WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW ABOUT STUDDED TIRES
by Harris E. Dark1/

Studded tires are here to stay for the foreseeable future, at least in
the snow states.

A studded tire is a regular highway or snow tire that has had several
dozen metal shafts imbedded in its tread. The studs when new are about
half an inch long and have heads approximately the size and shape of
athumbtack. They are all-metal, having a head and jacket of stainless
steel or aluminum and a core (like the lead in a pencil) of tungsten
carbide, an extremely hard metal that can scratch a diamond,

Typically, about six dozen studs are installed in a tire, though this

will vary somewhat according to tire size and tread design. Holes a
small fraction of an inch in diameter are first drilled in the tire's
tread rubber--less than a half inch deep, not enough to penetrate to

the cloth carcass. (Most tires have molded-in holes, made at the time
the tread is formed.) The studs are installed by means of a special gun
that "shoots" them headfirst into the holes where they are firmly held
by their flanged heads.

The cost of studs is about 10 cents each, installed; the average studded
tire costs $7 to $9 more than the same tire without studs.

The purpose of studs is to give the tire greater traction on ice and hard-
packed snow, the places where driving is the most dangerous. On ice

and packed snow, studs have proved to be tremendously effective. Though
they can't provide as much ice-gripping traction as tire chains, studs
have several important advantages over chains:

1. They are less expensive, per tire, than top-quality reinforced
chains,

2, They last many times longer.
3, They can be driven at much higher speeds with safety.

4, They don't have to be put on and taken off; they can be used for
the entire winter season,

5. They are vibration-free and virtually noiseless.

6. They can be installed on the car's front as well as rear wheels,
while chains should be put on the rear wheels only. Thus, studs
provide much more assistance in steering than chains, which help
mainly with starting, stopping and tailwag.

I/Reprinted from an article appearing in the December 1967 issue of
TRAFFIC SAFETY, by special permission of the editor.

16


PAINTING TO BEAT THE HEAT1/

Painting to change the movement of heat to or from machinery often
comes to mind when heating problems occur.

The three ways heat is moved are: convection - the transfer of heat by
movement of gases or liquids; conduction - the transfer of heat by actual
contact or through a material; and radiation - the transfer of heat by
waves through the atmosphere from the hot body to the cooler body.

In actual practice it is very difficult to change convection and conduction
by painting, but something can be done about radiation.

Outdoor Instrument and Circuit Breaker Cabinets

Outdoor cabinets containing instruments and equipment which generate
little internal heat (such as circuit breakers) are often painted for pro-
tection from the heat of the sun. The photograph below shows a typical
small pumping plant. Note the outdoor cabinets in the background con-
taining the instruments and equipment.

PS86-D-62110

I/From Power O, and M. Bulletin No. 14, Painting of Transformers and

Circuit Breakers, '' Division of Power Operations, Office of Chief Engineer,
Revised May 1967.

10


REPORT--BURIED ASPHALT MEMBRANE CANAL LINING1/

A water resources technical publication, Buried Asphalt Membrane Canal
Lining, is now available. This report, documents 20 years of laboratory
and field experience in the Bureau of Reclamation's use of buried hot-
applied asphaltic membrane lining for control of water seepage from canals
and shallow reservoirs. The first lining of this kind was installed in 1947
on the Klamath Project in California, Since then, more than 8 million
square yards (6.7 million square meters) of buried asphalt membrane
lining have been placed at more than 100 sites in the western United States.
A specially processed catalytically-blown-type asphalt is used.

Beginning in 1962, samples from linings in service from 1 to 14 years

from canal and lateral installations on 9 Bureau projects, have been eval-
uated in the Bureau's Denver laboratories for comparison of ductility,
consistency, and temperature susceptibility with the original material.
Included in the report are laboratory test results obtained from the samples,
field observations which support laboratory findings, on-the-job photographs
of typical installations, description of laboratory testing apparatus, and an
aging index of tested asphalt membrane. The index is used to measure the
relative change in the physical properties of the membrane due to field or
laboratory aging,

This report also describes briefly the construction methods and techniques
for lining canals, and gives specification requirements for the asphalt
material,

Report Summary

Analyses of test results and visual observations on membrane samples

after 14 years of service did not reveal serious deficiencies in the asphalt
membrane canal lining. Of the 112 field samples evaluated from 20 canal
installations, more than 80 percent demonstrated satisfactory membrane
resistance to field aging. In most cases, phosphorus pentoxide catalytically-
blown asphalt cement had greater resistance to aging when used as a buried
membrane than other types of asphalt.

The membranes in poor condition were a consequence of accelerated aging,
caused primarily by these faulty construction practices:

a. Nonuniform thickness in membrane.
b, Large rocks or clods in the membrane, indicating improper sub-
grade preparation.

1/This report published as Research Report No, 12, ''Buried Asphalt
Membrane Canal Lining"' is for sale by the Superintendent of Documents,
U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402, or the Chief
Engineer, Bureau of Reclamation, Attention: 841, Denver Federal Center,
Denver, Colorado 80225, at 35 cents a copy.

20


IMPORTANCE OF GOOD MAINTENANCE
by Hollis Sanford1/

We in Denver have been reviewing the reports on your programs with in-
terest and satisfaction because we find that the quality of maintenance of
irrigation works in this area is unexcelled by that of any other irrigated
area in the West. You can be justly proud because this means without
doubt that it is unexcelled by any other area in the world. Eric Hoffer,
the shirt-sleeved philosopher from the San Francisco waterfront, made
this statement, "If the President had picked me to predict which country
(in post-war Europe) would recover first, I would say 'Bring me the
records of maintenance, The nation with the best maintenance will re-
cover first, Maintenance is something very, very specially Western.

