£#1/) ro~v,#tfA/.T_ 

Eiko-a 

Report T -544 

An Application of LANDSAT 

Multi'p'ectrall he ~ 

·1I!:. .... slficatlon 

Systems Shark 

273 - 0 ~ 

Everglades National Park, South Florida Research Center, P.O. Box 279, Homestead, Florida 33030 
AN APPLICATION OF LANDSA T MULTISPECTRAL IMAGERY 

FOR THE CLASSIFICA nON OF HYDROBIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS 

SHARK RIVER SLOUGH, EVERGLADES NATIONAL PARK, FLORIDA 

Report T - 544 

Paul W. Rose and Peter C. Rosendahl 

U.S. National Park Service 

South Florida Research Center 

Everglades National Park 

Homestead, Florida 33030 
Rose, Paul W. and Peter C. Rosendahl. 1979. An Application of LANDSAT 

Multispectral Imagery for the Classification of Hydrobiological Systems, 

Shark River Slough, Everglades National Park, Florida. South Florida 

Research Center Report T-544. 65 pp. 
i 

ABSTRACT 

The hydrologic balance of the Florioa Everglades directly 

influences all ecological aspects of. the region. This intricate ecosystem is dependent on freshwater supplies which must be furnished in 

sufficient quantity and at appropriate -rates to achieve ecosystem 

maintenance. Orbital remote sensing satellites (LANDSAT A, B, and C) 

have provided a comprehensive and repetitive survey of the multivariant hydrologic parameters over both the accessible and inaccessible 

regions of Everglades National Park. LANDSAT multispectral data 

were analyzed for application to the Shark River Slough in Everglades 

National Park. The procedure was systematic establishing "ground 

truth" utilizing conventional high flight aerial U-2infrared photography 

and comprehensive field data. Th~se procedures enabled a control 

network to be defined which represented all hydrobiological systems in 

the slough. These data were then directly applied to the LANDSAT 

imagery utilizing an interactive multispectral processor which 

generated hydrographic maps through classification of the slough and 

defined the multispectral surface radiance characteristics of the 

wetlands areas in the park. The spectral response of each hydrobiological zone was determined and plotted. The spectral relationships 

plots provided utility in formulating multispectral relationships between 

the emittent energy from the slough in order to determine the best 

possible multispectral wavelength combinations to enhance classification results~ The resultant classification was of paramount 

importance in determining the extent of each hydrobiological zone in 
li 

the Shark Slough and in establishing flow vectors for water movement 

throughout the slough. The application of hydrologic remotely sensed 

data will provide greater utility in formulating a sounder water 

resources management program for Everglades National Park. 
iii 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

We would like to acknowledge the contributions made to this research by the 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), Kennedy Space Center, for 

supplying both the hardware and software to accomplish this research; especially to 

Dr. Reed Barnett, Mr. Roy Bland and Mr. Bob Butterfield, we extend our appreciation. 

In addition, we would like to thank Mr. Kirk Hipps for assisting with the flow 

direction studies conducted in the Shark Slough. 

Finally, we would like to extend our gratitude to Dottie Anderson for 

manuscript formulation. 
I. 

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

ABSTRACT . . . . ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. 

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

LIST OF FIGURES 

. . 

. . . . . . . . . . 

LIST OF TABLES • . . . . . . . . . . 

INTRODUCTION • . . . . 

II. SETTING.... ' . · . . . . . 

iv 

A. Shark River Slough . . . . 

B. Earth-Sun Relationships • 

III. METHODOLOGY. · . . A. Study Are,!- . . . B. Aerial Photo Analysis 

C. Computer Applications . . . . . . 

1. 

2. 

Acquisition of ENP LANDSAT Data • • • 

Training. • • • • • . . . . . . . 

3. Accuracy Assessment • · . . . . . . 

IV. SIGNIFICANT RESULTS. • • • 

A. Shark Slough's LANDSAT Signatures. • 

B. Hydrobiological Histograms and Statistics 

C. Spectral Relationships in a Wetland Environ 

D. Hydrobiological Classification of the Shark River Slough. 

E. Accuracy Assessment • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 

F. Determination of Conceptual Flow Vectors for the Shark 

· . 

· . 

· . 

i 

iii 

iv 

v 

vii 

1 

5 

7 

11 

19 

19 

26 

32 

34 

39 

41 

42 

43 

45 

47 

53 

61 

River Slough • • • • • • • 63 

V. CONCLUSION 

REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 

· . 69 
Figure 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

LIST OF FIGURES 

LANDSAT Components • • 

LANDSA T Orbital Track. . . . Everglades National Park Location 

Surface Flow to Everglades National Park . . . . . . . . . . . Relationship of Timing of Wood Stork Nesting in Southern 

Everglades to Hydrologic Conditions. • • • • • • • • • • 

Wildlife Ecological Model of the Shark River Slough, Florida 

Elevation of the Noon Sun above Shark River Slough 

(N25° 30' latitude) • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 

Interaction of Energy with Water • 

9 Interaction of Green and Blue-Green Energy with Water 

10 Interaction of Infrared Energy with Water •••••• 

11 Relationship of Reflected Solar Radiation with Wavelength for 

Different Concentrations of Suspended ~diments in the 

v 

3 

4 

6 

8 

10 

10 

12 

15 

15 

16 

Surface Water • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 18 

12 Flow Diagram of ENP-Shark Slough Remote Sensing Hydrobiological System Program. • • • • • • • • • • • • • 

13 Shark River Slough, Everglades National Park. 

20 

21 

14 Transect Location, Shark River Slough. • • • • 24 

15 Rhodamine Tracer Dye (Concentration vs. Time) Curves. • 26 

16 Transect Profile, Shark River Slough. • • • • • • • • 27 

17 Flow Diagram for Classification of LANDSAT-CCT Utilizing 

G.E.-I-IOO Processor • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• 36 

18 LANDSAT Signatures of Shark Slough • • • • • • • • • • • 42 

19 Spectral Reflectance Plots for Shark Slough's Hydrobiological 

Zones • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 49 
Figure 

20 MSS-7 vs. MSS-5 Mean Reflectance Values Separating all 

Hydrobiological Zones, Shark River Slough • • • • • • • 

vi 

52 

21 Selected Test Sites in Shark River Slough for Surface Flow 

Determinations. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 59 

22 Direction of Surface Water Flow Measured in Shark Slough. • 59 

23 Conceptual Flow Vectors for Surface Flow in Shark Slough • 60 
Tables 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

-9 

LIST OF TABLES 

Multispectral Wavelengths Recorded by LANDSAT ' ••• 

Acceptable ER TS/LANDSA T Coverage Dates for ENP • • • 

March 3, 1975 Hydrologic Data Corresponding to LANDSA T 

Overflight . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . Hammocks: Histograms and Statistics. • 

Open Marsh: .H\,stograms and Statistics 

Tall Sawgrass: Histograms and Statistics 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Intermediate Sawgrass: Histograms and Statistics . . . . . . . Dry Season Classification Results for each Hydrobiological 

System, Shark Slough • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . . . 

Overall Classification Accuracy for each Hydrobiological Zone 

in Shark Slough. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 

2 

35 

37 

46 

48 

49 

50 

60 

62 

vii 
1 

I. INTRODUCTION 

The hydrologic balance of the Florida Everglades directly influences all 

ecological aspects of the region., This intricate ecosystem is dependent on 

freshwater supplies originating from both precipitation and surface water inflows 

which must be furnished in sufficient quantity and at appropriate rates to achieve 

ecosystem maintenance. Therefore, an intensive program of water management is 

mandatory if the quality of the Everglades is to be preserved. 

Because of economic and time elements a comprehensive or repetitive survey 

of the hydrologic parameters over large areas is not always feasible utilizing 

conventional ground-based methods. However, orbital remote sensing satellites 

have in the past, provided a significant amount of scientific information and data 

regarding hydrologic conditions in both accessible and inaccessible regions. 

One system, LANDSAT (formerly the ER TS program), has provided valuable 

insight into the hydrological characteristics of regions throughout the world 

(Figure 1). The first LANDSAT (ERTS-1) was launched on July 23, 1972 into a 

circular sun-synchronous orbit at an altitude of 900 km (580 miles) above the earth. 

Two other LANDSAT satellites have been subsequently launched while the 

first LANDSAT has been discontinued. These satellites rotate about the earth 

every 103 minutes, complete fourteen orbits per day and repeat a given orbital 

track every eighteen days (Figure 2). Aboard the LANDSAT satellites is a package 

of scientific instruments consisting of a multispectral scanning device which 

records light in four distinct bands (Table 1). 
Table 1. Multispectral Wavelengths Recorded by LANDSAT. 

Band 

MSS-4 

MSS-5 

MSS-6 

MSS-7 

Wavelength of Light 

0.5 to 0.6 ).1m 

0.6 to 0.7 ).1m 

0.7 to 0.8 ).1m 

0.8 to 1.llJm 

Light Color 

Green 

Red 

near Infrared 

far Infrared 

2 
ORBIT DIRECTION 

----

ATIITUDE CONTROL 

SUBSYSTtM PACKAGE 

,3 "'H~ W' DE BAND 

ANltNNAS (2) 

DATA COLl.ECnON_l~S-BAND ANl£NNAS 

ANTENNA ~ - MSS • ... ~ ... a RETURN tstAM 

VIDICON 

CAMERAS (3) 

ATIITU[)£ SENSOR 

Figure 1. LANDSAT Components 

\10) 
4 

o I!I 30 4!J 60 75 10 lOS 120 135 I!lO II!! 110 

Figure 2. LANDSAT Orbital Track 
5 

The purpose of this research was to apply LANDSAT multispectral data to 

the Shark River Slough in Everglades National Park, Florida. A systematic "ground 

truth" was established utilizing comprehensive hydrologic field data and conventional high flight infrared aerial photography. A control network was defined 

which represented all hydro biological zones in the Shark River Slough. These data 

were then directly applied to the LANDSAT imagery utilizing an interactive 

multispectral processor which generated hydrographic maps of the slough and 

defined the multispectral surface radiance characteristics of each hydrobiological 

system. It was the intent through the application of remotely sensed data, to 

provide greater utility in the formulation of a sound water resources management 

program for Everglades National Park which will ultimately benefit the park's 

ecosystem and the park experience for the visitor. 

D. SETTING 

Everglades National Park is situated at the southern terminus for the State of 

Florida (Figure 3). The park is a vast subtropical wilderness area located between 

the geographic coordinates N24° 50' 05" and N25° 50' 20" latitude and. W800 20' 20" 

and W810 30' 10" longitude. The park's ecosystem consists of a marsh environment 

which is inundated throughout much of the year. 

