D.J. Roth

Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio

S. Reyes-Rodriguez

Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan

D.A. Zimdars

Picometrix, LLC, Ann Arbor, Michigan

R.W. Rauser

University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio

W.W. Ussery

Lockheed Martin Space Systems Company, Denver, Colorado

Terahertz Computed Tomography of NASA

Thermal Protection System Materials

NASA/TM—2011-216982

March 2011
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D.J. Roth

Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio

S. Reyes-Rodriguez

Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan

D.A. Zimdars

Picometrix, LLC, Ann Arbor, Michigan

R.W. Rauser

University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio

W.W. Ussery

Lockheed Martin Space Systems Company, Denver, Colorado

Terahertz Computed Tomography of NASA

Thermal Protection System Materials

NASA/TM—2011-216982

March 2011

National Aeronautics and

Space Administration

Glenn Research Center

Cleveland, Ohio 44135

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NASA/TM—2011-216982 1 

Terahertz Computed Tomography of NASA 

Thermal Protection System Materials 

D.J. Roth 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

Glenn Research Center 

Cleveland, Ohio 44135 

S. Reyes-Rodriguez 

Michigan State University 

East Lansing, Michigan 48824 

D.A. Zimdars 

Picometrix, LLC 

Ann Arbor, Michigan 48104 

R.W. Rauser 

University of Toledo 

Toledo, Ohio 43606 

W.W. Ussery 

Lockheed Martin Space Systems Company 

Denver, Colorado 80201 

Abstract 

A terahertz axial computed tomography system has been developed that uses time domain 

measurements in order to form cross-sectional image slices and three-dimensional volume renderings of 

terahertz-transparent materials. The system can inspect samples as large as 0.0283 m3

 (1 ft3) with no 

safety concerns as for x-ray computed tomography. In this study, the system is evaluated for its ability to 

detect and characterize flat bottom holes, drilled holes, and embedded voids in foam materials utilized as 

thermal protection on the external fuel tanks for the Space Shuttle. X-ray micro-computed tomography 

was also performed on the samples to compare against the terahertz computed tomography results and 

better define embedded voids. Limits of detectability based on depth and size for the samples used in this 

study are loosely defined. Image sharpness and morphology characterization ability for terahertz 

computed tomography are qualitatively described. 

Introduction 

Terahertz energy refers to electromagnetic waves propagating at frequencies between the highfrequency edge of the microwave band (300 GHz) and the low frequency edge of far-infrared light 

(3 THz) (Ref. 1). Within the last 15 years, the terahertz (THz) spectral range has experienced a revolution 

in instrumentation and applications due to the synthesis of two emerging fields, ultrafast laser 

development and optoelectronics (Refs. 2 to 8). The time domain THz pulse-echo nondestructive 

evaluation (NDE) method has proven very useful in the inspection of external tank foam, shuttle 

underbelly tiles, ceramic materials, layered and coated materials, and certain composite materials (Ref. 5). 

In these studies, the THz energy penetrates a THz-transparent material (generally a dielectric material) 

and is reflected from a substrate of differing index of refraction, thus providing information on the 

internal quality state of the dielectric. Electrically-conducting materials strongly reflect THz energy and 

are ideal as reflective substrates and cannot be penetrated by THz energy. THz computed tomography 
NASA/TM—2011-216982 2 

(CT) has also been developed to allow cross-sectional characterization of dielectric materials (without a 

reflecting substrate) (Refs. 9 and 10). 

The THz-CT system developed utilizes time-domain (TD) time-of-flight measurements to form 

sinograms, cross-sectional slices, and three-dimensional volume renderings of dielectric materials. The 

time-of-flight of terahertz energy is proportional to the cumulative sum of the amount of material times 

the average index of refraction for that material and thus is considered an ideal parameter to measure 

material change. CT TD-THz can precisely locate features within a three-dimensional volume, such as 

voids and disbonds, and provide a three-dimensional representation of the material within the limits of its 

resolution. 