If I were to go into a warehouse let's say, and see that the broom has a
special nail, I would say 'This is the nail of immortality.'! "'

Not long ago, a group of irrigation managers in the Northwest attempted
to define the phrase "good maintenance." They concluded that good main-
tenance achieves the following major objectives:

1. Timely and Reliable Service to all Water Users

In discussing this point, they emphasized the importance of
uniform service. One of them pointed out that every mile of
lateral or pipeline, every structure, and every pumping plant
is an additional hazard to the man at the end of the lateral,

The aim of a good manager, they concluded, is to reduce these
hazards and to assure that last man timely and reliable service.

2. Low Operation and Maintenance Costs on a Long-range Basis

The group recognized that this is a broad objective and they
broadened it even more by adding the phrase ''on a long-range
basis.'' In doing so they were saying that the deferment of
needed maintenance usually increases the cost. Next year the
work will probably cost more and, in the meantime, the threat
of unreliable service has increased. There seems to be no
basis for assuming that farmers will be more prosperous some-
time in the future, Consequently, it was agreed that there is

no justification for deferring needed maintenance,

T/Report from the First Regional Water Users Conference 1968, Region 2,
Bureau of Reclamation, by Mr. Hollis Sanford (retired), Formerly
Chief, Division of Irrigation Operations, Office of Chief Engineer,
Denver, Colorado.



Success in Europe

Studded tires were first used extensively in the Scandinavian countries
six years ago. They were an immediate success and quickly spread to
the other European snow countries. By the winter of 1963-64 they had
been introduced into Canada and the United States.

Along with the growing popularity of studs in the United States, however,
a bitter debate arose regarding their potential for damaging pavement.
Just how injurious they are is yet to be determined, In the meantime--
often over the objections of state highway departments--the use of studs
finally has been permitted in all snow states, except Virginia. In many
cases, this is a wait-and-see action pending further assessment of high-
way damage,

Right now, the public's primary interest is whether studs are worth the
money. Are they an adequate substitute for chains and will you need
them enough to warrant the investment in them? On the first point--
the ability of studs to provide grip on ice surfaces--little question. In
repeated tests conducted by the National Safety Council's Committee on
Winter Driving Hazards, cars equipped with four studded tires had a
31 per cent better braking ability on glare ice than cars with regular tires,
When brakes were slammed on at 20 m.p.h., cars without studs would
skid an average of 149 feet before coming to a halt on the ice. But the
same car with
four studded tires
| could be stopped

in only 103 feet.
BRAKING DISTANCES Obviously, dman
ON DRY ei FROM 20 MPH emergency situa-
PAVEMENT 7 : :
tion this could
make the differ-
REGULAR TIRES / J i/_~\149 et. ence between a
serious accident
CONVENTIONAL SNOW TIRES (rear) ‘// J ] 151 FT. and no collision
at all.
STUDDED / SNOW _ TIRES (Rear-useo)/ 129 FT.

ON 7 Z| How does thiscom-
GLARE 4 | STUDDED SNOW TIRES (nean-new) / | 120 FT. pare with the glare-
AT25F 7 ice performance

STUDDED /TIRES (rnonr & REAR-USED) // ] 123 FT. of snow tires?
Studded snow tires,
STUDDED TIRES (raonr« nean-new) |103 FT| | rear wheels only?
T Chains on the rear
REINFORCED TIRE/eHAINS (acon 75 FT. | tires only? A set
| | of reinforced chains
___| ___| a ee ees A
25 50° 75 100 125 150° on just the rear
wheels of a car
(Braking distances shown above do not include reaction time which will shorten the
normally adds another 22 ft. to the braking distances) glare-ice stopping
| distance by a full
Test results from the 1967 report of the National Safety Council's Committee on Winter Driving Hazards | 50 per cent, while

studded snow tires

make an improve-
ment of 19 per cent.

17


. 03 foot when the overflow siphon goes into action. A clear view of the
metal pan and air vent pipe is shown in Photograph No. 2.

Photograph No, 2

Photograph No. 3

23

The water surface is normally
carried 0.2 foot above the over-
flow siphon crest. Both the top
of the pan and the bottom of the
air vent pipe are set at normal
water surface elevation. As
shown in Photograph No. 3, the
pan can be adjusted if necessary.
Thus, a small amount of water
Spills over the overflow crest

at all times but the siphon does
not go into action until the pan
fills and seals off the air vent
pipe. As soon as the water sur-
face is lowered to the top of the
pan, the pan is sucked dry and
the siphon action is broken.

The pan used in this case is
actually an old tractor wheel.
Photograph No. 4 on the next
page, shows the metal pan on
the bottom of 10-inch air vent
pipe. The water surface is


And, finally, remember that high-speed driving is hard on both studs and
tires, particularly if the pavement is bare. You can greatly prolong their
life by holding down to moderate speeds as much as possible.

mK Ok

SEAT BELT FACTS

1, Two-thirds of the drivers involved in fatal accidents live within
25 miles of the crash. Even a short trip to the grocery store can
be dangerous. Wear seat belts whenever and wherever you go.

2. Actual crash condition tests prove your chances of being killed are
five times greater if you are thrown out of your car,

3. "The seat belt, properly used, pulls down and back across the pelvis
and hips, not across the abdomen, Even a woman in the last months
of pregnancy may safely wear them."

(American Medical Association Journal).

4, A seat belt meeting acceptable standards can be purchased for as little
as $4.95....,about the cost of a steak dinner. What is your life worth?

5. If your car catches fire or goes under water in an accident, a seat
belt will hold you in place and lessen your chances of being knocked
unconscious. The seat belt can be released in a second with the flip

of a finger.

