U.S. Department of 

Transportation 

Federal Railroad 

Administration

Work Schedules and Sleep Patterns of 

Railroad Dispatchers 

Office of Research 

and Development 

Washington, DC 20590 

DOT/FRA/ORD-07/11 Final Report 

April 2007 

This document is available to the 

U.S. public through the National 

Technical Information Service, 

Springfield, VA 22161. 
NOTICE 

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exchange. The United States Government assumes no liability for 

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NOTICE 

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report. 

 
i

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1. AGENCY USE ONLY (Leave blank) 2. REPORT DATE

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3. REPORT TYPE AND DATES COVERED

Final Report 7/2005-12/2006 

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

Work Schedules and Sleep Patterns of Railroad Dispatchers 

6. AUTHOR(S)

Judith Gertler and Alex Viale 

5. FUNDING NUMBERS 

7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES)

Foster-Miller, Inc. 

350 Second Avenue 

Waltham, MA 02451-1196 

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REPORT NUMBER

DFRA.010350 

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U.S. Department of Transportation 

Federal Railroad Administration 

Office of Research and Development 

Washington, DC 20590 

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DOT/FRA/ORD-07/11 

11. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES 

COTR: Dr. Thomas Raslear 

12a. DISTRIBUTION/AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

This document is available to the public through the National Technical Information Service, 

Springfield, VA 22161 and at www.fra.dot.gov. 

12b. DISTRIBUTION CODE

13. ABSTRACT (Maximum 200 words)

This report presents the results of a study designed to characterize the work/rest schedules and sleep patterns of U.S. railroad 

dispatchers and to examine the relationship between these schedules and levels of alertness of the individuals working the 

schedules. The study methodology was a survey of a random sample of currently working U.S. railroad dispatchers who 

completed a background survey and kept a daily log for 2 weeks. Railroad dispatchers are a predominantly healthy middle-aged 

male population, but 14 percent are women. Dispatchers work as either a trick dispatcher, subject to the limitations of the Hours 

of Service Law, or an assistant chief dispatcher who oversees the trick dispatchers. All dispatching jobs have a 40-hour nominal 

workweek, but assistant chief dispatchers average more than 40 hours per week. Dispatchers are a shiftwork population. Many 

are subject to working nights and a variable work schedule, making it difficult to get adequate quality sleep. Overall, 39 percent 

of dispatchers get 6 or fewer hours of sleep while 29 percent of U.S. adults get this amount of sleep. Across all three shifts, 

dispatcher alertness on workdays peaked after arrival at work and then declined through the workday. The decline was greatest 

for those working third shift. 

15. NUMBER OF PAGES

103 

14. SUBJECT TERMS

Railroad dispatcher, fatigue, alertness, shiftwork, extra board, relief job, sleep disorder, assistant 

chief dispatcher, trick dispatcher 16. PRICE CODE

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NSN 7540-01-280-5500 Standard Form 298 (Rev. 2-89) 

Prescribed by ANSI Std. 239-18 

298-102 
ii

METRIC/ENGLISH CONVERSION FACTORS 

ENGLISH TO METRIC METRIC TO ENGLISH

LENGTH (APPROXIMATE) LENGTH (APPROXIMATE) 

1 inch (in) = 2.5 centimeters (cm) 1 millimeter (mm) = 0.04 inch (in) 

1 foot (ft) = 30 centimeters (cm) 1 centimeter (cm) = 0.4 inch (in) 

1 yard (yd) = 0.9 meter (m) 1 meter (m) = 3.3 feet (ft) 

1 mile (mi) = 1.6 kilometers (km) 1 meter (m) = 1.1 yards (yd) 

 1 kilometer (km) = 0.6 mile (mi)

AREA (APPROXIMATE) AREA (APPROXIMATE) 

1 square inch (sq in, in2) = 6.5 square centimeters (cm2) 1 square centimeter (cm2) = 0.16 square inch (sq in, in2) 

1 square foot (sq ft, ft2) = 0.09 square meter (m2) 1 square meter (m2) = 1.2 square yards (sq yd, yd2) 

1 square yard (sq yd, yd2) = 0.8 square meter (m2) 1 square kilometer (km2) = 0.4 square mile (sq mi, mi2) 

1 square mile (sq mi, mi2) = 2.6 square kilometers (km2) 10,000 square meters (m2) = 1 hectare (ha) = 2.5 acres 

1 acre = 0.4 hectare (he) = 4,000 square meters (m2) 

