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VEGETABLE GARDENING

IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA

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Agriculture Handbook No. 323

Agricultural Research Service

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

VEGETABLE GARDENING

IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA

By Harold F. Winters

Crops Research Division

and

George W. Miskimen, formerly

Entomology Research Division

Agriculture Handbook No. 323

Washington, D.C.

Agricultural Research Service

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

This handbook supersedes Circular 32, "Vegetable Gardening in the Tropics."

Issued August, 1967

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office

Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price 65 cents
Trade names and the names of commercial

companies are used in this publication solely

to provide specific information. Mention of a

trade product or manufacturer does not constitute

a guarantee or warranty of the product by the

U.S. Department of Agriculture or an endorsement by the Department over other products

not mentioned.
Contents

Page

Introduction 1

Vegetables in the diet 2

Vegetable breeding in the Tropics 3

Climatic relationships 3

Temperature ^

Rainfall 6

Wind "^

Climatic requirements of vegetables 8

Light relationships 8

Soils 9

Garden planning ^

Choosing location and crops ^

Garden location ^

Crops and varieties to plant 10

Planting plans 13

Seed 1^

Source 1^

Growing your own seed 18

Treating and storing 19

Germination tests 1^

Garden management ^^

Soil improvement ^^

Soil preparation ^^

Plant beds ^|

Fertilizers ^^

Animal manures ^1

Composts and other organic materials ^^

Chemical fertilizers ^^

Lime p

Planting the garden Tí

Direct seeding in garden ^^

Thinning seedlings f^

Growing transplants TÍ

Damping-ofC disease ^

Companion cropping ^

Succession planting ^i

Crop rotation ^j

Cultivation ^^

Mulching ii

Irrigation ^^

Windbreaks ^p

Culture of individual crops ^'^

Cucurbits ^^

Chayóte ^^

Cucumber ^

Muskmelon (cantaloup) ^^

Pumpkin and squash ^^

Watermelon ^

Other cucurbits ^^

Fruit vegetables J?.

Eggplant ^J^

Okra Ir

Pepper jj

Sweet corn (maize) 44

Tomato ^

Greens, stem, and leafy salad vegetables ^^

Amaranth or Chinese spinach 4J

Asparagus ^î^

Broccoli ^1

Brussels sprouts ^^

Cabbage ^%

Cauliflower 2r.

Celery ^^

Ceylon spinach ^^

Chard ^^

Page

Chinese cabbages ^^

Collard ^J

Endive 2l

Kale '^l

Lettuce ^f

Mustard ^

New Zealand spinach ^ 59

Parsley ^5

Rhubarb ^A

Spinach ^0

Other greens ^

Legume vegetables ^

Cowpea ^

Kidney (common) bean ^i

Lima bean ^j

Pea ^

Pigeonpea ^^

Soybean ^^

Other legume vegetables <5b

Root crops ^^

Beet II

Carrot ^^

Cassava ^^

Garlic II

Jerusalem-artichoke ^*^

Kohlrabi Vr

Onions Ih

Parsnip ¡A

Potato l^

Radish ¡J^

Rutabaga ¡^

Salsify ll

Sweetpotato ¿^

Turnip '^

Yam l^

Yautia and taro ]^

Other root crops <^

Flavoring and seasoning herbs 79

Commercial vegetable growing in the Tropics 80

Vegetable growing by gravel culture 8d

General pest control ^

Cultural methods of control ^

Chemical control ^

Safe use of pesticides ^^

Avoiding harmful residues in food »5

Availability, stocking, and storage of pesticides 7--- ^^

Basic chemicals recommended for tropical purposes 1^

Specific formulations for pest control »o

Types of pesticide formulations and their

Qggg ^*

Selecting and preparing pesticides 88

Tables of measurements ^

Application equipment for pest control _ 90

Vegetable insects ^^

General insects ^^

Ants Qo

Aphids ^^

Armyw^orms __^ ^^

Asparagus beetle ^^

Cabbage caterpillars ^^

Corn earworm ^^

Cutworms ^^

Flea beetles ^"^

III
IV

Page

Vegetable insects—Continued

General insects—Continued

Field crickets 94

Grasshoppers 94

Hornworms 94

Leafhoppers 94

Leaf miners 94

Millipedes 94

Mole crickets 94

Plant bugs 94

Slugs and snails 95

Spider mites 95

Thrips 95

Webworms 95

Weevils 95

White grubs 95

Wireworms 95

Insects attacking specific crops 96

Asparagus 96

Beans 96

Beets and Swiss chard 97

Carrots1 97

Celery and parsnips 97

Cole crops 98

Cucurbits 98

Eggplant, potato, and tomato 99

Lettuce and endive 100

Okra 100

Onions and garlic 101

Pepper lOi

Spinach IO2

Page

Vegetable insects—Continued

Insects attacking specific crops—Continued

Sweet corn 102

Sweetpotato 103

Other vegetable pests i03

Nematodes 103

Rats and mice 104

Vegetable diseases 104

.General vegetable diseases lOi

Damping-off disease 104

Powdery mildew 104

Downy mildew 105

Fungal leaf spot 105

Bacterial leaf spot 105

Mosaic 105

Rust 106

Specific vegetable diseases 106

Carrot diseases 106

Celery diseases 106

Sweet corn diseases 107

Cole crop diseases 107

Cucurbit diseases 107

Eggplant, potato, and tomato diseases 108

Legume diseases 108

Lettuce disease 109

Okra diseases 109

Onion diseases 109

Pepper diseases 109

Sweetpotato diseases no

Literature cited no

Additional references 112
Vegetable Gardening in the Caribbean Area

Service, Mayaguez, P.R.

INTRODUCTION

Vegetable gardening is the art and science

having to do with culture of the plants commonly known as vegetables. Included are a

broad variety of edible herbaceous plants or

plants with some part useful for culinary purposes. The edible part may be the leaves,

stems, underground parts, flower heads, seeds,

or the entire fruit.

Vegetables not only provide variety m what

would otherwise be an extremely monotonous

diet but also supply dietetic elements essential

to the well-being of the human body.

Although modern transportation facilities

enable residents of the more cosmopolitan parts

of the Caribbean area to import a wide variety

of produce, such foods usually are expensive.

Where vegetables can be grown in a home garden,

they are apt to be cheaper, fresher and therefore more nutritious, and available in greater

variety. Many residents of the Caribbean area

still are so remote from transportation centers

that they must grow their own fresh produce

or do without.

Almost any vegetable can be grown at some

place in the Tropics, provided the proper variety,

season, elevation, and soil conditions are selected.

The Caribbean area, lying wholly within the

Tropics, offers, for the most part, favorable

climatic conditions for vegetable gardening.

Most of the land areas lie at low or middle

elevations where there is no frost hazard. In

most areas there is a 12-month growing season

with abundant sunshine almost every day.

Many vegetable crops are well adapted to the

Caribbean area because they originated in the

Torrid Zone. Examples are lima bean, chayóte,

cowpea, eggplant, pepper, potato, sweetpotato, and

tomato and possibly the common bean, muskmelon,

okra, and soybean. Native varieties of some of

these vegetables still are found wild m the

Tropics. Unfortunately, many of the better

varieties of these crops have lost their adaptation to tropical conditions through many generations of selection and breeding in the Temperate

Zones. It is important for the vegetable grower

to have as much information as possible about

adapted varieties, cultural methods, and pest

control.

This handbook is the second revision of the

bulletin, "Vegetable Growing in Porto Eico," by

H. C. Hendricksen in 1906 {16)?- The first

complete revision was the circular, "Vegetable

Gardening in the Tropics," by N. F. Childers,

H. F. Winters, P. Seguinot Robles, and H. K.

Plank in 1950 {8), This revision has been

prepared to meet the continuing need for information on vegetable gardening, particularly in

the Caribbean area. It may be useful, also, to

gardeners in other areas of the Tropics. Some

of the sections may seem unnecessarily elementary to the more advanced gardeners, but they

are intended for individuals entirely without

experience in gardening. By following the directions and suggestions given in the following

chapters, any beginning gardener can produce

a wide variety of delicious and nutritious vegetable crops adapted to tropical conditions

The information and recommendations included in this handbook are based on many jrears'

experience in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin

Islands, the authors' observations in other areas

of the American Tropics, and a review of numerous publications on the subject.^ (See p. 112.)

The scope of the subject and the area oí

the world covered are much too broad to be

treated adequately in a single publication of

this size. Thus, it is suggested that the reader

supplement the information presented here with

experiences and recommendations of local

growers and of the nearest agricultural research

or teaching institutions. Their suggestions will

be particularly valuable with respect to varieties

that are locally desirable and to the best methods

for dealing with prevailing insect and disease

problems.

1 Italic numbers in parentheses refer to Literature Cited,

p. 110. . .,

2 A recent publication by H. D. Tindan contains similar

information with particular application to tropical areas

of West Africa. (See Additional References, p. 112.)

1
AGRICULTURE PIANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

-- ' »fr

FIGURE 1.—Trial garden In tropical area containing, left to right, lima bean, liead lettuce, carrot, beet, head cabbage

and tomato.

VEGETABLES IN THE DIET

The diet of most tropical residents is low in

fresh vegetables, particularly the green and leafy

types that are valuable for their high vitamin

and mineral contents. A survey, published in

1946 (32), of diets in Puerto Rico, which are

fairly typical of those in most of the Caribbean

area, showed an unbalanced condition. The

consumption of leafy and green vegetables was

only about half of that needed for an adequate

diet whereas consumption of starchy and protein vegetables was more than adequate. By

1963 the nutritional level had improved, but

deficiencies still appeared to exist (45). Apparently, then, vegetable gardening should be

expanded in the Caribbean area, with particular

emphasis on the green and leafy types.

Vegetables especially high in minerals and

vitamins are green and lima beans, broccoli,

carrot, collard, cowpea (whole pods with peas),

lettuce, mustard, parsley, sweetpotato, tomato,

and turnip tops. Vegetables moderately high in

minerals and vitamins are beet tops, Chinese

cabbage, head cabbage, celery, chard, com, eggplant, green onion, peas, potato, and spinach.

Vegetables of relatively low nutritive value are

beet root, chayóte, cucumber, the melons, okra,

radish, and turnip. Readers especially interested

m the nutritive value of vegetables should consult one or more of the following publications:

rn, pp. 103-J04; ^0; 31; 3S, pp. 112-117; 35; 63).
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA

VEGETABLE BREEDING IN THE TROPICS

The vegetable varieties available in the continental United States and other temperate

countries usually are well adapted to those areas.

They have been developed through long-time

breeding and selection. Some of these varieties

also perform satisfactorily when planted m the

Tropics at some season of the year. An extensive, coordinated vegetable-breeding program is

greatly needed in the Tropics to produce varieties with climatic adaptation that will resist the

insects and diseases present in the different areas.

Several varieties of any given vegetable may

be needed to maintain year-round production of

that vegetable in a given location. Varieties

that will perform well in the warm ramy season

might not be at all satisfactory during the cool

dry season. The greatest need seems to be for

vegetable varieties adapted to the warm ramy

season. They can best be produced by selecting

and breeding in areas with this type of climate.

Each vegetable gardener is a plant breeder if

he selects plants with outstanding performance

from which to save seed for future crops. He

has gone one step further if he eliminates the

poorer plants from the progeny before they

start to flower and before he selects parent plants

for the next generation.

Most of the vegetable-improvement investigations have been conducted by agencies of the

various governments. The Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of Puerto Kico

has conducted breeding programs with bean,

sweet corn, cucumber, eggplant, pepper, pigeonpea (gandul), squash, tomato, and other vegetable crops. It cooperates with vegetable breeders of the Southeastern United States in testing

their latest breeding lines for adaptability to

conditions in the Caribbean area. The Hawaii

Agricultural Experiment Station has produced a

series of tomato varieties with local adaptation

and is experimenting with Fi hybrids. Varieties

of the edible-podded or sugar pea also have been

produced. The Interamerican Institute for Agricultural Sciences at Turrialba, Costa Eica, has

conducted vegetable-breeding projects, particularly with the tomato. The Indian Agricultural

Research Institute has produced a virus-resistant

variety of eggplant. Seeds of these improved

varieties probably are available from the governmental agencies that produced them. The

governments of some tropical countries have

set up special agencies to sell seed to the public.

The improvement of food crops through breeding and selection is one of the programs m

which the Rockefeller Foundation cooperates

with the governments of tropical countries.

Potatoes and beans are the vegetable crops that

have received the most attention in Mexico,

Central America, and South America.

Some investigations in vegetable improvement

for the Caribbean area have been carried out by

private corporations, such as the United Fruit

Company in Honduras and the Shell Foundation

in Venezuela.

CLIMATIC RELATIONSHIPS

Climate has a profound effect upon the growth

of plants, particularly those introduced and not

well adapted, such as vegetables. The most important variables of climate insofar as the gardener is concerned are temperature and moisture,

but all of the climatic effects are interrelated.

Humidity is of the greatest importance m

growth of plant parts aboveground, but it is

closely related to moisture. Light is the essential

source of energy for plant growth. It can be

reduced in intensity by the utilization of artificial screens or trees to exclude direct sunlight.

The use of artificial light to extend the day

length for gardens is not practical in most areas.

Wind can be controlled in limited areas by strategically placed windbreaks. The temperatures

experienced in the Caribbean area are moderate

for the most part and usually are within the

range that will permit the cultivation of some

vegetable crops. Moisture usually is the climatic

variable of greatest importance to the vegetable

gardener and is the one most manageable

through irrigation and drainage. Also, it is

the climatic variable most lacking or poorly

distributed in many parts of the Caribbean area.

Although the Caribbean area lies entirely

within the Tropics, considerable variation in

climate occurs both between the different land

areas and within each area annually. To the

north and east of the Caribbean Sea, the Greater

and Lesser Antilles experience a relatively uniform climate because of the easterly trade winds.

The causes of local variations in the climate of

Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, often

within relatively short distances, are discussed

in detail by Smedley (53), To the south and
4 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

TABLE l.~Elevations, annual mean temperatures, and rainfall for stations bordering the Caribbean Sea

Station Elevation

Mean temperature Average annual rainfall

Years

recorded

Low

month 1

High

month 1 Annual Years

recorded

Low

month 1

HliTh

month 1 Annual

Feet Number o^ ° F. °F. Number Inches Inches Inches

Cuba :

Havana 80

393

42

8

71.2(1)

71.1(2)

81.0(8)

81.1(8)

76.4

76.8

42

8

1.29(2)

0.89(12)

8.12(10

7.73(8) Camaguey ) 45.53

52.47

Jamaica, Kingston __. 25 10 75.6(12) 80.1(4) 76.8 10 0.39(3) 6.61(10) 31.93

Haiti, Port-au-Prince- 134 80 75.2(12) 82.4(7) 79.3 80 1.26(1) 8.98(5) 52.60

Dominican Republic,

Santo Domingo 46 50 75.2(1,2) 80.8(8) 78.1 50 1.64(2) 7.70(9) 55.98

Puerto Rico :

Cayey 1,400

80

40

47

15

25

25

25

30

30

68.9(1)

74.5(1)

75.8(2)

74.9(1,2)

74.1(2)

76.0(8)

79.7(8)

81.7(8)

80.5(8,9)

80.4(8)

73.0

77.5

79.2

78.0

77.7

25

25

25

30

30

1.82(3)

1.77(2)

0.59(3)

2.42(3)

2.69(3)

7.82(9)

10.97(9)

6.08(9)

6.51(5)

7.90(11)

Mayaguez 59.38

Ponce 75.20

San Juan 36.88

San Juan (Airport)- 60.00

69.58

Virgin Islands:

Charlotte Amalie __

Truman Field

38

15

80

25

51

28 76.9(2)

75.9(1)

83.0(8)

82.4(8)

80.1 44

9

12

9

10

1.92(3)

1.85(3)

0.84(3)

0.74(3)

1.94(3)

6.31(10)

8.83(9)

4.74(11)

5.40(11)

7.69(9)

45.25

Christiansted 46.25

Fredricksted 32.58

Alexander Hamilton

Field 76.2(1,2) 82.0(8) 79.3

39.57

45.51

Antigua :

Gaynors 50

8

25

25

1.28(3)

1.47(2)

5.24(9)

5.65(11) Diamond 38.84

43.76

Martinique, Fort-deFrance 472 26 74.3(1,2) 78.8(8) 76.8 30 2.28(3) 9.13(9) 72.44

St. Vincent,

Kingstown 80 20 3.53(2,3) 11.92(11) 91.25

Barbados, Seawell

Airport 183 5 77.2(2) 80.8(6,8,9) 79.3 10 1.46(3) 6.93(10) 50.12

Grenada :

Pearls Airport 22 11 78.2(1) 81.3(5,6,8,

9,10)

82.1(10)

80.3 11 2.00(3) 10.63(11) 67.03

Richmond Hills 37 37 78.3(2) 80.5 37 2.43(4) 9.33(11) 76.41

Trinidad, Piarco 41 10 76.1(1) 79.9(5) 78.3 10 1.06(3) 10.59(6) 68.89

Curacao, Dr. Plesman

Airport 25 10 79.2(2) 83.8(9) 81.5 30 0.59(4) 5.04(11) 22.83

Colombia :

Barranquilla 39

10

8,397

5

5

7

0.00(2,3)

0.00(1,2,3)

1.48(8)

8.20(10)

6.21(6)

5.33(11)

33.37 Cartagena 5

7

77.9(1)

56.3(7)

81.9(6)

58.8(3,4)

80.1

57.5 Bogotá 35.07

37.38

Canal Zone :

Balboa 30

40

53

53

79.2(10,11)

79.5(11)

77.0(11)

82.2(4)

81.5(4)

79.9(4)

80.3

80.6

78.3

57

86

0.57(2)

1.46(3)

0.51(2)

4.43(9)

0.12(2)

10.02(10)

22.53(11)

9.45(11)

17.79(12)

12.79(9)

Cristobal 69.02

Panamá 130.08

Costa Rica, Limón ___ 10 9

30

129.83

69.88

El Salvador,

San Salvador 2,230 40 71.6(11,12) 75.6(4) 73.0

See footnote at end of table.
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA

TABLE \,—Elevations, annual mean temperatures, and rainfall for stations

lordering the Oanblean Sea—Continued

Elevation

Mean temperature Average annual rainfall

station Years

recorded

Low

month 1

High

month 1 Annual Years

recorded

Low

month 1

High

month 1 Annual

Honduras, San Pedro

Sula

Feet

249

72

Numher

5

50

o p

73.6(1)

73.4(1)

82.6(5)

82.2(5)

op

79.2

78.4

Number

20

40

Inches

1.46(4)

0.67(3)

Inches

8.11(9)

6.81(9)

Inches

52.44

Mexico, Mérida

36.61

1 Month is indicated by number in parentheses.

west of the Caribbean Sea the coasts of Venezuela, Colombia, and Central America are much

more variable in climate, particularly in rainfall, than are the Antilles. This variation is

due largely to exposure, or lack of exposure, of

the coasts to moisture-laden winds and to elevation of the land masses behind the coasts. Seasonal variations are similar for the entire Caribbean area. Climate, particularly rainfall, is profoundly affected by the North Atlantic hurricane

season, which extends from June to November.

Other factors affecting climate are temperature,

wind, and humidity. Elevations, mean temperatures, and rainfall data for stations bordering

the Caribbean Sea are in table 1.

Temperature

Variations of 3° to 5° F. in mean temperature

from one location to another have a marked

effect on the success with which different kinds

and varieties of vegetables can be grown in the

Tropics (fig. 2). Temperature difference between summer and winter in the Tropics may be

only 5° to 10°, whereas in the Temperate Zone

it may be more than 50°. For example, on the

island of Puerto Kico, there is about 5° difference

in mean temperature between the warmest period

of the year, in August, and the coolest, in Januarv or February (fig. 3). The cooler months

are'^best for planting most vegetable crops. The

Vegetable crop groups

Cool-Season Crops

Crops Less Exacting

as to Temperature

Warm-Season Crops

SS"" 60

Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit

Û 05° 70° yS"" 80° 85° 90'

Cauliflower - Garden Pea

Spinach - Brussels Sprouts

Broccoli - Chinese Cabbage -

Head cabbage - CeleryCollard - Kale - Head

Lettuce - Rutabaga - Turnip

Beet - Bulb onion - Chayóte - Carrot

Leaf lettuce - Mustard - Irish potato

Cucumber - Green onion - Muskmelon —

Squash

Bean-Chard-Corn-Cowpea-ParsleyPepper-Radish-Soybean-New Zealand

Spinach -Tomato

Eggplant-Okra-SweetpotatoWatermelon

FIGURE 2.—Approximate temperature range required by vegetable crop groups for satisfactory performance.
AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Dec. Annual

FIGURE 3.—Monthly mean temperatures of cities in the Tropics (Puerto Rico) and in the North Temperate Zone

(continental United States).

mean temperature for any month at sea level

as compared with that at higher elevations,

however, may differ as much as 5° to 10° or

more (table 1 and fig. 3). San Juan at 47 feet

above sea level has an annual mean temperature

of 78°, whereas Cayey at 1,400 feet has an annual

mean of 73°.

The effect of elevation and, therefore, of

temperature on growth of edible-podded pea

variety Melting Sugar grown at 80, at 2,600,

and at 3,200 feet in Puerto Eico is shown in

figure 4. All peas were planted within approximately the same week. Photographs were taken,

respectively, on October 23, October 20, and

October 18, 1945. Yields were in proportion to

vegetative growth. English pea variety Telephone responded similarly.

Cartagena, Colombia, near sea level, has an

annual mean temperature of 80.1° F., whereas

Bogota at 8,397 feet has an annual mean temperature of 57.5°. Most warm-season vegetables

cannot be grown at this elevation. Not far inland from the Caribbean coast, also in Colombia,

a peak of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta

with 19,030 feet elevation, has a permanent

snowcap.

At a given elevation one location may be

cooler than another, depending upon rainfall,

cloud cover, and prevailing breezes. For example, mainly because of low rainfall, the annual

mean temperature for Ponce, P.R., is 1.7° F.

higher than the annual mean temperature for

Mayaguez, P.R. Both cities are near sea level.

Ponce receives about 37 inches of rainfall annually; Mayaguez receives 75.2.

At or near the Equator, where the mean

temperature is almost the same for all months,

vegetables are grown at different elevations in

accordance with their temperature requirements.

Thus, eggplant being transported to markets up

the mountain may pass cabbage being sent to

markets down the mountain. In fact, the same

exchange of cool- and warm-season crops between high and low elevations occurs in most

sections of the Tropics, but season also plays

an important part in the availability of different

vegetables in the upper and lower latitudes of

the Tropics.

Rainfall

The rainfall pattern of the Caribbean area is

marked by one rather well-defined wet season

and one dry season each year. The wet season

generally extends from May to November but

considerable variation has been noted. In par-
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA

FIGURE 4.-Effect of elevation and, therefore of temperature on growth of edible-podded P^a^^OO flet''''"'°^ ^''^^' '"

Puerto Rico : A, Planted at 80 feet ; B, planted at 2,600 feet ; 0, planted at d.zuu leet.

ticularly wet areas the rains may continue until

January. Considerable annual variation in rainfall also occurs from year to year, depending

upon the passage of hurricanes near or through

a given area. Usually some rain is recorded

during the dry season but at Cartagena, Colombia,

none was recorded from January through Marcli

for 5 years. During those 5 years, the annual

average rainfall was 35.07 inches. In these dry

sections of the Caribbean area, vegetable gardening is possible only during the rainy season of

the year unless water is available for irrigation.

Many low islands and lee coasts of large islands

receive no more total rainfall than Cartagena,

but the rainfall may be better distributed

throughout the year. Year-round gardening is

possible in such areas only by very careful

conservation of water. The usual custom is to

replant the vegetable garden each year at the

onset of the rainy season.

Rainfall may vary markedly from place to

place over relatively short distances, with differences in elevation having an important influence

on the pattern. Warm, moisture-laden air is

carried inland by the trade winds, is forced to

ascend as it strikes the mountains, and is cooled.

The resulting condensation falls as rain. Thus,

in the relatively small island of Puerto Rico

parts of the northeastern mountains received an

annual average of 183.51 inches of rain over a

10-year period, whereas the city of Ponce on

the south coast received an annual average oi

only 36.88 inches.

In many tropical regions heavy rainfall is a

limiting factor to vegetable growing for several

months of the year, particularly where the soil

is heavy and poorly drained. A period of prolonged heavy rainfall may severely stunt or kill

vigorous fruiting tomato plants within a week.

The disastrous effect of heavy rainfall in summer

production of tomatoes was clearly demonstrated

in 1947 at Mayaguez, P.R. (iO, m7). Excellent tomato crops were grown in both soil and

gravel culture under greenhouse protection when

only average to poor crops were grown m the

field under prevailing rainy conditions.

Relative humidity for Puerto Rico and the

U.S. Virgin Islands averages about 80 percent

(53). Humidity is related to rainfall and is

highest during the rainy season.

Wind

Continuous winds may be a limiting factor to

vegetable gardening, particularly in insular

climates. Plants in exposed areas may be retarded or killed by a whipping, twisting action

and by desiccation during dry periods. Under

these conditions it is difficult or impossible to

grow vegetables without some provision tor

windbreaks. (See p. 34.) „ , /-, -u

The steady northeast trade wind of the Caribbean area also has a moderating effect upon the

climate. Before striking land this wind has been

cooled and moistened by passing over the open

water. No point of land in the Caribbean area
AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

IS far from the sea, so all are affected to some

degree. The strongest winds occur during July

when an average maximum speed of about 18

miles per hour has been recorded. The weakest winds are during October or November; at

the same location winds averaged 5 miles per

hour. Wind diminishes in intensity at nightfall and increases in intensity after daybreak.

Climatic Requirements of Vegetables

Figure 2 shows the temperature range over

which certain vegetables can be grown most

successfully. Using these temperatures and local

temperatures for the different seasons as guides

(J^Ii^)^ the gardener can determine at what season

to plant the different vegetable crops. Data for

a particular location can be obtained from the

nearest weather station. Mean temperatures at

low elevations are frequently too high for best

performance of some vegetables, such as cabbage,

whereas warm-season crops, such as eggplant and

okra, are likely to perform well. Although the

crops given in figure 2 grow best at the temperatures indicated under average conditions, satisfactory crops outside the specified temperature

ranges can be obtained under special conditions—

a particularly good growing season; shading

with palm leaves, cheesecloth, or other materials;

or the use of gravel culture. (See p. 83.)

Several vegetables have been grouped in figure

2 for practical purposes, despite the fact that all

do not have the same optimum temperature range.

For some crops, such as the garden pea, the optimum temperature range is relatively narrow ; for

others, such as the cucumber, it is fairly wide.

Vegetables planted during May and June north

of the Equator will develop and mature in increasmgly warm weather, whereas those planted

during October and November will mature in

mcreasingly cool weather. The opposite is true

south of the Equator, where the seasons are reversed. Thus, north of the Equator, coolseason crops, such as cabbage, should succeed well

if planted from October to December, inclusive,

and warm-season crops, such as okra and eggplant, from March to June. At low elevations a

wider variety of vegetables usually can be grown

during the cool winter season than during the

warm summer season, and at medium to high elevations many vegetables can be grown throughout

the year.

UGHT RELATIONSHIPS

Length of day may have a pronounced effect

on the vegetative growth, flowering, and tuberization of some vegetables. The difference in day

length between summer and winter is less in the

Torrid than in the Temperate Zones. In Puerto

Eico at 18° N. latitude, days vary from 11 hours,

3 seconds in December to 13 hours, 12 minutes in

June (fig. 5). At the Equator day and night

length are about equal the year round. Near

Washington, D.C., however, at 39° N. latitude in

the Temperate Zone, day length is about 91/2

hours in December and 15 hours in June.

McClelland {27) has shown that in Puerto Rico

some varieties of bulb onion, such as White BerR^^^ SUN RISE

I I SUNSET

LENGTH OF DAr-HOURS

AUG. 15 SE P T. 15 OC T. IS NOV. IS

M AVAGUE Z, PUERTO RICO

FiGUEE 5.-Time of sunrise and sunset and length of day on the 15th day of each month at Mayaguez, P.R.
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 9

muda, form bulbs best if they mature during the

increasingly longer days of spring, but make vigorous top growth and no bulbs during the short

days of winter. The bulb onion varieties Prizetaker and Yellow Globe Danvers formed bulbs

only when the day was lengthened to 15 hours by

artificial light. With potato varieties Irish Cobbler, Red Bliss Triumph, and Lookout Mountain, the longer days favored top growth, whereas

short days favored tuberization. Eed Bliss Triumph was the least sensitive to day length ; Lookout Mountain, the most.

In the vegetable trials conducted in Puerto Eico

(iö), sweet corn produced the largest stalks and

ears when the crop matured in April to June.

This was true also of field corn in Puerto Eico

(27). The soybean variety Seminóle also produced its best crop under these light conditions.

Time of sunrise and sunset varies with longitude in the Caribbean area. Some variation in

day length and in sunlight reaching vegetables at

a given longitude can also be the result of shading

from nearby mountains early in the morning or

late in the evening, or both. For example, sweet

corn grows and produces better at a given season

near the top of the mountains than in nearby deep

narrow valleys.

SOILS

The soil serves not only to physically support

the plants grown on it, but also to supply minerals and other elements essential to growth, it

is also the reservoir from which water is drawn

into the plants.

Soils of the Caribbean area, and the Tropics

generally, vary as much as or more than soils in

temperate climates. They differ in texture, structure, and organic matter and mineral element content. Soil texture is determined by the relative

amounts of clay, sand, and silt that make up a

particular soil.

Soils high in the very small clay particles are

heavy soils. The movement of both air and water

through them may be extremely slow, resulting m

a waterlogged condition that is unfavorable to

the growth of most plants. Some soils high in

clay particles will expand into a sticky mass when

wet and contract with drying to develop deep

cracks. Clay particles, however, have a strong

attraction for the important fertilizer elements

and are the most important component of soils.

Because of the larger particle size, sandy soils

exhibit no plasticity and cannot hold large

amounts of water or plant nutrients. Sandy soils

are apt to be droughty soils and may require frequent irrigation when planted to vegetable crops.

The properties of silt particles are intermediate

between those of clay and sand particles, but silt

alone probably is not sufficiently active chemically

to make a good soil. The ideal garden soil would

have a combination of the three particle sizes.

Such a soil is known as loam. Loams may be

classed as clay, silt, or sandy loams. In selecting

a site for a vegetable garden, preference should

be given to soils of these types. Thej have the

greatest potential for producing the widest variety of vegetable crops.

The structure of a soil is the result of the

grouping of the soil particles into units or aggregates. Soil structure is affected by tillage, by the

organic matter content, and by the presence of

calcium and other elements. The structure of

most soils can be improved by management practices. A well-aggregated soil is also well aerated,

has good water drainage, and is easy to cultivate.

The soils of beach areas are apt to be sandy;

those in the higher mountain areas are usually

stony or gravelly. Throughout the Caribbean

area are found small deposits of sedimentary soils

that are presently above the flood stage of the

stream that formed them. Such sites are well

suited for vegetable gardens since the stream may

supply much needed irrigation water.

In the Caribbean area and the Tropics generally, latosolic soils are predominant types. The

term "latosol" has replaced the term "latérite."

Latosol includes the soil groups known as latérites, reddish-brown lateritic soils, yellowish-brown

lateritic soils, red-yellow podzolic soils, and several kinds of latosols. All latosolic soils are well

weathered and leached, usually J:o great depths.

They are usually yellow to red; the red color is

due to iron compounds. Such soils are naturally

infertile but can be made to produce by careful

management.

GARDEN PLANNING

Choosing Location and Crops

Garden Location

For practical reasons the choice of a plot for

the home garden often is restricted to the land

immediately surrounding the gardener's house.

Even so, some selection may be possible. A good

garden site should meet as nearly as possible the

following specifications :

(1) A somewhat flat or gently sloping surface.
10 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

(Steep slopes are undesirable unless bench terraced.)

(2) Well-drained loamy soil, high in organic

matter and plant nutrients.

(3) Protected from winds by buildings, windbreaks, or neighboring hills.

(4) Located beyond the range of roots and

shade of trees and hedges that might compete

with the vegetables for light, water, and nutrients. (Shade of a distant high tree on the sunny

side, however, may assist in lowering the temperature at midday, thus making it possible to grow

the cool-season crops over a longer season.)

(5) Near the home and not readily accessible

to thieves.

(6) Near a source of unpolluted water for

irrigation.

(7) Near the market if some or all of the produce will be sold for profit.

(8) Protected from animals.

Crops and Varieties to Plant

In the Tropics north of the Equator most vegetables grow better during the cool, relatively dry

winter season between October and May than

during the warm, rainy summer season. Local

environment is also a factor. (See p. 3.) In general, vegetables that have performed moderately

T^^^J^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ round under conditions of

the Caribbean area near sea level are green bean,

beet, broccoli, Chinese cabbage, head cabbage, carrot, cassava, chard, eggplant, leaf lettuce, mustard, okra, green onion, pepper, pigeonpea (gandul), radish, Ceylon spinach. New Zealand spinach, sweetpotato, tomato, and "yautia" (tanier)

Most of these vegetables, particularly broccoli,

Chinese cabbage, head cabbage, and tomato, performed better during the cool dry season than

during the warm rainy season. On the other

hand, eggplant, okra, pepper, Ceylon spinach, and

New Zealand spinach performed somewhat better

during the warm season than during the cool.

Vegetable varieties suitable for planting in the

Caribbean area are listed in table 2. Additional

varieties are suggested for Puerto Rico by Aponte

Aponte (3) ; for Barbados, British Guiana, Trinidad, and other tropical areas by Hill (18) ; for

Haiti by Mortensen and Bullard (33) ; for Curacao by Mullison and Mullison (34.) ; and for the

Virgin Islands by Thompson (60). It is also

suggested that the gardener consult local growers

and agricultural institutions for further recommendations on varieties that have performed

satisfactorily in his locality.

TABLE ^.— Vegetable varieties likely to succeed in the Caribhean area

Crop

Amaranth (Chinese spinach) ___

Asparagus

Bean :

Bonavist or hyacinth

Bush green

Bush wax _

Pole green

Bush lima

Pole lima _

Beet

Broccoli

See footnote at end of table.

Varieties

Tampala

Mary Washington

Black-, brown-, or white-seeded

Black Valentine, Bountiful, Contender, Improved Tendergreen, Stringless Green

Pod, Tendergreen, and Puerto Rico improved white varieties, such as Bonita.

Pencil Pod Wax, Surecrop Stringless Wax_.

T^»lue Lake 231, Florigreen, Rust Resistant

Kentucky Wonder.

Remarks

Burpee Bush, Fordhook 242,

Fordhook Bush. Improved

Burpee Sunnybrook, Early Leviathan, Ford

iMammoth, King of the Garden.

Crosby Egyptian, Detroit Dark Red, Early

Wonder, Improved Blood Red.

Calábrese, Propageno

Can be grown from seed or divisions.

Seed can be obtained from local markets.

Other varieties (p. 61) are probably as

satisfactory.

Other varieties are probably as satisfactory.

Last will bear for several years if protected from insects.

Other varieties may perform satisfactorily. Tops of all these table

varieties may be used for greens.
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA

TABLE 2.—Vegetable varieties likely to succeed in the Carilhean ar^a—Continued

11

Crop

Brussels sprouts

Cabbage, head —

Varieties Remarks

Cabbage, Chinese

Cantaloup (See muskmelon)

Carrot

Cauliflower

Improved Long Island

Copenhagen Market, Early Jersey Wakefield, Golden Acre, Marion Market, Succession, Wisconsin All Seasons.

Chi-Hi-Li, Pe-Tsai, Wong-Bok

First three are early varieties with

small heads. Succession is among

the best with large heads.

First is generally more satisfactory.

Celery

Ceylon spinach (Malabar nightshade).

Chinese spinach (See amaranth).

Chard (Swiss chard)

Chayóte

Danvers Half Long, Imperator, Morse

Bunching, Red Core Chantenay.

Early Market, Early Patna, Early Snowball, Maincrop Bañaras, Maincrop Patna,

Royal Purple.

Florida Green Pascal, Golden Self Blanching, Utah, Waltham Summer Pascal.

Any available locally

First is most productive.

Royal Purple produces heads with purple tint.

Second is most commonly used.

Can be propagated by seed or cuttings.

CoUard

Corn, sweet (See sweet corn)

Cowpea

Cucumber

Fordhook Giant, Lucullus, Rhubarb

White or cream

Georgia (Southern), Louisiana Sweet, Vates.

Dasheen (See taro)

Eggplant

Endive

Gandul (See pigeonpea)

Garlic

Blackeye, Brown Crowder, Cream Lady,

Yardlong.

Ashley, Chinese Long, Henderson, Model,

Palmetto, Palomar, Puerto Rico 39, Santee, Wisconsin SMR 15.

Rhubarb chard has red petioles.

Select desirable type fruit from market.

Perform satisfactorily at low to medium altitudes only.

Puerto Rico 39 is most mildew resistant.

Black Beauty, Puertorican Beauty, RositaBroad Leaved Batavian, Sutton's Extra

Fine Green Curled.

Kale

Kohlrabi

Leek

Last has white fruits blotched with

pale purple.

First is partly self-blanching.

Any variety available _

Dwarf Siberian, Vates

Early White Vienna

American Flag

Lettuce :

Head _

Leaf

See footnote at end of table.

Great Lakes, Imperial 847, Imperial 44,

Mignonette.

Black Seeded Simpson, Mignonette, Ruby,

Salad Bowl, Slobolt.

Bulbs are divided into cloves for planting.

Curled varieties are more attractive

but likely to harbor insects.

Last is most heat resistant and can be

grown in sunnner as leaf lettuce.

Last is slowest to send up seedstalks

in warm weather.
1^ AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

TABLE 2.—Vegetable varieties likely to succeed in the CamUean ar^a—Continued

Crop

Malabar nightshade (See Ceylon

spinach).

Muskmelon (cantaloup)

Mustard

New Zealand spinach

Okra

Onion :

Bulb

Green bunching

Parsley .

Parsnip

Pea:

Edible-podded _

English (green)

Pepper

Pigeonpea (gandul)

Potato

Pumpkin

Radish _.

Rhubarb

Rutabaga

Salsify __

Soybean _

Spinach _

Squash

Varieties

Smith's Perfect, Texas Resistant No. 1, local

varieties.

Florida Broad Leaf, Fordhook Fancy, Tendergreen (mustard spinach).

Remarks

New Zealand

Clemson Spineless, Gold Coast, Louisiana

Evergreen, Perkins Spineless, White Velvet.

Early Harvest, Excel 986, L36, Louisiana

Red Creole, Texas Early Grano, White

Creole, White Grano, Yellow Bermuda.

Evergreen (Nebuka), Evergreen Long White

Bunching, Japanese Bunching, native varieties.

Extra Curled Dwarf, Moss Curled, Paramount, and plain or single.

Hollow Crown

Dwarf Gray Sugar, Manoa Sugar, Melting

Sugar.

Alderman, Telephone

Blanco del País, California Wonder, Chato,

Corozal, Yolo Wonder, Yolo Wonder L.

Kaki, Saragateado, Totiempo

Green Mountain, Katahdin, Red Bliss Triumph.

Alagold, Large Cheese, Small Sugar

Earliest Scarlet Button, Scarlet Globe

Sparkler, White Icicle.

Other varieties probably are as suitable. Curled varieties are likely to

harbor insects.

Soak seed for 24 hours before planting.

Last is a favorite locally.

Seed must be fresh.

Can be propagated by division after

becoming established.

Curled varieties have not produced

seed in Tropics.

Other varieties are probably as satisfactory.

Last is a white-seeded variety that may

be eaten as shelled peas.

Both are tall.

First has thin pale-green flesh.

Fresh seed should be obtained locally.

Victoria

Purple Top Yellow

Mammoth Sandwich Island

Hardee, Improved Pelican, Lee, Seminóle.

Black Zucchini, Borinquen, Butternut,

Camaguey, Cocozelle Bush, Fortuna,

Golden Straightneck, Yellow Summer

Crookneck.

First is superior in flavor.

Other varieties probably perform

equally well.

Plant seed in permanent location.

Try several varieties at high elevations only.

See footnote at end of table.
VEGP]TABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA

TABLE 2,—Vegetable varieties likely to succeed in the Carillean ú^r^a—Continued

13

Crop

Sweet corn __

Sweetpotato

Swiss chard (See chard)

Tanier (See taro)

Taro (dasheen, tanier) _

Tomato

Turnip

Watermelon

Yam

Yautia

Varieties

Improved USDA-34, Puerto Rico 50_

Canela, Don Juan, Mameya, Porto Morado,

Red Velvet, Rico, U.P.R. 3.

Trinidad, any available locally

Campbell 146, Floralou, Homestead 24, Indian River, Manalucie, Marglobe, Michigan State Forcing, Pritchard, Roma,

Rutgers, Selección Platillo.

Purple Top White Globe, Shogoin

Blacklee, Charleston Gray, Congo, Sugar

Baby, Tom Watson.

Agua, Congo Yellow, Guinea, Guinea Yellow, Mapuey Morado, Potato, Purple Ceylon, Tongo.

Remarks

Perform satisfactorily at low to medium altitudes only.

Select best types from market.

Hybrids have not been thoroughly

tested in Tropics.

Second is a foliage turnip, grown

largely for greens.

Better variety is needed.

Any available locally

1 It is suggested that the gardener consult local growers

and agricultural institutions for further recommendations

on crops and varieties that have performed satisfactorily

Select best types from market.

in his locality. See sections on culture of individual crops

for additional information.

In selecting vegetables for the garden, the

grower should consider their nutritive value.

Among the root crops, carrot is highest in vitamins and minerals, but relatively low in food

value. Legumes—green beans, lima beans, cowpeas, and soybeans—are high in vitamins, minerals, and protein. Vegetables of the greens

group—broccoli, chard, lettuce, mustard, and

parsley—are particularly high in vitamins and

minerals. Vegetables of the starchy type—potato,

sweetpotato, and corn—are primarily energy

foods. Under home garden conditions the area

available usually is not large enough to supply

the family with these energy foods, but some can

be raised if space is available. This is also true

for cucumber, pumpkin, watermelon, and many of

the squashes, which are low in food value. Yellow-orange squashes, however, are high in vitamin A content.

Planting Plans

To make the best possible use of land throughout the year, an advance planting plan of the

garden should be prepared. The accompanying

plans for small, medium-size, and large gardens

at different elevations and mean-temperature levels are suggested merely as guides. Each gardener should make substitutions for some of the

crops to suit his own tastes, needs for food, and

climatic conditions. The plans cover elevations

and approximate mean annual temperatures of:

(1) Sea level to 1,000 feet at about 76° F.; (2)

1,000 to 2,500 feet at about 73° ; and (3) 2,500 to

3,500 feet at about 68°.

In selecting vegetables, the gardener should

examine the data in figure 2 in order to choose

crops that are likely to perform most satisfactorily under his environmental conditions. He

should then check his selections individually with

the section on culture of individual crops to determine other specific requirements. (See p. 35.) He

must remember that south of the Equator the

seasons are the reverse of those to the north. For

example, at Tamatave, Madagascar (^^ p. 682)^

about 15° south of the Equator, the cool dry season is at its peak in July (70.5° F.) and the warm

rainy season in January (80.5° F.). Near and

on the Equator the mean temperature varies little

throughout the year. Thus, at Quito, Ecuador,

which is almost on the equatorial line, the mean

temperature varies from 56.6° F. in July to 58.0°

in October {.U^ f, 675). In view of these seasonal

differences throughout the Tropics, the planting
14 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

dates in the accompanying plans for cool- and

warm-season crops need to be adjusted according

to local conditions.

Plants such as broccoli, cabbage, eggplant,

onion, pepper, and tomato, which require transplanting from flats, pots, or seedbeds, should be

planted 3 to 6 weeks early so they will be properly developed for transplanting to the garden on

the dates recommended in the plans.

To obtain good yields of top-quality vegetables,

the garden must receive some attention almost

daily, with a total of several hours a week. An

inexperienced gardener should start with a small

area of ground and a few of the more easily

grown crops, then expand to a larger garden and

greater diversity of vegetables as interest and

experience develop.

Plans for a medium-size garden are suggested

for sea level to 1,000 feet and from 1,000 to 2,500

feet. A plan for a small garden is suggested for

elevations and temperature conditions from 2,500

to 3,500 feet. For gardens where additional land

is available, a supplementary plan is given to increase the size of the small and medium-size gardens to provide a larger quantity and variety of

vegetables. In the absence of natural protection,

some provision for windbreaks should be made in

these garden plans. (See p. 34.)

The planting date for gardens at sea level has

been suggested as October 15, and at the higher

elevations as December 1, since these are the usual

dates for starting gardens in humid sections of

the West Indies. These dates are entirely arbitrary. The actual date land preparation and

planting can be started will depend upon the vagaries of w^eather. An unusually prolonged rainy

season may delay planting for 2 or 3 weeks. A

short rainy season may advance the date of planting. In many of the low dry islands and lee

coastal areas of the Caribbean area, the only good

moisture conditions of the year may occur during

the hurricane season. In such areas the gardener

must be ready to take advantage of the moisture

whether it comes as early as July or as late as

November. It is possible to start a garden at

almost any season of the year, following onie of

the planting plans and other recommendations

appropriate for that date or season.

