Trace-Element Analyses of Core Samples from the 

1967–1988 Drillings of Kilauea Iki Lava Lake, Hawaii

By Rosalind Tuthill Helz

Open-File Report 2012–1050

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
ii

U.S. Department of the Interior

KEN SALAZAR, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Marcia K. McNutt, Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2012 

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Suggested citation:

Helz, R.T., 2012, Trace-element analyses of core samples from the 1967–1988 drillings of 

Kilauea Iki lava lake, Hawaii: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2012–1050, 46 p.,

available only at http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2012/1050. 

Any use of trade, product, or firm names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply 

endorsement by the U.S. Government. 

Although this report is in the public domain, permission must be secured from the individual 

copyright owners to reproduce any copyrighted material contained within this report.
iii

Contents

Introduction.................................................................................................................................................................... 1

Background and Previous Work .................................................................................................................................... 1

Sample Selection and Analytical Methods..................................................................................................................... 4

Description of the Analytical Tables............................................................................................................................... 5

Availability and Coherence of Trace-Element Data ....................................................................................................... 6

Comparisons Within This Study ................................................................................................................................. 6

Comparisons Among the 1959 Eruption Samples ....................................................................................................10

Overview of Processes Active in Kilauea Iki Lava Lake ................................................................................................12

Trace-Element Variations in Kilauea Iki Lava Lake.......................................................................................................15

Trace Elements Compatible with Olivine and (or) Chromite......................................................................................15

Trace Elements Compatible with Pyroxene and (or) Plagioclase..............................................................................17

Incompatible Alkali and Alkaline Earth Trace Elements ............................................................................................19

High Field Strength Trace Elements .........................................................................................................................20

Chondrite-Normalized Rare-Earth Element Patterns....................................................................................................22

Discussion and Summary .............................................................................................................................................24

References Cited..........................................................................................................................................................26

Figures

1. Index map of the summit area of Kilauea Volcano ........................................................................................... 2

2. Plan view of the post-1959 surface of Kilauea Iki ............................................................................................. 2

3. Cross section of Kilauea Iki lava lake taken along the central line of closely spaced levelling stations 

shown in figure 2 .............................................................................................................................................. 3

4. MgO content (weight percent) of olivine-phyric core versus depth below the surface of Kilauea Iki lava 

lake, modified from figure 3 in Helz (2009) ....................................................................................................... 6

5. Plots comparing instrumental neutron-activation analysis and energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence data 

for five elements from the present study........................................................................................................... 8

6. Cr2O3 values (weight percent) plotted against instrumental neutron-activation analysis determinations 

for Cr in parts per million for all samples in the present study. ......................................................................... 9

7. Concentrations of nine elements, in parts per million, plotted against MgO content, in weight 

percent, for samples from the 1959 eruption ...................................................................................................11

8. Cr, Ni, Zn, and Cu concentrations, in parts per million, versus MgO content, in weight percent, for 

drill core plus samples from the 1959 eruption, as indicated in the key within each plot .................................16

9. Sc, Sr, and Y concentrations, in parts per million, versus MgO content, in weight percent, for drill core 

samples plus samples from the 1959 eruption, as indicated in the key within each plot..................................18

10. Rb, Ba, and Cs concentrations, in parts per million, versus MgO content, in weight percent, for drill core 

samples plus samples from the 1959 eruption, as indicated by the key within each plot.................................19

11. Trace elements, in parts per million, versus MgO contents, in weight percent, for drill core plus samples 

from the 1959 eruption, as indicated in the key within each plot......................................................................21

12. Chondrite-normalized rare-earth element patterns for samples from the 1959 eruption plus shallow 

sample 67-3-6.8...............................................................................................................................................22
iv

13. Chondrite-normalized rare-earth element patterns for segregation veins and glasses, differentiated oozes 

from KI79-1R and small late veins and oozes together with four strongly depleted samples from zones VI 

and VII. ............................................................................................................................................................23

14. Enrichment factors for the three most differentiated samples from Kilauea Iki lava lake, compared with 

the average of four undifferentiated samples with MgO = 16.05 to 18.84 weight percent................................25

Tables

1. Elements analyzed, by method or by study. ..................................................................................................... 7

2. Differentiation processes in Kilauea Iki lava lake, modified from Helz (1987a, 2009)......................................12

3. Major-element compositions of extreme differentiates from Kilauea Iki for which trace-element data have 

been obtained..................................................................................................................................................14

4. Average olivine compositions in selected samples from Kilauea Iki lava lake. ................................................17

A1. Instrumental neutron-activation analyses of trace elements for samples from the 1959 Kilauea Iki 

eruption............................................................................................................................................................28

A2. Instrumental neutron-activation analyses of trace elements for samples from the 1967 Kilauea Iki drill 

core. ................................................................................................................................................................29

A3. Instrumental neutron-activation analyses of trace elements for samples from the 1975 Kilauea Iki drill 

core. ................................................................................................................................................................31

A4. Instrumental neutron-activation analyses of trace elements for samples from the 1979 Kilauea Iki drill 

core. ................................................................................................................................................................33

A5. Instrumental neutron-activation analyses of trace elements from the 1981 Kilauea Iki drill core. ....................35

A6. Instrumental neutron-activation analyses of trace elements from the 1988 Kilauea Iki drill core. ....................38

B1. Energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence analyses of trace elements in samples from the 1959 Kilauea Iki 

eruption............................................................................................................................................................40

B2. Energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence analyses of trace elements for samples from 1967 Kilauea Iki drill 

core. ................................................................................................................................................................41

B3. Energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence analyses of trace elements for samples from 1975 Kilauea Iki drill 

core. ................................................................................................................................................................42

B4. Energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence analyses of trace elements for samples from 1979 Kilauea Iki 

core. ................................................................................................................................................................43

B5. Energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence analyses of trace elements from 1981 Kilauea Iki drill core.................45

Conversion Factors

Inch/Pound to SI

Multiply By To obtain

foot (ft) 0.3048 meter (m)

SI to Inch/Pound

Multiply By To obtain

meter (m) 3.281 foot (ft) 

Temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) may be converted to degrees Fahrenheit (°F) as follows:

°F=(1.8×°C)+32
1

Trace-Element Analyses of Core Samples from the 

1967–1988 Drillings of Kilauea Iki Lava Lake, Hawaii

By Rosalind Tuthill Helz

Introduction

This report presents previously unpublished analyses of trace elements in drill core samples from 

Kilauea Iki lava lake and from the 1959 eruption that fed the lava lake. The two types of data presented 

were obtained by instrumental neutron-activation analysis (INAA) and energy-dispersive X-ray 

fluorescence analysis (EDXRF). The analyses were performed in U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) 

laboratories from 1989 to 1994. This report contains 93 INAA analyses on 84 samples and 68 EDXRF 

analyses on 68 samples. The purpose of the study was to document trace-element variation during 

chemical differentiation, especially during the closed-system differentiation of Kilauea Iki lava lake. 

Background and Previous Work

Kilauea Iki lava lake formed during the 1959 eruption of Kilauea Volcano, when lava ponded in 

the previously existing Kilauea Iki pit crater (located just east of the summit caldera, see fig. 1). The 

eruption was well documented and extensively sampled, and 23 samples of 1959 eruption material were 

analyzed by Murata and Richter (1966). Wright (1973) and Helz (1987a) have demonstrated and 

quantified the role of magma mixing during this eruption, using the bulk chemical data of Murata and 

Richter (1966), plus mineral and glass chemistry obtained using the electron microprobe. 

Kilauea Iki lava lake remained accessible throughout the period of its cooling and crystallization 

(from 1959 to the mid-1990s) and therefore has been drilled repeatedly; the earliest core, recovered in 

1960–1962, was described by Richter and Moore (1966). Subsequent drilling was carried out in 1967, 

1975, 1976, 1979, 1981, and 1988. The locations of the resulting drill holes are shown in plan view in 

figure 2 and in cross section in figure 3. Further details on the later drilling episodes, plus petrographic 

logs of the cores, are given in Helz and others (1984) for the 1967–1979 cores, in Helz and Wright 

(1983) for the 1981 cores, and in Helz (1993) for the 1988 cores. 
2

Figure 1. Index map of the summit area of Kilauea Volcano. All historical lava lakes formed to date (1994) are 

shown in black. The prehistoric Makaopuhi lava lake is shown in the gray, stippled pattern. The historical lava lakes 

in Aloi, Alae, and Makaopuhi pit craters are now covered by lavas from the Mauna Ulu satellite shield, the summit 

of which is indicated by the "X".

Figure 2. Plan view of the post-1959 surface of Kilauea Iki. The lake surface has a network of leveling stations, 

the locations of which are shown by the small dots. Larger dots indicate the locations of holes drilled from 1967 to 

1988. 
3

Figure 3. Cross section of Kilauea Iki lava lake taken along the central line of closely spaced levelling stations 

shown in figure 2. The present surface of the lava lake and two pre-eruption profiles are shown; they are joined at 

the square (upper right). The two pre-eruption profiles are taken from two different topographic maps: one (at 

1:2,000) is based on aerial photographs taken in 1948; the other (at 1:5,000) is based on aerial photographs taken 

in 1955. Both maps were prepared by R. Jordan, U.S. Geological Survey, Flagstaff, Arizona. The present position 

of the lake bottom has been intersected only at the location of drill hole KI79-5 and lies 20 to 23 meters deeper 

here and across the flat central floor than the pre-eruptive topography would suggest. Vertical exaggeration is 4:1.

The drill holes are shown as vertical lines projected onto this cross section. Several of the drill hole locations have 

been reoccupied more than once, in order to sample the same section of the crust in several stages of 

development. Spacing between these closely spaced holes is not to scale in this figure. Only the deepest hole in 

each cluster has been labeled, for clarity. The arrows mark the position of the thermal maximum in 1979, 1981, and 

1988, as determined by analyzing glass in quenched, partially molten drill core using the glass geothermometer of 

Helz and Thornber (1987). 
4

Kilauea Iki cores have been studied extensively, including petrography and microprobe analysis 

of individual phases, plus chemical analysis of bulk samples. The results of studies based on the 1967–

1981 cores were reported in Helz (1980; 1987a, b), Helz and Thornber (1987), Helz and others (1989), 

Helz and others (1994), and Barth and others (1994). Helz (2009) was the first paper to make use of the 

major-element analytical results for the 1988 core, which were presented in Helz and Taggart (2010). 

There have been few prior reports on the trace-element compositions of core from the lava lake, 

with the notable exception of a study by Pitcher and others (2009) of the platinum-group elements and 

Re in a suite of 14 samples from Kilauea Iki plus 5 from the 1959 eruption. The 1959 eruption pumices, 

by contrast, have been analyzed for various trace elements twice previously, by Gunn (1971) and by 

Tilling and others (1987). The results reported here will be compared with those of the earlier studies. 

Sample Selection and Analytical Methods

After 242 Kilauea Iki samples had been analyzed for major elements (Helz and others, 1994; 

Helz and Taggart, 2010), the present subset of 84 was submitted for trace-element analysis. Samples for 

trace-element analysis were chosen to represent all rock types found in the lake and the full range of 

major-element compositional variation observed. In order to obtain data for a large suite of trace 

elements of varying geochemical behavior, the samples were submitted for both INAA and EDXRF 

analysis.

The INAA analyses were obtained between 1989 and 1994; the samples were irradiated at the 

USGS TRIGA reactor in Denver, Colorado, and analyzed in the USGS Radiochemistry Laboratory in 

Reston, Virginia. The general INAA procedure is described in Baedecker and McKown (1987), and the 

data reduction techniques are given in Grossman and Baedecker (1987) and Baedecker and Grossman 

(1989). Eighty-five samples were analyzed over the period from 1989 to 1994. This procedure generates 

values for a number of elements found in the major-element analyses, as well as approximately 27 trace 

elements. Of the elements normally reported as majors (Na, K, Ca, Ti, Cr, and Fe), only the values for 

Cr have been included in the tables in this report. All data were generated by the standard methods as 

described except for the Cs values for job CE96, which were recounted 525 days after irradiation in 

order to obtain better values. The analysts were J.N. Grossman and P.A. Baedecker. 