Surface water is one of the most prominent and characteristic natural 

features in south Florida. The mechanism for overland sheet flow is enacted 

following sufficient inputs of rainfall into the hydrologic regime. The surface 

water slowly inundates the flat, broad plain of the Everglades as a thin film. Even 

though the depth is not of great extent, the impact is widespread and life flourishes 

throughout the area. 
-:-' 

, 

" 

., 

t.. 41 

it-".. 

&.:-._- '-' .... " 

lEGENII 

'. , 

, 

, 

9J-·"'!;lI.'JNt WI'TEIIS 0 

"r:I.JVt:IIY WATERS • 

L'f I.rV"~ "'IITEk 5TATlatS 0 

-II(IAP 

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EI1ERGW7£S 

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, - . . ~ - .. ., / .. -.' -. ." 

, '." . . 

PAlU: .fIot:t."!l1l1lY 

., / 

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Figure 3. Everglades National Park Location 

., /"0 

.'. l B ...... _ ..... &JP 

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FIJI 

27 

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7 

Shark River Slough 

The Shark River Slough can be described as a low lying drainage area 

representing a mixture between a very wide river channel and a swamp which 

accommodates overland sheet flow of surface waters. The slough serves as a major 

arterial for surface water movement through the central portion of Everglades 

National Park. It is the lifestream for much of the park. The Shark Slough depends 

upon rainfall and allocations of water released through control structures outside 

Everglades National Park to provide input into its channel. 

Throughout recent times the hydrologic conditions within Everglades National 

Park have been directly influenced by a modified hydrologic regime from external 

forces. The sheet flow into the park was interrupted and diverted as early as the 

1920's when the Tamiami Trail (U.S. 41) and the associated adjacent Tamiami 

Canal was constructed. 

Throughout the years which followed both Dade and Broward Counties 

continued to experience a rapid growth trend which necessitated the drainage of 

even more wetland areas outside of the present park boundary. A t the expense of 

the natural wetlands, South Florida (including Everglades National Park) no longer 

experienced a natural overland sheet flow and hydrologic balance throughout the 

Everglades ecosystem (from Lake Okeechobee to Florida Bay) (Figure 4) due to 

pressures to develop various flood control and water supply projeCts. The altered 

hydrologic regime, combined with a severe drought, resulted in a mandate from the 

U.S. Congress which guaranteed a minimum delivery of surface waters into the 

Shark River Slough in Everglades National Park. 

The amount of water released into the Shark River Slough is in accordance 

with Public Law 91-282 enacted by Congress in 1970. One of the provisions of the 

law provided for the minimum delivery of 260,000 acre feet (320.58 hm3) of water 

per annum to the Shark Slough via four control structures on a monthly schedule. 
SURFACE FLOW TO ENP 

~ NOITH 

o .. 17 .. .. .. 7iii3. o 10 20 JO 40 •• 

, , . . , .... ",.. 

Figure 4. Surface Flow to ENP 
These water deliveries to the park have attempted to approach the natural 

overland sheet flow the Shark Slough once experienced. However, due to 

uncertainties as to how well these controlled deliveries approximate natural flow 

rates, it became mandatory to closely _monitor the slough's hydrologic regime. 

Remotely sensed data provided a means whereby water conditions throughout 

the park were both spatially and temporally analyzed while permitting point 

definition. This can be of significance in providing some insight into hydrologic 

status of the slough and assisting with the generation of ecological models for the 

Everglades. 

For example, the Wood Stork was reported to be a prime indicator of 

ecological stability and health in a wetlands area such as the Everglades (Kushlan, 

1975). In recent times, the population of Wood Storks has experienced an overall 

decline. It was demonstrated that a change in the hydrologic regime in Everglades 

National Park associated with the development of south Florida, affected both the 

feeding habitat and food production of the Wood Stork. The net result was a 

decline in the Wood Stork population due to late colony formation combined with 

an interruption in Wood Stork nesting. It was also found that the timing of the 

colony formation/nesting could be correlated to water level fluctuation and 

recession rate during the dry season affecting the nutritional state of the marsh. 

During the nesting months, a slow water level recession/drying rate is responsible 

for a slow food (fish) concentration which in turn delays rookery formation and 

nesting (Figure 5). 

Remote sensing provides the capability of furnishing multivariate hydrologic 

data throughout the park which can be directly input into ecological models. Higer 

(I 975) suggested that such models could be of significance in predicting 

success/failure of Wood Stork rookeries based on remotely sensed data (Figure 6). 

The prediction could be formulated through the application of satellite imagery 

9 
10 

200 

.... 

. 

> 0 

z 

a.. 100 

., 

.... 

.... 

en " 

>- III SO 

'0 

-

0-

C 

.~ 

.... 

en 

QI 

C 

.... 

0 

Q.I 

E 

.~ 

~ 

0 

.5 1 5 

Dryinq r_te ham/day) 

Figufe 5. Relationship of timing of Wood Stork nesting in southern 

~ verglades to hydrologic conditions (Kushlan 1975). 

WATER LEVEL 

AND DISTRIBUTION 

REPRODUCTIVE 

SUCCESS OF WOOD 

STORK 

FISH 

PRODUCTION 

Figure 6. Wildlife ecological model of the Shark River Slough, Florida 

(Higer, 1975). 
11 

combined with point measurements. Hence, Higer concluded LANDSAT imagery 

could provide a good understanding of the quantity of water stored in the park; the 

spatial distribution of surface waters especially in regard to food availability and 

rookery success; and quantitative hydrologic data which would enable resource 

managers ~o make sound decisions regarding water delivery rates and amounts 

throug~ the control structures. 

Earth-Sun Relationships of Shark Slough 

The rotation and revolution of the earth, combined with the inclination and 

polarity of the earth's axis are factors which influence the angle of incidence of 

incoming solar insolation. Associated with these occurrences are variations in the 

effectiveness of solar insolation, .. due to changes in the transparency of the 

atmosphere. All of these factors directly influence the reflectance_characteristics 

of the hydro biological systems in the Shark River Slough and must be taken into 

consideration. 

The earth-sun geometry for the Shark River Slough indicates the' an-gle of 

incidence of incoming solar insolation which influences the reflectance values for 

the wetland marsh. Each year the' sun's apparent path over the Shark Slough from 

December 21 (winter solstice) to June 21 (summer solstice) increases in the angle 

of incidence of th,e noon sun from 410 to a maximum of 880 above the horizon' 

(Figure 7). The lowest angle of incidence occurs during the winter solstice 

(December 21) when the sun rises just south of east and sets just south of west. 

During this time period the greatest amount of energy is diffused over the ground 

surface thereby reducing the intensity of available light to be reflected from the 

slough. The maximum angle of incidence for this period of time is 410 above the 

horizon. 
12 

z z 

S N S N 

MARCH 3 WINTER SOLSTICE 

SPRING EaUINOX SUMMER SOLSTICE 

N NOON SUN 

Z ZENITH 

SR SUN RISE 

N 

SS SUN SET 

m HORIZON PLANE , .... 

--I' EQUINOX POSITION 

AUTUMNAL EaUINOX 

Figure 7. Elevation of the noon sun above Shark River Slough (N25° 30' latitude) 
13 

Following the winter solstice, the path of the noon sun then begins to achieve 

greater angles above the horizon while the sun rises far north of east and sets far 

north of west. As the sun achieves greater angles above the horizon less light 

diffusion on the ground surface occurs due to changes in the · transparency of the 

atmosphere and because the angle · of incidence is close to perpendicular with the 

horizon (880 ). Associated with these high angles for the noon sun are longer 

periods of daylight during the summer months. However, following the summer 

solstice (June 21) the angles begin to decline due to changes in the earth-sun 

relationships. 

The critical factor for remote sensing applications in response to the 

changing earth-sun relationships is the water-light interface and the slough 

environment. Some of the problems with spectral reflectance measurements and 

remote sensing in the wetland marsh include (Anderson, 1972): 

1. Seasonal changes in reflectance values: As the transparency of the 

atmosphere Changes with earth-sun relationships, so does the reflectance 

value. This is particularly of prime importance in the Shark River Slough. 

Not only does the transparency of the atmosphere and the angle of incidence 

change for the incoming solar insolation but also the margins of the slough. 

Therefore reflectance values vary temporally and spatially between wet and 

dry seasons. 

2. Shifts in plant orientation: The wind patterns experiet:lced in the Shark River 

Slough could create problems in remote sensing applications due to vertical 

leafed plants exposing varying amounts of background water or soil. 
Solar radiation responds in different ways to wetland areas depending upon 

the wavelength of light, angle of incidence, amount of suspended sediment/load of 

the water body and associated vegetative coverage. Under ideal conditions 

incoming solar radiation has four different multispectral responses (Scherz, 1971): 

1. Ultra-violet: Penetrates the atmosphere, strikes the water surface and is 

immediately reflected back in space. However, the LANDSAT multispectral 

scanner does not record the ultra-violet wavelength of light and is therefore 

unaccounted for by the satellite sensors (Figure 8). 

2. Blue-Green Energy: The best light penetration of a water body is achieved by 

the blue-green wavelengths of light (Figure 9). As the light encounters the 

surface of the water, penetration occurs and the light is returned to space. 

The green wavelengths are then intercepted and recorded on the MSS-4 band 

by the multispectral" LANDSAT scanning device. 

3. Infrared Wavelengths of Light: The infrared energy (near and far I.R.) 

achieves penetration of the water body but is absorbed by the first few inches 

of water (Figure 10). This is of significance to LANDSAT remote sensing 

applications in a wetlands environ because of the low reflectance values 

associated with the water in the MSS-6 and 7 multispectral bands. 

4. Thermally Emitted Infrared (3 to 20 micons): The thermal I.R. is absorbed by 

the water except at the surface where it is emitted and returned to space 

(Figure 10). However, the LANDSAT multispectral scanner does not record 

the thermal I.R. wavelengths of light and therefore the information provided 

by thermal I.R. energy is not available. 

14 
Figure 8-

Figure 9-

Ultraviolet 

Energy 

UV Energy Reflects 

from Surface Water 

INTERACTION OF ULTRAVIOLET ENERGY WITH WATER 

(Scherz, 1971) 

Maximum 

Penetration 

Green and 

Blue-Green 

Energy 

Clear 

Water 

INTERACTION OF GREEN AND BLUE-GREEN ENERGY WITH WATER 

(Scherz, 1971) 

15 
.:''r)otographic Infrared 

El"ergy from Snnlight 

n .. " to i . mir:rons) 

, 

... . Energy Absorbed by 

the First Few Inches 

of Water 

,\ ,. ~ ...... /11 , 

Thermal Sensor 

Thermally Emitted Infrared 

Energy (3 to 20 microns) 

is Absorbed by Water Except 

at the Surface. 

