. Water from the spring ponds—surface 

discharge from these springs was minimal during the two 

site visits to collect water samples—was bottled and sold 

throughout the East Coast and purportedly shipped to the 

western states and Europe (North, 1899). The springs were 

considered unique because each had its own type of water, 

“three of which are acid, one sulphur, one magnesia, one 

iron, and one gas spring sufficient to light 50 gas burners,” 

according to the “History of Alabama, N.Y.” (North, 1899) 

The water became so popular that a hotel was eventually built 

near the springs., but by the mid- to late 1800s, the use of 

the acid waters greatly declined, and the springs were all but 

forgotten except for the name of a nearby road—Sour Springs 

Road.

The quality of this acidic water from four different 

springs (GS290, GS291, GS292, and GS293) was initially 

determined in December 2009. Because of the highly unusual 

results (the very low pH of the water, the high trace metal 

content, and the nearly-constant discharge of natural gas from 

two springs), a confirming set of samples was collected in May 

2010. Once the water quality of the springs was confirmed, 

an understanding of the physical and chemical processes 

that create this unique water quality was determined using 

two USGS geochemical models—NETPATH (Plummer and 

others, 1994) and PHREEQC (Parkhurst and Appelo, 1999)—

to determine the possible geochemical processes that might 

create the acid spring waters (N. Plummer, U.S. Geological 

Survey, written commun., 2010). The most appropriate model, 

developed in NETPATH, identified oxidation of organic 

carbon and pyrite from the shales of the Salina Group, which 

resulted in the reduction of organic carbon to methane gas 

and the further oxidation of pyrite (specifically the sulfide 

in the pyrite, which lead to a large amount of sulfate in the 

discharged water). The result of all these reactions is sulfuric 

acid (pH of about 2.0) and dissolved methane (as mentioned in 

the historic account of North, 1899). The results of the waterquality analyses of water from these springs (GS290, GS291, 

GS292, and GS293) can be found in appendix 1. 

Water-Quality Concerns and the Proposed 

Lockport Quarry

The quality of water that will be discharged from the 

proposed quarry is of concern to managers at the Refuge 

because of the quality of water from the Lockport Dolomite 

wells at Oak Orchard Ridge Road and Sour Springs Road, and 

because of the quality of water from the Oak Orchard Acid 
Summary 21

Springs. The two USGS wells (GS286 and OL41) closest to 

the proposed quarry, contain typical Lockport “black water” 

(ferrous sulfide) at depth and natural gas (hydrogen sulfide and 

methane) discharges from these wells. The draft environmental 

impact statement (DEIS) for the quarry (Continental Placer, 

2008) noted that “black water” and hydrogen sulfide were 

detected in the discharge from the pumped well (OL25, 

fig. 2) used during the 72-hour aquifer test conducted in 2007 

(Continental Placer, 2008, p. 43). The position of the proposed 

quarry in a topographic and bedrock low also indicates that 

groundwater will most likely flow toward the quarry from 

all directions rather than from the south as is the case at the 

Shelby and Barre quarries. These active quarries are located 

farther to the north, higher in the regional topography, 

and closer to the Lockport Dolomite Escarpment where 

groundwater discharges are fresh water.

The possibility that poor-quality water (“black water,” 

chlorides, trace metals, and methane and hydrogen sulfide 

gases) will be discharged during dewatering operations from 

the proposed quarry to one or more streams that drain into 

the Refuge is of concern to the Refuge managers. The quarry 

water would be discharged to Refuge wetland management 

areas and ultimately to Oak Orchard Creek. The rate of 

discharge from the quarry was stated to be from 260 to 

2,250 gallons per minute [0.5 to 5.0 cubic feet per second 

(ft3/s)], according to the DEIS (Continental Placer, 2008). 

Therefore, during summer low-flow periods, when tributary 

channels are normally dry and the flow of Oak Orchard Creek 

might be as little as 20 ft3/s, the contribution of the quarry 

discharge to Oak Orchard Creek could be as small as 2 percent 

or as high as 20 percent of the creek’s flow. Rapid surfacewater infiltration to the groundwater system is not likely to 

occur because of the type of fine-grained deposits present in 

this part of the Oak Orchard Creek watershed. In addition, 

the Refuge managers are concerned about any change to 

the hydrology of the bedrock groundwater-flow system that 

alters the Oak Orchard Acid Springs. Drawdown from quarry 

dewatering operations, especially in the deeper excavation 

areas, could alter groundwater-flow paths to an extent that has 

not been determined but might affect the production of the 

acid waters in the springs located south of the proposed quarry.

Summary

A 2-year study of the water resources of the Iroquois 

National Wildlife Refuge in western New York was carried out 

during 2009–10 in cooperation with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service to assist Refuge managers in the development of their 

15-year Comprehensive Conservation Plan. The study focused 

on surface-water resources of the Refuge, primarily Oak 

Orchard Creek; the groundwater resources that underlie the 

Refuge, primarily the Lockport Dolomite and overlying glacial 

deposits; and possible changes to these hydrologic systems 

as a result of the proposed development of a bedrock quarry 

along the north side of the Refuge. 

Oak Orchard Creek was monitored seasonally for 

flow and water quality, and four tributary streams that flow 

only during early spring were also monitored. A continuous 

streamgage was operated on the creek just north of the 

Refuge. Four bedrock wells were drilled within the Refuge 

to characterize the glacial deposits and the bedrock beneath 

the Refuge. Water levels were monitored in 17 wells, and 

water-quality samples were collected from 11 of those wells, 

from 1 bedrock spring, and 5 springs discharging from 

glacial deposits.

Flow in Oak Orchard Creek is highly variable. During 

spring runoff, flows can be as great as 7 cubic feet per second 

per square mile (ft3/s/mi2), whereas during summer low 

flows, the discharge can be as little as 0.16 ft3/s/mi2. Oak 

Orchard Creek has two different source areas. During spring 

runoff, flow from the Onondaga Limestone Escarpment, 

several miles south of the Refuge supplements surface runoff 

and groundwater discharge from the Oak Orchard Creek 

watershed. To a lesser degree, the Salina Group to the south 

and east of the Refuge and the Lockport Dolomite on the north 

side of the Refuge contribute to the surface-water system. 

During the summer and fall low-flow period, limited amounts 

of groundwater discharge from the Salina and Lockport 

bedrock units of Oak Orchard Creek and the unconsolidated 

sediments supply a small amount of the flow measured in the 

creek during this period. Water quality in the creek is affected 

by the seasonal variability of the quantity and quality of water 

from these sources.

The Lockport Dolomite underlies nearly all the Refuge, 

based on the results of the drilling program for this study 

and information from the New York State Department 

of Environmental Conservation Water Well Reporting 

Program. Between the Lockport Dolomite Escarpment and 

the Onondaga Limestone Escarpment, north and south of 

the Refuge, respectively, a bedrock trough was gouged 

out by multiple glacial advances. This bedrock trough was 

subsequently filled with mostly fine-grained sediments. 

Glacial Lake Tonawanda was present following the last period 

of glaciation about 10,000 years ago. These fine-grained 

sediments became the floor of the wetlands found along Oak 

Orchard Creek and nearby Tonawanda Creek. Water quality 

in the unconsolidated and bedrock aquifers is variable, with 

poor quality water (chlorides, “black water,” and methane 

gas) generally present south of Oak Orchard Creek, and better 

quality (fresh) water present at or near the land surface in 

aquifers north of the Refuge in the upper Lockport Dolomite. 

 The Oak Orchard Acid Springs are present within the 

Refuge and are considered unique in New York State. The 

waters in these springs generally have a pH of about 2.0, and 

several springs discharge natural gas, primarily methane. 

These springs were popular for their supposed medicinal 

benefits in the mid-1800s, but are now generally disregarded. 