The EDXRF analyses were performed in 1992 in the USGS analytical laboratory in Menlo Park, 

California. The EDXRF procedure is that of Johnson and King (1987). Elements requested included Ni, 

Cu, and Zn, which were fluoresced with a germanium target, and Rb, Sr, Y, Zr, and Nb, fluoresced with 

a silver target. Ba, La, and Ce analyses, which would have required a different target, were not 

requested. The analyst was J. Kent. 

In order to evaluate the observed variation of Zn in the lava lake samples, it was necessary to 

obtain some data for Zn in olivines. These data were obtained on the JEOL electron microprobe 

(Reston, Va.). The usual olivine standardization package (including Si, Fe, Mg, Ca, Mn, Ni, Al, Ti, and 

Cr) was expanded to include Zn. Counting times used for Zn were 180 seconds (on peak) and 90 

seconds both above and below the peak (for background), in order to obtain reasonably stable counts. 

The modified package was set up by Harvey Belkin (USGS), whose assistance is greatly appreciated.
5

Description of the Analytical Tables

Tables of analytical data are presented at the end of this report. Table A1 presents INAA data for 

the 1959 eruption samples, while tables A2–A6 present INAA data for the 1967, 1975, 1979, 1981, and 

1988 core samples. Table B1 includes the EDXRF data for the 1959 eruption samples, and tables B2–5 

include the results for the 1967, 1975, 1979, and 1981 samples. No EDXRF analyses were obtained for 

the 1988 core samples. 

Each sample is identified by a field number. For the 1959 samples (in tables A1 and B1), these 

are of the form “Iki-1” and correspond to numbers given by scientists observing the 1959 eruption. 

Entries under “Lab no.” of the form “S-1” correspond to designations given in table 1 of Murata and 

Richter (1966). The analysis of Iki-3 was presented in Helz and Taggart (2010), and the lab number is 

the one for the major-element analysis. 

For the samples from the lava lake (tables A2–A6 and B2–B5), the field number is of the form 

“67-1-89.0,” where the first number gives the year the sample was drilled (1967), the second is the 

number of the drill hole within the year (1), and the third is the depth from which the sample was 

recovered (in this case 89.0 feet). For these samples, the “Lab. no.” is a number assigned for purposes of 

sample control within the USGS analytical laboratory system. In all cases, this number corresponds to 

the number for the major-element analysis, as given in Helz and others (1994) or Helz and Taggart 

(2010). These are usually not the same as individual lab numbers in the trace-element analytical jobs. 

The next line shows the job numbers for the trace elements. The INAA data include job numbers CD53, 

CE76, CE92, CG74, CJ12, and CJ13. The EDXRF data are from jobs CH90 and CH91. 

Concentration data for trace elements are reported as given in the internal reports. The INAA 

reports included the 1-sigma analytical uncertainty from counting statistics, but those numbers are not 

repeated here. Estimates of precision are given in Baedecker and McKown (1987). All concentrations 

are in parts per million except for Au, which is given in parts per billion. Entries shown as “<” indicate 

concentrations below the limit of detection, while “nd” means that the element was not determined for 

that sample in the particular analytical job. 

In all cases, the tables include the bulk MgO content of the samples, as reported in Murata and 

Richter (1966), Helz and others (1994) and Helz and Taggart (2010). Additional information on each 

sample is provided below the analyses. For the 1959 eruption samples, tables A1 and B1 also give the 

phase of the eruption, the fraction of juvenile magma present in the sample (Wright, 1973) and the 

quenching temperature of the glass present in the sample (Helz, 1987a). For samples from the lava lake 

(tables A2–A6 and B2–B5), the first of the lower entries repeats descriptions of the samples as given in 

Helz and others (1994) and Helz and Taggart (2010). The Roman numerals give the zone numbers 

where defined [Helz and others (1989); Helz and Taggart (2010)]. The zonation pattern is shown in 

figure 4. 

The tables also note whether the sample analyzed contains glass (= quenched melt) or not. 

Lastly, the core has been put into one of three categories, depending on its pre-quenching temperature. 

"High" samples are those quenched from temperatures above the solidus, which lies at 970 to 980o

C; 

these contain glass interpreted as having been a stable melt phase prior to quenching. "Medium" 

samples are those quenched from temperatures below the solidus but above the boiling point of water 

(approximately 110oC for the geothermal system in the lake, as the water contains some dissolved salts). 

"Low" temperature samples are those that were quenched from 110oC and hence had been in contact 

with liquid water (which contained some dissolved salts, mainly Na2SO4) prior to drilling. This 

information is included because it bears on the freshness of the material analyzed, though all Kilauea Iki 

core is pristine by normal geologic standards. 
6

Figure 4. MgO content (weight percent) of olivine-phyric core versus depth below the surface of Kilauea Iki lava 

lake, modified from figure 3 in Helz (2009). Zone boundaries, as defined by the results of Helz and others (1994) 

and Helz and Taggart (2010), are shown and the enclosed areas labeled.

Availability and Coherence of Trace-Element Data

This section reviews the coherence of the trace-element data, first within the new data presented 

here and then among the three sets of analyses available for the 1959 eruption samples (this study; 

Gunn, 1971; and Tilling and others, 1987). Table 1 summarizes the availability of data and methods 

used in these various studies and shows that two to four kinds of data are available for 16 of the 

23 elements. Elements listed in only one column are As, Se, Sb, Ta, Au, and Th (INAA only) and Nb 

(EDXRF only); of these only Nb, Ta, and Th are consistently above the limit of detection in these 

samples. 

Comparisons Within This Study

Five elements (Ni, Zn, Rb, Sr, and Zr) are reported in both the INAA and EDXRF tables. In 

addition, there are two sets of Cr data, the INAA data reported here and the values reported with the 

major-element analyses (Helz and others, 1994; Helz and Taggart, 2010) or, for the 1959 eruption 

samples, in Wright (1973). These data are compared in figures 5 and 6 below. 
7

Table 1. Elements analyzed, by method or by study. [INAA, instrumental neutron-activation analysis; EDXRF, energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence 

analysis;“X” indicates element concentrations in agreement with at least one other set of analytical data; 

“x” indicates inconsistent results or only one data set] 

Element This study 

INAA 

This study 

EDXRF 

Tilling and 

others (1987) 

INAA

Tilling and 

others (1987) 

other*

Gunn (1971) 

XRF

Sc X X

Cr X X X

Co X X x-high

Ni X X x-low X

Zn x-low X x-high X

Cu x x

As x

Se x

Rb X X x-low

Sr x-some high X x-some low X

Y x X x

Zr x x

Mo x X

Sb x

Cs x x

Ba X X X

REE X (8) X (8)

Hf X X

Nb x

Ta x

Au x

Th x

U X X

Other V, Ga, Pb Ga

*Emission spectroscopy except for U, which was done by fission track counting. 
8

Figure 5. Plots comparing instrumental neutron-activation analysis (INAA) and energy-dispersive X-ray 

fluorescence (EDXRF) data for five elements from the present study. All quantities are in parts per million (ppm).
9

Figures 5a and 5b compare INAA and EDXRF values for Ni and Zn, which are highly or mildly 

compatible with olivine. Ni concentrations are co-linear, with the INAA values mostly falling slightly 

above the 1:1 line, except for data from job CE92. By contrast, Zn data correlate very poorly; it is not 

clear from this plot which set gives the more satisfactory values for Zn. 

Figures 5c, 5d, and 5e show how Rb, Zr and Sr compare between the two analytical methods. 

The two highly incompatible elements (Rb, Zr) fall relatively close to the 1:1 line over a large range of 

concentrations, while the data for Sr correlate rather poorly, with the INAA values consistently higher 

than the EDXRF data. 

Figure 6 shows that when INAA values for Cr are plotted against determinations for Cr2O3

included in earlier reports (Wright, 1973; Helz and others, 1994; Helz and Taggart, 2010), the data fall 

in a broad linear array. The data on older (1967–1981) cores and the 1959 samples were obtained 

colorimetrically (Kirschenbaum, 1983) or by flame atomic absorption (Aruscavage and Crock, 1987), as 

described in Helz and others (1994). They are consistent with each other and with the INAA analyses. 

The Cr2O3 data for the 1988 samples, which were obtained by inductively coupled plasma atomic 

emission spectroscopy (Lichte and others, 1987), tend to be high. 

Figure 6. Cr2O3 values (weight percent) plotted against instrumental neutron-activation analysis (INAA) 

determinations for Cr in parts per million for all samples in the present study. 
10

Comparisons Among the 1959 Eruption Samples

The 1959 summit eruption of Kilauea has been studied intensively for many years (Murata and 

Richter, 1966; Wright, 1973; Helz, 1987a), and some samples from the eruption were previously 

analyzed for trace elements by Gunn (1971) and Tilling and others (1987), as summarized in table 1. 

This section will use these results plus the new data to evaluate the results in the context of what is 

known about the petrology of the 1959 eruption samples. 

The 1959 eruption was picritic, with most samples consisting of vesicular brown glass and 

varying amounts of olivine and chromite (Richter and Murata, 1966; Helz, 1987a). The trace-element 

variations reflect this limited crystalline assemblage, as discussed in Gunn (1971). Thus all samples 

would be expected to fall on straight lines in magnesia variation diagrams (Wright, 1971; Wright, 1973). 

Figures 7a and 7b show how element concentrations for Ni and Co (fig. 7a) and Zn (fig. 7b) vary 

as a function of MgO content. These divalent cations enter olivine to varying extents: Ni is strongly 

compatible, decreasing markedly as bulk MgO content (and hence olivine phenocryst content) 

decreases. Three of four analytical sets have similar Ni values; those of Tilling and others (1987), made 

in the developmental phase of the INAA technique, run low at higher MgO contents. Co decreases 

slightly but perceptibly as MgO decreases, while Zn is so noisy it is not clear whether the slope is 

positive or negative. Of the four data sets, those of Gunn (1971) and the EDXRF data of the present 

study are in agreement with each other, suggesting that these are the best values available. 

Figures 7c–e show how the concentrations of six elements incompatible with olivine vary as a 

function of MgO content in the 1959 samples. The concentration of these elements increases as MgO 

decreases, as would be expected. In figure 7c, the Sr data are somewhat noisy, with the Gunn (1971) and 

the EDXRF data showing the least scatter. Two (of four) Sr points from Tilling and others (1987) are in 

good agreement with the other sets, but the two less magnesian samples run low, confirming the 

suggestion of Tilling and others (1987) that their Sr determinations were suspect. By contrast, the Ba

data are coherent for all three available data sets. The Rb data of the present study (fig. 5c), though in 

good agreement with each other, are somewhat higher than the Gunn (1971) data, as indicated in table 1. 

Figure 7d (Sc, La and Hf) show that the INAA data for these incompatible, high-field-strength 

elements from Tilling and others (1987) are in good agreement with the INAA data of the present study. 

For similar elements not plotted here, the other rare-earth elements follow La, and the U levels also 

compare reasonably well, as indicated in table 1. By contrast, the Y data (fig. 7e) are noisy, and no two 

studies fall at the same concentration level, though the Gunn (1971) data seem to define the most 

coherent olivine-control line. 

To summarize, most of the available trace-element data for samples from the 1959 eruption fall 

on linear arrays consistent with olivine control, even for elements where the different studies have 

obtained different concentration levels. Given that the samples consist of glass ± olivine ± chromite, the 

few data sets (some Zn and Y data) that do not define linear arrays must be regarded as of lower quality 

than those that do. 
11

Figure 7. Concentrations of nine elements, in parts per million (ppm), plotted against MgO content, in weight 

percent (wt %), for samples from the 1959 eruption. Up to four different data sets are available, as indicated in the 

key within each plot. 
12

Overview of Processes Active in Kilauea Iki Lava Lake 

Of the 84 samples included in this study, 78 are samples of drill core from Kilauea Iki lava lake, 

recovered from 1967 to 1988. Most are olivine-phyric basalt, but a few segregation veins and other 

internal differentiates and borehole oozes have been included to help flesh out the behavior of trace 

elements over the lower part of the line of descent of the fractionating liquid. In contrast to the eruption 

samples, which differ primarily in their olivine content, samples from the lava lake have been affected 

by lower-temperature processes where augite and plagioclase were also present as crystallizing phases. 