6. Seat belts should be worn for comfort as well as for safety. They
help you maintain good posture and reduce fatigue. They keep you
behind the wheel when emergencies occur and help to prevent accidents.

7. A seat belt restrains you. It lessens the impact of the blow. BUT,
itis never a substitute for careful driving,

8, Smart drivers do everthing they can to keep themselves and their pas-
sengers alive and comfortable. How's your seat belt I.Q. ?

Reclamation Safety News
Second Quarter 1967

ae ae ok Ok

19


HOUR METERS ON SUMP PUMPS
(Suggestion R2-67S-25)

A suggestion by Mr, Gerald W. Jensen, of the Central Valley Project,
Folsom Field Division, Folsom, California, has recommended that hour
meters be installed on all sump pumps at Folsom Dam. The installation
of such meters is to determine the amount of leakage at the dam. These
hour meters with the pump controls are shown in the photograph below.
The meters are located on top of the circuit breaker boxes.

P485-D-62109

The hour meters are wired so that they operate only when the pumps are
running, recording the minutes and hours of operation, and by knowing
the capacity of the pumps in gallons per minute the amount of leakage at
the dam can be determined.

For the past several years hour meters have been installed as standard
equipment on Bureau pump installations. Not only are they a good indi-
cator of the water pumped but are almost essential in determining the
hours of operation for maintenance purposes, and the meters are inex-
pensive and simple to install.

ed

14


FIBERGLAS GATE OPENING INDICATOR
(Suggestion R7-68S-40)

A very successful gate opening indicator for a radial gate on a water
control structure was suggested by Mr. Edward Hlavinka, of the Kansas
River Projects Office, McCook, Nebraska. This most economical and
long lasting indicator is made from white fiberglas, 1/16 inch thick

and 3 inches wide. A standard staff gage is seldom suitably gradu-
ated for use as an indicator on a radial gate, and custom gages

are costly and are not readily obtainable to fit gates of different size
and radius. Therefore, they must be fabricated by project personnel.

Metal indicators were first used and they lasted only three years.
Experiments then with plexiglass indicated that this material would

not be usable where direct sunlight is a factor, because of its expansion
and contraction. Accordingly, fiberglas was tested. The fiberglas
indicator shown in the photo below has been in use for three seasons
and is still in good condition.

The fiberglas is inexpen-

sive when purchased in sheets
and can be cut in 3 inch strips
with a regular bench saw. It
is then sanded on one side to
roughen it so the paint will ad-
here to its surface. After the
computed radial gate scale in
feet and tenths of feet are
drawn on the sanded side, the
numbers and marks are painted
on with a black epoxy paint.
This is a special paint for
fiberglas. Then the indi-
cator is fastened to the sup-
port frame on top of the gate
and to the face of the gate with
3/16-inch stainless steel or
brass bolts.

Where the bottom portion of
the gate opening indicator is
submersed in water, the fiber-
glas will not rust or corrode.
Crustations that form on the
portion of the indicator that

is submerged in water can
easily be cleaned off at the

end of each season,

P60-D-62112


HEAVY-DUTY TOW BAR & FAIR LEAD1/
The Senior Park Manager at Cherry Creek Recreation Area, near Denver,

Colorado, has come up with an idea for a heavy-duty tow bar and fair lead
for use on his patrol boat or work barge, see sketches below:

Bolted to transom

il
—

on \)

Boat stern \

Mr. Ed Fahey's suggestion consists of a
clevis or shackle welded to the end of a
flat bar 2" x 14" x 1/2" which is bolted
to the transom of the boat high enough

to keep away from the boat cables. To
use as a tow bar, just drop the rope over
the bar. To use as a fair lead, take out

MA" of ¥"" Clevis

Welded to bar
the pin and you're ready to go.
Material for the bar need not be heavier

n°) than specified with no fear of bending.
The clevis can be any size to serve your
needs,
Flot bor
2x 14x Wt

OK RR

\e P

N

Four }X"" holes to bolt to transom of boot

i/Reprinted by permission of GRIST, July/August 1968, a publication

printed by the National Conference on State Parks, Washington, D.C.

26 GPO 846-831


could be about $6 an acre or 2 percent of the total farm operating cost.
When management defers an increase in O&M costs or defers necessary
maintenance to avoid increasing the farm costs a fraction of a percent,
they are doing a disservice to the farmer because eventually these costs
must be paid and sometimes at a higher rate and at an even more unfa-
vorable time.

Let us go back and discuss the things management can do to keep these
ever-increasing costs as low as possible. You will, of course, keep

in touch with industry and be alert to the possibilities of more efficient
equipment, chemicals, and other materials. You will find, however,
that almost two-thirds of your costs are inlabor. In labor you will find
the big possibilities for savings. Savings in labor must come from in-
creased efficiency which reduces the number of personnel,

In the discussions I mentioned earlier the group of managers concluded
that the "pride factor" is the most important element in labor manage-
ment, They mentioned the following four specific phases of project
management that have an important bearing on pride: appearance, the
assignment of responsibilities, long-range programing and training.
Much of the discussion revolved around appearance. They felt that the
headquarters should be neat, clean, and efficient looking and so should
the employees in the office. They felt that the appearance of head-
quarters reflects the efficiency of the district program in every phase.
An efficient looking headquarters can be pointed to with pride by both
the employees and the community itself. They felt that the equipment
used by the district should be painted in a uniform color scheme and
kept clean. The employees should be well equipped with safety devices
such as hardhats, safety shoes, first aid kits, and fire extinguishers.
There was a strong feeling that the attitude of the employees will be
improved by these actions on the part of management showing pride and
attention to details.