CT-TD-THz is a more challenging problem than x-ray, MRI, or positron tomography because the 

THz wavelength is much larger, requiring careful focusing and collimation of the TD-THz beam. X-ray 

CT would also hold the advantage over THz-CT with regards to it being applicable to a much broader 

range of materials since x-ray can penetrate metallic materials. However, TD-THz is substantially shorter 

wavelength than microwaves or millimeter waves, and the beams can propagate with near-geometrical 

optics. In certain CT inspection situations where lower resolutions are acceptable, and where the safety 

concerns of x-ray ionizing radiation cannot be accommodated, THz-CT may be able to play an inspection 

role and thus requires evaluation. Of particular interest to NASA is the application of this technology to 

thermal protection system materials. It has been determined that terahertz pulses can penetrate as much of 

20 cm of foam with a maximum frequency of up to 300 GHz (>1 THz for thinner foam) and are scattered 

by voids allowing void detection (Ref. 5). 

In this study, the THz-CT system is evaluated for its ability to detect and characterize flat bottom 

holes, drilled holes, and embedded voids in foam materials utilized as thermal protection on the external 

fuel tanks for the Space Shuttle. Micro-focus X-ray CT is utilized to characterize voids and provide a 

baseline for comparison to the THz CT. Other applications of the terahertz CT method that may be of 

interest to NASA include inspection of Kevlar-based composites, and Kevlar and Zylon fabric covers for 

fan containment. The ability of TD-THz to generate three-dimensional representations of the interior of 

objects has the potential to be of great utility to aerospace NDE in general. 

Terahertz CT System Description 

Axial transmission tomographic-type three-dimensional imaging requires that the object be scanned 

in transmission mode and from all angles, requiring access to both sides of the sample. Figure 1 shows the 

concept (Fig. 1(a)) and terahertz CT system (Fig. 1(b)) which uses a transmitter-receiver arrangement 

with collimating confocal imaging lenses to achieve an approximately 2 mm spot size. The equations for 

the beam diameter and Rayleigh range (which is the distance over which the wave phase front is 

approximately planar) for confocal transmission CT-TD-THZ are: 



 

2

w0 ZR (1) 

m

w

module

0 

  (2) 

where ZR is the Rayleigh range, w0 is the beam radius at the waist, λ is the wavelength of the terahertz 

energy, θmodule is the divergence angle from the THz module (~0.2 for Picometrix’ THz modules), and m

is the magnification of the THz focusing lens (Ref. 11). Figure 2 shows a sketch describing the 

parameters. 

 
NASA/TM—2011-216982 3 

(a) THz-CT system concept 

(b) Terahertz CT system 

Figure 1.—THz-CT system concept and terahertz CT system. 

 
NASA/TM—2011-216982 4 

Figure 2.—Sketch of confocal transmission CT-TD-THz transmit-receive arrangement with lenses. 

Figure 3.—Several semi-transparent views of a THz CT volume rendering of a plastic molded coffee cup with lid. 

Cup is about 10 cm in diameter at its largest point. 

In previous CT THz work, Reference 10 claim that the Rayleigh range of the THz beam should be 

larger than the size of the target. The lenses employed in this system were F/2 f-number and 7 in. focal 

length lenses giving 0.92 times magnification and resulting in an expected Rayleigh range of 5.4 times the 

beam diameter or only about 10 mm. The theoretical consequence of this is that there is a tradeoff in CT 

TD-THz between object size and feature resolution unless improved algorithms can be developed. In 

practice, the requirement that the Rayleigh range should be larger than the size of the target can be eased 

allowing object dimensions to exceed the Rayleigh range 5 to 10 times or more, and still obtain 

acceptable images (see Fig. 3 for several views of a THz CT volume rendering of a plastic molded coffee 

cup with lid). Resolution in the reconstructed image is estimated to be 1 to 2 mm in the center of the 

image with expected graceful degradation of resolution occurring radially from the focus. This 

degradation could be especially noticeable on larger samples. 