Table 2 summarizes the processes that have affected Kilauea Iki samples, as described in Helz 

(1987a, 2009). The olivine content of the olivine-phyric samples varies greatly, with bulk MgO content 

in this suite ranging from 6.74 to over 25 percent. More of the lake has been affected by this process 

than any other, as indicated in table 2. The second most significant process is the upward migration of 

the low-density liquid present at the beginning of crystallization of plagioclase as described in Helz and 

others (1989). Most of the 78 lava lake samples have been affected by one or both of these processes, 

which took place in the molten core of the lake. 

Table 2. Differentiation processes in Kilauea Iki lava lake, modified from Helz (1987a, 2009). 

[+, plus; >, greater than; <, less than]

Stage of crystallization Differentiation process

Depth range 

affected (meters)

Temperature

range (oC)

Processes occurring in 

molten core of lake, before 

formation of coherent 

crystal mush

Olivine settling

Lateral convection

Diapiric melt transfer of 

minimum-density melt

10 to 97+

20 to 43 

13 to 94

>1180

1165–1170

1150–1160 

Processes occurring within 

coherent crystal mush 

zones 

Formation of ferrodiabasic

segregation veins (coarse grained, 

sill-like, internal differentiates)

Formation of vertical olivine-rich 

bodies (diapir tracks) that carried 

segregation vein melts through the 

mush zone at the base of the upper 

crust

Formation of melt chimneys and 

speckled-rock plumes that carried 

differentiated melts upward from the 

lower mush zone atop the lower crust

18 to 56 

 

 

18 to 58 

 

78 to 95 

1100–1135

 

 

<1140

<1140

Process occurring in rigid 

but partially molten rock 

Flow of late-stage melts into fractures 

and open boreholes

Possible 

anywhere inside 

chilled margins

<1070
13

Lower-temperature processes include the formation of diabasic segregation veins and of the 

vertical structures that mark the passage of the ferrodiabasic liquid from the lower part of the lake to the 

upper parts. These processes, which occur within coherent crystal mush zones (table 2), leave 

conspicuous textural traces in the drill core. The suite of samples analyzed here includes four 

ferrodiabasic segregation veins and three oozes of similar composition, plus four samples of rocks 

having anomalous textures and compositions (two vertical olivine-rich bodies or “vorbs”, one olivineglass body, and one speckled-rock body) that mark them as having been zones of transport for the 

segregation-vein liquids. 

The final process in table 2, which has produced the most extreme differentiates found in 

Kilauea Iki, is the flow of late-stage melts into naturally occurring fractures in the lake or, occasionally, 

into open boreholes. Table 3 presents bulk compositional data for all samples more fractionated than the 

ferrodiabasic segregation veins, for which data are included in this report. 

The table includes three samples with MgO = 2.37–2.60 percent, two of which formed from melt 

found within segregation veins that had half-crystallized. One of these (KI67-2-85.7) flowed from a 

partially molten segregation into an open borehole and was recovered during redrilling. The other 

(KI81-2-88.6) is a naturally occurring internal differentiate of a segregation vein, of similar 

composition. The third extremely differentiated sample is KI79-5-163.0, shown in column 1 of table 3. 

This small vein formed when liquid flowed not from a partly crystallized segregation vein but from 

within olivine-rich matrix when the matrix fractured somewhat above its solidus. 

This vein was too small to submit for major-element as well as trace-element analysis, so some 

of the powder was fused in a nitrogen atmosphere at extremely high temperature using the procedure of 

Jezek and others (1979), and the resulting glass was analyzed by microprobe. This same technique was 

applied to powder of sample KI81-2-88.6. Comparison of the analyses in columns 2 and 3 of table 3 

shows that microprobe analysis of the fused glasses produces a reasonably accurate bulk composition 

for KI81-2-88.6, which suggests that the analysis in column 1 fairly represents the composition of 

sample KI79-5-163.0. If one compares this bulk composition with the various liquid lines of descent 

shown in Helz (1987a), the Al2O3, total iron as FeO, and CaO contents of KI79-5-163.0 are consistent 

with its having been interstitial liquid in an olivine-rich matrix, like the melts from KI81-1. By contrast, 

the other two extreme differentiates have compositions that mark them as derived from an olivine-poor 

source, like liquids from KI67-3, consistent with their occurrence as internal differentiates of 

segregation veins. 

The final two columns in table 3 show bulk compositions of two melt-rich layers from the ooze 

that rose in borehole KI79-1, recovered as core KI79-1R (see descriptive log in Helz, 1993). This ooze 

underwent flow differentiation as it moved up, liberating an intermediate-stage liquid (MgO = 3.42–

3.48 percent) that does not otherwise occur as a separate body in Kilauea Iki. These compositions are 

consistent with interstitial melts from intermediate olivine contents, like those from KI75-1 (Helz, 

1987a). 
14

Table 3. Major-element compositions of extreme differentiates from Kilauea Iki for which trace-element data have been obtained. 

The whole-rock gravimetric analyses are from Helz and others (1994), although here all iron is reported as FeO to facilitate comparison 

with the microprobe analyses.

[ ---, no data; <, less than]

1 2 3 4 5 6

Sample no. KI79-5-163.0

small vein

KI81-2-88.6 vein in 

segregation vein

KI81-2-88.6 vein in 

segregation vein

KI67-2-85.7 ooze 

from segregation 

vein

KI79-1R1-167.8

melt layer 

in ooze

KI79-1R1-170.9

melt layer 

in ooze

Type of 

analysis

Fused glass 

microprobe

Fused glass 

microprobe

Gravimetric Gravimetric Gravimetric Gravimetric

SiO2 60.11 56.56 57.07 56.21 54.78 54.59

Al2O3 14.18 12.86 12.86 12.88 13.22 13.01

FeO (total) 7.59 11.70 11.61 12.03 11.63 11.97

MgO 2.57 2.50 2.37 2.60 3.42 3.48

CaO 4.51 6.11 6.08 6.33 7.08 7.07

Na2O 4.25 3.50 3.55 3.53 3.41 3.37

K2O 2.59 2.02 1.90 1.99 1.52 1.51

H2O± ---- ---- 0.18 0.32 0.26 0.21

TiO2 2.16 2.56 2.59 2.72 3.24 3.21

P2O5 0.66 0.84 0.96 0.88 0.74 0.69

MnO 0.08 0.14 0.18 0.20 0.18 0.19

Cr2O3 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.00 <0.01 <0.01

Total 98.70 98.79 99.35 99.69 99.48 99.30
15

Trace-Element Variations in Kilauea Iki Lava Lake

Chemical variations in Kilauea Iki are most effectively presented on magnesia variation 

diagrams because of the large range of values for MgO. Such plots of the major elements show clearly 

the dominance of olivine control but also allow one to recognize the incoming of augite, plagioclase, 

and the Fe-Ti oxides (Helz and others, 1994). The following section discusses the variation of 16 trace 

elements versus MgO, selected to include all variation patterns observed. Elements omitted include the

rare-earth elements (REE), whose chondrite-normalized patterns are discussed in a separate section 

below, and elements that were below the level of detection in many samples. The principal conclusions 

of this report are that there are few surprises in the trace-element data and that variations in the data are 

consistent with processes already inferred from major-element variations documented in earlier studies 

(Helz, 1987a; Helz and others, 1989; Helz, 2009). 

Trace Elements Compatible with Olivine and (or) Chromite

The variations of Cr, Ni, and Zn as a function of MgO content are shown in figures 8a–c, with 

Cu versus MgO shown for comparison in figure 8d. Of these, Ni (like Co, which is not shown separately 

here) shows the simplest pattern, decreasing steadily as MgO, and hence the olivine content of the 

samples, decreases. There is no divergence between the 1959 eruption samples and cores drilled in 

various years. 

Cr displays a similar overall decrease because most Cr is in chromite, and chromite occurs 

primarily as inclusions in olivine. However, a small group of very magnesian samples (outlined in 

fig. 8a) have relatively low Cr contents. These analyses (of samples 79-3-145.1, 81-1-169.9, 81-1-200.4, 

and 88-1-268.5) are all of structures related to the formation of segregation veins, as noted in the 

analytical tables. They are enriched in interstitial melt and depleted in augite relative to normal matrix 

rock with similar bulk MgO contents, hence their relatively low Cr levels. Finally, it should be noted 

that Cr shows a sudden drop to nearly zero for samples with MgO < 6.5 percent (the segregation veins 

and more extreme differentiates), presumably because they contain little olivine and no chromite. The 

more gradual decrease seen for Ni in the less magnesian samples may reflect the presence of some Ni in 

pyroxenes. 

Figure 8c shows the EDXRF data for Zn, as they are more coherent than the INAA data and are 

consistent with Gunn’s (1971) data. In the eruption samples, Zn increases very slightly as MgO content 

decreases, suggesting that Zn is only slightly fractionated between forsteritic olivine (average 

composition Fo86-87) phenocrysts and the melt, as noted earlier by Gunn (1971). However, in core from 

Kilauea Iki, Zn clearly decreases throughout the olivine-control range (MgO = 6.5-27.5 percent). In this 

range, Zn is partitioned into the Fe-enriched olivine produced by re-equilibration of the original 

forsteritic olivine. Table 4 shows data confirming the uptake of Zn by olivine of Fo80-71. The three 

samples highlighted in figure 8c, which run higher in Zn than most, are also enriched in Fe-rich olivine 

relative to other samples with similar MgO contents. Below 6.5 percent MgO, Zn increases significantly 

(peaking at 150 parts per million), then drops in the most extreme differentiates. The increase 

presumably reflects the paucity of olivine in the fractionating assemblage in the range of 3.5 to 

6.5 percent MgO. The subsequent decline in Zn is presumably caused by partitioning of Zn into one or 

more of the Fe-Ti oxide minerals that begin to crystallize at ~4.5–5.5 percent MgO (Helz, 1987a; Helz 

and others, 1994). 
16

Figure 8. Cr, Ni, Zn, and Cu concentrations, in parts per million (ppm), versus MgO content, in weight percent 

(wt %), for drill core plus samples from the 1959 eruption, as indicated in the key within each plot. Fields in figures 

8a and 8c enclose melt-enriched samples from structures associated with the formation of segregation veins. Lines 

in figure 8c show Zn compositional trends, as discussed in the text. 
17

Table 4. Average olivine compositions in selected samples from Kilauea Iki lava lake. [Quantities in weight percent unless otherwise noted. °C, degrees Celsius; ppm, parts per million;

mol %, mol percent] 

Sample no. KI67-3-83.8 KI75-1-144.9 KI79-3-166.1 KI79-1-187.4

Temperature on 

quench (°C)

1076 1117 1071 1130

No. points 14 9 11 12

SiO2 37.90 39.10 38.76 39.14

TiO2 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.02

Al2O3 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.02

Cr2O3 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03

FeO 25.59 19.82 21.35 18.51

NiO 0.20 0.26 0.26 0.27

MnO 0.34 0.28 0.30 0.27

MgO 36.19 41.12 39.86 41.78

CaO 0.28 0.28 0.26 0.29

Total 100.57 100.94 100.88 100.33

Zn (ppm) 154 121 140 96

Fo (mol %) 71.4 78.5 76.8 79.9

This complex behavior for Zn contrasts strongly with that of Cu (figure 8d), which is included 

here for comparison and exhibits the pattern of an incompatible trace element. Copper is chalcophile, of 

course, but the melt becomes saturated with immiscible sulfide liquid at so late a stage that sulfide is not 

a fractionating phase. The sample with the highest Cu content is the small vein KI79-5-163.0 (col. 1, 

table 3), which contains a number of blebs of pure chalcocite (Cu2S), as documented in Pitcher and 

others (2009). 