Major importance was attached to the assignment of specific responsi-
bilities to each employee. Each ditchrider should be made responsible
for all features on his beat that have not been specifically assigned to
other maintenance employees. They should also be made responsible
for the appearance and condition of the equipment and supplies they use.
It was the consensus of the group that maintenance records should be
kept for all important structures and features in the system, These
records should be kept by the employee who has been assigned responsi-
bility for that structure or feature. For example, a steel pipeline that
is protected on the inside by coal-tar enamel should be examined peri-
odically. The date of each examination, the name of the examiner, and
a few terse comments should be kept on a card file in the office. Such

a record would be used not only as a reminder of when such examina-
tions are due but would also be useful whenever there is a change in
employees or responsibility assignments. A more complete card sys-
tem of maintenance records should be kept for such features as pumping
plants. Irrigation Operation and Maintenance Bulletin No. 60 presents



3. Safe Conditions for the Workers on the System and the Public

All agreed that this is an important objective and that if it
is not pursued aggressively it can result in increased costs
and unsatisfactory service. A good safety program pays.

4, A Sense of Pride

Initially this ''pride factor'' was not included in the definition,
but as the discussions progressed, there was a growing feeling
that it is a most important objective. Every individual in an
organization must have pride in his work if he is to contribute

to the primary objectives of adequate and efficient service to

the water users. The group of managers concluded that pride is
reflected in the neat, orderly, well-managed appearance of every-
thing in the district program including the office, the equipment,
and the distribution system itself. They felt that an irrigation
district has a service to perform that is perhaps more important
to the welfare of the community than any other service function.
They felt that O&M without pride is like a mother without love
for her children,

You have a right to be proud. The cost of labor, equipment and supplies
has been going up every year. In fact, in the past 17 years the price
paid for labor, equipment, and supplies has more than doubled. In the
same period, your O&M charges to the water users have gone up only
half that amount. This means that you have utilized your labor, your
equipment, and your supplies more efficiently each year. Despite this
good showing, irrigation operation and maintenance costs have increased
an average of 3 percent each year for the past 17 years. We can assume
that the labor, equipment, and supply costs will continue to increase at
the rate of about 6 percent a year, The challenge you face is to keep the
actual O&M cost to the farmer from increasing faster than 2 or 3 percent
a year,

Recently an irrigation district in another region reported that it faced
serious problems. In the past 17 years its wages had increased 37 per-
cent. Apparently they were not aware that wages in general have in-
creased much more than 37 percent in 17 years. They have been oper-
ating in the red for a number of years and have used up $100, 000 they
once had in reserve, They are now faced with a major increase in an-
nual O&M charges and borrowing money to make major system improve-
ments to reduce their O&M burdens, The reluctance on the part of the
manager and the board of this district to raise charges in the past is
understandable. We all appreciate the seriousness of the cost-price
squeeze that farmers face today, but management does not make the farm-
ers' circumstances any rosier by curtailing O&M or failing to raise
charges when the cost of service actually goes up. A typical farm in

the Central Valley Project in California has an overall annual operating
cost of about $300 an acre. The district O&M costs for this typical farm


ANCHORING TOE ROCK FOR ROCK RIPRAP
(Suggestion R1-66S-47)

An improved method of anchoring toe rock for rock riprap, was devised
by Woodrow W. Bryars, of the Minidoka Project Office, Burley, Idaho.
This idea was proven very successful on the right abutment to the stilling
basin at Palisades Dam, which was constantly sloughing away.

Mr. Bryars suggests using 1-1/4-inch galvanized cable to make a chain of
rock so that one could not move unless the whole chain of rocks moved.
This was accomplished by drilling the toe rocks after they were placed,
and inserting anchor bars, These anchor bars are threaded, to securely
hold a 6-inch cast steel eye. Through these eyes a cable is passed and
anchored on both ends, as shown in the photograph below. For added
stability, every few feet along this chain of rocks, a cable anchors the
lateral cable and to a large dead man deep in the rockfill.

P17-D-62104

For additional information write the Project Superintendent, Minidoka
Project, Bureau of Reclamation, Box 549, Burley, Idaho 83318,

HK OK

15


You managers of irrigation systems have been backward in telling the
public and the water users in the district about the importance of your
services. The functions you carry out are more important to the com-
munity than that of any other utility organization. You are more impor-
tant than the power company. Your work is more important than the
job done by the telephone company. The delivery of water to the farms
is essential to the economy of that community and to the nation as a
whole. Many of the directors on irrigation district boards and managers
have performed services requiring many hours of personal time. Your
employees have made similar sacrifices and have performed services
beyond the call of duty. Such dedicated employees should be rewarded
and the community should be informed of their loyalty. For example,
in its advertisements the telephone company talks about the lineman
working in a blizzard or the pretty operator with her feet in the flood-
water, Similar efforts are made by the electrical utility companies to
impress the public with the importance of their service by recognizing
the individual effort of their field employees. An irrigation district has
a better story to tell than any of these service organizations. It should
be told to the public on every opportunity. It should be told to the water
users themselves. It will help to develop a sense of pride, and it will
help to make the community appreciate the organization that performs
this essential community service.

ao kek

HIGHLY SENSITIVE TESTING DEVICE

An elephant's foot may be mighty sensitive, but not as sensitive as a
10, 000-pound research tool designed and built by the Bureau of Recla-
mation's Engineering and Research Center at Denver, Colorado.

This ponderous unit will enable engineers to detect movements as slight
as one ten-thousandth of an inch deep inside a rock wall when pressure
is applied.

The new device is a radial jacking test unit which may be employed at
the sites of proposed dams to determine if the surrounding rock struc-
ture can support the extreme pressure generated by the dam and the
water it impounds.