The geochemistry of these springs is apparently unique and 

is theorized as being the result of the position of the springs 
22 Water Resources of the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, Genesee and Orleans Counties, New York, 2009–2010

within the bedrock trough, their connection to the highly 

mineralized shale and possibly dolomitic bedrock, and the 

mineralogy of the sediments through which they flow and 

discharge from at the land surface. 

The potential development of a bedrock quarry along 

the northern border of the Refuge is of concern to the Refuge 

managers. The construction of the quarry and the amount of 

water that could be discharged from the excavation may have 

an impact on the neighboring Refuge wetlands. The extent of 

drawdown from dewatering could change the local hydrology 

as well as the direction and rate of groundwater flow in the 

Lockport Dolomite. Although the effect on the flow of Oak 

Orchard Creek is expected to be minimal, changes to the local 

hydrology and water quality could affect the Acid Springs and 

the manner in which they function. 

The greatest concern is the quality and amount of water 

that may be discharged from the quarry during dewatering 

operations. The quality of this discharge could include “black 

water” (ferrous sulfide), chlorides, trace metals, and natural 

gas (hydrogen sulfide and methane) from the lower Lockport 

Dolomite. The poor water quality was noted in the quarry draft 

environmental impact statement and has been documented 

from nearby U.S. Geological Survey monitoring wells. The 

additional flow to the Refuge from the dewatering of the 

quarry will affect the hydrology of any wetlands downstream 

from the quarry and possibly Oak Orchard Creek. During lowflow periods, the quantity of discharge from the quarry, when 

compared with the flow of Oak Orchard Creek, could be less 

than 2 percent of the Oak Orchard Creek flow, but as much as 

20 percent of the creek flow. During low streamflow periods, 

the anticipated poor quality of the quarry water discharging 

into tributary channels with no flow could affect the ecology 

of the wetlands and the wildlife that use these wetlands.

References Cited

Blanchard, S.,F., 2007, Recent improvements to the U.S. 

Geological Survey streamgaging program...from the 

National Streamflow Information Program: U.S Geological 

Survey, FS 2007–3080, 6 p., available on-line at: http://

pubs.er.usgs.gov/usgspubs/fs/fs20073080/. 

Brett, C.E., Tepper, D.H., Goodman, W.M., LoDuca, S.T., and 

Eckert, Bea-Yeh, 1995, Revised stratigraphy and correlation 

of the Niagaran provincial series (Medina, Clinton, and 

Lockport groups) in the type area of western New York: 

U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 2086, 66 p.

Buchanan, T.J., and Somers, W.P., 1982, Stage measurement 

at gaging stations: U.S. Geological Survey Techniques 

of Water-Resource Investigations of the United States 

Geological Survey, book 3, chap. A7, Applications of 

Hydraulics, 28p.

Cadwell, D.H., 1988, Surficial geologic map of New York - 

Niagara Sheet: Albany, New York, New York State Museum 

Map and Chart Series, no. 40, 1 sheet, 1:250,000 scale. 

Continental Placer, 2008, Draft environmental impact 

statement for a mine land use plan mining permit, town 

of Shelby, Orleans County, New York: Albany, N.Y., v. 1, 

191 p.

Gowan, S.W., 1988, Hydrogeologic evaluation of a proposed 

stone quarry site in the town of Clarendon, N.Y.: Albany, 

N.Y., Dunn Geoscience Corporation, 43 p.

Hayhurst, B.A., Coon, W.F., and Eckhardt, D.A., 2010, Water 

resources of Monroe County, New York, water years 2003–

08—Streamflow, constituent loads, and trends in water 

quality: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations 

Report 2010–5216, 34 p.

Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, [undated], About us: 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, 

accessed May 2010, at http://www.fws.gov/northeast/

iroquois/aboutus.html. 

Kindle, E.M., and Taylor, F.B., 1913, Geologic atlas of the 

United States, Niagara folio: U.S. Geological Survey Folio 

190, 26 p.

Makarewicz, J.C., and Lewis, T.W., 2009, Oak Orchard Creek 

watershed – the location of sources of pollution, annual 

loss of nutrients and soil to Lake Ontario, and a test of 

effectiveness of zone tillage as a best management practice: 

Brockport, N.Y., The Department of Environmental Science 

and Biology, State University of New York at Brockport, 

136 p.

Michelson, D.M., Clayton, L., Fullerton, D.S., and Borns, 

H.W. Jr., 1983, The late Wisconsin glacial record in the 

United States, in Wright H.E., Jr., ed., Later Quaternary 

environments of the United States, v. 1, the Late 

Pleistocene: Minneapolis, Minnesota, University of 

Minnesota Press, p. 3–37.

Miller, T.S., and Kappel W.M., 1987, Effect of the Niagara 

Power Project on groundwater flow in the upper part of the 

Lockport Dolomite, Niagara Falls area, New York: U.S. 

Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 

86–4130, 31 p., 2 pls.

North, S.E., 1899, History of Alabama, N.Y.-from our county 

and its people a descriptive and biographical record of 

Genesee County New York: The Boston History Company, 

accessed August 2009, at http://history.rays-place.com/ny/

alabama-ny.htm.
References Cited 23

Parkhurst, D.L. and Appelo, C.A.J., 1999, User’s guide 

to PHREEQC (Version2)—A computer program for 

speciation, batch-reaction, one-dimensional transport, and 

inverse geochemical calculations: U.S. Geological Survey 

Water-Resources Investigations Report 99–4259, 310 p.

Piper, A.M., 1944, A graphic procedure in the geochemical 

interpretation of water-analyses: Geophysical Union 

Transactions, v. 25, p. 914–923.

Plummer, L.N., Prestemon, E.C., and Parkhurst, D.L., 1994, 

An interactive code (NETPATH) for modeling NET 

geochemical reactions along a groundwater flow PATH, 

Version 2.0, U.S. Geological Survey, Water-Resources 

Investigations Report 94–4169, 130 p.

Rantz, S.E., and others, 1982, Computation of 

discharge, v. 2 of Measurement and computation of 

streamflow: Water Supply Paper 2175, p. 285–631. 

Richards, P.L., Lewis, T.W., Makarewicz, J.C., and Zollweg, 

James, 2010, The Oak Orchard soil water assessment tool 

–a decision support system for watershed management –Part 

1. Calibration and validation: Brockport, N.Y., Departments 

of Earth Science and of Environmental Science and 

Biology, State University of New York at Brockport, 34 p.

Staubitz, W.W., and Miller, T.S., 1987, Geology and hydrology 

of the Onondaga aquifer in eastern Erie County, New York, 

with emphasis on ground-water-level declines since 1982: 

U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations 

Report 86–4317, 44 p., 4 pls.

Stone, B.D., 1995, Progress toward higher resolution of the 

late Wisconsinan chronology of the New England region, 

30 to 13 ka: Geological Society of American Northeastern 

Section Abstracts with Programs, p. 84.

Teller, J.T., 1987, Proglacial lakes and the southern margin of 

the Laurentide ice sheet, in Ruddiman, W.F., and Wright, 

H.E., Jr., eds., North America and adjacent oceans during 

the last deglaciation: Boulder, Colorado, Geological Society 

of American, The Geology of North America, v. K–3, 

p. 39–69.

U.S. Geological Survey, variously dated, National field manual 

for the collection of water-quality data: U.S. Geological 

Survey Techniques of Water Resource Investigations, book 

9, chaps. A1–A9, available online at http://pubs.water.usgs.

gov/twri9A.

Zenger, D.H., 1962, Proposed stratigraphic nomenclature for 

Lockport Formation (Middle Silurian) in New York State: 

American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 

v. 30, p. 477–513.
This page has been left blank intentionally.
Appendix 1 25

Appendix 1. Results of Water-Quality Analyses of Samples 

from Streams, Wells, and Springs in and around the Iroquois 

National Wildlife Refuge, November 2008 to November 2010. 