A wide variety of produce will not necessarily

be available in these gardens at all times of the

year. It is not intended—in fact, conditions do

not make it possible—to have all the crops listed

during each month. Only the more easily grown

and better known crops are suggested in the

planting plans. The more experienced gardener

may wish to add or substitute others at the

beginning.

Where rainfall is likely to be heavy at times,

raised beds should be constructed, particularly

during the rainy season, in order to obtain optimum drainage. (See p. 6.) When not in use,

the ground in certain areas should be manured,

dug up, and left fallow until needed.

PLAN FOR MEDIUM-SIZE GARDEN AT ELEVATION

BETWEEN SEA LEVEL AND 1,000 FEET; ANNUAL

MEAN TEMPERATURE ABOUT 7 6° F.—The garden

plan in figure 6 covers an area 30 by 50 feet, divided into 9 plots by walks. With good use of the

land throughout the year and proper disease and

insect control, a garden of this size should provide

enough green vegetables for a family of four or

five. A few starchy vegetables, such as sweetpotato, yautia, and potato, could be grown in a

garden of this size by judicious management and

companion cropping. Chayóte, squashes, sweetpotato, and other vine crops might be grown on

the fence to provide a windbreak.

Vegetables that can be substituted for those in

the plan include broccoli, collard, sweet corn, cucumber, kale, kohlrabi, mustard, bulb onion, and

summer squash grown in the proper season. New

Zealand spinach can be substituted for one or two

summer plantings of chard. Broccoli can be substituted for cabbage in November or January.

Chinese cabbage can be substituted for cabbage at

any period of the year, but both of these crops

produce best in the cool season. Soybeans can be

substituted for lima or green beans, particularly

when planting in April.

A 15-foot row of each of two tomato varieties

such as Homestead 24 and Eutgers should be

planted. Homestead 24 comes into bearing 2

weeks earlier than Eutgers. A 15-foot row of

only one variety could be planted each month,

rather than a 30-foot row every 2 months. A few

plants of Eoma, Indian Eiver, and Selección

Platillo, as well as the small-fruited plum-,

cherry-, or pear-type tomatoes could be planted

during the summer. These small-fruited varieties

are more likely than the others to bear a satisfactory crop under adverse conditions at low elevations. In particularly favorable locations or seasons lima bean, eggplant, okra, pepper, and tomato may remain productive much longer than

indicated in the plan. At such times only the

gardener can judge when to start replacements.

By doubling the size, this garden could also be

made to produce most of the starchy vegetables

required by a medium-size family. The plan suggested in table 3 for increasing the size of gardens at medium elevations can be used here. For

some families it might be desirable to eliminate

the crop of dry shell beans and grow more sweet

corn, sweetpotatoes, yams, or yautias.

PLAN FOR MEDIUM-SIZE GARDEN AT ELEVATION

BETWEEN 1,000 AND 2,500 FEET; ANNUAL MEAN

TEMPERATURE ABOUT 73° F.—Suggestions given

for the medium-size garden at low elevations (fig.

6 and table 3) apply for the most part to the

garden suggested m figure 7 for middle eleva-
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 15

in

-30 feetOCT. 15 - TOMATO

OCT. 15 - 15 FT. PEPPER

15 FT. EGGPLANT

APRIL 15 - BUSH

BEAN

JUNE 15 - BEET

APRIL 15 - LETTUCE JUNE 15 - CARROT

WALKl

OCT. 15 - LETTUCE DEC. 15 - BEET

OCT. 15 - BUSH BEAN DEC. 15 - CARROT

APRIL 15 - TOMATO

APRIL 15 - 15 FT. PEPPER

15 FT. EGGPLANT

WALK

OCT. 15 - CARROT

OCT. 15 - BEET

JAN. 15 - LIMA BEAN

JAN. 15 - CABBAGE

APRIL 15 - BEET JULY 15 - CHARD

APRIL 15 - CARROT JULY - LETTUCE

WALK

OCT. 15 - LIMA BEAN JAN. 15 - LETTUCE

OCT. 15 -CABBAGE JAN. 15- CHARD

APRIL 15-CHARD AUG. 15 - BUSH BEAN

APRIL 15 - LIMA BEAN AUG. 15 - LETTUCE

WALK

OCT. 15 - CHARD FEB. 15 - BEET

OCT. 15 - 15 FT. RADISH2 FEB. 15 - CARROT

15 FT. TURNIP

MAY 15 - CABBAGE

MAY 15 - LETTUCE

SEPT. 15 - LETTUCE

WALK

OCT. 15- BUNCHING ONION

OCT. 15 - OKRA MARCH 15 - LETTUCE

JUNE 15 - LETTUCE

JUNE 15 - BUSH BEAN

WALK

NOV. 15 - LETTUCE

NOV. 15 - CABBAGE

FEB. 15 - BUSH BEAN

FEB. 15 - LETTUCE

JUNE 15- TOMATO

APRIL 15 - BUNCHING ONION

WALK

DEC. 15- BUSH BEAN

DEC. 15 - LETTUCE

FEB. 15 - OKRA

FEB. 15 - TOMATO

AUG. 15 - BEET

AUG. 15 - CARROT

WALK

DEC. 15- 15 FT. RADISH2

15 FT. TURNIP

DEC. 15 - TOMATO

MARCH 15 - CABBAGE AUG. 15 - TOMATO

JUNE 15 - OKRA

1 walks should be at least 2 feet wide ; for recommended spacing between rows of vegetables consult table 6.

2 Radish can be sown broadcast between rows of other crops.

FIGURE 6.-Suggested 12-month planting plan for medium.size home vegetable garden located at an elevation

between sea level ana l,üüü leet.
16 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

-30 feetDEC. 1 - TOMATO

DEC. 1 - BUNCHING ONION

JUNE 1 - BUNCHING ONION

JUNE Î - TOMATO

WALKl

DEC. 1 - BUSH BEAN

DEC. 1 - CARROT

JUNE 1 - CARROT

JUNE 1 - BEET

WALK

DEC. 1 - BEET JUNE 1 - BUSH BEAN OCT. 1 - LETTUCE

DEC. 1 - 15 FT. TURNIP MARCH 1 - 15 FT. EGGPLANT

15 FT. RADISH2 ,5 PT, PEPPER

WALK

DEC. 1 - 15 FT. CUCUMBER

15 FT. CHARD

DEC. 1 - CABBAGE

O

APRIL 1 - CABBAGE

APRIL 1 - BUSH BEAN

SEPT. 1 - BEET

SEPT. 1 - CARROT

WALK

DEC. 1 - LETTUCE

DEC. 1 - BROCCOLI

APRIL 1 - TOMATO

APRIL 1.LETTUCE AUG. 1 - BUSH BEAN

WALK

FEB. 1 - LETTUCE

FEB. 1 - TOMATO

AUG. 1 - CHINESE CABBAGE

AUG. 1 - LETTUCE

WALK

FEB. 1 - CABBAGE

FEB. 1 - BUSH BEAN

JUNE 1 - NEW ZEALAND

SPINACH

JUNE 1 . CHINESE

CABBAGE

OCT. 1 - CHINESE

CABBAGE

OCT. 1 - BUSH

BEAN

WALK

MARCH 1 - BEET JUNE 1 - LETTUCE

MARCH 1 - 15 FT. RADISH2

15 FT, TURNIP

OCT. 1 - TOMATO

JUNE 1 - OKRA

WALK

MARCH 1 - 15 FT. CHARD

15 FT. CUCUMBER

SEPT. 1 - NEW ZEALAND

SPINACH3

MARCH 1 - CARROT AUG. 1 - TOMATO

Walks should be at least 2 feet wide ; for recomniended spacing between rows of vegetables consult table 6.

^ Radish can be sown broadcast between rows of other crops.

3 Mustard can be substituted for New Zealand spinach.

FIGURE 7.—Suggested 12-month planting plan for medium-size home vegetable garden located at an elevation

between 1,000 and 2,500 feet.
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 17

o

o

DEC. 1 - BUSH BEAN

DEC. 1 - TURNIP^

DEC. 1 - CABBAGE

DEC. 1 - CABBAGE

DEC. 1 - BEET

DEC. 1 - CARROT

DEC. 1 - CHARD

FEB. 1 - BUSH BEAN

FEB. 1 - CARROT

FEB. 1 - CABBAGE

FEB. 1 - CABBAGE

MARCH 1 - BEET

MARCH 1 - TURNIP

15 feet

MARCH 1 - BUNCHING ONION

MARCH 1 - CHARD SEPT. 1 - NEW ZEALAND

SPINACH2

WALK3

APRIL 1 - BUSH BEAN

APRIL 1 - CARROT

AUG. 1 - CHINESE CABBAGE

AUG. 1 -CHINESE CABBAGE

WALK

APRIL 1 - CABBAGE

APRIL 1 - CABBAGE

AUG. 1 - CARROT

AUG. 1 - BUSH BEAN

WALK

JUNE 1 - CHINESE CABBAGE OCT. 1 - BUSH BEAN

JUNE 1 - CHINESE CABBAGE

JUNE 1 - BUSH BEAN OCT. 1 - CARROT

WALK

JUNE 1 - BEET OCT. 1 - CHINESE CABBAGE

JUNE 1 - CARROT

JUNE 1 - NEW ZEALAND SPINACH OCT. 1 - CHINESE CABBAGE

WALK

SEPT. 1 - BUNCHING ONION

SEPT. 1 - BEET

1 Kohlrabi can be substituted for turnip.

2 i\Tn«!tnrrl can be substituted for New Zealand spinach. i^ 4. ui^ «

3 warns shoKe at least 2 feet wide ; for recommendea spacing between rows of vegetables consult table 6.

FIGURE 8-Suggested 12-month planting plan for small home vegetable garden located at an elevation

between 2,500 and 3,500 feet.
18 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

TABLE 3.—Length of rows for additional crops to

increase home garden from medium size to large

Crop

Distance

between

rows

Length of row when

planted in—

December March July

Bean, bush dry shell iFeet

IV2

3

3

3

3

3

3

Feet Feet Feet

390

Corn, sweet

Pigeonpea (gandul) __

90 90

90

Squash (calabaza

type)2 60

Sweetpotato 120

Yam 90 Yautias 90

1 Double cropped with December sweet corn, calabaza,

and sweetpotato plantings.

2 Planted between sweet corn rows, December.

3 Planted between sweet corn rows, March.

tions. However, with the approximately 8-degree

cooler mean temperature, the cool-season crops,

such as broccoli, cabbage, Chinese cabbage, and

kohlrabi, will perform slightly better and over a

longer season. On the other hand, warm-season

crops, such as eggplant, okra, and pepper, will

perform better during the warm months. Kohlrabi can be substitued for turnip and mustard for

New Zealand spinach. If extra land is available,

the size of this garden can be increased by adding

the crops shown in table 3.

PLAN FOR SMALL GARDEN AT ELEVATION BETWEEN 2,500 AND 3,500 FEET ; ANNUAL MEAN

TEMPERATURE ABOUT 68° F.—A plan for a small

garden is suggested for high elevations (fig. 8)

because this is a more common size for gardens

at such elevations. This may be the result of

remoteness from large cities, which are a good

outlet for surplus garden vegetables, or of the

character of the land, which is steeper, less fertile, and somewhat less suited to vegetable growing than land at low elevations. Produce from

this garden should meet the needs of a family of

two or three.

This small garden can be expanded by adding

crops adapted to higher elevations. At high elevations warm-season crops, such as eggplant and

okra, should be planted only in a small way for

trial. Pepper, on the other hand, may give fair

yields during the warmer months. True spinach

may fail unless the mean temperature is below

about 65° F. Other crops that may be included

or used as replacements for those suggested in

figure 8 at high elevations are arracacha ("apio"),

asparagus, broccoli, cauliñower, celery, collard,

endive, kale, leek, mustard, parsley, parsnip, peas,

potato, rhubarb, rutabaga, salsify, taro ("malanga" or dasheen), and yautia. Sweet corn and

sweetpotato of the presently available varieties

usually do not produce very well at high elevations.

At elevations above 3,500 feet and mean temperatures below 65° F., the number of vegetables

than can be produced decreases during the cold

season ; in fact, most vegetables produce best during the warm season under these conditions.

Seed

Source

Having decided which vegetable crops he can

expect to perform reasonably well, and having

considered his climate, elevation, soil, and family

needs, the gardener must secure seed. In some

tropical areas the local agricultural agencies will

mamtain seed stocks for sale to the public.

Usually the desired varieties are not available

locally. The purchase of seed packets locally,

even those prepared by reliable companies, should

be avoided unless the seeds are known to be absolutely fresh. Most of the recommended varieties

can be ordered from commercial seed companies

located in the Temperate Zone.

Using seed of inferior varieties or seed with

poor germination can be a costly mistake. Not

only the time and effort of preparing the seedbed

will be lost but also the gardener will be without

the desired vegetables for some time. Use fresh

seed, ordering the quantity needed for planting

at each season of the year. Gardeners living in

remote areas or where unusual delays are experienced in mail deliveries may wish to order a supply of seed sufficient for 6 to 12 months. In thé

Caribbean area the cool dry season of December

to March is suggested for such shipments. Most

of the seed companies are experimenting with

some form of vapor seal, such as aluminum foil,

plastic bags, or tin cans for packaging seeds(Í5).

It would be well for the gardener to request some

such packaging when he submits his order.

Growing Your Own Seed

In general, it is not wise under tropical conditions to grow or save seed from a garden. A crop

left in the garden for seed ripening may occupy

the land two or three times as long as when it is

grown only for the edible portion. Also, seed of

soiiie crops may harbor disease organisms.

Seed of locally adapted varieties that are insect

or disease resistant should be saved as supplies

probably cannot be obtained elsewhere. These

include several of the beans, sweet corn, cucumber,

eggplant, pepper, and tomato.

Crops that normally produce seed under most

conditions in the West Indies and Hawaii (11, p,

S9) are bean, broccoli, Chinese cabbage, corn, cow-
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 19

pea, cucumber, eggplant. Imperial 44 head lettuce,

Black Seeded Simpson leaf lettuce, melons, green

and white mustards, okra, some varieties of onion,

pepper, soybean, and tomato. Vegetable crops

that will seed under tropical conditions only with

special technical handling are beet, head cabbage,

carrot, chard, collard, bulb onion, and parsley.

Hill (18) discusses several aspects of vegetable

seed production in the Tropics.

Treating and Storing

Good germination of vegetable seeds can be preserved under tropical conditions by immediately

storing seed not used over calcium chloride or

calcium oxide (quicklime) in airtight containers

(fig. 9). These chemicals can be obtained at local

FIGURE 9.—Storing vegetable seeds to preserve good germination under tropical conditions.

chemical supply stores or drugstores. Thin layers of cotton and blotting paper should be used

between the chemical and the seed. The seeds are

in paper envelopes or cloth bags. These chemicals keep the air and seeds drj within the container, which is essential in maintaining viability

under tropical conditions. The container should

be- kept under refrigeration or at least in a cool

place. Seed of several different vegetables can be

preserved for 2 years or longer at better than 90-

percent germination when stored in this manner

(á?/, p. ß7).

Excessive drying of some vegetable seeds reduces germination. In California, pole bean seeds

stored at room temperature with a moisture content of 9.8 percent gave 61-percent germination

after 1 year; seed stored over silica gel at 5-percent moisture gave only 12-percent germination

(Í5). If seed is stored without protection from

high humidity and relatively high mean temperatures, viability to produce good stands of some

crops may be lost within a few weeks. Fresh, dry,

unleached wood ashes also have been used to preserve the viability of garden seed in the Tropics.

Equal volumes of ashes and well-dried seed are

thoroughly mixed and stored in a tightly sealed

bottle or other container.

Corn seed that has been dried on the cob can

be kept free from weevils for several months by

rolling the husked ears in lime. When corn seed

is stored without treatment, germination of the

seed may be destroyed within 3 months by high

humidity or weevils or both (39). (See the sections concerning weevils, p. 95, and control of sweet

corn insects, p. 102.)

Treatments for controlling seedborne diseases

that appear on the seedlings, such as dampingoff, are discussed under the section on vegetable

diseases. (See p. 104.)

Germination Tests

If seed has been stored for several months, its

ability to germinate can be checked by the following simple test :

Soak a small towel and two plates in boiling

water for a few minutes; allow to cool; put the

towel in one plate with a few seeds between a fold

and invert the second plate over the first to reduce evaporation. Keep the towel continuously

moist, but not soaked. Determine percentage germination within 4 to 8 days.

At least 50 percent of the seed should germinate in tests to insure an adequate stand when it

is sown in the garden. With a germination percentage of 50 percent, twice as much seed should

be sown as suggested. (See Planting the Garden,

p. 25.) A 75-percent germination indicates that

about one-third more seed should be planted than

suggested.
20 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

GARDEN MANAGEMENT

After a garden site has been chosen, there are

a number of practices the gardener can folloAv

to insure reasonably good growth and production

of vegetable crops. Usually the site will not be

ideally situated in all respects. (See p. 9.) In

high-rainfall areas a diversion ditch is sometimes

necessary to prevent surface water from damaging the garden. Judicious tree removal may be

necessary to prevent competition from roots and

shading of the garden site. Fencing may be

needed to prevent damage by Avandering animals

and pilfering. More often than not, however, soil

and water will be the factors most limiting to

vegetable gardening in the Caribbean area and

in the Tropics generally.

Soil Improvement

The best soil for growing vegetables is a welldrained sandy loam, high in organic matter.

Such a soil is rarely available to the average gardener in the Caribbean area. Nevertheless, it is

frequently possible to grow satisfactory crops of

vegetables by special treatments of heavy, infertile soils. Soil improvement under these conditions may be effected by one or all of the following practices :

(1) Loosen the soil for better drainage and

aeration by adding large quantities of manure,

compost, or cachaza (sugarcane mill filter-press

cake), volcanic black sand, river or beach sand, or

river silt.

(2) Apply commercial fertilizers.

(3) Apply agricultural limestone.

(4) Irrigate judiciously, avoiding excessive

watering.

(5) Improve surface drainage by using raised

beds and grass-lined ditches constructed with very

gradual grades.

(6) Cultivate frequently when the soil is moist

but not muddy.

Soil Preparation

The first step after the garden site has been

laid out is the removal of all possible obstructions, such as rocks, roots, and stumps. All herbaceous vegetation should then be chopped down

and plowed or spaded under. The soil should receive a heavy application of pulverized limestone

before it is plowed unless the soil is known to be

sweet or alkaline. After 3 or 4 weeks a liberal

dressing of animal manure or leaf mold should

be applied and the soil plowed or spaded a second time. Some particularly heavy soils may require a third working to put them in condition.

Where chemical fertilizers are readily available,

about 50 pounds of 5-10-5 analysis fertilizer

should be scattered over the 30- by 50-foot plot

before the final working. If chemical fertilizers

are difficult to obtain, they should be saved for

later use.

When gardens are on bench terraces (fig. 10),

liberal quantities of animal manure and compost

may be required to improve the unproductive exposed subsoil frequently found there. This condition can be improved also by placing on the

lower terrace the topsoil obtained from constructing the terrace immediately above. Gardens

should not be planted on dry, steep, unterraced

hillsides where topsoil has been largely washed

away, leaving only the infertile subsoil.

Steps in preparing bench terraces for planting are:

(1) Dig a trench 1 foot deep and 1 foot wide

where each row of vegetables is to go. On narrow

terraces the trenches will parallel the inner edges

or surface drainage channels. On broad terraces,

such as the one shown in figure 10, the rows

should be perpendicular to the drainage channel.

Otherwise the inner rows may become waterlogged during extended rainy periods.

(2) Loosen the soil at the bottom of the trench

with a spading fork.

(3) Place in the trench any organic matter

available, to a depth of 3 to 6 inches and dig it in.

Animal manure is preferred, but any plant refuse

may be used.

(4) Sprinkle the organic matter with lime but

withhold the lime if fresh manure is used.

(5) Eeplace the soil over the organic material,

leaving it slightly mounded.

(6) Lime this surface soil at the rate of 10

pounds per 100 row feet and rake it in.

(7) At time of planting apply a covering of

pulverized organic material such as well-rotted

leaf compost, animal manure, or cachaza.

(8) Eepeat the process each year, digging the

trench in what was the path between rows the

preceding year.

A modification of this method, called "bastard

trenching," is recommended by Herklots {17) to

prepare plots of barren latosolic soil for planting

vegetables. A trench 21/2 feet wide and 1 foot

deep is dug across one end of the plot and the

soil carried to the far end. This trench is filled

with organic material and limed as outlined

above. It is then covered with the soil obtained

by excavating the adjacent 21/2-foot strip. The

procedure is repeated until the entire length of

the plot has been dug; then the last trench is

covered with the soil removed from the first.
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 21

FiGUBE 10.—Vegetables growing on handmade terrace built on a 45-percent slope.

Plant Beds

In tropical regions receiving heavy rainfall

good surface drainage of the soil must be provided. Raised beds are commonly used to divert

excess moisture when the soil is of medium to

heavy texture. The beds may be 6 to 12 inches

high, 3 to 6 feet wide, and any convenient length.

Paths between beds are from 11/2 to 2 feet wide.

Raised beds have the advantages of being easy to

work, looking neat, and being less subject to

trampling because their paths provide a place to

walk and stand. Beds that are edged with boards,

galvanized iron, or rocks generally have less

trouble with weeds migrating from the paths.

Bordered beds also are less subject to soil erosion

and are easier to spade because of being less

trampled.

During periods of low rainfall, raised beds have

the disadvantage of drying faster and requiring

more frequent watering. They should not be used

during the dry season unless they are already constructed. Mulching will help retard drying out

of the soil.

The walks between the beds can become plant

beds the second year. The soil should first be

loosened with a spading fork, then covered with

a 3- to 6-inch layer of animal manure or other

organic material. Lime should be added if

needed and the soil from the old beds used to

cover the new.

Fertilizers

Animal Manures

Animal manure is the most useful form of fertilizer and it is often the only form available to

the home gardener. Manure frequently makes

the difference between an excellent and an average to poor crop. It not only is a source of plant

nutrients but also aids root growth by making the

soil more porous and crumbly and promoting

good aeration and drainage. Quality of manure

varies with the animal producing it, the feed the

animal receives, and the age and care of the manui'e. As a rule, poultry manure is best, with that

from the horse, cow, pig, and rabbit following in

the order given. Animal manures in general are
22 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

relatively high in nitrogen and potash but low in

phosphorus. Since many tropical soils are low

in phosphorus also, it is wise to apply some commercial fertilizer with manure. Manure applied

alone to crops such as tomatoes, beans, and peas

may result in a highly vegetative condition of the

tops with average to poor growth of flowers,

roots, or fruits. Manure applied alone to leafy

vegetables—lettuce, chard, kale, mustard, and endive—may be satisfactory since the leaves are the

desired product. Poultry manure is relatively

high in nitrogen and gives good response with the

leafy crops. Fresh manure can be used provided

it does not touch the plants.

Strawy manure may contain weed seeds in

varying quantities. If the manure is applied to

the garden area a few weeks in advance, the seeds

will germinate and most of the seedlings can be

destroyed when the seedbed is prepared. Rotted

or composted manure usually is more beneficial to

the soil than is fresh manure and composting will

kill the weed seeds. The method for preparing

manure compost is the same as for plant composts

except that a layer of fresh animal manure is substituted for the chemical fertilizer.

Composts and Other Organic Materials

The main benefit of compost is the improvement of aeration and drainage through the better

physical condition of the soil thus created. Composts also help prevent baking and cracking of

the soil after rains. A compost pile can be prepared by building up successive layers of (1) organic materials—lawn clippings, leaves, or tender

hedge clippings—with manure; (2) then soil;

and (3) then a fertilizer such as ammonium sulfate, ammonium nitrate (64, pp, 16-17)^ or sodium nitrate in the order named. The layers of

organic material should be 6 inches thick. The

fertilizer and soil are sprinkled over each layer,

making the pile 3 to 6 feet high if necessary

Excessive heating may result if the compost

pile is over 5 or 6 feet wide. Where commercial

nitrogen fertilizers are not available, complete

fertilizer mixtures, such as 10-10-5, may be used

instead. For each 100 pounds of organic material, 10 pounds of superphosphate and 5 pounds

of ammonium sulfate should be added.

Weeds and diseased plants from the garden can

be used for organic materials if properly composted and sufficiently aged. Well-prepared compost heaps will heat, thus destroying practically

all weed and grass seeds and disease organisms.

The compost heap should be sheltered from rains

to reduce leaching. In dry regions a compost pit

is preferred and water should be added when dry

plant materials are used.

The compost pile should be kept moist, but not

soaked, all the time. The heap should be turned

with a shovel or fork at 3-week intervals over a

period of about 3 months.

Cachaza (filter-press cake from sugarcane

mills) is good for improving the soil provided it

FIGURE 11.—WeU-constructed compost pile with depressed top and steep sides.
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 23

has been well decomposed before application.

Fresh cachaza applied to the vegetable garden

may cause nitrogen deficiency or yellowing of the

foliage. The application of fresh sawdust, straw,

or similar materials may produce the same effect.

When these materials are used fresh, plenty of

manure or commercial nitrogen fertilizer or both

must be applied.

Chemical Fertilizers

Under tropical conditions chemical fertilizers

should be used with almost every planting, supplemented with manure when available. Most

commercially mixed fertilizers contain the three

important nutrients—nitrogen, phosphorus, and

potassium—the percentage of each available nutrient being designated by a numerical formula.

For example, 100 pounds of 10-10-5 fertilizer contains 10 pounds of nitrogen, 10 pounds of phosphorus, and 5 pounds of potassium, totaling 25

pounds of available plant nutrients. The remaining 75 pounds consist of inert ingredients or fillers, such as sand or lime.

When using relatively low-analysis fertilizers

such as 5-10-5, 10-10-5, 6-9-5, or 5-10-10 at planting, the average application is about one medium

handful to 3 feet of row. The amount of fertilizer in an average-size hand about half closed

and held upright is 3 to 4 tablespoonfuls. For

rows approximately 18 inches apart this application corresponds to 800 to 1,000 pounds per acre.

For concentrated fertilizers such as 11-48 amrnonium phosphate, slightly less than this quantity

should be used at planting.

TABLE 4.—Quantity of chemical fertilizer per 25

feet of row at various row sfacings to approooimate standard acreage rates ^

Spacing Standard acreage rates

rows

(inches) 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200

12

18

24

30

36

42

48

Pounds

0.12

.18

.25

.30

.37

.43

.50

Pounds

0.25

.37

.50

.62

.75

.85

1.00

Pounds

0.35

.55

.75

.90

1.10

1.25

1.50

Pounds

0.50

.75

1.00

1.25

1.50

1.75

2.00

Pounds

0.60

.90

1.25

1.50

1.80

2.10

2.40

Pounds

0.75

1.10

1.50

1.80

2.20

2.50

3.00

1 Roughly, 6 to 9 medium handfuls of fertilizer will

weigh 1 pound. This will vary with hand size and the

weight of the fertilizer.

For side dressings of fertilizer while the plants

are growing, apply a medium handful of fertilizers—ammonium sulfate, ammonium nitrate, sodium nitrate, 11-48 ammonium phosphate, or

equivalent material—to both sides of each 6 row

feet 3 to 4 inches from the base of the plants.

This corresponds to a side dressing of 300 to 400

pounds per acre at 18-inch row spacing. The

fertilizer-application data in table 4 should be

valuable in calculating the amount needed in moderately large or commercial vegetable gardens

{11, p. 35).

Methods of applying fertilizer are shown m

figure 12. A complete fertilizer should be applied

with manure at planting time and a side dressing

FIGURE 12.—Methods of applying fertilizers: A, Applying side dressing of ammonium sulfate to corn;

B, dissolving complete fertilizer in water to sprinkle on young seedlings.
24 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

of commercial fertilizer such as ammonium sulfate should be applied after the plants have become well established. A complete fertilizer applied to seedlings induces rapid and strong

growth. If fertilizers are available only in 200-

pound bags, which may be too much for a single

gardener, neighboring gardeners can buy a bag

together.

Since nitrogen dissolves easily in rain or irrigation water and penetrates the soil rapidly, it can

be applied as a surface side dressing. Potash and,

particularly, phosphate dissolve much more

slowly and should be applied in 3-inch furrows

and covered with soil. The furrows are run on

either side of the row and not closer than 2 inches

from the plants. When the soil is heavy, side

dressings by furrow are particularly recommended ; when the soil is sandy, side dressings of

all fertilizers can be applied on the soil surface.

Fertilizer elements will not be readily available

to the roots until after a rain or an irrigation.

Fertilizers should never touch the seed, leaves, or

plant roots, or burning and killing will result.

Relatively little research has been done on the

need for so-called minor elements—boron, copper,

iron, magnesium, manganese, molybdenum, and

zinc—in vegetable crop production in the Tropics.

Deficiencies of these minor elements may limit

growth under some tropical conditions, particularly where leaching from heavy rainfall may be

pronounced. Excessive amounts of some nutrients such as water-soluble manganese may create

deficiencies of others such as iron {19) ; or the

reverse manganese-iron relationship may exist

In Puerto Rico during trials with vegetables

symptoms closely corresponding to minor-element

deficiencies Avere noted from time to time {52),

In Michigan (^^. p. 19) boron and manganese

deficiencies were reported most likely in alkaline

soils, particularly with red beet, head cabbage,

cauliflower, head lettuce, rutabaga, spinach, and

turnip. Symptoms of boron deficiency are black

corky areas in the beet flesh, rough cankers on

the outside of the beet, blackened small center

leaves in head lettuce, cabbage, and cauliflower,

and small deformed center leaves on spinach.

Manganese deficiency is easily seen on beet leaves

as a fading of color between the green veins.

]Minor-elenient fertilizers, when needed, can be

thoroughly mixed Avitli sand or the main garden

fertilizer, since uniform application of small concentrated quantities is difficult. Boron is generally applied at the rate of 6 ounces of common

borax per 1,000 square feet and manganese at the

rate of 1 pound of manganese sulfate per 1,000

square feet. When boron-susceptible vegetables

are interspersed Avith others less likely to show

these deficiencies, only 3 ounces of borax per

1,000 square feet for the entire garden area should

be used. Some vegetables are injured if borax is

applied at the higher rate.

Copper deficiency is not likely where copper

sprays such as bordeaux mixture are used. Zinc

deficiency is economically important only on a

few vegetables growing under unusual soil conditions in Florida and California {52^ pp, 168-

169), Foliar symptoms of zinc deficiency are

the same for bean, squash, and tomato. Some

leaves are abnormally small and mottled with

dead areas; others are uniformly chlorotic. A

pinch of zinc sulfate in 10 gallons of water

sprayed over the plants should counteract zinc deficiency. Iron deficiency also results in chlorosis

of the tip leaves and is most likely to appear on

alkaline soils. It can be counteracted with iron

sulfate^—a pinch of the sulfate in 10 gallons of

w^ater. If supposedly minor-element deficiency

symptoms are persistent and pronounced, each

minor element should be checked separately on

neighboring plants to determine which one, if

any, gives the most striking response.

Lime

Most vegetables grow best when the soil is

somewhat acid to slightly acid (pH 5.5 to 6.5) but

some, such as cabbage, grow well in sweet to

slightly alkaline soil (pH 7.0 to 7.5). Acid soils

can be sweetened by adding some form of lime.

Powdered limestone, either dolomitic or coral,

usually is the form most available in the Tropics.

If it is necessary to import lime, the hydrated

form may be cheaper since less is required. Calcium, one of the elements contained in lime, is

essential for plant growth. If a soil is suspected

of being too acid, the gardener can apply lime to

a small area at the rate of 10 pounds of ground

limestone per 100 square feet of area and observe

subsequent growth of the vegetable crops for any

improvement. If it is found that lime is needed,

the form available should be broadcast on the soil

surface at the proper rate shown for that form in

table 5, and worked in by raking.

In some areas soil samples can be tested by

local agricultural agencies or experiment stations.

One-half pint of soil is sufficient for each test.

If it is needed, lime can be applied at the rate

recommended.

The yellow and red latosolic soils of many highrainfall areas of the Tropics are apt to be deficient in most of the elements needed for growth

of vegetable crops. This is particularly true

where row crops have been grown without an

adequate management program. Under such conditions, the alkaline salts are among the first to be

leached.

In southern Brazil, Mikkelsen, Freitas, and McClung {30) conducted a 2-year study of the ef-
VEGÈiTABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 25

TABI^E 5.—Approximate quantity of liming mateñaU required per 1,000 square feet to reduce acidity

in garden soil

Material ^

Ground limestone pounds

Limestone meal "Jo

Hydrated do- lime

Marl, 50 percent CaCOg bushels.

Marl, 90 percent CaCOg do_

Sugar factory refuse dOQuantity for soil having initial pH of -

Below 5.0

(very acid)

100

100

75

6

3

3

5.0 to 5.5

(acid)

75

75

50

4

2

2

5.6 to 6.0

(moderately acid)

50

50

2

1

1

1 Other refuse-lime materials, such as water softener lime, are equally good provided they contain no toxic substances.

fects of liming and fertilizing virgin areas of the

acid (pH 4.9) yellow to red lateritic Campo Cerrado soils. Yields of corn, cotton, and soybean

increased sharply with the application of dolomitic limestone. The limestone corrected excessive soil acidity, supplied calcium and magnesium

as plant nutrients, and increased the uptake of

native nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur. There

are 400 million acres of such soils in the central

plateau of Brazil.

Gardens planted on acid soils may require annual application of lime and organic materials.

In addition to supplying calcium and magnesium

for plant growth and neutralizing acid soils, lime

causes a flocculation of the clay particles. Rotted

organic material alone may actually make a clay

soil more sticky. The flocculation caused by lime

improves the physical condition of the soil by

making it more crumbly.

West Indian soils formed from limestone and

soils of arid coastal areas should not require the

addition of lime. Some soils may contain excesses

of the soluble salts of calcium, sodium, and other

elements. These alkaline soils may have pH readings above 8.0. Garden vegetables planted on

them will grow poorly and will exhibit varying

degrees of yellowing of the foliage. Such soils

should be avoided in locating vegetable gardens.

If no other soil is available, samples should be

submitted to the local agricultural agencies for

analysis and recommendations as to how the condition can be corrected. Sulfur or aluminum sulfate can be added to correct excessive alkalinity.

Planting the Garden

Before any seeds are sown, the surface soil

should be broken into the finest particles possible.

Seeds absorb the moisture necessary for germination from the soil. Better contact between seed

and soil is obtained in finely divided soil than in

rough soil, resulting in earlier and better germination. Seeds of most vegetable crops are rather

small. If planted in rough soil, many seeds will

fall in the crevices between clods and be covered

too deeply for the seedlings to emerge above the

surface.

The soil surface can be pulverized by repeated

raking. Soils high in clay are particularly difficult to prepare. A dry cloddy soil can be put in

condition by sprinkling it with water late in the

evening and raking it thoroughly early the following morning. The soil usually will be in good

planting condition after 2 or 3 days of this treatment. The more useful hand tools for preparing,

planting, and maintaining a garden are shown in

figure 13. In the man's right hand are a claw

r

FIGURE 13.—Hand tools for preparing, planting, and maintaining a garden.
26 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

weeder, measuring spoons, trowel, and a machete.

Other items are sprinkling nozzle for garden hose,

garden line with stakes, and labeling stakes. Over

his left shoulder are a rake, hoe, spading fork,

and a sprinkling can.

Direct Seeding in Garden

After locating the plot, selecting the vegetables

to be grown, procuring seed, planning his garden,

and preparing the soil, the time comes for the

gardener to lay out his garden and plant the seed.

As aids to this operation, information about row

spacing, planting depth, seed requirements, time

to maturity, and estimated yields are shown in

table 6. The procedures necessary to prepare a

garden for direct seeding are illustrated m figure ,14.

After the garden soil has been prepared for

planting and after the beds are built up, if needed

for surface drainage, a layer of rotted manure is

added (fig. 14, A), Commercial fertilizer is applied over the manure; then both manure and

chemical fertilizer are thoroughly mixed with the

TABLE 6.—Spacing, planting depth, seed requirement, time required for maturity,

and estimated yield of vegetables in the Tropics

Crop

Asparagus

Bean, bush green_

Bean, bush lima__

Beet

Broccoli

Brussels sproutsChinese cabbage_-

Cabbage, head

Carrot

Cauliflower

Celery

Chard

Collard

Corn, sweet

Cucumber

Eggplant

Endive

Kale

Kohlrabi

Leek

Lettuce, head

Lettuce, leaf

Mustard

Okra

Onion, bulb

Onion, green

Parsley

Parsnip

Pea

Pepper

Potato

Pumpkin

Radish

Rhubarb

Rutabaga

Spinach, New ZealandSquash

Tomato

Turnip

Watermelon

Spacing of plants i

In row

Inches

18-24

3-6

6-8

2-3

15-18

15-24

3-12

12-24

2-3

15-18

6-12

6-12

18-24

10-15

36-48

24-36

12-15

18-24

18-24

15-18

12-15

6-12

4-6

12-15

4-6

4-6

4-6

4-5

2-6

12-18

12-15

36-96

1-2

24-36

3-6

12-15

36-48

24-48

3-6

36-48

Between

rows

Inches

36

18-24

18-24

18-24

18-30

18-30

15-24

18-24

15-18

24-30

15-24

15-24

36

36

48-60

30-36

15-18

12-15

3-6

2-3

18-24

6-12

18-24

36

18-24

18-24

12-18

15-18

13-24

24-36

18-24

48-96

12-18

24-36

18-24

18-24

36-96

36-48

15-24

72-120

Planting

depth

Inches

%-iy2

3/4-11/2

1/2-1

1/2

V2

1/2

1/2

V2

1/2

y3-%

%-i

1/2

1-2

1/2

1/2

1/2

1/2-1

1/2-1

1/2

1/2

1/2

1/2

1/2

1/2

1/2

1/2

1/2

1-11/2

1/2

3-4

1/2-1

1/2

1/2

1/2

1/2

1-11/2

1/2

y2

1-2

Seeds per

foot of

row 2

Number

4-6

3-4

12-15

8-10

30-40

4-6

2-3

Quantity of seed

or plants per

25-foot row

Time

required

to reach

maturity 3

12-15

12-24

20-30

4-6

20-30

20-30

20-30

12-15

4-6

30^0

20-30

6-12

20-30

12 to 16 plants

4 ounces

3 ounces

^2 ounce

12 to 15 plants

12 to 15 plants

1 packet

12 to 25 plants

% ounce

16 to 20 plants

25 to 50 plants

1 packet

12 to 15 plants

2 ounces

Ys ounce

8 to 12 plants

l^ ounce

Vs ounce

1 packet

1 packet

20 to 25 plants

1 packet

1 packet

1/^ ounce

1 packet

1 packet

1 packet

1 packet

2 to 4 ounces

16 to 25 plants

20 to 25 seed

pieces ^

y<2. ounce

y^ ounce

12 to 16 plants

1 packet

2 ounces

1 ounce

6 to 12 plants

1 packet

% ounce

Bays

365-730

42-56

60-80

65-100

65-85

120

95-100

70-100

74-108

56-118

110-150

60-75

80-100

90-120

56-65

89-132

56-92

52-91

50-98

132-160

46-70

46-70

48-59

55-60

120

120

75

139

57-78

96-112

75-100

112

23-30

132

72

63-76

47-89

54-90

70-75

100

Estimated

yield per

25-foot row

2 pounds.

12 pounds.

6 pounds.**

20 pounds.

8 pounds.

2 pounds.

18 to 30 heads.

12 to 25 heads.

20 pounds.

16 to 20 heads.

25 to 50 heads.

25 pounds.

30 pounds.

30 ears.

15 pounds.

50 pounds.

12 pounds. *

15 pounds.

15 pounds.

20 to 25 heads.

25 to 30 bunches.

25 pounds.

30 to 40 pounds.

10 pounds.

5 pounds.

24 pounds.

5 pounds.

15 pounds.

20 pounds.

30 to 40 pounds.

20 dozen.

15 pounds.

10 pounds.

25 to 40 pounds.

50 pounds.

10 pounds.

100 pounds.

^ Wider spacing may be desirable where mechanical

equipment is used for planting, cultivating, or harvesting.

2 More seed should be planted if germination tests show

low seed viability.

3 Time is given as the approximate number of days to

produce crop, from planting seed in the garden or from

transplanting plants to the garden.

4 Shelled.

5 Each seed piece should weigh 2 to 3 ounces ; thin slices

with buds should not be used.
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CAKIBIiEAN AREA 27

» *.7ï

•jfjBMfcrTCA

X U. 743.

?S)P!^^SSB5Wk }M

FIGURE 14.—Preparing the garden for direct seeding: A, Adding layer of rotted manure to seedbed ; B, applying

commercial fertilizer and thoroughly mixing soil to 3 or 4 inches; C removing clods ^it^^ w® V nSf«on

.., __ j _i , 1 ji„. ET „!„„<-;„„ „,v,o11 oon/lo Tf» Tirormrirnr furrow With COmCr Of noe : tr, PUllmg SOU

commercial fertilizer and thoroughly mixing sou to s or '± inciies, v., ieiiiuvi^ö^.>.>.= """V TT'rTL'V,í""'

furrows with end of hoe handle : B, planting small seeds ; F, preparing furrow with corner of hoe, G, pulling

• furrow with hoe ; H, distributing manure over planted seed ; /, watering seedbed.
28 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

upper 3 to 4 inches of soil (fig. 14, 5). (See also

p. 20.) Kemoval of the large clods with a rake

will leave a fine seedbed (fig. 14, O).

A cord should be stretched between two stakes

to insure straight rows that look neat and also

facilitate cultivation and prevent loss or damage

of plants by machinery.

A stake bearing the vegetable name and date of

planting should be set at the end of each row.

Small seeds, such as carrot and turnip, are

planted about 1/2 inch deep (fig. 14, E). The furrow can be prepared with a hoe handle (fig. 14,

D) to give a narrow row or, where more space is

available, with the square end of a 1- by 4-inch

stake. These broad but shallow furrows are particularly useful for direct seeding of beet, carrot,

lettuce, mustard, radish, and turnip. More plants

and therefore higher yields can be secured by

scattering the seed laterally in the furrow as the

row is planted.

For large seeds, such as beans and corn, the

furrow (fig. 14, F) is made II/2 to 3 inches deep

with the corner of a hoe. Fertilizer for these

crops is first applied in parallel bands on either

side the seed row. After the seed is distributed

in the row the soil is pulled over the furrow with

a hoe or rake and tamped lightly (fig. 14, G).

In general, small seeds are covered about 1/2

inch deep; large seeds 1 to 2 inches deep. Seed

should be planted slightly deeper in sandy soil

than in clay soil. It is also best to plant somewhat more shallow than recommended in table 6,

provided special care is taken to maintain even

and plentiful, but not excessive, soil moisture

around the seed. Soil moisture can be retained

by sprinkling a thin layer of pulverized compost,

rotted cachaza, or, preferably, well-rotted manure

over the seeded area (fig. 14, H)^ or by using a

thin mulch (1 inch deep) of lawn clippings or

similar fine material. When planting is completed, the seeded area should be well watered

(fig. 14, /). After the seeds have germinated, the

mulch should be pulled back slightly to allow

them to emerge freely.

Under tropical conditions where cutworms,

mole crickets, damping-off, or poor seed germination tend to interfere with the early stages of

growth, it is wise to plant about twice the quantity of seed specified in table 6. This is particularly true for small-seeded crops. Planting too

many seeds is poor practice, however, as it will

entail hand thinning later in the season and

closely spaced seedlings are more susceptible to

damping-off. If the germination percentage is

high for large-seeded vegetables, only slightly

more seed than recommended should be planted.

Beet and chard seeds tend to produce two or

more plants from a single seed, so the planting

rate should be the same as that recommended in

table 6. Chard plants require wide spacing in the

row for best development and so should not be

planted too closely together.

Thinning Seedlings

Most seedlings should be thinned at the 3- to

4-leaf stage. Thinning should not be delayed

until the seedlings are badly crowded, spindly,

and competing with each other; but thinning beet

and carrot where the seedlings are delicate must

be delayed. Excessive early removal of these

seedlings may result in poor stands. Plants in

fertile soil and likely to receive a good water supply can be left closer together than those that

may receive limited quantities of water. Itis best

at first to space the plants approximately as indicated in table 6. By observing and experimenting, the gardener may later decide to space the

plants closer or wider, depending upon local

growing conditions. Close spacing will delay

maturity of root crops, but this may be desirable

to spread the harvest over a longer period.

Growing Transplants

Some vegetables can be grown more easily and

successfully by planting the seed in flats (fig. 15,

A) or in special seedbeds, after which they are

transplanted to pots or cans or another seedbed

before being set out in the field. The main reasons for transplanting some vegetables are to simplify irrigation, weeding, and control of insects

and diseases in the seedling stage and to utilize

the garden area more efficiently. Where transplants are available from a local professional gardener, it may be better to buy the plants ready

for immediate transplanting to the field than to

grow them at home.