Figure 10. INTERACTION OF INFRARED ENERGY WITH WATER 

(After Scherz, 1971) 

.-

0\ 
17 

These examples are indicative of the reaction of specific wavelengths of 

emitted energy as it interact.s wUh a pure water body. However, as the suspended 

sediments increase in a given water body so does the amount of solar radiation 

reflectivity (Ritchie, 1976). It was shown that a change in the total concentration 

of dissolved sediments caused a significant change in the amount of radiation which 

is reflected off the, water surface. A shift in radiance values between pure waters 

and waters with varying amounts of sediment loads was found. The highest 

reflectivity of a water body low in sediment was in the neighborhood of 550 ng. As 

sediments were introduced into a relatively pure water system, a shift occurred in 

reflectance values. A water body high in sediment load had its highest reflectivity 

in the 600 nm weavelengths of light (Figure 11). 

These reflectance values are of significance to the Shark River Slough 

applications due to the spectral response of a particular wavelength of light in each 

specific hydro biological zone. It is important to consider the relatively pure nature 

of the slough's waters combined with a floating algal mat (periphyton) and 

marshland vegetative forms when interpreting the LANDSAT signatures for a given 

hydro biological feature. Taking this into consideration, combined with the angle of 

incidence of the incoming solar radiation, enables the best possible classification of 

the hydrologically active areas to be accomplished. The apparent reflectivity of 

Shark Slough's hydro biological zones can be directly attributed to: 

1. Earth-sun geometry 

2. Reflections at the water/air contact 

3. Reflections at the rock/air contact 

4. Reflections from the slough bottom 

5. Reflections from particulate matter suspended in the water 
2H 

E :H c 

N 2 I 

F 

, 

u, 

E-< 

E-< 

2 

oC( 

~ 1 

~ 1 

z 

0 

H 1 

E-< 

..x; 

H 12 

0 

~ 10 

p:; 8 ::s 

0 6 en 

0 4 rLI 

E-< 

U 2 rLI 

...:I 

r... 0 

~ 400 500 700 900 1100 

WAVE LENGTH (nm) 

Figure 11. The relationship of reflected solar radiation with wavelength 

for different concentrations of suspended sediments in the surface water 

(Ritchie, 1976). 

18 
19 

6. Reflections from marshland flora 

7. Wind patterns which might expose background soil/water as well as causing 

ripples which would cause an increase in specular reflectivity. 

METHODOLOGY 

High flight aerial (U-2) photographs and LANDSAT multispectral imagery 

were utilized throughout this research. The procedure followed a systematic 

approach examining first the hydro biological zones on the high flight aerial 

photography. The determinations made using the false color infrared photographs 

combined with detailed field studies were then directly applied to the LANDSAT 

scene. The multispectral reflectance values for each hydrobiological zone were 

then analyzed utilizing histograms and a statistical program. These data enabled 

an accurate and detailed automated extraction of hydrobiological data throughout 

the LANDSAT scene to produce hydrographic maps of the Shark Slough (Figure 12). 

These investigations will provide utility in developing a sounder hydrology program 

for Everglades National Park. 

Study Area 

The site selection for the intensive study area for this research was confined 

to an area within the Shark River Slough. The Shark Slough is the major conduit 

for surface water movement in Everglades National Park (Figure 13). In order for 

an area to qualify for site selection, the study area had to meet four basic criteria: 

1. Accessibility: The study area had to be accessible to researchers by both 

airboat and helicopter with minimal impact to the environment. 
EVE~GLADES NATIONAL PARK REMOTE SENSING 

PROGRAM 

GOAL: TO CLASSIFY AND MAP HYDROBIOLOGICAL 

SYSTEMS OF SHARK RIVER SLOUGH 

• I 

ESTABLISH TRANSECT INTERPRET AERIAL PHOTOS 

AND STUDY AREA 

I 

LOCATE IN AN ACCESSIBLE WCATE APPROPRIATE AERIAL 

AREA PHOTOS 

1 

REVIEW HYDROLOGY FILES MANIPULATE SCALE AND' EN!"'· 

FOR AVAILABLE DATA LARGE AERIAL. mOTOGRAmS 

1 . 

DETERMINE IF AREA IS CONDUCT FIELD STUDIES· TO· 

REPRESENTATIVE OF DETERMINE COWR INDICIES 

SHARK SLOUGH HYDRO- ON AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY 

BIOLOGICAL ZONES 

INITIATE MAPPING PROCEDORES 

DELINEATE HYDROBIOLOGICAL 

ZONES 

...- I l -.... 

IDENTIFY IDENTIFY I J~:N' 1<'1 . J..lJ.l!.iNTl.,n 

!HAMMOCKS TALL SAW- OPEN INTERMED. 

GRASS MARSH SAWGRASS 

I .-I • . T 

1 

GENERATE HYDROBIOLOGICAL 

ZONES MAP 

Figure 12. Step diagram of ENP-Shark Slough Remote Sensing Hydrobiological 

System Program 

I 

CLASSIFY LANDSAT 

SCENE 

. I 

COORDIH\ TE REKm: 1 

SENSING WITH NASA~ 

KSC 

I 

OBTAIN LANDSAT 

SCENE TAPES 

I 

TRAIN G.E. 1-100 

I _ .. 

TEST TRAINING 

F·IELDS 

I 

AUTOMATICALLY EX-

"'TRACT DATA FROM 

SCENE 

~ 
o 

-

n 

o 

'-. . 

,. .. 

, . 

• 

• 

••••••• .... ce ••• , ...... 

.. f • ~ 

'---

· I -" • q . - • ~ 

. ( , .. · .".. .-..: 

21 

• 

'",. ,I.of" 

'I .... /~ J. /' I '\' 

t~ '\\, 

• 

t 

.. " ... , 

Figure, 13. Shark River Slough, Everglades National Park 
22 

2. Data Requirements: The study area to be selected had to have hydrologic 

and climatological data which would be applicable to the· chosen LANDSAT 

coverage dates. These data, in addition to field investigations and aerial 

photographs,· would serve as a basis of "ground truth," for the applications of 

the sat~llite imagery to Everglades hydrologic investigations. 

3. Familiarity: The research team had to be familiar with the site selected for 

study in the Shark Slough. It was imperative for the investigators to have a 

good working knowledge of the location. This requirement would enable 

accurate and detailed mapping to be accomplished utilizing a supervised 

interactive classification procedure. 

4. Representative: The site location for study had to be representative of all 

hydrobiological zones within the Shark Slough. Each zone had to be clearly 

and readily identified and mapped so that a high degree of accuracy could be 

established. 

Following the review of site selection criteria a study area was established on 

the east-west airboat trail in the Shark River Slough. The airboat trail afforded 

the greatest accessibility to the slough with the least environmental impact. A 

transect was then established along the trail to provide a detailed and comprehensive an~ysis of the hydrobiological characteristics of the slough. Specifically, 

research was conducted to: 

1. Monitor the hydrological conditions in the slough throughout the year to 

document the cyclic nature and extent of the expanding/contracting slough 

margins. 
23 

2. Determine the flow characteristics of the surface waters in Shark Slough's 

hydrobiological zones. 

3. Document flow velocities (sheet flow) associated with each hydrobiological 

zone. 

4. Analyze vegetative characteristics which would influence reflectance values 

for the slough's hydroi>iological zones. 

A portion of the transect was utilized as an intensive study area for remote 

sensing applications. The four and a half mile transect length encompassed all 

hydrobiological zones from hydrologic stations E-I to P-33 (Figure 14). In 

addition, the transect width was" approximately one mile (half mile sections on 

either side of the airboat trail). The diverse but compact intensive study area 

enabled the most detailed and accurate analysis of the hydrobiological zones to be 

generated. 

Hydrobiological zones are t~ose areas which directly influence the rate 

(velocity) of overland sheet flow through the Florida Everglades. From field 

studies completed in Everglades National Park it was determined that four major 

hydrobiological zones are present in the Shark River Slough. Each zone has a 

distinct and different flow rate. The hydrobiological zone which experiences the 

fastest flow velocities is the open marsh (open ponded) area. The open marsh is 

largely composed of open water areas which ar~ interrupted by Eleocharis, 

maidencane, and sawgrass. The intermediate sawgrass area experiences a slightly 

slower flow rate. The intermediate saw grass group is composed of a fairly dense 
SHARK R'VER SLOUGH TRANSECT 

Pineer •• ' 

- ---

I 

I 

• I 

I 

• I 

I • 

. or -:.~ • 0 

.,'" +9'. It 

"-

"" .... ~ 

Figure 14. Transect Location, Shark River Slough 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

• I 

I 

I 

.f.!i I L 

00 

... f~ tis 

I 0 

·t· •• I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

H 

1 

o .. • • 

SceI. In M'''' 

~ 
25 

sawgrass community which does not exceed 3.5 feet (1 m) in height. Water 

velocities again slow even further when the overland sheet flow encounters the tall 

sawgrass hydrobiological zone. The tall saw grass community exceeds 3.5 feet 

( 1 m) in height and it grows in dense vegetative stands. Th~ slowest velocities 

are experienced in the hammocks and bayheads. Many of the hammocks experience 

no (zero) flow because they represent areas which are higher in ground elevation 

than the surrounding surface waters. 

Rhodamine tracer dye tests in the Florida Everglades by National Park 

Service hydrology persomel have verified these general flow characteristics in 

each hydrobiological system. Tracer dyes in the open marsh peaked at a rate 

1.6 times faster than the intermediate sawgrass and 2.0 times faster than tall 

saw grass (Figure 15). All hydrobiological zones in the wetlands marsh area of the 

Everglades were contained within the intensive study area. DeMauro, 1978, 

mapped each zone along the transect in conjunction with a Shark River Slough soil 

study. A detailed transect profile was completed to indicate the extent to which 

each of these zones intercept the transect (Figure 16). 

Aerial Photo Analysis 

Aerial photography is of paramount importance in the development of a 

remote sensing applications program. The aerial photo coverage for South Florida 

and Everglades National Park is quite good. Since 1940 aerial photographs have 

been generated on a frequent basis helping to document the dynamic conditions of 

the Florida Everglades. 
T 

~ . ..... 

V> 

~ ex: 

u 

z: 

..... 

z: 

o 

..... 

~ ~ 

z: 

1.1.1 

U 

z: 

o 

u 

TIME (INCREASING .) 