(Tables 1–1 through 1–10)
Table 1–1 26

Table 1–1. Site information and physical properties of samples collected from springs and wells from the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, New York, 2009–10. [Site locations shown in figure 2. mg/L, milligrams per liter; (00400), U.S. Geological Survey National Water Information System (NWIS) parameter code] 

Site identifier 1 Well depth, in feet Geologic unit Sample date

pH,

unfiltered, field, 

standard units 

(00400)

Salinity,

unfiltered, 

parts per thousand

(00480) 

Specific 

conductance, 

unfiltered, 

microsiemens per 

centimeter at 

25 degrees 

Celsius 

(00095)

Temperature, 

water, 

degrees Celsius

(00010)

Hydrogen sulfide, 

water, unfiltered, 

mg/L 

(71875)

Springs

GS 290 -- Lacustrine 12/2/2009 -- 0.6 1,280 3.9 PresentGS 290 -- Lacustrine 5/10/2010 1.9 0.9 1,760 5.7 PresentGS 291 -- Lacustrine 12/2/2009 -- 2.6 4,920 4.1 PresentGS 291 -- Lacustrine 5/10/2010 1.6 2.5 4,730 6.0 PresentGS 292 -- Lacustrine 12/2/2009 -- 5.3 9,440 8.0 PresentGS 292 -- Lacustrine 5/10/2010 1.4 5.6 10,000 8.6 PresentGS 293 -- Lacustrine 12/2/2009 -- 6.6 11,700 8.4 PresentGS 293 -- Lacustrine 5/10/2010 1.3 5.2 9,200 8.5 PresentOL 43 -- Lacustrine 12/2/2009 7.2 1.0 1,930 10.4 PresentOL 44 -- Upper Lockport 12/2/2009 7.0 0.3 704 10.3 Absent

Wells

GS 244 60 Sand and gravel 6/29/2009 9.1 0.1 222 11.6 AbsentGS 286 280 Lower Lockport 7/13/2009 6.9 11.9 14,900 10.8 PresentGS 287 60 Sand and gravel 6/29/2009 7.0 1.0 1,870 12.5 AbsentGS 288 130 Upper Lockport 6/29/2009 7.2 0.6 1,130 10.1 PresentOL 27 198 Upper Lockport 6/29/2009 7.3 0.4 718 10.1 AbsentOL 37 179 Lower Lockport 7/13/2009 9.0 1.1 2,150 10.5 PresentOL 38 240 Upper Lockport 6/29/2009 7.3 1.2 2,340 10.1 PresentOL 39 75 Upper Lockport 6/30/2009 7.1 1.2 2,310 11.7 PresentOL 40 75 Upper Lockport 6/30/2009 7.0 0.9 1,700 12.5 AbsentOL 41 100 Upper Lockport 6/29/2009 7.7 0.2 503 10.3 AbsentOL 42 90 Lower Lockport 7/13/2009 7.9 0.3 700 10.2 Absent

1Prefix denotes county: GS, Genesee; OL, Orleans; number is local well-identification number assigned by U.S. Geological Survey.
Table 1–2 27

Table 1–2. Concentrations of nutrients in samples collected at springs and wells from the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, New York, 2009–2010. [Site locations shown in figure 2. mg/L, milligrams per liter; N, nitrogen; P, phosphorus; <, less than; E, estimated value—constituent was detected in the sample but with low or inconsistent recovery; (00623), U.S. Geological Survey National Water Information System (NWIS) parameter code] 

Site identifier1

Ammonia plus 

organic N,

filtered, 

mg/L as N

(00623)

Ammonia plus 

organic N,

unfiltered, 

mg/L as N

(00625)

Ammonia, 

 filtered, 

mg/L as N

(00608)

Nitrate plus 

nitrite,

filtered, 

mg/L as N

(00631)

Nitrite, 

filtered, 

mg/L as N 

(00613)

Orthophosphate,

 filtered, 

mg/L as P

(00671)

Phosphorus,

filtered, 

mg/L as P

(00666)

Phosphorus,

unfiltered, 

mg/L as P

(00665)

Springs

GS 290 2.1 15 0.526 0.09 0.003 0.867 1.01 1.81GS 290 3.0 3.1 1.51 0.07 E.002 0.610 0.999 0.923GS 291 11 13 8.49 <.04 <.002 2.06 1.78 1.83GS 291 7.6 7.5 4.89 <.04 <.002 1.61 1.85 1.85GS 292 3.7 7.0 0.063 <.04 E.005 1.50 1.95 2.41GS 292 2.3 4.0 0.054 <.04 <.002 0.802 1.18 1.60GS 293 10 12 3.18 <.04 <.002 1.69 2.00 2.13GS 293 4.9 5.7 2.05 <.04 <.002 0.882 1.17 1.16OL 43 0.85 1.2 0.183 0.16 0.006 0.016 0.099 0.222OL 44 E.10 0.14 E.012 1.42 <.002 E.007 0.009 0.020

Wells

GS 244 E.07 E.09 <.020 <.04 <.002 <.008 <.006 0.010GS 286 4.7 4.7 4.33 <.04 <.006 0.228 0.268 0.267GS 287 0.13 0.15 0.071 0.15 0.020 0.011 <.006 <.008GS 288 0.40 0.46 0.355 <.04 <.002 <.008 <.006 0.011OL 27 E.09 0.13 0.037 <.04 <.002 0.011 E.006 0.009OL 37 0.20 0.21 0.132 <.04 <.002 0.009 <.006 0.008OL 38 E.10 0.19 0.056 <.04 <.002 0.010 <.006 E.006OL 39 E.09 0.18 0.027 0.21 0.003 0.008 <.006 0.020OL 40 0.18 0.14 0.055 <.04 <.002 0.009 E.003 E.006OL 41 0.12 0.15 0.067 <.04 <.002 0.015 0.014 0.012OL 42 0.17 0.14 0.106 <.04 <.002 E.007 <.006 <.008

Drinking Water 

Standards (a, b,c,d, or e) 

-- -- -- 10 a, b 1 a, b -- -- --

1Prefix denotes county: GS, Genesee; OL, Orleans; number is local well-identification number assigned by U.S. Geological Survey.aUSEPA Drinking Water Health Advisory (taste threshold).bNYSDOH Maximum Contaminant Level.cUSEPA Secondary Maximum Contaminant Level.dUSEPA Treatment Technique.eUSEPA Proposed Maximum Contaminant Level.
28 Water Resources of the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, Genesee and Orleans Counties, New York, 2009–2010

Table 1–3. Concentrations of major ions in samples collected at springs and wells from the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, New York, 2009–10. [Site locations shown in figure 2. mg/L, milligrams per liter; C, Celsius; CaCO3, calcium carbonate; (70300), U.S. Geological Survey National Water Information System (NWIS) parameter code] 

Site identifier 1

Dissolved solids 

dried at 

180 degrees C, 

filtered,mg/L

(70300)

Hardness, 

mg/L as CaCO3

(00900)

Calcium, 

filtered, mg/L

(00915)

Magnesium, 

filtered, mg/L

(00925)

Potassium, 

filtered, mg/L

(00935)

Sodium, 

filtered, mg/L

(00930)

Springs

GS 290 272 43.5 11.9 3.32 5.6 1.18GS 290 261 62.1 20.2 2.81 6.32 1.5GS 291 898 93.8 21.5 9.73 9.49 5.1GS 291 909 41.8 5.54 6.8 2.63 4.12GS 292 735 248 77.2 13.6 11.9 9.14GS 292 1,460 229 71.3 12.3 10.2 8.26GS 293 1,400 238 73.4 13.3 20.6 10.1GS 293 1,450 202 63.5 10.4 15.5 9.27OL 43 1,280 826 224 64.8 5.97 51.9OL 44 408 265 69.5 22.2 1.42 37.6