Vegetables that benefit from transplanting are

broccoli, head cabbage, cauliflower, celery, eggplant, kohlrabi, lettuce, onion, pepper, New Zealand spinach, and tomato.

With extreme care almost any vegetable can be

transplanted successfully. Vegetables that transplant most easily are broccoli, head cabbage, cel-

^1*7? eggplant, lettuce, onion, parsley, sweetpotato,

and tomato. More difficult to transplant are beet,

Chinese cabbage, spoon cabbage, chard, chayóte,

and New Zealand spinach. Most difficult to

transplant, unless special care is given, are beans,

carrot, corn, cowpea, mustard, okra, peas, potato,

radish, soybean, and turnip.

A good loose fertile topsoil free from nematodes is most desirable for growing seedlings in

cans, flats, pots, or raised seedbeds. Nematodes,

diseases, and insects can be killed by placing the

soil in a shallow pan and baking it in an oven for

2 hours at about 180° F., or by pouring boiling
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 29

FIGURE ir. rrowi.iir ^Pedlin-s for transplanting: A, Sowinf; tomato seed In a flat; B, outdoor raised seedbeds ; C,

coriander.
30 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

water over the soil at the rate of 1 gallon of water

to 1 gallon of soil. Drenching the soil with formaldehyde at the rate of 1 part 40 percent formaldehyde in 50 parts of water is effective for soil

sterilization; chloropicrin (tear gas) and D-D

(for nematodes and insects only) also can be used

according to the manufacturer's recommendation.

Soil treated by these three chemicals, however,

cannot be used for 10 days to 2 weeks.

In using these chemicals and other soil fumigants extraordinary caution should be taken.

Please read cautions on pages 85 and 103 before

attempting to handle, mix, or apply them.

Heavy soil can be improved by mixing it with

one-third well-rotted manure and one-third sand.

Sandy loam can be improved by mixing one part

compost or well-rotted manure to two parts of

soil. Immediately after the seed has been

planted, the soil should be sprinkled until it is

moderately wet. Good drainage in the bottom of

cans, flats, and pots is important. Drainage can

be improved by placing a layer of stones or

broken pieces of pots in the bottom of the container. Seedlings will grow well in cans or pots

provided they receive regular and adequate

watering.

Figure 15, A, B, and O, illustrates the process

of growing tomato seedlings for transplanting.

Tomato seed is sown in a flat of rich fertilized

soil (fig. 15, A) ; the piece of wood shown is used

to make furrows. An outdoor raised seedbed

(fig. 15, B) can be used also for growing seedlings

for transplanting. A bamboo fence protects this

seedbed against dogs and other animals. Seedlings grown in flats or outdoor seedbeds should

be transplanted at the 3- to 4-leaf stage to other

flats or to another seedbed in the field (fig. 15, 6^),

spacing the seedlings about 6 inches apart. A

sheltered seedbed (fig. 15, D) protects seedlings

from beating, washing rains in the summer.

When the tomato seedlings are 6 to 8 inches tall,

they can be transplanted to the field.

Figure 15, E shows the common method used

by vegetable gardeners for growing Black Seeded

Simpson leaf lettuce in the Caribbean area. The

bed at the right is used for germinating seed;

seedlings are transplanted to other beds as shown

at left. The bed at the extreme right contains

radishes and coriander seeded and growing

together.

The soil about the roots of seedlings in flats or

seedbeds should first be cut into squares with a

knife when transplanting. Handle these squares

carefully to avoid loss of roots and to retain as

much soil around the roots as possible. Wetting

the soil before transplanting helps hold it together. Seedlings of head cabbage, cauliflower,

eggplant, kohlrabi, onion, pepper, and tomato are

set slightly deeper in the field than their depth

in the pots or seedbeds. Soil is placed about the

roots until the hole is half full and then the soil

IS firmed; 1 or 2 cups of water are then poured

into the hole and allowed to settle. Finally the

hole is filled with loose pulverized topsoil. If no

rains fall immediately after transplanting, the

plants should be irrigated daily, or when necessary, until they are established.

Transplanting is best done in late afternoon or

on a cloudy day. Wilting during the next day

can be reduced by shading with leafy branches

of hibiscus or other vegetation stuck in the

ground, or by placing paper caps, north side open,

over each plant in the form of a wigwam held up

by a small stick. Also, a long cloth strip held up

V-shaped by stakes and a wire or string immediately above the plants may be used. Daily care

is necessary for satisfactory seedling progress.

Homemade paper cups or pots for growing

transplants can be constructed as follows:

Cut entire newspaper sheets into strips G inches

wide, place a pint milk can or bottle near one edge of

the paper strip, and roll the paper up with the container. Leave about 2i^ inches of the paper strip below the bottom of the container, fold this paper tightly

against the bottom, and remove the container, thus

making a cup. Fill the cups with prepared soil and

set them close together in a wooden flat or other

container.

A good practice for keeping seedlings growing

rapidly in the seedbed is to sprinkle them with a

fertilizer solution once a week (fig. 12, ^). A

solution of 3 to 4 level tablespoonfuls of a complete fertilizer, such as 10-10-5, in a 3-gallon

sprinkler can of water serves this purpose and

also can be used in place of tapwater when seedlings are transplanted to the field; 1 pint of solution in each hole is sufficient.

Damping'off Disease

Damping-off is a common disease of young

plants in seedbeds. It is identified principally by

a water-soaked constriction of the stem just

above the soil surface, which causes the seedíing

to fall over. Pretreatment of the soil with chemicals, boiling water, or baking in an oven is recommended to prevent this disease. (See p. 104.) If

damping-off starts in the seedbed, the control

measures recommended on page 104 should be

started immediately.

Companion Cropping

Companion cropping, or intercropping, is growing two or more vegetables at the same time in

alternating hills, rows, or other arrangement on

the same area of ground (fig. 16). As land

around houses is frequently limited, it is wise to

make the most of available area by intensive use.

Better use of land often is made by interplanting

comparatively short- and long-season crops. For
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 31

PiGUKE 16.—Companion cropping: A, Rosita eggplant and

Mary Wasliington asparagus growing together ; B, Don

Juan sweetpotatoes growing between guava trees (Psidium sp.).

example, radishes or leaf lettuce can be planted in

or between rows of sweet corn, eggplant, okra,

pepper, and tomato. Kadishes and coriander can

be seeded and grown together (fig. 15, E, extreme

right) ; the radishes are pulled within 20 to 30

days, after which the coriander occupies the full

space and is harvested later. Radish seeds can

be planted with parsnip seeds to mark the rows

until the parsnips germinate, as well as to supply

radishes. Eosita eggplant will mature before

being crowded by Mary Washington asparagus

(fig. 16, A); and Don Juan sweetpotatoes have

been grown between guava trees {Psid/um sp.) at

the Puerto Rico Agricultural Experiment Substation, Isabela (fig. 16, B).

When planted at the same time as the more

slowly maturing crop, the short-season crop can

be harvested before competition and shading from

the companion crop becomes a limiting factor.

Succession Planting

In the Tropics several vegetable crops can be

grown on the same ground during a 12-month

period by planting another vegetable as soon as

the first has been harvested. This is known as

succession planting. Enough time should be allowed between each crop to plow, pulverize, and

properly prepare the soil for the next crop.

Crop Rotation

If plenty of land is available, better results can

be obtained by rotating a given crop between two

or three areas. The same crop, or a closely related one, should not be planted on the same

ground time after time during the same year. Besides depleting the soil of nutrients, this favors

buildup of diseases and insects on that particular

crop. Vegetables such as beans, potato, and tomato, which are susceptible to a large number of

diseases, should be rotated from one garden site

to another. In small gardens it is difficult to

avoid some succession plantings of one crop on

the same soil, but it is particularly important to

avoid succession plantings of the cole crops, which

include brussels sprouts, Chinese cabbage, head

cabbage, cauliflower, kohlrabi, mustard, radish,

rutabaga, and turnip. Eggplant after tomato or

tomato after eggplant is not advisable, nor is root

crop after root crop or bean after bean. Examples of good sequences as given by Frazier {11,

p. 15) are as follows:

After— Plant one of the following—

Beet or chard Bean, tomato, eggplant, okra, cabbage, lettuce, or onion.

Cabbage or broccoli __ Chard, lettuce, onion, beet, carrot,

bean, tomato, or eggplant.

Lettuce Bean, carrot, cabbage, beet, onion,

radish, turnip, or tomato.

Onion Bean, radish, beet, cabbage, lettuce, carrot, or turnip.

Carrot Lettuce, broccoli, cabbage, bean,

New Zealand spinach, or onion.

Daikon or radish Bean, chard, eggplant, tomato,

okra, lettuce, or onion.

Turnip Chard, onion. New Zealand spinach, bean, eggplant, or tomato.

Cowpea or bean Beet, chard, broccoli, cabbage, lettuce, onion, tomato, eggplant, or

carrot.

Eggplant Beet, chard, broccoli, cabbage, lettuce, onion, carrot, or daikon.

Tomato Broccoli, cabbage, chard, lettuce,

onion, carrot, beet, radish, turnip, bean.

Cultivation

A day or two after a good rain or irrigation,

the ground should be cultivated unless it is

mulched. Cultivate with a hand hoe, a hand

wheel cultivator, or motor-driven equipment. The

object is to loosen the soil and discourage weeds.

Working in the garden too soon after a rain or

irrigation, when the soil is muddy, results in

puddling, hardening, and cracking of the soil.

Weeds are easiest to eliminate when they are
32 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

small, most difficult when large, deeply rooted,

and heavily competitive with the vegetables. Care

should be taken not to cultivate deeper than 1 to

2 inches and to keep the cultivator blades away

from the vegetable roots to avoid injuring them.

Cultivating will proceed rapidly and easily if the

tools are kept sharp.

Mulching

Mulching with plant debris conserves soil moisture, reduces weed growth, keeps the soil cool, reduces soil erosion, and adds nutrients. The mulch

must be at least 2 inches thick, preferably 3 to 4

inches, to be most beneficial. A moderately heavy

mulch aids greatly in tiding the plants over short

dry periods; it also reduces the amount of water

and the number of irrigations needed. Mulch

material can be leaves, lawn and tender hedge

clippings, cane trash, straw, or similar substances,

l^lants or vegetable debris that have been diseased

or insect ridden should not be used because of

danger of distributing pests and weed seeds over

the garden. If certain grasses that form roots

readily from the stems are to be used, they should

be dried in the sun for a few days before they are

applied.

A thin mulch of well-rotted manure (ñg. 14,

H), cachaza, lawn clippings, a burlap bag, or

banana leaves can be used to cover newly planted

seed to maintain an even soil moisture and insure

good germination, particularly in low-rainfall

or windy areas, where the evaporation rate is

rapid. When the plants begin to appear, the

mulch should be pulled aside a little to permit the

plants to grow freely. Subsequently, the mulch

can be spaded into the soil. Manure or commercial fertilizer, particularly nitrogen, should be

applied with a heavy mulch to prevent the crop

from developing nitrogen deficiency.

Irrigation

In the Caribbean area gardens' frequently are

planted during October, when the rainy season is

tapering off, to benefit from the light rains before

the dry season sets in. If, however, a garden is to

be maintained throughout the year and good production of high-quality vegetables is desired, some

provision for irrigation with unpolluted water is

essential. Dry periods of 2 to 3 weeks or more are

not uncommon during the rainy season, and rainfall in the dry season is not sufficient to support

good plant growth.

Plants judiciously irrigated grow more evenly

and faster, are of better quality, and yield two or

three times more than those that do not get

enough water. Eadishes grown slowly under

drought conditions are bound to be pithy and

"hot." Crops such as cabbage, endive, lettuce, and

the root crops probably will be bitter and tough

in texture. In most areas a good irrigation once

a week to a depth of 4 to 6 inches is sufficient. In

sandy soil two or three irrigations usually are

necessary. One heavy irrigation is much better

than several light superficial waterings applied

once or twice a day, except possibly for leaf lettuöe, where daily sprinkling seems to help increase the size of the leaves. Sweetpotatoes also

respond well to frequent light waterings. Late

afternoon is the best time for irrigating the garden. Watering during the morning is recommended for seedbeds where damping-off may be

a problem.

Where land is almost level, furrow irrigation is

generally more satisfactory than other irrigation

methods for established vegetable crops, particularly bean, lettuce, and tomato, which are susceptible to leaf diseases. In order to receive full benefit from the irrigation water, vegetables transplanted to the field during the dry season should

be set in th^ bottom of the irrigation furrow if

the soil is sandy, or at the side of the furrow if

the soil is heavy. When the plants become large,

the furrow is shifted to between the rows. If

the beds are level, the surface of the soil can be

flooded by building a small dike around the

outside.

Figure 17 illustrates some irrigation systems

used in commercial vegetable growing in the Caribbean area. A gasoline motor-driven pump (fig.

17, A) fills a nearby concrete reservoir (fig. 17,

Í7), from which water is supplied by gravity to

the furrow irrigation system shown (fig. 17, Z>).

This same pump can also deliver water from a

nearby stream with sufficient pressure to operate

rotating sprinklers (fig. 17, 5), such as those

shown here irrigating broccoli and celery fields.

Figure 17, E shows a field being irrigated by a

portable oscillating pipe system. Pond water is

delivered by concrete-lined ditch to a sump; the

water is then pumped to the oscillating pipe system by equipment and power similar to that in

figure 17, A,

Sprinkler or overhead irrigation (fig. 17, B)

requires expensive equipment, the water may

wash sprays and dust materials from the leaves,

and the extra wetting of the leaves may encourage

fungus diseases. However, if the land is rolling,

the soil light in texture, and the water supply limited, the sprinkler system is best (5P, p, 132),

The water can be applied by rotary sprinkler

heads (fig. 17, B) or by oscillating pipes (fig. 17,

E). The rotary head system with portable pipe

is popular in the United States. The supply lines

for the sprinkler system can be portable or permanently installed above or below ground. Additional information on the installation and operation of small and large irrigation systems can be

obtained from Eohwer {50) and Staebner {55).
VEGETABLIí O.AUDKNlNCi IN THE CARIBBEAN AUEA 33

FIGURE 17.—Irrigation systems for growing vegetables in the Caribbean area : A, Gasoline motor-driven pump ;

B, irrigating with rotary sprinklers; C, concrete reservoir; D, furrovs' irrigating; E, irrigating -with portable

oscillating pipe system.

K^
34 AflRIOTILTURE HANDBOOK 323. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

I- -<

*J??fe*:;-^;i^

FIGURE 18.—Windbreaks : A, Young vegetable plant twisted and broken by wind ; li, commercial garden protected by

a hill; C, coconut palm-leaf fence; X), use of galvanized iron strips and boards to protect cucurbit seedlings.

Hydraulic rams are sometimes used in hilly sections to force water economically from low

streams to high ground. The garden is then irrigated by gravity flow from storage tanks or reservoirs. In some locations it is possible to water

gardens by gravity flow from a mountain spring

(fig. 10).

Windbreaks

Windbreaks (fig. 18) are almost a necessity for

most planting sites under tropical conditions, particularly in exposed coastal areas of the Caribbean area where a continuous strong breeze blows

most of the time. Partial protection by trees,

buildings, and hills is particularly valuable. If

not protected in some way, tender young seedlings

may be twisted and broken by the wind (hg. 18,

A). The commercial garden shown in figure 18,

B is protected from prevailing winds by a hill in

the background. In one area, coconut palm-leaf

fences (fig. 18, C) proved effective for a distance

of 30 to 40 yards on the leeward side. Wild cane

or cut bamboo culms would be as effective in

fences as palm leaves. Pieces of galvanized iron

or board (fig. 18, D) can be used as temporary

windbreaks to protect individual hills of cucurbit

seedlings, which are very susceptible to wind

damage.

Temporary protection from the wind can be

provided by planting rows of taller crops—banana, corn, elephant grass, papaya, pigeonpea,

or sorghum. Sugarcane fields also provide excellent protection. A fence covered with vines of

pole bean, chayóte, cucumber, passionfruit, sweetpotato, or yum not only provides food for the

family but also serves as a windbreak for the garden. Where the garden plot is permanently located, it can be surrounded by fruiting bushes and

trees that will supply the family with fruit and

also serve as a windbreak. Avocado, citrus,

guava, mango, and the West Indian cherry can

be growii throughout the Caribbean area.
VEGETABLK GA]{UKNING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 35

CULTURE OF INDIVIDUAL CROPS

Cucurbits

Cucurbitaceae

The chayóte, cucumber, gourd, melon, pumpkin,

squash, and a few other related plants all belong

to this large plant family. The members are

widely distributed throughout the world. Most

of the cucurbits are herbaceous annual vines,

which climb by means of tendrils. Some, such as

the chayóte, will climb into the tops of tall trees

if not limited to shorter supports. The cucurbits

take up more room than most other vegetable

crops. To save space in the small home garden,

the vines can be trained over a fence or trellis.

Bush types, where available, are much more economical of space in the garden than standard

types. Usually only a few plants of each kind

are needed for one family.

The young shoots of cucumber and of pumpkin

are sometimes cooked and eaten like spinach, and

the flowers of pumpkin are eaten in some countries. The fruits of the different cucurbits are

prepared for eating in a variety of ways. The

melons are eaten as fresh fruits; cucumbers are

eaten raw in salads or are made into pickles; the

various squashes and pumpkins are baked, boiled,

or fried as vegetables and some are made into

pies.

Chayóte

"Apupu," "Güisquil," "Tayote," "Mi

Sechiutn edule (Jacq.) Sw.

•Hton''

The chayóte (fig. 19, AJ is a perennial highclimbing vine. It requires trellising and can be

planted along the garden fence as a windbreak.

It resembles the cucumber in growth and the

squash in use of the fruits. The fruits of

different varieties vary in color from ivory white

to dark green; in size, from those weighing a

few ounces to those weighing over 2 pounds; in

surface, from quite regular to deeply wrinkled

or corrugated and from smooth to very prickly;

and in form, from almost spherical to a long,

flattened pear shape. Each fruit contains one

large flat seed, which may or may not be surrounded by ñbers. The seed is edible.

The chayóte grows satisfactorily at all elevations in the Caribbean area, but best above 1,000

feet. The chayóte prefers a moderately rainy

climate; it grows jDoorly in dry regions. Two

or three plants trained on the fence should be

adequate for an average family.

The chayóte is propagated by planting the

matured fruits horizontally, with the large end

slightly downward and thinly covered with soil.

Shoot cuttings taken from the base of the plant

can be rooted in shaded nursery beds and transplanted as soon as a number of roots have

formed. The seedbed should contain a mixture

of manure and commercial fertilizer. Plants are

spaced 4 to 6 feet apart along the fence or

trellis. Side dressings of a complete fertilizer

at monthly intervals keep the vines vigorous and

bearing. Harvest begins 3 to 5 months after

planting and extends over several months. The

fruits can be harvested 25 to 30 days after

they are set.

Chayotes are boiled like squash, then buttered

or creamed; fried alone or as fritters; stuffed

FiüUKE 19.—A, Chayóte flowers, fruit, and vine; B, cucumber variety Chinese Long; C, angled loofah.

Es:
36 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

FiGUBE 20.—.1, Cucumber variety Tuerto Rico 39 ; Z?, sumtaer squash variety Cocozelle ; C, vine cuttings

for propagating squasli plants; D, West Indian squash ("calabaza") strains.

iriüi.Tiíni'ifiaifeaafiíiiÉiMiÉm^'^^^"-—'^^'^'^"^^'^^~
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 37

with cheese or ground meat and baked; or made

into pickles. The stem tips and young leaves

may be boiled and eaten like greens.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—Chayóte is remarkably

free from pests and diseases but those that are

found are in common with the cucumber, page 37.

Cucumber

"Pepinillo"

Cucumis sativas L.

The cucumber is widely grown in the Caribbean area, both for export {51) and local market.

It is a favorite salad vegetable and is used to

some extent for making pickles.

Cucumber varieties are divided into two types,

white spined and black spined. The spines are

the slender stickers that protrude from the warts

when the fruits are young. They are easily

rubbed off as the fruits are harvested. Whitespined cucumbers turn creamy when mature;

black-spined cucumbers turn yellowish orange.

Pickling cucumbers are black spined; most of

the others are white spined.

The variety Puerto Rico 39 (fig. 20, A),

developed by the Puerto Eico Agricultural Experiment Station, is widely grown because of its

resistance to downy mildew (Pseudoperonospora

cubensis (Berk. & Curt.) Rostow.). It can be

used as a salad vegetable and for making pickles,

but its quality is not so good as that of most

continental slicing varieties because of early

development of the seed. In a test of pickling

varieties conducted in 1960, Rico Ballester, Ramos

Caro, and Vêlez Fortuno {4.S) obtained 11,600

pounds per acre of 3-, 4-, and 5-inch fruits from

Puerto Rico 39, but only 5,000 pounds per acre

each from Wisconsin SMR 15 and Model.

Several species of parasitic nematodes attack

the roots of cucumbers, resulting in weakened

plants and reduced yields. Pérez Lopez and

Mendoza Barbosa (38) grew the variety Puerto

Rico 39 experimentally on soil treated with the

nematocide DD (1,3-dichloropropene and 1,2-

dichloropropane). Yields from the treated lúots

averaged 5,800 pounds per acre as opposed to

5,200 pounds from untreated plots. The Puerto

Rico 39 outyielded other varieties in this test also.

In a cucumber variety test, with insects and

diseases controlled, Murillo Arguello, Gurdiáii

Gólcher, and Wiltbank (36) reported excellent

yields of Ashley, Palomar, and Stono in Costa

Rica.

Varieties Ashley, Palmetto, Palomar, and

Santee can be grown successfully in coastal regions during the dry season provided an insect

control program is followed and irrigation is

given when needed. Yields of 7,000 pounds per

acre were obtained for the variety Henderson at

FIGURE 21.—Squash leaf damaged by melonworn

{Diaphania hyalinata (L.)).

the U.S. Army Air Base near Isabela, P.E. The

variety China or Chinese Long (fig. 19, B) is

extremely vigorous and productive under climatic

conditions of the Caribbean area, but the vines

require trellising.

The cucumber requires a loose fertile soil with

good drainage. The hill system is recommended

for the home garden with one or two shovelfuls

of manure or well-rotted cachaza mixed in each

hill. If organic manures are not available, a

mixed chemical fertilizer high in potash is recommended. The harvest will begin 50 days after

planting the seed. Cucumbers can be harvested

at any size and at any stage of maturity, but they

should be gathered at 2- to 3-day intervals. Production will be reduced if the fruits are allowed

to attain the full yellow-ripe stage.

The West Indian gherkin {Cucumis anguria

L.) is sometimes cultivated for the small burlike

fruits which are used for pickling. Although the

West Indian gherkin is closely related to the

cucumber, the vine resembles that of the watermelon.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—Unless proper control

measures are taken, the cucumber and its allies,

such as melon, pumpkin and squash, are frequently heavily attacked by melonworms (fig.

21), pickleworms, plant bugs, squash bugs, and

cucumber leaf beetles of several species. The

melonworm {Diaphania hyalinata (L.) ) attacks

both the foliage and fruits of these vegetables.

A number of general plant pests also attack

cucurbits. Nematodes may at times become a

factor to reckon with. Some diseases, including

damping-off, downy mildew, powdery mildew,

anthracnose, scab or leak fungus, and cucumber

mosaic virus, also attack cucurbits.
38 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Muskmelon (Cantaloup)

"Melón"

Cucumis melo L.

Best yields of muskmelon have been obtained

during the winter and spring in sandy loam soils

in the relatively warm dry coastal areas of the

West Indies. Fair to good crops also have been

obtained in summer, but diseases were sometimes

troublesome because of the high rainfall. The

variety Smith's Perfect performed satisfactorily

in the Isabela region of Puerto Eico (^). A

native mildew-resistant muskmelon is grown in

winter, principally near Ponce ; its quality is fair

to good, but yield is low. Yields of this and

several other varieties on heavy soil in winter at

Mayaguez, P.K., were poor despite fair to good

vine growth. Texas Eesistant No. 1 should be

tested in the Caribbean area. Muskmelons are

widely grown in India (68^ p. 322),

This dessert vegetable, like the watermelon,

requires extra space in the garden, is not easily

grown, and is low in food value. Culture and

management are much the same as for the watermelon. (See p. 39.) Weekly to 10-day sprays

for mildew control are usually necessary, particularly during rainy periods. A well-drained irrigated sandy loam soil with a pH of 6.0 to 6.7 is

desirable. When the melon nears maturity, the

color changes from dark green or grayish green

to yellowish green. For home use the melons of

most varieties can be left until the fruit slips

from the stem.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—See pests and diseases of

cucumber, page 37.

Pumpkin and Squash

"Calabaza," "Calabacín"

Cucúrbita spp.

Many native strains of pumpkin and squash are

grown in the Tropics. These strains usually possess some resistance to the prevailing insects and

diseases and should be retained unless others are

found to be more satisfactory. Quality of the

fruit is fair to good if they are allowed to mature

properly, but the yield may be low. The many

varieties differ in fruit size, shape, color, and

quality. The West Indian squashes ("calabazas")

(fig. 20, D) seem mostly to be Cucúrbita pepo L.

The fruits average 5 to 6 pounds, with some

weighing as much as 10 pounds.

Several superior varieties of squash have been

selected in Puerto Eico. Camaguey is relatively

resistant to mosaic and the leaf diseases. Fortuna and Borinquen are recommended as being

more productive and of better quality than unselected kinds. In favorable locations the "calabaza" will trail over the ground for a year or

longer, blooming heavily but setting good crops

only at the beginning and end of the rainy season. Particularly desirable types can be propagated by vine cuttings (fig. 20, O),

Variety Butternut does well in Central America and should be tested more extensively throughout the Caribbean area.

Alagold, Large Cheese, and Small Sugar pumpkin varieties should be tested more extensively.

The fruit of any pumpkin or squash can be

eaten at the young tender stage but it is wasteful

to use the large-fruited types at this stage. The

summer squashes ("calabacín") are bred especially to be eaten at this young tender stage. The

plants are more prolific and will continue to produce over long periods if the fruits are removed

regularly as they attain usable size. Bush types

of the different varieties are now offered by northern seed dealers. Variety Yellow Summer Crookneck produced satisfactorily under irrigation in

the sandy loam soil near Isabela, P.E. Good firm

fruits were produced in profusion ; it is one of the

showiest crops in the garden. Summer squash

variety Cocozelle grew and produced well at sea

level and at 2,600 feet (fig. 20, B) during winter

and early spring. It appeared to be resistant to

insects and diseases; but when this variety was

grown successively on the same ground, its resistance decreased. Black Zucchini and Golden

Straightneck also produced well.

Since pumpkin and squash vines take up a good

deal of space, they should be planted only in large

gardens. Pumpkin and squash are grown in hills

spaced 6 to 8 feet apart for vine types and 4 feet

apart for bush types. To conserve space, they can

be planted in corn, near a fence, or at the edge of

the garden, with the vines allowed to grow out

over the adjacent areas. Best results can be obtained by digging a hole 2 feet wide and 1 foot

deep for each hill, into which two or three

shovelfuls of manure are placed with topsoil covering the manure. Four to six seeds of pumpkin

and six to eight seeds of squash are planted 1 to

11/2 inches deep in each hill. The seedlings are

thinned to three per hill. In commercial gardens

vine-type pumpkins and squash are planted 3 to 4

feet apart in rows spaced 8 feet apart; bush types

are planted 3 feet apart in rows spaced 6 feet

apart.

A sandy loam soil rich in humus is best suited

to pumpkin and squash, but they will tolerate

heavier soils than the melons. Where vine borers

are prevalent, some of the nodes should be covered

with soil to encourage stem rooting.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—See pests and diseases of

cucumber, page 37.
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 39

Watermelon

"Sandía," "Patilla"

Citrullus vulgaris Schrad.

The watermelon resembles the cucumber and

muskmelon to some extent, but the leaves are

more deeply lobed and the vines more freely

branching. The numerous varieties exhibit various colors and mottlings of the rind; white, yellow, or bright-red pulp; and white, red, brown,

or black seeds. The varieties grown in the Caribbean area are red fleshed with black seeds.

Although the native home of the watermelon

is thought to be tropical Africa, varieties bred for

temperate adaptability are frequently unsatisfactory in the Tropics. Vine growth may be excellent, but fruit set is often light and the fruits are

small and low in sugar. Fair to good crops have

been reported on sandy loam soil under irrigation near Isabela, P.E., and on St. Thomas, U.S.

Virgin Islands {62,1932, p. 12). Some melons of

the variety Tom Watson weighed 35 pounds ; this

variety outyielded Blacklee by one-third. Blacklee, however, was sweeter and had darker pulp

than Tom Watson. Charleston Gray (fig. 22, A),

Sugar Baby (fig. 22, B) and Congo (fig. 22, C),

have yielded well in more recent trials. Charleston Gray is resistant to anthracnose and fusarium diseases, Congo to anthracnose, and Blacklee

to fusarium. The seedless variety Graybelle (fig.

22, D) is recommended for trial.

The Philippines have a sizeable watermelon

industry (58). Local varieties include De Jaspe,

Meek, and Valencia. Planting season is from

October to February, depending on locality. In

India (68, p. 321) best crops are grown when

planted in January and February on gravelly

riverbanks where the roots can reach water. A

FiGUKE 22.—Watermelon varieties: .1, Charleston Gray; B, Sugar Baby; C, Congo; Ü. Graybelle (seedless).
40 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

heavy application of manure in the hills is recommended.

Watermelons are not a particularly good crop

for the home garden, since they take up a good

deal of space for several months and are relatively

low in food value. Where plenty of garden space

is available, however, the watermelon adds variety and is a good dessert vegetable. Watermelons

grow best on well-drained sandy loam soil. They

will not tolerate poor drainage and for this reason often fail on heavy soils. They will tolerate

a soil acidity of pH 5.0. A commercial fertilizer

high m phosphorus, such as 3-12-4, at the rate of

300 to 600 pounds per acre is used, in addition to

2 to 3 shovelfuls of manure in each hill. Watermelons have responded well to applications of

well-rotted cachaza, which contains a moderate

supply of phosphorus. Seeds are planted 6 per

hill with hills spaced 6 to 10 feet apart. In commercial plantings the plants are spaced 3 to 4 feet

apart in rows 6 to 10 feet apart. The plants

should be thinned to 2 or 3 per hill. Cultivation

to control weeds is needed until the vines begin

to cover the entire area ; then the larger weeds are

pulled by hand.

Where only a few plants are grown, the female

flowers should be pollinated by hand, preferably

during the morning. Then the flowers should be

covered with small paper bags to keep the pollen

from being washed off by rain. A strong vine

can support only 2 fruits of the large-fruited varieties. Straw may be placed beneath the developing fruits to prevent them from touching the

wet soil.

Thumping the melon with the finger is a common method of determining maturity. Green

melons give a metallic ring; the mature melons a

muffled, dead sound. Two inches of stem should

be left on the fruit at harvest to prevent the organisms causing fruit rot from entering the fruit.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—Watermelons suffer from

the same pests and diseases as cucumbers. In

addition, fusarium wilt may kill susceptible varieties when watermelons are planted on infected

soil.

Other Cucurbits

The fruits of several other cucurbits are eaten,

usually at the immature stage as boiled vegetables,

in some countries but are unknown in others.

Examples are the wax gourd {Benincasa hispida

Cogn.) ; white-flowered or bottle gourd {Lagenaria siceraria (Mol.) Standl.) ; angled loofah

{Luffa acutangula (L.) Eoxb.) (fig. 19, G) ;

smooth loofah or dish-rag gourd (Z. cylindrica

(L.) Eoem.); bitter cucumber {Momordica charantia L.) ; and snake gourd {Tvichosanthes anguina L.). Culture of all these is like that of

cucumber except that support is needed for the

vines. In many areas they perform better than

imported vegetable varieties.

The cassabanana ("pepino") (Sica/na odorífera

(Veil.) Naud.) is grown in the West Indies and

in Central and South America for the 12- to 24-

inch orange-crimson fruits. The ripe fruits are

made into preserves or macerated in water to give

a pleasing drink. When young and tender, the

fruits are boiled and eaten like summer squash.

The oyster nut {Telfairea pedata Hook.) is cultivated in Kenya and other African countries for

the large seeds, which are roasted for eating or

made into confections.

The "caihua" or "caibi" (Cyclanthera pedata

Schrad.) is grown in tropical America. Usually

only the skin and underlying flesh are eaten.

Seeds of these cucurbits usually are not available from seed houses. Sometimes they can be

obtained from Chinese market gardeners. If so,

this will indicate edible varieties. Directions can

be secured, also, as to the proper stage at which

the cucurbit is to be eaten and the plant part to

be eaten.

Fruit Vegetables

Eggplant

"Berenjena"

Solanum melongena L.

Solanaceae

The eggplant ("brinjal" in areas with an oriental influence) is a perennial shrubby herb usually

grown as an annual. The fruits of most cultivated

eggplants are smooth, but some will be armed with

spines, at least on the fruit stem and calyx lobes.

The fruits vary in color from white through rose

to dark purple, and in shape from perfectly round

to extremely elongated. The smaller varieties bear

rounded fruits only about 3 inches in each dimension; long-fruited varieties may attain 1 foot in

length with a diameter of 21/2 to 5 inches at the

widest part. Most varieties are intermediate in

size between these extremes.

The eggplant is a popular warm-season crop in

the Tropics. It grows well throughout the year

at low elevations in the Caribbean area (fig. 23,

A) and gives fair to good yields at elevations up

to about 2,500 feet during the warm season; it

has been a complete failure above 3,000 feet in

Puerto Rico. Three to six good plants should be

adequate for the average-size family. Young

plants produce the most and best fruits, but older

plants may continue to produce fair to good

fruits for a year or more.

Both the pink long-fruited variety Rosita (fig.

23, B) and the dark-purple variety Puertorican

Beauty developed by the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of Puerto Rico are

resistant to the frequently destructive bacterial
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 41

•f f'

FIGURE 23.—.4, Field of esKplant; B, lone-fruited eprsplant variety Rosita ; C. field of pepper variety California Wonder

used for export to mainland; Ü, small-fruited peppers for seasoning other foods; E, large thin-walled pepper for

stuffing.
42 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

wilt. Eosita is the most popular variety in Puerto

Kico. Resistance to bacterial wilt is found also in

the varieties Mátale from Ceylon and Kopek from

Java {65), Black Beauty has given high yields

under some conditions, but this variety should not

be planted where bacterial wilt is a problem.

Seeds are soaked overnight to improve germination before being planted in a seedbed. The

seedlings are grown to the 3- or 4-leaf stage,

transplanted to another seedbed, and set in the

field when they are 5 to 7 inches tall. The spacing recommended in the field is 2 to 3 feet apart

in rows 21/^ to 3 feet apart, according to the vigor

of the variety. It is important to keep young

plants growing vigorously by regularly irrigating

when necessary and spraying to keep the foliage

free from flea beetles and lace bugs. Any early

setback to the young plants will significantly reduce yields.

Side dressings of a complete fertilizer at

monthly intervals when the plants begin to produce (fig. 12, Ä) should help maintain production over many months. Irrigation by furrow is

essential during dry periods.

Fruits should be harvested regularly when they

are a good size and the skin shows a slick luster.

Fruits allowed to ripen on the plants will reduce

subsequent yields.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—Lace bugs and flea beetles

are probably the most destructive insects attacking eggplant in the West Indies. An aphid, the

hemispherical scale, a leaf roller, the tobacco

hornworm, and a large number of minor pests

may occasionally cause damage, probably because

of the wide distribution of closely related wild

plants. Anthracnose, bacterial wilt, and other

diseases may tend to reduce yields, particularly

when eggplant or closely related vegetables such

as tomato and potato are planted successively on

the same ground. Bacterial wilt is controlled by

planting resistant varieties.

Okra

"Quingombo"

Hibiscus esculentus L.

Malvaceae

Okra (fig. 24, A) is a coarse erect annual

plant with more or less hispid stems and attractive dark-eyed sulfur-yellow flowers. Its fruits

are borne in leaf axils below the growing point.

Okra is well adapted to the hot humid conditions

of the Tropics. It yields best at low elevations,

particularly during the warm months in regions

where rainfall is not excessive. A short row usually is sufficient in the average home garden.

When well tended, the plants will bear for several

months.

The seeds are planted in hills 12 to 15 inches

apart in rows 36 inches apart. Germination can

be improved by soaking the seed for a day before

planting; unswollen seed should be discarded.

Plants are later thinned to 2 to 3 good plants per

hill. The plants should be kept growing rapidly

by regular irrigation when necessary and by side

dressings of a complete fertilizer at 4- to 6-week

intervals. The pods must be harvested at intervals of 2 or 3 days when the tips are tender and

the peduncles break with a snap. If pods are left

to mature on the plants, they are too tough for

consumption; this practice also reduces yields.

Variety White Velvet outyielded all other varieties in several trials at Mayaguez, P.K. Other

varieties recommended for the West Indies are

Clemson Spineless, Gold Coast, Louisiana Evergreen, and Perkins Spineless. Gold Coast is a

dwarf variety said to tolerate heat well and bear

over a long period of time. The Indian variety

Pusa Sawani is recommended as a heavy cropper

and for resistance to yellow-vein mosaic.

Okra pods are often used to thicken soups and

stews. They can be served as a boiled vegetable,

but people not accustomed to the slickness of okra

may not care for it prepared this way. Okra is

frequently combined with eggplant, tomato,

onion, and other vegetables. Another method of

preparing okra is to slice the pods into i^- to

y2-inch pieces, roll the pieces in corn meal or flour,

and fry them in fat.

The closely related plant roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.) is grown for the fleshy red calyces

(fig. 24, O) which have a tart flavor. An excellent reddish sauce, similar in appearance and flavor to cranberry sauce, is made from roselle. The

calyces are used to color and season other foods,

often as a substitute for lime juice.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—The cotton aphid (fig. 24,

B) is perhaps the worst single pest of okra in the

Tropics. Other pests include corn earworm, leaf

beetles, and pink bollworm. Okra is fairly susceptible to root-knot nematode damage. Okra is

damaged by the fusarium wilt fungus and leaf

spot fungus during especially wet rainy periods

although under average conditions okra is relatively disease free.

Pepper

"Pimiento," "Chili," "Ají"

Capsicum annuum L.—Bell or Sweet Pepper

Capsicum frutescens L.—Hot or Tabasco Pepper

Solanaceae

Peppers are upright branching annual plants

that grow to a height of 1 to 2 feet. Fruits of the

different kinds can be small to large (fig. 23, D

aiid E), thin or thick walled, and in shape from

wider than long to very long and tapering. They

are red or yellow at maturity. In flavor peppers

vary from sweet to mildly or quite pungent.

The most popular pepper cultivated in the Car-
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CAKIBBEAN AREA 43

FIGURE 24.—A, Okra ; B, cotton (melon) aphid {Aphis gossypii Glover) on okra ; C, roselle.
44 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

ibbean area is the large bell or sweet type for use in

cooking or salads or for export to the mainland

{51). The variety California Wonder has produced satisfactory crops in Puerto Rico for export (fig. 23, C). Small peppers of various

shapes are grown in the Caribbean area for seasoning other foods; large thin-walled peppers are

used for stuffing.

Tabasco and chili peppers are cultivated to a

lesser extent in the West Indies. The typical hot

pepper has extremely pungent, small round fruits

that are used as a condiment. Long-fruited chili

types are grown in a few home gardens. The

perennial plants are often more branched and

taller than the bell type and may bear smaller

leaves.

The culture is the same for all types of peppers.

The seeds are sown in protected boxes or beds and

covered with fine soil. When the seedlings are

about 6 weeks old, they are transplanted to the

garden at a spacing of 12 to 18 inches in rows 2

to 3 feet apart.

Good crops can be obtained at elevations from

sea level to 3,000 feet when peppers are planted

in fall, winter, and spring; fair to good crops

when they are planted in summer if rainfall is

not excessive. The pepper is less tolerant of heat

than the eggplant. Fruit set is poor during extremely hot weather and fruit already on the

plants is apt to sunscald.

Mosaic is the main factor limiting pepper

growing in the Caribbean area. The Agricultural

Experiment Station of the University of Puerto

Eico has developed several improved mosaicresistant pepper strains that are thick walled,

sweet, and of good quality. These strains were

developed by crossing native mosaic-resistant

peppers with a high-quality continental variety,

such as California Wonder (fig. 23, C). The

local trade prefers the thin-walled variety Blanco

del País for cooking, but the thick-walled varieties are popular on the continental markets in

winter and early spring, which is the shipping

season from Puerto Rico.

Variety Yolo Wonder is now recommended for

planting in the West Indies. It resembles California Wonder but is resistant to tobacco mosaic.

Variety Yolo Wonder L, a reselection from California Wonder, is said to combine mosaic resistance with a taller plant type, which provides

protection to the fruit from sunscald. Sweet

varieties Chato and Corozal are recommended

for Puerto Eico.

Seed can be saved from fruits of locally

adapted hot varieties since the home garden usually will require only a plant or two. Where more

hot peppers are needed, varieties Anaheim, Hungarian Yellow Wax, Louisiana Eed Cayenne,

and Tobasco can be tried.

Peppers are harvested when they are large

enough for use, or when ripe. Large sweet

peppers are usually picked while still green. The

fruits can be left on the plant after reaching

maturity without deteriorating. They are picked

by cutting or breaking the brittle stems to leave a

portion on the fruit. Peppers can be harvested

for home use when quite young but the young

fruits will wilt readily.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—Peppers are attacked

with varying degrees of severity by a large

number of general pests. Most common among

these are aphids, armyworms, cutworms, flea

beetles, leaf miners, mole crickets, plant bugs,

thrips, tobacco hornworms, and weevils. Generally, pepper pests do not severely limit production; but should infestations be extensive, control

measures should be taken promptly. If DDT

WP is used on peppers, an aphicide should be

included to avoid buildup of aphid populations.

Diseases injuring pepper include damping-off,

mosaic virus, bacterial leaf spot, cercospora leaf

spot, anthracnose, bacterial wilt, and downy

mildew.

Sweet Corn (Maize)

"Maíz dulce"

Zea mays L.

Poaceae

Sweet corn varieties bred for temperate climates often perform poorl¡7 in the Tropics, because of their susceptibility to yellow stripe

mosaic, a leaf spot caused by Helminthosporium.

turcicum Pass., and because of poor climatic

adaptation. Failures have been reported in Cuba

(P), Hawaii {11)^ and Venezuela {25), For many

years variety USDA-34 (fig. 25, A and C) developed by the Federal Experiment Station,

Mayaguez, P.E. (4^) has been the most widely

adapted sweet corn variety for the Tropics. It is

tall, vigorous, productive, and disease resistant.

Continued selection at the Federal Experiment

Station produced the Improved ÜSDA-34 {6),

with improvements in sweetness and tenderness

and with yellow kernels. More recently the University of Puerto Eico selected the variety Puerto

Eico 50 from Improved USDA-34. Puerto Eico

50 resembles variety Golden Bantam in the ear

but retains the plant characters and disease

resistance of USpA-34. Both Improved USDA34 and Puerto Eico 50 are recommended for trial.

USpA-34 remains the standard sweet corn

variety for the Tropics.

The varieties Giant White, Golden Beauty,

and Sugar Corn are grown in India; and

American varieties Country Gentleman and Golden Bantam have been recommended for spring

planting in Hong Kong. The many hybrid varieties now being offered by northern seed firms
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 45

FiouBE 25.—A, Sweet corn variety USDA-34 ; B, corn plant damaged by fall armyworm ; C, ears of USDA-34 sweet

com free from silk fly injury; D, sweet corn injured by silk fly; E, corn earworm (tomato fruitworm) {Heliothus

zea (Boddie) ) feeding on ear of corn.

E...
46 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

have not been adequately tested in the Tropics.

The ears of all field com varieties can be eaten as

a vegetable if harvested at the proper stage.

Corn may require too much room for inclusion

in small gardens, but where enough land is available, excellent ears can be had throughout the

year. Variety USDA-34 and the varieties selected

from it perform best at lower elevations. Fair

to good crops have been obtained at 2,600 feet

during spring and early summer; only fair to

poor crops were obtained in early spring at 3,200

feet. ^ A better sweet corn variety is needed for

the high elevations in the Tropics.

Complete fertilizer and manure where available

should be mixed with the soil before planting

sweet com. During the rainy season the seed

should be planted on ridges 6 to 8 inches high

and spaced 3 feet apart. Two or three kernels

are dropped at intervals of 10 to 15 inches in the

row. The plants are then thinned to one good

stalk per hill. Either one or two side dressings

of ammonium sulfate or a complete fertilizer is

advisable at about 4-week intervals, beginning

when the corn is knee high. Irrigation is highly

essential during dry periods to obtain a good

yield of large-size, high-quality ears.

Variety Puerto Eico 50 should produce two

good ears per plant. When ready for harvest,

the ears should be of good size and firm and

should show dry brown silks at the tips. The

kernels should be at the milk or soft dough stage,

which can be determined by pulling back the

shuck at the tip of the ear and breaking one or

two kernels with the thumbnail. Ears should be

checked frequently because the ideal stage for

harvest lasts for only a day or 2 before the

kernels become tough. A succession of plantings

at 2-week intervals will provide a better supply

of corn for table use than will one large planting.