Trace Elements Compatible with Pyroxene and (or) Plagioclase

Only two elements in the suite investigated (Sc and Sr, in figs. 9a and 9b) show discernible 

effects of crystallization and fractionation of augite or plagioclase in magnesia variation diagrams. The 

first of these (Sc) peaks at roughly 7 to 8 percent MgO. As augite begins to crystallize (at MgO = 7.5 to 

7.6 percent, Helz and Thornber, 1987), trivalent Sc is partitioned strongly into this new phase. Sc levels 

decrease sharply as augite crystallization proceeds, as can be seen in the Sc levels in samples with less

than 5 percent MgO, in which the dominant pyroxene is pigeonite. 

The EDXRF data for Sr (fig. 9b) are shown rather than the INAA data for Sr because they are 

much more coherent, though lacking data for the 1988 drill core. Strontium levels peak at MgO = 6–7 

percent, where plagioclase begins to crystallize. Strontium then decreases slightly but not as drastically 

as Sc. This is because (1) it is not as strongly partitioned into plagioclase as Sc is into augite and (2) the 

most differentiated samples analyzed are still crystallizing abundant plagioclase, whereas augite 

crystallization is nearly complete. 
18

Figure 9. Sc, Sr, and Y concentrations, in parts per million (ppm), versus MgO content, in weight percent (wt %), 

for drill core samples plus samples from the 1959 eruption, as indicated in the key within each plot. Dashed line in 

figure 9b indicates olivine-control line, based on the 1959 eruption samples plus sample KI67-3-6.8, as discussed 

in the text. 

The dashed line in figure 9b fits the 1959 eruption samples plus KI67-3-6.8, a very olivine-rich 

sample recovered at a depth of 6.8 feet in 1967, from the upper chill zone of the lava lake. These 

samples define a strict Fo86-87 olivine control line, so that their variation shows how Sr varies in samples 

affected only by olivine control. Note that the slope of this line is shallower than the overall array of 

samples from the lava lake. This is a recurring feature of the trace-element data, as it was for the 

relatively incompatible major elements (TiO2, Na2O, K2O, P2O5, as discussed in Helz and Taggart, 

2010). This rotation in trends is consistent with the migration of differentiated liquid upward in the lake 

(Helz, 1987a; Helz and others, 1989), as summarized in table 2. That line is not shown in figure 9a 

because the eruption samples are quite variable in their Sc levels, perhaps reflecting the two different 

components of this mixed-magma eruption (Wright, 1973; Helz, 1987b). 

Figure 9c shows the variation of yttrium with MgO for all available data, for comparison with 

Sc. In spite of the incoherence of the various Y determinations for the 1959 eruption samples (fig. 7e), 

the overall pattern for Y in the lava lake is reasonably coherent, presumably because the range of 

concentrations of both Y and MgO are larger in figure 9c than those in figure 7e. The pattern, as 

expected, is that of a relatively incompatible trace element. 
19

Incompatible Alkali and Alkaline Earth Trace Elements 

Figure 10 shows how Rb, Ba, and Cs vary as a function of MgO content in the Kilauea Iki 

samples. The INAA data for Rb are shown because (1) there are INAA analyses of the 1988 drill core 

and (2) the two methods produced data sets of similar coherence. Both Rb and Ba are excluded from all 

fractionating phases in the lava lake, so they are strongly enriched in the most differentiated samples. 

The dashed lines in figures 10a and 10b are olivine control lines determined as in figure 9b. There is 

some divergence between the line and the array of lava lake samples for Ba, but very little for Rb. 

The available Cs data are shown in figure 10c. There is a scattering of Cs values reported in 

tables A2–A6; in addition, table A1 contains Cs determinations made by recounting one group of 

samples months later (job CE92), as described above. The recount data fall on a plausible olivinecontrol line, suggesting that this later counting produces more reliable Cs numbers than the standard 

procedure. 

Figure 10. Rb, Ba, and Cs concentrations, in parts per million (ppm), versus MgO content, in weight percent

(wt %), for drill core samples plus samples from the 1959 eruption, as indicated by the key within each plot. Dashed 

lines in figures 10a and 10b are olivine-control lines, as discussed in the text. Figure 10c shows Cs for the few 

samples where Cs was reported. 
20

High Field Strength Trace Elements 

Figures 11a–f show magnesia variation diagrams for some high field strength elements (HFSE) 

other than the rare earths. Their patterns are all very similar in spite of large differences in concentration 

range among these elements. For the more tightly coherent elements (Zr, Hf, Ta, Th), the olivine-control 

line determined from the eruption samples plus KI67-3-6.8 is shown. The line is omitted for Nb and U 

because the reported values for the 1959 samples are more dispersed. 

The array of data from the lava lake shows a consistent steeper slope than the strict olivinecontrol line, consistent again with extensive upward migration of differentiated liquid in the lake, as 

summarized in table 2. A unique feature of this group of trace elements is that a small group of samples 

from deep in the lava lake is depleted in these HFSE relative to most of the array. These samples include 

81-1-270, 81-1-273.6 and 88-2-301.7 from zone VI (as noted in the analytical tables) and 88-2-322.2 

(from zone VII). This extra level of depletion, seen also in K2O and P2O5 levels, was attributed (Helz 

and Taggart, 2010) to these samples having lost more segregation-vein liquid than most other samples 

from similar depths. This second type of liquid extraction (table 2) involves a lower-temperature, more 

differentiated liquid than the migration of minimum-density melt. The higher-temperature process 

operated more uniformly on sections of the lake affected, as discussed in Helz and others (1989). By 

contrast, the lower-temperature segregation-liquid extraction is more local and more variable in its 

effects. 
21

Figure 11. Trace elements, in parts per million (ppm), versus MgO contents, in weight percent (wt %), for drill 

core plus samples from the 1959 eruption, as indicated in the key within each plot. Dashed olivine-control lines, as 

in figure 9b, are discussed in the text. 
22

Chondrite-Normalized Rare-Earth Element Patterns 

Variations in rare-earth elements (REE) are usually displayed in diagrams where the 

concentrations of the REE in the various samples have been divided by the REE concentrations in 

chondrites. Figures 12 and 13 present REE patterns for selected samples from the present study, 

normalized using the REE concentrations reported in Anders and Ebihara (1982). 

Figure 12 shows REE patterns for the 1959 eruption samples (table A1) plus that for sample 

67-3-6.8 (table A2). This group of samples is used to define the olivine-control lines shown in several 

previous figures. Most patterns show a smooth decline in REE from La to Lu, with the patterns being 

slightly convex upward in the middle and declining steadily in the heavy REE. This pattern appears to 

be typical for Kilauea basalts (see, for example, Leeman and others, 1980), although it should be noted 

that this reference and most other collections of trace-element data for Kilauea lavas include a 

disproportionate number of samples from the 1959 eruption itself. REE concentration levels are 

inversely proportional to the olivine content of the samples, with sample 67-3-6.8 (MgO = 

25.83 percent) being lowest and Iki-1 (MgO = 7.23 percent) being highest in REE. 

 

Figure 12. Chondrite-normalized rare-earth element (REE) patterns for samples from the 1959 eruption plus 

shallow sample 67-3-6.8. 
23

Figure 13 includes data for two groups of extreme samples from Kilauea Iki lava lake in order to 

show the effects of internal differentiation on the REE patterns. The upper group of samples (those with 

La = 80–115 times chondrite) include all segregation veins and equivalent glasses (five samples) plus 

the five more extreme differentiates shown in table 3. These samples again show that, in general, REE 

levels increase as MgO content decreases, although the single most REE-enriched sample is 79-5-163.0, 

which has slightly more MgO than the internal differentiates from segregation veins (table 3). 

 

Figure 13. Chondrite-normalized rare-earth element (REE) patterns for segregation veins and glasses 

(five triangles), differentiated oozes from KI79-1R (two rectangles) and small late veins and oozes (three ovals), 

together with four strongly depleted samples from zones VI and VII. 

The segregation-vein patterns have barely perceptible negative Eu anomalies, but the five more 

differentiated samples are clearly depleted in Eu relative to adjacent REE. Such negative Eu anomalies 

occur because the fraction of Eu present as Eu+2 is fractionated by plagioclase. The ratio of divalent to 

trivalent Eu varies inversely with oxygen fugacity, so that Eu anomalies are more easily generated at 

low oxygen fugacity (Drake, 1975; Drake and Weill, 1975). Oxidation conditions in Kilauea Iki lava 

lake vary from fayalite-magnetite-quartz (FMQ) to nickel-nickel oxide (NNO), based on compositions 

of coexisting ilmenite and magnetite (Buddington and Lindsley, 1964), so Eu anomalies are not 

conspicuous. They are discernible in the segregation veins but are best developed in the extreme 

differentiates, which correspond to melts present after extensive crystallization of plagioclase. 
24

Figure 13 also includes REE patterns for the four especially depleted samples (81-1-270, 

81-1-273.6, 88-2-301.7, and 88-2-322.2) that were singled out in figure 11. All four have positive Eu 

anomalies, with that in the least depleted (81-1-273.6) sample having the smallest. Evidently this 

material is complementary to the segregation veins and other differentiates, supporting the idea that 

some of the liquid in the segregation veins originated in zones VI and VII, as proposed in Helz and 

Taggart (2010). 

Discussion and Summary

The purpose of obtaining trace-element data on a subset of samples from Kilauea Iki lava lake 

was to document their behavior in a basaltic system undergoing extensive fractionation at low pressure 

and water activity. Earlier studies suggested that open system behavior in Kilauea Iki lava lake has been 

very limited. Some volatiles (CO2, some chlorine, and much of the original H2O present in the lava) 

were lost during the eruption or very shortly thereafter, although in the same report Helz and others 

(1994) showed that there was no loss of either F or Cl from subsequent lake samples, at least from 1967 

through 1981. Sulfur was lost gradually over time, with the melt degassing significant sulfur during the 

1967–1976 drilling episodes, as documented in Helz and Wright (1983). One other element lost during 

the aging and crystallization of the lava lake is Re, as documented by Pitcher and others (2009). 

The overall pattern of enrichment or depletion of individual trace elements is summarized in 

figure 14. In this figure, the trace-element concentrations for the three most differentiated samples 

analyzed from the lava lake have been normalized to the average of the following four samples: 

79-3-160.5 (zone IV, MgO = 16.05 percent), 79-3-172.8 (zone IV, MgO = 18.71 percent), 79-5-260.0 

(lower chill, MgO = 18.84 percent), and 79-5-300.5 (lower chill, MgO = 16.61 percent). All four 

samples are undifferentiated with respect to eruption samples and lie very close to the olivine-control 

lines shown in figures 9–11 but were not used to define those lines. Their average MgO content is 

17.71 percent, somewhat higher than the average for the lava lake, which was estimated by Wright 

(1973) as 15.5 percent MgO. This denominator was used because there are no samples that have the 

lake’s average MgO content among those analyzed for trace elements. Figure 14 also includes 

enrichment factors for K and P, for purposes of comparison with the enrichment factors for the various 

trace elements.

For elements shown in figure 8 plus Co, the enrichment factors rise steeply from left to right, 

being lowest for Cr (concentrated in chromite) and highest for Cu (concentrated in late-separating 

sulfide). The figure shows that Co lies between Ni and Zn in its compatibility with olivine, consistent 

with other studies (for example, Gunn, 1971). The next group of elements (from fig. 9) includes the few 

which, along with Zn, are mildly compatible with some of the major phases (augite, plagioclase) 

crystallizing in the lava lake. Note that Y, the most incompatible in this group, is distinctly less enriched 

than the other incompatible elements. 