WELLS

GS 244 116 31 6.27 3.73 1.3 31GS 286 15,100 5,360 1,420 440 54.5 3,580GS 287 1,310 705 203 48.2 3.5 125GS 288 737 379 92.3 36 5.52 74.6OL 27 476 391 91.1 39.6 1.9 9.57OL 37 1,820 1,170 345 74.8 5.35 75.3OL 38 2,260 1,520 459 90.2 1.58 22.7OL 39 2,050 1,330 384 89.6 2.2 89.5OL 40 1,180 736 186 65.7 2.34 79.2OL 41 316 256 43.6 35.7 1.23 11.2OL 42 458 359 86.6 34.6 3.39 11.2

Drinking Water 

Standards (a, b,c,d, or e) 

-- -- -- -- -- 60a

1Prefix denotes county: GS, Genesee; OL, Orleans; number is local well-identification number assigned by U.S. Geological Survey.aUSEPA Drinking Water Health Advisory (taste threshold).bNYSDOH Maximum Contaminant Level.cUSEPA Secondary Maximum Contaminant Level.dUSEPA Treatment Technique.eUSEPA Proposed Maximum Contaminant Level.
 Table 1–4 29

Table 1–4. Concentrations of major ions in samples collected from springs and wells at the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, 

New York, 2009–10. 

[Site locations shown in figure 2. mg/L, milligrams per liter; C, Celsius; CaCO3, calcium carbonate; SiO2, silica dioxide; --, no information; <, less than; 

E, estimated value—constituent was detected in the sample but with low or inconsistent recovery; (29801), U.S. Geological Survey National Water Information 

System (NWIS) parameter code]

Site identifier1

Alkalinity2

filtered,

mg/L as CaCO3

(29801)

Bicarbonate3

filtered,

mg/L as CaCO3

(29805)

Bromide, 

filtered, 

mg/L

(71870)

Chloride, 

filtered, 

mg/L

(00940)

Fluoride 

filtered, 

mg/L

(00950)

Silica, 

filtered, 

mg/L as SiO2

(00955)

Sulfate, 

filtered, 

mg/L

(00945)

Springs

GS 290 <8 <8 0.02 1.16 <.08 13.6 177

GS 290 -- -- <.02 0.69 E.08 13.1 279

GS 291 <8 <8 E.02 2.77 E.07 90.8 1,050

GS 291 -- -- E.01 1.48 0.16 63.4 887

GS 292 <8 <8 E.02 12.7 E.08 27.2 1,870

GS 292 -- -- E.02 12.0 0.14 20.9 1,730

GS 293 <8 <8 0.02 10.3 E.07 73.7 2,440

GS 293 -- -- 0.02 10.5 0.16 44.0 1,660

OL 43 212 259 0.69 91.8 1.08 10.1 611

OL 44 233 284 0.02 69.2 0.26 13.4 28.4

Wells

GS 244 70 85 -- 20.5 0.64 2.55 3.98

GS 286 278 339 -- 7,050 1.42 13.2 1,960

GS 287 301 367 -- 197 0.32 16.7 405

GS 288 169 206 -- 149 1.03 12.3 203

OL 27 239 292 -- 16.7 0.78 17.2 124

OL 37 100 122 -- 130 1.07 17.2 1,010

OL 38 176 215 -- 34.6 1.52 16.7 1,370

OL 39 232 283 -- 176 1.28 16.2 1,040

OL 40 239 292 -- 195 1.10 17.6 403

OL 41 185 226 -- 7.31 0.93 22.5 69.0

OL 42 180 220 -- 20.6 1.41 10.4 160

Drinking Water 

Standards 

(a, b,c,d, or e)

-- -- -- 250b, c 2.0 c–2.2b -- 250b, c

1

Prefix denotes county: GS, Genesee; OL, Orleans; number is local well-identification number assigned by U.S. Geological Survey.

2

Fixed-endpoint titration at pH 4.5.

3

Calculated from alkalinity.

a

USEPA Drinking Water Health Advisory (taste threshold).

b

NYSDOH Maximum Contaminant Level.

c

USEPA Secondary Maximum Contaminant Level.

d

USEPA Treatment Technique.

e

USEPA Proposed Maximum Contaminant Level.
30 Water Resources of the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, Genesee and Orleans Counties, New York, 2009–2010

Table 1–5. Concentrations of trace metals in samples collected at springs and wells at the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, New York, 2009–10. [Site locations shown in figure 2. μg/L, micrograms per liter; <, less than; --, no information, E, estimated value—constituent was detected in the sample but with low or inconsistent recovery; (01106), U.S. Geological Survey National Water Information System (NWIS) parameter code]

Site identifier 1

Aluminum, 

filtered,

μg/L

(01106)

Barium, 

filtered,

 μg/L

(01005)

Beryllium, 

filtered,

μg/L

(01010)

Cadmium, 

filtered, 

μg/L

(01025)

Chromium, 

filtered, 

μg/L

(01030)

Cobalt, 

filtered, 

μg/L

(01035)

Copper, 

filtered, 

μg/L

(01040)

Iron, 

filtered, 

μg/L

(01046)

Lead, 

filtered, 

μg/L

(01049)

Manganese, 

filtered, 

μg/L

(01056)

Springs

GS 290 1,300 18 0.08 0.22 1.2 1.9 1.2 10,400 27.2 738GS 290 2,340 34 0.11 0.59 1.9 1.9 2.4 7,790 8.45 657GS 291 25,300 26 0.86 0.58 12.9 6.6 E1.2 43,500 22.0 618GS 291 18,800 22 0.64 0.43 8.6 4.8 <10.0 11,500 16.4 426GS 292 3,780 35 0.18 0.42 3.1 2.0 <4.0 3,440 25.3 277GS 292 3,470 28 0.11 0.3 2.1 2.1 <4.0 3,590 17.0 292GS 293 17,900 21 0.65 0.36 13.3 2.5 <5.0 11,900 19.5 348GS 293 11,000 15 0.39 E.14 6.2 1.5 <10.0 8,000 12.3 238OL 43 10.2 13 0.01 <.02 0.16 1.2 <1.0 50 E.08 18.1OL 44 10.1 69 <.01 0.14 0.61 0.17 <1.0 10 0.04 0.8

Wells

GS 244 <4.0 9 <.02 E.01 0.37 <.02 <1.0 26 E.05 2.0GS 286 <40.0 38 <.20 <.20 E1.1 1.4 <10.0 109 <.60 88.1GS 287 <12.0 58 <.06 <.06 <.36 0.89 <3.0 447 0.64 34.0GS 288 <12.0 63 <.06 <.06 <.36 0.15 <3.0 3,430 <.18 164OL 27 <4.0 76 <.02 <.02 <.12 0.22 <1.0 512 <.06 18.0OL 37 E2.2 35 <.02 0.02 <.12 0.36 <1.0 10 <.06 7.5OL 38 <8.0 8 <.04 <.04 <.24 0.44 <2.0 4,640 <.12 59.0OL 39 <8.0 34 <.04 <.04 <.24 0.52 <2.0 42 0.73 26.0OL 40 <8.0 39 <.04 <.04 <.24 1.4 <2.0 222 0.36 37.1OL 41 <4.0 59 <.02 <.02 <.12 0.05 <1.0 271 <.06 6.0OL 42 4.2 21 <.02 0.03 E.10 0.08 <1.0 48 <.06 4.2

Drinking Water Standards 

(a, b,c,d, or e)

50c 2,000a,b 4a,b 5a,b 100a,b -- 1,000c 300b, c 15d 50c–300d

1Prefix denotes county: GS, Genesee; OL, Orleans; number is local well-identification number assigned by U.S. Geological Survey.aUSEPA Drinking Water Health Advisory (taste threshold).bNYSDOH Maximum Contaminant Level.cUSEPA Secondary Maximum Contaminant Level.dUSEPA Treatment Technique.eUSEPA Proposed Maximum Contaminant Level.
Table 1–5 31