Since sweet corn seed may be difficult to secure

in many areas of the Tropics, 1 year's supply

should be saved from the best dry-season planting. The ears should be well matured on the

plant, then hung in a dry cool place until the

cob is dry. Ears selected for seed should be large

and from disease-free plants. The grains can

then be shelled from the cob and stored as recommended. (See p. 19.)

PESTS AND DISEASES.—Sweet corn, particularly

young corn plants at the beginning of the dry

season, is very heavily attacked in most places

in the American Tropics by the fall armyworm

(fig. 25, B)^ the lesser cornstalk borer, the southem cornstalk borer, the cutworm, the silk fly (fig.

25, G and Z>), and the corn earw^orm (fig. 25, E).

Unless these insects are controlled (^), the sweet

corn crop will be either destroyed or badly

damaged. Various other general pests can cause

less severe damage. Corn is not too frequently

attacked by disease since newer resistant varieties

have been developed. A leaf spot, mosaic virus,

a rust, a bacterial wilt, and a smut fungus sometimes appear on plants in tropical areas.

Tomato

"Tomate," "Gitomate"

Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.

Solanaceae

The tomato is a sprawling herbaceous plant

cultivated as an annual for its fruits. It is a

nutritious and refreshing vegetable whether used

raw in salads or cooked in a variety of ways.

Although the tomato will grow at nearly all

elevations in the Caribbean area, the available

varieties produce best during the relatively cool

dry season at elevations lower than about 2,500

feet. The minimum and mean temperatures at

higher elevations are usually too low during

winter and rainfall is too abundant in summer to

grow tomatoes. This agrees in general with experience in Hawaii at the higher elevations (11,

p. 88). A relatively cool, rather dry climate with

plenty of sunshine, such as that prevailing in

winter near Ponce and Isabela, P.E. (fig. 26, A),

is ideal for tomato production, provided irrigation is available when needed.

Although high summer temperature can be an

important factor in reducing yields in the

Tropics, particularly those of the large-fruited

varieties, excessive rainfall is considered to be the

most detrimental factor. During summer (80°

F.) under greenhouse protection at Mayaguez,

P.E., excellent crops of the variety Michigan

State Forcing have been grown when crops in

the field under heavy rainfall were unsatisfactory.

Garden tomatoes may be arbitrarily grouped

into three types: (1) The determinate, lowgrowing, bushy type with each branch ending in

a flower cluster and new shoots appearing laterally on the stems; (2) the indeterminate, largefruited type (fig. 26, B) that grows tall when

staked and pruned and sprawling when not

staked; and (3) the indeterminate, small-fruited

type that produces numerous plum-, pear- or

cherry-shaped fruits (fig. 26, ^).

The determinate type has the advantage of

flowering and fruiting early and over a shorter

period than the indetermmate types. Under

adverse rainy conditions varieties of the determinate type sometimes set and mature a greater

weight of fruits than the large-fruited indeterminate types. Plantings of the determinate type

must be made more frequently than those of the

indeterminate types since the déterminaite plants

are shorter lived. The determinate type should

not be pruned. A low supporting framework of

bamboo may help to reduce diseases by keeping

the foliage and iruits off the ground. Varieties

of the determinate type that have performed best
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 47

FIGURE 26.—A, Field of staked Marglobe tomatoes grown

in northwestern Puerto Rico ; B, large-fruited tomato

varieties (left) and indeterminate small-fruited plum,

pear, and cherry types (right) ; C, native West Indian

types of tomatoes.

under West Indian conditions are Pritcliard and

Homestead 24. Both are tolerant or resistant to

fusarium wilt, and Pritcliard also resists the

nail-head rust disease.

Varieties of the large-fruited, indeterminate

type that have produced best under field conditions in the West Indies are Michigan State

Forcing, Rutgers, and Marglobe. Several newer

varieties, Floralou, Indian River, and Manahicie,

developed for the winter and spring crops in the

Southeastern United States also have produced

well. Floralou and Indian River are multipledisease resistant and Manalucie is resistant to

fusarium wilt. Variety Campbell 146 is grown

in Puerto Rico for commercial canning. The

many hybrid varieties available in temperate regions have not been sufficiently tested in the West

Indies for recommendation.

The small-fruited, indeterminate plum-, pear-,

and cherry-shaped types of tomato (fig. 26, B)

set heavy crops of fruit under somewhat adverse

summer conditions, such as warm rainy weather,

and are not quite so susceptible to attack by

insects and diseases. A few of these plants, of

which there are several varieties, should be maintained in the home garden to provide fruits when

other varieties are likely to fail because of

adverse climatic conditions. Variety Roma is

grown in Puerto Rico for commercial production

of tomato sauce and paste.

Several native tomato varieties (fig. 26, C) in

the Caribbean area are more resistant than continental varieties to high temperatures and

diseases during the warm rainy season. The

quality of these native varieties is low and the

fruits are undesirable because of their knotty

furrowed character. They are suited only for

cooking. Selección Platillo, selected in Puerto

Rico from the old local variety Platillo, withstands diseases and produces more fruit during

the warm rainy season than any other variety

tested in Puerto Rico. It, too, is used only for

cooking.

One of the great difficulties in tomato production during the rainy season is that the almost

daily showers wash off the fungicides almost as

soon as they are applied. Of 121 tomato varieties grown during the rainy season in El Salvador from 1957 to 1961, Mortensen and Bullard

(33) found that only Red Top, Roma, Sioux,

Summer Prolific, Texto 2, and Urbana were consistently good producers when weekly sprays of

maneb were applied. More promising were the

Hawaiian multiple-resistant hybrids, Cuyano,

Egg, Indian River, and Santa Catalina. Trials

in Haiti in 1961-62 by the same investigators

showed Campbell 146, the Plawaiian hybrids,

Ilotset, Indian River, Red Top, Roma, San

Marzano, and Urbana to have promise for rainyseason production.

Another troublesome deterrent to rainy-season

production of tomatoes is the fruit cracking

common in the large-fruited varieties. Resistance

has been reported in Glamour, Heinz 1370, and

Summer Prolific (33), and in breeding lines

developed by workers at the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of Puerto Rico.

Small-fruited varieties such as Red Top, Roma,

and San Marzano and the currant tomato (Lycopersicon pimpineUifolium (Jusl.) ]\Iill.) are

highly resistant to cracking.
48 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

B

f^t'i, ^M^-\^^^

FIGURE 27.—A, Mottled leaves of tomato plant, symptom of tobacco mosaic virus; B, corn earworm (tomato fruitworm)

{Hcliothnx zca (Boddie)) on tomato; 0, tobacco hornworm (Protoparce sexta (Jolianson)) on tomato leaves;

75, tomato plants defoliated by late blight during periods of heavy rains ; E, tomatoes showing progressive degrees

of blossom-end rot (left and center) and tomato with mottled appearance presumably caused by nutritional

imbalance (right).

Tomato seed is broadciist or planted in rows in

well-prepared seedbeds (fig. 15). When tlie seedlings are about 3 to 4 inches high (fig. 15, C),

they are transplanted to neigliboring beds; when

6 to 8 inches higli, they are transplanted to the

garden. Long, leggj' plants can be transplanted

if their lower sections are laid down in a furrow

and only the upper 4 to 6 inches of the tops

exposed. Plants are spaced at about 2 to 4 feet in

rows 3 to 4 feet apait, depending upon the tools

available for cultivation. For the home garden

the first transplanting can be made to clay or

peat pots, cans, or cartons. This method may

give stronger plants for transplanting to the

field location.

At time of transplanting, 2 tablespoonfuls of a

^.^-^.¡«4^-i '"''Mflaffik
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 49

complete fertilizer low in nitrogen and high in

phosphorus, such as 4-12-18, should be applied in

strips on either side of the plant at a distance of

3 to 4 inches from the base and at a depth of

about 3 inches. When fruits begin to set, side

dressings of ammonium sulfate at 3- to 4-week

intervals will aid in sizing the fruit and keeping

the vine vigorous. Frequent cultivation is necessary to loosen the soil and eliminate weeds that

may be a source of mosaic and other diseases.

On heavy soil during the rainy season the

plants should be set on raised beds or ridges and

staked (^0,19Ji7). In the dry season they can be

grown on the level and furrow irrigated if water

is available. Where the soil is sandy and the

rainfall moderately light, the net returns per acre

are higher without staking and pruning.

Staked plants should be pruned to about two

main stems and all side branches removed as they

appear. This will require visiting the planting

every 2 or 3 days. Young plants showing mottled

or deformed leaves, common symptoms of tobacco

mosaic virus (fig. 27, A)^ should be removed immediately and burned or buried, after which the

grower's hands should be washed with soap. It is

possible to transfer mosaic from one plant to

another during pruning, spraying, and other

operations. A person using tobacco products

may be a source of mosaic infection, since tomatoes can be infected with mosaic disease from

tobacco. Tobacco users should wash their hands

with soap and water before working with tomato

plants. Furthermore, they should not smoke or

chew tobacco while working with tomatoes. During ripening the fruit borne on mosaic-infected

plants often develops yellow areas over the surface, which can reduce their market value.

The careless use of herbicides in the vicinity of

home gardens can cause injury to tomato plants

that is often mistaken for mosaic disease. The

herbicide causes the upper stem to twist and the

leaves to become malformed. The plants will die

if they have received much of the herbicide. With

herbicide injury the entire field usually shows

the injury at one time while mosaic disease will

start with isolated plants.

For the best flavor, tomatoes in the home

garden should be picked when fully ripe. Fullsize green tomatoes will ripen if they are picked

and placed on the window sill or in a sunny

place. Commercial tomatoes harvested for shipment are picked when full size but green. They

are packed uniformly by standard procedure {51)

in medium and large sizes, transported overnight

to the shipping point, and loaded as soon as possible on refrigerated ships or freight planes.

Extreme care in handling commercial tomatoes is

essential at all times to reduce bruising and subsequent rotting.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—Insects and other pests

attacking the tomato include the corn earworm

(tomato fruitworm) (fig. 27, B)^ cutworm, flea

beetles, and tobacco hornworm (fig. 27, C), Several species of sucking insects attack principally

the fruit, and root-knot nematodes attack the

roots. The tomato is damaged by more diseases

than most other vegetable crops. During the

warm rainy season the foliage may be attacked by

early blight, gray leaf spot, or several other bacterial or fungal spots. Night temperatures below

60° F. with rain or high humidity will favor development of late blight (fig. 27, D), Mosaic

(fig. 27, A) and possibly other virus diseases can

reduce yields if introduced into tomato fields.

Fusarium and bacterial wilts can be severe if the

soil has become contaminated. The fruit is attacked by anthracnose and several other rots

caused by bacteria and fungi.

The tomato is subject to a number of physiological disorders not caused by disease organisms, but

which are often followed by invasions of various

rots. Blossom-end rot (fig. 27, ^), a necrosis of

subsurface tissue at the blossom end of the fruit,

shows up as the fruit starts to ripen. It is caused

by calcium deficiency at times of moisture stress

when the fruit is very young. The disorder can

be prevented by maintaining uniform soil moisture and avoiding excessively high rates of soil

fertility. Fruit cracking at maturity also may be

prevented to some extent by maintaining uniform

soil moisture. A nutritional imbalance can cause

a mottled appearance on tomato fruits (fig. 27,

E), Sunscalding of the exposed fruit often folloAvs complete or partial defoliation by leaf

diseases.

Greens, Stem,

and Leafy Salad Vegetables

Most greens, stem, and leafy salad vegetables

yield well during winter and throughout the year

at high elevations in the Tropics.

Amaranth or Chinese Spinach

Amaranthus spp.

Amaranthaceae

Several species of Amaranthus are used for

food in different parts of the Tropics. Leaves of

the different species or varieties are either red,

variegated, or green. The green form of A. gangetlcus L. is most commonly cultivated for use as

boiled greens. It is an upright branched annual.

The young leaves and stem tips are ready to eat

3 to 6 weeks after the seed is sown. The redleaved species (probably A, tricolor L.) can be

planted any time of the year, but A. gangeticus

grows best in the Iqitter part,of the dry season and

early part of the rainy season.
50 AGRICULÏUKE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

FIGURE 28.—A, Field of asparagus variety Mary Washington ; B, Ceylon spinach on trellis ; C, chard ; D, chard leaves

damaged by the southern beet vvebworm (I'aohyzancla Mpunctalis (F.)) ; E, collard leaves damaged by larvae of

diamondback moth (Plutella maculipennis (Curtis)).
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 51

Amaranth or Chinese spinach grows well and

rapidly at all altitudes in the West Indies. The

green-leaved variety Tampala, which can be obtained from United States seedsmen, is satisfactory. Direct broadcast seeding is practiced and

the seedlings are thinned when quite young to 3

inches apart. The thinnings can be used for

greens.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—No specific pests or diseases attack amaranth or Chinese spinach.

Asparagus

"Aspárago"

Asparagus officinalis L.

Liliaceae

Asparagus (fig. 28, ^), a herbaceous perennial,

is cultivated for its edible spears or young shoots.

It grows best in the Tropics at higher elevations,

but it can grow at low elevations having a cool

dry season during part of each year.

Yields of asparagus in the Tropics generally

have not compared favorably with yields in the

Temperate Zone. The home gardener who is accustomed to the flavor of fresh asparagus may

wish to maintain a small plot even though the

yields are moderate to low.

Asparagus can be grown from seed or from imported dormant crowns. The seed is sown in

rows in a seedbed and grown for several months

until the seedlings are about 1 foot high, then they

are transplanted to a well-drained sandy loam

soil high in organic matter. The seedlings are

set in a trench about 14 inches wide and 12 inches

deep. A layer of well-rotted manure is placed in

the bottom of the trench and covered with soil in

which the seedlings are set. Additional manure

is applied as a mulch from time to time until the

ditch is completely full. This crop responds well

to large applications of animal manure. Nitrogen and phosphorus applied as ammonium phosphate (16-20) are valuable supplements to manure and can be applied either before or after the

harvest season.

Cutting begins within about 2 years after transplanting the seedlings to the field, or 1 year after

setting the crowns. Production of the new shoots

follows a dormant period. To induce dormancy,

withhold water for 2 to 3 months at the beginning

of the cool dry season. Then cut the tops off and

hoe or disk and irrigate the area regularly.

Spears may be harvested when they are 6 to 8

inches long over a period of 3 to 6 weeks. The

cut is made about an inch below ground. A mulch

of dried grass can be placed over the rows at the

beginning of the harvest season if blanching is

desired. The lower ends of freshly harvested

spears should be placed in a pan of water under

refrigeration to maintain their high quality until

they can be cooked.

After harvest, the tops should be allowed to

develop for several months to store food in the

fleshy roots for the next crop. Because there are

no cold winters to induce a rest period under

tropical conditions, asparagus tends to lose vigor

in a few years. Variety Mary Washington is

recommended as being vigorous and disease

resistant.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—Leaf beetles eat the

foliage and the edible shoots of asparagus.

Asparagus is generally disease free in the Caribbean area but during rainy seasons a rust may

appear.

Broccoli

"Brécol"

Brassica olerácea var. botrytis L.

Cruciferae

This cabbage relative is cultivated for the

thickened heads of flower buds that are formed

just before the stage of stem elongation and

flower expansion. It is one of the most satisfactory vegetables that can be grown in the home

garden and has increased in popularity in recent

years.

Broccoli grows well during the cool season at

all elevations in the Caribbean area; at high

elevations it grows well at all seasons except the

warmest heavy-rainfall period. Yields have

generally been best from plantings made during

the cool months and maturing during the early

spring rains.

Broccoli is not hard to grow. It is more productive and withstands heat and drought better

than its close relative cauliflower. The large

center cluster of buds develops first and is harvested just after the individual flower buds

become distinguishable (fig. 29, A), About the

time the center head is harvested, it is advisable

to give a side dressing of complete fertilizer, or

16-20 ammonium phosphate. This stimulates

development of the edible side shoots, which may

be harvested over a period of 2 months. As the

stems below the flower clusters are succulent and

edible, from 5 to 8 inches may be cut with the

main flower head and 3 to 4 inches with the side

shoots. These stems may be split before cooking

so that they will cook as fast as the flowers. The

cut top of the center stem may rot after harvest

if rainfall is abundant or overhead irrigation is

used. Rotting may be prevented by placing a

moisture-proof paper cap, such as a paper cup,

over the cut surface on the stalk. Making a

slanting cut at harvest may also aid in preventing

stem rot.

The culture of broccoli is the same as for head

cabbage. Calabrese and Propageno strains of

Italian green sprouting broccoli have given good

results in the West Indies and in Hawaii.
52 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

m.i

\'-, J

FIGURE 29.—Ä, Broccoli variety Calabrese, large center head and small side shoots; B, cabbage variety Golden

Acre; C, Indian cauliflower variety Early Patna ; D, Chinese cabbage variety Chi-Hi-Li ; E, celery variety Golden

Self Blanching ; F, spoon cabbage.
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 53

De Cicco is recommended for trial. Purple-leaved

strains are preferred in some areas of the Tropics.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—See pests and diseases of

head cabbage, page 53.

Brussels Sprouts

"Col de Bruselas"

Brassica olerácea var. gemmifera DC.

Cruciferae

This member of the cabbage family is cultivated for the small axillary buds or heads that

are borne laterally on the tall erect stems. It is a

long-season crop adapted to the cool temperatures

(55° to 65° F.) found only at high elevations in

the Tropics.

At 3,000 feet in Puerto Rico, only a small percentage of the plants of variety Improved Long

Island formed small cabbagelike heads in the leaf

axils and these were strong in flavor.

At elevations where this crop can be grown, the

seed may be planted directly in the field like

Chinese cabbage, or the seedlings can be transplanted from seedbeds like head cabbage. (See

pp. 26 and 28.) The small budlike heads can be

harvested when firm and 1 to 2 inches in diameter. Some of the lower leaves may be removed

if the buds become crowded. This crop should

withstand moderate frosts at high elevations in

the Tropics {59, p. 311). The buds are cooked

like cabbage.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—See pests and diseases oí

head cabbage, page 53.

Cabbage

"Repollo de Col"

Brassica olerácea var. capitata L,

Cruciferae

The main stem axis of the head or true cabbage

is short and thick. The head is formed by the

development of the densely packed leaves about

the growing point. Head cabbage is used both

for cooking and for salads. Its use for pickling

or sauerkraut is not common in the Tropics.

Head cabbage can be grown throughout the

year in the Caribbean area, but the largest and

heaviest heads are produced during the cool

winter and early spring seasons. Most standard

varieties produce satisfactorily, but All Seasons,

Copenhagen Market, Golden Acre (fig. 29, B),

and Succession have produced the largest percentage of good heads under trial conditions.

Heads weighing from 2 to 4 pounds can be produced during the warm season and heads weighing from 4 to 6 pounds during the cool season.

At 3,000-foot elevation during the cool season,

heads weighing from 7 to 9 pounds are not

uncommon. The savoyed and red-leav-ed varieties generally do not perform well in the Tropics.

It is more difficult to control insects on the

savoyed leaves.

In addition to the usual preparation of the

soil with manure and complete fertilizer before

planting, apply a side dressing of ammonium

sulfate or a complete fertilizer shortly after the

heads begin to form. A side dressing of nitrogen

is particularly important if the cabbage begins

to head while still small or if the leaves show

yellowing. One tablespoonful per plant should

be adequate.

Although the early-maturing Golden Acre performed satisfactorily in trials, the soil moisture

had to be kept relatively uniform by regular irrigation during dry periods. Heads of this variety

tend to crack open when a dry j)eriod is followed

by an irrigation or by heavy rainfall. A combination planting of Golden Acre for early harvest

and Succession or Copenhagen Market for later

harvest is suggested. Varieties having small

heads, such as Golden Acre and Early Jersey

Wakefield, should be spaced 12 inches apart in

the roAv; varieties with large heads, such as

Copenhagen Market, Marion Market, and Succession, should be spaced about 18 inches apart.

The late-maturing large flat or drum-head varieties generally do not perform as w^ell in the

Tropics as the early-maturing conical or roundheaded varieties.

The young seedlings must be kept stocky and

moderately vigorous before and after transplanting. A vigorous start with these seedlings makes

a tremendous difference in subsequent size of the

heads. Seedlings stunted by drought, low fertility, or insects will give mediocre to poor yields.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—The cabbage looper and

Gulf white butterfly caterpillars can speedily

make a shambles of plantings of cabbage and

other cruciferous plants. Diamondback moth

caterpillars are a third major pest. Figure 28, E

shows the damage caused to coUards by the caterpillars of the diamondback moth {PluteUa maculipennis (Curtis)). This is perhaps the most

damaging and difficult pest to control on plants

of the cabbage family in the Caribtean area. The

underside of the leaves is first riddled and then

heads are perforated. Several diseases may

appear when cabbage and its allies are planted

during the wettest parts of the year. These

diseases include bacterial black rot, black leg

fungus, and wilt or yellows.

Cauliflower

"Coliflor"

Brassica olerácea var. botrytis L.

Cruciferae

The cauliflower plant resembles other members

of the cabbage group until maturity when the

flower heads (fig. 29, C) and upper stems are
54 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

thickened into a fleshy white or purple-red mass.

White varieties are more frequently seen than the

colored.

Cauliflower is more exacting in climatic requirements than broccoli or head cabbage. It

performs best during the cool months at higher

elevations, where the mean temperature is between 55° and 65° F. It is a waste of time and

effort to try to grow cauliflower in warm moist

areas of the Tropics. Handling the seedlings

and cultural requirements are about the same as

for cabbage. Lime should be added to acid soils

to bring the pH to 5.5 to 6.5.

To secure a succession of crops, the seeds can be

sown at 4-week intervals from late September to

December. Protection of the seedbeds is necessary where heavy rains occur at this season. A

well-prepared rich soil is essential. The incorporation of animal manure is particularly beneficial,

and a light side dressing of ammonium sulfate

can be given after the seedlings are transplanted

to the garden. They must be kept growing

rapidly. Cutting starts in 12 to 18 weeks.

Blanching, if desired, is done by tying the outer

leaves over the flower head for a few days to protect it from the bright sun. Varieties recommended for trial are Early Market, Early Patna,

Early Snowball, Maincrop Bañaras, Maincrop

Patna, and Eoyal Purple.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—See pests and diseases of

head cabbage, page 53.

Celery

"Apio"

Apium graveolens L.

Umbelliferae

Celery is a biennial herb, grown as an annual

for the long succulent leafstalks, wliich are eaten

either raw or cooked (fig. 29, E). The leaves are

used to flavor soups and stews and may be dried

for later use.

Celery grows best under the cool conditions of

high elevations where the mean temperature is

between 60° and 70° F. It is best suited to a

climate of warm days, cool nights, and abundant

sunshine. The percentage of good bunches grown

during cool months at sea level in the Tropics

can be less than 50. The somewhat tougher stalks

and leaves of the small bunches grown at sea

level can be used for flavoring. Celery will

occupy the soil for the relatively long period of

about 5 months before reaching full maturity.

Plants can be harvested, however, at any time

after they are half grown.

Unless celery receives special attention in fertilizing, spraying, and irrigating, it is almost

bound to fail. It does not perform well on ligjit

sandy soil or very heavy clay. Heavy additions

of organic matter in the form of mainire or compost are necessary in most soils and will improve

the chances for success in light sandy soil or very

heavy clay. A trench about 12 inches deep

should be dug and partly filled with the manure

or compost and then covered to the top with soil.

Seed should be sown in specially prepared seedbeds or flats of rich soil. When the seedlings are

a few inches high, they should be transplanted

to pots or another seedbed. Seeds germinate best

if pretreated by being placed between moistened

cloths for 1 or 2 days before planting. A thin

mulch over the seedbed keeps the soil moist during germination. Partial shade is advisable for

the delicate seedlings.

A complete fertilizer high in nitrogen, such as

10-10-5, should be applied in shallow trenches on

either side of the plants at transplanting. This

application is repeated in about 4 weeks, followed

again by another of ammonium sulfate as a side

dressing within 2 to 3 weeks.

Celery quickly suffers from lack of water during droughts. Irrigation at frequent intervals,

preferably by furrows, is necessary to keep the

stalks tender, well flavored, and growing rapidly.

The plants should be spaced about 6 to 12 mches

apart in the row. Slightly closer spacing will aid

in blanching, but also will reduce plant size.

Figure 29, E shows variety Golden Self Blanching grown at 2,600 feet in Puerto Rico. This

variety has yellowish leafstalks and does not

require blanching, although blanching helps reduce the strong flavor and increase the quality if

the crop has been grown under high temperature

and dry conditions. Green varieties are blanched

by wrapping and tying heavy paper around the

bunch for approximately 10 days before harvest.

Blanching should be done during cool dry

weather since w^arm moist weather may cause

rotting of the wrapped plants. Although green

varieties, such as Utah, require special blanching

procedure, some gardeners prefer to eat the green

stalks or chop them into small pieces for soups.

The green stalks are more nutritious than the

yellow. Other varieties recommended for trial

are Florida Green Pascal, Sutton's White Gem,

and Waltham Summer Pascal. Smallage is

recommended as being highly disease resistant.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—General pests include

aphids, armyworms, cutworms, leaf miners,

thrips, and webworms. Of these, aphids and

thrips are probably the most dainaging although

they seldom limit production. Hemispherical

scales occasionally infest celery. The general

recominendations given for thrips will satisfactorily control this pest. Celery is commonly

attacked by two fungus blights, as well as by

damping-off disease, bacterial soft rot, mosaic

virus, and yellows or wilt fungus. In addition, a

physiological disorder known as black heart sometimes appears when plants are excessively moist.
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 55

Ceylon Spinach

"Acelga Trepadora," "Bretaña," "Libato"

Basella rubra L.

Basellaceae

Ceylon spinach (fig. 28, B), vine spinach, or

Malabar nightshade is not a true spinach, but its

leaves resemble spinach and are used in the same

way (66). It is a vigorous plant of running and

climbing habit that is widely distributed in the

Tropics, particularly in moist lowlands. It grows

well on a variety of soils, seemingly without regard to fertility. Moisture is important and the

plants make their best growth during warm rainy

periods, when most other vegetable crops perform

poorly.

Ceylon spinach can be grown from seed or cuttings. The seeds should be planted near the end

of the dry period in protected boxes or beds and

the seedlings transplanted in a row 1 to 2 feet

apart at the beginning of the rainy period. Cuttings should be taken at the beginning of the

rainy period. They can be planted directly in

the permanent location and given extra shade and

water until growth begins.

Although Ceylon spinach will produce fair

crops with little or no fertilization, more and

better quality foliage can be produced by liberal

applications of complete fertilizer, manure, and

water. The vines should be trellised to keep the

foliage free of dirt. Light shade seems to be

beneficial.

The young leaves and about 3 inches of the

stem tips are picked for home use as a vegetable.

When cooked, Ceylon spinach is not as slick as

many greens.

In some areas a variety with reddish petioles

and stems is encountered, but the green variety is

more common in cultivation.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—Ceylon spinach is relatively free of insect pests and diseases in the

Caribbean area. Nematodes can be troublesome.

The aboveground parts are sometimes attacked

by a leaf and stem spot and a stem rot disease.

Chard

"Acelga"

Beta vulgaris var. cicla L.

Chenopodiaceae

Chard, also known as Swiss chard, leaf beet, or

spinach beet (fig. 28, (7), lacks the ñeshy root of

the beet. It is characterized by succulent darkgreen leaves, which are usually crinkled or

savoyed, and thick, fleshy white midribs and

leafstalks. The leaves or the entire top can be

eaten for greens or the crisp leafstalks can be

separated for cooking like asparagus or celery.

Chard is one of the most satisfactory vegetables

that can be grown in the Tropics. It is easy to

grow and it succeeds at all elevations in the

Caribbean area because of its wide tolerance to

heat (65° to 80° F.). Chard yields better than

most greens crops.

Chard usually is seeded directly in the row

since it does not stand transplanting as well as

many other vegetable plants. The seedlings

should be thinned to 6 to 12 inches apart in the

row. The first leaves should be ready to eat

within about 60 days. The outer leaves of the

plants should be cut regularly as they reach

tender maturity; new leaves will continue to

develop and furnish high-quality greens for

several months.

Chard requires a complete fertilizer at planting, manure if available, and side dressings of

ammonium sulfate at about 3-week intervals

thereafter. Frequent irrigation should be provided during dry periods to keep the plants

tender and growing rapidly.

Fordhook Giant and Lucullus are suitable varieties. Rhubarb is a suitable red-leaved variety.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—See pests and diseases of

beet, page 66. The southern beet webworm (fig.

28, D) attacks leaves of chard, beet, other

vegetables, and weeds.

Chinese Cabbages

Brassica spp.

Cruciferae

CHINESE CABBAGE, "REPOLLO CHINO" {Brassica

campestris L.)—The names Chinese cabbage and

celery cabbage are commonly used in the Caribbean area and in most English-speaking areas of

the Tropics to designate the heading varieties of

Brassica campestris L.

Chinese cabbage is one of the easiest and most

productive vegetables grown in the Tropics (fig.

29, Z>) ; returns are among the best for the labor

and garden space involved. Where greens, celery,

and head cabbage are scarce, this vegetable is

popular, particularly in chopped salads, among

people accustomed to eating leafy vegetables. It

can also be cooked in the same ways as head cabbage. Chinese cabbage can be grown practically

air year at all elevations in the West Indies, but

forms the largest and best quality heads during

the cool season at high elevations. During the

warm season, Chinese cabbage tends to form loose

heads. Variety Chi-Hi-Li (Michihli) with long

tapering heads usually is favored over Wong Bok

and Pe-Tsai. Chiefoo, also recommended in Hawaii, forms short thick heads like Wong Bok and

Pe-Tsai.

Chinese cabbage can be transplanted like head

cabbage, although excellent results have been obtained by planting seed directly in the field row

and later thinning to one good plant at 12-inch

intervals. A satisfactory crop can be obtained
56 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

somewhat sooner by direct seeding. Chinese cabbage should be kept growing rapidly by a side

dressing of nitrogen or complete fertilizer when

heads begin to form and by regular irrigation if

necessa-ry. The heads are harvested when they

are solid and measure from 6 to 8 inches across.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—See pests and diseases of

head cabbage, page 53. In addition, should rot

symptoms appear, harvest the young Chinese cabbage plants at once to avoid a strong flavor.

OTHER CHINESE CABBAGES AND MUSTARDS

(Brassica spp.).—This group of vegetables is difficult to describe. The members are variously referred to as spoon cabbage, Chinese white cabbage, Chinese mustard, or Chinese kale. Several

species of Brmsica are represented. The leaves

are eaten boiled as greens or in soups. The plant

known as Chinese kale is a nonheading variety of

Brcuisica olerácea.

The spoon cabbage group is sometimes erroneously referred to as white mustard. Most of them

probably are botanical varieties of B. campestris

L., but some may be varieties of B. júncea (L.)

Czern. & Cosson. Spoon cabbage (fig. 29, F) is

the nonheading oriental cabbagelike group of

mustards usually with long upright spoon-shaped

leafstalks. Some varieties have a spreading

growth with short, broad leafstalks. Spoon cab-

'^^

FIGURE 30.—A, Collard variety Southern ; B, endive variety Broad Leaved Batavian ; C, head lettuce variety Imperial

44; D, parsley variety Extra Curled Dwarf: B. mustard variety Florida Broad Leaf; F, leaf lettuce variety Black

Seeded Simpson ; G, leaf lettuce variety Sloholt grown in winter at low elevation ; H, leaf lettuce variety Slobolt

grown in summer at low elevation.
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 57

bage is a favorite vegetable in tropical areas with

oriental populations. Each package of seed is

likely to show much variation among the plants,

and oriental gardeners often mix seed of several

types to have a succession of greens. Seeds can

be planted in the field at specified planting distances, or the seedlings can be transplanted from

pots or seedbeds. They require the same management as head cabbage, including a complete fertilizer at planting with a side dressing of ammonium sulfate 4 to 6 weeks after planting. Many

of the types perform better than head cabbage

during the warm rainy season. In Hawaii varieties Shakushina and Pak Choy are used.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—See pests and diseases of

head cabbage, page 53.

Collard

Brassica olerácea var. acephala DC.

Cruciferae

Collard is a nonheading cabbage (fig. 30, A)

that grows to a height of 3 or 4 feet before seeding. It is one of the most dependable greens in

the hot, southern parts of the United States. It

thrives particularly well during the cool season

in the Caribbean area at all elevations, but quality is best at the higher elevations where it performs well throughout the year. The outer leaves

of collard are removed when full size but still tender. They are cooked as greens. The plants may

stand from October until June before seeding.

The seed should be sown in protected beds during October and the young plants moved to the

garden at 11/2- to 2-foot spacing after about 1

month. Later plantings can be seeded directly in

the row and the seedlings thinned to 9 to 12 inches

apart. As the plants become larger, they should

be thinned again. The thinned plants can be used

for greens. Varieties recommended are Georgia

(Southern), Louisiana Sweet, and Vates.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—See pests and diseases of

head cabbage, page 53.

Endive

"Escarola"

Cichorium endivia L.

Compositae

This annual or biennial herb produces a dense

rosette of divided, curly, or broad leaves (fig. 30,

B) with toothed margins. The leaves have a

characteristic bitter taste that is reduced by

blanching. Endive is used in salads like lettuce,

or it may be cooked like spinach.

Quality and growth are best during winter and

spring at high elevations in the Tropics. Endive

will withstand light frosts {59, p. 262), m can be

grown throughout the year at all elevations. The

leaves tend to be strong and tough during warm

weather, and the centers sometimes rot during

the rainy season. Growth is best where a plentiful supply of manure and commercial fertilizer

is used to prepare the bed.

The seecl can be sown in rows about 15 to 18

inches apart and the seedlings later thinned to 12

to 15 inches apart in the row. A side dressing

of iimmonium sulfate 4 to 6 weeks after the seedlings appear will help maintain good quality and

tenderness of the foliage. When the plants have

reached full size, the leaves can be tied together

for 10 to 14 days to blanch the center leaves. Variety Broad Leaved Batavian forms a large rosette of leaves with the center ones naturally

self-blanching. If rain falls frequently during

the blanching period, the bunches should be inspected daily. Those with rot beginning at the

centers can be harvested immediately. The

curled varieties grow well but become spattered

with soil during rainy weather since the leaves

lie flat against the ground. Sutton's Extra Fine

Green Curled is recommended.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—See pests and diseases of

lettuce, page 58.

Kale

"Col Rizada"

Brassica olerácea var. acephala DC.

Cruciferae

Kale is similar to collard in general appearance.

It is usually a much smaller plant, however, with

the leaves often divided to the midrib and more or

less curled. Culture is the same as for collard. ^ The outer leaves are removed when mature in

size but still tender and cooked as greens. ^ This

vegetable performs best above 1,000 feet in the

West Indies, but fair crops have been obtained

during the winter at sea level. A few feet of row

devoted to this vegetable should be adequate in a

home garden. Varieties recommended are Dwarf

Siberian and Vates.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—See pests and diseases of

head cabbage, page 53.

Lettuce

"Lechuga"

Lactuca sativa L.

Compositae

The two types of this well-known salad vegetable most commonly grown in the West Indies

are head (fig. 30, O) and leaf lettuce (fig. 30, /^,

G, H), Both types produce good crops at high

elevations, but head lettuce can be grown at low

elevations during the cool dry season only. A

third type, Indian Lettuce, {Lactuca indica L.) is

grown in the oriental tropics for use as cooked

greens.

In the Tropics lettuce seed is generally sown in
58 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

boxes or beds of soil that can be protected from

heavy rains. The young seedlings are delicate

and do not recover easily from transplanting unless the leaves are about 2 inches long. The

strongest plants are secured by direct seeding.

Lettuce will tolerate a variety of soils but grows

best on a rich, light, well-drained soil. Excellent

results can be obtained by digging liberal quantities of animal manure into the soil. Leaf size can

be increased by applying ammonium sulfate as a

side dressing or in dilute solution about 2 weeks

after transplanting the seedlings. The dry fertilizer or solution will cause severe burning of the

leaves if it is allowed to come into direct contact

with them. A thorough sprinkling of the plants

immediately after fertilizer is applied will lessen

the danger of burning. Lettuce requires excellent

soil drainage for best growth. Often it is necessary to plant it on raised beds to secure adequate

drainage. An ample water supply is equally important and daily sprinkling of the leaves during

dry periods seems to be beneficial.

HEAD LETTUCE.—Head lettuce varieties Imperial 44 (fig. 30, C) and Great Lakes produced

moderately firm heads weighing from 11/2 to 31/2

pounds at 2,600 feet in Puerto Rico. At sea level

Imperial 44 produced fair heads weighing from

34 to 11/2 pounds, but this was possible only from

December to March. Less than 75 percent of the

plants formed good heads, particularly at low elevations. The nonheading plants can be used as

leaf lettuce. Several head lettuce varieties tested

at low elevation in Puerto Rico produced flower

stalks quickly during the summer months. Variety Iniperial 847 should be tested.

Variety Mignonette formed small high-quality

heads during the cool season at sea level. It matured in about 65 days whereas most larger varieties required about 80 days. The reddish-green

outer leaves make this variety a distinctive type.

Mignonette is more heat resistant than most heading types. It can be grown as a leaf lettuce during the summer, but should be harvested when

young to avoid the development of bitterness.

Tipburn of Mignonette during the summer can

be prevented to some extent by regular furrow irrigation in dry periods.

The cos or romaine types of head lettuce can be

grown during the winter at high elevations.

Heads are cylindrical, upright, and somewhat

loose. Flavor of this lettuce when properly

grown is excellent.

LEAF LETTUCE.—Leaf lettuce is popular in the

Tropics. Beds of light yellow lettuce, principally

variety Black Seeded Simpson (fig. 30, F)^ are a

common sight in and near the large cities during

the cool season. Under the warm temperature

conditions of summer. Black Seeded Simpson

sends up flower stalks, thus reducing the number

and size of the leaves. The U.S. Department of

Agriculture developed the heat-resistant variety

Slobolt (fig. 30, 6[, H)^ which resembles Black

Seeded Simpson in appearance but is better

adapted to year-round tropical conditions (7).

Slobolt, as the name indicates, is slow to send up

flower stalks under high temperature conditions.

The individual plants grow to very large size

at low elevation during the winter and to medium

size during the summer. This variety is particularly recommended where the mean temperature

is between 75° and 80° F. The recently introduced varieties Salad Bowl and Ruby {33) are

said to be very tolerant to heat also and to be

slow in bolting.

Leaf lettuce can be planted directly in the garden and later thinned, using some of the thinnings on the table and transplanting others to new

rows on either side and close to the main row.

Thus, these side rows of seedlings are ready to

harvest when the plants in the mam row are about

gone. For this type of management the original

rows should be spaced 18 to 24 inches apart.

A method frequently used in small market gardens in Puerto Rico is to sow the seed over wellmanured beds (figs. 14 and 15). Seedlings are

transplanted at the 3- to 4-leaf stage to neighboring beds at distances of 6 to 12 inches both ways.

A liberal supply of manure and a complete fertilizer relatively high in nitrogen should be used

at planting. Leaf lettuce must be kept growing

rapidly by frequent furrow irrigations during

dry periods and by a side dressing of ammonium

sulfate 2 to 3 weeks after the seedlings are up and

well established. During the summer the use of

cheesecloth, burlap, palm leaf, or lath shade to

reduce the heat of the sun is helpful in growing

crisp, sweet leaves.

Leaf lettuce is a good crop to intercrop with

slow-maturing large crops, such as corn, tomato,

and eggplant. In fact, lettuce grows well and is

often of higher quality when cultivated under the

medium to thin shade of these plants. Leaf lettuce can be harvested within 30 to 40 days after

planting. Entire plants can be harvested, or only

the lower leaves of a stalk can be removed when

they are a good size, thus permitting the plant to

continue to produce new leaves for a month or

longer.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—Lettuce is not heavily attacked by any single pest in tropical America.

General pests, including aphids, armyworms, flea

beetles, leafhoppers, leaf miners, spider mites,

thrips, webworms, and wireworms, are sometimes

found associated with lettuce plants. The cabbage looper can be very damagmg if large numbers of its more usual host plants are planted

nearby. (See cole crop pests for control measures

of the cabbage looper, p. 98.) During wet

weather downy mildew and cercospora leaf spot

can be damaging. Yellows and mosaic viruses
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 59

are also sometimes present if leafhopper or aphid

populations are high.

Mustard

"Mostaza"

Brassica júncea (L.) Czern. & Cosson.

Cruciferae

This group of mustards is usually grown for

cooked greens since the pubescent leaves are objectionable to most people in salads. There are

smooth-leaved varieties, however, which make

excellent salads when young and tender. Mustard grows particularly well at higher elevations

in the Tropics (fig. 30, E) but does not always

produce seed there.

Fair crops have been grown at sea level in

summer, but for acceptable quality only young

leaves were harvested. Seeds are planted in rows

18 to 24 inches apart and the plants later thinned

to 4 to 6 inches apart. A few feet of row should

supply the needs of one family. Leaves are ready

to harvest in about a month. The outer leaves of

the bunches should be harvested when full grown

but still tender. If harvested later, they will be

tough and strong. The plants usually go to seed

durmg the spring and summer and should be

harvested completely when the seedstalks begin

to appear. Varieties Florida Broad Leaf and

Fordhook Fancy grow well in the Caribbean

area. Tendergreen or mustard spinach {Brassica

pervindîs (Bailey) Bailey) is more resistant to

heat and drought than are varieties of B, júncea.

It matures rapidly and is ready for use in about

30 days.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—Pests are those of cabbage family plants. Mustard appears to be relatively disease resistant.

New Zealand Spinach

"Espinaca de New Zealand"

Tetragonia expansa Murr.

Aizoaceae

New Zealand spinach is a spreading annual

herb with thick fleshy leaves and small greenish

flowers in the axils of the leaves. New Zealand

spinach is a good substitute for true spinach at

elevations and temperatures where true spinach

does not succeed. It grows satisfactorily throughout the year and seeds freely under West Indian

conditions. It is fairly drought resistant. A

few plants will produce enough greens for the

family for many weeks, provided liberal quantities of fertilizer at planting are followed by

monthly side dressings of ammonium sulfate to

keep the foliage tender and vigorous. The seed,

which should be soaked for 24 hours before planting, is sown in rows 11/2 to 2 feet apart, and the

plants are later thinned to about 12 to 15 inches

apart. About 3 inches of the branch tips and

tender leaves are removed for greens. Additional

side shoots appear for later use.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—See pests and diseases of

beets, page 66.

Parsley

Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Nym.

Umbelliferae

This low-growing biennial herb is cultivated for

its leaves, which are used for garnishing, flavoring, and, to some extent, for salads.

Parsley grows well throughout the season at

high elevations, but fair crops can be grown in

the lowlands. Figure 30, D shows parsley variety

Extra Curled Dwarf that was grown at a 3,200-

foot elevation in Puerto Kico. The older leaves

are harvested from the outside of the plants. One

crop is grown in the garden for a year or more.

Temperate climate varieties, such as Extra Curled

Dwarf or Moss Curled and Paramount, do not go

to seed under West Indian conditions. The

smooth or plain-leaved varieties are more popular

locally, probably because of their resemblance to

coriander.

Seeds will germinate better if soaked for 12 to

24 hours before planting. The small seeds are

sown about one-fourth inch deep and covered

with a mulch until the plants begin to appear. A

complete fertilizer at time of transplanting and

subsequent side dressings of a nitrogen fertilizer

at monthly intervals will help keep the plants

vigorous and the leaves tender. Only a few

plants in the garden will supply all home needs.

The plants may be used with other herbs to form

an ornamental border for the vegetable garden.

In locations without suitable soil for a vegetable

garden, a few parsley plants can be grown in

boxes or other containers in a protected area of

the property. There is some market demand for

parsley at holidays, especially during Holy Week

in the Caribbean area, but the market can be

quickly flooded.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—See pests and diseases of

celery, page 54.

Rhubarb

Rheum rhaponticum L.

Polygonaceae

Khubarb is not especially recommended for the

Tropics, but it can be grown in many locations if

particular care is given to its requirements. Rhubarb is grown for the large thick leafstalks or

petioles, which make excellent sauces and pies.

No other part of the plant is edible. It is a peren-
60 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

nial crop and should be placed at the side of the

garden. A short row will meet the needs of the

average family. The best results with rhubarb

in the Tropics have been obtained under the climatic conditions found at elevations above 3,000

feet.

In the Tropics rhubarb is usually started from

seed, but it can be established from dormant

crowns if these can be imported from temperate

regions. Seeds are drilled thinly in rows 2 to 3

feet apart and covered with about one-half inch

of soil. When they are a few inches high, the

plants are thinned to about 2 to 3 feet apart in

the row. In thinning, the most vigorous plants

and especially those showing the most reddening

of the leafstalks should be left. Transplanting

small seedlings is possible but recovery may be

slow.