Figure 15. Rhodamine Tracer Dye (Concentration vs. Time) Curves 

26 
--.... 

Cb 

Cb 

.... 

..... 

West 

TSG 

S H ARK R I V E R S LOU G H P RO F I L E - T ran I • ct 1- D (2 20 f •• 't) 

Stations 0 to 220 (7-foot intervals) 

ISG 

Denle 

ISG 

Spa',.e 

• I 

I 

I 

~ 

OP 

... ~~: 

I 

I 

I 

, 

I 

I I 

I , 

LSG!TSG 

~ 

~////////////////////AII"//""'///./&0'7///~A V////KI'/////.It'"//A V///~///W.W"/~///.LIr"T/"/////////////////////////////////.//////////////////////////////////////.///////////////////////////////////////// 

loil 

i 41 '1' 'll"', r, r 'I 1fY " "Y", 

I: 

-

• .~.'N' 

LEGEND 

T 5 G= Tall sawarau 

IS G= Intermediat. sawgrau 

OP = Op.n Marsh 

Figure 16. Transect Profile - Shark 

River Slough 

IV 

........ 

----___________ -------------------------------------------------------- -- ------------- ----T- -- datum 

East 

2 

• ..... 

fI2 

l} 
28 

Color infrared (C.I.R.) high flight (U-2) aerial photographs taken January, 

1973, were utilized providing optimal coverage of the intensive study area and the 

park. The study area was photographed at an altitude of approximately 50,000 feet 

using a 9" x 9" format generating a photo with a scale of 1:130,000. These 

photographs, combined with field data, established a basis of "ground truth" for the 

study area. 

High flight C.I.R. aerial photographs are ideal for hydrologic analysis of the 

Everglades ecosys~.em. The utilization of the C.I.R. photographs provided greater 

enhancement and versatility in distinguishing the slough's surface features 

compared to conventional black and white photography. The C.I.R. photos provided 

more discernable photographic tones and a better defined pattern which increased 

interpretive accuracies throughout the mapping process. 

It was determined that the black and white aerial photographs did not provide 

sufficient contrast in photographic tone to be of significant value to hydrologic 

investigations. The characteristics of light reflectance from a wetlands system did 

not generate sufficient black and white contrasts to discern the detail afforded by 

the C.I.R. In addition, pattern recognition was also more difficult utilizing a black 

and white aerial photograph because the decision boundaries between the hydrobiological zones were not as evident. 

Even though the 9" x . 9" C.I.R. aerial photograph provided optimum photographic tone, pattern, texture and resolution, the original scale (1:130,000) of these 

photographs was less than ideal for detailed hydrologic interpretation. This 

problem was counteracted through the manipulation in scale of the original 

photograph. The intensive study area was isolated from the rest of the features 

contained on the aerial photo negative. Through an enlargement technique, the 

original 1:130,000 photograph was then enlarged eightfold to create a C.I.R. at a 
scale of 1:16,600 (3.90 inches to the mile). This enlargement provided for the most 

detailed and accurate mapping of the hydrobiological zones to be accomplished 

while maintaining high resolution and providing good contrasts for each hydro .. 

logically active area. 

Following the employment of the enlargement technique and the generation 

of a suitable aerial photo C.I.R., field studies were then initiated. The enlarged 

photograph was taken directly into the field for analysis/interpretation of critical 

areas. Both helicopters and airbOats were utilized to transport field personnel 

throughout the study area and the Shark River Slough. The airboat was extremely 

useful in providing mobility to researchers assessing hue changes within each 

hydro biological zone observed on the photograph and relating it to the exact 

position in the field. In addition, the helicopters were utilized to evaluate each 

hydrobiological zone from the air, evaluate its photographic tone and pattern, and 

to generate aerial oblique photographs in a 35 mm slide format. The oblique 

photographs were of value in accessing the accuracy of the subsequent hydrobiological map of the study area. 

Once the field studies in the intensive study area had been completed the 

detailed mapping of the hydrobiological zones commenced. The mapping was 

accomplished utilizing both the enlarged (scale 1:16,600) C.I.R. aerial photograph 

as well as the original (scale 1:130,000) 9" x 9" C.I.R. st~reo pairs for the study 

area. A Topcon mirrow stereoscope with a field 30 mm in diameter at ~ six power 

magnification was used in conjunction wfifi the stereo coverage. This procedure 

enhanced the interpretive process clarifying areas in question on the enlarged 

C.I.R. aerial photo while improving the mapping accuracies. 

29 
The most readily identifiable hydrobiological zone contained within the study 

area was the hammocks and bay heads. The hammocks/bay heads found in the 

Shark River slough are primarily composed of gumbo limbo, oaks, Lysiloma, 

cocoplum, red bay and willow tree species. These hardwood trees, supporting a 

canopy of broad leaves, produced an intense. red hue which distinguished them from 

all other hydrobiological zones. The hammocks/bay heads were delineated at their 

boundary of maximum extent and were then mapped accordingly. 

Tall sawgrass was also easily identified ·even though its interpretation was 

more complex. Normally, most of the tall sawgrass was either associated with the 

hammocks, forming the tail of a hammock, or existed as isolated strands in the 

Slough. The photographic texture of tall sawgrass was very coarse and its hue was 

primarily a dark, dull red/orange. A t times, a confusing but yet recognizable 

cream color could be seen in small areas within certain tall sawgrass zones. 

However, due to the prominent shape, pattern and location of the tall sawgrass, 

this minor con~usion does not interfere with the interpretive process (after it has 

been recognized and identified). Taking these observations into consideration the 

tall sawgrass was then delineated and mapped. 

The intermediate sawgrass group presented some interpretive problems. The 

color (dark brown with some red) was difficult to discern as it blended in with the 

darker colors on the C.I.R. a~rial photograph. Contributing to the confusion was a 

periphyton (algal mat) cover which had to be accounted for within the intermediate 

sawgrass zone. The original field studies in the slough assisted in solving the 

interpretive difficulties encountered with the intermediate sawgrass group and 

once it was accounted for the intermediate saw grass zones were delineated. 

The fourth hydrobiological zone to be mapped was the open marsh systems in 

the study area. The open water areas were not as easy to recognize as one would 

be left to believe considering light reflectance characteristics in the infrared 

30 
31 

spectrum of light. The open m.arsh contained periphyton within these areas. This 

resulted in a highly reflective zone contained within the open-marsh. The overall 

result was to produce a dull pink to a bright whitish-pink tone. At first this tone 

would appegr to suggest an intermediate sawgrass area, however, upon examination, this hue was found to represent those areas of open marsh with a 

considerable amount of periphyton. In addition, areas devoid of periphyton 

registered from an aqua-blue to the typical black spectral response for water in the 

infrared. Following this analysis, the open marsh areas were delineated and 

mapped according. 

The hydrobiological map that was generated clearly and accurately delineated these four critically active hydrological zones in the intensive study area. 

As would be expected, the Shark River Slough is comprised mainly of two 

hydrobiological zones; the open marsh and the intermediate sawgrass. The 

hammocks and the bay heads represent a very small fraction of the slough which 

occasionally interrupts the vast expanse of sawgrass. Finally, the tall sawgrass 

occurs as major strands in the slough or in conjunction with the hammocks and the 

bay heads. 

Computer Applications 

Subsequent to the field and C.I.R. aerial photo analysis was the automated 

extraction of the hydrobiological zones from the LANDSAT computer-compatible 

tape (CCT). The supervised interactive processing of the multispectral digital 

LANDSA T data was accomplished utilizing a G. E. Image 100 Interactive Image 

Analysis System (G. E. 1-100). Both the G. E. 1-100 and the LANDSAT CCT were 

furnished by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration-Kennedy Space 

Center (NASA-KSC) as a cooperative effort with the National Park Service. 
ACquisition of ENP LANDSAT Data 

Since the onset of the LANDSAT program in 1972, Everglades National Park 

and South Florida have had continuous repetitive satellite coverage during both the 

wet and dry seasons. However, due to the presence of clouds during the satellite 

overpasses (especially during the wet season) many LANDSAT scenes of the park 

contain greater than 20 percent cloud cover. In most cases an image containing 

greater than 20 percent cloud obstruction is rendered of little value to hydrologic 

applications in the Florida Everglades. 

An analysis was completed to determine those LANDSAT overflights for 

Everglades National Park which could be of value to a remote sensing program. A 

computer search was initiated through the EROS Data Center, U. S. Geological 

Survey in Sioux Falls, South Dakota. The maximum extent of cloud cover was 

• 

restricted to the 20 percent threshhold value. In addition, the quality of each 

multispectral band was not to be less than a level of 5 (EROS Data Center rates 

the quality of the image from 0 - 9, with 9 being the best possible quality 

available). The analysis revealed that a total of eighteen LANDSAT overflights 

" 

meet the criteria since the launching of the first satellite (LANDSAT) in 1972 

(Table 2). 

The date selected for computer processing of the hydrobiological zones was 

the March 3, 1975, overflight. The LANDSAT-2 satellite generated the data 

contained on the CCT and all multispectral bands were of good qUality. Each 

MSS-band had a quality of 8 and the tape was on file at NASA-KSC. 

The March 3, 1975 acquisition date was ideal for hydrobiological applications 

of the satellite data in the Shark River Slough. Hydrologic field investigations had 

been conducted in the slough just after the satellite overflight and the park's 

32 
33 

Table 2. 

ACCEPTABLE ERTS/LANDSAT COVERAGE DATES FOR ENP 

(Quality'; Cloud 20%) 

MSS 

Date Satellite 4 , 6 7 Cloud CCT CCP 

5/16/78 'or better 20 

4/28/78 LANDSAT-2 - 8 20 

3/23/78 LANDSAT-2 5 8 8 8 10 

3/14/78 LANDSAT-3 8 8 8 8 20 

2/15/78 LANDSAT-2 8 8 8 5 20 

1/28/78 LANDSAT-2 8 8 8 8 20 

1/10/78 • LANDSAT~2 8 M 5 8 10 

12/29/77 ERTS-l M 5 5 5 10 

12/5/77 ERTS-l , 5 5 5 20 

11/17/77 ERTS-l M M 8 8 10 

9/30/77 ERTS-l M 8 2 8 10 P P 

4/2/76 LANDSAT-2 8 8 8 8 10 Y P 

12/7/75 ERTS-l 5 8 8 8 10 P P 

3/3/75 LANDSAT-2 8 8 8 8 20 Y Y 

12/30/74 ERTS-l 8 8 8 8 10 Y P 

10/19/74 ERTS-l 8 8 5 8 10 Y Y 

10/24/73 ERTS-I 2 8 8 2 10 Y Y 

3/22/73 ERTS-l 5 8 2 8 0 P 
34 

hydrology files documented all hydrologic conditions in and around the park for 

that particular date. 