The remaining two groups of elements are all highly incompatible, with enrichment factors of 

3.4 to 7.4. They are no more highly concentrated than K and P, however, so no special processes of 

trace-element enrichment were active in the lava lake. In particular, there is no evidence for the “volatile 

transfer” process invoked by Richter and Moore (1966) to explain some erroneous analyses from the 

earliest (1960–1961) drill core. It should be noted that apatite has begun to crystallize in sample 

79-5-163.0; this crystallization has affected its P enrichment factor and may have affected the 

concentrations of the HFSE (other than Th and U) in this sample as well. 

The results presented in this report show that, for the elements considered here, the lava lake has 

indeed been a closed system and that the behavior of the trace elements is completely congruent with 

fractionation processes inferred on the basis of major-element compositional variations. These data, 
25

coupled with determination of trace elements on the glasses and individual crystalline phases, may 

allow determination of trace-element partitioning coefficients for the principal phases in basalt over a 

wide range of temperatures. 

Figure 14. Enrichment factors for the three most differentiated samples from Kilauea Iki lava lake, compared with 

the average of four undifferentiated samples with MgO = 16.05 to 18.84 weight percent. Elements shown include 

those from figures 8–11, plus Co, K, and P, with the REE represented by La and Lu. 
26

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28

Table A1. Instrumental neutron-activation analyses of trace elements for samples from the 1959 Kilauea Iki 

eruption. 

[Most whole-rock major-element analyses (S-numbers) are in Murata and Richter (1966). Iki-3 analysis is in Helz and 

Taggart (2010). Mixing fractions are from Wright (1973). wt %, weight percent; ppm, parts per million; nd, not determined; 

°C, degrees Celsius; <, less than] 

Field no. Iki-1 Iki-58 Iki-58R Iki-22 Iki-22R Iki-3 Iki-44 Iki-38

Lab. no. S-2 S-1 S-1 S-5 S-5 D-571889 S-7 S-25

Job no. CE92 CE92 CG74 CE92 CG74 CE92 CE92 CE92

MgO wt. % 7.23 8.08 8.08 19.52 19.52 17.2 13.67 8.85

Sc ppm 32.2 32.6 33.4 24.2 24.6 26.0 26.2 28.7

Cr ppm 246 378 385 1318 1342 1130 772 390

Co ppm 45.6 45.6 45.4 80.1 78.5 71.1 63.0 49.5

Ni ppm 107 130 131 808 850 640 483 225

Zn ppm 86 79 105 80.6 104 81 84 87

As ppm <2 <0.7 <2 <0.6 <0.9 <0.6 1.19 4.40

Se ppm nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd

Rb ppm 14.6 13.8 14.3 12.1 8.5 11.4 14.1 14.5

Sr ppm 440 390 380 291 290 354 390 390

Zr ppm 210 250 180 155 140 200 220 170

Mo ppm <4 <5 <5 <5 <5 <5 <4 3.2

Sb ppm <0.2 <0.09 <0.1 0.112 <0.1 <0.07 0.51 2.01

Cs ppm 0.123 0.106 <0.2 0.070 0.21 0.069 0.089 0.101

Ba ppm 175 133 144 134 102 118 145 144

La ppm 17.0 16.0 16.2 11.4 11.5 12.1 13.5 15.4

Ce ppm 39.1 35.5 36.4 27.7 27.8 29.5 31.6 34.6

Nd ppm 21.6 21.6 1.9 14.9 14.7 16.3 17.9 20.1

Sm ppm 5.93 5.75 6.17 4.09 4.27 4.40 4.89 5.53

Eu ppm 1.95 1.84 1.88 1.306 1.37 1.43 1.59 1.78

Tb ppm 0.95 0.94 0.90 0.66 0.644 0.68 0.78 0.87

Yb ppm 1.92 1.97 1.99 1.34 1.44 1.47 1.71 1.90

Lu ppm 0.255 0.265 0.248 0.198 0.176 0.196 0.233 0.259

Hf ppm 4.22 4.04 4.06 2.77 2.89 3.04 3.42 3.78

Ta ppm 1.44 1.44 1.41 0.96 0.95 1.02 1.12 1.31

Au ppb <8 <5 <2 13 <2 <6 9.1 5.45

Th ppm 1.28 1.21 1.36 0.91 0.94 1.17 1.03 1.43

U ppm 0.46 0.43 0.40 0.31 0.35 0.29 0.49 1.14

Phase of

eruption 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 17

Fraction

S-1/(S-1+S-2)

0 1 1 0.68 0.68 0.75 0.057 0

Quenching

temperature (°C)

1142 ---1144--- ---1217--- 1213 1187 ---
29

Table A2. Instrumental neutron-activation analyses of trace elements for samples from the 1967 Kilauea Iki drill 

core. 

[Major-element analyses are in Helz and others (1994). wt %, weight percent; ppm, parts per million; nd, not determined; 

<, less than] 

Field no. 67-1-89.0 67-2-17.0 67-2-17.0R 67-2-59.8 67-2-79.9 67-2-85.7 67-2-89.5 67-2-94.6

Lab. no. D-102046 W-214299 W-214301 W-214302 D-102049 D-102048 D-103993

Job no. CG74 CE76 CG74 CE76 CE76 CE76 CE76 CE76

MgO (wt %) 4.83 18.26 18.26 16.53 22.34 2.60 13.07 15.91

Sc ppm 30.5 24.6 24.2 25.9 21.7 20.0 27.3 27.9

Cr ppm 39.7 1238 1167 1125 1562 10.4 811 1128

Co ppm 39.6 80.5 76.3 72.5 94.0 24.9 68.3 71.7

Ni ppm 39 816 830 698 1090 32 491 602

Zn ppm 142 102.1 104 95 100 165 119 92

As ppm <0.7 1.15 <0.9 1.6 <0.6 <1 <8 1.05

Se ppm nd <2 nd <2 <0.9 <2 <2 <0. 8

Rb ppm 20.4 9.3 9.3 10.5 10.4 47.0 14.1 9.6

Sr ppm 399 391 315 440 <400 500 403 450

Zr ppm 272 165 130 145 102 550 123 <150

Mo ppm <6 <6 <5 <4 <6 3.8 <4 <6

Sb ppm <0.2 0.15 <0.09 <0.08 <0.07 0.28 <0.2 0.15

Cs ppm 0.24 <0.2 <0.1 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2

Ba ppm 246 111 101 117 101 503 156 93

La ppm 29.0 11.23 11.0 12.5 9.7 61.5 16.0 10.8

Ce ppm 65.7 27.0 27.0 30.3 24.6 137.5 37.1 26.1

Nd ppm 36.5 14.9 14.6 15.4 12.3 78.4 20.4 14.8

Sm ppm 10.38 4.21 4.17 4.71 3.61 19.6 5.86 4.16

Eu ppm 3.05 1.326 1.34 1.50 1.12 5.41 1.81 1.36

Tb ppm 1.46 0.648 0.637 0.70 0.54 2.63 0.895 0.68

Yb ppm 3.20 1.38 1.44 1.53 1.12 5.89 1.90 1.35

Lu ppm 0.415 0.186 0.184 0.204 0.165 0.769 0.242 0.188

Hf ppm 7.02 2.88 2.77 3.20 2.41 13.69 4.09 2.76

Ta ppm 2.45 0.973 0.96 1.07 0.775 4.04 1.35 0.85

Au ppb <9 <6 <0.7 <6 <3 <7 <9 <1

Th ppm 2.32 0.92 0.88 0.96 0.69 5.19 1.35 0.88

U ppm 0.54 0.22 0.21 0.40 0.22 1.54 0.40 0.25

Type of

sample

glass

in bit

(I) (I) foundered

crust

foundered

crust

ooze leopard

rock

foundered

crust

Contains

glass?

yes no no yes yes yes yes yes

Quenching

temperature

high low low medium high high high high
30

Table A2. Instrumental neutron-activation analyses of trace elements for samples from the 1967 Kilauea Iki drill 

core.—Continued

Field no. 67-3-6.8 67-3-27.5 67-3-27.5R 67-3-39.0 67-3-47.8 67-3-58.0 67-3-87.0

Lab. no. W-214121 D-103976 D-103977 D-103978 D-103979 D-102054

Job no. CD53 CE76 CG74 CD53 CD53 CE76 CG74

MgO wt % 25.83 12.01 12.01 10.73 13.10 8.91 5.44

Sc ppm 19.58 30.89 30.0 31.4 29.0 30.7 31.0

Cr ppm 1630 773 739 670 819 516 40.4

Co ppm 104.4 60.6 57.3 56.9 65.0 47.4 39.9

i ppm 1327 389 386 327 485 223 89

Zn ppm 96.4 103.7 103 106 109 107 140

As ppm <0.9 1.4 <1 <1 <0.6 1.9 <0.8

Se ppm <3 <2 nd <3 <2 <2 nd

Rb ppm 8.5 10.5 13.3 12.0 12.2 16.5 23.0

Sr ppm <400 418 366 406 370 448 420

Zr ppm 118 180 <130 200 153 180 230

Mo ppm <6 <6 <6 <8 <5 <5 <5

Sb ppm <0.09 <0.1 <0.1 0.19 <0.07 0.15 <0.2

Cs ppm <0.2 <0.2 <0.3 <0.3 <0.2 <0.2 0.27

Ba ppm 94 142 114 138 141 156 244

La ppm 8.56 14.4 14.0 15.6 15.21 18.1 27.9

Ce ppm 22.1 34.0 33.5 36.8 36.3 41.4 62.8

Nd ppm 11.2 20.0 18.4 21.2 21.6 23.4 36.3

Sm ppm 3.20 5.41 5.41 5.83 5.69 6.58 10.0

Eu ppm 1.010 1.73 1.71 1.83 1.81 2.11 2.97

Tb ppm 0.489 0.802 0.79 0.876 0.84 0.99 1.41

Yb ppm 1.07 1.77 1.80 1.86 1.79 2.18 3.18

Lu ppm 0.145 0.235 0.218 0.256 0.253 0.292 0.393

Hf ppm 2.16 3.65 3.63 3.90 3.85 4.61 6.92

Ta ppm 0.739 1.22 1.18 1.31 1.30 1.61 2.34

Au ppb <5 <9 <1 7.6 <5 <6 <4

Th ppm 0.67 1.07 1.19 1.21 1.28 1.47 2.23

U ppm 0.24 0.30 0.41 0.42 0.38 0.44 0.63

Type of

sample

(I) (I) (I) (I) (II) (II) glass

in bit

Contains 

glass?

no no no no no yes

Quenching

temperature

low low low low medium medium high
31

Table A3. Instrumental neutron-activation analyses of trace elements for samples from the 1975 Kilauea Iki drill 

core. 