 
NASA/TM—2011-216982 5 

The CT TD-THz system consists of three main sections 1) The kilohertz waveform rate Picometrix 

T-Ray® 4000 control unit, TD-THz transmitter, receiver, umbilicals, lenses, and T-Ray 4000 motion 

controller; 2) customized motion controllers consisting of a angular/rotational theta axis and X and Z 

axes; and 3) data acquisition software and CT reconstruction software. The T-Ray 4000 THz system 

employs femtosecond laser methods in a permanently-aligned miniature fiber optic-coupled configuration 

for generating and detecting near single cycle impulses of radiation spanning frequencies from 40 GHz to 

3 THz (hyper-wideband) (Ref. 5). THz energy of these frequencies easily propagates through meters of 

dry air without significant dispersion/distortions (Ref. 1). The pulsed laser-based technique uses 

photoconductive antennas to allow terahertz radiation to both be generated and detected at high signal-tonoise (SNR) ratio. Fiber coupling is used from THz emitter and detector to the control unit which 

contains the laser, optical delay system, and electronics. The THz CT system utilizes a single transmitter 

and a single receiver located on opposite sides of the sample. The system is fully automated for data 

collection. The system has been designed in order to allow samples of up to approximately 0.0283 m3

(1 ft3

) to be inspected. The sample is rotated and raised in the work envelope, while the THz sensors 

remain stationary. 

The TD-THz pulse generated is a single cycle, polarized, low power pulse. The system collects 

waveforms over an 80 ps window at 1000 Hz. The waveforms each consist of 400 amplitude samples 

acquired at 200 femtosecond increments. The SNR for a single waveform without averaging is 35 dB. 

Usually a high-pass filtering procedure is performed in hardware to remove anomalous low frequency 

components. Waveform deconvolution with the reference waveform obtained with just air between the 

transmitter and receiver was performed to deblur waveforms and final image results. A typical received 

waveform thru a section of foam is shown in Figure 4(a). Center frequency is located at about 0.1 to 

0.2 THz. 

TD-THz axial CT requires the acquisition of a TD-THz waveform at each angular scan increment. 

Generally, a number of waveforms are acquired at each scan increment and averaged which improves the 

SNR. The number of waveforms averaged is determined from: 

Number of waveforms averaged = (time [sec] per 360 revolution) * 1000/360 (3) 

The longer the time for a 360 revolution, the greater the number of waveforms averaged. 

Consider the first Z position where data will be acquired. One full rotation of 360 results in one data 

chord (horizontal line) of a sinogram (Fig. 4(b)). At each angular position of the data chord, the difference 

between the time-of-flight of the pulse in air and the time of flight of the pulse in the material is 

calculated. A gray scale value is assigned to the time difference value calculated, with the minimum and 

maximum time differences being the darkest and lightest values, respectively, in the image. The time-offlight of the pulse in the material gives the optical path length (OPL), which is the sum of the products of 

the material thicknesses and their refractive indices. After one full rotation, the X stage is incremented to 

the next X position, and another full rotation ensues to obtain another data chord. A complete sinogram 

(see Fig. 4(b)) with, for example, 150 data chords taken in the horizontal (X) axis takes several minutes. 

(Data acquisition time for a single slice is roughly equivalent to that required for a conventional twodimensional raster scan.) Multiple sinograms are acquired by stepping the object on the vertical (Z) axis. 

Obtaining from a time standpoint a practical set of sinograms might consist of acquiring 20 to 30 

sinograms. 

Two-dimensional cross sectional slice images are then reconstructed from the sinograms using 

filtered back projection and an inverse Radon transform algorithm with Weiner filtering (Ref. 12). The 

reconstructions work well if the slice is “binary”, that is air/vacuum (index of refraction [n] = 1) plus 

some other volumes of homogeneous material (n > 1). Foams have n ~1, so Snell’s law and refraction can 

be ignored. If the structure being investigated consisted of a thin high n material, refraction should be 

minimal. Even for thicker higher index of refraction materials (n  1.5) where refraction might be an 

issue, preliminary investigations have shown the reconstructions to look qualitatively reasonable. 
NASA/TM—2011-216982 6 

(a) Typical received waveform through foam and Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) 

(b) Sinogram of data 

Figure 4.—Typical raw data including a received waveform and a complete sinogram consisting of 150 data chords 

(X positions). 
NASA/TM—2011-216982 7 

Space Shuttle External Tank Sprayed on Foam Insulation (SOFI) Samples 

Several samples of sprayed on foam insulation (SOFI) were fabricated. One 300 mm (H) by 245 mm 