During the overflight on March 3, 1975, the park and South Florida experienced hy~rologic conditions typical of the dry season. No rain had fallen for at 

least 3 days at Flamingo and Royal Palm Ranger Stations while just a trace was 

recorded at Tamiami and Everglades City Ranger Stations (Table 3). 

Water levels throughout the park were very low and there were no surface 

waters present near the Rookery Branch area in the Shark Slough. The surface 

water levels in Conservation Area 3A were also below normal. 

The G. E. 1-100 facilitates the automated extraction of LANDSAT data from 

the CCT based on the theorem that all objects possess a unique characteristic. 

These characteristics translate into spectral signatures which are utilized by the 

G. E. 1-100 to identify specific features. The decision to include a particular 

signature into a specified class is based upon a simultaneous multi-spectral or 

multi-frequency analysis by the computer. Those classes which statistically 

possess unique spectral signatures are then assigned a theme and the classification 

of an entire LANDSAT scene, or part of, is accomplished (Figure 17). 

The digitized LANDSAT CCT contains the specific reflectance values 

recorded by the satellite sensors. As the LANDSAT satellite passes over any 

particular area the multispectral scanner (MSS) system records the emergent 

radiation from the surface of the earth. The scanner is a line scan device which 

records the four distinct wavelengths of light. 

The orbital path of the satellite enables the data to be acquired on a line-byline (east/west) format which generates a continuous image. A scene is completed 

when a total of 2480 scan lines have been recorded within a given· framework. 

Each scan line contains 3240 picture elements (pixels) and there are over 

7.5 million pieces of data for each band. The total area contained within a 
35 

Table 3: March 3, 1975 Hydrologic Data Corresponding to LANDSAT Overflight. 

Date 

March 1 

March 2 

March 3 

Upstream 

Downstream 

Lake Okeechobee 

Conservation Area 1 

Conservation Area 2 

Conservation Area 3 

Tamiami 

Ranger Sta. 

0 

0 

0.03 

A 

7.93 

7.90 

RAINFALL 

Everglades Flamingo 

City Ranger Sta. 

0 0 

0 0 

0.02 0 

WATER LEVELS - 5-12 

B 

7.85 

7.85 

C 

7.86 

7.86 

CONSERVA nON AREAS 

Normal 

Level Level 

13.80 

15.80 

12.46 

7.94 

14.04 

15.46 

12.66 

9.00 

Royal 

Palm 

0 

0 

0 

D 

7.86 

6.56 

E· 

6.99 

6.55 
HAMMOCKS 

G. E. 1-100 

PROCESSOR 

SCAN/VIEW/STORE 

IMAGE 

SELECT PREPROCESSING 

OPEN MARSH INTERMEDIATE 

SAWGRASS 

EXTRACT 

SIGNATURE 

CLASSIFY THE TOTAL IMAGE 

TALL SAWGRASS 

Figure 17. Flow diagram for classification of LANDSAT CCT utilizing 

GE-I-IOO Processor 

36 
LA~DSA T scene is 185 square kilometers (100 x 100 nautical miles). The remotely 

sensed data for each pixel contains four sets of binary numbers which contain a 

mean specific intensity producing a gray scale range which can be statistically 

analyzed by a digital analyzer such as the G. E. 1-100. 

The capabilities of the G. E.I-100 enable an area of 512 by 512 pixels to be 

classified at a given time. This translates into over one million bites of data which 

are simultaneously classified by the digital analyzer. 

Training 

Once the LANDSAT CCT is acquired and input into the digital processor the 

image is displayed on a color cathode ray tube (CRT). The CRT is a high 

resolution, 525 line, TV monitor which allowed the viewing of either the LANDSAT 

imagery or the training/classification results. The CRT is capable of displaying a 

maximum of 512 elements by 488 lines per scene. Classification can be generated 

on all 512 lines, however, only 488 lines can be displayed on the CRT (due to the 

CR 1"'s vertical retrace requirement). The remaining 24 lines are stored in the 

image memory unit of the processor. 

For training purposes the CRT split-screen formatting was utilized exclusively. The intensive study area was located on the LANDSAT scene displayed on 

the CRT. The study area was then delineated utilizing a cursor. A scale factor 

was specified and the study area was digitally magnified and overwritten on a 

portion (non-essential to classification) of the LANDSAT image using the window 

display mode. Two display windows were required to display the enlarged study 

area in the Shark Slough on the CRT. This procedure enabled accurate and precise 

definition of each hydro biological zone in the slough while maintaining high 

resolution. 

37 
38 

The primary mode of training utilizing the G. E. 1-100 at NASA-KSC was the 

single cell signature acquisition mode. After a site had been selected for training 

purposes the processor then obtained the gray level distribution contained within 

that site in all four multispectral channels. Histograms (one-dimensional) for each 

training site. were then generated to determine the upper and lower limits for the 

spectral distribution in that set. These boundaries defined the N-dimensional 

hyper parallelepiped in spectral space for the training area. That is, a region 

(training set) in feature space is described, in four dimensions, by the upper and 

lower gray level distribution limits. The radiance (gray level) values defining these 

limits are determined and the statistics for a given training set are generated. 

Included in the statistical package are the means, peaks and variances. 

Each of the four hydrobiological zones in the Shark River Slough were trained 

utilizing the single-cell signature acquisition mode and a supervised interactive 

approach. The iterative training, combined with a schematic approach, based on 

complexity, enabled all zones to be accounted for and mapped according by the 

image processor and the remote sensing/data processing analysts. The easiest and 

most prominent hydro biological zone to train was the hammocks. This training was 

followed by the tall sawgrass, intermediate sawgrass and the training was 

completed after the digital processor could identify the open marsh's spectral 

properties. 

Subsequent to all training procedures was the classification of the hydrobiological zones contained in the Shark River Slough. The 512 x 488 pixel scene 

displayed on the CRT was ideal for ENP hydrologic application and classification. 

Much of the park, including all of the Shark River Slough was displayed on the CRT 

monitor. 
Classification is primarily the assignment of a pixel to a theme (class), or in 

this case a hydro biological zone, based on the spectral properties of that pixel. In 

order for a classification to be accurate, it is paramount that the training be as 

accurate as possible and all spectral properties contained within the area of 

concern must have been accounted for accordingly. The G. E. 1-100, during the 

classification process, scans the entire 512 x 512 four channel input imagery, pixelby-pixel, and assigns each pixel to a class based upon its spectral properties and its 

correlation to the radiance values for the training sets. The entire 270,000 acres in 

the Shark Slough were classified in less than 3 seconds per hydro biological zone. 

Accuracy Assessment 

Accuracy assessment is necessary in order to determine how successfully a 

ground feature can be identified and mapped by an automatic processing system. 

The success/failure of a training site or classification of a LANDSAT scene 

depends on whether the pixel was placed into the correct class. The percentage 

accuracy of a classification then directly reflects on the ability of a computer to 

identify each pixel within a scene, or part of, and place it in the correct class 

based on the input statistics generated during the training procedures. 

Training and classification accuracies were assessed throughout the processing mode. The supervised interactive approach enabled each training site to be 

evaluated prior to classification. All ground truth, including the hydrobiological 

systems map, were utilized during the training procedure. Only those areas within -

the intensive study area which were most representative of the hydrobiological 

systems were chosen as training sites. The familiarity of the researchers with the 

selected areas, combined with the ground truth, enabled all pixels representative of 

each hydrologically active zone to be included in the training sites. This procedure 

resulted in fewer pixel misclassifications in the final product generation and less 

thresholding of the pixels throughout the classification. 

39 
The accuracy assessment was also conducted on the classification after 

product generation. A random sample of pixel classification accuracies was 

conducted through the employment of a grid network. The accuracy test was 

performed at the intersection of the x and y axis on the grid. Each test site was 

chosen by .the random number table method and the pixel was either classified 

correctly or incorrectly. In addition each classified pixel per hydrobiological zone 

was tested against the ground truth of the intensive study area to determine 

classification accuracies. Through the application of these techniques, the 

percentage accuracy for each hydro biological zone was determined and analysis 

made regarding the ability of the classifier to recognize the hydrobiological zones 

in a slough wetland area. 

IV. SIGNIFICANT RESULTS 

It was determined that remote sensing is a viable tool for hydrologic 

applications in the Florida Everglades. The satellite imagery/CCT can provide a 

basis for accurate and detailed automated extraction of scientific data. This 

research found that the hydrobiological zones in the slough's ecosystem could be 

accurately delineated. The spectral response of each hydro biological zone can be 

plotted so that the LANDSAT signatures of the Shark River Slough could be 

identified. Histograms and statistics were generated during the 

training/classification procedure so that greater insight into the spectral response 

of each zone could be analyzed. Through spectral plotting relationships the 

multispectral relationships between the emittent energy from the slough was 

determined so that the best possible wavelengths of light to utilize would be known 

in order to enhance the classification results. Finally, this research determined, 

for the first time, the total area involved with each hydrobiological zone contained 

40 
41 

within the Shark River Slough and the associated conceptual flow vectors were 

generated. This is of paramount impOrtance to future ENP hydrology studies and 

flow models which will be developed. 

Shark Slough's LANDSAT Signatures 

Plots of the LANDSAT spectral reflectance for each of the hydrobiological 

systems were developed (Figure 18). These plots indicate the relationships between 

the reflectance of each hydrobiological zone and its relationship to each LANDSAT 

multispectral band. The resultant signature plot was generated utilizing the mean 

reflectance values for each hydrobiological zone. 

The lowest emergent energy from the Shark River Slough, as would be 

expected, was the open marsh system. The open marsh is composed mainly of open 

ponded areas which contain Eleocharis, sawgrass, maidencane and an algal floating 

mat (periphyton). The lowest reflectance within the open marsh occurs in the 0.6 

to 0.7 urn (MSS-Band 5) wavelengths of light. The open marsh displays simiJar 

mean reflectance signatures in both MSS-Band 4 (0.5 to 0.6 urn) and MSS-Band 7 

(0.8 to 1.1 urn). 

Contrary to the open marsh hydrobiological zone, the hammock group 

displayed the highest mean reflectivity of all four groups. The dense, thick-leafed 

trees within the hammocks produced the most distinct signature and the easiest to 

classify in MSS-Band 7 (0.8 to 1.1 urn). 