Department of the Interior
News Release, dated February 23, 1967

ak ake ke see


c. Sand, gravel, and silt mixed in the membrane caused by exces-
sive spray bar pressures or use of the spray bar too close to the
subgrade, or both.

d. Accumulation of excessive silt, sand and gravel on the membrane
before the second pass of spray application was completed, result-
ing in two thin membranes seperated by a layer of soil.

Other conditions causing a poor membrane were:

a. Water entrapped in the membrane interior, producing a "lifeless"
condition.
b, Physical damage to the membrane after loss of protective cover.

The investigation indicated that thickness is one of the more important
factors contributing to the life of asphalt membrane. A minimum of
0.20 inch (0.51 cm.) is required before long-time service can be
expected,

Changes in physical properties of the membrane, as measured by the
aging index, show that approximately 90 percent of asphalt aging occurs
during the first 6 years of service, After 6 years the rate of change is
much slower,

For a majority of the membranes evaluated, the change in physical prop-
erties did not materially affect the ability to provide a flexible, water-
tight lining.

The aging index was calculated for both the ''as received'' and for the
melted membrane, Original material has an aging index of 100. In gen-
eral, an aging index of 60 and above for the "as received’ material and 50
and above for the melted indicated a fair to good membrane. Membranes
with indexes below these numbers were generally classified as fair to
poor.

Test results indicate some correlation between the laboratory 14-day
aging at 140° F (60° C) test and field aging. Material with a higher 14-day
aging index may have greater resistance to field aging. However, a num-
ber of unknown factors such as climatic conditions, type of soil, and loca-
tion in canal influence field aging.

If hot-applied asphalt membrane is installed in accordance with current
Bureau specifications, and the cover properly maintained, adequate seep-
age control should be provided for many years beyond the 14-year service
age studied in this investigation.

The watertightness of a properly installed asphalt membrane lining is evidenced
by a field-performed seepage test (ponding method) in an 11-year-old canal
where the seepage rate was only 0, 80 cubic ft. per square ft. per day, Pond-
ing tests prior to installation of the asphalt membrane lining indicated a
seepage rate of 9.96 cubic ft. per square ft. per day.


United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation

IRRIGATION OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

BULLETIN NO. 66
October, November, December 1968

In This Issue:
Importance of Good Maintenance
Fiberglas Gate Opening Indicator
National Safety Council Data Sheets
Inexpensive Mooring Buoy
Flying Particles
Painting to Beat the Heat
Hour Meters on Sump Pumps
Anchoring Toe Rock for Rock Rip-Rap
What You Should Know About Studded Tires
Seat Belt Facts
Report - Buried Asphalt Membrane Canal Lining
A Simple Solution for Reducing Fluctuations of Automatic Overflow
Siphons
Forklift Attachment for Front End Loader
Heavy-duty Tow Bar and Fair Lead


INEXPENSIVE MOORING BUOY

(Reprinted by permission of GRIST, May/June 1968 issue, a publication
published by the National Conference on State Parks, Washington, D.C.)

Upon learning that a commercial buoy of sufficient size to which they
could moor their patrol boat would cost more than $200.00, Chief Ranger
Robert White and Park Ranger James Martin of Cabrillo & Channel Islands
National Monuments searched for a less expensive solution, When they

came up with it,the cost was just $16.00.

Coe

dant
pen {

he"

¥%a" Shackles:

4" Manila
pendant

Bob and Jim designed a collar
to fit around a 55 gallon drum
as shown in the sketch at left
and had it made and galvanized
in a local welding shop. Made
of 3/16" black iron, the collar
is strong, light, and simple.

It can be assembled by one man,
and is easily transported in a
small boat, The drum buoy can
easily be changed if it becomes
corroded or otherwise damaged,
It is desirable to make the buoy
unsinkable even if punctured, it
can be filled with self-expanding
polyurethane for about $25.00,

Note the two pendants leading
from the collar. Since the
patrol boat is moored in an
exposed ocean cove, the secu-
rity of a second, longer pend-
ant, is felt to be well worth the
small additional cost. In one
instance the second pendant
saved the boat when a stainless
steel pendant parted.

For their 25 ft. launch, Jim
and Bob use a 720 lb, railroad
car wheel, 3/4" and 1/2" chain
attached to the buoy, and 3/4"
nylon pendants,

Kk kk


There are several gate opening indicators of this design in use on

the Kansas River Project. The deterioration of the metal gages has
been a problem throughout the years. Fiberglas staffs are being in-
stalled as replacements for the metal staffs as needed.

The initial cost of a gate opening indicator staff is very nearly the same
for light weight flexible metal or fiberglas. Cost of replacement per
staff gage installed on a gate including re-zeroing of gage is $28.00 for
metal and $25.00 for fiberglas, including material and labor. The

saving of the fiberglas over a metal staff is mainly through the elimina-
tion of frequent replacement by the longer life of the fiberglas.

Cee ee

NATIONAL SAFETY COUNCIL DATA SHEETS

The National Safety Council has recently published new or revised tech-
nical data sheets on the subjects listed below. Copies of these data
sheets (by the numbers shown in parentheses) may be obtained from
the National Safety Council, 425 No. Michigan Avenue, Chicago,
Illinois 60611.

Hydrogen Sulfide (284 Revised)

Gear-Hobbing Machines (362 Revised)

Metal-Working Milling Machines (364 Revised)

Chlorates (371 Revised)

Air-Powered Hand Tools (392 Revised)

Off-the-Job Safety (601)

Inspection and Maintenance of Mechanical Power Presses (603)

Safety Nets for Construction Projects (608)

Cloth Shearing Machines (609)

HR


a complete system for keeping such maintenance records. Similar but
less detailed records should be kept for closed drains, siphons, large
gates, control works, major buildings, and other important structures.
These responsibility assignments should be periodically checked by man-
agement. Employees! suggestions for improvements should be solicited,
carefully evaluated, and promptly adopted where practicable to do so.
Good work should be commended, and need for improvements should be
noted. In fact, it was the conclusion of this discussion group that every
irrigation district should initiate some form of an incentive awards sys-
tem in which efficiency and good appearance are both recognized.