Table 1–5. Concentrations of trace metals in samples collected at springs and wells at the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, New York, 2009–10.—Continued[Site locations shown in figure 2. μg/L, micrograms per liter; <, less than; --, no infomation, E, estimated value—constituent was detected in the sample but with low or inconsistent recovery; (01060), U.S. Geological Survey National Water Information System (NWIS) parameter code]

Site identifier 1

Molybdenum,

 filtered,

μg/L

(01060)

Nickel, 

filtered, 

μg/L

(01065)

Silver, 

filtered, 

μg/L

(01075)

Zinc, filtered, 

μg/L

(01090)

Antimony,

filtered,

μg/L

(01095)

Arsenic,

 filtered, 

μg/L

(01000)

Selenium,

 filtered, 

μg/L

(01145)

Uranium 

(natural), 

filtered, 

μg/L

(22703)

SPRINGS

GS 290 0.1 2.3 <.01 80.8 0.12 1.4 0.19 0.02GS 290 0.1 4.2 E.01 90.0 0.10 2.1 0.23 0.05GS 291 0.1 16.2 <.02 188 <.11 5.4 0.39 0.07GS 291 <.3 12.4 <.10 144 <.54 4.0 E.35 E.07GS 292 E.1 4.9 <.04 114 E.15 1.4 0.35 0.09GS 292 E.1 3.4 <.04 77.2 E.18 0.75 0.22 0.08GS 293 0.2 7.8 <.05 112 <.27 2.0 0.43 0.16GS 293 <.3 4.6 <.10 67.1 <.54 1.3 0.43 0.16OL 43 0.3 4.0 E.01 2.9 0.07 1.3 0.09 0.61OL 44 0.6 1.3 <.01 100 E.05 0.40 0.26 0.99

WELLS

GS 244 2.6 E.12 E.01 <2.0 E.02 0.25 <.06 <.01GS 286 1.2 7.4 E.06 <20.0 0.43 2.7 1.7 0.46GS 287 1.7 2.4 0.05 10.6 E.08 0.64 <.18 2.38GS 288 2.8 0.87 0.04 E3.6 0.52 0.26 <.18 0.13OL 27 1.4 0.63 <.01 2.2 E.02 2.3 <.06 1.09OL 37 8.7 1.8 E.01 <2.0 0.08 1.1 <.60 1.15OL 38 0.1 2.3 <.02 <4.0 <.08 0.15 <.60 0.03OL 39 0.7 3.4 <.02 E3.5 <.08 0.22 <.60 0.51OL 40 1.2 3.4 <.02 199 <.08 0.43 <.12 0.61OL 41 1.6 0.24 <.01 E1.9 E.03 2.8 <.06 0.05OL 42 1.1 0.43 <.01 <2.0 0.04 0.10 <.06 0.06

Drinking Water 

Standards (a, b,c,d, or e) 

 -- -- 100a, b 5,000b, c 6a, b 10a 50a, b 30a

1 Prefix denotes county: GS, Genesee; OL, Orleans; number is local well-identification number assigned by U.S. Geological Survey.aUSEPA Drinking Water Health Advisory (taste threshold).bNYSDOH Maximum Contaminant Level.cUSEPA Secondary Maximum Contaminant Level.dUSEPA Treatment Technique.eUSEPA Proposed Maximum Contaminant Level.
32 Water Resources of the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, Genesee and Orleans Counties, New York, 2009–2010

Table 1–6. Site information and physical properties of stream samples collected at the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, New York, 

2008–10.

[Site locations shown in figure 2. --, no data; mi2, drainage area in square miles; (00300), U.S. Geological Survey National Water Information System 

(NWIS) parameter code]

Sample 

date

Dissolved oxygen,

unfiltered,

milligrams per liter

(00300)

pH,

unfiltered, 

standard units 

(00400)

Salinity,

unfiltered, 

parts per thousand

(00480) 

Specific conductance, 

unfiltered, 

microsiemens 

per centimeter at 

25 degrees Celsius

(00095)

Temperature, 

water, 

degrees Celsius

(00010)

04219979 Brinningstool Creek at Wheatville (5.43 mi2)

3/12/2009 8.8 8.4 -- 570 3.8

0421999720 Oak Orchard Cr trib (Shelby Rd) nr East Shelby (1.50 mi2)

3/12/2009 11.9 7.8 -- 224 0.2

0421999750 Oak Orchard Cr trib at Roberts Rd nr Alabama (1.92 mi2)

3/12/2009 12.5 8.3 -- 893 2.1

04219999 Oak Orchard Cr trib (Sour Springs Rd) at Shelby (0.47 mi2)

3/12/2009 4.7 7.5 -- 342 0.5

04219997 Oak Orchard Creek near Wheatville (108 mi2)

11/6/2008 5.3 7.5 -- 1,550 8.9

3/12/2009 9.1 8.3 -- 650 2.1

9/4/2009 1.3 7.9 1.0 1,900 17.0

5/5/2010 -- -- 0.7 1,390 17.0

7/19/2010 6.5 7.4 0.9 1,730 23.3

9/17/2010 7.2 7.4 1.0 1,970 13.1

04219998 Oak Orchard Creek at SR 63 near West Shelby (126 mi2)

11/6/2008 5.0 7.5 -- 1,370 8.3

3/12/2009 9.8 8.1 -- 382 2.1

9/4/2009 1.0 7.5 0.7 1,470 19.4

5/5/2010 -- -- 0.7 1,320 18.2

7/19/2010 7.5 5.6 0.9 1,720 24.6

9/17/2010 7.2 7.5 1.0 1,970 14.2

04220045 Oak Orchard Creek near Shelby (146 mi2)

11/6/2008 6.0 7.5 -- 1,270 9.1

3/12/2009 10.8 7.9 -- 517 2.2

9/4/2009 1.3 7.5 0.7 1,330 19.0

5/5/2010 -- -- 0.6 1,270 20.6

7/19/2010 4.9 7.4 0.8 1,650 24.3

9/17/2010 7.2 7.4 1.0 1,950 14.4
Table 1–7 33

Table 1–7. Concentrations of nutrients in stream samples collected at the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, New York, 2008–10. 

[Site locations shown in figure 2. mg/L, milligrams per liter; N, nitrogen; P, phosphorus; E, estimated value—constituent was detected in the sample but with 

low or inconsistent recovery; (00623), U.S. Geological Survey National Water Information System (NWIS) parameter code]

Sample 

date

Ammonia plus 

organic N,

filtered, 

mg/L as N

(00623)

Ammonia plus 

organic N,

unfiltered, 

mg/L as N

(00625)

Ammonia, 

 filtered, 

mg/L as N

(00608)

Nitrate plus 

nitrite,

filtered, 

mg/L as N

(00631)

Nitrite, 

filtered, 

mg/L as N 

(00613)

Orthophosphate,

 filtered, 

mg/L as P

(00671)

Phosphorus,

filtered, 

mg/L as P

(00666)

Phosphorus,

unfiltered, 

mg/L as P

(00665)