The sawgrass zones (tall and intermediate) were the two systems which were 

the most difficult to spectrally separate. The composition of each sawgrass group 

and the density of vegetative growth generated a higher spectral response in the 

far infrared (MSS-Band 7). However, utilizing only Band 6 (0.7 to 0.8 urn) the 

distinct separation of these two hydrobiological zones would be impossible. The 

signature responses are similar in the green and red wavelengths of light with the 
(\) 

0 

c 

to 

~ 

0 

(J) 

..-4 

~ 

& 

IX 

20 r-----------------------------------------------------~ 

15 

10 

5 

Figure 18. 

I 

I 

/ 

I 

I 

/ Hammocks 

/ Tall 

I ",.. .. ~ Sawgrass 

~~ ............ -... Interrnediat ."-j •••• - Sawgrass 

.... / ..... / ... .. .... _ ............. - .. "" ... / / .... .- / 

~ •• __ / / Open Marsh ~, .. --..... / 

MSS4 

........ / ............ L 

MSS5 MSS6 

ERTS-l channel 

LANDSAT signatures of Shark Slough. 

MSS7 

42 
intermediate sawgrass generating a greater reflectance in MSS-Band 4 than the 

tall sawgrass (this relationship reverses in the MSS-Band 5 response). 

It is clearly evident, based upon the relationships established in this plot that 

the four hydrobiological zones possess unique LANDSAT signatures in the Shark 

River Slough. These signatures can be separated quite readily utilizing the far 

infrared (MSS-7; 0.8 to 1.1 J,lm) wavelengths of light; the only confusion that could 

occur is between the two types of sawgrass (tall and intermediate). 

The most difficult spectral separation of the hydrobiological zones would be 

using MSS-Band 6. The plots of LANDSAT signatures for three of the four zones 

were very similar displaying very little uniqueness. In the MSS-Band 6.,. the mean 

reflectance value for the hammocks, tall saw grass and intermediate saw grass was 

about the same. In addition, a separation of hydrobiological zones based on the 

signatures in the MSS-4 (0.5 to 0.6 }..1m) band would be futile. The open marsh and 

hammock systems would separate with little difficulty; however, it would be 

impossible to spectrally separate the two zones of sawgrass. 

Hydrobiological Histograms and Statistics 

The ability of ·.:he G. E. 1-100 to obtain the multispectral channel (band) gray 

level distributions for the training pixels enabled histograms and statistics to be 

formulated for each training group. The range of gray levels are indicated on the x 

axis while the y axis represents the range of pixel counts. These histograms, then, 

give an indication to both the upper and lower bounds for each training group 

(hydrobiological zone) defining the spectral distribution which was recorded by the 

LANDSA T scanning device for each specific zone. 

The hydrobiological zone in the Shark River Slough with the highest reflectivity was the hammocks. The spectral bounds ranged from a low of 5 in the red 

wavelengths of light to a high of 25 in the far infrared (Table 4). This was a result 

43 
Table 4. Hammocks: Histograms and Statistics. 

t·· . 

! 

• • • • • • • MSs-4 

. ~ 'RAilllNc5i '(IhclfuA'SIhG U) , • • • • • • MSs-6 

HAMMOCKS 

44 

MSS-5 

MSS-7 

r-... ·~r • . r r I -,. ·r- I I i 

RADIANCE (INCREASING"') 

*** 0tC DJrlEMSIOHAL TfiMIHlttO ··'ReV . flit· 

UF£CTtVE 8OUHI)-.,..,.s1'IOLDS(" ) GTMT 

ClWKL fiEeoWTIOH &"OW IHe'D HIGH 1.EUEL 

1. &4 ... (t ..... , e ... a IH • .... ca· ..... ' .... 

3 ... .... (1 ..... ) ... • .. • •• • .. (1M.") .... • 

CHANNEL. tJP£CTM ........... KLT...... lItEM 

t . &- 18' .,...... ., .• 

S 5-., a i8S24. I .• ~ f14-81) .~. i .... .. 15- a) • 484. '?? 

TIt"l"I" MEAfIIL.Mfi£D M£A- S813e. ( "MALt..n.Stt~ ~LU. 

FJGI.JII£ OF PEJtJT-

...... 

•. P$) 

, ... . 

I ..... . 

.... 

FIHISH 

LEVEL .... 

53 

A 

83 
of the dense, luxuriant plant growth occurring in the hammocks thus producing the 

greatest spectral spread compared to the alternative hydrobiological zones. 

In contrast, as would be expected, the open marsh displayed the lowest 

reflectance values of the four groups (Table 5). This reflectance occurred in the 

MSS-Band 5 indicating a low of 5. Conversely, the greatest reflectance in the open 

marsh was encountered in the infrared (near and far) wavelengths of light which 

registered a maximum of 9 in both bands. 

Situated between these two zones were both the tall and intermediate 

sawgrass systems (Tables 6 and 7). The tall sawgrilss growing denser and displaying 

larger leaves achieved gre~ter reflectance values than did the intermediate 

sawgrass. In addition, the tall sawgrass had a slightly lower reflectance value in 

Bands MSS-4/5 compared to the intermediate sawgrass. 

Spectral Relationships in a Wetland Environ 

One of the best methods of distinguishing each hydrobiological zone from the 

other is by contrasting the mean reflectance of two MSS-bands. This technique 

generates a reflectance plot which readily identifies those bands which are ideal 

for separating classes (hydrobiological zones). The plot takes into consideration 

the mean reflectance, upper spectral limits and the lower limits of each class. A 

double mass curve is then utilized to establish the relationships between two 

LANDSA T bands. 

Spectral reflectance plots were developed for the Shark River Slough's 

hydrobiological systems. Double mass curves were generated for all maximum 

combinations of the spectral bands. This enabled an analysis to be formulated for 

class separation for the combinations of MSS-4 vs. MSS-5; MSS-4 vs. MSS-6; 

MSS-4 vs. MSS-7; MSS-5 vs. MSS-6; MSS-5 vs. MSS-7; and, MSS-6 vs. MSS-7 

(Figure 19). 
Table 5. Open Marsh: Histograms and Statistics. 

OPEN MARSH 

• I 

tQ I ~ MSs-4 ~ ~ H ~ Pi • H 

P-t 

Ii. 

0 ~ r::t< 

I r::t< 

Pi! 

! 

MSS-6 

J~ + .• L8 .. DEL PEM PENt \1M + 

S • • 3 sea... ..? •. 4. 

a • 6 8 63Il8. &.8 •.• + 

3 e 8 of 3578. 7.3 •.•• .. 8 8 8 aasa . ?I. I. .• + 

TRAlNDIC AREA- sea36. PI,.... + 

MNWED 1t/I£IIt~ l .... ~IHEU( 3 .• '''' 

'rtfl';' aw.~ ... _ OR EUOIT 

46 

MSS-5 

.• iii r 

INCREASING -+) 

MSS-7 

CIIAtlCL 

1 

EFFECTIVE 

RESOLUTIOh 

G4 

IOUHD-THRESHHOLH(" J 

'LOW IHC"D HIGH 

S1'AR'f 

t.nEL 

FINISH 

t.EUEL 

&3 

&3 

63 

63 

a .... ~ &of .. 84' 

e ee (1 ..... ' .. .. 

.... (1 ..... ' .. .. 

... t'" M) ... .... '1 ..... ' ... 

/// TRAINING '" ~M~WW '" '" ~IHrHQ ~TE /// 

CIW.4Et. SPECTRAL-8OlI'G)S DEt.TA ~ fIII!.Nt 

1 

2 

2 

• 

( s- .) ( 5'- .) 

( 6- 8) 

( 5- g, 

TRAIHINQ MEAALAM'ED AR£Aa PMA~-t.Et.EPrp£D CE\,UFIGURE OF PltJifIT3 ..... . . . .. . .. 3ImI . 

. -. 

•. 73 

.... 

,?M 

7." 

• • • • 

VMIANiC£ 

• .• 3 

8 . .:1 

e ._ 1.-8S 

'. 
rJ.l 

H 

a 

/l.i 

~ 

I 

TabJe 6. Tall 5awgrass: Histograms and Statistics. 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

TALL SAWGRASS 

MSs-4 

MSs-6 rJ.l 

~ ~ 

Ii< 

0 

I . ••• + 

• La LIB DEL fIEM,.,.... &)M . • 

1 6 • 3 .. if)? . ., .7 •. 3 • 

• 8 SJ .. 13884 . ., •• 1.. + 

3 ? 14 8 8833. 11." a.4. 

4 '1 J5 S ?83e. la.. 1 .•• 

TRAJ"lfiIQ ,... 8'7483. ~I)CU • 

ALARfED AIEA- 27 .... 3 ... t)CELS( Ie ... ). 

TVPE' CtIllW.£t.. OR E(X)JT 

MSS-5 

MSS-7 

*t;J\; Ot4E [)'~J+.itOt~L TII .... J.Hlt4G -..-u . A- .... 

EFFFCTTUF 8OUND-THRESHHOLDS'_) STMT FIHISH 

Ct1AN't£.L HI;..~LUT tON LOY IHe'D HIGH U::~L I.Z~L 

1 ... .... (1 ..... ) .... 

2 64 .... (1 ..... ' ... 

:J 6i4 •. ~ tl.W.ee) •. 88 

4 84 ... (1 ... .. ) .... 

/// "f'IIMUflfG IN ....,.. ••• '" 

'" ~HIHQ COftPL&~ /// 

SfIEC'-"'L-1IOUt'tDtI 

( .. ,.) ( 8- .) 

, 7- 1 .. , 

, 11- 15) 

"f'MJttlttO ~. 

M..MIiIPI!D &I¥IEAPMALL£L£P ~P£J) (;£LLS- ~tQUR£ OF MERIT. 

KLTA Pl!M 7_'''. 

"I~ 

a -.:D. 

5 ,... 

ftE'M 

7 ..... .,. ,. 

II .• UI." 

• e 

• • 

~J~ •. .., 

••• 

. ••• ... 

e3 

a3 

83 

Q 

47 
Table 7. Intermediate Sawgrass: Histograms and Statistics. 48 

~ 

~ 

~ 

~ 

p::j 

! 

• 1 

2 

3 

.. 

U 

7 

? 

8 

• 

• • • • t 

I • : 

t 

t 

• • • t 

... 

ua DEL 

• ,. 3 

4 

&3 

s • • s 

INTERMEDIATE SAWGRASS 

MSs-4 

til 

MSs-6 H 

~ ... 

~ 

I'r-I 

0 

p::j 

! 

-.) 