(L) by 50.8 mm (2 in.) (T) sample was fabricated with flat-bottom holes of various diameters (6.35 to 

19.05 mm) and depths (3.175 to 16.51 mm) (Fig. 5(a)). This sample was originally used as a resolution 

standard for two-dimensional reflection mode terahertz inspections. The holes in each row have a 

constant diameter and the holes in each column have a constant depth. For the THz CT inspection of this 

piece, a second piece of identically-sized foam without holes was pressed against the first piece with the 

holes so that the holes were covered (Fig. 5(b)). The total thickness then became 101.6 mm (4 in.) and the 

hole depths were then ~3, 6, 9, 12, and 15 percent of thickness (with respect to the [Y] direction of the 

THz beam with the sample mounted as shown in Figure 1(b)). CT scans were done one row of holes at a 

time and the results from several rows are presented. With large samples such as this, it is expected that 

the resolution would degrade noticeably towards the outer edges due to the small size of the Rayleigh 

range. An additional sample was also prepared with smaller diameter holes drilled through the sample 

(Fig. 5(c)) to further address detectability. 

(a) Flat bottom hole sample 

Figure 5.—Diameter and depth of holes in flat-bottom hole and drilled hole samples. 

_______ 50 mm 
NASA/TM—2011-216982 8 

(b) Flat bottom hole sample sandwiched with a second piece of foam so holes are covered 

(c) Drilled hole sample 

Figure 5.—Concluded. 

 
NASA/TM—2011-216982 9 

Another set of samples was fabricated with voids that are thought to more closely simulate naturallyoccurring voids. The voids in these samples were completely embedded in the pieces of foam and a 

marker was used to mark their positions and morphology as determined from x-ray inspection. The 

samples inspected are shown in Figure 6. 

Figure 6.—Samples with voids simulating naturally-occurring voids. Black outlines show 

approximate position and morphology of the embedded void. 
NASA/TM—2011-216982 10 

Figure 7.—SOFI corrugated foam sample. 

TABLE 1.—SCAN INCREMENTS USED FOR 

THE VARIOUS SAMPLES 

Foam sample/scan 

increment 

X, 

mm 

, 

degree 

Z, 

mm 

Flat bottom holes foam 

sandwich sample 

0.3 1 1 

Drilled holes sample 0.3 1 2 

Simulated void samples 0.3 1 1.5 

Corrugated sample 0.3 1 2 

A third SOFI “corrugated” sample with no known voids but extraordinary external texture also 

underwent THz CT inspection and is shown in Figure 7. 

THz CT Experimental Procedure 

The samples were placed on a stage located centrally between the transmitter and receiver (Fig. 1(b)). 

The distance from the transmitter to the center of the object and from the transmitter to the receiver was 

475 and 950 mm, respectively. Table 1 shows the scan increments used for the various samples. 

The Z scan increment for the THz CT is a relatively coarse increment compared to the ultimate 

resolution in the Z direction for the X-ray CT, but it is approximately equal to the expected resolution for 

the THz CT method. Generally, 20 to 30 slices (XY plane) were obtained for one scan which 

encompassed one row of the voids for the flat bottom holes sample. For a 1 angular scan increment, a 

chord of data is acquired in about 4s. Approximately 10 waveforms were averaged at each scan 

increment. A single slice of data with 100 to 150 chords would take several minutes to acquire. 
NASA/TM—2011-216982 11 

Microfocus X-Ray CT Experimental Procedure 

Microfocus X-ray CT was performed on some samples in order to size the voids in the samples with 

embedded voids and also to directly compare the results from THz CT to X-ray CT. The samples were 

placed on the stage of the CT system such that magnification was approximately 1.2 to 1.5 times. The CT 

system consists of a 200 keV microfocus x-ray source that produces a cone beam, a state-of-the-art 

cesium iodide solid state area detector, a 4-axis motion control unit with a 16 in. swing diameter, and a 

dedicated high-speed reconstruction workstation. The stage is rotated 360 at sub-1 increments to create 

a complete set of projections. A fast Feldkamp reconstruction algorithm was employed to create the slice 

images from the projections. Input power for the foam samples was generally in the 80 keV range 

providing a microfocus spot size in the 50 to 80 m range. Samples were scanned using a 2 by 2 pixel 

configuration. Resulting voxel dimension was in the 200 m range. Figure 8 shows a picture of the X-ray 

CT setup for one sample. 