[Major-element analyses are in Helz and others (1994). wt %, weight percent; ppm, parts per million; <, less than] 

Field no. 75-1-60.9 75-1-75.2 75-1-85.5 75-1-95.0 75-1-110 75-1-114.9 75-1-121.5

Lab. no. D-103844 D-103846 D-103848 D-103850 D-103852 D-103853 D-103855

a b

Job no. CD53 CD53 CD53 CE76 CE76 CE76 CE76 CD53

MgO wt % 10.52 5.77 8.33 9.64 8.27 5.26 5.26 7.77 

Sc ppm 30.6 32.8 32.2 31.4 31.1 31.1 30.3 31.9 

Cr ppm 674 50.1 515 630 504 20.2 19.9 479 

Co ppm 53.3 40.9 45.5 50.7 44.9 42.7 42.1 43.6

Ni ppm 331 91 229 257 199 63 72 169

Zn ppm 103 126 107 102.9 106 137 133 109

As ppm <0.8 <1 <0.6 <0.6 <0.9 <1 <1 <0.9

Se ppm <2 <2 <3 <0.8 <2 <3 <3 <3

Rb ppm 15.8 18.8 12.4 13.8 13.9 23.0 23 17.9

Sr ppm 440 506 460 470 426 510 510 440

Zr ppm 157 229 196 117 190 290 310 174

Mo ppm <5 3.1 <4 <5 <6 <4 2.8 <3

Sb ppm 0.149 <0.1 0.096 <0.2 <0.09 <0.1 0.17 <0.09

Cs ppm 0.281 <0.3 <0.2 0.26 0.380 0.36 <0.2 <0.2

Ba ppm 167 207 165 151 170 263 244 190

La ppm 16.7 23.3 17.7 15.8 17.9 28.3 28.1 19.0

Ce ppm 39.8 52.7 42.2 36.7 41.7 64.0 64.2 44.3

Nd ppm 23.2 31.6 24.2 22.4 23.4 37.7 36.5 26.4

Sm ppm 6.17 8.26 6.61 5.98 6.60 9.91 9.63 6.94

Eu ppm 1.92 2.63 2.07 1.89 2.07 3.05 2.95 2.21

Tb ppm 0.88 1.21 0.96 0.92 0.98 1.38 1.39 1.016

Yb ppm 2.00 2.63 2.16 2.07 2.22 3.20 3.15 2.22

Lu ppm 0.272 0.364 0.282 0.261 0.295 0.427 0.417 0.306 

Hf ppm 4.27 6.00 4.57 4.15 4.64 7.33 7.27 4.97

Ta ppm 1.48 2.13 1.57 1.39 1.55 2.55 2.52 1.67

Au ppb <5 <3 <3 <6 <2 <9 <6 <4

Th ppm 1.35 1.92 1.46 1.30 1.43 2.40 2.41 1.52

U ppm 0.36 0.58 0.39 0.25 0.48 0.71 <0.9 0.42

Type of

sample

(II) segregation

vein

(II) (II) (II) segregation

vein

(II)

Contains

glass?

no no no no no ---- no----- no

Quenching low low low low medium medium medium

temperature
32

Table A3. Instrumental neutron-activation analyses of trace elements for samples from the 1975 Kilauea Iki drill 

core.—Continued

Field no. 75-1-133.4 75-1-141.9 75-1-143.8 75-3-100.9 75-3-106.0 75-3-123.2 75-3-144.4

Lab. no. D-103856 D-103859 D-103860 D-103873 D-103874 D-103839 D-103877

Job no. CD53 CE76 CD53 CE76 CE76 CE76 CE76

MgO wt % 10.65 11.62 12.15 9.12 7.98 8.71 16.20

Sc ppm 31.1 29.9 30.4 32.4 33.8 32.7 27.4

Cr ppm 730 877 947 539 398 467 1216

Co ppm 54.1 55.3 57.3 52.3 47.1 47.7 72.2

Ni ppm 349 380 416 190 126 177 664

Zn ppm 101 92 96 110 105 103.9 94

As ppm <0.7 <0.9 <0.8 <1 1.5 <0.8 <1.1

Se ppm <3 <2 <3 <3 <2 <2 <2

Rb ppm 12.2 12.4 12.0 15.4 13.6 10.8 9.5

Sr ppm 420 418 441 435 420 465 393

Zr ppm <500 168 210 157 <300 210 104

Mo ppm <2 <5 <5 <6 <5 <5 <5

Sb ppm 0.089 <0.1 <0.09 0.14 0.122 <0.08 <0.08

Cs ppm <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.3 <0.3 <0.2

Ba ppm 161 130 129 140 153 142 106

La ppm 16.8 15.2 14.3 16.7 16.7 16.0 11.9

Ce ppm 39.3 36.3 33.8 39.0 38.5 36.9 29.2

Nd ppm 23.2 20.0 19.7 22.6 21.8 21.3 15.4

Sm ppm 6.31 5.69 5.38 6.25 6.27 6.06 4.49

Eu ppm 1.94 1.80 1.68 1.97 2.00 1.91 1.42

Tb ppm 0.93 0.86 0.79 0.92 0.89 0.90 0.679

Yb ppm 2.07 1.78 1.72 2.00 2.00 1.96 1.53

Lu ppm 0.262 0.242 0.231 0.263 0.294 0.262 0.207

Hf ppm 4.23 3.78 3.63 4.40 4.27 4.11 3.00

Ta ppm 1.44 1.29 1.22 1.43 1.45 1.34 1.00

Au ppb <5 <1 <1 <6 <6 <3 <4

Th ppm 1.39 1.21 1.10 1.37 1.40 1.22 0.93

U ppm 0.40 0.36 0.34 0.32 0.47 0.38 0.26

Type of (III) (III) (III)

sample

Contains yes yes yes no no no yes

glass?

Quenching high high high low low medium high

temperature
33

Table A4. Instrumental neutron-activation analyses of trace elements for samples from the 1979 Kilauea Iki drill 

core. 

[Most major-element analyses are in Helz and others (1994). wt %, weight percent; ppm, parts per million; nd, not 

determined; <, less than] 

Field no. 79-1R1-167.8 79-1R1-170.8 79-3-145.1 79-3-150.4 79-3-158.0 79-3-160.3 79-3-172.8 79-3R2-168

Lab. no. W-235378 W-235379 W-210495 W-210496 W-214317 W-210497 W-210500 W-235391

Job no. CG74 CG74 CD53 CD53 CD53 CE76 CD53 CG74

MgO wt % 3.42 3.48 26.16 13.51 4.5 16.05 18.71 5.07

Sc ppm 21.6 22.0 19.4 30.6 28.8 27.19 26.2 30.1

Cr ppm 9.3 8.8 1280 1108 28.6 1086 1300 37.8

Co ppm 26.4 27.5 114.4 61.8 35.0 73.2 81.7 36.9

Ni ppm 20 33 1280 507 64 684 814 79

Zn ppm 150 152 111 97 133 100 102 138

As ppm <3 <2 <0.6 <4 <0.8 <1 <0.6 1.16

Se ppm nd nd <2 <2 <3 <3 <2 nd

Rb ppm 36.0 35.1 <8 8.9 27.2 8.8 8.2 24.7

Sr ppm 435 493 <400 410 510 374 290 441

Zr ppm 430 401 <140 170 330 160 <160 276

Mo ppm 4.6 <4 <2 <4 3.9 <5 <6 <4

Sb ppm 0.49 0.19 <0.06 0.145 0.088 <0.1 <0.07 0.17

Cs ppm 0.313 0.36 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.3

Ba ppm 389 395 68 122 331 117 88 248

La ppm 50.1 50.3 6.55 12.6 37.3 12.4 10.42 30.8

Ce ppm 112.1 110.2 17.7 31.4 84.1 30.1 26.8 9.9

Nd ppm 61.1 58.4 8.7 18.1 48.8 17.3 14.9 40.2

Sm ppm 16.7 16.3 2.53 4.84 12.2 4.74 4.01 11.04

Eu ppm 4.66 4.60 0.86 1.54 3.69 1.468 1.32 3.24

Tb ppm 2.24 2.23 0.41 0.72 1.77 0.705 0.58 1.55

Yb ppm 4.89 4.78 0.88 1.59 3.96 1.54 1.33 3.41

Lu ppm 0.64 0.63 0.123 0.220 0.540 0.197 0.190 0.43

Hf ppm 11.31 11.24 1.83 3.36 9.07 3.25 2.69 7.59

Ta ppm 3.49 3.53 0.64 1.12 2.95 1.09 0.89 2.63

Au ppb <9 <11 <4 <7 <6 <12 11.4 34

Th ppm 4.12 4.02 0.49 1.01 3.20 0.99 0.84 2.50

U ppm 1.16 1.11 0.19 0.35 0.84 0.27 0.26 0.71

Type of

sample

ooze ooze vorb (III) segregation

vein

(IV) (IV) ooze

Contains

glass?

yes yes trace? no yes yes yes yes?

Quenching

temperature

high high medium medium high high high medium
34

Table A4. Instrumental neutron-activation analyses of trace elements for samples from the 1979 Kilauea Iki drill 

core.—Continued

Field no. 79-5-160. 0 79-5-163 79-5-180.5 79-5-200.0 79-5-240.0 79-5-260.0 79-5-300.5 79-5-313.5

Lab. no. W-214304 --------- W-214305 W-214306 W-214308 W-214309 W-214311 W-214313

a b

Job no. CE76 CE76 CE76 CE76 CE76 CE76 CD53 CE76 CE76

MgO (wt %) 22.08 22.08 2.57 20.7 21.30 20.35 18.84 16.61 9.51

Sc ppm 23.9 23.6 12.5 24.8 23.1 24.8 25.3 26.5 32.7

Cr ppm 1560 1573 24.3 1610 1491 1455 1220 1216 555

Co ppm 93.6 93.2 18.3 87.0 90.8 88.9 81.7 74.2 53.3

Ni ppm 1007 986 65 915 965 923 854 706 226

Zn ppm 100 96 104 98 99 105 99 100 111

As ppm <1 0.94 2.5 <0.8 1.2 <0.9 <0.7 1.8 <2

Se ppm <3 <0.8 2.1 <3 <3 <3 <1 <2 <5

Rb ppm 9.1 10.9 62.0 8.3 10.3 <6 7.4 10.8 11.6

Sr ppm <400 398 <400 <400 <400 438 406 450 <400

Zr ppm <200 670 119 <220 132 118 130 230 <210

Mo ppm <6 <5 5.8 <7 <3 <6 2.2 4.7 2.1

Sb ppm <0.1 <0.08 0.27 <0.09 0.130 <0.1 <0.08 0.10 <0.1

Cs ppm <0.3 <0.2 0.58 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 0.36 <0.3

Ba ppm 74 97 614 81 83 88 110 102 155

La ppm 8.4 8.5 72.4 9.19 8.99 8.98 11.7 12.6 15.5

Ce ppm 22.6 21.3 161 23.0 23.4 22.11 29.5 29.9 36.4

Nd ppm 11.8 12.1 89.0 11.8 11.6 14.0 15.4 14.7 21.7

Sm ppm 3.27 3.26 21.7 3.53 3.42 3.48 4.36 4.68 5.85

Eu ppm 1.034 1.03 5.51 1.15 1.12 1.17 1.39 1.46 1.84

Tb ppm 0.505 0.499 2.87 0.54 0.518 0.52 0.662 0.76 0.84

Yb ppm 1.07 1.12 6.67 1.21 1.15 1.23 1.46 1.59 1.91

Lu ppm 0.142 0.142 0.880 0.159 0.150 0.156 0.194 0.205 0.264

Hf ppm 2.13 2.10 15.64 2.32 2.40 2.34 3.00 3.16 3.94

Ta ppm 0.69 0.70 4.18 0.769 0.768 0.82 1.00 1.05 1.35

Au ppb 5.3 <3 4.80 0.74 0.77 0.66 0.94 0.92 1.22

U ppm <0.4 0.22 1.96 <0.4 0.23 <0.4 0.31 0.72 0.38

Type of

sample

thin

vein

chill chill chill

Contains

glass?

---no--- yes trace trace no no no no

Quenching

temperature

medium high high high medium medium medium medium
35

Table A5. Instrumental neutron-activation analyses of trace elements from the 1981 Kilauea Iki drill core.