+ 

NAIC IIIEM WIllI • ~3. • •• _a . .... •.. ••• 1.1 • 

,....,.. I •. " 1." • 

• a •. i •.• i.4 • 

TRAI"IHO AREA- 88138. ftt>CI!U + 

AI..NIIED ..... SS13e.PI)CELS( 8' .• " 

TYPE. ClWIEL • OR ECM)IT 

MSS-5 

MSS-7 

n. ottE DlrErfSlOtML T,,"I"I'~ -II£1J. .. • •• 

EFF&CTIUE 8OUND-THRE8HHOLDS(~J 

CHAr .... RESOLUTION t.OU tHC#D HIGH 

1 84 ... (1 ..... ' .. .. 2 ... • ... (1 ..... ) .... . 3 &4 .... (1 ..... ' .. .. 4f 64 .... (1 ..... ' .. .. 

fTMT 

r"cun 

• • • • 

F'IHISH 

LEU£L 

S3 

a 

n 

a 

/// TMJH1HG '" ........ '" 

'" 'l'MIHI" COfPI.E'I'E //,/ 

CHAt«£L 

t 

2 

3 

4 

TRA1NIHQ NIEAALARJIIED AREA-

~LLE1.EPtPED ca. .... FIGURE OF ~RIT. 

.U,». 

.S •. C 8' .• ' 

3M. 

48883. 

\lMIftHC€ 

•. 43 

i .• 

t."'2 

1 .• 
SPECTRAL REFLECTANCE PLOTS 

20 20 Q) Q) Q) 0 0 0 ~ ~ ~ !l 15 III 15 III 15 +' L+ 0 [p tl T y}/ Q) Q) 

~/ :;::: 10 .... 

"'" 10 & & & ~ 5 ~ 5 ~ 5 III III 

~ Q) III Q) ::E :E 

~ ~ ~ I I I en 0 5 10 15 20 en 0 5 10 15 20 en 0 5 10 15 20 en 

:E MSS-5 Mean Reflectance ~ MSS-6 Mean Reflectance ~ MSS-7 Mean Reflectance 

20 20 Q)20 • 

H Q) Q) 0 tl tl 

~ ~ ; III III +' +' +' 0 tl 0 

Q) Q) 15 ~15 .... .... 

!1O~ /J "'" & "'" I & 10 I 

~ o/:. s:: III H III 

o~/.. H 

~ .... ~ 5 .... ~ 0 'T' 5 

Ll'l Ll'l .\0 

I I I en en en 

en 

:E ~ 0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 ~S 0 5 10 15 20 

MSS-6 Mean Reflectance MSS-7 Mean Reflectance MSS-7 Mean Reflectance 

0= Open Marsh, 1= Intermediate Sawgras.s, T= Tall Sawgrass, H= Hammock~ 

Figure 19. Spectral Reflectance Plots for Shark Slough's Hydrobiological Zones 

25 

.. 

~ 
50 

Plotting bands MSS-4 vs. MSS-5 produced a tightly clustered grouping for all 

four hydrobiological zones. The spectral means and extremes were clustered about 

one-another. The separation of any of these hydrologically active areas would be 

impossible based 4pon a classification using only these two bands. The degree of 

classification acctiracy utilizing bands MSS-4 vs. MSS-5 would be very minimal. 

The spectral similarity between the hydrobiological zones continued in the 

MSS-4 vs. MSS-6 'plots. 'the only deviation occurred in' the hammock group whose 

spectral bounds were quit~ different from the other zones. However, for the open 

marsh, tall and intermediate saw grass zones, spec.tral separation would be 

inaccurate and di~ficult using bands MSS-4 and MSS-6. A classification based on 

only these two wavelengths of light would probably have serious problems in the 

classification procedure due to a thresholding of pixels resulting from similar 

signatures for each of these groups. 

Contrasting the green. and far-infrared wavelengths o( light (MSS-4 vs. 

MSS-7) improved the separation of LANDSAT signatur~s. Both the tall sawgrass 

and hammocks were dispersed and readily identifiable. Each of these two groups 

possessed unique signatures in these wavelengths of light facilitating easy identification. The problem utilizing the MSS-4 vs. MSS-7 reflectance values occurred in 

contrasting the open marsh and the intermediate sawgrass zones. Both of these 

areas in the Shark River Slough experienced similar spectral responses. " . 

A more difficult ~eparation again occurs when bands 5 and 6 are contrasted. 

Three of the hydrobiological zones (open marsh, intermediate sawgrass and tall 

sawgrass) possessed similar signatures thus decreasing classification accuracies and 

increasing thresholding of pixels to occur. The hammocks were the only zones 

which were spectrally unique utilizing these two bands. 

Contrasting the near and far infrared wavelengths of light (MSS-6 vs. MSS-7) 

also would generate poor classification results. The open marsh and intermediate 

sawgrass classes overlap where the upper limits of the marsh and the lower limits 
51 

of the sawgrass plot. In addition, the proximity of the upper limits of the tall 

sawgrass and the lower limits of the hammocks would render classification 

difficult. 

The best possible classification of the hydrobiological zones in the Florida 

Everglades would be through utilizing the MSS-5 vs. MSS-7 bands (0.6 to 0.7 urn vs. 

0.8 to 1.1 urn). These two bands were the only suitable combination which allowed 

complete spectral, separation of these zones. The plot clearly indicates the 

separability and diffusion of the mean spectral relationships for all LANDSAT band 

combinations. The class separation of ' the hydrobiological zones in MSS-5 vs. 

MSS-7 clearly indicates the spectral uniqueness of each signature which would 

enable accurate and detailed automated extraction from machine processors to be 

accomplished. Thus, for a given hydrobiological zone a mean reflectance value can 

be defined utilizing MSS-5 band vs. MSS-7 band for open marsh, intermediate 

sawgrass, tall sawgrass and hammocks, and these values are unique enabling 

analysis to be formulated (Figure 20). 

Hydrobiological Classification of the Shark River Slough 

Classification of the hydrobiological systems 'in the Shark Slough was 

accomplished uSing the G. E. 1-100. This interactive multi-data processor utilized 

all four multispectral bands during the automated interactive mapping process. 

The signatures were readily identified and extracted using primarily the single-cell 

signature acquisition mode. This procedure generated a complete hydrobiological 

classification of the Shark River Slough in Everglades National Park. Each 

hydrobiological zone was isolated and mapped accordingly, as well as a composite 

classification depicting all four zones. Each map clearly and accurately delineated 

each hydrologically active slough system. 
20 

Legend 

Oopen Marsh 

~ ElInt. Saw. (J IS :z; 

..c 0Tall Saw . E-< 

U ~Hammocks 

~ r... 

~ 10 

i 0 Ln 0 

, 

til <:> til "7 5 :IE: 

0L-____ ~ ______ ~ ______ ~ __________ _ 

5 10 15 20 

MSS-7 MEAN REFLECTANCE 

Figure 20. MSS-7 vs. MSS-5 Mean Reflectance Values Separating 

all Hydrobiological Zones, Shark River Slough. 

52 
53 

The classification of the March 3, 1975 overflight mapped the open marsh 

system as would be expected during the dry season. The ponded water was 

primarily centered about the central conduit of the Shark Slough. In addition, 

ponded water in the Conservation Area 3-A adjacent to and north of the park was 

accounted for by the classifier. 

The predominant hydrobiological system in the Shark Slough during the dry 

season is the intermediate sawgrass group. This sawgrass zone is dispersed 

throughout the slough to the mangrove fringe. The influence of the intermediate 

sawgrass on the movement of water throughout the slough becomes apparent on the 

classification results (refer to enclosures in cover). 

One of the predominant patterns associated with the Florida Everglades are 

the large "teardrop" shapes associated with the hammocks. The hammocks sweep 

in an arching fashion throughout the park and were readily identified by the 

processor. The tall sawgrass was delineated as is encountered in the field -forming 

the "tails" of the hammocks, isolated strands and increasing in magnitude near the 

mangrove fringe. 

Each hydro biological system was also delineated on a computer hard-copy , 

printout which isolated each specific zone. This hard-copy was then photographically enlarged to a scale of 1:130,000 which rendered better definition for 

each zone and enabled more accurate flow vectors to be determined. In addition, 

the computer furnished total pixel counts which could th~ be applied to determine 

the relative area represented by each specific hydrologically active zone. 

According to Kushian, et al., 1975, the Shark Slough encompasses a total of 

142,579 square acres (222.78 mi2 or 577 km2). This includes the area south of the 
54 

Tamiami Trail (U.S. 41) and to the west of L-67 (not including lands outside of the 

park in the N.E. Shark Slough) (Figure 11). The classification of the Shark Sloug.h 

determined that intermediate saw grass is by far the greatest hydrobiological 

system in the slough, comprising 76 percent of the total area (Table 8). Both the 

tall sawgrass and open marsh systems were comparable (11 percent and 10 percent, 

respectively) for this period of the dry season, and the hammocks were only 

3 percent of the total area in the Shark River Slough. 

There are two facets which must be considered when analyzing these data 

concerning total aerial extent of each zone. First, the margins of the slough 

contract and expand in response to hydrological inputs throughout the year. During 

the dry season, reduced water deliveries to Everglades National Park combined 

with minimal rainfall contributions is responsible for contractions of the slough's 

margins. Conversely, during the wet season the margins of the slough expand in 

direct response to greater water deliveries an~ rainfall inputs. 

Second, the minimum resolution capability of the LANDSAT pixel cell is 

1.1 acres. This translates to an average radiance value for an area of land which is 

contained within the limits of the pixel. Therefore, an area which is composed of 

both small areas of open marsh surrounded by large areas of intermediate saw grass 

will display and be classified according to the reflectance characteristics of the 

predominant grouping. 

Consideration of both these problems enables a better understanding of the 

determined percentages and aerial extent for each zone to be formulated. This is 

especially true of the 10 percent coverage for the open marsh system. As the 

slough expands in response to the subsequent wet season, so should the aerial 

extent of the open marsh. Of all four hydrobiological zones, the open marsh should 

change the greatest spatially because as the greater water depths d~velop, the 

slough will display the characteristics most common to a water system rather than 
55 

Table 8. Dry Season Classification Results for TQtal Area of Each 

Hydrobiological System, Shark Slough. 

DRY SEASON CLASSIFICA nON RESULTS: TOTAL AREA 

Hydrobiological Square Square Square 

Zone Percent Acres Miles Km 

Intermediate Sawgrass 76 108,360 169 438.52 

Tall Sawgrass 11 15,684 25 63.47 

Hammocks 3 4,277 7 17.31 

Open Marsh 10 14,258 22 57.70 

TOTAL 142,579 222.78 577 
the vegetative system which is predominant in the dry season. Therefore, it would 

be expected that the total area classified as intermediate saw grass would become 

smaller and the open marsh would increase. This trend should reverse as the dry 

season again approaches, approximating the percentages generated during this 

classification procedure. 