Figure 8.—X-ray CT experimental setup. 

X-ray Tube 

X, Y, Zstages 

Rotational stage 

Area 

Detector Foam 

Sample 
NASA/TM—2011-216982 12 

Figure 9.—XY, XZ, and YZ planes and their relationship to the CT slice plane. 

CT Data Presentation 

The presentation of CT data is best viewed in movie fashion where volume renderings can be rotated 

and slice views can be run through. This is not possible for literature so we present planar and volumetric 

views of the most important results. Figure 9 shows the definitions of the slice view planes and their 

relation to the CT slice plane. Note that XY (top) view represents the slice plane or axial, view. 

ILUMAVision software (Ref. 13), which is a native component of the Hytec X-ray CT system, was 

used to visualize both the x-ray and THz CT data. Prior to rendering, the images obtained from the THz 

CT system were filtered (faulty data slices removed), cropped, and rotated as needed using the NDE 

Wave & Image Processor (NDEWIP) software (Refs. 14 and 15). A fourier interpolation procedure to 

artificially increase the number of slices to between 80 and 140 was performed in NDEWIP. The image 

set was then saved in a binary format required (Ref. 16) using NDEWIP to allow planar and volume 

rendering display using ILUMAVision software. The user of ILUMAVision software can create custom 

color tables and adjust the level of transparency for the volume renderings, and the settings for these are 

subjective. The resultant voxels of the THz CT renderings are group index of refraction values for the 

material within the voxel. 

Results 

Figure 10 shows top (XY), side views (XZ and YZ) and a semi-transparent volume rendering for a THz 

CT slice set for the row of flat bottom holes of diameter = 6.35 mm (smallest diameter holes) with the 

sample placed on the stage as shown in Figure 1(b). The focus was approximately at the center of the 

sample. With large samples such as this, as previously discussed, it is expected that the resolution would 

degrade noticeably towards the outer edges. The hole depths at 6, 9, 12, and 15 percent of material thickness 

(with respect to the [Y] direction of the THz beam with the sample mounted as shown in Figure 1(b)) were 

clearly revealed with nominal contrast enhancement. The hole depth at 3 percent of material thickness could 

only be observed with significant contrast expansion and resulted in enhancement of artifacts as well. Thus, 

hole depths likely need to be around 6 percent of thickness or greater in the direction of the terahertz beam 

for unambiguous detectability. The slice positions chosen to display are related to each other and are 

demarcated by the horizontal and vertical cursor positions in the slice view images. For example, in the XZ 
NASA/TM—2011-216982 13 

side view image, the horizontal cursor is located approximately mid-way through the sample section, and 

the top view shown below it corresponds to the top view section at this horizontal location. A line profile of 

gray value versus position at the location of the horizontal line on the XZ view in Figure 10 is shown in 

Figure 11 and clearly reveals four indications. 

Figure 12 shows top (XY), side views (XZ and YZ) and a semi-transparent volume rendering for a THz 

CT slice set for the row of flat bottom holes of diameter = 19.05 mm (largest diameter holes). Note that this 

sample was remounted upside down so the stage fastening hardware would not interfere with the THz beam. 

The hole depths at 6, 9, 12, and 15 percent of material thickness were clearly revealed with nominal contrast 

enhancement. The hole depth at 3 percent of material thickness could still only be observed with significant 

contrast expansion and resulted in enhancement of artifacts as well. A line profile of gray value versus 

position at the location of the horizontal line on the XZ view in Figure 12 is shown in Figure 13 and clearly 

reveals four indications. 

Figure 10.—Top (XY), side views (XZ and YZ) and a semi-transparent volume rendering for a THz CT slice 

set for the row of flat bottom holes of diameter = 6.35 mm. X-like feature is CT reconstruction artifact. 