In addition to the routine regular operation and maintenance program,

the group concluded that the manager and the board should develop a
long-range program for the accomplishment of major system improve-
ments and replacements. Some of these will involve considerable capital
expenditure and must be planned a number of years ahead. Some of them
may reduce O&M costs significantly, and it is important that they be
studied carefully to weigh the costs against the benefits. Such a program
should be developed for at least 5 years in advance. It should be adjusted
and refined as the time for the work draws near, and adequate financing
should be arranged. The discussion group emphasized the importance of
training. The process of learning is continuous, and it should start at the
top. The directors on an irrigation district board should go to meetings
like this. They should call on their state educational institutions for
classes, lectures and bulletins through which both new and old directors
can get a better understanding of the functions of a board and the way it
should manage the business of the district. Similar training programs
should be developed for the manager and his principal assistants, and they
should be allowed to visit other irrigation districts to get new ideas and
to discuss mutual problems with other managers. Some form of training
should be available to all employees of the district. If this cannot be car-
ried out through the help of an outside agency, there should be an in-house
training program. The district's training program should have as its
objectives, first, improved efficiency in the operation and maintenance
program; and second, the development of employees who can fill higher
level positions.

Attention to these four elements of management; namely appearance,
assignment of responsibility, long-range programing, and training will
all improve the "pride factor" in any district organization. In the
discussions which were mentioned earlier, the group of managers gen-
erally agreed that while wages are an important element in developing
good morale, they are by no means the only factor, They cited cases
where their best employees were those who had been satisfied with grad-
ual increases in a modest income. This satisfaction stems from a know-
ledge of the importance of their service to the community and from a
strong feeling of loyalty and pride in the organization.


And unstudded snow tires, while helpful in mud and snow, are actually
worse on ice than regular highway tires.

Although studded tires are only second-best to chains in stopping ability,
the fact that you can keep them on your car throughout the snow season
means they're more likely to be there when you need them. Chains can-
not be driven long on bare pavement (only about 100 miles), so they must
be repeatedly put on and taken off. Studded tires, once installed, give
constant protection--even against the unexpected patches of ice and frost
you're likely to encounter between the periods of snowy driving.

In addition to greatly improving the stopping ability of tires, studs provide
a dramatic increase in the glare-ice traction of the car's powered wheels.
The committee's tests indicate that snow tires with studs are 121 per cent
better at gripping the ice and preventing wheelspin, compared to the same
tires without studs. This not only means that studded tires can help keep
you from getting stuck, but they can also prevent a deadly side skid that
might otherwise throw you into the path of another car if you stepped on
the gas too hard.

Improved cornering ability on ice is another plus feature of studs. Their
grip on the ice greatly enhances your car's steering dependability and at
the same time reduces the danger of wheel lockup when you apply the
brakes. Wheels must roll in order to steer; the instant they lock and skid,
your car is out of control.

In its latest report on test results, the winter tests committee has con-
cluded that the average effective life of tire studs is about equal to the
life of the tires themselves. Since bare pavement is harder on studs than
driving on ice and snow, you can greatly prolong the life of your studded
tires by removing them each spring. In fact, because of highway damage
potential, you are required to make the switch in most states. Check
your local regulations on this point.

When you buy studded tires, be sure they have at least 72 studs, if they
are average-size 14-inch tires. This will give the tire's footprint six or
more studs. The committee feels that at lease six studs per tire should
be in contact with the ice at all times to provide adequate protection. Gyp
dealers in many areas have been selling tires with as few as 40 studs in-
stalled in their treads. Such tires would be almost totally ineffective as
ice grippers.

When you first use a set of brand-new studded tires, you'll notice the
rather loud buzzing sound made by the studs as they strike the pavement.
The sound diminishes somewhat, however, as the sharp edges of the pro-
truding tips of the studs are worn. At the same time, just during the first
500 miles or so, there's a slight loss of ice-gripping ability for the same
reason. It's a good idea to keep this in mind--if you test brand-new stud-
ded tires on ice, remember that some of their effectiveness will have van-
ished by the next time you need them onice. This initially fast wear rate
diminishes quickly and remains stable throughout the remaining life of the
studs.

18


about 0.2 foot below its normal
elevation.

At this location, this device is
successful in holding the water
surface to a maximum varia-
tion of .03-foot during peaking
periods.

If additional information is
desired regarding this device,
please write to the Project
Superintendent, Minidoka
Project, Bureau of Reclama-
tion, P.O, Box 549, Burley,
Idaho 83318,

P17-D-62107

Photograph No. 4

3K ok ok ok
HOW TO HELP IN CASE OF HEART ATTACK
Call the doctor at once.
Help the patient take the position that is most comfortable for him.
(This will probably be halfway between lying and sitting. He usually
cannot breathe comfortably if he lies flat. )
Do not attempt to carry or lift the patient without the doctor's supervision.

Loosen tight clothing such as belts and collars,

See that the patient does not become chilled, but do not induce sweating
with too many blankets.

Do not give the patient anything to drink without the doctor's advice.