04219979 Brinningstool Creek at Wheatville (5.43 mi2)

3/12/2009 0.62 0.93 0.079 2.63 0.013 0.093 0.107 0.213

0421999720 Oak Orchard Creek tributary (Shelby Road) near East Shelby (1.50 mi2)

3/12/2009 0.5 0.82 <.020 0.41 0.003 0.016 0.033 0.146

0421999750 Oak Orchard Creek tributary at Roberts Road near Alabama (1.92 mi mi2)

3/12/2009 0.99 1.2 0.337 1.95 0.015 0.074 0.091 0.147

04219999 Oak Orchard Creek tributary (Sour Springs Road) at Shelby (0.47 mi2)

3/12/2009 0.57 0.79 0.044 0.38 0.003 0.034 0.056 0.161

04219997 Oak Orchard Creek near Wheatville (108 mi2)

11/6/2008 1.5 1.9 0.052 3.96 0.030 0.221 0.249 0.400

3/12/2009 0.97 1.2 0.056 2.19 0.014 0.199 0.236 0.294

9/4/2009 0.84 1.5 0.037 2.49 0.010 0.194 0.229 0.585

5/5/2010 0.92 1.7 0.081 1.42 0.036 0.128 0.165 0.492

7/19/2010 0.97 2.0 0.064 3.62 0.025 0.523 0.562 0.999

9/17/2010 1.2 2.7 0.111 2.49 0.016 0.193 0.229 0.810

04219998 Oak Orchard Creek at SR63 near West Shelby (126 mi2)

11/6/2008 1.5 1.6 0.055 2.92 0.027 0.198 0.230 0.289

3/12/2009 0.8 0.95 E.019 1.79 0.013 0.152 0.167 0.226

9/4/2009 1.1 1.6 0.049 1.17 0.010 0.214 0.256 0.572

5/5/2010 0.85 1.5 0.075 1.03 0.020 0.111 0.142 0.309

7/19/2010 1.1 2.1 0.122 2.27 0.038 0.269 0.314 0.721

9/17/2010 0.86 1.2 0.049 2.09 0.011 0.185 0.194 0.365

04220045 Oak Orchard Creek near Shelby (146 mi2)

11/6/2008 1.4 1.5 0.037 2.42 0.026 0.176 0.197 0.246

3/12/2009 0.75 0.97 0.023 1.48 0.013 0.105 0.126 0.189

9/4/2009 1.1 1.3 0.053 0.77 0.010 0.206 0.255 0.423

5/5/2010 1.1 1.4 0.076 0.95 0.018 0.087 0.129 0.306

7/19/2010 1.3 1.9 0.141 1.79 0.028 0.247 0.284 0.459

9/17/2010 0.84 1.2 0.033 1.90 0.008 0.147 0.167 0.348
34 Water Resources of the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, Genesee and Orleans Counties, New York, 2009–2010

Table 1–8. Concentrations of major ions in stream samples collected at the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, New York, 2008–10. 

[Site locations shown in figure 2. mg/L, milligrams per liter; CaCO3, calcium carbonate; <, less than; (70300), U.S. Geological Survey National Water Information System (NWIS) parameter code] 

Sample 

date

Dissolved solids 

dried at 180 degrees Celsius, 

filtered,

mg/L

(70300)

Hardness, 

filtered,

mg/L as CaCO3

(00900)

Calcium, filtered, 

mg/L

(00915)

Magnesium, 

filtered, 

mg/L

(00925)

Potassium, 

filtered, 

mg/L

(00935)

Sodium, 

filtered, 

mg/L

(00930)

04219979 Brinningstool Creek at Wheatville (5.43 mi2)

3/12/2009 322 232 68.8 14.6 5.08 19.2

0421999720 Oak Orchard Creek tributary (Shelby Road) near East Shelby (1.50 mi2)

3/12/2009 141 87.7 23.6 6.97 2.76 8.63

0421999750 Oak Orchard Creek tributary at Roberts Road near Alabama (1.92 mi2)

3/12/2009 601 423 134 21.2 7.34 15.4

04219999 Oak Orchard Creek tributary (Sour Springs Road) at Shelby (0.47 mi2)

3/12/2009 196 129 33.1 11.3 4.86 9.86

04219997 Oak Orchard Creek near Wheatville (108 mi2)

11/6/2008 1,240 818 266 37.6 8.07 29.2

3/12/2009 316 212 65.0 11.9 4.96 13.7

9/4/2009 1,620 1,090 369 40.8 8.46 40.6

5/5/2010 1,040 718 231 34.2 4.31 34.0

7/19/2010 1,390 895 295 38.3 12.8 45.4

9/17/2010 1,660 1,110 378 40.0 11.0 49.7

04219998 Oak Orchard Creek at SR63 near West Shelby (126 mi2)

11/6/2008 1,040 695 224 32.8 8.06 26.1

3/12/2009 286 193 59.7 10.7 4.95 12.9

9/4/2009 1,100 749 244 33.8 7.18 36.8

5/5/2010 954 653 209 31.9 3.77 29.5

7/19/2010 1,380 916 304 38.5 12.9 46.3

9/17/2010 1,650 1,090 366 41.6 11.5 50.5

04220045 Oak Orchard Creek near Shelby (146 mi2)

11/6/2008 972 610 196 29.3 7.32 24.7

3/12/2009 317 222 69.1 12.1 4.58 13.7

9/4/2009 985 673 218 30.9 6.17 33.2

5/5/2010 918 644 206 31.3 4.00 28.5

7/19/2010 1,320 856 283 36.4 11.1 41.8

9/17/2010 1,640 1,080 367 40.3 10.8 49.3
Table 1–9 35

Table 1–9. Concentrations of major ions in stream samples collected at the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, New York, 2008–10.

[Site locations shown in figure 2. mg/L, milligrams per liter; CaCO3, calcium carbonate; SiO2, silica dioxide; --, no information; E, estimated value—constituent was detected in the sample but with low or inconsistent recovery; (29801), U.S. Geological Survey National Water Information System (NWIS) parameter 

code; alkalinity determined from fixed-endpoint titration to pH 4.5; bicarbonate concentration calculated from alkalinity concentration] 

Sample 

date

Alkalinity 

filtered,

mg/L as CaCO3

(29801)

Bicarbonate 

filtered,

mg/L as CaCO3

(29805)

Bromide, 

filtered, 

mg/L

(71870)

Chloride, 

filtered, 

mg/L

(00940)

Fluoride 

filtered, 

mg/L

(00950)

Silica, 

filtered, 

mg/L as SiO2

(00955)

Sulfate, 

filtered, 

mg/L

(00945)