Figure 11.—Line profile of gray value versus position at the 

location of the horizontal line on the XZ view in Figure 10 

indicating that four of the holes (as indicated by the arrows 

pointing at the valleys) are clearly revealed. 
NASA/TM—2011-216982 14 

Figure 12.—Top (XY), side views (XZ and YZ) and a semi-transparent volume rendering for a THz CT slice 

set for the row of flat bottom holes of diameter = 19.05 mm. X-like feature is CT reconstruction artifact. 

Figure 13.—Line profile of gray value versus position at the 

location of the horizontal line on the XZ view in Figure 12 

indicating that four of the holes (as indicated by the arrows 

pointing at the valleys) are clearly revealed. 

 

50 mm 

Y 

Z 

X 
NASA/TM—2011-216982 15 

Figures 14(a) and (b) show top (XY), side views (XZ and YZ) and semi-transparent volume renderings 

for X-ray CT and THz CT slice sets for a section of the sample containing two drilled holes. Horizontal and 

vertical cursors are removed from these images for clarity. The side slice views are shown for the 3.57 mm 

diameter drilled hole. For the THz CT, the X scan increment, angular scan increment, and Z scan increment 

were 0.3 mm, 1, and 2.0 mm, respectively. Both holes are detected although the 2.78 mm diameter hole is 

less prominent than the hole. It can be concluded that the limit of clear detectability is probably being 

approached for the 2.78 mm diameter hole. The THz images as expected provide a diffuse lower resolution 

view of the drilled holes as compared to the X-ray CT images. The additional line-like indications in the 

X-ray CT image are lines showing where a new layer of foam began to be sprayed. 

(a) X-ray CT 

(b) THz CT (cropped) 

Figure 14.—Top (XY), side views (XZ and YZ) and a semi-transparent volume rendering for a 

CT slice set for a section of the sample with drilled holes. 

Top (XY) Slice Plane View 

Side (XZ) View Side (YZ) View 

Volume 

Top (XY) Slice Plane View 

Side (XZ) View Side (YZ) View 

Volume 

35 mm 

50 mm 

Z

Y 

X 

Z Y 

X 
NASA/TM—2011-216982 16 

Figures 15(a) and (b) show top (XY), side views (XZ and YZ) and semi-transparent volume renderings 

for X-ray CT and THz CT slice sets for a section of the sample 391B containing an embedded void. For the 

THz CT, the X scan increment, angular scan increment, and Z scan increment were 0.3 mm, 1, and 

1.5 mm, respectively. The THz CT easily detects the void in the various planar views, and the THz CT 

volume rendering of the void compares favorably with the X-ray CT volume rendering. The THz images as 

expected provide a diffuse lower resolution view of the void as compared to the X-ray CT images. Linear 

indications on the THz CT images are artifacts of the THz CT process. The X-ray CT images also reveal 

significant smaller numbers of smaller pores in the foam that are not revealed by the THz CT images. 

(a) X-ray CT 

(b) THz CT 

Figure 15.—Top (XY), side views (XZ and YZ) and a semi-transparent volume rendering for a CT slice set for 

a section of the sample 391B containing an embedded void. 

 

Top (XY) Slice Plane View 

Side (XZ) View Side (YZ) View 

Volume 

63 mm 

Top (XY) Slice Plane View 

Side (XZ) View Side (YZ) View 

Volume 

63 mm 

Y Z 

X

Y Z 

X 
NASA/TM—2011-216982 17 

Figures 16(a) and (b) show top (XY), side views (XZ and YZ) and semi-transparent volume 

renderings for X-ray CT and THz CT slice sets for a section of the sample 60B containing an embedded 

void. For the THz CT, the X scan increment, angular scan increment, and Z scan increment were 0.3 mm, 

1, and 1.5 mm, respectively. The THz CT easily detects the void in the various planar views. The THz 

CT volume rendering of the void has a shape that resembles that shown in X-ray CT volume rendering, 

and is seen in more detail in the multiple views shown in Figure 17. 

(a) X-ray CT. 

(b) THz CT. 

Figure 16.—Top (XY), side views (XZ and YZ) and a semi-transparent volume rendering for a CT slice set for a 

section of the sample 60B containing an embedded void. 