MASS - WEIGHT (APPROXIMATE) MASS - WEIGHT (APPROXIMATE) 

1 ounce (oz) = 28 grams (gm) 1 gram (gm) = 0.036 ounce (oz) 

1 pound (lb) = 0.45 kilogram (kg) 1 kilogram (kg) = 2.2 pounds (lb) 

1 short ton = 2,000 pounds 

(lb) 

= 0.9 tonne (t) 1 tonne (t) =

=

1,000 kilograms (kg) 

1.1 short tons

VOLUME (APPROXIMATE) VOLUME (APPROXIMATE) 

1 teaspoon (tsp) = 5 milliliters (ml) 1 milliliter (ml) = 0.03 fluid ounce (fl oz) 

1 tablespoon (tbsp) = 15 milliliters (ml) 1 liter (l) = 2.1 pints (pt) 

1 fluid ounce (fl oz) = 30 milliliters (ml) 1 liter (l) = 1.06 quarts (qt) 

1 cup (c) = 0.24 liter (l) 1 liter (l) = 0.26 gallon (gal) 

1 pint (pt) = 0.47 liter (l) 

 1 quart (qt) = 0.96 liter (l) 

1 gallon (gal) = 3.8 liters (l) 

1 cubic foot (cu ft, ft3) = 0.03 cubic meter (m3) 1 cubic meter (m3) = 36 cubic feet (cu ft, ft3) 

1 cubic yard (cu yd, yd3) = 0.76 cubic meter (m3) 1 cubic meter (m3) = 1.3 cubic yards (cu yd, yd3)

TEMPERATURE (EXACT) TEMPERATURE (EXACT) 

[(x-32)(5/9)] °F = y °C [(9/5) y + 32] °C = x °F

QUICK INCH - CENTIMETER LENGTH CONVERSION

0 1 2 34 5

Inches

Centimeters 01 3 2 6 11 4 5 7 13 8 9 10 12

QUICK FAHRENHEIT - CELSIUS TEMPERATURE CONVERSION

 -40° -22° -4° 14° 32° 50° 68° 86° 104° 122° 140° 158° 176° 194° 212°

 

°F

 °C -40° -30° -20° -10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90° 100°

For more exact and or other conversion factors, see NIST Miscellaneous Publication 286, Units of Weights and 

Measures. Price $2.50 SD Catalog No. C13 10286 Updated 6/17/98
iii

Contents 

Illustrations ..................................................................................................................................... v 

Tables .................................................................................................................................... vi 

Acknowledgements........................................................................................................................ ix 

Executive Summary........................................................................................................................ 1 

1. Introduction ................................................................................................................. 7 

1.1 Nature of the Dispatcher’s Job .................................................................................... 7 

1.2 Objectives.................................................................................................................. 10 

1.3 Overall Approach ...................................................................................................... 10 

1.4 Scope ......................................................................................................................... 11 

1.5 Organization of the Report ........................................................................................ 11 

2. Survey Design ........................................................................................................... 13 

2.1 Potential Respondent Universe ................................................................................. 13 

2.2 Survey Instruments.................................................................................................... 14 

2.3 Data Collection Period .............................................................................................. 14 

2.4 Sampling Plan............................................................................................................ 14

2.5 Procedure................................................................................................................... 15 

3. Analysis of Survey Data............................................................................................ 19 

3.1 Survey Response Rate............................................................................................... 19 

3.2 Non-Response Bias Study ......................................................................................... 19 

3.3 Dispatcher Demographic Characteristics .................................................................. 20 

3.4 Job Characteristics..................................................................................................... 26 

3.5 Sleep Characteristics ................................................................................................. 36 

3.6 Alertness.................................................................................................................... 49 

3.7 Textual Data .............................................................................................................. 52 

4. Findings and Recommendations................................................................................ 61 

4.1 Key Study Findings................................................................................................... 61 

4.2 Recommendations for Improvements in Study Procedures ...................................... 63 

4.3 Recommendations for Additional Research.............................................................. 64 

5. References ................................................................................................................. 65 

Appendix A. Survey Materials .................................................................................................... 67 

Appendix B. Supporting Data...................................................................................................... 85 

Appendix C. Adjustments to the Data ......................................................................................... 89

Abbreviations and Acronyms ....................................................................................................... 91 

v

Illustrations 

Figure 1. Modern dispatching center ............................................................................................. 9 

Figure 2. Overall approach .......................................................................................................... 11 

Figure 3. Distribution of dispatchers by age group and sex ........................................................ 21 