Field no. 81-1-117.8 81-1-119.2 81-1-119.2R 81-1-120.3 81-1-169.9 81-1-190.1 81-1-200.4 81-1-210.0

Lab. no. W-239453 W-239454 W-239455 W-214102 W-214104 W-214105 W-214106

Job no. CG74 CE92 CG74 CE92 CD53 CD53 CE76 CE76

MgO (wt %) 4.86 6.74 6.74 6.95 26.87 21.91 25.96 24.53

Sc ppm 30.5 30.1 31.3 30.3 18.3 23.4 19.4 22.1

Cr ppm 11.0 320 332 370 1252 1468 1474 1700

Co ppm 40.5 38.5 38.5 39.5 119.9 94.2 112.6 103.4

Ni ppm 62 143 139 140 1290 1001 1260 1150

Zn ppm 144 82.7 105 86 118 105 110 99

As ppm <2 <0.7 <1 1.4 <0.8 <0.6 1.02 <0.9

Se ppm nd nd nd nd <2 <0.9 <0.9 <0.9

Rb ppm 22.6 16.2 14.3 15.7 7.1 11.4 10.8 <6.0

Sr ppm 432 484 442 450 260 289 <400 <500

Zr ppm 266 <400 163 204 <150 141 <200 <200

Mo ppm <7 <5 3.8 3.4 <6 <6 <7 <7

Sb ppm <0.2 <0.08 0.24 0.14 <0.08 <0.07 0.409 <0.2

Cs ppm 0.23 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.3 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2

Ba ppm 290 163 185 159 77 88 74 61

La ppm 29.3 19.3 20.1 18.8 8.0 9.1 8.48 6.6

Ce ppm 65.3 43.4 45.3 41.7 20.4 22.3 20.8 16.3

Nd ppm 37.1 25.1 26.2 24.3 11.0 11.9 12.6 9.3

Sm ppm 10.30 6.81 7.43 6.62 2.94 3.45 3.12 2.57

Eu ppm 3.10 2.20 2.26 2.17 0.91 1.10 0.99 0.850

Tb ppm 1.46 1.08 1.043 1.029 0.443 0.535 0.44 0.418

Yb ppm 3.30 2.35 2.40 2.22 1.06 1.13 1.05 0.85

Lu ppm 0.431 0.310 0.305 0.298 0.130 0.147 0.147 0.118

Hf ppm 7.42 4.88 5.02 4.65 2.04 2.23 2.13 1.69

Ta ppm 2.64 1.68 1.73 1.60 0.71 0.788 0.67 0.522

Au ppb <9 <5 <3 <5 <1 <5 <6 6.6

Th ppm 2.41 1.63 1.69 1.47 0.60 0.71 0.77 0.53

U ppm 0.65 0.40 0.38 0.52 0.26 0.29 <0.3 0.23

Type of

sample

(II) (II) (II) (II) vorb (V) ogb (V)

Contains

glass?

no no no no yes yes yes yes

Quenching

temperature

low low low low high high high high
36

Table A5. Instrumental neutron-activation analyses of trace elements from the 1981 Kilauea Iki drill core.—

Continued

Field no. 81-1-230.6 81-1-239.9 81-1-250.0 81-1-260.0 81-1-270.2 81-1-273.6 81-1-273.6R 81-1-280.0

Lab. no. W-214108 W-214109 W-214110 W-214111 W-214112 W-214113 W-214114

Job no. CD53 CE76 CE76 CD53 CE76 CD53 CG74 CD53

MgO wt% 24.83 26.55 25.43 22.77 18.79 11.95 11.95 26.15

Sc ppm 22.2 20.0 20.8 23.8 27.8 32.8 32.0 20.8

Cr ppm 1770 1820 1730 1620 1329 982 948 1900

Co ppm 102.4 111.2 105.7 97.5 84.2 54.5 2.3 106.6

Ni ppm 1210 1310 1250 1110 752 336 356 1320

Zn ppm 98 96 98 101 86 89 84 91

As ppm <0.8 0.91 <0.9 <0.6 <0.9 <0.9 <1 <0.6

Se ppm <0.9 <2 <0.7 3.5 <0.8 <4 nd <0.9

Rb ppm 6.1 8.1 <6 7.6 <7 7.9 9.6 7.0

Sr ppm <400 <300 <400 262 380 420 386 220

Zr ppm <90 <110 <100 <90 <110 111 <230 <150

Mo ppm <6 <5 <6 <5 <6 <3 <4 <6

Sb ppm <0.08 <0.9 <0.1 0.093 <0.2 <0.09 <0.1 <0.07

Cs ppm <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2

Ba ppm 66 66 73 67 86 100 93 58

La ppm 6.3 5.98 6.27 7.00 5.27 9.29 9.2 6.34

Ce ppm 17.5 14.8 14.5 18.4 13.3 22.5 21.9 17.3

Nd ppm 9.8 9.0 7.9 9.0 8.0 12.6 12.9 8.1

Sm ppm 2.50 2.35 2.49 2.75 2.41 3.77 3.74 2.51

Eu ppm 0.80 0.786 0.86 0.915 0.855 1.27 1.28 0.85

Tb ppm 0.381 0.36 0.397 0.422 0.40 0.550 0.572 0.422

Yb ppm 0.86 0.80 0.87 0.98 0.86 1.29 1.24 0.85

Lu ppm 0.115 0.106 0.111 0.132 0.106 0.168 0.159 0.120

Hf ppm 1.52 1.56 1.60 1.87 1.48 2.44 2.37 1.58

Ta ppm 0.518 0.490 0.580 0.597 0.463 0.718 0.755 0.536

Au ppb <4 <0.7 <5 <0.9 <2 <9 <2 <4

Th ppm 0.46 0.43 0.46 0.49 0.32 0.61 0.69 0.46

U ppm 0.37 <0.3 0.17 0.29 <0.4 <0.3 0.21 0.57

Type of 

sample

(V) (V) (V) (V) (VI) (VI) (VI) (VI)

Contains 

glass?

yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes

Quenching 

temperature

high high high high high high high high
37

Table A5. Instrumental neutron-activation analyses of trace elements from the 1981 Kilauea Iki drill 

core.—Continued

Field no. 81-1-281.6 81-1-289.3 81-1-297.9 81-1-300.2 81-1-306.7 81-2-88.6

Lab. no. W-214115 W-214116 W-214118 W-214119 W-214120 W-232725

Job no. CD53 CE76 CE76 CD53 CD53 CD53

MgO wt % 18.74 25.58 15.64 18.15 17.47 2.37

Sc ppm 25.7 19.5 27.0 25.7 26.4 18.8

Cr ppm 1329 1581 1102 1133 1150 1.9

Co ppm 83.9 107.2 71.0 81.5 78.7 23.6

Ni ppm 832 1270 628 801 729 <30

Zn ppm 104 102 94 104 99 164

As ppm <0.9 0.85 <1 <0.7 <1.1 1.73

Se ppm <1.8 <0.7 <2.9 <3.2 <0.9 <4

Rb ppm 7.1 9.1 11.4 8.2 9.3 48.1

Sr ppm 320 <290 410 370 409 500

Zr ppm 149 <100 110 81 148 580

Mo ppm <6 <6 <4 <3 <6 4.8

Sb ppm <0.09 <0.08 <0.1 <0.07 <0.09 0.24

Cs ppm 0.35 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 0.36

Ba ppm 116 <90 117 116 100 518

La ppm 11.6 5.90 11.5 11.8 10.4 63.6

Ce ppm 28.1 14.7 27.6 28.6 26.0 142.9

Nd ppm 16.3 8.2 15.4 16.1 14.1 82.3

Sm ppm 4.35 2.32 4.42 4.41 4.01 20.7

Eu ppm 1.35 0.769 1.41 1.39 1.35 5.59

Tb ppm 0.631 0.368 0.658 0.670 0.585 2.79

Yb ppm 1.37 0.84 1.56 1.45 1.29 6.18

Lu ppm 0.187 0.115 0.193 0.191 0.184 0.813

Hf ppm 2.88 1.44 2.95 2.88 2.63 14.37

Ta ppm 1.03 0.47 0.95 1.00 0.88 4.16

Au ppb <1 <1 <2 <5 <9 <8

Th ppm 0.90 0.45 0.93 0.94 0.79 5.31

U ppm 0.24 <0.3 <0.4 0.33 0.27 1.51

Type of 

sample

leopard 

rock

(V) septum foundered 

crust

leopard 

rock

deepest 

core

vein in

vein

Contains 

glass?

yes yes yes yes yes no

Quenching 

temperature

high high high high high low
38

Table A6. Instrumental neutron-activation analyses of trace elements from the 1988 Kilauea Iki drill core. 

[Major-element analyses are in Helz and Taggart (2010). wt %, weight percent; ppm, parts per million; <, less than] 

Field no. 88-1-198.6 88-1-234.4 88-1-260.0 88-1-268.5 88-1-277.8 88-1-311.6 88-1-371.2 88-1-375.8

Lab. no. W-256765 W-256737 W-256739 W-256739 W-256740 W-256743 W-256748 W-256749

Job no. CJ13 CJ12 CJ12 CJ12 CJ12 CJ12 CJ12 CJ12

MgO wt % 22.8 23.8 25.0 23.2 23.2 18.7 18.4 18.3

Sc ppm 23.3 23.2 20.8 20.9 23.3 24.6 25.3 25.0

Cr ppm 1660 1670 1590 1337 1650 1211 1263 1224

Co ppm 93.5 95.1 101.4 92.8 94.4 78.5 77.9 77.9

Ni ppm 1010 1020 1170 1090 1010 778 778 764

Zn ppm 88 86 93 93.5 86 85 87 93

As ppm <0.4 <0.3 0.61 <0.4 <0.4 <0.5 <0.5 0.85

Se ppm <0.6 <0.7 <0.6 <0.5 <2 <0.6 <0.7 <0.7

Rb ppm 5.8 6.6 6 9.5 <5 9.2 8 11.4

Sr ppm 255 291 217 254 244 320 310 314

Zr ppm <100 <140 92 91 <120 <140 103 <200

Mo ppm <2 <3 <3 <4 <3 <5 <4 <4

Sb ppm 0.17 <0.05 0.101 0.126 0.083 0.147 0.46 0.174

Cs ppm <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 0.16 0.17

Ba ppm 62 58 65 78 54 100 104 95

La ppm 7.51 6.69 6.61 9.05 6.36 11.7 11.6 11.4

Ce ppm 16.9 14.9 15.5 20.5 14.7 25.5 26.0 25.6

Nd ppm 10.1 9.7 8.7 11.6 8.8 16.7 15.9 15.8

Sm ppm 2.96 2.65 2.62 3.43 2.58 4.33 4.44 4.34 

Eu ppm 0.973 0.912 0.876 1.11 0.891 1.41 1.39 1.37

Tb ppm 0.443 0.397 0.378 0.48 0.378 0.661 0.661 0.636

Yb ppm 1.00 0.86 0.83 1.05 0.90 1.31 1.40 1.37

Lu ppm 0.121 0.111 0.107 0.153 0.123 0.192 0.189 0.188

Hf ppm 1.93 1.82 1.64 2.28 1.68 2.91 2.95 2.99

Ta ppm 0.628 0.55 0.54 0.75 0.542 0.966 0.976 0.98

Au ppb <4 <3 <5 <3 <4 <5 <3 <3

Th ppm 0.64 0.52 0.53 0.79 0.5 1.01 0.95 0.97

U ppm 0.21 0.16 <0.2 0.28 <0.2 0.3 0.3 0.36

Type of 

sample

(V) (V) (V) speckled

rock body

(V) (VII) deepest core

Contains 

glass?

no no yes yes yes no no no

Quenching 

temperature

low medium high high high high medium medium
39

Table A6. Instrumental neutron-activation analyses of trace elements from the 1988 Kilauea Iki drill core.—

Continued

Field no. 88-2-215.8 88-2-256.4 88-2-276.3 88-2-301.7 88-2-322.3 88-2-348.5 88-2-354.9

Lab. no. W-256722 W-256725 W256727 W-256729 W-256731 W-256734 W-256735

a b

Job no. CJ12 CJ12 CJ12 CJ12 CJ12 CJ12 CJ12 CJ12

MgO wt % 24.3 24.3 23.4 20.8 22.1 15.6 15.7 18.2

Sc ppm 22.4 22.4 21.8 23.2 22.9 27.9 26.3 25.3 

Cr ppm 1690 1650 1521 1353 1520 1184 940 1199

Co ppm 97.3 96.4 96.0 86.8 89.7 68.8 70.9 77.4

Ni ppm 1090 1060 1000 890 930 541 617 752

Zn ppm 85 81.5 94 90 93.9 86 94 88

As ppm <0.3 <0.4 <0.3 <0.4 <0.4 <0.5 <0.6 <0.5

Se ppm <1 <0.8 <0.6 <0.5 <0.6 <0.7 <0.7 <0.7

Rb ppm 7.1 8.1 8.1 <10 <13 <10 11.0 8.9

Sr ppm 244 240 262 290 267 347 378 290

Zr ppm 83 73 <180 90 65 <100 132 110

Mo ppm 6 <3 <3 <4 <3 <4 <5 <3

Sb ppm 0.15 0.37 0.129 0.114 0.160 0.091 <0.2 0.108

Cs ppm <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.2

Ba ppm 63 57 67 <100 48 80 110 108

La ppm 6.63 6.65 6.97 7.62 4.93 6.71 12.7 11.5

Ce ppm 14.5 15.2 15.2 16.9 11.8 15.6 28.3 25.5

Nd ppm 9.4 8.8 9.2 10.3 7.6 9.8 18.1 14.9

Sm ppm 2.68 2.69 2.72 3.02 2.21 2.88 4.81 4.38

Eu ppm 0.865 0.898 0.925 1.028 0.825 1.15 1.55 1.41

Tb ppm 0.416 0.399 0.404 0.453 0.353 0.45 0.721 0.64

Yb ppm 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.99 0.75 0.98 1.54 1.50