Top (XY) Slice Plane View 

Side (XZ) View Side (YZ) View 

Volume 

Top (XY) Slice Plain View 

Side (XZ) View Side (YZ) View 

Volume 

90 mm 

90 mm 

Y Z

X 

Y Z

X 
NASA/TM—2011-216982 18 

Figure 17.—Several semi-transparent views of a THz CT volume rendering for a section of sample 60B. 

 
NASA/TM—2011-216982 19 

Figures 18(a) and (b) show top (XY), side views (XZ and YZ) and semi-transparent and opaque 

volume renderings for X-ray CT and THz CT slice sets for a section of the corrugated foam sample. 

Opaque renderings are also shown since the exterior details are of primary concern for this sample. For 

the THz CT, the X scan increment, angular scan increment, and Z scan increment were 0.3 mm, 1, and 

2.0 mm, respectively. The volumetric renderings from both methods show the same overall shape. As 

expected and as for the prior results, the details of the exterior are clearly resolved in the X-ray CT views 

but not the THz CT views. 

(a) X-ray CT (including semi-transparent and opaque volume representations) 

Figure 18.—Top (XY), side views (XZ and YZ) and semi-transparent and opaque volume renderings for a CT slice 

set for the corrugated foam sample. 

Top (XY) Slice 

Plain View 

Side (XZ) View Side (YZ) View 

Volume (semi-transparent) 

80 mm 

Volume 

(opaque) 

Z

X

Y

Z

X

Y
NASA/TM—2011-216982 20 

(b) THz CT 

Figure 18.—Concluded. 

Top (XY) Slice 

Plain View 

Side (XZ) View Side (YZ) View 

60 mm 

Volume 

(semitransparent) 

Volume 

(opaque) 

Z

X

Y

Z Y

X
NASA/TM—2011-216982 21 

Conclusions and Future Work 

A terahertz axial computed tomography system has been developed that uses time domain 

measurements in order to form cross-sectional image slices and three-dimensional volume renderings of 

THz-transparent materials. The system can inspect samples as large as 0.0283 m3

 (1 ft3). The system 

utilizes one transmitter and one receiver, and the sample is rotated 360 to obtain sinogram information. 

In this study, the system was evaluated for its ability to detect and characterize flat bottom holes, drilled 

holes, and embedded voids in foam materials utilized as thermal protection on the external fuel tanks for 

the Space Shuttle. THz CT was able to detect voids less than 3 mm in diameter but hole depths likely 

need to be around 6 percent of thickness or greater in the direction of the terahertz beam for unambiguous 

detectability. Embedded irregularly-shaped voids simulating naturally-occurring voids approximately 10 

to 50 mm in dimension were clearly detected by THz CT. A foam sample with significant external texture 

had its general shape reasonably well-defined by THz CT. As expected, THz CT provided less sharp 

(more diffuse) views of internal features and topography as compared to x-ray micro-computed 

tomography results. Artifacts are present in current reconstruction methods (this is also true for X-ray CT 

but X-ray CT reconstruction artifact removal is at an advanced stage). 

Further work can be envisioned that includes lens systems that result in a smaller beam diameter, 

linear and area detector array-based systems development, a combined two-dimensional reflection and 

transmission mode CT system, improvements in data acquisition such as a 64-bit operating system to 

allow larger data set acquisition and speed enhancements. The use of different wave parameters for the 

CT measurement including spectral analysis to obtain results as a function of frequency is also planned. 

Additionally, the use of this technology to characterize thermal protection system (TPS) materials under 

development is of interest to NASA. 

For THz methods, there are no radiation safety issues at low power as there are for x-ray methods. If 

critical flaw sizes are in the several mm or larger range, it can be envisioned that a combined twodimensional reflection and transmission mode CT system could play a role in future inspections for 

NASA. Consider that the two-dimensional reflection mode portion can provide a rapid scan of asfabricated sections of TPS to determine if flaws exist. If flaws are found, the same instrument in threedimensional CT mode can provide more detailed morphological information with no safety concerns. 

References 

1. “Sensing with Terahertz Radiation,” D.M. Mittleman, ed., Springer, 2003. 