04219979 Brinningstool Creek at Wheatville (5.43 mi2)

3/12/2009 145 177 E.01 35.1 0.15 5.16 73.4

0421999720 Oak Orchard Creek tributary (Shelby Road) near East Shelby (1.50 mi2)

3/12/2009 66 81 <.02 18.3 0.12 6.15 13.7

0421999750 Oak Orchard Creek tributary at Roberts Road near Alabama (1.92 mi2)

3/12/2009 180 220 0.02 31.9 0.16 5.80 241

04219999 Oak Orchard Creek tributary (Sour Springs Road) at Shelby (0.47 mi2)

3/12/2009 96 117 E.01 22.4 0.21 6.22 25.7

04219997 Oak Orchard Creek near Wheatville (108 mi2)

11/6/2008 240 293 0.08 63.6 0.41 9.70 531

3/12/2009 112 137 0.03 26.0 0.19 3.75 86.5

9/4/2009 293 357 0.11 80.6 0.55 8.63 761

5/5/2010 272 332 0.07 62.8 0.40 5.12 420

7/19/2010 300 366 0.49 79.5 0.48 7.80 582

9/17/2010 285 348 0.65 87.1 0.50 8.29 791

04219998 Oak Orchard Creek at SR63 near West Shelby (126 mi2)

11/6/2008 211 257 0.07 58.6 0.32 11.1 441

3/12/2009 101 123 E.02 24.5 0.17 2.86 79.0

9/4/2009 291 355 0.12 69.0 0.41 9.99 446

5/5/2010 260 317 0.06 56.6 0.39 4.82 373

7/19/2010 295 360 0.50 79.3 0.48 8.47 589

9/17/2010 284 346 0.72 85.2 0.51 7.33 809

04220045 Oak Orchard Creek near Shelby (146 mi2)

11/6/2008 204 249 0.07 55.9 0.33 10.1 393

3/12/2009 104 127 0.02 24.5 0.17 2.35 101

9/4/2009 280 342 0.12 63.2 0.39 10.5 375

5/5/2010 261 318 0.07 56.0 0.38 4.99 348

7/19/2010 294 359 0.40 76.4 0.49 8.65 556

9/17/2010 279 340 0.70 83.5 0.49 6.68 794
36 Water Resources of the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, Genesee and Orleans Counties, New York, 2009–2010 Table 1–10. Concentrations of trace metals in stream samples collected at the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, New York, 2008–10. [Site locations shown in figure 2. μg/L, micrograms per liter; --, no information; <, less than; E, estimated value—constituent was detected in the sample but with low or inconsistent recovery; (01106), U.S. Geological Survey National Water Information System (NWIS) parameter code] Sample date Aluminum, filtered, μg/L (01106) Barium, filtered, μg/L (01005) Beryllium, filtered, μg/L (01010) Cadmium, filtered, μg/L (01025) Chromium, filtered, μg/L (01030) Cobalt, filtered, μg/L (01035) Copper, filtered, μg/L (01040) Iron, filtered, μg/L (01046) Lead, filtered, μg/L (01049) Manganese, filtered, μg/L (01056) 04219979 Brinningstool Creek at Wheatville (5.43 mi2

)

3/12/2009 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 25 -- 3.9

0421999720 Oak Orchard Creek tributary (Shelby Road) near East Shelby (1.50 mi2

)

3/12/2009 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 246 -- 5.6

0421999750 Oak Orchard Creek tributary at Roberts Road near Alabama (1.92 mi2

)

3/12/2009 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 33 -- 13.2

04219999 Oak Orchard Creek tributary (Sour Springs Road) at Shelby (0.47 mi2

)

3/12/2009 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 56 -- 10.2

04219997 Oak Orchard Creek near Wheatville (108 mi2

)

11/6/2008 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 129 -- 77.23/12/2009 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 86 -- 10.19/4/2009 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 43 -- 92.15/5/2010 5.2 42 <.01 0.34 E.09 0.86 2.8 59 0.09 1837/19/2010 7.1 42 <.01 0.03 E.08 0.79 2.8 29 0.17 1429/17/2010 5.9 40 E.01 0.60 E.07 0.32 2.1 34 0.06 139

04219998 Oak Orchard Creek at SR63 near West Shelby (126 mi2

)

11/6/2008 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 159 -- 86.63/12/2009 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 69 -- 3.69/4/2009 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 83 -- 1545/5/2010 10.1 37 <.01 0.19 E.10 0.71 2.2 72 0.09 1807/19/2010 7.5 43 <.01 0.17 0.44 0.69 2.3 36 0.14 1679/17/2010 5.6 44 E.01 0.20 <.12 0.91 1.4 27 0.05 155
Table 1–10 37

Table 1–10. Concentrations of trace metals in stream samples collected at the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, New York, 2008–10. [Site locations shown in figure 2. μg/L, micrograms per liter; --, no information; <, less than; E, estimated value—constituent was detected in the sample but with low or inconsistent recovery; (01106), U.S. Geological Survey National Water Information System (NWIS) parameter code]

Sample 

date

Aluminum, 

filtered,

μg/L

(01106)

Barium, 

filtered,

 μg/L

(01005)

Beryllium, 

filtered,

μg/L

(01010)

Cadmium, 

filtered, 

μg/L

(01025)

Chromium, 

filtered, 

μg/L

(01030)

Cobalt, 

filtered, 

μg/L

(01035)

Copper, 

filtered, 

μg/L

(01040)

Iron, 

filtered, 

μg/L

(01046)

Lead, 

filtered, 

μg/L

(01049)

Manganese, 

filtered, 

μg/L

(01056)

04220045 Oak Orchard Creek near Shelby (146 mi2)

11/6/2008 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 118 -- 50.03/12/2009 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 51 -- 6.99/4/2009 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 99 -- 1805/5/2010 7.8 37 E.01 0.23 0.12 0.81 3.3 64 0.10 1457/19/2010 7.2 42 E.01 0.39 E.09 0.59 2.0 36 0.12 1849/17/2010 E5.4 47 <.04 0.13 <.36 0.88 <3.0 21 E.05 152
This page has been left blank intentionally.
Appendix 2 39

Appendix 2. Hydrographs of 17 Groundwater-Monitoring 

Wells in and around the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, 

3 Regional Groundwater Wells, and 2 Stream Sites of Oak 

Orchard Creek at Sour Springs Road and Harrison Road, 

November 2008 to November 2010.
40 Water Resources of the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, Genesee and Orleans Counties, New York, 2009–2010

Kappel_fig ap2a-c

666

N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N

2008 2009 2010

A Fletcher Chapel Road - OL30 (Dug well)

628

N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N

2008 2009 2010

Elevation of groundwater level, in feet above NGVD 1929

B Casey Road - GS294 (Sand and gravel)

EXPLANATION

627

N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N

2008 2009 2010

C Salt Road - OL38 (Upper bedrock)

Date

642

645

648

651

654

657

660

663

620

621

622

623

624

625

626

627

619

620

621

622

623

624

625

626

Water level—in feet above North American Vertical Datum 1929, in well or stream 

No Data

Figure 2–1. Hydrographs of water levels in wells A, Fletcher Chapel Road, 

OL30; B, Casey Road , GS294; and C, Salt Road, OL38 in or near Iroquois National 

Wildlife Refuge, Orleans and Genesee Counties, New York, 2008–10.
Appendix 2 41

Figure 2–2. Hydrographs of water levels in wells D, Fletcher Chapel Road, OL31; 

E, Fletcher Chapel Road, OL28; and F, Fletcher Chapel Road, OL29 near Iroquois 

National Wildlife Refuge, Orleans County, New York, 2008–10.

Kappel_fig ap2d-f

638

N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N

2008 2009 2010

D Fletcher Chapel Road - OL31 (Sand and gravel)

630

N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N

2008 2009 2010

E Fletcher Chapel Road - OL28 (Sand and gravel)

EXPLANATION

628

N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N

2008 2009 2010

F Fletcher Chapel Road - OL29 (Bedrock)

Date

630

631

632

633

634

635

636

637

622

623

624

625

626

627

628

629

620

621

622

623

624

625

626

Elevation of groundwater level, in feet above NGVD 1929

627

Water level—in feet above North American Vertical Datum 1929, in well or stream 
42 Water Resources of the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, Genesee and Orleans Counties, New York, 2009–2010

Kappel_fig ap2g-i

624

N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N

2008 2009 2010

G Sour Springs Road - GS244 (Sand and gravel)

N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N

2008 2009 2010

H Sour Springs Road - GS288 (Upper bedrock)

EXPLANATION

N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N

2008 2009 2010

I Sour Springs Road - GS286 (Lower bedrock with natural gas discharge)

Date

616

617

618

619

620

621

622

623

624

616

617

618

619

620

621

622

623

624

616

617

618

619

620

621

622

Elevation of groundwater level, in feet above NGVD 1929

623

Water level—in feet above North American Vertical Datum 1929, in well or stream 

Figure 2–3. Hydrographs of water levels in wells G, Sour Springs Road, 

GS244; H, Sour Springs Road, GS288; and I, Sour Springs Road-GS286 in 

Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, Genesee County, New York, 2008–10.
Appendix 2 43

Kappel_fig ap2jk

626

N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N

2008 2009 2010

J Oak Orchard Ridge Road - OL41 (Shallow bedrock)

623

N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N

2008 2009 2010

K Oak Orchard Ridge Road - OL37 (Deep bedrock with natural gas discharge)

EXPLANATION

Date

618

619

620

621

622

623

624

625

615

616

617

618

619

620

621

622

Elevation of groundwater level, in feet above NGVD 1929

Water level—in feet above North American Vertical Datum 1929, in well or stream 

Figure 2–4. Hydrographs of water levels in wells J, Oak Orchard Ridge Road, 

OL41; and K, Oak Orchard Ridge Road, OL37 in Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, 

Orleans County, New York, 2008–10.
44 Water Resources of the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, Genesee and Orleans Counties, New York, 2009–2010

Figure 2–5. Hydrographs of water levels in wells L, Dunlap Road, OL27; and M, 

Dunlap Road, OL42 in Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, Orleans County, New 

York, 2008–10.