Lu ppm 0.12 0.12 0.124 0.130 0.112 0.141 0.215 0.188

Hf ppm 1.70 1.83 1.81 1.94 1.29 1.88 3.27 2.91

Ta ppm 0.564 0.561 0.55 0.6 0.38 0.61 1.12 1.01

Au ppb <3 <3 <3 <3 <3 <4 <4 <3

Th ppm 0.52 0.48 0.59 0.59 0.40 0.46 1.06 0.92

U ppm 0.140 0.152 0.149 0.211 0.088 0.19 0.28 0.29

Type of 

sample

----(V)---- (V) (VI) (VI) (VII) deepest core

Contains 

glass? 

no yes yes yes yes no no

Quenching 

temperature

medium high high high high medium medium
40

Table B1. Energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence analyses of trace elements in samples from the 

1959 Kilauea Iki eruption. 

[Major-element analyses are as in table A1. Mixing fractions are from Wright (1973). wt %, weight percent; 

ppm, parts per million; °C, degrees Celsius; <, less than] 

Field no. Iki-1 Iki-58 Iki-22 Iki-3 Iki-44 Iki-38

Lab. no. S-2 S-1 S-5 D-571089 S-7 S-25

Job no. CH91 CH91 CH91 CH91 CH91 CH91

MgO (wt%) 7.23 8.08 19.52 17.2 13.67 8.85

Nb ppm 23 23 15 21 21 19

Rb ppm 16 12 <10 16 14 14

Sr ppm 385 365 275 300 335 370

Zr ppm 184 176 130 142 158 178

Y ppm 28 31 23 32 27 32

Cu ppm 122 124 120 102 114 144

Ni ppm 112 130 790 610 480 240

Zn ppm 100 102 104 96 114 112

Phase of 

eruption

1 1 1 1 1 17

Fraction 

S-1/(S-1+S+2)

0 1 0.68 0.75 0.057 0

Quenching 

temperature (°C)

1142 1144 1217 1213 1187 ---
41

Table B2. Energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence analyses of trace elements for samples from 1967 Kilauea Iki drill core. [wt %, weight percent; ppm, parts per million] 

Field no. 67-1-89.0 67-2-17.0 67-2-59.8 67-2-79.9 67-2-85.7 67-2-89.5 67-2-94.6 67-3-6.8 67-3-27.5 67-3-39.0 67-3-47.8 67-3-58.0 67-3-87.0

Lab. no. D-102046 W-214299 W-214301 W-214302 D-102048 D-102050 D-103993 W-214121 D-103976 D-103977 D-103978 D-103979 D-102054

Job no. CH90 CH90 CH90 CH90 CH90 CH90 CH90 CH91 CH90 CH91 CH91 CH90 CH90

MgO (wt %) 4.83 18.26 16.53 22.34 2.60 13.07 15.91 25.83 12.01 10.73 13.10 8.91 5.44

Nb ppm 37 15 18 16 56 23 16 14 18 21 19 23 33

Rb ppm 21 12 12 15 46 15 11 10 11 11 16 17 21

Sr ppm 405 295 310 255 430 335 305 215 345 365 345 410 415

Zr ppm 305 124 134 104 580 172 122 97 156 172 164 192 285

Y ppm 43 24 26 25 70 31 24 22 27 30 30 33 40

Cu ppm 215 81 102 78 450 140 93 60 86 104 99 100 215

Ni ppm 78 710 600 920 22 440 495 1200 320 265 400 210 79

Zn ppm 128 95 94 97 152 110 87 90 92 86 90 82 126

Type of 

sample

glass

in bit

(I) foundered 

crust

foundered 

crust

ooze leopard 

rock

foundered 

crust

(I) (I) (I) (II) (II) glass

in bit

Contains

glass?

yes no yes yes yes yes yes no no no no no yes

Quenching 

temperature

high low medium high high high high low low low medium medium high
42

Table B3. Energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence analyses of trace elements for samples from 1975 Kilauea Iki drill core.

[wt %, weight percent; ppm, parts per million] 

Field no. 75-1-60.9 75-1-75.2 75-1-85.5 75-1-95.0 75-1-110 75-1-114.9 75-1-121.5 75-1-133.4 75-1-141.9 75-3-100.9 75-3-106.0 75-3-123.2 75-3-144.4

Lab. No. D-103844 D-103846 D103848D-103850 D-103852 D-103853 D-103855 D-103856 D-103859 D-103873 D-103874 D-103839 D-103877

Job no. CH91 CH91 CH91 CH90 CH90 CH90 CH91 CH91 CH90 CH90 CH90 CH90 CH90

MgO (wt %) 10.52 5.77 8.33 9.64 8.27 5.26 7.77 10.65 11.62 9.12 7.98 8.71 16.20

Nb ppm 21 25 20 21 22 34 22 24 21 20 23 20 16

Rb ppm 16 18 11 12 16 26 19 14 11 19 17 16 14

Sr ppm 385 450 410 400 410 465 430 375 350 375 400 390 305

Zr ppm 182 240 184 170 190 295 198 178 164 180 186 172 136

Y ppm 32 38 32 31 32 47 37 32 29 32 32 30 28

Cu ppm 106 168 118 110 122 190 138 104 114 92 124 114 102

Ni ppm 260 72 180 230 180 57 146 280 330 158 110 154 540

Zn ppm 85 89 77 79 79 91 73 85 87 81 80 78 90

Type of 

sample

(II) segregation 

vein

(II) (II) (II) segregation 

vein

(II) (III) (III)

Contains 

glass?

no no no no no no no yes yes no no no yes

Quenching 

temperature

low low low low medium medium medium high high low low medium high
43

Table B4. Energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence analyses of trace elements for samples from 1979 Kilauea Iki core.

[wt %, weight percent; ppm, parts per million; <, less than] 

Field no. 79-1R1-167.8 79-1R1-170.9 79-3-145.1 79-3-150.4 79-3-158.0 79-3-160.3 79-3-172.8 79-3R2-168.0 79-5-160.0 79-5-163 79-5-180.5

Lab. no. W-235378 W-235380 W-210495 W-210496 W-214317 W-210497 W-210500 W-235391 W-214304 ---- W-214305

Job no. CH90 CH90 CH91 CH91 CH91 CH90 CH91 CH90 CH90 CH90 CH90

MgO (wt %) 3.42 3.48 26.16 13.51 4.5 16.05 18.71 5.07 22.08 2.57 20.7

Nb ppm 48 51 13 17 37 16 15 38 13 61 15

Rb ppm 34 35 <10 14 27 <10 <10 21 11 64 <10

Sr ppm 430 430 194 335 440 310 265 410 240 360 255

Zr ppm 480 475 83 144 375 136 118 315 96 680 106

Y ppm 63 61 19 29 51 25 24 45 21 79 23

Cu ppm 210 365 58 102 196 92 93 245 76 640 81

Ni ppm 35 27 1100 405 61 570 700 73 850 31 790

Zn ppm 134 134 112 88 100 95 97 124 96 58 93

Type of 

sample

Ooze ooze vorb (III) segregation 

vein

(IV) (IV) ooze thin vein

Contains 

glass?

Yes yes trace? no yes yes yes yes? no yes trace

Quenching 

temperature

High high medium medium high high high medium medium high high
44

Table B4. Energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence analyses of trace elements for samples from 

1979 Kilauea Iki core.—Continued

Field no 79-5-200.0 79-5-240.0 79-5-260.0 79-5-300.5 79-5-313.5

Lab no. W-214306 W-214308 W-214309 W-214311 W-214313

Job no. CH90 CH90 CH91 CH90 CH90

MgO (wt %) 21.30 20.35 18.84 16.61 9.51

Nb ppm 13 13 18 16 20

Rb ppm <10 11 14 12 15

Sr ppm 255 270 290 305 365

Zr ppm 106 104 124 136 172

Y ppm 24 24 28 26 31

Cu ppm 90 94 91 96 108

Ni ppm 800 770 680 610 210

Zn ppm 104 96 87 95 89

Type of 

sample

chill chill chill

Contains 

glass?

trace no no no no

Quenching 

temperature

high medium medium medium medium
45

Table B5. Energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence analyses of trace elements from 1981 Kilauea Iki drill core. [wt %, weight percent; ppm, parts per million; <, less than] 

Field no. 81-1-117.8 81-1-119.2 81-1-120.3 81-1-169.9 81-1-190.1 81-1-200.4 81-1-210.0 81-1-230.6 81-1-239.9 81-1-250.0 81-1-260.0

Lab. no. W-239453 W-239454 W-239455 W-214102 W-210104 W-214105 W-214106 W-214108 W-214109 W-214110 W-214111

Job no. CH90 CH91 CH91 CH91 CH91 CH90 CH90 CH91 CH90 CH90 CH91

MgO (wt %) 4.86 6.74 6.95 26.87 21.91 25.96 24.53 24.83 26.55 25.43 22.77

Nb ppm 36 21 24 14 15 13 12 12 10 11 14

Rb ppm 25 14 16 11 13 <10 <10 11 <10 11 <10

Sr ppm 450 440 440 180 240 192 200 205 186 205 230

Zr ppm 305 205 205 97 108 98 80 81 73 83 85

Y ppm 45 33 36 22 24 20 18 19 17 20 18

Cu ppm 220 132 138 70 88 88 63 70 66 67 71

Ni ppm 63 122 128 1100 860 1100 1000 1000 1100 1050 910

Zn ppm 92 72 77 116 96 116 102 99 106 104 97

Type of 

sample

(II) (II) (II) vorb (V) ogb (V) (V) (V) (V) (V)

Contains 

glass?

no no no yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes

Quenching 

temperature

low low low high high high high high high high high
46

Table B5. Energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence analyses of trace elements from 1981 Kilauea Iki drill core.—Continued

Field no. 81-1-270.2 81-1-273.6 81-1-280.0 81-1-281.6 81-1-289.3 81-1-297.9 81-1-300.2 81-1-306.7 81-2-88.6

Lab no. W-214112 W-214113 W-214114 W-214115 W-214116 W-214 118 W-214119 W-214120 W-232725

Job no. CH90 CH91 CH91 CH91 CH90 CH90 CH91 CH91 CH91

MgO (wt %) 18.79 11.95 26.15 18.74 25.58 15.64 18.15 17.47 2.37

Nb ppm 10 14 10 17 11 16 18 14 55

Rb ppm <10 <10 <10 12 <10 10 15 <10 43

Sr ppm 260 350 200 275 205 310 285 295 430

Zr ppm 76 108 80 132 75 132 132 118 590

Y ppm 18 23 19 24 18 23 23 23 70

Cu ppm 50 70 67 102 64 102 98 92 345

Ni ppm 620 290 1100 710 1100 530 650 630 <10

Zn ppm 88 75 97 98 106 93 102 92 108

Type of 

sample

(VI) (VI) (VI) leopard 

rock

(V)

septum

foundered 

crust

leopard 

rock

deepest 

core

vein in 

vein

Contains 

glass?

yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes no

Quenching 

temperature

high high high high high high high high low