Rhubarb responds well to heavy applications of

manure and commercial fertilizer, particularly

nitrogen. At high elevations the plant is semidormant in the cold months and should be forced

into vigorous growth with nitrogen and irrigation when the temperature begins to rise. At low

and medium elevations in the Tropics, rhubarb

can be treated as an annual or biennial by planting seed each year.

The soil should be well prepared and enriched

with manure and a complete fertilizer. The seeds

are planted at the beginning of the cool part of

the year and the plants thinned, as previously described. Uniform soil moisture should be maintained by irrigation. Side dressings of ammonium sulfate at monthly intervals also help maintain vigorous growth. The outer leaves can be

removed when petioles are large enough for use;

petioles of the later thinnings also can be used.

Plants are kept growing vigorously throughout

the first season, when they are harvested periodically. With the advent of the second dry season, the plants are allowed to rest for a few weeks,

after which they are forced into growth by applying water and fertilizer. Not all plants will survive the rainy season or the following dry season.

For this reason a new planting is started each

year and when it is in production, the old planting is discontinued. The variety Victoria was the

most satisfactory grown in the West Indies. Rhubarb variety Sutton's, recommended for the

plains of India, could be tried in the warmer sections of the Caribbean area.

Research has shown that rhubarb juice, which

contains an oxalate, is valuable for reducing corrosion of the teeth caused by excessive acid in

lemon juice and cola drinks (1),

PESTS AND DISEASES.—Rhubarb is relatively

free from pests and diseases. Occasionally, weevils attack stems. Rots caused by fungi are

sometimes found on rhubarb stems.

Spinach

"Espinaca"

Spinacia olerácea L.

Chenopodiaceae

The true spinach is an annual plant with a rosette of thick leaves varying from arrow shaped

to broadly rounded, according to the variety.

Male and female flowers are produced on separate

plants. Spinach is eaten as boiled greens or raw

in salads.

Temperatures in most regions oï the Tropics

are too high for satisfactory growth of spinach.

It can be grown satisfactorily during winter in

Hong Kong (17) and in the Caribbean area at elevations where mean temperatures range from 55°

to 65° F. for at least part of the year. It grows

best on slightly acid to alkaline soil. Abundant

manure, water, and commercial fertilizer are

needed to produce tender, high-quality foliage.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—Aphids, cutworms, webworms, and weevils are the usual pests of true

spinach. Plant diseases are usually uncommon

except in very wet areas where damping-off disease and downy mildew sometimes occur. Mosaic

virus also attacks spinach.

Other Greens ^

The leaves and shoots of several other plants

are used for food in some areas of the Tropics,

but in other areas they are not even recognized as

being edible. In the West Indies, water cress

{Nasturtium oßcinale R. Brown) is eaten as a

salad and is sometimes cultivated along mountain

streams. Propagation is either by imported seed

or by stem pieces. The leaves and stems of purslane {Portulaca olerácea L.) can be eaten either

raw or cooked. French seed catalogs list varieties

of purslane that are said to be more erect and

vigorous than the wild type but they have not

been tested in the Caribbean area.

Hibiscus manihot L. is grown in some areas for

its edible leaves. The young shoots of sweetpotato {Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.) and /. reptans

(L.) Poir. are eaten as cooked green vegetables

in some areas.

Legume Vegetables

Leguminosae

All the vegetables described under this heading

belong to the family Leguminosae and at the

mature stage are particularly valuable in the diet

as sources of vegetable protein. The plants also

are valuable as rotation crops since they enrich

3 The recent publication by G. J. A. Terra lists 658 species of plants, the leaves and young shoots of which are

eaten as boiled greens in some parts of the Tropics. (See

Additional References, p. 112.)
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 61

the soil with nitrogen, which becomes available

to crops following in the rotation. For the

greatest benefit to the soil, the plants should be

spaded under immediately after the crop is harvested. Many legume vegetables are adapted to

the Caribbean area (figs. 31, 32, 33).

Where leguminous plants are to be grown on

new garden locations, inoculation of the seed with

cultures of nitrogen-fixing bacteria may promote

more luxuriant growth. A mixed inoculant suitable for all the common peas and beans can be

purchased from mail order seed houses. Usually

a garden-size packet is offered for home vegetable

gardeners. Once used, the inoculant will remain

alive in the soil for many years.

Cowpea

"Fríjol"

Vigna sinensis (Torner) Savi.

The cowpea (fig. 31, A) is an annual beanlike

bush or twining plant. Three types are comfw^r^^^'^^'

FIGURE 31.—yl, Dwarf cowpea with pods held above the

foliage; B, immature pods of the Goa bean.

monly found in cultivation—(1) the dwarf nonclimbing type with pods carried above the foliage

(fig. 31, A), (2) the standard twining type, and

(3) the twining or Yardlong type Avith long

twisted pods, which is designated as V. sesquipedalis (L.) Fruwirth.

The standard twining type is most commonly

cultivated in the Caribbean area and in most

other parts of the Tropics. In the southern

United States several dwarf varieties have been

developed in recent years because of their greater

adaptation to mechanized agriculture.

The cowpea grows satisfactorily at all elevations in the Caribbean area, but yields less during

the season of heavy rainfall. The standard varieties Blackeye, Brown Crowder, and Cream Lady

yield satisfactorily at near sea level. Yields of

Yardlong were only fair.

The cowpea, like other legumes, is high in food

value. The pods, when young and tender, can be

used like snap beans, or the seed can be allowed

to develop to the green tender stage for cookmg

like lima beans. The crop also can be left to

mature, then harvested and cooked like dried

beans. The cowpea will grow on a wide variety

of soils provided drainage is good. Culture is

similar to that for soybeans. It is frequently

interplanted with corn. The Yardlong type

requires trellising to prevent the 2- to 3-foot long

pods from touching the ground.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—See pests and diseases of

kidnev bean, page 62. A leaf beetle Cerotoma rußcomis (Olivier) also attacks the leaves of cowpea

(fig. 32, ^4) and other legumes.

Kidney (Common) Bean

"Habichuela," "Fríjol"

Phaseolus vulgaris L.

The kidney bean (fig. 33, A) also is called

French bean in many areas of the world. In the

United States it is called bush or snap bean when

grown for the green pods. The plants are dwarf

(bush) or climbing (pole) annual herbs with

white or lilac flowers. There are many varieties

with white or colored seeds, with considerable

variation in seed size.

Beans can be grown throughout the year at

low to moderately high elevations and at temperatures from 65° to 80° F., but best production is

obtained in the winter and spring when rainfall

is not excessive. Fair crops of bush bean varieties have been obtained, however, at elevations

of 2,000 to 3,000 feet in spite of rains. Beating

rains can reduce the crop by aggravating diseases,

interfering with pollination, and perhaps knocking off some of the blossoms.

The bush varieties Black Valentine, Bountiful,

Contender, Stringless Green Pod, Tendergreen,

and Improved Tendergreen, and the golden- or
62 AGKICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

FIGURE 32.~A, Cowpea leaf riddled by leaf beetles (Ceratoma ruflcomis (Olivier)) ; B, typical cutworm injury

to bean plant.

waxy-podded varieties perform well from October

to May, and also in summer when an attempt is

made to control the leafhopper, a serious pest in

many tropical regions. Bountiful is especially

susceptible to leafhopper damage. At Isabela,

the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of Puerto Eico has selected a number of

improved bush bean lines highly resistant to local

insects and diseases. The best of these are No.

1329 (fig. 33, A), No. 1395, No. 1435, and No.

1632. Selection No. 1632 is a white-seeded bean

recently named Bonita. Beans of these selections

can be used as snap green beans if harvested when

the pods are young, or they can be grown for dry

beans. Yields have amounted to as many as 374

pounds of shelled dry beans per acre Ûl, 19ÂSJf6). No. 1329, No. 1395, and No. 1435 have

superior cooking quality.

Rust-resistant strains of Kentucky Wonder,

Blue Lake 231, and Florigreen are pole bean

varieties with acceptable yields. The variety

McCaslan should be tested.

Bean seeds should be planted from about % to

11/2 inches deep and spaced 3 to 6 inches apart in

the row for bush varieties and 12 to 18 inches

for pole varieties. A heavy application of wellrotted manure should be mixed with the soil

during seedbed preparation and a complete fertilizer high in phosphorus added in furrows on

either side of the seed furrow at planting time

(fig. 14, F). For best production, beans should

be kept growing vigorously to develop a goodsize plant before flowering begins. A side dressing of ammonium sulfate is recommended when

the first pods are setting; fertilizing at this time

should prolong the harvesting season and increase

the size of the pods.

The pods should be harvested while young and

tender and before they become "lumpy," which is

an indication of maturity and toughness. Picking at 3- to 4-day intervals keeps the plants producing freely; vines are weakened by allowing

pods to hang on until mature. It is best to

harvest beans while the plants are dry to avoid

spreading pod and leaf diseases. Harvested pods

should be either cooked or refrigerated immediately to maintain good cooking quality.

Bush varieties have a harvest period lasting

for 2 to 3 weeks; pole varieties usually bear an

additional 2 to 3 weeks. Bush varieties bear a

week or so before pole varieties. Irrigation is

necessary during dry periods, particularly during

the harvest season.

Although bush varieties are easier to plant and

manage in home gardens, pole varieties usually

bear better per unit of ground and do not need to

be planted so frequently. Tripods of bamboo

poles are good supports for pole varieties.

The scarlet runner bean {Phaseolus coccineus

L.) produces well at high elevations in the

Tropics during the dry season, but does not produce well in the lowlands.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—A wide variety of insects

and diseases attack the leguminous plants. Most

damaging among the insects are bean leaf beetles,

leafhoppers, the lima bean pod borer, and corn

earworms. Cutworms are particularly troublesome to beans (fig. 32, B), the cucurbits, and

tomatoes. Dry beans in storage may become

infested with bean weevils. Diseases commonly

affecting legumes include anthracnose fungus,

bean mosaic virus, powdery mildew, root rot

fungus, and rust.

Lima Bean

"Haba Lima"

Phaseolus lunatus L.

The lima bean plant is a perennial dwarf or

twining herb usually cultivated as an annual. The

pods are flat and somewhat curved and contain

several white, colored, or mottled seeds. Many

cultivated varieties difl'er in appearance of pods

and seeds and in plant habit. Dried seeds of the
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 63

f.Ä< -•<««

FiGUBE 33.—A, Kidney bean selection (No. 1329) ; B, lima beans showing relative resistance to leafhopper damage—

left to right, King of the Garden pole lima and Imperial Fordhook, Henderson, and ^o^dhook bush hmas ; 0 edi^^^^^^^

podded pea Variety Melting Sugar; D, large yellow-seeded soybean variety Semmole; E, green shelled pigeonpeas

(gandules) ; P, field of young pigeonpeas.
64 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

lima bean for cooking are known as butter beans.

In the liome garden they are grown almost entirely for green shell beans.

The culture of lima beans is the same as for

kidney (common) beans except that more space

IS required for the plants. The seed should be

planted % to II/2 inches deep and 3 to 4 inches

apart m rows spaced II/2 to 2 feet apart. About

1 pound of the large-seeded or % pound of the

small-seeded varieties is required for 100 feet of

row In heavy soils it is sometimes helpful to set

the large seeds on edge with the hilum down to

avoid breaking the emerging shoots.

Results with lima beans in the West Indies

have been variable. Pod borers and leafhoppers

appear to be the principal pests. Insect damage

IS greatest during the warm moist season until

about October, when fair sets of pods have been

noted on both cultivated and native varieties (40,

1937, p, 59), Summer temperature can be an

important limiting factor, for temperatures above

80° F. are generally known to reduce set.

Good yields of 30 varieties of small- and largeseeded, pole and bush lima beans were obtained

(4^, p. 62) at Mayaguez, P.E., when the crop

was planted at the beginning of the cool dry

season. Best yielders were the large-seeded pole

varieties, including Early Leviathan, Ford Mammoth, and Burpee Sunnybrook, which produced,

respectively, 533, 524, and 512 bushels of shell

beans per acre, about 54 percent being hulls. The

glossy foliage of the small-seeded bush varieties

was more susceptible to leafhoppers, which caused

curling, discoloring, and dropping of the leaves.

At Mayaguez in 1945 the variety Henderson

planted in January was severely injured by leafhoppers, whereas Fordhook was relatively resistant (fig. 33, B), Fordhook 242 is recommended for trial in warm climates.

Good yields of lima beans have been reported

in Hawaii for large-seeded varieties, such as

Fordhook Bush, Fordhook Pole, and King of the

Garden (11, pp, 78-79). Small-seeded varieties,

such as Henderson, Baby Potato, and Hopi, also

yielded well. Although a factor in Hawaii, the

pod borer is effectively controlled by dusts or

sprays. At Mayaguez fair yields with Fordhook

Bush were obtained in summer when the crop

was sprayed for leafhoppers.

The lima bean can be harvested over a longer

period than green beans. Under good conditions

vines of King of the Garden will bear for

several years. For best cooking quality they

should be harvested before the beans reach the

white stage. Only experience will indicate the

best stage for picking.

Lima beans contain traces of hydrocyanic acid,

but the quantity usually is not sufficient to be of

any concern. The colored- or mottled-seeded

varieties contain more than the American whiteseeded varieties, but native West Indian whiteseeded races also may be toxic in the raw state,

boakmg the dry beans in water for a few hours

before cooking will dissipate the poison. Both

this water and the first water in which the beans

are boiled for a few minutes can be discarded as

a precaution.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—See pests and diseases

or kidney bean, page 62.

Pea

"Guisante," "Petit pois," "Arveja"

Pisum sativum L.

This is the common garden pea of temperate

climates. It is an annual herb with compound

tendril-tipped leaves. The different varieties vary

m size from dwarfs 1 foot high to plants 7 feet

high. Two types are cultivated, the English or

green pea and the edible-podded (fig. 33, O) sno

or sugar pea. Varieties of the English or green

pea types can be distinguished by the inflated

young pods, which become filled as the seeds enlarge. The seeds are removed from the pods for

cooking at maturity, but while still green. The

developing peas of the edible-podded type distend

the thm walls of the pod. The pods are cooked

and eaten at this young stage like snap beans or

are mixed with other foods. If allowed to grow

to maturity, this type also must be shelled before

it can be used.

Peas are a fairly satisfactory home garden crop

m the highland Tropics for the home gardener

accustomed to the flavor of fresh peas as compared with the canned product. The English pea

type does not produce well at low elevations even

m winter. The temperature range for good production is relatively low and narrow (55° to 65°

F.). During winter and spring, fair to good

crops of the variety Telephone, an English type,

were grown at 3,200 feet in Puerto Rico. Variety

Melting Sugar (figs. 4 and 33, 67), an ediblepodded type, produced almost twice as much as

Telephone. Melting Sugar gave fair to good

summer crops at these higher elevations (fig. 4)

and a fair winter crop at sea level. The Hawaii

Agricultural Experiment Station has released a

new powdery mildew-resistant variety Manoa

Sugar that is said to tolerate the warm lowland

climate of Hawaii (12).

Sometimes peas can be grown well on moderately fertile soil without the application of fertilizer. However, complete fertilizers at planting and

a later side dressing of superphosphate appear

desirable under most conditions. Fertilizer should

be placed in furrows 21/2 inches on either side of

the row and 1 inch deeper than the seed (fig-. 14,

F), V & 5

Double rows of peas are planted 6 inches apart

and later the seedlings are thinned from 2 to 6
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 65

inches apart in the row. Some support will be

needed for the vines of the tall varieties. A fence

made of bamboo, chicken-wire, or small branches

of trees stuck into the ground (fig. 4) is usually

satisfactory.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—See pests and diseases of

kidney bean, page 62.

Pigeonpea

"Gandul," "Gandur," "Fríjol de Palo"

Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.

The pigeonpea (gandul) {2S) is an erect,

branched perennial shrub with narrow trifoliate

leaves, which can grow to a height of 10 or 12 feet.

It bears small yellow and maroon pealike flowers

in axillary racemes. The pods are pealike, hairy,

and obliquely constricted between the 3 to 7 seeds.

The many varieties differ in the size and vigor of

the plant, in period of production, and in seed

color. Seeds vary from white to red or almost

black; some are spotted. The pigeonpea is a

popular food crop in the West Indies (fig. 33, E).

The reported farm value in Puerto Rico for the

year 1957-58 was $1,665,000, when a total of

111,000 hundredweights was harvested. According to Llorens and Olivieri (£6), about 75 percent

of the Puerto Eican production is canned for

local consumption and for export.

The pigeonpea (fig. 33, F) will grow on a wide

variety of soils, attaining a height of 31/2 to 41/2

feet on poor soil in dry regions and 11 to 12 feet

on rich loamy soil in moist regions. It is one ol

the most drought-resistant vegetables because ot

its extensive fibrous root system, which also serves

as a soil-holding mat. The pigeonpea can be

planted on the slopes of bench terraces to hold

the soil. It grows well at low to moderately high

elevations. i .r.

If pigeonpea is grown for a windbreak, the

seed is planted in rows 2 to 4 feet apart. For a

tall woody windbreak, the blossoms should be

removed for some time to promote thick vegetative growth. The seedlings should be thinned to

about 2 feet apart at the end of the first year if

the windbreak is to be maintained for 2 years or

longer. The windbreak should be planted 8 to

10 feet from the nearest vegetable to avoid competition. If grown principally for food, the

pigeonpea is planted from February to May m

rows 6 to 8 feet apart with 2 to 3 feet between

plants. The pigeonpea is commonly interplanted

with corn, squash, or beans, but this practice is

likely to result in reduced yields of both crops.

For plantings made after May, a spacing of 3

feet is given in rows 3 feet apart. Pigeonpeas

can be treated as annual or biennial plants.

After the first crop, the plants should be pruned

to encourage branching for the second crop.

Several varieties of pigeonpea are grown m

the West Indies. The short-growing variety

Totiempo is planted in March or April and bears

for about 6 months, from November to April,

with intermittent flowering at other seasons. The

early variety Kaki (Caqui), planted about the

same time, is more productive but fruits for only

3 months, beginning in mid-December. The late

variety Saragateado is less productive than Kaki.

Pod borers are serious pests during the summer

months on varieties, such as Totiempo, which are

in fruit at that time, but they are relatively

unimportant on early varieties fruiting during

the cool dry season. Yields of seed may reach

800 pounds per acre when pigeonpeas are planted

as a pure crop. Fertilizing is not recommended.

The shelled half-ripe seed is stewed and eaten

with rice and chicken or used in vegetable soups,

curries, and similar dishes.

Soybean

"Habichuela soya"

Glycine max (L.) Merr.

This hairy annual legume bears large longstalked trifoliate leaves and many small two- to

four-seeded pods closely set in short racemes

along the main stalk and side branches. Most

varieties grow stiffly erect to 2 feet tall, but some

are semiprocumbent. Leaves, stems, and pods are

softly pubescent.

The planting of soybeans should be encouraged

because of their extremely high nutritive value.

Under most tropical conditions this vegetable will

produce heavily, particularly when planted as the

days grow longer. The large yellow-seeded variety Seminóle (fig. 33, D) has performed satisfactorily at all seasons in Puerto Kico. Growth

and production were definitely highest when

Seminóle was seeded in February to March.

White- and black-seeded varieties of soybean

are sometimes cultivated. Varieties recommended

for trial in the West Indies are Lee, Hardee, and

Improved Pelican (33), but only Hardee has seed

large enough to be of value as a vegetable.

When planted during the rainy season, soybeans should be seeded on ridges 6 to 8 inches

high, 18 to 24 inches apart. Seeds are planted

3 to 5 inches apart in the row. Succession plantings can be made every 3 to 4 weeks, so that a

continuous supply will be available throughout

the year. A complete fertilizer or ammonium

phosphate should be applied before planting,

either in furrows on both sides of the seed furrow,

or 1 or 2 inches beneath the seed furrow. If the

soil is very acid, lime should be applied to bring

the pH to about 6.5. Irrigation is sometimes

necessary, particularly during the early stages of

development.

Soybeans are best for eating when cooked like

lima beans. The tedious task of shelling can be

made easier by soaking the small pods in boiling
66 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

water for a few minutes then dipping them in

cool water. The plump seeds then can be forced

out of the pods by slight pressure between the

thumb and forefinger.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—See pests and diseases of

kidney bean, page 62.

Other Legume Vegetables

Several leguminous plants are grown for food

in some parts of the Tropics but are unknown in

other parts. Of particular interest is the "chícharo," also called bonavista, Egyptian kidney,

or hyacinth bean {Dolichos Idblab L.). This

twining perennial produces clusters of fragrant

white or purplish-red flowers that are followed by

edible pods. The mature white, black, or reddish

beans also are edible.

The Goa, four-angled, or winged bean {Psophocarpus tetragonololus DC.) (fig. 31, B) is well

adapted to low moist areas of the Tropics. It is

a strong-growing twining herb with tuberous

roots. The pale-blue flowers are followed by

four-winged pods that sometimes attain a length

of 8 inches. The immature pods are sliced and

boiled as a vegetable.

The sword bean {Canavalia gladiata DC.) is

sometimes grown for the young pods that are

sliced and boiled as a vegetable. It is said to be

more palatable than the jack bean or "haba de

burro" {O. ensiformis (L.) DC). The two species are distinguishable by the hilum of the seeds.

The hilum of the O, gladiata is more than onehalf the length of the seed, whereas that of 0,

ensiformis is only about one-third as long.

The "gallito," a small leguminous tree {Seshania grandiflora (L.) Pers.), is cultivated as a

vegetable crop. The leaves, young pods, and

flowers are stripped from their stalks and lightly

steamed or boiled. The flowers also are dipped in

batter and fried.

The peanut or groundnut (Arachis hypogaea

L.) is cultivated in coastal parts of the Caribbean

area with light, friable, well-drained soil. It is

planted toward the end of the rainy season and

harvested during the dry season. The varieties

available locally probably are better adapted than

imported varieties.

The bambarra or Madagascar groundnut (Vôandzeia subterránea Thouars.) is a common article of food in tropical Africa. Like the peanut,

it has been introduced in other areas. The kandela bean {Kerstingiella geocarpa Harms) is

similar to the bambarra groundnut.

Several oriental bean species have been introduced in the West Indies and can be cultivated

by the home gardener. All are edible. The more

common are adzuki bean {Phaseolus angularis

(Willd.) Wight.), mung bean {P. aureus Eoxb.),

rice bean (P. calcaratus Roxb.), and cluster bean

{Cyamopsis psoralioides (Lam.) DC).

Root Crops

Beet

"Remolacha"

Beta vulgaris L.

Chenopodiaceae

The garden beet is a biennial herb cultivated

as an annual. It produces a rosette of longpetioled erect dark-red or yellowish-green leaves.

The main axis of the root system thickens into a

red-fleshed tapering or globular organ. Beets are

a valuable crop in the garden, not only for the

fleshy roots but also for the tops, which can be

used as greens.

Beets grow best under cool conditions. Good

results have been obtained throughout the year at

elevations above 3,000 feet in the Caribbean area.

At lower elevations the best crops were grown

during the cool season. Beets can be grown during the summer at low elevations, but their size,

quality, and color may be somewhat inferior.

Special attention must be given to preparing

a fine seedbed to insure good germination and

early growth. Manure and complete fertilizers

should be incorporated into the soil before planting. In tests in Puerto Eico, the addition of 300

to 500 pounds per acre of common salt (sodium

chloride) {16, p. 24) often doubled root size. Figure 34, D shows beet variety Detroit Dark Eed

grown at a low elevation. The beets on the right

are from a field receiving 500 pounds per acre of

common salt; beets on the left received no salt.

Beets do not perform well on very acid soil.

When the soil is very acid, lime should be applied

to bring the pH to around 6.0 to 6.5.

The seed should be distributed in a row 4 inches

wide to achieve good spacing of the plants. Germination can be improved during dry weather by

covering the seed row with a layer of rotted manure (fig. 14, H), paper, or cloth to conserve

moisture. Soil should be kept moist by regular

irrigation. In beet the entire dried fruit or seed

ball IS planted. The seed balls frequently contain

more than one seed, so that two or three plants

may be expected to develop from each. As the

plants develop, they should be thinned to about

2 to 3 inches apart; the thinnings can be used for

greens. Beets should be harvested before they

become overmature, tough, and woody. They are

boiled whole before peeling to avoid leaching the

dark-red color. The various dark-red varieties

performed about equally well. (See table 2,

p. 10.)

PESTS AND DISEASES.—NO specific insects attack

beets, but flea beetles can be very damaging to

foliage at times. Other general feeders include

weevils, leaf rollers, and webworms (fig. 28, D),

Damping-off disease can be serious when plants
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 67

FIGURE 34.-4, Turnip variety Purple Top White Globe; IS, rutabaga; C, carrot variety Danvers Half Long ; Z) beet

variety Detroit Dark ReO ; E, iieUl of potatoes; F, salsify (vegetable-oyster) ; O, parsnip variety Hollow Crown,

n, kohlrabi variety Early White Vienna ; /, seven radish varieties.
68 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

are very young. Leaf spot is common during

rainy seasons but does not often cause severe

damage.

Carrot

"Zanahoria"

Daucus carota L.

Umbelliferae

The carrot (fig. 34, O) is a biennial herb with

a swollen taproot and fernlike foliage. The roots

are eaten either raw or cooked. The many varieties usually are named for characteristics of the

roots, such as flesh color, for season, and for

shape. The early-season, short- or medium-rooted

varieties usually have performed better in most

tropical locations than other varieties.

Carrots are a fairly dependable crop in the Caribbean area. In Puerto Eico, they have grown

satisfactorily every month of the year at high and

low elevations, but they produce best during the

cool winter and spring seasons. Carrots tend to

be "strong" and tough under high temperature

and dry conditions, and the coloring is subdued

under a combination of high temperature and

heavy rainfall. The principal limiting factor

durmg the heavy rainfall season is that the seeds

and delicate seedlings may be washed out of the

soil. Windbreaks are essential in windy areas.

Carrots develop best in light, sandy, welldramed soil. In heavy soil the roots are sometimes gnarled, poorly shaped, and difficult to prepare for cooking. In Puerto Kico, variety Danvers Half Long (fig. 34, C) has been superior in

yield to Imperator, Morse Bunching, and Eed

Core Chantenay in the heavy soils. Germination

is sometimes low during hot dry weather. A

mulch of well-rotted manure or similar material

(fig. 14, H) helps to keep the soil moist during

germination. Seeds should be distributed in a

row 4 inches wide so that the carrots will later

stand 2 to 3 abreast in the row. When the carrots

are about the size of the little finger, the plants

are thinned to stand about 2 inches apart. Thinnings can be used in salads. Harvesting can be

started when the roots are about 1 inch in diameter at the crown and continued until the planting

is exhausted. The smaller roots tend to shrivel

rapidly after harvest.

The soil should be kept as uniformly moist as

possible. A period of wet weather following a

dry spell can cause splitting of the roots, which

is sometimes followed by rotting.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—The most damaging

North American carrot pest, the carrot caterpillar, is not found in the American Tropics. Its

swallowtail butterfly relatives are only minor

pests or attack pipevine {Aristolochia) or citrus

trees. Several general pests, including cutworms

and leafhoppers, can be troublesome. Leaf spot

and blight fungus sometimes cause leaf damage

or defoliation during long rainy periods but they

do not often kill the plant. Yellows or wilt virus

stunts plants. Bacterial root rots sometimes cause

damage during cool rainy seasons of greater than

average rainfall.

Cassava

"Guacamote," "Yuca"

Manihot esculenta Crantz.

Euphorbiaceae

Cassava (fig. 35, A) is not a crop for the small

home vegetable garden, but it is an important

food crop in many areas of the Tropics. It is a

shrubby perennial grown widely for the large

fleshy, tuberous, starchy roots, which are frequently used in soups and stews and from which

a coarse flour, bread, and commercial tapioca are

made. Some cassavas are bitter, some are sweet.

The sweet types are grown mainly for eating as

vegetables. The bitter types contain a higher

percentage of poisonous hydrocyanic acid in the

juice of the roots than the sweet types. The bitter types are grown mainly for the extraction of

the flour. The poison is dissipated when the

tubers are grated for extraction of the flour or

when they are pared and boiled or roasted. The

starch is washed from the grated roots. While

the starch is still moist, it is pressed through fine

mesh screens onto a hot stove to form commercial

tapioca, or dried without heat to form the flour

used in bakery products.

Cassava is relatively drought resistant. It is

best suited to rich friable soils of the lower elevations, but it is a heavy feeder and should not be

replanted on the same ground unless a good fertilization program is maintained. Propagation

is by 10- to 12-inch mature stem cuttings planted

3 feet apart in rows 4 feet apart during periods

when rains are most likely to fall. The stem cuttings are planted in a near horizontal position

with about three-fourths of the cutting below the

soil. Tubers can be harvested within 9 to 12

months after planting, depending upon climatic

conditions and the variety grown. From 5 to 8

tons of tubers can be obtained from an acre, depending chiefly upon soil fertility.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—Various general pests are

minor on cassava. When present in large numbers, maggots of the stem-mining fly (Lonchaea

chalyhea Wiedemann) may severely damage terminal shoots. Control of this pest is difficult because of its feeding habits. A fungus can cause

defoliation and tip dieback in cassava. Other diseases are rust and fungal leaf spot. If diseases

or insect pests cause serious damage to the young

shoots, the gardener should consult local agricultural authorities for control measures.
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA

FiGTJEE 35.—A, Cassava ; B, sweetpotato vines ; C, sweetpotato leaves damaged by leaf roller (Pilocroois tripunotata (F.)).

Garlic

Allium sativum L.

liliaceae

Garlic and onion are similar in appearance but

the garlic leaves are narroAV and keeled and are

not hollow ; onion leaves are circular and hollow.

Garlic produces a crowded mass of bulblets or

cloves inside the sheathing leaf bases ; onion usually produces one bulb. Both are widely used in

the Tropics as flavoring for soups, meats, and

stews.

The cloves of garlic are used like onion sets for

propagation. Cultural and climatic requirements

are similar to those for the bulb onion. (See p.

71.). The crop performs best if planted at the

beginning of the cool season at low to medium

altitudes. Garlic is harv-ested 3 to 4 months after

planting, usually after the tops have died. The

bulbs are cured for about 2 weeks in a warm dry

place. Fully ripened clusters or bulbs will keep

for about 1 year.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—See pests and diseases of

onions, page 72.

Jerusalem-artichoke

"Topinambur"

Helianthus tuberosus L.

Compositae

The Jerusalem-artichoke is a perennial herb

that produces erect shoots 3 to 5 feet tall, which

bear small but typical sunflowers in profusion.

The roots become a tangle of red-, purple-, or

white-skinned knobby tubers, which are the edible

portion.

The Jerusalem-artichoke (fig. 36,^) is widely

adapted to both temperate and tropical locations.

It tolerates poor soils better than most crops, but

does not thrive under excessive rainfall and wet

soil conditions. Production is best in rich lowland areas receiving about 50 inches of annual

rainfall.

The seed tubers are planted about the time new

shoots appear from the base of old plants, which

is several weeks in advance of the rainy season.

The tubers are spaced 1 foot apart in rows 21/2

feet apart and cultivated and watered until established. Once established, the Jerusalem-artichoke

competes well with weeds. To promote good top

and root development, remove the flowers as they

appear.

The tubers require 21/0 to 3 months to reach

good size. All can be harvested at one time or

those on the outside of the row can be harvested

first before they harden. Some tubers may be

left in the ground over the dry season for seed, or

they may be lifted and stored in dry sand in an

unglazed earthenware pot. In India the whiteskinned variety Sutton's White is preferred to

red- and purple-skinned varieties.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—General feeders at times

are pests either to tubers or foliage of the Jerusalem-artichoke. Leaf spot can damage plants in

wet weather and powdery mildew can damage

them in dry weather.
70 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

FiGUEE 36.—A, Tubers of Jerusalem-artichoke ; B, field of bulb onion seedlings ; 0, field of leek.
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 71

Kohlrabi

"Col Rábano"

Brassica olerácea var. gongylodes L.

Cruciferae

Kohlrabi is a biennial plant of the cabbage

family cultivated as an annual for the fleshy

turniplike stems (fig. 34, H).

Propagation and culture of kohlrabi is similar

to that for cabbage. (See p. 53.) Seed can be

sown directly in rows, however, and the plants

thinned to 4 to 6 inches apart. Best crops can

be obtained at the high elevations during most of

the year and at the low elevations during the

cool season. The aboveground enlargement of

the stem is peeled and cooked like a turnip. Variety Early White Vienna has performed particularly well in the West Indies, but purple

varieties do well in other tropical locations. The

bulblike stem should be harvested when it is

about 2 inches in diameter; it becomes stringy

and of poor quality when allowed to grow large.

The younger leaves are used for greens if not too

severely injured by insects.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—See pests and diseases of

head cabbage, page 53.

Onions

Allium spp.

Liliaceae

BULB ONION ("Cebolla") {Allium cepa IJ.)—

The bulb onion is a biennial bulbous plant with

circular hollow leaves. The stout seed stem, usually produced the second year, is topped by an

umbel of small white flowers. All parts of the

plant contain the pungent principle that makes

onions desirable as seasoning herbs. Onions are

edible either raw or cooked. Seedlings of bulb

onions (fig. 36, B) may be harvested for green

onions or allowed to grow into mature bulbs.

The tops of young plants are often used in salads,

and bunches of the young plants are sold as

green onions. . .

The onion is a long-day plant. Most varieties

bred for the temperate zones will not produce

satisfactory bulbs if days are less than 12 hours

long. Onion plants form the largest and best

bulbs if the seed is sown in seedbeds in the fall

and transplanted to the garden when the seedlings are large enough to handle. The bulbs then

enlarge and mature as the days lengthen during

March, April, and May (fig. 5). The bulbs can

be harvested for immediate use before they mature or they can be allowed to mature more fully.

Some of the tops will break over near the neck

as maturity approaches; at this time all the tops

should be broken over so the crop will mature

uniformly. Harvesting while the tops are still

somewhat green aids in curing the bulbs. They

are allowed to dry for a few days before tops

are removed, then they are stored in a dry wellaerated place. Onion bulbs will keep longer under refrigeration than at ambient temperatures.

The bulb onion variety White Bermuda was

selected for its ability to produce bulbs under the

natural day lengths in Bermuda. This variety

bulbs well in Puerto Eico (^0, 1926, pp, U-19)

but is not recommended because of poor keeping

quality. The variety Yellow Bermuda is superior to the White Bermuda in keeping quality.

The variety Excel 986, selected from Yellow Bermuda, is said to keep better than other Bermuda

onions. Bermuda onions will keep for only a

few weeks at best.

Varieties Louisiana Ked Creole (^7) and Texas

Early Grano can be stored for months. Eclipse,

L 36, White Creole, and White Grano are recommended for trial {33), Varietj^ Early Harvest

is also recommended. Green onions can be produced rapidly for table use by planting imported

sets. Sets are small bulbs grown the previous

season from seed in temperate regions, then

stored over winter as dry bulbs. If allowed to

grow to mature bulbs, the seed stems must be

removed as they appear.

GREEN BUNCHING ONIONS. ("CeboUin") {Allium -ßstulosum L.).—Several species of Allium

are grown for green bunching onions in different

parts of the Tropics. The most common green

onions probably are harvested from plantings of

bulb onion after the plants are in vigorous

growth but before bulbs have formed.

The green bunching onion A, ßstulosum differs

from A. cepa in having no distinct bulb. The

stems are clustered and several shoots arise from

each crown. The bunching onions are popular

for home gardens. They are excellent when

eaten raw either alone or in salads, or in sandwiches, or when added to soups. A native variety

and the variety New Long White Bunching from

continental sources have grown well throughout

the year at all elevations in Puerto Kico. In

fact, the green bunching onion is one of the few

vegetables that consistently survives heavy rainfall. Variety New Long White Bunching has

now been replaced in catalogs by such names as

Evergreen (Nebuka), Evergreen Long White

Bunching, and Japanese Bunching. All are similar and could be identical.

Sets or side shoots of native green bunching

onion varieties can be obtained at almost any

time of the year from local growers. They are

set directly in the field. Seed can be obtained

from continental seed houses. The seeds are first

planted in close rows in seedbeds. When the

seedlings are 6 to 8 inches high, they are transplanted in the garden to a depth of IV2 inches

and at distances of 3 to 4 inches in rows 12 to 18
72 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE

inches apart. Eows can be planted 6 inches apart

to save space, but weeding and cultivation then

become tedious. In transplanting, the tops are

clipped back to 3 inches and all but about onehalf inch of the roots are removed. Once the

crop is established from seed it may be propagated by divisions.

LEEK {Allium porruin L.).—Leek (fig. 36, O)

resembles bunching onion, but the leaves are flat

like those of garlic. The overlapping leaf bases

form a neck that is almost as thick as the single

cylindrical bulb. Leek produces well at medium

elevations in the Tropics. Leek is always grown

from seed. Its culture is about the same as for

the bunching onion except the soil is gradually

mounded around the plants in the later stages of

growth to blanch the stems. Leek may be used

m soups for flavoring or boiled and served in

white sauce. The variety American Flag is recommended.

SHALLOT {Allium ascalonicnm L. {A, cepa

L.))-—The shallot is a perennial onion that develops small pointed bulbs in loose clusters but

all arising from a common disk. It is propagated by division of the bulbs. Shallots are

grown in some areas for production of green

onions and in others for the mature bulbs.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—Onion thrips are the

worst threat to onion production almost everywhere. Lesser pests include mole crickets, fall

armyworms, leaf miners, cutworms, and wireworms. Onion bulbs are subject to a bacterial

soft rot when near maturity if the weather is wet.

Leaf anthracnose and downy mildew are occasionally found on onion family members. Purple

blotch fungus and leaf anthracnose fungus sometimes appear on leaves and kill young plants.

Parsnip

"Chirivia"

Pastinaca sativa L.

Umbelliferae

The parsnip is a biennial plant cultivated for

Its swollen tapering roots that are eaten as a

cooked vegetable (fig. 34, G). Unlike its relative the carrot, tlie parsnip has pale-cream or

white flesh.

Good crops were grown at higher elevations in

the Caribbean area (4,0, 19^6, p. 25) when the

seed was planted in the early part of the year.

A long season—4 to 5 months—is required for

maturity. Tlie soil should be prepared to a depth

of 10 to 12 inches to facilitate the deep-rooting

habit of this vegetable. Parsnip seed is sown

111 rows 15 to 18 inches apart for hand cultivation. Since germination is slow, radish seed can

be mixed Avith parsnip seed for home gardens.

The radishes will serve as an extra crop and also

mark the row until the parsnip seedlings appear.

Parsnip seed is extremely short lived under warm

humid conditions, and special care is required to

keep it viable. (See p. 19.) When the plants

are 5 to 6 weeks old, they should be thinned to

2 to 4 inches apart in the row. Special weeding

attention must be given to the delicate seedlings ;

otherwise they will be smothered by weed growth.

Quality of the parsnip variety Hollow Crown

was good {40, 1946, p, 25). Cooked by the

standard system of sugaring and buttering, these

parsnips were as good as or better than those

grown in the North Temperate Zone.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—See pests and diseases of

celery, page 54.

Potato

"Papa," "Patata," "Turma"

Solanum tuberosum L.

Solanaceae

The potato is a good home garden crop only

when the climate is suitable, equipment and materials for spraying are available, and the soil is

fertile, well drained, and preferably of the sandy

loam type (fig. 34, E). The potato should not

be included m the small garden where land is at

a premium; it is not an easy crop to grow and

amateurs may not get their seed back.

The potato is native to the Andean highlands

of South America. It produces tubers best with

a mean temperature just above 60'' F. {59, p.

352), but yields well with temperatures ranging

between 60° and 75°. Little or no tuberization

occurs above 80°. The varieties Green Mountain, Katahdin, and Red Bliss Triumph produced

well—200 to 250 bushels per acre—in a sandy

loam soil at the substation of the Agricultural

Experiment Station of the University of Puerto

Rico {41, 1945-46) near Isabela, when planted

m October to November and allowed to mature

during the cool weather. Fair yields of Red

Bhss Triumph were obtained when planted in

June. Day length is important in tuberization

of some varieties. (See p. 8.)

Seed stock should be certified and obtained

from a reliable company. Seed potatoes used in

the Tropics are frequently those shipped in for

food or those saved from a locally grown crop—

risky sources because of possible disease contamination.

A heavy application of complete fertilizer high

m phosphorus and low in nitrogen, such as

3-12-12, 2-16-8, or 4-12-8, should be worked

into the soil before planting or placed in the furrows near the seed pieces at planting. Fertilizer

must not touch the seed pieces or burning and

rotting will result. Excessive use of manure or

nitrogen gives excellent top growth but low yield

of tubers.
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 73

Potatoes will mature within 90 to 100 days and

should be dug on a dry day after most of the

tops have died. They store best under refrigeration of 32° to 45° F. Potatoes stored at this

temperature range will sweeten and darken excessively when fried. This can be prevented by

leaving them at room temperature for a w^eek

after removing them from storage before they

are used. Where refrigeration is not available,

potatoes should be stored in a well-aerated, cool

dark place.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—Insects attacking the

potato under West Indian conditions are aphids,

cutworms, leafhoppers, white grubs, wireworms,

and other minor pests of related wild plants.

One of the most serious pests of these solanaceous plants in North America, the Colorado

potato beetle, has not yet spread to the Antilles

or widely into the American tropics. Diseases

are early and late blights, scab, mosaic, and fusarium wilt.

Radish

"Rábano"

Raphanus sativus L.

Cruciferae

The radish is an annual herb (fig. 34, /), grown

for the swollen root that is eaten as a salad

vegetable because of the piquant ñavor. The

leaves can be cooked as a green vegetable. Seeds

of both red and white varieties are offered by

seedsmen.

Radishes are widely grown in the Tropics; it

is one of the easiest short-period vegetable crops

to raise. Nearly all varieties perform well. (See

table 2, p. 12.) Earliest Scarlet Button is the

most popular on the local markets. The quality

of this variety, although fair to good throughout

the year, is excellent when grown at the higher

elevations in the winter. During the sunnner at

sea level, when the temperature is high and particularly when a drought occurs 1 or 2 weeks

before radishes are mature, all radishes are likely

to be tough, pithy, and very "hot." Also, the

roots may elongate rather than enlarge normally.

This can be prevented to some extent by enriching

the soil witli manure and commercial fertilizers

and applying irrigation water regularly when

needed. Palm leaf or cheesecloth shade also helps

to reduce the temperature. As radishes are a

short-season crop (3 to 5 weeks), they can be

easily intercropped in the row or between the

rows of many long-season crops. A row 3 to 4

inches wide can be sown and later thinned so that

the plants are spaced about 1 to 2 inches apart

and stand 3 abreast in the row. About 5 to 6

row feet are usually sufficient for family use.

Radishes are commonly grown in beds with

coriander for local markets (fig. 15, E). (See

p. 29.) The seeds of the two crops are mixed

and broadcast over the bed. The radishes are

harvested first, after which the coriander occupies

the full space.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—See pests and diseases of

head cabbage, page 53.

Rutabaga

"Colinabo"

Brassica napus var. napobrassica L.

Cruciferae

Rutabaga (fig. 34, B) resembles the turnip but

is larger and more nutritious and keeps somewhat

better under ordinary storage conditions.

Although the temperature range required is the

same as that for turnip (60° to 70° F.), the

rutabaga often grows well at a somewhat lower

mean temperature. Good crops are grown at

medium to high elevations in the mountains of

Puerto Rico during the cool season, but only fair

crops are grown during this season at sea level.

During the heavy-rainfall warm season, the roots

tend to elongate irregularly rather than to enlarge and their quality is poor.

Culture for rutabaga is the same as for turnip

and carrot, except that rutabaga requires about 5

weeks longer to mature. Purple Top Yellow is a

satisfactory variety.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—See pests and diseases of

head cabbage, page 53.

Salsify

"Salsifí"

Tragopogón porrifolius L.

Compositae

Salsify (vegetable-oyster or oyster plant) (fig.

34, F) is a bienniarwith long narrow strapshaped leaves and a somewhat thickened root, 9

to 12 inches long. The parsniplike roots, which

have an oyster flavor, can be used in soups or

cooked like carrots.

Salsify can be grown at all seasons at high elevations and during the Avinter at sea level. Culture is similar to that of parsnip.

The seedlings should be thinned to 3 to 4 inches

apart in the row. Soil should be deep sandy

loam, rich in organic matter; roots in heavy soil

tend to be deformed. Salsify requires a growing

period of 31/2 to 4 months. The variety Mammoth Sandwich Island is recommended.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—This chicory relative is

not known to be affected by any specific pests or

diseases in the Caribbean area, but general pests

and diseases are occasionally seen.
74 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Sweetpotato

"Batata," "Camote"

Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.

Convolvulaceae

The sweetpotato (fig. 35, ^) is a trailing

herbaceous perennial, which roots at the nodes.

It is grown for the edible starchy tubers. The

many varieties differ considerably in plant characters. The leaves vary from deeply lobed to

entire. Color of the leaves, petioles, and stems

varies from deep purple to pure green. The

tubers can be yellow, red, or purple on the exterior and the flesh from almost pure white

through shades of yellow to deep orange; and

finally the vines can be greatly elongated or short

and bushlike. Most sweetpotato varieties produce

flowers of pale magenta resembling those of

morning-glory under tropical conditions.