Kappel_fig ap2lm

622.5

N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N

2008 2009 2010

M Dunlap Road - OL42 (Lower bedrock)

EXPLANATION

Date

614.5

615.5

616.5

617.5

618.5

619.5

620.5

621.5

616

N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N

2008 2009 2010

L Dunlap Road - OL27 (Upper bedrock)

608

609

610

611

612

613

614

615

Elevation of groundwater level, in feet above NGVD 1929

Water level—in feet above North American Vertical Datum 1929, in well or stream 
Appendix 2 45

Figure 2–6. Hydrographs of water levels in wells N, Oak Orchard Creek, 

GS246; and O, Oak Orchard Creek, GS245 in Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, 

Genesee County, New York, 2008–10.

Kappel_fig ap2no

619

N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N

2008 2009 2010

N Oak Orchard Creek - GS246 (Shallow lacustrine)

EXPLANATION

N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N

2008 2009 2010

O Oak Orchard Creek - GS245 (Deep lacustrine)

Date

611

612

613

614

615

616

617

618

619

611

612

613

614

615

616

617

618

Elevation of groundwater level, in feet above NGVD 1929

Water level—in feet above North American Vertical Datum 1929, in well or stream 
46 Water Resources of the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, Genesee and Orleans Counties, New York, 2009–2010

Figure 2–7. Hydrographs of water levels in wells P, Feeder Channel, OL33; 

and Q, Feeder Channel, OL32 in Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, Orleans 

County, New York, 2008–10.

Kappel_fig ap2pq

615

N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N

2008 2009 2010

P Feeder Channel - OL33 (Shallow lacustrine)

615

N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N

2008 2009 2010

Q Feeder Channel - OL32 (Deep lacustrine)

EXPLANATION

Date

611

612

613

614

611

612

613

614

Elevation of groundwater level, in feet above NGVD 1929

Water level—in feet above North American Vertical Datum 1929, in well or stream 
Appendix 2 47

Figure 2–8. Hydrographs of water levels in regional wells R, Shawnee Road, 

NI869; S, Pine Hills Road, OL20; and T, Batavia Airport, GS217 in Niagara, 

Orleans, and Genesee Counties, New York, 2008–10.

Kappel_fig ap2r-t

629

N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N

2008 2009 2010

S Pine Hill Road - Orleans County OL20 (Sand and gravel)

912

N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N

2008 2009 2010

T Batavia Airport - Genesee County GS217 (Upper Onondaga Limestone)

EXPLANATION

Date

621

622

623

624

625

626

627

628

896

898

900

902

904

906

908

910

622

N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N

2008 2009 2010

R Shawnee Road - Niagara County NI869 (Upper Lockport Dolomite)

614

615

616

617

618

619

620

621

Elevation of groundwater level, in feet above NGVD 1929

Water level—in feet above North American Vertical Datum 1929, in well or stream 
48 Water Resources of the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, Genesee and Orleans Counties, New York, 2009–2010

Figure 2–9. Stream hydrographs in U, Oak Orchard Creek at Sour Springs 

Road; and V, Oak Orchard Creek at Harrison Road in or near Iroquois National 

Wildlife Refuge, Genesee and Orleans Counties, New York, 2008–10.

Kappel_fig ap2uv

610

N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N

2008 2009 2010

V Oak Orchard Creek Water Level at Harrison Road

EXPLANATION

602

603

604

605

606

607

608

609

No

Data

620

N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N

2008 2009 2010

U Oak Orchard Creek Water Level at Sour Springs Road

612

613

614

615

616

617

618

619

Date

Elevation of creek water level, in feet above NGVD 1929

Water level—in feet above North American Vertical Datum 1929, in well or stream 
Appendix 3 49

Appendix 3. Borehole Geophysical Logs for Four Test 

Holes —OL27–Dunlap Road, OL37–Oak Orchard Ridge Road, 

OL38–Salt Road, and GS286–Sour Springs Road—Drilled in 

the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, Genesee and Orleans 

Counties, New York. 

Explanation

OL27 USGS well identifier

Depth Depth, in feet below land surface at specified vertical scale

Form Stratigraphic formation 

Litho Stratigraphic member 

Gamma Natural gamma radiation, in counts per second (cps)

Cond Formation conductivity millisiemens per meter

Caliper Mechanical three-arm caliper, borehole diameter in inches 

OTV Optical-televiewer image, 360-degree optical image of borehole wall oriented to 

True Geographic North

Acou ATV Acoustic-televiewer image; 360-degree acoustic image of borehole wall oriented 

to True Geographic North

EMFM Flow measured by electromagnetic flowmeter (-amb, ambient; -pmp, pumped), 

in gallons per minute1

Fl Cond Fluid conductivity (-amb, ambient; -pmp, pumped), in microsiemens per 

centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius1

Temp Temperature (-amb, ambient; -pmp, pumped), in degrees Celsius1

HPFM Flow measured by heat-pulse flowmeter (-amb, ambient; -pmp, pumped), in 

gallons per minute1

Trans Transmissivity of flow zone based on USGS flow-log analysis, in feet squared 

per day 

Completion Location of steel casing and shale packer in test well

Head Config Relative head (water-level) relationship in the test well

1

Blue square indicates ambient stationary measurement; blue line indicates ambient trolling measurement; red open 

square indicates pumped stationary measurement; red line indicates pumped trolling measurement; downward flow is 

negative; upward flow is positive. 
50 Water Resources of the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, Genesee and Orleans Counties, New York, 2009–2010 L1L2 Depth 1ft:350ft INWR Ol-27 Dunlap Rd. Lat 43 09 24 Long 078 24 13 Caliper

4 8 Inch

Temp ambient

48 50 Deg F

Gamma

0 120 cps

Fl Cond ambient

0 5000 uS/cm

Temp pumped

48 50 Deg F

Fl Cond pumped

0 5000 uS/cm

Trans

40 4000 ft^2/day

Flow ambient

-8 8 gal/min

Flow pumped

-8 8 gal/min

Depth to water level

45 tf 24

Completion

0.5 0.5

OTV MN

0° 0° ° 072 ° 09 ° 081

ATV MN

0° 0° ° 072 ° 09 ° 081

Formation Litho

 0255075

100125150175

200

Glacial Deposits Eramosa Goat Island Gasport w Dece ter s he oc R

Shale

Headcong.

Figure 3–1. Borehole geophysical log for test hole OL27 Dunlap Road, Orleans County, New York.
Appendix 3 51

L1

L2

Headcong. Completion

Figure 3–2. Borehole geophysical log for test hole OL37 Oak Orchard Ridge Road, Orleans County, New York.
52 Water Resources of the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, Genesee and Orleans Counties, New York, 2009–2010 Iroquois Refuge OL38 Salt Road Head config.

Figure 3–3. Borehole geophysical log for test hole OL38 Salt Road, Orleans County, New York.
Appendix 3 53

L1

L2

Iroquois Refuge GS286 Sour Springs Road

Headconfig.

Figure 3–4. Borehole geophysical log for test hole GS286 Sour Springs Road, Genesee County, New York.
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For additional information write to:

New York Water Science Center

U.S. Geological Survey

30 Brown Rd.

Ithaca, NY 14850

Information requests:

(518) 285-5602

or visit our Web site at:

http://ny.water.usgs.gov
Kappel and Jennings—Water Resources of the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge, New York, 2009–2010—Scientific Investigations Report 2012–5027