Accuracy Assessment 

The spectral response of a wetland area such as the Shark River Slough, 

contains unique signatures which can be successfuUy classified. The degree of 

accuracy was found to be very high for each hydro biological zone in the slough 

which thereby increased the confidence levels for the overall classification. 

The highest classification accuracies were for two areas: the open marsh and 

the hammocks (Table 9). The other two groups (intermediate saw grass and tall 

sawgrass) encountered some misclassification problems, however, the lowest 

accuracy was at the 93 percentile level. 

Both the open marsh and the hammock areas experienced the greatest 

success primarily because of the unique spectral response and spread which 

separated them from the other groups. The low reflectivity of the water and the 

high spectral response of the hammocks (especially in the near and far infrared) 

enabled an extremely accurate classification to be developed. 

The accuracy assessment for the sawgrass groups indicated some confusion 

problems between tall sawgrass and the intermediate sawgrass. Because tall 

sawgrass has a slightly higher reflectivity in most cases, the classifier was able to 

isolate this grouping 96 percent of the time. However, because of the similarity 

between the lower reflectance values for the tall sawgrass and the upper 

reflectance limits for the intermediate sawgrass, the classifier had difficulty in 

distinguishing between these two groups. 

56 
Table 9. Overall Classification Accuracy for Each Hydrobiological 

Zone in the Shark Slough* 

Training Intermediate Tall 

Site Water Hammock Sawgrass Sawgrass 

Water 118 0 0 0 

Hammock 0 10 0 0 

Intermediate 

Sawgrass 1 0 810 55 

Tall Sawgrass 0 6 0 152 

TOTAL AVERAGE PERCENT ACCURACY 

* number of pixel samples per group. 

57 

96 

Accurac~ 

100 

100 

93 

96 

97.25 
58 

The percent accuracy for the intermediate sawgrass was the lowest of the 

four hydrobiological systems. The classifier correctly recognized the intermediate 

saw grass 93 percent of the time. Except for one pixel which was classified as open 

marsh, all others were misclassified into the tall sawgrass group. However, the 

misclassifications which occurred in the tall sawgrass group were not caused by the 

confusiOn with the intermediate sawgrass but rather the hammock group. Therefore, 7 percent of the time the classifier confused intermediate sawgrass for tall 

sawgrass and 4 percent of the time the classifier confused tall sawgrass with the 

hammocks. 

Determination of Conceptual Flow Vectors for the Shark River Slough 

The classifications generated by this remote sensing project were of 

importance for spatially determining the conceptual flow vectors for the slough. 

These v~tors schematically depict the relative rates and distribution of surface 

water "movement through the slough for that particular stage (water level). This 

initial attempt at conceptually modelling surface water flows throughout the Shark 

Slough will be of significance to future three-dimensional computer modelling 

efforts to be conducted for the slough's water system. 

The direction of surface flow was determined at 26 selected sites throughout 

the Shark Slough (Figure 21). The test locations were first plotted on aerial 

photographs and then a helicopter was utilized to transport personnel to the test 

locations. A Rhodamine tracer dye was placed into the water column and a 

compass bearing was made once the dye had traveled far enough to indicate the 

direction of water flow (without wind interference). Also taken into consideration 

was the wind speed and wind direction. 

As would be expected, the general direction of w.ater movement throughout 

the slough lies parallel with the axis of the vegetation strands (hammocks and the 

teardrop saw grass areas) (Figure 22). Even at the slough's margins, the flow 
.59 

r

~~~~~~--------~ o - - ,- - -

• •• • e. i 

I ~ o • 

I · . , 0 

o 

.. -, 

• . + • 

~.-.-._.I • o . I 

• o 

• I 

o 

• 

• I 

• • o 

I • ._.-. 

• I 

• 

/ .., 

• 

Figure 21. Selected test sites in Shark Slough for surface flow determinations 

.-,~~~~--------~ ..... -- - - ~ 

! +, '! ~ .,,'! I '( i ,,,', . 

. - . - . _. j /I ," , 'It. , 

• 

/I /J I 

• 

1# I 

Jl 0 

1# , 

1# /J . 1# L._., 

Jl • 

f ~ L. 

• 

Figure 22. Direction of surface water flow measured in Shark Slough 
UI 4. 

PAIlII .,., .. DAII' 

ILOUQH IX'I'" 

ILOWI" 'LOW 

... fla.IIID.A'1 'LOW 

'AITI" 'LOW 

\ 

IV ••• LADII 

\ 

\ 

NAflONAL 

Figure 23. Conceptual Flow Vectors for Surface Flow in Shark Slough 

60 

,,,11."11' Tllllj"~'L!:.-__ --

\ 

\ 

\..-., -' \ 

PA •• 
61 

continues this general trend rather than draining towards the central conduit of the 

slough. The only exception to this observation occurred south of, and to the east 

of, L-67 extension. The surface water flowed in a due easterly fashion into the 

N.E. Shark Slough (outside the boundaries of ENP) due to the head differential. 

Once the direction of flow was established in the Shark Slough then the 

conceptual flow vectors were plotted utilizing the LANDSAT hydrobiological 

classification and the compass bearings (Figure 23). A vector was plotted 

indicating relative water movement and direction throughout the slough system. 

The percentage of vectors plotted for each hydrobiologkal zone were directly 

proportional to the total area classified from the LANDSAT scene. The smallest 

vectors represent the areas of slowest water movement (tall sawgrass zones). 

Conversely, the most rapid flow in the Shark Slough is representative of the open 

marsh system and is designated with the longest vector. The final conceptual flow 

vectors map generated better defines, spatially, the characteristics of overland 

sheet flow in the Shark Slough which will enable a better understanding of the 

slough system to be formulated and applied to the future modelling efforts. 

CONCLUSIONS 

The application of LANDSAT imagery for hydrologic applications in a 

wetlands area, such as the Shark River Slough in Everglades National Park is 

definitely a viable tool for resource management. The ability to monitor both 

spatially and temporally, the dynamic hydrologic conditions has immense ramifications. The water control and modification programs in South Florida have 

interrupted the natural hydrologic regime of the park and made the monitoring of 

hydrologic parameters mandatory. Through the applications of remotely sensed 
data, both the spatial and temporal aspects of the slough's hydrologic conditions 

can be better understood in a "real time" sequence. This will be of significance to 

both ecosystem maintenance and preservation through the generation of appropriate ecological models for the Florida Everglades ecosystem. 

Once the earth-sun relationships have been established and the physics of 

light interaction and the slough's environment understood, the resource manager 

will be able to develop a sophisticated remote sensing inventory program based on 

field data taken from point measurements and other suitable forms of ground truth. 

Good aerial photography coverage and the establishment of intensive study areas 

are important in computer training/classification procedures. Whether the training 

is accomplished by a supervised or unsupervised approach, the most critical stage 

of the training procedure involves training the computer to accurately recognize 

all signatures within the scene and classify them accordingly. 

In regards to wetlands applications, a multispectral processing system can, 

with a great degree of accuracy, determine LANDSAT signatures for critical zones 

within a marsh environment. LANDSAT signatures can be plotted for each band 

developing relationships between mean reflectance and each multi-spectral channel 

(band). These relationships can be determined by a detailed analysis of the input 

statistics which generate histograms and give a statistical analysis for each 

training group. In addition, these statistics can be utilized to develop spectral 

reflectance plots which distinguish one class from another by contrasting mean 

reflectance values of two multispectral (MSS) bands of the LANDSAT satellite. 

The resultant classification can then be of significance for further hydrologic 

applications, such as determining the hydrologically active areas within a wetlands 

environment, establishing flow vectors for any marsh area, determining the 

contracting/expanding margins of the slough and finally determining total volume 

of water stored in a wetlands area. 

62 
Remote sensing can provide greater perspective into the intricate hydrologic 

events that occur in Everglades National Park. This information then, can provide 

valuable insight into the complex South Florida ecosystem enabling a sounder 

resource management program to be formulated which will ultimately benefit the 

park's ecosystem and enhance the park experience for the visitor. 

63 
REFERENCES 

Anderson, Richard R. and Virginia Carter. ''Wetlands Delineation by Spectral 

Signature Analysis and Legal Implications," Fourth Annual Earth Resources 

Program Review, Vol. III, USGS, Houston, Texas, 1972. 

Bartolucci, Luis A., Barrett F. Robenson and LeRoy F. Silva. "Field Measurement 

of the Spectral Response of Natural Waters," Photogrammetric Engineering, 

Vol. XLIII, 115, May, 1977. 

Erb, R. Bryan. ER TS-1 Coastal/Estuarine Analysis, Investigation (ER-600), Vol. II, 

NASA TMX-5818, Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas, 1974. 

General Electric Company. Systems Descriptions Image-100, Ground Systems 

Department, Space Division, Daytona Beach, Florida, Document 

No. 717001SD, 1975. 

Hall, Royce N., Ken G. McGuire and Roy A. Bland. Landsat Signature Development Program, Unpublished, NASA-KSC, Florida. 

Higer, Aaron L., A. Eugene Coker and Edwin H. Cordes. Ecological Model in 

Florida, USGS, 1975. 

Kolipinski, Milton C. and Aaron L. Higer. "Inventory of Hydrobiological Features 

using Automatically Processed Multispectral Data," USGS, Proceedings of the 

6th International Symposium on Remote Sensing of Environment, 1969. 

Kushlan, James A., John C. Ogden and Aaron L. Higer. Relation of Water Level 

and Fish Availability to Wood Stork Reproduction in the Southern Everglades, 

Florida, Open-File Report 75-434, Tallahassee, Florida, 1975. 

64 
65 

Ritchie, Jerry C., Frank R. Schiebe, and J. Roger McHenry. "Remote Sensing of 

Suspended Sediments in Surface Waters, "Photogrammetric Engineering, 

Vol. XLII 1112, 1976. 

Scherz, James P. "Remote Sensing Considerations for Water Quality Monitoring." 

Proceedings of the 7th Symposium on Remote Sensing of Environment, Vol. II, 

1971. 

Tucker, Compton J. and Lee D. Miller. "Soil Spectra Contributions to Grass 

Canopy Spectral Reflectance. "Photogrammetric Engineering, Vol. XLIII 116, 

1977. 

Work Edgar A., Jr., et al. "Utilization of Satellite Data from Inventorying Prairie 

Ponds and Lakes," Photogrammetric Engineering, Vol. XLII 115, 1976.