The sweetpotato is an excellent and dependable

tropical vegetable for the larger home gardens.

It requires too much space in small gardens

except where the vines can be grown on a fence

or low wall. The sweetpotato is a warm-season

crop (70° to 80° F.), requiring a growing period

of 4 to 6 months. It grows well at sea level

throughout the year and at higher altitudes during the sunimer provided the weather is not too

cool. The ideal soil for sweetpotatoes is a rich

sandy loam underlain with clay. The crop can

be grown on a wide variety of soils provided

drainage is naturally good or the slips are planted

on beds or ridges in areas where soil is a heavy

clay and rainfall is abundant. With poor aeration and drainage of the soil, the roots will be

long and thin ana yields will be light. Fair crops

are obtained in semiarid districts where most

vegetables will hardly thrive. Moderate rainfall,

however, is beneficial, and irrigation should be

provided where available, particularly during the

early growing period.

Although manure has benefited the sweetpotato when applied to soils deficient in humus,

the general recommendation is to use the available manure on other vegetable crops where the

effect on yields will be more pronounced. In fact,

fair to good crops of sweetpotato are often

obtained in the Tropics without the addition of

any commercial fertilizers or manure. Heavy

applications of manure or nitrogen fertilizer are

not advisable; they produce excessive vine growth

at the expense of root development. Either complete fertilizer high in phosphorous and low in

nitrogen or superphosphate alone is a good sweetpotato fertilizer under tropical conditions.

Totiempo is a common local variety in the West

Indies, but its yields are much lower than those

from Mameya, Porto Morado, and Ked Velvet.

Don Juan, another common local variety, gives

fair to average yields. Among the newer varieties developed by the Agricultural Experiment

Station of the University of Puerto Kico, Canela,

Eico, and U.P.K. No. 3 are recommended (37),

The variety Cobre, from the same source, is more

productive but of little value for processing.

Where named varieties of known performance

are not available, the gardener can select the most

desirable types from local markets for propagation material. Yields of sweetpotato are usually

best when the crop is planted in the spring.

Seed pieces are either entire small tubers or

cross sections of slender cylindrical roots. Seed

pieces from the crown of a plant or the upper

part of the root are the most satisfactory. Tip

cuttings from mature vines about 12 to 18 inches

long are frequently used for propagation. iVfter

defoliation, the lower half of the cuttings should

be inserted in holes made with a sharp stick and

the soil firmed about the cuttings. Sprouts or

slips can be obtained by the close planting of

tubers in sand beds at a depth of 3 to 4 inches.

Within a month to 6 weeks a number of sprouts

should rise from each tuber. These slips are

pulled with roots attached and transplanted to

the field in furrows 4 to 5 inches deep. Planting

distances should be 1 to 11/2 feet in rows 2 to 4

feet apart. The 2-foot spacing is desirable on

light soil where ridging is not necessary. On

heavy soils a 4-foot spacing between rows is

sometimes necessary in order to build the ridges

high enough. During dry weather both freshly

set cuttings and rooted slips should be shaded

temporarily. To establish the runners when rainfall is not adequate, frequent irrigation should be

provided after planting. Light waterings are

better than infrequent soakings. It is sometimes

wise to wait until a series of rains has started

before planting and thus eliminate the need for

irrigation at this time.

Spring-planted sweetpotatoes can be left in the

ground for 3 to 6 months. Tubers will continue

to increase in size for several months as long as

growing conditions are favorable. Some tubers

can be left in the ground during the dry season

for storage and later used as seed pieces. If the

tubers are harvested during the rainy season, one

of the best means of storing them is in dry wood

ashes in a well-ventilated room. Tubers to be

stored should be harvested with as little bruising

as possible. A storage period of 2 to 4 weeks

after harvest is desirable to increase sugar content and eating quality. The tubers should be

inspected every few days to make sure that

weevils have not started to tunnel through them.

The entire stock can be ruined in a short time by

this insect.

Under no conditions should the vines be pruned

for livestock food. Marked decreases in yield

are likely to result.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—Several species of gold-
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 75

bugs or tortoise beetles attack sweetpotatoes in

the American Tropics but seldom are as damaging or as numerous as those found in temperate

areas. By far the worst SAveetpotato enemy is the

red and black sweetpotato weevil. Aphids, armyworms, flea beetles, leaf beetles, leafhoppers, leaf

miners, webworms including the sweetpotato leaf

roller (fig. 35, O)^ and wnreworms also attack

sweetpotatoes. The principal sweetpotato diseases

are black rot fungus, internal cork, and stem rot

or wilt fungus.

Turnip

"Nabo"

Brassica rapa L.

Cruciferae

The turnip is a biennial herb (fig. 34, A) commonly cultivated as an annual for its swollen

roots, which are eaten cooked as a vegetable. The

leaves are useful as greens.

Turnips are frequently grown in the Tropics

and limited quantities are produced for the

market. The turnip is less nutritious than the

carrot and the tops are not so popular as beet

tops for greens.

Turnips grow best in cool weather at all elevations. Poor crops were grown during the summer at 2,600 feet elevation in Puerto Kico, but

satisfactory yields were obtained during all

seasons at 3,200 feet. Varieties Purple Top

White Globe and Shogoin are recommended.

Shogoin tops are better for greens; Purple Top

White Globe produces better roots (ü, p. 76),

Turnip seeds are planted in the same way as

beets and carrots, but the seed germinates more

quickly and the plants grow faster. Turnips

respond well to additions of phosphorus and

nitrogen to the soil ; the potash content is usually

adequate in tropical soils. Turnips are harvested

when the roots are about 21/2 inches in diameter.

The tops can be removed and used for greens;

seedlings removed in thinning also can be used

for greens. Kutabagas may be substituted for

the turnip at higher elevations. In fact, rutabagas are sold on some markets as turnips.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—See pests and diseases

of head cabbage, page 53.

Yam

"Ñame"

Dioscorea spp.

Dioscoreaceae

The true yams {Dioscorea spp.) (fig. 37, A. B)

are climbing vines with underground tubers. The

cultivated species bear edible starchy tubers that

resemble the potato {Solanum tuberosum L.) in

food value and taste. Many wild species contain

the poisonous principle dioscorine and are inedible. The yam should not be confused with moistflesh varieties of sweetpotato {Ipomoea hatatas

(L.) Lam.), which are sometimes erroneously

called yams.

Tubers of the true yam are a highly nutritious

food. Among the starchy root crops grown in

the Tropics this crop ranks next to the cassava,

sweetpotato, and yautia in importance.

In habit of growth and cultural requirements

the yam is somewhat similar to the sweetpotato;

botanically it is not even closely related. It is

adapted to a wide variety of soils, but grows

best in fertile clay soils and poorest in light

sandy soils. Good soil aeration is essential to

good tuber development. For good aeration and

drainage the soil is commonly built into ridges

from 12 to 18 inches high. First the entire field

is plowed; then furrows are opened 4 to 6 feet

apart and a few inches of dead vegetable matter,

compost, or manure placed in the furrows and

covered with 2 or 3 inches of soil. This is followed by another layer of vegetable matter, after

which the ridges are covered with soil to the

desired height. A chemical fertilizer, such as

5-8-12, can be incorporated when the ridges are

built. This system can be adapted to the family

garden by constructing individual hills in the

same way, but spacing them 3 to 4 feet apart.

Yams are planted from late February to May,

when the soil is in suitable condition following a

spring rain. Seed pieces are either the crowns

(stem ends) of large tubers or entire small tubers

and are planted 1 to 2 feet apart on the ridges

and covered with 2 to 3 inches of soil. Spacing

depends upon size of plant and tubers usually

produced by the variety being planted. If the

hill method is used, one seed piece is planted per

hill. Each seed piece should weigh 4 to 5 ounces

to provide sufficient nourishment to give the

young plant a good start. Sections of the lower

part of the tuber can also be planted, but they

are not so satisfactory as the crown. Rotting of

the seed pieces can be prevented by dipping them

in bordeaux mixture, a compound containing

copper sulfate, while the cut is still fresh. Treated

material should never be used for food.

The vines should be supported to increase

grow^th and yields. Bamboo stakes can be used

(fig. 37, A) or, in small home gardens, yams can

be planted along the fence.

A crop planted in the spring matures in the

fall and winter. Tubers can be left in the ground

during the dry winter months without deteriorating. In harvesting, care should be taken not to

injure the thin-skinned tubers or rot may develop.

Tubers intended for seeding the subsequent crop

can be left in the ground until planting time.

Several species and varieties of yams are cultivated in the Caribbean area. Each variety has

a distinct tuber shape (fig. 37, B), The most

popular yam, known locally as Guinea, is a
76 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTAIENT OP AGRICULTURE

ÍIGUKE37.-A Yam vines (Dioscorea alata L.) trellised on bamboo framework; B, three varieties of D. alata showing

distinct tuber shapes; O, yautia planting; D, edible-leaved yautia (Xanthosoma brasiliense Bngl.) • E edible

central corm and lateral tubers of taro variety Trinidad Dasheen; F, developing tubers at base of yautia plant.

1 Measure is inches.)
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 77

variety of Dioscorea cayenensis Lam. It is widely

distributed over the area, but is best suited to

upland clays. The tubers, which often weigh 6

pounds, have white sweet flesh free from fiber.

This yam matures earlier than others and the

larger tubers can be carefully detached from the

stem, leaving the smaller ones to mature later.

Other w^hite-ñeshed varieties are Tongo (Z>. aculeata L.), Potato, and Agua (Water), which is a

variety of Z>. alata L. {13). Purple-fleshed varieties are Purple Ceylon and Mapuey Morado. A

yellow-fleshed variety of D. cayenensis is known

locally as Congo Yellow or Guinea Yellow. It

produces better than other local varieties in sandy

soils. The foliage of D. alata is ilkistrated in

figure 37, A, and tubers of three distinct varieties

of this species in figure 37, B. Gardeners unfamiliar with yam varieties should obtain their

planting stock from local varieties known to be

edible and productive.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—Yams are essentially free

from pests and disease. Underground root feeders

such as white grubs and wireworms occasionally

attack tubers but attacks are seldom serious. Leaf

spot fungus and anthracnose fungus sometimes

appear but are relatively unimportant.

Yautia and Taro

Araceae

The yautias {Xanthosoma spp., fig. 37, G^ F)

and taros {Coloeasia spp., fig. 37, E) are perennial tuberous plants with large "elephant-ear"

leaves. Species of both genera are common in

gardens through the Caribbean area. Superficially the members of the two genera are similar;

botanically they are quite different. Yautias are

distinguished from taros by having the petiole

(leaf stem) attached to the very edge of the leaf

at the junction of the tAvo basal lobes of the leaf.

In taros the petiole is attached within the leaf

outline.

The vernacular names used in different parts of

the Caribbean area for different members,of the

two groups of plants are considerably confused.

In addition to the name taro, plants identified as

Coloeasia spp. are variously called dasheen, malanga, tania, tanier, tanyah, and yautia malanga.

The various species and varieties of Xanthosoma

are called belembe, calalú, eddo, malanga, and nut

eddoe in addition to yautia.

In most varieties of yautia only the lateral

tubers are edible (fig. 37, F) ; in taros (fig. 37, E)

both the central corm and the lateral tubers are

used for food. The mature central corms of taros

vary in weight from about 1/2 pound to 7 or more

pounds, according to the variety. The lateral

tubers of both yautia and taro are smaller, varying at maturity from 3 ounces to about 1 pound.

The tubers of all types usually are two to four

times longer than wide and about as big as a

medium-size potato. They can be cooked like potatoes or made into soups. Some kinds of yautias

such as the belembe or calalú {Xanthosoma hrasiliense Engl.) do not produce edible-size tubers,

but the tender leaves and shoots (fig. 37, D) are

cooked and eaten like greens. Young taro (dasheen) leaves are an essential ingredient of the

West Indian stew known also as "calalou."

In Japan, in parts of Southeast Asia, and in

the South Pacific area, these plants and related

plants belonging to the genera Alocasia^ AmorphophaUus^ and Oyrtosperma are cultivated for use

as starchy vegetables and for extraction of the

starch {29).

Trinidad Dasheen (fig. 37, E) {Coloeasia eseulenta (L.) Schott.) is one of the superior varieties

of taro. Its corms, tubers, and young leaves are

edible. This variety, unlike most of the others,

does not have strongly acrid leaves and underground parts, but none of them should be eaten

or tasted when raw. Cooking destroys the

acridity.

Fifteen cultivars of yautia from the eastern

Caribbean area are described by Gooding and

Campbell (i^).

Yautia and taro can be grown at all elevations

in the Caribbean area, but they produce best at

medium elevations in moist regions. Low land

bordering rivers and streams, which is too moist

for sweetpotato and yam, is well suited to yautia

and taro. These crops will tolerate a wide variety

of soils, producing from 7 to 15 tons of tubers per

acre.

The top section of the rootstalk, a few inches

above and below ground level, is preferred for

planting, although the tubers or any part of the

rhizome system having eyes can be used. The

tubers or pieces of the rhizomes are set at a depth

of 3 to 5 inches and covered lightly with soil ; the

crowns are set slightly deeper than they grew

previously. The best planting time is the cool

season betAveen December and April, although

plantings can be made at any season if moisture is

adequate. Planting distance in soils of average

fertility is from 11/2 to 3 feet. In fertile soils and

with tall-growing varieties, the planting distance

should be somcAvhat wider. From 8,000 to 10,000

propagation pieces are needed to plant an acre.

A full crop can be harvested within 10 to 12

months. Tubers can be harvested individually

as they mature, leaving the smaller ones to enlarge before the plant is removed, or the entire

plant can be pulled by hand when the soil is moist

and most of the tubers have matured. The tubers

are ready to harvest when they become white at

the tips.

When there are a number of plants of a large

variety, the plants can be harvested quickly by
78 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

FIGURE 38.—.4, "Apio" or "arracacha" {Arracacia xanthorrliiza Bancroft) ; B, West Indian or Bermuda arrowroot

{Uaranta arundinacca L.) ; C, rhizomes of ginger plant (Zinyiher officinale Rose).
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 79

three men working together. Two men with

garden shovels loosen tubers, roots, and soil on

one side of the plant; the third man bends the

plant to the ground. Some tubers may be left in

the ground over the dry season for use as seed the

following season.

PESTS AND DISEASES.—Yautia and taro are comparatively disease and pest free. White grubs

and wireworms can damage tubers but generally

do not limit production. During very dry

weather aphids and red spider mites sometimes

appear in large numbers on foliage but do not

damage the plants severely. Koot-knot nematode

infestations will stunt the plants and reduce

yields. Storage rots can occur when corms are

stored in damp places.

Other Root Crops

Many other root vegetables are used for food

in different parts of the Tropics. Some form an

important part of the diet of the local population

of one area and are almost unknown in other

areas. The West Indian or Bermuda arrowroot

(fig. 38, B) {Maranta arundinacea L.) produces

tubers suitable both for use as a starchy vegetable

and for extraction of arrowroot starch. The tuberous roots of edible canna {Canna edulis^ Ker.)

are used in the same ways but their quality is poor

when prepared as a vegetable. The small potatolike tubers of "topee-tambu" or "llerenes" {Galathea allouia (Aubl.) Lindl.) are liked in certam

areas because they remain crisp even after considerable boiling. The large tuberous roots of

"ti" {Cordyllne terminans (L.) Kunth) are eaten

in paits of New Guinea. Several leguminous

plants bear tuberous roots that are edible but are

not high-quality foods. Examples are the Goa

or four-angled bean {Fsophoearpm tetragonolohuH DC.) (fig. 31, B) ; the yam bean {Pachyrrhi2US erosus (L.) Urban); and kudzu {Pueraria

SPP-)

In Guatemala and Mexico the perennial underground tubers of the chayóte {Sechium edule

tjacq.) Sw.) (fig. 19, A) sometimes are used for

food. The tubers are formed during the second

season's growth. Because the vine is killed when

the tubers are removed, these tubers usually are

not harvested.

Several root crops are cultivated in and probably are endemic to the Andean Kegion. The

most familiar is the now widely cultivated potato.

The "apio," "arracacha,'' arracada, Peruvian carrot, or Peruvian parsnip {Arracada xanthorrhiza

Bancroft) (fig. 38, A) is cultivated in the highlands from Venezuela to Bolivia and to a limited

extent in parts of the West Indies and Central

America. The roots bear resemblance to both carrot and parsnip to which they are related. Much

less extensive in cultivation but of considerable

importance in the areas in which they are

grown are the "oca" {Oxalis tuberosa Mol.), the

"ullucu" {Ullucus tuberosus Lozan.), and the

"añu" {Trofoeohim tuberosum E. & P.)-

The lotus root {Nelumbo nucífera Gaertn.), an

aquatic plant, is one of the unique vegetables of

the oriental subtropics. It is grown in Hawaii for

food but in the Caribbean area only as an ornamental plant. The roots are sliced for addition

to soups or stews of beef or pork. Another aquatic plant, the "matai" or Chinese waterchestnut

{Eleocharis dulcís (Burm. f.) Trin. ex Henschel)

is grown in some subtropical areas. The edible

corms are an ingredient in numerous Chinese

dishes.

Flavoring and Seasoning Herbs

Many ñavoring and seasoning herbs are used

in different areas of the Tropics. In the West

Indies plants of favorite kinds are frequently

maintained in clay pots or kerosene tins along

with the family's collection of ornamental plants.

The most frequently grown is orégano. Both a

Líffía species and Goleus aromatlcus Benth. in

Wall, are grown for this flavor and both are propagated by cuttings. Once established, the plants

can be maintained for many years.

The foliage of young coriander or "culantro"

plants {Coriandrum satimim L.) is commonly

used for seasoning and for garnishing. It is

grown from seed planted directly on well-prepared soil and harvested when the seedlings are 5

to 10 inches tall. Market gardeners specializing

in leaf lettuce often will have a small plot of coriander also (fig. 15, E). Sesame or "ajonjolí"

{Sesamuin índícum L.) is managed in the same

way but requires a longer growing season since

the ripe seeds are the desired product.

Many seasoning herbs can be started from seed,

then maintained as perennials or by reseeding

each year. The kinds more frequently seen in

West Indian gardens are: anis seed or "anís"

{Pimpmella anísum L.) ; basil or "albahaca"

{Oclmum basílícum L.) ; dill or "hinojo" {Ane-^

thum graveolens L.) ; rosemary or "romero"

{Rosmarlnus oßcinalis L.) ; sage {Salvia officinalls L.) ; spearmint or "menta" {Mentha splcato

L.) ; and sweet marjoram or "mejorana" {Majorana hortensis Moench.).

Another condiment cultivated particularly in

some higliland areas of the Tropics is horseradish

{Armorada lapathífolía Gilib.). It is propagated

from root cuttings. Roots of the horseradish-tree

{Moringa oleífera Lam.) are used for the^ same

purpose in low warm areas but are inferior to

the roots of the horseradish itself. The leaves,

floAvers, and young pods of the tree are eaten as

veiïetables.
80 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Ginger or "jengibre" {Zingiher ofßoinale Rose.)

is commonly grown in the home garden of the

West Indies (fig. 38, C). (See p. 78.) The condiment ginger is prepared from the dried rhizome

of the plant. Turmeric or "tumerico" {Curcuma

longa L.) is grown as an ingredient for curry.

The tender hearts of lemon grass shoots "limoncillo"_ {Cymhofogon citratus (DC.) Stapf) are

used in flavoring.

Specific recommendations on culture, harvest,

and use of these plants are given in MacMillan's

book (28, p. 278), which is usually available at

public libraries containing collections of agricultural literature.

COMMERCIAL VEGETABLE GROWING IN THE TROPICS

Commercial vegetable production in the Tropics

has by no means reached the degree of proficiency

and magnitude that it has in many sections of the

Temperate Zone, particularly in the United

States. The tropical field is open to expansion in

the production of vegetables not only for fresh

consumption but also for canning and freezing.

Some favored areas in Cuba, Mexico, Hawaii,

U.S. Virgin Islands, and Puerto Rico (figs. 17,

B, D; 20, A; 23, A, G ; 26, A; 39, A, B, G, D)

have exported vegetables at one time or another

in sizeable quantities to the heavily populated sections of the United States. With nothing being

exported from Cuba at present, other areas such

as Honduras and the Bahamas are experimenting

with the production of vegetables for export.

These vegetables are grown and shipped principally during the late winter when fresh vegetables are scarce on the continental markets. Vegetables commonly exported to the United States

are bulb onion, cabbage, cucumber, eggplant, pepper, sweet corn, sweetpotato, tomato, and the na-

''*t^'

FIGURE 39.—A, Shaded open-air vegetable-packing shed in the Caribbean area ; B, modern machinery for cultivating

and harvesting commercial gardens; 0, commercial field of tomato variety Master Marglobe on sloping land;

D, wrapping and packing green tomatoes for export to the United States.
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 81

tive tropical crops such as pigeonpea (gandul)

and yautia for newcomers to the United States

from the Tropics.

Much of the cleared fertile bottom land in the

Tropics is already planted to banana, cacao, pineapple, sugarcane, and other well-known tropical

crops, but there still is good land not in use or

tliat needs to be cleared and irrigated. In fact,

some of the land now in major tropical crops

might be profitably shifted within limits to

vegetables. A sugarcane grower near Ponce,

P.R., reported better returns from a few acres

of vegetables during World War II than from

an equal area of cane. For large-scale commercial gardening, the rich level lowlands are best

adapted not only because they are fertile, but

also because of ease of irrigation (fig. 17) and

efficient use of mechanized equipment (fig. 39, 5).

Many areas in the Tropics have a distinct advantage over those in the temperate climates in

their 12 sunny months of the year with no frost

hazard when vegetables can be grown. Some

tropical areas, however, are too rainy and warm

for good vegetable production during at least

part of the year. Also, their soils are not always

particularly well adapted for growing vegetables.

Some areas are so far from centers of consumption that the cost of transportation, if available,

is prohibitive.

The island of Puerto Eico has good, average,

and poor areas for commercial vegetable growing. The northwest corner of the island near

Isabela, for example, is particularly well adapted

to vegetable production throughout most of the

year. The land in this area is gently rolling, the

soil a well-drained sandy type, rainfall around

50 inches a year, and provision for irrigation

good. Commercial crops of cucumber, eggplant,

pepper, tomato, and other fresh vegetables already have been grown in this area for shipment

to the New York market. The low-rainfall section on the south coast and to the west in the

Lajas Valley also is well suited to vegetable production. Some water is available for irrigation

in most of this area. Sunshine there is abundant

almost every day and the soils are of a moderate

to good fertility. Tomatoes have been grown

commercially during the dry winter months in

some of the interior valleys near Jayuya (2)

(fig. 39, G). The green tomatoes were packed by

a cooperative for shipment to the New York

market (fig. 39, Z>).

Tomatoes are presently being grown with irrigation in the dry south-central part of Puerto

Eico. The commercial acreage of varieties Eoma

and Campbell Soup 146 was estimated at 900

acres for 1963. Tomato sauce, paste, and canned

tomatoes are processed. Tomato paste is processed also on Montserrat by a Canadian company. This company farms 250 acres and purchases additional tomatoes from local farmers.

Pigeonpeas are grown in Puerto Eico both for

local consumption and canning. During the

1953-54 season 250,000 cases of canned pigeonpeas were processed (^S).

Persons with good training and experience in

production of specific crops, such as the bean,

eggplant, pepper, and tomato, should be successful in commercial vegetable gardening in many

tropical areas, particularly if the prospective

grower can effectively utilize modern planting,

cultivating, and harvesting machines and modern

packing materials. Past experience shows the

need for using some mechanized equipment in

truck gardening if growers in tropical countries

are to compete successfully on a sizeable scale with

growers in the Temperate Zone. This point is

stressed because it seems to be one of the main

deterrents in the progress of tropical agriculture.

The hazards of maintaining and operating machinery in the Tropics appear to be no greater

than in the United States. The high humidity

and salt water mist may be greater factors in

some areas, but they are probably no worse than

the subzero weather, high humidity, and salt

water breezes on Long Island, N.Y., where truck

gardening has become a big industry.

The main difficulty with farm machinery in the

Tropics is the frequent lack of regular and efficient maintenance standards, such as greasing,

oiling, and painting. Also, relatively inexperienced labor is often hired to run tractors and

machines, when only industrious, carefully

trained men should do the job. Also, replacement parts for the machinery are sometimes difficult to obtain. This can be overcome, however,

by using equipment from companies doing an

export business and having local representatives.

A supply of spare parts and maintenance equipment should be kept on hand as insurance against

breakdowns that hold up the work. If the enterprise is large enough to justify two or more tractors, for example, parts can be interchanged if the

tractors are of the same make, and at least one

tractor can be kept operating w^iile parts for the

other are en route. There are a number of such

ways to keep an agricultural business operating.

Difficulties can usually be surmounted or adjusted

if the grower has enough ingenuity.

A frequent objection to the use of mechanized

equipment in the Tropics is that it eliminates

hand labor, of which there is often an oversupply. This is a normal development, however, in

the evolution through which Temperate Zone

countries have progressed to attain their present
82 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

high efficiency and service to the world. Indeed,

it is almost impossible to produce vegetables on

a large scale with ox teams, hoes, hand sprayers,

and machetes. The margin of profit, if any, is

likely to be too narrow. In the depression year

of 1932, in the U.S. Virgin Islands, a grower

worked a little over one-half a day to plow and

harrow an acre of ground with a tractor; he

worked 21/2 days to plow that same acreage with

bulls, at about double the cost of labor.^ Only

those growers who can obtain high production of

high-quality vegetables, however, will be able

to adopt the modern improved production

methods.

Many of the recommendations given in this

circular for growing vegetables in the home garden can be used for commercial production. Before starting to grow a vegetable on the commercial scale, however, it is important first to be

reasonably sure that the crop will grow and produce well under the prevailing climatic and soil

conditions and that it can be profitably marketed.

Keliable commission agents at importation centers might be consulted as to sales and boat or

airplane shipment.

For small gardens of 1 or 2 acres, oxen, mules,

and hand labor can be used. On light to medium-heavy soils, the large-wheeled garden tractors, with attachments of plow, disk, seeder, cultivator, and mowing machine are satisfactory. For

vegetable gardens of 5 to 10 acres or more, the

lighter wheel or crawler tractor with attachments

is desirable. This tractor of about 25 horsepower

at the drawbar is usually large enough to plow

at least a single furrow in heavy soils and to

double disk and cultivate. A power takeoff also

can be used with it for standard row-crop sprayers. The medium-size crawler tractors are excellent for large-scale heavy plowing and disking.

Small to medium-size enterprises can use 20- to

30-horsepower outfits. More specific recommendations on the equipment needed for vegetable

gardens of different sizes and types can be obtained from representatives of the local experiment stations or colleges and from reputable

manufacturers.

When machinery is to be used in planting vegetables, the row spacing must be adjusted to fit

the cultivating, spraying, and harvesting attachments. Also, enough space must be left at the

end of each row for the tractor to turn around.

Machinery can be used on land having up to

about a 15-percent slope. Where there is a slight

slope, the rows should be laid out on the graded

* VIRGIN ISLANDS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

Agr. News Notes 41: 1. 1932. [Processed.]

contour, using a carpenter's or engineer's level

and target. This is particularly true where rainfall is moderate to heavy. Construction of broadbase terraces is advisable on land having a 5- to

15-percent slope. Bench terraces will be needed

for slopes greater than 15 percent, but these are

often expensive. The use of contour plantings,

with and without terraces, not only preserves the

soil but also helps retain rainfall, which is highly

essential for shallow-rooted vegetables. Likewise,

all cultural operations, including furrow irrigation, are facilitated by contour planting.

Where possible, get in touch with the appropriate official of your local government for assistance and instructions in laying out the graded

contour rows and terraces. Also, local governments usually have publications available on this

subject.

Adequate facilities should be provided in or

near the field for shading harvested vegetables

until they can be washed, graded, and packed

(fig. 39, A), Vegetables never should be left in

the sun longer than a few minutes after harvest.

Harvesting of most crops can be started early in

the morning, but to prevent spread of leaf diseases in some crops, such as beans, harvesting

should not be started until the foliage is dry.

Vegetables for export can be harvested in the

afternoon and cooled at night while en route to

refrigerated boats.

Proper refrigeration facilities are needed to

keep the vegetables in good condition until they

can be marketed, shipped, or processed. Large

refrigeration companies in the United States

can be consulted for specific recommendations on

cost and construction of storages and size of

equipment needed. Necessary figures on kind and

size of crop, rate of loading, outside temperatures, and length of storage period should be

supplied to the company. Low temperatures—

32° to 60° F., depending upon the vegetable {69,

p, 171)—are extremely important in retarding

ripening and deterioration. For roughly every

10-degree rise in temperature above 32° F., the

rate of ripening is doubled and the storage life

reduced by one-half.

In conclusion, it should be pointed out that

more attention, equipment, materials, and better

trained labor are required for some commercial

crops, such as beans and tomatoes, than for easily

grown crops, such as plantain, yautia, and pigeonpea. The manager must be on the job almost

every day. To make the enterprise an economic

success, a competent manager must supervise the

job and see that the crops are planted, sprayed,

cultivated, and harvested properly and at the

correct time.
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 83

VEGETABLE GROWING BY GRAVEL CULTURE

During World War II a few United States

Army bases were built where there was neither

soil nor rainwater. The soil around other bases

was so heavily infested with human disease organisms that vegetables for troop consumption

could not safely be grown in it. Tliis problem

was solved in barren Ascension Island, in British

Guiana, in Japan, and in other areas by using

the gravel-culture system, also known as nutriculture {61), hydroponics, and chemical gardening. Some of these gardens called for a sizeable

financial investment and several acres of land.

In Japan, where cold temperatures were a factor

in winter, some of the gardens were established

under glass. For vegetable varieties adapted to

gravel culture in Curacao, Netherlands Antilles,

see Mullison and Mullison {3Ji}.

The gravel-culture method of growing vegetables has several advantages, particularly in tropical regions where the beds can be used almost

every month of the year. Once the beds and

pumping system are established, several common

vegetable-growing practices—plowing, disking,

weeding, and composting—can be reduced or

eliminated. Insect and disease control measures

also are frequently reduced or simplified. Excess

moisture around the roots—definitely a problem

in heavy rainfall tropical regions—is not a factor

with properly managed gravel-culture beds. Kain

falling into the beds is bypassed in the drainage

system, so it does not dilute the nutrient solution

stored in the tanks. Quality of supervision and

management of gravel-culture benches, however,

must be high. The operators should have some

training in chemistry, as well as in practical

gardening. Periodic checking of the nutrient

solution is necessary to maintain proper acidity

and to bring the nutrients up to standard levels.

The chief disadvantage of the gravel-culture

system is the initial expense of installing the

beds, solution tank, and other specialized equipment, such as time clock, solution pumps, solutiontesting equipment, and gasoline or electric

motors. This system of growing vegetables is

probably best adapted to areas where it is difficult

to grow them by any other means. A hydroponic

garden can be as simple or as complicated as the

operator wishes. Hydroponics in its simplest

application is described in experiment station

circulars from Florida (66) and Illinois (5).

At Mayaguez, P.R., in 1946-47, two crops of

Michigan State Forcing tomatoes (fig. 40, A, 5)

and Slobolt leaf lettuce were grown by the gravelculture system under greenhouse conditions {40,

194.7, pp. 36-39). The yield of tomatoes was

definitely better than that from a neighboring

bench of local river-bottom soil given standard

applications of chemical fertilizers. Growth and

quality of leaf lettuce were satisfactory in both

the gravel and soil.

Raised concrete beds with solution tanks beneath were used in these trials, but ground-level

beds of concrete, asphalt, or possibly aluminum

are more economical and equally as satisfactory.

A number of parallel ground-level beds can be

fed with solution from a single reservoir tank,

supplied through a trough running at a right

angle to the beds. The beds can be any length

up to about 100 feet. A bench width of about 4

feet facilitates crop management. Walks between

beds should be rock or asphalt to reduce splashing soil and disease spores onto the plants.

For descriptions of the equipment and technique for growing vegetables by gravel culture,

the reader is referred to the literature cited {22,

67, 61, 67) at the end of this handbook.

FIGURE 40.—Tomato variety Michigan State Forcing

grown by gravel-culture system in Puerto Rico : A,

Greenhouse in which tomatoes are grown ; B, tomatoes

grown by gravel culture.
84 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

GENERAL PEST CONTROL

Along with the advantages of a year-round

growing season and rapid growth, vegetable production in the Subtropics and Tropics has the

disadvantage of being subjected to continuous

attack by a wide variety of pests, including insects, nematodes, slugs, snails, and organisms that

cause plant diseases. In order to produce greater

quantities of wholesome, nutritious foods in tropical regions, adequate plant pest control must be

provided.

Measures appropriate for pest control in the

temperate areas are not always completely successful when applied in tropical and subtropical

regions. Ecological, physiological, and behavioral differences between pests of temperate and

tropical areas are substantial. Species of many

tropical insect pests do not often build up highlevel infestations as do many species of temperate

insects. Instead, tropical insects generally remain

at an apparently innocuous but actually very

damaging level throughout much or all of the

year. Continuously high levels among opposing

predators and parasites of tropical insects usually

prevent noticeable outbreaks. Plant diseases,

particularly those caused by fungi and viruses,

are especially damaging in tropical regions. Relatively high humidity during much of the year

in many places encourages the growth of harmful

fungi. Insect virus vectors are present almost

constantly. Nematodes seem almost ubiquitous

in tropical areas, although marked observable

damage is confined to areas Avhere large acreages

of susceptible crops are grown year after year in

the same place. The common tropical practice of

changing garden locations minimizes the effects

of nematodes on small gardens.

All aspects of tropical pest control cannot be

covered in a single handbook. If additional information is required, aid should be sought from

local agricultural experts or from other publications dealing with specific subjects.

The gardener or small farmer must be constantly alert for signs of plant pests. Regular,

frequent spot inspections of individual plants

from the time of planting until harvest will permit the grower to provide control measures before

plants are severely injured. When the damage is

clearly visible, much of the loss has already been

incurred. Inspection may reveal eggs, small

caterpillars or larvae, or other early stages of

insects. Wilting leaves may indicate nematode

infestation. Snails and slugs are usually readily

observed. Many plant diseases have specific characteristics that are recognizable before extensive

damage occurs.

After a plant pest problem has been detected,

much can be done to reduce the harmful effects.

Control methods can be divided into two broad

categories—(1) cultural control and (2) chemical (pesticidal) control.

Cultural Methods of Control

Cultural control is inexpensive and often a

valuable adjunct to the chemical control of plant

pests. Such cultural control measures include the

following :

(1) Plant on well-drained, fertile soil. Fertilizers should be used when needed because

healthy, well-nourished plants are better able to

withstand the ravages of some kinds of insects

and diseases. Good drainage is helpful since

many plant diseases are aggravated by excessively

moist conditions.

(2) Destroy crop residues after harvest by

plowing under or burning. Trash and other crop

residues often serve as breeding places for insects

and causal organisms of plant diseases. Plowing

also exposes soil insects to birds and other

predators.

(3) Rotate crops, if at all possible, to reduce

insect or disease buildups.

(4) Selective planting and correct harvest timing may completely avoid a plant pest or disease.

Considerable yield increase and savings in chemical costs are often obtained.

(5) Use mechanical protectors made from old

tin cans, heavy paper, or coarse leaves to protect

plants from birds and certain other pests.

(6) Control weeds to prevent injurious competition between crop plants and weeds and

grasses.

(7) Plant disease- or insect-resistant crop varieties suited to your particular area when they are

available. Resistant varieties often can reduce

chemical control expenses.

(8) Purchase certified disease-free seed and

plants when possible.

(9) Handpick some pests, especially large insects, slugs, and snails.

Chemical Control

When other means of plant pest control fail,

then pesticides must be used. The best pesticide

must be selected for a given job. Consideration

must be given to suitability of the pesticide to the

type of crop, cost, availability, residues, and

safety in handling with available equipment.

Among the pesticides on the market are those

that are rather specific for a particular plant and

actually may be harmful to some other plants.

Costs of pesticides are prohibitive in many parts

of the world; there, cultural and hand means of

control must be relied upon. Outside of the

major large-scale agricultural areas of the world,

some pesticides are not readily available, so it
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 85

would seem advantageous to rely on fewer kinds

but broad-spectrum chemicals.

Safe Use of Pesticides

Pesticides can be injurious to warm-blooded

animals including man, livestock, birds, and other

wildlife if care in handling and use is not taken.

(1) Eead and follow the directions and precautions listed on the label of the container. Use

only the amount stated on the label. Overdosage

or improper timing of application of pesticides

may injure the plant or leave harmful residues

on fruits and vegetables. If a label recommends

that the pesticide not be applied to a given plant,

follow the advice or injury to the plants or crops

may result. It is preferable to use the least toxic

chemical if it will give results equivalent to those

of more toxic chemicals.

(2) Use care when handling, mixing, and applying agricultural chemicals. Eepeated or prolonged contact with the skin should be avoided.

Pesticides should be kept out of the eyes, nose,

and mouth. Eespirators must be used when applying certain pesticides to avoid inhalation of

pesticide dusts or mists. Pesticide labels should

always indicate if respirators are necessary and

what types are required. Contamination of clothing should be avoided when spraying or dusting.

Pesticides should be mixed outdoors or in wellventilated places. Oil-based sprays and concentrates should be handled as if they are inflammable. Application of pesticides should be regulated to avoid contamination of household utensils, dishes, water supplies, and human or animal

food. Baits should be carefully placed where

children and pets cannot reach them. Drift

should be kept to a minimum to prevent interference with beneficial insects, wildlife, and

plants. Runoff in high-rainfall areas can carry

damaging quantities of chemicals into streams or

lakes where fish may be destroyed. Particular

care should be taken not to contaminate streams

or other water sources with pesticides either during application or when cleaning the spray equipment.

(3) Pesticides should always be stored m their

original closed, properly labeled containers in a

dry place, inaccessible to children, unprotected

humans, rodents, pets, and livestock. Avoid storing herbicides near seeds or fertilizers. Empty

pesticide containers are especially hazardous.

Empty bags or cardboard containers should either

be buried or burned in an open area where inhala-

. tion of smoke can be avoided. It is not recommended that herbicide containers be burned.

Containers of this type should be buried. Crush

and bury bottles or cans in locations where water

supplies will not be contaminated.

(4) Persons handling pesticides should be familiar with emergency procedures. SHOULD

ACCIDENTAL POISONING BY AGKICULTURAL CHEMICALS OCCUR, A PHYSICIAN SHOULD BE CONSULTED IMMEDIATELY. If poison control centers have been

established in areas where this handbook is used,

their location and telephone number should be

known. In the event of an accident, the following temporary measures should be taken while

waiting for professional medical aid:

(a) If pesticides have been spilled on the

skin or clothing, remove contaminated clothing

immediately and wash the skin thoroughly with

soap and water. Launder the clothing before

wearing it again.

(b) If gaseous pesticides have been inhaled,

remove the victim to the open air and get

medical attention as quickly as possible. If

respiration has stopped, give artificial respiration until regular breathing is restored.

(c) If pesticides get into the eyes, flush

thoroughly with lukewarm water for at least

15 minutes and get medical attention as quickly

as possible.

(d) If pesticides have been swallowed, follow

first aid instructions, if listed, on the label.

Call a physician immediately. In the absence

of specific first aid instructions, some general

treatments are often helpful. In many cases

the stomach should be emptied as soon as i)ossible. A warm salt water solution containing

1 tablespoon of salt in a glass of water will

often induce vomiting. Inserting a finger into

the throat is also effective. After vomiting has

occurred, a mixture of raw egg white mixed

with either water, or flour and water, or milk

will often be beneficial. The victim should be

kept quiet and comfortable and, if shock occurs, should be kept warm. NEVER ATTEMPT TO ADMINISTER ANYTHING

BY MOUTH TO AN UNCONSCIOUS

PERSON.

Avoiding Harmful Residues in Food

Chemical residues are the pesticide deposits

that may remain on vegetable crops when they

are harvested and marketed.

Generally no danger of harmful pesticide residues remains provided the correct pesticide in the

concentration and amount prescrihed for the particular crop is used at the proper time. Troubles

begin when gardeners or small farmers fail to

follow directions stated on the pesticide label.

Reasoning that "if a little is good, then more will

be better" is all too common. Application of excessive quantities of pesticides can leave harmful

residues. Care must be taken when measuring

concentrates having high percentages of active

ingredients. A specified time often must elapse

between the last application of a pesticide and

harvest. Residues persist for varying periods of
86 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

time, ranging from a few hours or weeks, to much

longer, depending upon the stability of the compound. Every vegetable grower should be aware

of pesticide residue dangers and follow a pest

control program designed to provide adequate

control without using excessive quantities of

pesticides.

Availability^ Stocking, and Storage of

Pesticides

Availability and storage of pesticides in tropical areas is an important consideration for successful pest control. An extremely high percentage of pesticides is manufactured in either the

United States or Europe. Sources of supply in

tropical areas are limited, and even these sources

are handicapped by distance from the manufacturer. Too often orders are made yearly or biannually and the long storage period results in a

loss of efficacy before sale to the user. For example, rotenone compounds can often lose a substantial amount of their insecticidal value by the time

they find their way into the hands of the local

gardener or farmer.

Few local dealers can afford to stock all types

of pesticides that might be available, so the gardener or small farmer must depend upon a limited

number of broad-range chemicals. Stocking the

wide variety of formulations and concentrations

commonly sold in the United States also is generally not practical. A single concentration of a

wettable powder or an emulsifiable concentrate

will usually serve the purpose. Formulations

with a high percentage (50 percent or over) of

active ingredient save shipping and storage costs.

Dry formulations, including dusts and wettable powders, are particularly susceptible to

rapid deterioration unless properly stored. Such

pesticides should be placed in cool dry places for

longest storage life. Emulsifiable concentrates

and granular pesticides deteriorate much less

rapidly and are preferred in warmer areas, especially when used by the gardener or small

farmer.

Basic Chemicals Recommended for

Tropical Purposes

Many different kinds of chemicals and formulations are available and can be recommended,

but those enumerated in this handbook represent materials that are particularly suited for use

m warm places. The considerations were availability, storability, costs, ease of handling, safety,

and applicability to a variety of situations. As

new products become available and as existing

chemicals become cheaper, this list will be subject to change. The formulations suggested are

those demanding the least variation in amounts

of active material per unit of water. Experience

has shown that the bewildering variety of formulations on the market today often result in calculation error.

Specific Formulations for Pest Control

INSECTICIDE SPEAYS

Insecticide Formulation !• 2 Amount of purchased product to mix with100 gallons water i gallon water

Carbaryl (Sevin) 50-percent WP o nnnnri« o i^ i ^ ui

cniordane 40- or^50-percent wP":::::::::::::::::::: I Ss::::::::: ?ÍIlU1So^s.

DDT 50:^:ÏS WP f^ P'"i' 2 teaspoons. du percent wf 2 pounds 2 level tablespoons.

Diazinon __. S^eS EC \ ^^"^ 1 tablespoon.

Dicofoi (Keithane) __.:::::: 18.5-percent EÓ"::::::::::::::::::::::::::} P""*.::::::::::: \ SZ:

Malathlon sScenTEc"^ ? P""".*^^ ^ ^^^«^ tablespoon.

Naled ::::::::::: l-poundper gaUÔn-ËO î l^T 2 teaspoons.

Rotenone Den-is o^ube root pov^leT I ^¿3-::::::::: 1 tfe'l TaWespoons

(5 percent rotenone content).3 taoiespoons.

bUlfur Wettable sulfur K nmmrl«! Q i^ ^ ^ v.^

Toxaphene 40-perœnt WP Z^I^Z^^^Z^ I Ss ZZZ:::::: I Zt ^SZ,

60-percent EC 21/2 pints 1 tablespoon.

l^^^^ ^.'l?^^^^ ""^ ^PJ^^ P.S^^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^25 square feet (87 gallons per acre). 2 WP = wettable powder; EC = emulsifiable concentrate. Products — -^- J^^-.-l:^^-

cticide. If you buy a product in which the per(

lore or less of it with water.

' If available powder is of a lower rotenone content smallïuSrô^raST.LnSd'SS'ÏÏS.r'''"'' "" "• """» '•"'^ " <>' « » "" «■■- "« Pow*r wl.h a
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 87

INSECTICIDE DUSTS

Active Ingredient

Insecticide Percent

Carbaryl 3

Chlordane 5

DDT 5

Diazinon 2

Dicofol 2

Malathion 4

Naled 3

Rotenone 1

Sulfur 25

Toxaphene 5

Apply an even, light coating of dust at the rate of

1 ounce per 50 feet of row or 125 square feet (22 pounds

per acre). Force dust through the foliage so it reaches

both sides of the leaves. Apply dust when the air is still.

INSECTICIDE BAITS

CHLOKDANE.—Mix 3 level tablespoons of 40- or 50-

percent WP, 12 pounds of wheat bran,

and 1% quarts of fresh lubricating oil

(20 to 30 SAE viscosity).

METALDEHYDE.—Use a commercially prepared bait.