--American Heart Association
44 E, 23rd St., New York City

eK ok Ok

24


This issue of the Bulletin contains two suggestions from GRIST, a
publication of the National Conference on State Parks, that could be
useful to irrigation project operation and maintenance personnel.
One concerns an attachment to a forklift as shown on page 25, and,
on page 26, is a heavy duty tow bar and fair lead to be fastened on
the stern of a boat.

ii


Dark colors absorb the most heat from sun radiation and white absorbs
the least. Contrary to a widespread impression, aluminum paint absorbs
more heat than white. A table of coefficients of absorption of solar radia-
tion is as follows:

White 0,25
Aluminum 0.35
Gray 0.75
Black 0.97

Therefore, for minimum absorption of heat from the sun an outdoor
cabinet should be painted white or possibly some other light color.

Indoor cabinets can be painted any color.

Transformers
Like cabinets installed outdoors, transformers can also absorb heat from
the sun, In addition, transformers themselves generate and transmit

heat by convection, conduction, and radiation. The photograph below is
of a typical substation showing the transformers in the foreground.

P285-D-61979

Radiation

When transformers are located in the sun, both the absorption of solar heat
and radiation of the transformer heat must be considered. Unfortunately,

11


Self-cooled transformers exposed to the sun should be painted light
colors only where operating temperatures are critical. Other colors
are preferable from an appearance standpoint and should fit into a
color scheme.

Conduction

In a transformer the heat passes from the electrical conductors and core
iron through the insulation, oil, the steel case, and the paint coating.
The thickness of the paint will usually add only an infinitesimal amount
to either the length of the heat path or the combined thermal resistivity
of the material through which the heat must pass. Paint (of any type or
color) will therefore have a negligible effect on heat loss by conduction,
when the paint is thinly coated.

The effect of film thickness in a recent test by a leading paint manufac-
turer was determined by applying multiple coats of metallic lead-suboxide
black and non-metallic white to a test specimen. It was discovered that
film thickness has an appreciable effect on heat transfer for both types of
paint, with a marked decrease in rate when the film is 10 mils or more
in thickness.

Convection

Heat loss by convection depends on the shape and size of the transformer
and the temperature and rate of movement of the cooling medium. Con-
vection is not affected by painting the exterior.

Transformers Indoors

As there is no reflection of the sun's rays to be considered with trans-
formers located indoors, the type and color of paint will affect only the
heat loss by radiation, A transformer painted a light color would be
expected to operate at a higher temperature than one painted black or
any other color due to the low emissivity factor of light paint.

Considering temperature alone, the best color for indoor self-cooled
transformers is dull black. However, gray, green, or almost any other
color will increase the temperature such a small amount that the paint
can be selected on the basis of appearance or the color scheme in the
plant.

Electric Motors

Heat from motors is mostly dissipated by convection so little is gained
in painting them a specific different color.

In direct sunlight absorption of heat from the,sun may increase motor
temperature somewhat. The comments concerning color of paint for
transformers would also apply to motors.

Hk kk

13


IRRIGATION OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
BULLETIN NO. 66

October, November, December 1968

INTRODUCTION

Four basic objectives are realized by good maintenance, as pointed out
starting on page 1. The importance of good maintenance were included
in remarks made by Mr. Hollis Sanford, at the first water users confer-
ence held in Region 2, at Sacramento, California, prior to his retire-
ment from the Bureau in March 1968, as Chief, Division of Irrigation
Operations, Office of Chief Engineer, Denver, Colorado.

A suggestion on page 6, for a fiberglas gate opening indicator, points
out the advantages of fiberglas over metal when used for this purpose.

Several individual articles on safety can be found in this issue: One
on page 7 lists the most recent issues of the National Safety Council
data sheets. The article on page 9 describes an accident resulting
from flying steel fragments and suggests means of prevention, and the
article on page 16 is entitled 'What You Should Know About Studded
Tires.'' Some seat belt facts are given on page 19, and how to help
someone in case of a heart attack is discussed on page 24.

Located on page 8 is a suggestion submitted by two enterprising em-
ployees of the Cabrillo and Channel Islands National Monument for an
inexpensive mooring buoy.

Starting on page 10, is an article entitled ''Painting to Beat the Heat."
The article discusses what can be done with paint when heating of ma-
chinery occurs, and the cooling effect various paints have for chang-
ing the movement of heat to or from machinery.

Two separate suggestions submitted by Bureau personnel can be found
onpages 14and15. Thefirst one recommends hour meters be putonall
sump pumps to determine the amount of leakage at adam, andthe second
ideais for animproved method of anchoring toe rock for rock riprap.

The summary on page 20 of a report entitled ''Buried Asphalt Membrane
Canal Lining, '' presents the Bureau's findings and use of buried hot-
applied asphaltic membrane lining for control of water seepage from
canals and shallow reservoirs, and briefly describes the construction
methods.

Beginning on page 22 is a simple solution for reducing fluctuations
of automatic overflow siphons. The suggested device, now in use, is
both inexpensive and very easy to install.



A SIMPLE SOLUTION FOR REDUCING FLUCTUATIONS
OF AUTOMATIC OVERFLOW SIPHONS

An inexpensive method has been found for controlling excessive fluctua-
tions in canal water surface levels when automatic overflow siphons go
into operation. This ingenious idea was originally conceived by Mr.
Clifford Sutton, Pump Station Foreman, of the Burley Irrigation District,
Burley, Idaho, to overcome a regulating problem at the ''F'' Wasteway
structure in the District's Main Canal upstream from its First Lift Pump
Station.

Siphons have been installed on a number of projects at wasteway structures
to dispose of excess flows, particularly at locations where heavy storm
runoff or where pumping plant outages occur. Once started in operation,
an automatic overflow siphon frequently lowers the water surface elevation
as much as a foot before the siphon breaks suction and stops operating.
This situation has made it undesirable to use these siphons for operating
regulation, because extreme variations cause undue fluctuations in down-
stream deliveries.