2. Arnone D.D., Ciesla C.M., Corchia A., Egusa S., Pepper M., Chamberlain J.M., Bezant C., 

Linfield E.H., Clothier R. and Khammo N. Application of terahertz (THz) technology to medical 

imaging. In Proc. SPIE Terahertz Spectroscopy Applications II; International Society for Optical 

Engineering: Bellingham, WA, 1999; pp. 209–219. 

3. Mittleman, D.M., Gupta, M., Neelamani, R., Baraniuk, R.G., Rudd, J.V. and Koch, M. “Recent 

Advances in Terahertz Imaging,” App. Phys. B, 68, 1085 (1999). 

4. Dorney, T., Symes, W., Baraniuk, R.G., and Mittleman, D., “Terahertz multistatic reflection 

imaging,” J. Opt.Soc. Am. A, 19, 1432–1442 (2002). 

5. Zimdars, D., Valdmanis, J.A., White, J.S., Stuk, G., Williamson, S., Winfree, W.P. and Madaras, E.I. 

“Technology and Applications of Terahertz Imaging Non Destructive Examination: Inspection of 

Space Shuttle Sprayed on Foam Insulation,” Review of Quant. Non Destructive Evaluation Vol. 24, 

ed. D.O. Thompson and D.E. Chimenti, 570-7 (2005). 

6. Mittleman, D.M., Jacobsen, R.H., and Nuss, M.C., “T-Ray Imaging,” IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quant. Elec., 

2, 679 (1996). 

7. Roth, D.J., Seebo, J.P., and Winfree, W.P., “Simultaneous Noncontact Precision Imaging of 

Microstructural and Thickness Variation in Dielectric Materials Using Terahertz Energy,” Materials 

Evaluation, Vol. 66, No. 3, March 2008.
NASA/TM—2011-216982 22 

8. Zimdars, D., Duling, I., Fichter, G., and White, J., “Production Process Monitoring of Multilayered 

Materials Using Time-Domain Terahertz Guages,” Review of Quant. Non Destructive Evaluation 

Vol. 29A, ed. D.O. Thompson and D.E. Chimenti, 564–571 (2009). 

9. Mittleman, D.M., Hunsche, S., Boivan, L. and Nuss, M.C., “T-Ray Tomography,” Opt. Lett., 22, 904 

(1997). 

10. Wang, S. and Zhang, X.-C., “Pulsed terahertz tomography,” Topical Review. J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 

37 (2004). 

11. Siegman, A.E., Lasers, pg 663–672 (University Science Books, Sausalito, CA 1986). 

12. Herman, G.T. (2009), Fundamentals of Computerized Tomography: Image Reconstruction from 

Projections, 2nd Edition, Springer, ISBN 978-1-85233-617-2. 

13. ILUMAVision IndustrialTM Getting Started Guide, Document 1.0.1, IMTEC Corporation. 2008. 

14. Roth, D.J., “Demonstration of an NDE Post-Processing Software Tool Developed at NASA Glenn 

Research Center,” Presentation and Proceedings of ASNT Fall 07, November 12–16, Las Vegas, NV. 

15. D.J. Roth, NDE Wave & Image Processor Software User Manual, v3.0, 2010. 

16. FlashCT Data File Format Specification Manual, Version 3.1. IMTEC Corporation. 2007. 
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14. ABSTRACT

A terahertz axial computed tomography system has been developed that uses time domain measurements in order to form cross-sectional 

image slices and three-dimensional volume renderings of terahertz-transparent materials. The system can inspect samples as large as 0.0283 

m3 (1 ft3) with no safety concerns as for x-ray computed tomography. In this study, the system is evaluated for its ability to detect and 

characterize flat bottom holes, drilled holes, and embedded voids in foam materials utilized as thermal protection on the external fuel tanks 

for the Space Shuttle. X-ray micro-computed tomography was also performed on the samples to compare against the terahertz computed 

tomography results and better define embedded voids. Limits of detectability based on depth and size for the samples used in this study are 

loosely defined. Image sharpness and morphology characterization ability for terahertz computed tomography are qualitatively described.

15. SUBJECT TERMS

Nondestructive tests; X-ray inspection; Computer aided tomography; Terahertz 

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