Distribute the chlordane bait evenly over the soil surface at the rate of 1 pound per 1,000 square feet of

garden space (40 pounds per acre). Use the metaldehyde

bait as directed on the container. Be sure not to contaminate parts of the plants to be eaten with either bait.

FUNGICIDES

Bordeaux mixture Maneb 80-percent WP

Captan 50-percent WP i Sulfur WP

Karathane 25-percent WP Zineb 75-percent WP

1 See footnote 2, under "Insecticide Sprays," page 86.

NEMATOCIDES

DD-Mixture Nemagon

Dowfume W-85 Fumazone 86

PLANT INJURY WARNING

Do not use the following products on the crops

listed or serious losses may result:

DDT—On cucurbits (cucumber, melon, squash).

Toxaphene—On cucurbits, young tomato plants, lettuce, and escarole for 3 weeks following seeding or transplanting.

Chlordane—On cucurbits.

Copper compounds (bordeaux mixture, Copper A Compound)—On corn, turnip, mustard greens.

Dicofol (Kelthane)—On eggplant.

Semesan—On lima bean.

Do not mix emulsifiable concentrates with wettable powders or with sulfur. They are generally not physically compatible.

Types of Pesticide Formulations

and Their Uses

Most pesticides encountered by noncommercial

pest control operators will be in a prepared form

to which water alone is usually added. Nevertheless, an understanding of the basic terminology and definitions used in pesticide formulations is needed to properly evaluate and

understand the potentialities of chemicals for

particular situations.

Carriers are substances such as talc, clays, gypsum, and solvents that are used in conjunction

with pesticides to facilitate their application.

Diluents reduce concentration of active ingredients and phytotoxicity of pesticides. Carriers can

also act as diluents. Adjuvants are relatively

nontoxic materials added to pesticides to enhance

contact with an insect or plant, to enable mixing

immiscible liquids, or to retard settling of

suspended materials. Adjuvants include emulsifiers that allow water-oil mixtures; wetting agents

that reduce surface tension and facilitate the

spread of pesticide; stickers that by chemical or

physical means increase adhesion between a pesticide and an applied surface; synergists that are

compounds, such as piperonyl butoxide, used in

conjunction with a toxicant to increase its effectiveness; and deßocculating agents^ such as agar and

gum arable, which prevent clumping and settling

of particles in solution. Carriers, diluents, emulsifiers, wetting agents, stickers, synergists, and

deflocculating agents are usually added to prepared pesticides during manufacture.

Pesticides generally are applied as dusts, liquid

sprays, granules, or fumigants. Dusts and granules are purchased ready to apply. Liquid sprays

must be prepared by mixing water with dry powder (wettable or soluble) or with liquid concentrate (suspension or emulsifiable). Sprays can

also be in aerosol form or as oil solutions or

water suspensions. Some of the solutions and

suspensions are made up with wettable powder

or emulsifiable concentrates. Fumigants are purchased in liquid form ready to apply. Each

type of formulation has its own peculiar advantages and individual local requirements and conditions should govern usage.

Dusts are composed of an active pesticidal ingredient plus an inert carrier. Dusts are especially useful in hilly or muddy areas where heavy

spray rigs are hard to handle. Dusting is faster

than spraying and is advantageous when the

water supply is short.

Wettable powders are composed of an active

pesticidal ingredient plus an inert carrier, much

the same as dust except that wetting agents are

added. Wettable powder formulations are often

abbreviated as 25-percent WP,^ 50-percent WP,

etc., which means that 25 percent or 50 percent

of the wettable powder is the active ingredient,

with the inert carrier substances composing the

remainder.

Emulsifiable concentrates are composed of a

5 The abbreviations WP (wettable powder), EC (emulsifiable concentrate), and E (pounds active ingredient per

gaUon of finished pesticide) are used throughout this

handbook.
AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 823, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

water-insoluble pesticide that is dissolved in a

solvent carrier, such as oil, plus an emulsifier that

permits mixing with water. Emulsifiable concentrates are abbreviated as 25-percent EC, 50-

percent EC, which means that 25 percent or 50

percent of the formulation is the active ingredient, with the emulsifier and inert ingredients

composing the remainder. Abbreviations such

as 2E, 4E, and 6E indicate 2, 4, and 6 pounds of

active ingredients' per gallon of concentrate.

Emulsifiable concentrates permit the mixing of

insoluble pesticides with water.

Water spraying with either wettable powders

or emulsifiable concentrates is much more widely

practiced than dusting at present because (1) the

water spray disperses more efficiently than dust,

(2) less drift is involved, (3) the costs of dust

diluents are high, (4) dust carriers tend to separate from the toxic principle in the air, (5) dusts

present an inhalation hazard to the operator, and

(6) for a given amount of active ingredient, wettable powders and emulsifiable concentrates require less storage space than dust.

Granular pesticides are composed of absorptive

clays or diatomaceous earths impregnated with

toxicants mixed with a suitable solvent. Particle

size can be regulated^to suit the need. Such particles greatly minimize drift and, since they do

not adhere readily to plant surfaces, decrease

residue deposits. Granules are especially useful

for the control of soil insects and for those attacking row crops, such as corn.

Selecting and Preparing Pesticides

When selecting a pesticide, a number of considerations are important. Among these are :

(1) Select the best pesticide for a particular

proMem, Pesticides are often rather specific for

given pests or diseases. Some are phytotoxic

either at all times or under particular environmental conditions. If two kinds of materials are

to be applied simultaneously, compatibility wnth

one another must be considered. A compatibility

chart, wiiich can be obtained from the Meister

Publishing Co. of Willoughby, Ohio, published

for the American Fruit Grower magazine, is

inexpensive and supplies complete information.

Incompatibility between chemicals can result in

severe damage to or destruction of the crop, difficulties in operation and maintenance of application equipment, or mixing problems. Costs of

the chemical itself and of application must be

evaluated. Other factors being equal, it is probably best to use the least toxic material.

(2) Carefully measure concentrations and

amounts of sprays and dusts. Severe phytotoxicity or destruction of the plant may result or

harmful residues may remain on the plant if excessive amounts of pesticides are used. Accurate

measurements are particularly important when

small quantities are required. Follow the directions on the pesticide label exactly.

(3) Prepare only the quantity of pesticide

needed. Many pesticidal materials deteriorate

rapidly after they are mixed ; use them promptly.

(4) Apply pesticides uniformly and thoroughly. Careless, incomplete application of pesticides can result in poor control or in chemical

damage to plants.

Most pesticide requirements of the gardener

are for limited quantities, so recommendations

given in this handbook have been presented in

terms of small measure.

In some respects, preparing small quantities

of pesticides is more difficult than preparing

large amounts. Measurements must be carefully

made. It can never be stressed too strongly that

even an apparently insignificant excess may be

toxic to the plant as well as to the pest or causal

organism of a disease and may result in unsafe

or harmful residues.

The gardener or small farmer should have a

measuring cup, teaspoon and tablespoon measuring spoons, and a mixing container of suitable

size. With these simple items, everyday pest

control dilutions can be easily and accurately

made. Should larger amounts of pesticides be

needed, full information is as follows:

Calculating dilutions for larger quantities of

pesticides need not be a mystery if directions are

followed carefully. Various methods have been

published but those given below are simple and

lend themselves to a variety of practical situations. In all cases it is first necessary to determine the total active ingredient required.

Dry Concentrates : If a wettable powder or dust

is to be used, find the active ingredient required and then set up a proportion to give the

amount of wettable powder or dust needed as

outlined in the examples.

Example 1. Prepare 100 gallons of a 2.5-percent

DDT solution in water using 50-percent DDT

WP. (Remember, 100 gallons of water weighs

834 pounds.) :

0.025 X 834 pounds

= 20.85 pounds active ingredient,

then,

20.85 pounds active ingredient

50 percent

100 percent

or 41.7 pounds of 50-percent DDT WP
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 89

Example 2. Prepare 100 pounds of 5-percent DDT

dust from a dust containing 20-percent DDT.

Use talc or other suitable carrier :

0.05 X 100 pounds

= 5 pounds active ingredient,

then,

5 pounds active ingredient

20 percent

100 percent

or 25 pounds of 20-percent DDT dust

PLUS 75 pounds of carrier

Liquid Concentrates: If an emulsifiable concentrate or oil emulsion is to be used, find the

active ingredient required and then divide this

quantity by the active ingredient in the concentrate or emulsion you are using.

Example 1. Prepare 50 gallons of spray containing 5-percent DDT solution in water using 6E

DDT concentrate :

0.05 X 417 pounds

= 20.85 pounds active ingredient,

then,

20.85 pounds active ingredient

6 pounds

= 3.48 gallons of 6E DDT concentrate

Example 2. Prepare 10 gallons of 1-percent diazinon spray using a 50-percent diazinon EC.

(1 gallon water weighs 8.34 pounds.) :

0.01 X 83.4 pounds

= 0.834 pounds active ingredient,

then,

0.834 pounds active ingredient

4 pounds

= 0.208 gallons of 50-percent diazinon EC

Sometimes it is necessary to calculate the

amount of pesticidal sprays or dusts needed per

acre. The basic equation is:

QAXR

o

Q = Quantity of concentrate required in pounds

wettable powder, gallons of emulsifiable concentrate, or pounds of dust.

A = Number of acres.

E = Pounds of active ingredient required per

acre.

C = Concentration (percent active ingredient

per pound wettable powder, pounds active

ingredient per gallon of emulsifiable concentrate, or percent active ingredient per pound

of dust).

Example 1. Prepare, using a 6E chlordane concentrate, a spray to be applied to 5 acres of land

at the rate of 1 pound per acre using a 500-

gallon capacity spray rig that can deliver 100

gallons of spray per acre. The spray rig tank

must be filled only once :

Q =

5 acres X 1 pound/acre

6 pounds/gallon

= 0.83 gallons of 6E chlordane concentrate

PLUS 500 gallons of water

Example 2. How many gallons of 2E chlordane

concentrate are required to prepare a spray for

a 5-acre field with 2 pounds of active ingredient per acre ?

Q

5 acres X 2 pounds/acre

2 pounds/gallon

= 5 gallons of 2E chlordane concentrate

Tables of Measurements

The following data concerning measure, weight,

capacity, and dilution are useful when mixing

chemicals :

Linear Measure :

One inch = 2.54 centimeters = 25.4 miUimeters

One foot = 12 inches — 30.5 centimeters = 0.3048

meter

One yard = 3 feet — 0.9144 meter

One rod = 5.5 yards = 16.5 feet = 5.029 meters

One mile = 1,760 yards = 5,280 feet — 1.6094 kilometers

One millimeter = 0.0394 inch =: about %5th inch

One centimeter = 10 millimeters = 0.3937 inch =

about % inch

One decimeter = 10 centimeters = 3.937 inches

One meter = 10 decimeters — 3.28 feet = 39.37 inches

One kilometer = 1,000 meters = 0.6214 mUe

Square Measure :

One square foot = 144 square inches =: 0.0929 square

meter

One square yard = 9 square feet = 0.8361 square

meter

One square rod = 272.25 square feet = 30.25 square

yards = 25.293 square meters

One acre — 43,560 square feet = 4,840 square yards

= 0.4047 hectare

An area 4 rods by 4 rods = 16 square rods = 0.1 acre

One square mile = 640 acres = 259 hectares

One square meter = 1,550 square inches

One hectare = 2.471 acres = 10,000 square meters
90 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Capacity Measure (Liquid) :

One level tablespoonful = 3 level teaspoonfuls

One fluid ounce (U.S.) = 2 tablespoonfuls = 29.57

milliliters

One cupful = 8 fluid ounces

One pint = 2 cupfuls = 16 fluid ounces = 473.2 milliliters

One quart (U.S.) = 2 pints = 32 fluid ounces =

0.9463 Uter

One gallon (U.S.) = 4 quarts = 128 fluid ounces =

231 cubic inches = 0.1337 cubic foot = 3.785 liters

One milliliter = almost exactly 1 cubic centimeter

One liter = 1,000 miUiliters = 1.057 liquid quart

(U.S.)

Weight :

One ounce (avoirdupois) = 28.3 grams

One pound (avoirdupois) = 16 ounces = 453.6 grams

One ton (U.S. short) = 2,000 pounds = 907.185 kilograms

One gram = 100 milligrams = 0.0353 ounce

One kilogram = 1,000 grams =: 35.27 ounces = 2.205

pounds

One ton (metric) = 1,000 kilograms = 2,204 pounds

= 1.1023 short tons

One milligram per kilogram = 1 part per million

Application Equipment for Pest Control

Attention to the right kind of application

equipment is just as important as proper methods

of treatment and use of the correct pesticide for

a given purpose. Today there is a type and size

of sprayer or duster for every imaginable purpose. Many of these are rather specialized, so the

prospective user should carefully select equipment that is versatile enough to fill a number of

needs. Considerations in the selection of pesticide application equipment include (1) special

properties of the chemical to be used, (2) appropriate capacity for the majority of the jobs for

which the equipment is to be used, and (3) convenience and ease of operating the equipment.

EQUIPMENT USED FOE HERBICIDE

SPRAYING SHOULD NOT BE USED TO

SPRAY ANY OTHER KIND OF PESTICIDE. IF IT MUST BE USED, CLEAN

CAREFULLY ACCORDING TO MANUFACTURER'S RECOMMENDATIONS OR

SEVERE PHYTOTOXICITY MAY RESULT.

Several types of sprayers (fig. 41) and dusters

(fig. 42) seem especially suitable for small garden

plantings. Sprayers include intermittent and continuous hand sprayers, compressed air sprayers,

knapsack sprayers, and motor blower sprayers.

Dusters include plunger dusters, crank dusters,

and knapsack dusters.

INTERMITTENT AND CONTINUOUS HAND SPRAYERS

(fig. 41, Ä),—These sprayers are the common

"flit" gun type. Their low cost, safety, and versatility provide a very economical and practical

means of treating small garden plots. Tanks

may be constructed of stainless steel, nickel-plated

or painted steel, brass, copper, or glass with

capacities of from about 4 ounces to 3 quarts.

Usage and durability desired will govern materials but, in general, it usually pays to buy a

good-quality sprayer.

Hand sprayers consist of a tank for holding

spray materials, an air pump and nozzle for

breaking up and expelling the spray in particles

of proper size, and a siphon tube for delivering

the spray materials from the tank to the air

pump nozzle.

Intermittent hand sprayers discharge spray

only on the forward stroke of the air pump,

whereas continuous sprayers have a one-way

valve that permits air to be compressed in a

chamber between the valve and the nozzle. When

the pump is drawn back for another stroke, the

air compressed in the chamber continues to

operate the sprayer. Continuous hand sprayers

often have nozzle adjustments for varying the

coarseness of the spray. Continuous sprayers

should not be used for sprays consisting of suspended solids unless directions specifically permit because nozzle orifices are generally too small.

Intermittent and continuous hand sprayers are

relatively trouble free ; but if compression is lost,

withdraw the pump handle as far as possible

and put a few drops of thin oil in the air hole at

the end of the cylinder to lubricate the plunger

cup. Carefully clean and store in a dry place

after use.

COMPRESSED AIR SPRAYERS (fig. 41, B).—Compressed air sprayers are particularly useful

around a small vegetable garden plot. Tanks

are usually constructed of galvanized steel and

capacity is from 11/2 to 5 gallons. A wide variety

of nozzle disks to provide solid cone, hollow cone,

flat fan, and coarse, fine, and stream sprays is

available.

Compressed air sprayers consist of a tank fitted

with a handle or shoulder strap for easy transport; a pressure-tight filler cap that fits into the

open-topped or funnel-topped tank; an air pump

that compresses air in the tank above the spray

solution; and a discharge tube that allows the

spray to go from the tank into delivery equipment consisting of a hose, a spray control valve,

and an extension tube equipped with a spray

nozzle.

This type of spray tank can be used for any

type of spray material and operates at low pressures from 30 to 50 pounds per square inch. The

tank should not be filled more than three-fourths

full of spray in order to permit satisfactory working pressures. Occasional agitation will keep

spray materials properly mixed. The principal

drawback of this kind of sprayer is that it must

be placed on the ground and pumped periodically

to provide the compressed air needed for

operation.

KNAPSACK SPRAYERS (fig. 41, O).—Knapsack
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 91

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92 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

sprayers are probably the most convenient and

useful sprayers, consistent with low cost and ease

of upkeep, that can be purchased for the largescale gardener or small farmer.

Knapsack sprayers are carried on the back by

means of shoulder straps. The tanks are constructed of copper or galvanized steel and capacity is from 4 to 6 gallons. A lever extending to

the front of the operator permits pumping while

carrying the sprayer.

Two main types are commonly available; one

has a double action external slide-type pump

delivering up to 180 pounds per square inch pressure but requires constant pumping; the other

type has an internal displacement chamber that

builds up air pressure for operation at about 80

pounds per square inch in much the same manner

as a compressed air pump. Only intermittent

pumping IS required for the second type of pump.

Agitators activated by pumping action keep

chemicals mixed in each type of sprayer. A full

line of nozzles is available for knapsack sprayers.

After it is used, the sprayer must be thoroughly

cleaned by pumping clean water through the

system. The nozzle must be disassembled and

cleaned also.

MOTOR BLOWER SPRAYERS.—These motor-driven

portable sprayers can be carried on the back. A

two- or four-cycle gasoline engine supplies the

power to give a low-volume, low-pressure, efficient

machine that can be used as a sprayer or as an air

blast mist blower. Some models will handle dust

as well as sprays. Motor blower sprayers are

expensive, but are indispensable to the large-scale

gardener or small farmer because they can be

used to spray a considerable area. Maintenance

is a problem, but with care a motor blower will

give long service.

PLUNGER DUSTERS (fig. 42, A).—A plunger

duster is the least complex of all dusting devices.

It is particularly useful in the small garden when

small quantités of dust must be accurately applied. Dust capacity varies from 1 to 3 or 4

pounds.

Plunger dusters are composed of an air pump,

a dust chamber, and a discharge assembly. The

pump handle is withdrawn, allowing air to enter

the air chamber through a supply tube equipped

with a one-way valve. As the pump is pushed

forward, the inlet valve closes and another exit

tube with a second one-way valve opens, allowing dust in the dust chamber, which has been put

into motion by the air pressure, to be expelled.

Discharge assemblies in plunger dusters often

have deflector caps or adjustable nozzles that

allow the dust to be directed.

Metal plunger dusters are durable, easy to

maintain, and relatively inexpensive.

CRANK DUSTERS (fig. 42, B).—Crank dusters

are perhaps the most useful type for the average

large-scale gardener or small farmer. They are

intended for continuous operation in small

acreages.

Crank dusters are carried in front of the operator by means of shoulder straps. They consist

of a dust hopper with a capacity of from 5 to 25

pounds, a gear case chamber containing handcranked high-speed gears, and a fan that blows

dust from the gear case chamber out through the

discharge tube. The discharge tube can be supplied with two nozzles so as to bracket two rows.

KNAPSACK DUSTERS (fig. 42, G).—Knapsack

dusters are also very useful for the large-scale

gardener or small farmer. They differ from

crank dusters in that the duct flow is intermittent

rather than continuous. Efficient dusting of

widely spaced plants or spot dust application is

easier with the knapsack duster than with the

crank duster. As the name suggests, it is carried

on the back.

An air current provided by bellows draws dust

from the hopper into the discharge apparatus

where it is driven out with each positive stroke

of the lever. The bellows can be placed on top of

the dust chamber or on one side. Knapsack duster

capacity is about the same as that for the crank

duster.

After dusters are used, the dust that is still in

the duster should be removed completely from

both the hopper and discharge apparatus. Then

the slip-joints on the discharge tube should be

lubricated and the dusters stored in a dry place.

VEGETABLE INSECTS

A large number of insects are general feeders

and attack many different vegetable crops. Other

insects feed only on specific kinds of vegetables or

groups of vegetables. The descriptions and

habits of the general feeders will be discussed

«The section on Vegetable Insects was revised at the

galley proof stage by F. P. Cuthbert, Jr., entomologist,

Entomology Research Division, Agricultural Research

Service, Charleston, S.C,

first. The specific pests and the control of both

groups will be discussed under the various crops.

Directions for mixing the sprays, dusts, and baits

recommended for insect control on the various

crops, and instructions for their use are given on

pages 88 and 89. Use the insecticides only on the

crops for which they are recommended. Use only

dosages specified and observe specified waiting

periods between last application and harvest.
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 93

General Insects

Ants

In tropical areas ants not only tend aphids and

certain other sapsucking insects for their honeydew excretion but also are harmful to the plants

because of leaf cutting and attacking seedlings,

plant stems, and seeds.

Consult local agricultural authorities for control measures.

Aphids

Aphids, sometimes called plant lice, attack most

vegetable crops at some time if not regularly.

These sluggish soft-bodied insects are yellowish,

greenish, or blackish and about i/g inch long.

They cluster in large numbers, usually on the

undersides of leaves or on the terminal shoots,

and suck the sap from the plants.

During feeding, aphids inject a toxic digestive

juice into the plant with resultant spotty discoloration or blighting of the leaves. Aphids also

exude a sticky sugary honeydew on which sooty

mold fungus thrives and further harms the plant

by interfering with photosynthesis. When infestations are heavy, aphids can kill a plant.

Aphids are also probably the most important

insect vectors of viruses causing plant diseases.

Armyworms

Armyworm caterpillars are among the most

serious'insect pests of vegetable crops. They are

variable in color and may become 11/2 inches long.

In tropical areas the fall armyworm is the most

damaging pest of this type. Armyworms sometimes appear suddenly in great numbers, often

destroying entire fields. They tend to prefer

grasses but also eat the foliage of many vegetable

crops. Control measures must be taken before

armyworms become too large. Carefully inspect

the plant parts, especially near the base, for the

appearance of the young worms. In highland

areas, cool wet periods are sometimes followed by

outbreaks of fall armyworm because of interference with biological control.

Predatory birds eliminate many armyworms

and should not be molested. However, insecticide

control measures are often needed. Poison baits

placed across the line of march of worms moving

from one field to another will^ sometimes protect

vegetable plantings from invasion.

Asparagus Beetle

Adult asparagus beetles are metallic blue to

black with yellowish markings. They are about

1/4 inch long and have a reddish head. The larvae

are sluggish, humpbacked, gray or olive, and

reach a size of y^ îi^ch. The adults and larvae eat

the foliage of asparagus and disfigure the shoots.

Cabbage Caterpillars

The three most important species of cabbage

caterpillars are the cabbage looper, the diamondback moth, and the Gulf white butterfly.

The cabbage looper is a pale-green measuring

worm with light stripes along its back.^ It doubles

up or loops when it crawls and is 11/2 inches long

when full grown. Loopers feed on the undersides of the leaves, producing ragged holes.

The diamondback moth larva (fig. 28, E) is

light green, slender, and up to 1/3 inch long. It

wriggles rapidly when disturbed, and often drops

from the plant and hangs by a silken thread. The

larva eats small holes in the leaves and tunnels

into tender buds.

Larvae of the Gulf white butterfly are II/2

inches long when mature, are yellow, and have

four purplish stripes. They feed on the upper

and lower sides of the leaves, producing ragged

holes.

Corn Earworm

Larvae of the corn earworm (fig. 25, E) are

green, brown, or pink with longitudinal stripes.

When mature, they may be up to 1% inches long.

Corn earworms are general feeders and attack

many different vegetables. They tunnel into the

fruit of tomatoes, the pods of beans and okra, the

heads of cabbage, and the ears of corn.

Cutworms

Cutworms (fig. 32, B) are greenish, brownish,

or grayish hairless caterpillars up to II/2 inches

long. They curl up tightly when disturbed.

Cutworms are among the most damaging pests

of many kinds of vegetable crops, especially to

young plants or newly set transplants. Cutworms

injure plants in one or more of three ways: (1)

cutting off stems at the soil surface, (2) feeding

on the foliage, or (3) feeding on the root. Cutworms hide during the day but can often be

found by digging into the ground near the base

of plants.

Cutworm injury to transplants can be prevented by placing a stiff 3-inch cardboard collar

around the stems, 1 inch beneath the soil surface

and 2 inches above. Allow at least I/2 inch

between the stem and collar. A paper drinking

cup with the bottom cut out can also be used.

Flea Beetles

Flea beetles are hard, black, brown, or striped,

are VIQ to Ys inch long, and have enlarged hind

legs for jumping. They attack many kinds of

vegetable crops. Infested leaves look as if they

had been peppered with fine birdshot. When
94 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

large numbers of flea beetles are present, foliage

can be so badly damaged that it is incapable of

sustaining the plant. Young plants, especially

transplants, are quite vulnerable. The many

small feeding holes provide an entry for a number

of organisms that cause plant diseases. Flea

beetles also are vectors of viruses causing plant

diseases.

Field Crickets

These common jumping insects are black or

dark brown and % to 1 inch long. When

abundant, they may cause substantial losses to

seeds, seedlings, and fruits of beans, cucumber,

melons, squash, and tomatoes. Usually, however,

field crickets are not serious pests.

Deep plowing that buries the eggs is an

effective cultural control.

Grasshoppers

Grasshoppers are greenish or grayish, jumping,

strong flying insects up to 2 inches long. During

the dry season in tropical regions, grasshopper

populations sometimes build up so that they

become serious garden pests. They often devour

an entire crop. Damage is particularly severe

when the vegetable-growing area is surrounded

by wasteland or by other crops on which grasshoppers have not been controlled.

Natural enemies, especially birds and lizards,

usually keep grasshoppers under control in the

Tropics.

Hornworms

Hornworms (fig. 27, C) are large (3 to 4 inches

long when mature) green caterpillars with Lshaped white markings on their sides and a conspicuous horn on their tail. They eat the leaves

and tender stems of tomato, potato, pepper, and

related plants.

Handpicking is an effective control when the

larvae are not too abundant.

Leafhoppers

Leafhoppers are wedge-shaped green or tan

insects Ys to l^ inch long. They usually infest

the undersides of leaves. Damaged foliage curls

or crinkles and becomes yellowed or bronzed;

plants may be dwarfed. Leafhoppers also cause

extensive damage through transmission of viruses

that cause plant diseases.

MsLiij species of leafhoppers are found in tropical regions. They attack many kinds of vegetable crops although small plots usually are not

severely affected unless large cultivated areas are

nearby. Leafhoppers fly vigorously and spread

rapidly. Nymphs are similar in appearance to

adults but are smaller and cannot fly.

Leaf Miners

Leaf miners are tiny white or yellow legless

maggots of small black or black and yellow flies.

They damage plants by tunneling between the

upper and lower leaf surfaces, making winding

whitish mines %2 to i/ig inch wide.

Leaf miners are common pests of young plants.

Heavy infestations can severely retard growth

although plants are seldom killed. Leafy vegetables are disfigured by leaf miner attacks.

Leaf miners are hard to control because of their

mining habits.

Millipedes

Millipedes are 1 to 3 inches long, cylindrical,

many-segmented, tough-shelled, reddish, greenish,

black or striped wormlike creatures with many

legs, arranged two pairs per body segment. They

attack roots, tubers, and other plant parts in contact with the ground.

During wet seasons in the Tropics, millipedes

sometimes appear in large numbers. At such

times they are important to the gardener because

they shift from their primary role as scavengers

of dead plant material and attack living plants.

Cleanup of dead plant trash aids greatly in

suppressing millipede populations.

Mole Crickets

Mole crickets are brownish crickets up to II/2

inches long with very large front legs adapted for

digging. They live in tunnels beneath the surface

of the ground.

When numerous, mole crickets can damage

many kinds of vegetable crops. The characteristic

burrows with their raised trail of earth at the soil

surface reveal the presence of mole crickets. Mole

crickets are more common and cause their greatest

damage to crops planted in sandy or loamy soils.

They attack the plant stems as well as the roots

and are devastating in seedbeds.

Plant Bugs

Many species of plant bugs are serious pests of

vegetable gardens. The tarnished plant bug, an

elongated brownish insect with irregular white,

yellow, and reddish-brown splotches, is one of the

most serious despite its length of only 14 inch.

Stink bugs or shield bugs can be equally damaging in tropical regions. Damage by plant bugs

resembles that of aphids except that it is more
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 95

obvious. Leaves can be deformed, stems scarred

and discolored, and fruit dwarfed and pitted.

Slugs and Snails

Snails have shells; slugs do not. Both have

grayish slimy legless bodies.

During the rainy season when numbers are

greatest, slugs and snails can damage vegetable

gardens severely. Slugs and snails sometimes live

for a year or more, and their damage can continue

for a long period. Large holes eaten out of

leaves by slugs and snails frequently destroy

young plants. Slugs and snails feed mainly at

night but their presence is revealed by a shiny

sticky trail produced by a secretion from the

undersurface of the body.

Handpicking is often a satisfactory control for

slugs and snails in the small garden. Plant refuse

in sheltered areas sometimes serves as a hideaway

where slugs and snails can be caught and

destroyed.

Spider Mites

Spider mites, tiny eight-legged spider relatives,

usually damage plants most severely during periods of dry, hot weather. Plant foliage becomes

blotched with pale, yellow, white, or reddishbrown spots. The undersurface of affected leaves

appears to have been lightly dusted with a very

fine white powder that, when magnified, can be

seen to consist of empty spider mite skins and

eggs suspended on silken strands. The whitish,

greenish, or reddish mites are up to about YIQ

mch long and feed on plant sap with two slender

lancelets that form their mouth parts.

Thrips

Thrips are minute (often less than y^Q inch

long), slender, agile yellowish or reddish-brown

insects, wingless or with two pairs of very slender

fringed wings that are laid over the back when

the thrips are resting. Foliage damaged by this

tiny sap-feeding insect may be silvered, bleached,

or wilted and covered with tiny dots of black

excrement.

Thrips are all too often ignored in tropical

areas unless they heavily infest a major cash

crop. Many species of thrips can be found in

damaging numbers, especially during dry seasons

or drought. Heavy infestations may destroy

entire fields of vegetable crops.

Thrips also infest alternate weed hosts, making

control difficult.

Webworms

Several species of small yellowish-green, webbing caterpillars are found in the Tropics. Beans,

cabbagç, cucurbits, eggplant, peas, and tomatoes

are particularly vulnerable, but other crops are

attacked also. Webworms may destroy entire

fields during rapid population outbreaks, after

which they often migrate to adjoining fields.

Destroying weeds in the vicinity of garden

plots aids in webworm control.

Weevils

Adult weevils are grayish-brown or black

beetles, 14 to 1/2 inch long with an elongated

snout. The larvae are dirty white grubs with

dark heads.

Both larvae and adults of many species are

important pests on many kinds of vegetable

crops. The common vegetable weevil of Southern

United States does not occur widely in the American Tropics but other equally damaging species

are prevalent.

White Grubs

White grubs, the larvae of May beetles, are

white or light-yellow, thick U-shaped grubs with

brownish heads. They may be 1^ to IV2 inches

long when full grown. White grubs have much

the same feeding habits as wireworms. The life

span of a grub ranges up to 2 or 3 years, and

severe damage can occur over a relatively long

period. Vegetables should not be j)lanted in soil

that has been in grass sod, a favorite egg-laying

site for May beetles.

A cultural control measure for white grubs is

to pasture infested fields with hogs for several

months. Hogs will usually root out and eat the

grubs, almost eliminating them. A large tropical

toad. Bufo marinus F., is an excellent predator

of white grubs and, if not already present in a

locality, should be considered for introduction.

The cattle egret, a native of Africa, that is now

expanding its range in the American Tropics and

Subtropics, is another important white grub

predator and should not be molested.

Wireworms

Wireworms are slender, shiny, hard-skinned

larvae of the common click beetles. They are

usually cream or light tan with dark heads and

tails, and are up to II/2 inches long. They feed

below the ground, chewing off roots or tunneling

through tubers and other underground plant

parts. Wireworms also feed on newly planted

seeds. The long larval life cycle of 1 to 5 years

makes the wireworm an especially severe pest.

The damage of this insect is frequently underestimated.
96 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Insects Attacking Specific Crops

Asparagus

Insect

Asparagus leaf beetleCutworms

Leaf miners

Description and Damage

Foliage eaten and stems scarred by

bluish-black beetles and grayishgreen larvae.

Shoots cut off or fed on by soilinhabiting caterpillars.

Foliage tunneled by tiny maggots.

Control

Dust or spray with carbaryl, DDT,

rotenone, or malathion (pp. 86,87).

Dust or spray with toxaphene or use

chlordane bait (pp. 86, 87).

Dust or spray with malathion (pp.

86,87).

CAUTION.—Do not apply malathion, carbaryl, or rotenone within 1 day of harvest. Do not apply

DDT during the cutting season. ^ Apply toxaphene only after harvest season is over. Do not contaminate edible parts of the plants with chlordane bait.

Insects

Beans

Bush beans, pole beans, lima beans, cowpeas.

Description and Damage Control

Corn earworm Brown to green caterpillars boring

into pods.

Bean leaf beetle Eegular-shaped holes eaten in leaves

by green, yellow, or red beetle

with black markings.

Lima bean pod borer_ Pods bored by small pink caterpillar.

Field crickets Dark-brown jumping insects damag-^

ing seedlings or pods.

Grasshoppers Greenish or grayish hopping insects

feeding on leaves.

Fall armyworm Black to greenish caterpillars with

light stripes, feeding on foliage

and pods.

Aphids Soft-bodied sucking insects clustered^

on leaves.

Tlirips Foliage silvered or bleached by tiny

elongated insects.

Mites Leaves webbed and discolored by very

small eight-legged spider relatives.

Flea beetles Many small holes eaten in leaves by^

tiny jumping beetles.

Weevils Pods bored by white or yellow fat

bodied grubs.

Leafhoppers Leaves yellowed or bronzed by small

wedge-shaped insects.

CAUTION.—Do not apply rotenone to any of these crops within 1 day of harvest. Do not apply

malathion to cowpeas within o days of harvest or to the other crops within 1 day. Do not apply DDT

to coAvpeas after the pods begin to form or to the other crops within 7 days of harvest. Do not apply

Dust or spray with DDT or carbaryl

(pp. 86,87).

Dust or spray with DDT, carbaryl,

or rotenone (pp. 86,87).

Dust or spray with DDT or carbaryl

(pp. 86,87).

Use chlordane bait (p. 87).

Dust or spray with DDT or use

chlordane bait (pp. 86,87).

Dust or spray w^ith malathion (pp.

86,87).

Dust or spray with sulfur or dicofol

(pp. 86,87).

Dust or spray with DDT or carbaryl

(pp. 86,87).

Dust or spray with malathion or

carbaryl (pp. 86,87).
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 97

dicofol to cowpeas at any time; do not apply to the other crops within 7 days of harvest. Do not feed

plants treated with DDT or dicofol to dairy animals or animals being finished for slaughter. Do not

contaminate edible parts of the plants with chlordane bait.

SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS.—Excessive amounts of DDT may damage the foliage of beans. To control

the corn earworm and lima bean pod borer, apply pesticides to foliage when pods begin to form and

at 10-day intervals thereafter. To control the bean leaf beetle and leafhopper, apply msecticides to

foliage when insects are first observed and at 10-day intervals as needed. Heavy aphid infestations usually require two to three applications at weekly intervals.

Insects

Beets and Swiss Chard

Description and Damage Control

Dust or spray with DDT (pp. 86,87).

Dust or spray with malathion or

DDT (pp. 86, 87) as soon as egg

masses are found on underside of

leaves.

CAUTION.—Do not apply malathion to beets or chard within 7 days of harvest. Do not apply

DDT to chard after the seedling stage. Do not use DDT-treated beet tops for food.

Flea beetles Many small holes eaten in leaves by

tiny jumping beetles.

Webworms Leaves webbed together and eaten

by small caterpillars.

Insects

Cutworms

Leafhoppers

Carrots

Description and Damage

Leaves cut off near ground by soilinhabiting caterpillars.

Leaves yelloAved or bronzed by small

wedged-shaped insects.

CAUTION.—Do not apply malathion within 7 days of harvest.

Injects

Celery and Parsnips

DescrÍ2?tion and Damage

Control

Dust or spray with toxaphene (pp.

86,87).

Dust or spray with malathion or

carbaryl (pp. 86,87).

Control

Dust or spray with malathion (pp.

86,87).

Aphids Soft-bodied sucking insects clustered

on leaves.

Hemispherical scale. _ Stems and twigs encrusted with immobile armored insects.

Thrips Tiny elongated insects in crevices at

base of leaves.

Webworms Leaves webbed together and eaten

by small caterpillars.

Armyworms and Leaves cut off and eaten by soil- Dust or spray with toxaphene or

cutworms. inhabiting or climbing caterpillars. apply chlordane bait (pp. 86, 87).

Leaf miners Leaves tunneled by tiny maggots. Dust or spray with diazinon (pp. 86^

87).

CAUTION.—Do not apply malathion within 7 days or diazinon within 10 days of harvest. Do not

apply toxaphene to celery after plants are half mature or after they start to bunch. ^ Do not contaminate edible parts of plants with chlordane bait. Do not use parsnips tops treated with toxaphene for

human consumption.

SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS.—Heavy aphid infestations usually require two or three applications at

weekly intervals. Begin spraying for webworms as soon as egg masses are found on undersides of

leaves.
98 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Cole Crops

Cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, collard, mustard, turnip, rutabaga, radish, kale, kohlrabi, brussels sprout.

Insects Description and Damage Control

Cabbage looper

Diamondback moth _

Gulf white butterfly.

Kagged holes eaten in leaves by pale-'

green, white-striped caterpillar.

Small holes eaten in leaves and buds

by small green caterpillar.

Kagged holes eaten in leaves by velvety yellow and purple caterpillar.

Aphids Soft-bodied sucking insects clustered'

on leaves.

Leaf miners Leaves tunneled by tiny maggots.

Flea beetles Many small holes eaten in leaves by'

tiny jumping beetles.

Webworms Leaves webbed together and eaten

by small caterpillars.

Cutworms Plants cut off at ground by soilinhabiting caterpillars.

Mole crickets Seedlings uprooted by brown burrowing crickets.

Dust or spray with DDT, toxaphene,

malathion, or naled (pp. 86, 87).

Direct the insecticide to the undersides of the leaves. Kepeat treatment once a week.

Dust or spray with naled, diazinon,

or malathion (pp. 86,87).

Dust or spray with DDT (pp. 86,87).

Dust or spray with toxaphene (pp.

86,87).

Dust or spray soil surface with

chlordane (pp. 86, 87) before

planting.

CAUTION.—Do not apply DDT or toxaphene to cabbage, broccoli, brussels sprout, cauliflower, or

kohlrabi after the edible parts start to form. Do not apply DDT or toxaphene to collard, mustard,

rutabaga, or kale after the seedling stage. Do not apply naled to rutabaga, radish, or kohlrabi at any

time or to the other crops within 4 days of harvest. Do not apply diazinon to mustard, rutabaga,

kohlrabi, or brussels sprout at any time. Do not apply diazinon to collard, turnip, radish, or kale within 10 days of harvest, to cabbage within 7 days of harvest, or to broccoli or cauliflower within 5 days

of harvest. Do not apply malathion to broccoli, turnip, or rutabaga within 3 days of harvest or to the

other crops within 7 days of harvest.

SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS.—The cabbage looper must be controlled in its early stages of larval development. Large mature loopers are extremely resistant to insecticides. Apply insecticide at weekly

intervals as soon as true leaves appear, in areas known commonly to harbor the looper or when

larvae appear. NOTE : DDT is not effective against the cabbage looper. To control the diamondback moth and Gulf white butterfly, apply the insecticide when insects appear and at 7-day intervals

as needed. Heavy aphid infestations usually require two or three applications at weekly intervals.

Begin spraying for webworms as soon as egg masses are found on undersides of leaves.

Insects

Striped cucumber

beetle.

Melonworm

Pickleworm

Squash bug

Cucurbits

Cantaloup, cucumber, squash, watermelon, pumpkin.

Description and Damage Control

Stems and leaves of seedlings fed"

on by black, yellow-striped beetles.

Leaves eaten by pale-green, whitestriped caterpillars.

Flowers, fruit, and leaf buds tunneled by caterpillars that are

cream colored with black spots

later becoming pale green.

Brownish stink bugs that suck juice

from plants.

Dust or spray with carbaryl or

malathion (pp. 86,87).
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 99

Flea beetles Many small holes eaten in leaves by

tiny jumping beetles.

Webworms Leaves webbed together and eaten

by small caterpillars.

Leaf miners Leaves tunneled by tiny maggots.

Aphids Soft-bodied sucking insects clustered

on leaves.

Plant bugs Small sucking insects that cause

wilting of leaves or vine tips.

Cutworms Plants cut off at ground by soil-'

inhabiting caterpillars.

Field crickets Dark-brown jumping insects damaging seedlings and fruit.

Grasshoppers Greenish or grayish hopping insects

damaging foliage.

CAUTION.—Do not apply malathion to pumpkins within 3 days or to other cucurbits within 1 day

of harvest. Do not contaminate edible parts of the plants with chlordane bait.

SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS.—To minimize injury to honey bees and other pollinating insects, delay

application of insecticides until late in the afternoon. Heavy aphid infestations usually require two

or three applications at weekly intervals. Begin spraying for webworms as soon as egg masses are

found on undersides of leaves.

Dust or spray with carbaryl (pp. 86,

87).

Dust or spray with malathion (pp.

86,87).

Use chlordane bait (p. 87).

Insects

Eggplant^ Potato^ and Tomato

Description and Damage Control

Hornworms Large caterpillars eating foliage and

occasionally fruit.

Small sucking insects with lacy

wings. Damaged leaves turn yellow and die.

Brown to green caterpillars tunneling into fruit and stems.

Dust or spray with carbaryl (pp. 86,

87).

Dust or spray undersides of leaves

with malathion (pp. 86, 87).

Dust or spray with DDT or carbaryl

(pp. 86,87).

Dust or spray with carbaryl (pp. 86,

87).

Dust or spray with malathion (pp.

86,87).

Lace bugs

(eggplant pest).

Corn earworm

(tomato pest).

Flea beetles Many small holes eaten in leaves by

tiny jumping beetles.

Aphids Soft-bodied sucking insects clustered

on leaves and stems.

Field crickets _—— Dark-brown jumping insects damag-'

ing seedlings and fruit.

Grasshoppers Greenish or grayish hopping insects

feeding on leaves.

Millipedes Hard-shelled, many-legged pests of

seedlings, fruits, or potato tubers.

CAUTION.—Limit carbaryl applications on potato to foliage only. Do not apply malathion to eggplant within 3 days or to tomatoes within 5 days of harvest. Do not apply DDT to eggplant or tomatoes within 5 days of harvest. Eemove excess residues from eggplant by washing or brushing at

time of harvest. Do not contaminate edible parts of the plant with chlordane bait.

SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS.—Heavy aphid infestations usually require two or three applications at

weekly intervals. Begin spraying for webworms as soon as egg masses are found on undersides of leaves.

Use chlordane bait (p. 87).

Dust or spray with DDT (pp. 86,87).
100 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Insects

Lettuce and Endive

Description and Damage

Aphids Small soft-bodied insects clustered

on leaves.

Leafhoppers Leaves yellowed or bronzed by small

wedge-shaped insects.

Leaf miners Leaves tunneled by tiny maggots.

Spider mites Leaves webbed and discolored by

very small eight-legged spider

relatives.

Thrips Leaves silvered or bleached by tiny

elongated insects.

Flea beetles Many small holes eaten in leaves by

tiny jumping beetles.

Armyworms Foliage eaten by caterpillars up to

11/2 inches long.

Webworms Leaves webbed together and eaten by

small caterpillars.

Wireworms Underground plant parts eaten or

tunneled by hard, shiny larvae.

Slugs or snails Foliage eaten by slimy, legless

shelled or shell-less pests.

Control

Dust or spray with malathion (pp.

86,87).

Dust or spray with DDT or carbaryl

(pp. 86,87).

Dust or spray with DDT or use

chlordane bait (pp. 86,87).

Dust or spray with malathion or

DDT (pp. 86,87).

Before planting, broadcast 4 pounds

of 10-percent chlordane granules

per 1,000 square feet of soil surface and work it into the upper 4

to 6 inches of soil.

Use a commercial pellet bait containing metaldehyde.

CAUTION.—Do not apply malathion within 7 days of harvest of head lettuce or endive or within 14

days of harvest of leaf lettuce. Do not apply DDT to lettuce or endive after the seedling stage. Do

not apply carbaryl to head lettuce within 3 days or to leaf lettuce and endive within 14 days of harvest. Do not contammate edible portions of the plants with the chlordane or metaldehyde bait.

SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS.—Heavy aphid infestations usually require two or three applications at

weekly intervals. Begin spraying for webworms as soon as egg masses are found on undersides of

leaves. Baits for slugs and snails should be scattered in the vicinity of damaged plants in piles of

tour or five pellets each. © ^ iInsects

Pink bollworm

Corn earworm

Aphids

Leaf miners

Thrips

Plant bugs and

green stink bugs.

Flea beetles

Leafhoppers

Okra

Description and Damage

Pinkish larvae boring into pods.

Brown to green caterpillars boring

into pods.

Small soft-bodied insects clustered

on leaves.