To solve this problem Mr, Sutton, installed a round metal pan on the siphon
breaker vent pipe. Photograph No. 1 below, shows how the pan was installed
at the Tunnel No. 2 wasteway of the Black Canyon Main Canal, near Emmett,
Idaho. Note siphon overflow section with 10-inch pipe air vent.

P17-D-62108 fall v3 z Beit
Photograph No, 1
Previous to installation of this pan the intermittent operation of the over-

flow siphon caused serious variation in downstream water surface eleva-
tion. Since its installation water surface elevations have not varied over

22


The Irrigation Operation and Maintenance bulletin is published quar-
terly, for the benefit of irrigation project people. Its principal pur-
pose is to serve as a medium of exchanging operation and maintenance
information. It is hoped that the reports herein concerning labor-
saving devices and less costly equipment and procedures, developed
by resourceful project people, will result in improved efficiency and
reduced costs of the systems for those operators adapting these ideas
to their needs.

To assure proper recognition of those individuals whose suggestions
are published in the bulletins, the suggestion number as well as the
person's name is given. All Bureau offices are reminded to notify
their Suggestions Award Committee when a suggestion is adopted.

KK KK

Division of Irrigation Operations
Office of Chief Engineer
Denver, Colorado 80225

COVER PHOTOGRAPH:
Composite picture showing
various activities in the
performance of day-to-day
duties for good maintenance
on irrigation projects.
Photo PX-D-62122.



FORKLIFT ATTACHMENT FOR FRONT END LOADER

(Reprinted by permission of GRIST, May/June 1968 issue, a publication
by the National Conference on State Parks, Washington, D.C.)

When there were 100 pre-fab concrete tables to assemble at Joshua Tree
National Monument, Maintenanceman James B. Johnson thought they needed
some mechanical help for the heavy job.

For a $36.80 outlay in material and labor, Jim designed and constructed

the forklift (shown in the sketch) for a front end loader, It can be inter-
changed with the bucket in about 30 minutes.

2 Pieces 3" Channel iron 30" long

8 Pieces 3"x 4" x '/2"

Heavy concrete table tops, end sections, and seats were handled and as-
sembled by two men more safely than by hand, using four men. Table
assembly time was cut by about 30 percent.

Although the specific job for which the attachment was designed is not one
likely to occur frequently on an irrigation project, there are times when
such a device could materially reduce manual labor and probably save
considerable time.

ORK

25


FLYING PARTICLES

Activity

Government mechanic and helper repairing track on crawler-type tractor.

Accident Situation and Occurrence

Two employees were replacing a track on a crawler-type tractor. In
the process of replacing the master track pin, a piece of flying steel
became lodged in the mechanic's left leg below the knee, The injury
resulted in 4 days' lost time.

Cause Determination and Prevention

The mechanic was driving the pin in place with a 12-pound hard steel
hammer. This accident possibly could have been avoided by proper
planning that included:

1, Cleaning the pin and track links with emory cloth.
2. Providing means by which the links could be expanded by heat,

3. Using a softer hammer to drift the pin. In addition to heating
the links with a torch, most mechanics cool the pin with dry
tee, or other means, allowing it to shrink and move freely
through the enlarged links.

Reclamation Safety News - 1967

OK OK Ok

NEW LABORATORY RESEARCH AIDS DRAINAGE STUDIES

Hydraulic research engineers of the Bureau of Reclamation's Engineer-
ing and Research Center at Denver, Colorado, have constructed a 60-
foot-long tilting flume in their laboratory to study drainage from sloping
irrigated land. They are using the flume to determine the most effec-
tive and economical spacing for installing agricultural drains on a
variety of slopes--a major consideration in the development of irrigated
agriculture. The flume is filled with fine sand and has a recharge
system, The recharge system sprinkles water on the sand surface

and simulates the application of irrigation water applied to the land.

Hook ok kk


the colors that give the best radiation of transformer heat will permit
the highest absorption of heat from the direct rays of the sun.

Heat loss from a body by radiation can be computed by formula which
indicates that a light colored transformer will dissipate less heat than
a black one. In the formula the coefficient for aluminum paint is 0.55;
for mat black paint 0.95; and for practically any other paint 0.90 to
0.95. An aluminum painted transformer will therefore dissipate by
radiation approximately one-third less heat than a transformer painted
some other color,

It has been found that when transformers are exposed to the sun a light
colored transformer will usually operate one to two degrees Centigrade
(3° F) cooler than one painted black.

The amount of heat absorbed by transformers will depend on these coef-
ficients but will also depend on other conditions such as shape, size,
area exposed to the direct rays of the sun, and the time of such exposure.
As these conditions vary widely, the best indication of the effects of paint
on transformers located in the sun can be obtained from field tests.

Tests made by a power company at Dallas, Texas, on identical trans-
formers with equal loads and located in the sun showed a maximum oil
temperature of 40° C for black painted transformers and 39° C for the
aluminum painted ones,

Similar tests by a power company in California showed a maximum oil
temperature of 29.5° C for black and 27.0° C for light gray.

At Pittsfield, Massachusetts, similar tests were run over a 24-hour
period, During the day the maximum oil temperatures were 52° C for
black, 49° C for aluminum, and 48° C for white. At night the maximum
temperatures were 41° C for aluminum and 39° C for black and white.

In all the test reports available, the light colored transformers ran
cooler than black transformers when exposed to the sun. The difference
in temperature was small, averaging between one and two degrees. In
cases where transformers are operating near the limit of their safe
temperature during exposure to the sun, this slight decrease in temper-
ature might be important. The daytime temperature decrease would

be, to acertain extent, counteracted by an increase in temperature at
night.

In general, the total effect of the type and color of the paint is too small
to justify any repainting for its effect on temperature alone. When paint-
ing is necessary it should be done on the basis of the appearance and
durability.

12