Leaves tunneled by tiny maggots.

Leaves silvered or bleached by tiny

elongated insects.

Small to medium size, shield-shaped

insects sucking juice from tender

foliage and pods.

Many small holes eaten in foliage b}^

tiny jumping beetles.

Leaves yellowed or bronzed by small

wedge-shaped insects.

Control

Dust or spray with carbaryl or DDT

(pp. 86,87).

Dust or spray with malathion (pp.

86,87).

Dust or spray with carbaryl or DDT

(pp. 86,87).

Dust or spray with malathion or

carbaryl (pp. 86,87).
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 101

CAUTION.—Do not apply malathion to okra after the pods begin to form. Do not apply DDT

within 7 days of harvest.

SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS.—Heavy aphid infestations usually require two or three applications at

weekly intervals.

Insects

Onions and Garlic

Description and Damage

Onion thrips Tiny elongated insects causing white

blotches on leaves.

Mole crickets Seedlings uprooted by brown burrowing crickets.

Fall armyworm Black to greenish caterpillars with

light stripes feeding on leaves.

Cutworms Leaves and small plants cut off by

soil-inhabiting caterpillars.

Leaf miners Leaves mined by tiny maggots.

Wireworms Eoots or bulbs eaten or tunneled by

hard, shiny larvae.

Control

Dust or spray with DDT or malathion (pp. 86,87).

Apply chlordane bait or dust or

spray with toxaphene (pp. 86, 87).

Dust or spray with malathion (pp.

86,87).

Before planting, broadcast 4 pounds

of 10-percent chlordane granules

per 1,000 square feet of soil surface and work into the upper 4 to

6 inches of soil.

CAUTION.—Do not apply toxaphene to green or bunching onions or to garlic after the edible parts

start to form. Do not apply DDT to green or bunching onions.

or garlic within 3 days of harvest.

Pepper

Insects Description and Damage

Hornworms Large caterpillars eating foliage.

Aphids Small soft-bodied insects clustered'

on leaves.

Thrips Leaves silvered or bleached by tiny

elongated insects.

Armyworms and Young plants or foliage of older

cutworms. plants destroyed by climbing or

soil-inhabiting caterpillars.

Flea beetles Many small holes eaten in leaves by

tiny jumping beetles.

Plant bugs Small sucking insects that cause

wilting of leaves or buds.

Mole crickets Seedlings uprooted by brown burrowing crickets.

Weevils Snout beetles feeding on foliage,

buds, or fruit; fat larvae tunneling buds and fruit.

Leaf miners Leaves tunneled by tiny maggots.

Do not apply malathion to onions

Control

Dust or spray wâth carbaryl (pp. 86,

87).

Dust or spray with malathion (pp.

86,87).

Dust or spray with toxaphene (pp.

86,87).

Dust or spray with DDT or carbaryl

(pp. 86,87).

Apply chlordane bait (p. 87).

Dust or spray with DDT (pp. 86,87).

Dust or spray with diazinon (pp. 86,

87).

CAUTION.—Do not apply malathion within 3 days or toxaphene or DDT wathin 7 days of harvest.

Eemove excess residues of DDT by washing or brushing. Do not apply diazinon after first blooms

appear.

SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS.—Heavy aphid infestations usually require two or three applications at

weekly intervals.
102 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Insects

Spinach

Description and Damage

Aphids Small soft-bodied insects clustered

on leaves.

Cutworms Leaves or small plants cut off by

soil-inhabiting caterpillars.

Webworms Leaves webbed together and eaten

by small caterpillars.

Weevils Foliage or buds damaged by snout

beetles or their larvae.

Control

Dust or spray with malathion (pp.

86,87).

Dust or spray with toxaphene or use

chlordane bait (pp. 86,87).

Dust or spray with malathion or

DDT (pp. 86,87).

Dust or spray with DDT (pp. 86,87).

CAUTION.—Do not apply malathion within 7 days of harvest. Do not apply toxaphene within 21

days of harvest; make one application only. Do not apply DDT after the seedling stage. Do not

contammate the edible parts of the plants with the chlordane bait.

SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS.—Heavy aphid infestations usually require two or three applications at

weekly mtervals. Begin spraying for webworms as soon as egg masses are found on undersides of

leaves.

Sweet Corn

Insects Description and Damage

Corn earworm Brown to green caterpillars damaging ears, especially near tips.

Southern cornstalk

borer.

Lesser cornstalk

borer.

Buds and stalks bored by creamcolored caterpillar with black

spots.

Young plants tunneled and killed

by small, greenish, soil-inhabiting

caterpillars.

Aphids Small soft-bodied insects clustered

on leaves and tassel.

Spider mites Leaves webbed and discolored by

very small eight-legged spider

relatives.

Fall armyworm Buds or tassels heavily damaged by

black to greenish, light-striped caterpillars; ears sometimes attacked.

Weevils Stalks and young plants attacked by

snout beetles.

Cutworms Young plants cut off by soif-inhabiting caterpillars.

Wireworms __ Roots and sprouting seed eaten by

hard, shiny larvae.

Control

Spray silks with carbaryl (p. 86) the

day after earw^orms appear; repeat

four times at 2- to 3-day intervals.

Dust or spray with DDT (pp. 86,87).

Spray DDT (p. 86) to soil in a 6-

inch strip as plants break through

ground.

Dust or spray with malathion (pp.

86,87).

Dust or spray with carbaryl or DDT

(pp. 86,87).

Apply chlordane bait (p. 87).

Before planting, broadcast 4 pounds

of 10-percent chlordane granules

per 1,000 square feet of soil surface and work it into the upper 4

to 6 inches of soil.

CAUTION.—Do not apply malathion within 5 days of harvest. Do not feed DDT-treated forage to

dairy cows or to animals being finished for slaughter. Do not contaminate edible parts of the plants

with chlordane bait. ^

SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS.—Heavy aphid infestations usually require two to three applications at weekly intervals. ^ ^ t-1
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 103

Insects

Tortoise beetle

Sweetpotato weevil

White grubs

Sweetpotato

Description and Damage

Gold, or gold-striped, or blackmarked, helmet-shaped beetles

feeding on leaves.

Shiny ant-like beetles or their cream

to pink larvae tunneling in roots

and vines.

Robust U-shaped grubs feeding on

roots.

Control

Dust or spray with DDT (pp. 86,87).

Apply 2 to 21/2 percent dieldrin dust

along the row in a strip 6 to 8

inches wide. Direct the dust to

the surface of the soil at the base

of the plants. Apply as soon as

roots begin to enlarge and repeat

2 weeks later.

Before planting, broadcast 4 pounds

of 10-percent chlordane granules

per 1,000 square feet of soil surface and work it into the upper

4 to 6 inches of soil.

CAUTION.—Do not apply dieldrin within 21 days of harvest.

OTHER VEGETABLE PESTS

TSematodes

Symptoms of nematode injury are stunted or

sickly looking plants with no visible damage to

aerial parts; roots may show numerous knots or

galls or may be distinctly enlarged or swollen. A

nematode is a microscopic roundworm that cannot be observed without high magnification and

special detection techniques.

Nearly all of the common vegetable crops are

susceptible to many kinds of parasitic nematodes.

Nematodes often become a production problem in

gardens planted in the same place each year, particularly on light sandy soils. The damage

caused by nematodes to vegetable crops can be

particularly severe on soils low in organic matter,

soil nutrients, and moisture.

Control—Avoiding infested soils is the most

practical control method for the small gardener

to use. Rotation with a nonsusceptible crop or

with some other use of the land such as a poultry

yard or animal lot could be followed each year

or two. Some crops such as pangolagrass {Digitaria decumbens Stent.) and pigeonpea are resistant to certain types of nematodes, but no single crop is resistant to all types of nematodes

found in tropical soils. If the soil is well fertilized and tended, grass rotations will suppress

weed growth. Weeds should be controlled at all

times in garden areas since many are excellent

hosts for nematodes. Some vegetables such as

cabbage, cauliflower, endive, lettuce, mustard.

onion, pigeonpea, potato, and turnip are more

tolerant than others to root-knot nematodes.

Vegetable varieties reported to be nematode resistant in northern areas should be tested in tropical gardens.

Moderate nematode infestations do not always

severely retard growth of vegetable crops or reduce yields under good growing conditions.

Careful attention to the fertilizer program and

irrigation and the addition of organic matter to

the soil will keep the plants growing vigorously.

Turning over the soil several times at monthly

intervals by plowing or spading when it is bare

of crops will aid in reducing the population of

nematodes. In the Caribbean area this is particularly effective during the dry season.

If nematodes become excessively damaging, the

soil can be treated with a chemical nematocide

before planting. Preparations available commercially for use as fumigants contain either

d i chloropropene-dichloropropane ( DD-Mixture ),

etliylene dibromide (Dowfume W-85), or dibromochloropropane (Nemagon, Fumazone 86).

These chemicals are available in various formulations. Nemagon is available as a granular formulation, which is best applied 5 to 6 inches deep

in furrows, alone or mixed with fertilizer, and

covered with soil. It is important tJiat all chemicals used to kill nematodes in the soil he handled

and applied according to the instructions given

hy the manufacturer. Read the label carefully.
104 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Rats and Mice

Eats and mice can cause extensive losses both

in gardens and in places where produce is stored.

They eat both seeds and mature vegetables, especially beans, corn, peas, and tomatoes.

Control—Cats effectively control rats and mice

for the small home gardener. Eliminating hiding

places such as trash piles or heavy underbrush in

the vicinity of the garden will aid control measures. Baited snap traps can be placed in rat or

mouse runw^ays. Should these procedures fail,

commercially prepared baits containing warfarin

or other anticoagulants can be applied according

to the directions shown on the individual pacJcage.

CAUTION SHOULD BE TAKEN TO KEEP

TKEATED BAITS OUT OF THE REACH

OF CHILDEEN AND PETS.

VEGETABLE DISEASES

A number of plant diseases are so universally

found in the Caribbean area that they can be

classified as general in nature. These general

diseases and their control will be discussed first

and then more specific diseases and their control

will be discussed.

DISEASE CONTROL RECOMMENDATIONS LISTED IN THE GENERAL VEGETABLE DISEASE SECTION ARE THOSE

FREQUENTLY USED. PESTICIDES USED

FOR SPECIFIC VEGETABLES ARE DISCUSSED IN GREATER DETAIL UNDER

THE SPECIFIC VEGETABLE DISEASE

SECTION. FOR CONTROL ON SPECIFIC

VEGETABLES, DIRECTIONS ON PESTICIDE PACKAGES SHOULD BE CAREFULLY FOLLOWED, INCLUDING ATTENTION TO PREVENTION OF EXCESSIVE

PESTICIDE RESIDUES AT HARVEST.

General Vegetable Diseases

Damping'off Disease

Damping-off is probably the most severe disease

of seedlings and young plants in tropical regions,

especially those growing in seedbeds. A number

of fungus species commonly living in the soil

cause this disease, which is sometimes called

wirestem or black root. High soil moisture content and high humidity promote the quick spread

of damping-off.

Symptoms—Seed decay, blackening of roots

and stem at the soil surface, a water-soaked constriction of the stem just above the soil surface,

and collapse of the plant—all identify dampingoff.

Control—Damping-off is aggravated by wet

conditions, so any drainage or other procedures

that permit less retained moisture in soil help

greatly. Before planting, treat seedbeds with

boiling water, by baking the soil, or with a 2-

percent solution of formaldehyde. Copper oxide

or captan effectively control damping-off.

Drench the soil thoroughly with a spray made

of 11/^ level teaspoons of copper oxide to a gallon

of water. A copper oxide drench is usually preferred for use on celery, lettuce, and tomato.

Copper oxide sprays can be used on beet, carrot,

chard, eggplant, green bean, kohlrabi, and

pepper.

Apply a spray made of 1 level tablespoon of

50-percent captan WP to a gallon of water. This

amount will treat 200 row feet or 500 square feet

of garden space.

Another recommended control for damping-ofl'

is treating seeds with Semesan, 50-percent captan

WP, or copper oxide before planting. Treat only

the seed required for immeaiate planting. (See

p. 19.) Place one level teaspoonful of any of

these chemicals in a small jar with the seed, and

cover the container tightly and shake thoroughly

for about a minute. Excess powder in the bottom

of the container can be saved and used again.

Plant seed covered with the dust immediately

after treatment. (See p. 26.) Destroy surplus

treated seed by burning or burying. Do not use

treated seed for food, feed, or oil. The chemicals

used for seed treatment are poisonous. Both

chemicals and treated seeds should be kept out

of the reach of children, pets, and domestic

animals.

Powdery Mildew

Powdery mildew is one of two mildews regularly found in tropical areas. A number of

species of fungus are the causal organisms of

powdery mildew. It is most prevalent during the

dry parts of the year in places having a welldefined rainy season or is found year round at

high elevations where cool, cloudy weather is

common. During periods when environmental

conditions are particularly favorable to the

fungus, leaves and young stems of the plant can

be killed.

Symptoms—Powdery mildew appears as a

white talcumlike growth primarily on the upper

leaf surface. As the disease progresses, the infected areas become brown and dry.
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 105

Control—Sulfur sprays and dusts have been

used for powdery mildew control but can cause

phytotoxicity, so excessive amounts should not be

applied, especially on cucurbits. Karathane is an

excellent specific fungicide to use on cucurbits.

Apply a spray made of 11/2 level teaspoons of 25-

percent Karathane WP to a gallon of water. This

amount will treat 200 row feet or 500 square feet

of garden space.

Downy Mildew

In the Tropics, downy mildew is most frequently

encountered in high-humidity, high-temperature

areas. Where there is a well-defined rainy season,

this airborne fungus is very common during that

season. A number of species and strains of

fungus cause downy mildew symptoms that vary

somewhat, depending on the plant species affected.

Symptoms—Undersurfaces of leaves develop a

mold that is often whitish but sometimes is

purplish or almost black. The corresponding

upper leaf surfaces appear yellow at first and

then turn brown; then the leaves curl and die.

Brown or black necrotic areas appear from the

root crown extending downward. In advanced

stages minute cracks appear or the root splits

open. Decay bacteria are often associated with

downy mildew.

Control—Control should be exercised as soon

as symptoms appear because downy mildew

spreads extremely rapidly. Bordeaux mixture

used in a 6:6:100 formulation effectively controls

downy mildew. A spray made of 1 level tablespoon of 80-percent maneb WP or 4 level teaspoons of 75-percent zineb WP to a gallon of

water will also control downy mildew. For light

infestations, apply a spray made of 1 level tablespoon of 50-percent captan WP to a gallon of

water. This amount will treat 200 row feet or

500 square feet of garden space. When downy

mildew-resistant plants are available, they should

be used.

Fungal Leaf Spot

Many fungi cause leaf spotting. Practically

every kind of vegetable croj) can be affected by

one or more of these species at one time or

another. When damage is severe, extensive crop

loss may result.

Symptoms—Fungal leaf spot symptoms are

many and varied. Spots vary greatly from circular to irregular and from quite small to fairly

large. Color is typically light tan with darkbrown borders but also can be black, gray, brown,

or reddish brown. Leaf spots are followed by

drying and defoliation. í^í'OTE : It is often difficult to distinguish fungal leaf spot from bacterial

leaf spot, described in the next section, but

bacterial leaf spots will appear watery and wall

never have the tiny specklike black or dark-brown

fruiting bodies that are often associated with

fungal leaf spots.

Control—Crop rotation with unrelated plants

,effectively controls fungal leaf spot. Good plant

health is important, so good drainage and fertilization should be considered. Bordeaux mixture or

copper compounds usually control most fungal

leaf spots. A spray made of 4 level teaspoons of

75-percent zineb WP to a gallon of water will

also control many fungal leaf spots. This amount

will treat 200 row feet or 500 square feet of

garden space. When resistant varieties are available, they should be planted.

Bacterial Leaf Spot

Several species of bacteria cause leaf spotting.

They are usually not strongly pathogenic and

gain entrance principally through plant parts

damaged by insects, farming equipment, and

excessive watering, or through growth and wind

cracks. Leaf spot bacteria are harbored in the

soil and are probably transported to the plant

by rain splashes or by insects.

Symptoms—Bacterial leaf spot symptoms are

variable, but infections frequently begin with

numerous small brown to yellowish, circular to

angular, water-soaked appearing spots that enlarge rapidly and coalesce until the leaf is

covered. A halo may appear around the spot.

Infection often is found on older leaves, first

commencing at leaf margins and progressing

inward. Leaves finally deteriorate and drop.

Some leaf spot bacteria also invade stems and

fruits.

Control—Crop rotation, good drainage, resistant varieties, and clean seed often keep bacterial leaf spot under control. For the home

gardener a commercial fixed copper controls leaf

spot effectively. Follow directions on the package for the particular crop to be treated.

Mosaic

Mosaic viruses are found everywhere and on

many kinds of vegetable crops. Weeds are excellent reservoirs for the virus, making control

doubly difficult. Mosaic ranks as one of the more

destructive plant diseases although in many instances it results in stunting or weakening of the

plant rather than death.

Symptoms—Mosaic is characterized by mottling

of leaf surfaces. In addition, leaves can become

distorted, wrinkled, or stunted, or can have curled

edges. Stems infested with mosaic can be streaked

or necrotic. Fruits also suffer from mosaic ; wart-
106 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

like spots, knobbiness, loss of color, and spotting

are typical symptoms.

Control—Resistant varieties, when available,

are perhaps the best insurance against mosaic

viruses. Weed control in the vicinity of the

garden also helps. Control of the aphid or leafhopper vectors prevents extensive damage by

some mosaics. At this time (1967) no chemical

directly controls mosaic.

Rust

Rust fungus, although very common, does not

often become economically important on tropical

vegetable crops. However, when rust pustules

appear on the plant, control measures are indicated. Leguminous plants in particular, such as

beans and peas, should be observed for rust symptoms. Rust infections result in stunted plants

and lowered yield.

Symptoms—Rust pustules can appear on any

aboveground plant part but the undersides of

leaves are favored. The minute slightly elevated

pustules are dirty white when young, but

become distinctly reddish brown with age.

Hundreds of rust pustules can grow^ on a single

leaf. When mature, rusts release millions of

spores that are quickly spread by air currents.

Heavy rust infestations eventually kill foliage

and cause it to drop.

Control—Maneb and zineb applied at the same

strength listed for downy mildew are effective

against rust. Bordeaux mixture also controls

rust. Rust-resistant varieties of plants should be

planted whenever available if rust is a frequent

problem.

Disease and

causal organism

YeUows or wilt

(virus).

Root rot ( bacteria )-

Specific Vegetable Diseases

Carrot Diseases

Symptoms

Young leaves yellow at center of

crown spreading to shoots;

stunted roots.

Decayed or soft roots.

Some general diseases occasionally can be encountered on carrots. See the section on general

Minimum days

Control to harvest

Control leafhopper vectors. See general pest section.

Provide good drainage and do not

overcrowd plants. Rotate crops.

Treat seeds 10 minutes in water

at 126° F. (52° C).

vegetable diseases for information on symptoms

and control.

Disease and

causal organism

Early blight

(fungus).

Late blight ( fungus) _

Celery Diseases

Symptoms

Small circular yeilow-brown spots

on mature leaves becoming larger

and grayer as the fungus develops ;

this disease later spreading to the

stalks.

Small yellow spots on leaves becoming dark gray-brown, speckled

with tiny black dots.

Control

Bordeaux mixture

Minimum days

to harvest

(1)

75-percent zineb WP, 4 level tsp./

gal. water.

Same control as for early blight. If

late blight is common, plant resistant varieties.

^ No time limit when used as recommended. Remove residues by washing and stripping.

In addition to the major specific diseases above,

bacterial soft rot and yellows or wilt fungus may

be encountered. The only remedies at the present

time are planting resistant varieties and destroying diseased plants. Damping-off disease and

mosaic virus also often attack celery seedlings.

See the section on general vegetable diseases for

information on symptoms and control.

A physiological disorder, black heart, sometimes appears during wet, warm weather. Leaf

margins become discolored. In irrigated areas,

avoid excess watering to help control black heart.
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 107

Disease and

causal organism

Smut (fungus) __.

Wilt (bacteria)

Sweet Corn Diseases

Symptoms

Large irregularly shaped white galls

on stalks, ears, and tassels;

growths bursting, releasing black

fungus spores.

Stunted and wilted plants, tassels

whitening early ; slimy yellow

substance oozing from cut stalks.

Other corn diseases include bacterial or fungal

leaf spot, mosaic virus, and rust. See the section

on general vegetable diseases for information on

symptoms and control. Planting resistant corn

Control

Remove and destroy galls. Rotate

crops.

Plant wilt-resistant varieties

Minimum days

to harvest

varieties has done much to check disease incidence

in this important crop, so investigate the possibility of obtaining seed with resistant qualities.

Cole Crop Diseases

Cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, collard, mustard, turnip, rutabaga, radish, kale, kohlrabi, brussels

sprouts, Chinese cabbage.

Disease and

causal organism

Black rot ( bacteria ).

Blackleg (fungus)

Yellows or wilt

(fungus).

Symptoms

Black leaf veins ; black ring near

outside edge of crosscut stem ;

yellowed leaves.

Grayish spots speckled with tiny

black dots especially on stems

near ground ; stem girdling ;

wilted foliage.

Yellowish-green leaves often starting on one side of the plant, followed by leaf drop.

Control

Plant disease-free seed. Do not plant

where cabbage has been grown

within 1 year. Follow at least 3-

year rotation if previous planting

was diseased. Treat seed from

diseased plants in hot water, 30

minutes at 50° O. Destroy all

diseased plants.

Same control as for black rot. Treat

seeds with 28.6-percent Semesan

dust, 1 ounce per 15 pounds seed.

Plant resistant cabbage varieties,

such as Jersey Queen, Resistant

Detroit, Wisconsin AU Seasons,

Marion Market.

Minimum days

to harvest

Other harmful cole crop diseases include damping-off, downy and powdery mildews, and mosaic.

Mosaic, which produces mottled leaves, can be

especially severe on head cabbage and can be

reduced by prompt aphid control.

SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS.—These common crucifer diseases cannot be controlled with sprays.

Cucurbit Diseases

Cantaloup, cucumber, squash, watermelon, chayóte, pumpkin.

Disease and

causal organism

Anthracnose

(fungus).

Scab or leak

(fungus).

Symptoms

Fruits—round sunken spots with

pinkish-tan centers that later

darken.

Foliage—red-brown circular cankers.

Stems—elongated tan spots.

Sunken dark-brown spots on fruits ;

gummy ooze exuding from spots.

Control

Rotate crops and do not replant

oftener than once in 3 years.

Plant only clean seed.

Bordeaux mixture

75-percent zineb WP, 4 level tsp./

gal. water.

Remove and destroy fruit showing

scab symptoms ; do not replant in

same area for 3 years.

Bordeaux mixture

80-percent maneb WP, 1 level tbsp./

gal. water or 50-percent captan

WP, 1 level tbsp./gal. water.

Minimum days

to harvest

(1)

a)

^ No time limit when used as recommended. Remove residues by washing.

Cucurbits also are frequently attacked by

downy and powdery mildews, damping-off disease,

and cucumber mosaic virus. See the section on

general vegetable diseases for information on

symptoms and control. Crop rotation is advisable

if disease symptoms persist because of the rather

great disease susceptibility of cucurbits.
108 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 823, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Eggplant^ Potato^ and Tomato Diseases

Disease and

causal organism

Wilt (bacteria)

Fusarium wilt

(fungus).

Early blight

(fungus).

Late blight ( fungus) _

Symptoms

Progressive wilting beginning at

midday and recovering overnight ;

slimy yellowish substance oozing

from cut parts.

Yellowing and wilting of foliage

beginning with lower leaves;

browning of woody tissue under

green part of stem.

Irregular small dark-brown spots

becoming circular bull's-eyes on

foliage ; cankers on stems that

sometimes girdle at ground level ;

dark leathery decayed spots at

stem end of fruit.

Dark water-soaked spots on leaves,

white water-soaked spots on

fruits ; spots enlarging and turning brown ; white fungus growth

on undersides of leaves in wet

Control

Rotate crops, omitting these plants

as successive plantings. Plant resistant varieties ; sprays are of no

value.

Same control as for bacterial wilt

Bordeaux mixture

75-percent zineb WP, 4 level tsp./

gal. water.

80-percent maneb WP, 1 level tsp./

gal. water.

Apply fungicides every 7 to 10

days.

Same control as for early blight but

apply about 30 days after plants

flower. Plant resistant varieties

(potato).

Minimum days

to harvest

Rhizoctonia canker

or black scurf

(fungus).

Anthracnose

(fungus).2

Scab (fungus) ^

Blossom end rot

(calcium deficiency

generally appearing

during drought).*

Fruit rot ( fungus)5__

Plant disease-free

clean soil.

seed pieces in

80-percent maneb WP, 1 level tbsp./

gal. water.

Bordeaux mixture

(1)

a)

(1)

(1)

season.

Hard shiny black bodies on roots or

on tubers ; brown cankers on

sprouts and stolons ; sprouts dying or developing numerous side

branches ; lower leaves drooping

or decaying but not dropping.

F7^uits—round sunken spots with

pinkish-tan centers on fruits,

later darken.

Foliage—red-brown circular cankers.

Stems—elongated tan spots.

Rough scabby, raised, or pitted Plant scab-resistant varieties. Plant

spots on tubers. in uninfested soil.

Large, dark, sunken corky spots at Avoid excessive use of nitrogenous

blossom end of fruits, especially fertilizers. Use adequate amounts

if soil dries rapidly while plants of lime and superphosphate.

are making vigorous growth.

Brown shrunken stems at soil line ; Plant resistant varieties such as

brown or gray leaf spots ; large, Florida Market or Florida Beauty.

ringed, circular brownish spots on

fruits.

^ No time limit when used as recommended. Remove residues by washing.

2 Disease of eggplant and tomato. * Physiological disorder of tomato.

^ Disease of potatoes. ^ Disease of eggplant.

Other eggplant, potato, and tomato diseases

include fungal leaf spot and a gray leaf mold

that can be controlled in the same manner as

fungal leaf spot. See the section on general

vegetable diseases for information on symptoms

and control.

Legume Diseases

Pigeonpeas, cowpeas, bush beans, lima beans, pole beans, soybeans.

Disease and

causal organism

Anthracnose

(fungus).

Root rot (fungus) .

Control

75-percent zineb WP, 4 level tsp./

^al. water.

Bordeaux mixture

Symptoms

Pods and stems—brown sunken

spots.

Leaves—elongated dark red-brown

cankers.

Decayed roots and plant base Preplant treatment : plow cover

crops under 8 weeks before planting ; treat seeds with 50-percent

captan WP.

No time limit when used as recommended. Remove residues by washing.

Minimum days

to harvest

(1)

Bean mosaic virus and powdery mildew are

also frequently encountered on legumes. See the

section on general vegetable diseases for information on symptoms and control.
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 109

Disease and

causal organism

Yellows (virus)

Lettuce Disease

Lettuce, endive.

Symptoms

Inner leaves curled, twisted, or

yellowed.

Control

Control leafhopper vectors. See general pest section.

Minimum days

to harvest

Disease and

causal organism

Fusarium wilt

(fungus).

Okra Diseases

Symptoms

Yellowing and wilting of foliage

beginning with lower leaves ;

browning of woody tissue under

green parts of stem.

Okra is also subject to the cercospora leaf spot

fungus during wet weather. See the section on

Control

Sprays are of no value. Plant resistant varieties. Rotate crops

but do not rotate with eggplant,

potato, or tomato, which are also

fusarium susceptible.

Minimum days

to harvest

general vegetable diseases for information on

symptoms and control.

Disease and

causal organism

Soft rot (bacteria).

Purple blotch

(fungus).

Leaf anthracnose

(fungus).

Onion Diseases

Onion, leek, garlic.

Symptoms Control

Rotting of bulbs Harvest bulbs promptly and store

in a dry airy place. Plant reMinimum days

to harvest

Large purple spots intermixed with

white spots on leaves.

sistant varieties.

Bordeaux mixture

80-percent maneb WP, 1 tbsp./gal.

water.

Whitish spots on leaves Bordeaux mixture

75-percent zineb WP, 4 level tsp./

gal. water.

^ No time limit when used as recommended. Remove residues by washing.

- Zineb should not be applied to green onions within 7 days of harvest.

(1)

(1)

(1)

(1, 2)

Downy mildew also is frequently found on

these vegetables. See the section on general vegetable diseases for information on symptoms and

control.

NOTE: Because of the waxy nature of onion

foliage, it is difficult to obtain adequate foliar

coverage with sprays. Early morning spraying

when dew is still on the plant aids in proper

distribution of chemicals.

Pepper Diseases

Disease and

causal organism

Anthracnose

(fungus).

Wilt (bacteria) ___

Fusarium wilt

(fungus).

Symptoms

Brown sunken spots on fruits

AVilting beginning at midday and

recovering overnight becoming

progressively severe ; slimy yellowish oozing from plant parts.

Yellowing and wilting of foliage

beginning with lower leaves ;

browning of woody tissues under

green parts of stem.

Control

Bordeaux mixture

75-percent zineb WP, 4 level tsp./

gal. water.

Sprays are ineffective. Rotate crops.

Plant resistant varieties.

Same control as for bacterial wiltMinimum days

to harvest

(1)

(1)

^ No time limit when used as recommended. Remove residues by washing.

A number of general diseases, including damping-off, bacterial leaf spot, cercospora leaf spot,

downy mildew, and mosaic virus, attack pepper

plants. Pepper varieties resistant to mosaic virus

include Yolo Wonder, Yolo Wonder L, Chato,

and Corozal. See the section on general diseases

for information on symptoms and control.
lio AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 823, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Sweetpotato Diseases

Disease and

causal organism

Black rot

(fungus).

Stem rot or wilt

(fungus).

Internal cork

(virus).

Minimum days

Symptoms Control to harvest

Round black sunken spots on tubers ; Destroy diseased plants. Rotate

black cankers on underground location. Plant clean seed pieces,

parts of stems.

Yellowed or wilted plants ; stems Same control as for black rot

and roots showing black discoloration or ring when cut across.

Tough and corky tubers Plant cork-free seed stock

LITERATURE CITED

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

(9)

(10)

(11)

(12)

(13)

(14)

(15)

ANONYMOUS.

1947. BHUBABB PBOTECTS TEETH.

52(16) : 252.

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APONTE APONTE, FBANCISCO.

1961. VABIEDADES DE HOBTALIZAS A SEMBEAB. P.R.

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[In Spanish.]

BAILEY, W. K.

1940. EXPEBIMENTS IN CONTBOLLING COBN EAB

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BuTLEB, J. D., and OEBKEB, N. F.

1962. HYDBOPONICS AS A HOBBY. GBOWING PLANTS

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CABANILLAS, E., and SPENCEB, J. L.

1956. IMPEOVED USDA-34, A BETTEB SWEET COBN

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CHILDEBS, N. F., and SEGUINOT ROBLES, P.

1947. SLOBOLT LETTUCE FOB THE TBOPICS. Agr. in

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WiNTEBS, H. F., SEGUINOT ROBLES, P., and

PLANK, H. K.

1950. VEGETABLE GABDENING IN THE TBOPICS. FED.

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DEL VALLE, C. G.

1943. EL MAÍZ DULCE. Cuba Estac. Expt. Agron.

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FEDEBAL EXPEBIMENT STATION IN PUEBTO Rico.

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FBAZIEB, W. A.

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GiLBEBT, J. C.

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GOODING, H. J.

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1963. THE VALUE OF MOISTUBE-BESISTANT CONTAINEBS IN VEGETABLE SEED PACKAGING. Calif.

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1948. SEED PBODUCTION OF EUBOPEAN VEGETABLES

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1932. THE PIGEON PEA (CAJANUS INDICUS ) ITS IMPBOVEMENT, CULTUEE AND UTILIZATION IN

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1945. THE HOME VEGETABLE GABDEN. Mich. State

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1942. MAíZ DULCE, VENEZUELA-2, UNA NUEVA CLASE

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1957. PBODUCCIÓN Y MEECADEO DEL GANDUE EN

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1928. STUDIES OF THE PHOTOPEBIODISM OF SOME

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1935. TROPICAL PLANTING AND GARDENING. ED. 4,

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1956. FOOD PLANTS OF THE SOUTH SEA ISLANDS.

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1946. PUERTO Rico's NUTRITIONAL PROBLEM. Pan

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1949. VEGETABLE VARIETIES IN THE TROPICS. Amer.

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1949. COMPOSITION OF FOOD PLANTS OF CENTRAL

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1950. IL GUATEMALA. Food Res. 15(1) : 16-33.

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IV. EL SALVADOR. Food Res. 15(4) : 263-296.

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vin. GUATEMALA. Food Res. 15(6) : 439-453.

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1963. PRUEBA DE RENDIMIENTO CON VARIEDADES DE

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OSUNA, P.

1960. EL CULTIVO DE LA BATATA MAMEYA EN ESCALA

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PÉREZ LOPEZ A., and MENDOZA BARBOSA, R.

1964. YIELDS OF FOUR CUCUMBER VARIETIES AFTER

TREATMENT WITH A NEMATOCIDE. P.R. UniV.

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PLANK, H. K.

1946. THE CONTROL OF STORAGE INSECTS IN CORN

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1963. DEFICIENCIES EN LA DIETA TíPICA Y COMO

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1943. DESIGN AND OPERATION OF SMALL IRRIGATION

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1936. HORTALIZAS PARA LA EXPORTACIÓN EN LA

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APP, B. A.

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BEATTIE, J. H.

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1942. CUCUMBER GROWING. U.S. Dept. Agr. Farmers*

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1959.

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College Park, Md.

GONZáLEZ RíOS, P., and RIOLLANO, A.

1946. THE IMPROVEMENT OF NATIVE WHITE BEANS

(PHASEOLUS VULGARIS) BY SELECTION. Amcr. SOC.

Hort. Sei. Proc. 48: 425-436.

GREENWELL, A. B. H.

1947. TARO WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO ITS CULTURE

AND USES IN HAWAIL Ecou. Bot. 1(3) I 276-289.

GUAM AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

1910-1932. ANNUAL REPORTS. [VEGETABLE INVESTIGATIONS.]

HARRISON, J. B., and BANCROFT, C. K.

1926. FOOD PLANTS OF BRITISH GUIANA. JOUr. Bd. Agr.

Brit. Guiana 19(1) : 18-51.
VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA 113

HAWAII AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

1901-1940. Hawaii Agr. Expt. Sta. (Honolulu) Ann.

Rpts.

1941-42—1960-62. Hawaii Agr. Expt. Sta. (Honolulu)

Bien. Rpts.

HAYSLIP, N. C, HODGES, E. M., JONES, D. W., and KRETSCHMER, JR., A. E.

1964. TOMATO AND PANGOLAGRASS ROTATION FOR SANDY

SOILS OF SOUTH FLORIDA. Fla. Agr. Expt. Sta.

Cir. S-153, 24 pp., illus.

HILDEBRAND, E. M., and COOK, H. T.

1959. swEETPOTATo DISEASES. U.S. Dept. Agr. Farmers'

Bui. 1059, 28 pp., illus.

HUTCHINGS, C. D.

1940. VEGETABLE BREEDING. Jamaica Agr. Soc. Jour.

44: 371-375.

1940. VEGETABLE GARDENING. Jamaica Agr. Soc. 4-H

Clubs Jour., 4 pp.

IRONS, F.

1959. HAND SPRAYERS AND DUSTERS. U.S. Dcpt. Agr.

Home and Gard. Bul. 63,12 pp.

JAMISON, F. S.

1948. THE FLORIDA HOME GARDEN. Fla. Uuiv. Agr. Ext.

Bui. 131,16 pp., illus., rev.

KELSHEIMER, E. G., and WOLFENBARGER, D. O.

1959. CONTROL OF INSECTS AND OTHER PESTS OF TOMATOES, PEPPERS, AND EGGPLANTS. Fla. Agr. Expt.

Sta. Cir. S-116, 36 pp.

KiNMAN, C. F.

1921. YAM CULTURE IN PORTO RICO. P.R. Agr. Expt.

Sta. (Mayaguez) Bui. 27, 22 pp., illus.

LEACH, R., and WRIGHT, J.

1930. COLLAR AND STEM CANKER OF PIGEON PEA (CAJANUS

INDICUS), CAUSED BY A SPECIES OF PHYSALOSPORA.

Imp. Col. Trop. Agr. (Trinidad) Mem. 1, Mycol.

Ser., 4 pp., illus.

LiND, H. Y., BARTOW, M. L., and MILLER, C. D.

1946. WAYS TO USE VEGETABLES IN HAWAII. Hawaü Agr.

Expt. Sta. Bui, 97,110 pp.

METCALF, C. L., and FLINT, W. P.

1962. DESTRUCTIVE AND USEFUL INSECTS, THEIR HABITS

AND CONTROL. Ed. 4, rev. by R. L. Metcalf. 1,087

pp. New York.

MILLER, C. D., LOUIS L., and YANAZAWA, K.

1946. FOOD USED BY FILIPINOS IN HAWAII. Hawaü Agr.

Expt. Sta. Bui. 98, 80 pp., illus.

MiSKIMEN, G. W.

1960. COMPARISON OF SEVIN WITH DDT AND ROTENONE ON

TOMATOES UNDER TROPICAL CONDITIONS. Jour.

Econ. Ent. 53(6) : 1128-1129.

NOLLA, J. A. B.

1929. THE EGGPLANT BLIGHT AND FRUIT ROT IN PUERTO

RICO. P.R. Univ. Jour. Agr. 13(2) : 37-57, illus.

OCHSE, J. J.

1931. VEGETABLES OF THE DUTCH EAST INDIES. 1,006 pp.,

illus. Java.

SouLE, M. J., JR., DIJKMAN, M. J., and WEHLBURG, C.

1961. TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL AGRICULTURE. 2 V.

New York.

PORTE, W. S., and WILCOX, J.

1963. COMMERCIAL PRODUCTION OF TOMATOES. U.S. Dept.

Agr. Farmers' Bui. 2045, 48 pp., illus.

REED, L. B., and DOOLITTLE, S. P.

1963. INSECTS AND DISEASES OF VEGETABLES IN THE

HOME GARDEN. U.S. Dept. Agr. Home and Gard.

Bul. 46, rev., 48 pp., illus.

RiOLLANO, A.

1942. THE VALUE OF FILTER PRESS CAKE AS A FERTILIZER

FOR VEGETABLE CROPS. P.R. Univ. Jour. Agr.

26(4) : 99-104. Also in Amer. Soc. Hort. Sei.

Proc.42: 547-550. 1943.

RioLLANo, A., ADSUAR, J., and RODRíGUEZ, A.

1948. BREEDING PEPPERS RESISTANT TO A PUERTO BICAN

TYPE OF MOSAIC. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sei. Proc. 51 ;

415-416.

and RODRíGUEZ, J. P.

1944. TRIALS WITH SOYBEANS. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sei.

Proc. 44: 441-444.

RODRIGO, P. A.

1939. FURTHER ACCLIMATIZATION STUDIES ON CAULIFLOWER. Philippine Jour. Agr. 10(4) : 403-404.

and URBANES, P. S.

1937. TRIAL PLANTINGS OF IRISH POTATO. Philippine

Jour. Agr. 8(2) : 147-160, illus.

URBANES, P. S., and OLAN, V. R.

1936. PRELIMINARY STUDIES ON THE FLOWERING AND

SEEDING OF ONIONS IN THE PHILIPPINES. I. Philippine Jour. Agr. 7(1) : 1-20, illus.

URBANES, P. S., and OLAN, V. R.

1938. VARIETY TESTS OF CABBAGE. Philippine Jour. Agr,

9(1) : 1-30, illus.

ROQUE, A., and ADSUAR, J.

1941. STUDIES ON THE MOSAIC OF PEPPERS (CAPSICUM

FRUTESCENS) IN PUERTO RICO. P.R. Uuiv. Jour.

Agr. 25(4) : 40-50, illus.

SEKYERE, D. A., and MCCORVEY, S. J.

1966. BETTER VEGETABLES. Ghana Handbook, 48 pp.,

illus. Published under the Auspices of the Ghana

Academy of Science, Ministry of Agriculture, and

the United States AID Mission to Ghana. Accra,

Ghana.

SMITH, F. B., and THORNTON, G. D.

1950. COMPOSTING AND MULCHING. Fla. Agr. Expt. Sta.

Press Bull. 602, rev., 4 pp., illus. 602 A, 4 pp.

STEFFERUD, A. (EDITOR)

1952. INSECTS. U.S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1952, 780 pp.

1953. PLANT DISEASES. U.S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1953,

940 pp.

STEINER, G., and BUHRER, EDNA M.

1964. THE PLANT-NE:MATODE PROBLEM OF THE AMERICAN

TROPICS. P.R. Univ. Jour. Agr. 48(2) : 69-100.

[Spanish summary.]

SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, Washington, D.C. 20402.

PLANTS : CULTURE, GRADING, MARKETING, AND

STORAGE OF FRUITS, VEGETABLES, GRASS, AND GRAIN.

[Price list—free. Publications listed thereon—

available for a few cents each.] Price List 44.

[Revised annually.]

TERRA, G. J. A.

1966. TROPICAL VEGETABLES. Roy. Trop. Inst. Commun.

54e, 107 pp., illus. Amsterdam.

THOMPSON, R, C.

1961. CAULIFLOWER AND BROCCOLI, VARIETIES AND CULTURE. U.S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bui. 1957, 16 pp.,

illus.

TiNDALL, H. D.

1965. FRUITS AND VEGETABLES IN WEST AFRICA. FoOd

and Agr. Organ., United Nations, 259 pp., illus.

Rome.

TRUMAN, L. C, and BUTTS, W. L.

1953. SPRAYER AND DUSTER MANUAL. 38 Pp. Nati.

Sprayer and Duster Assoc, Chicago, 111.

and BUTTS, W. L.

1962. SCIENTIFIC GUIDE TO PEST CONTROL OPERATIONS.

181 pp. Pest Control Magazine, Cleveland, Ohio,

and BUTTS, W. L.

1964. INSECTICIDE RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE ENTOMOLOGY RESEARCH DIVISION FOR THE CONTROL OF INSECTS AFFECTING CROPS, LIVESTOCK, AND HOUSEHOLD FOR 1964. U.S. Dept. Agr. Agr. Handb. 120,

207 pp.
114 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 323, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

TUCKER, C. M.

1927. PIGEON PEA ANTHRACNOSE. Jour. Agr. Res. 34:

589-596, illus.

U.S. AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SERVICE.

1961. COMMERCIAL GROWING OF SWEET CORN. U.S. Dept.

Agr. Farmers' Bui. 2042, 22 pp., illus.

1962. MUSKMELONS FOR THE GARDEN. U.S. Dept. Agr.

Leaflet 509, 5 pp.

1962. PLANT NEMATODES. U.S. Agr. Res. Serv. ARS

22-83, 24 pp., illus.

1964. CONTROLLING TOMATO DISEASES. U.S. Dept. Agr.

Farmers' Bui. 2200,12 pp., illus.

1964. GROWING PUMPKINS AND SQUASHES. U.S. Dept.

Agr. Farmers' Bui. 2086, 27 pp., illus.

1964. WATERMELONS FOR THE GARDEN. U.S. Dept. Agr.

Leaflet 528, 8 pp., illus.

WALKER, J. C, and LARSON, R. H.

1961. ONION DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL. U.S. Dept.

Agr. Agr. Handb. 208, 27 pp., illus.

WALKER, J. C, LARSON, R. H., and TAYLOR, A. L.

1958. DISEASES OF CABBAGE AND RELATED PLANTS. U.S.

Dept. Agr. Agr. Handb. 144, 41 pp., illus.

WATSON, J. R., and TISSOT, A. N.

1942. INSECTS AND OTHER PESTS OF FLORIDA VEGETABLES.

Fla. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 370, 118 pp., illus.

WESTER, R. E.

1964. SUBURBAN AND FARM VEGETABLE GARDENING. U.S.

Dept. Agr. Home and Gard. Bul. 9, rev., 46 pp.,

illus.

WHITAKER, T. W., RYDER, E. J., and HILLS, O. A.

1962. LETTUCE AND ITS PRODUCTION. U.S. Dept. Agr.

Agr. Handb. 221, 49 pp., illus.

WILLIAMS, R. O., and WILLIAMS, R. O., JR.

1941. USEFUL AND ORNAMENTAL PLANTS IN TRINIDAD AND

TOBAGO. Ed. 3, rev. 265 pp. Trinidad and Tobago.

YOUNG, R. A.

1933. THE CHAYÓTE, A LITTLE-KNOWN GUATEMALAN VEGETABLE. Nati. Hort. Mag., 6 pp., illus.

ZAUMEYER, W. J.

1957. SNAP BEANS FOR MARKETING, CANNING, AND FREEZING. U.S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bui. 1915, 16 pp.,

illus.

and THOMAS, H. R.

1962. BEAN DISEASES—HOW TO CONTROL THEM. U.S.

Dept. Agr. Agr. Handb. 225, 39 pp., illus.

l/jêpé4àôia^^a^

FOLLOW THK LAKKL

S. MPAtTMENT 01

-U U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1967- -O 223-947