Figure 4. Self-assessment of overall health ................................................................................. 24

Figure 5. Workdays lost due to illness in past year ..................................................................... 24 

Figure 6. Relief schedules............................................................................................................ 27 

Figure 7. Number of breaks per day by job type ......................................................................... 31 

Figure 8. Length of day’s longest break by job type ................................................................... 32 

Figure 9. Commute time and workday by job type ..................................................................... 33 

Figure 10. Start of commute to work........................................................................................... 33 

Figure 11. Sources and levels of stress by job type ..................................................................... 34 

Figure 12. Nighttime sleep on workdays for permanent first and second shift dispatchers versus 

U.S. adults................................................................................................................... 41 

Figure 13. Sleep in 24 h for dispatchers versus U.S. adults......................................................... 42 

Figure 14. Nap start times for workdays...................................................................................... 48 

Figure 15. Nap start times for non-workdays .............................................................................. 48 
vi

Tables 

Table 1. Breakdown of survey responses ...................................................................................... 2 

Table 2. Estimate of number of actively working U.S. dispatchers by labor organization ......... 13 

Table 3. Dispatcher age by sex (yr) ............................................................................................. 21 

Table 4. Discrepancies between chronological and perceived age by age group (percent) ........ 22 

Table 5. Years of experience as a dispatcher by job type (yr)..................................................... 22 

Table 6. Years of experience as a dispatcher with current employer by job type (yr) ................ 22 

Table 7. Years of experience as a dispatcher by sex (yr)............................................................. 23 

Table 8. Work schedule by type of job and overall (percent)...................................................... 26 

Table 9. Work schedule by age and experience (yr).................................................................... 27 

Table 10. Actual shifts worked by job schedule (percent)........................................................... 28 

Table 11. Shift variability for relief and extra board work schedules (percent).......................... 29 

Table 12. Typical and actual work for 2-week period by job type (h:min) ................................. 29 

Table 13. Number and length of longest break per day by job type............................................ 30 

Table 14. Breaks by shift worked ................................................................................................ 31 

Table 15. Stress ratings by job type............................................................................................. 36 

Table 16. Total sleep by type of day and work schedule (h:min)................................................ 38 

Table 17. Total sleep by work schedule versus shiftwork norms for workdays (h:min)............. 39 

Table 18. Total and primary sleep on workdays by shift worked versus shiftwork norms (h:min)

..................................................................................................................................... 39 

Table 19. Primary sleep by shift worked (h:min) ........................................................................ 40 

Table 20. Ratings of primary sleep (mean of means) by work schedule and type of day ........... 43 

Table 21. Workday primary sleep period ratings by shift worked .............................................. 44 

Table 22. Sleep ratings and duration by sleep disorder status (workdays only).......................... 45 

Table 23. Sleep latency by type of day and job type (min) ......................................................... 45 

Table 24. Sleep latency by shift worked (min)............................................................................ 45 

Table 25. Number of naps in 2-week period by work schedule .................................................. 46 

Table 26. Mean nap length by work schedule and type of day (h:min)....................................... 47 

Table 27. Nap length on workdays by shift worked (h:min) ....................................................... 47 

Table 28. Alertness at work by job type (percent)....................................................................... 49 

Table 29. Mentally drained after work by job type (percent)...................................................... 50 

Table 30. Alertness at work by work schedule (percent)............................................................. 50 
vii

Table 31. Mentally drained after work by work schedule (percent)............................................ 51 

Table 32. Alertness throughout the day by shift worked............................................................. 51 

Table 33. Linear regression results by shift for alertness and time on shift ................................ 51 

Table 34. Alertness and sleep disorders (workdays only) ........................................................... 52 

Table 35. Keywords used for each topic area search................................................................... 54 

Table 36. Frequency of comments by topic area and source....................................................... 55 

ix

Acknowledgements 

This report presents the results of a research study designed to characterize the work schedules 

and sleep patterns of U.S. railroad dispatchers and to examine the relationship between these 

schedules and levels of alertness for the individuals working the schedules. Foster-Miller, Inc. 

conducted the work for the Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) under contract DTFR53-01-

D-00029 with guidance from Dr. Thomas Raslear, Office of Research and Development, Human 

Factors Program. The authors worked closely with the American Train Dispatchers Association 

(ATDA) in designing and conducting the survey. Special thanks are due to Mr. Leo McCann 

and Mr. Gary Melton, both of ATDA, who provided invaluable insight on the job of a railroad 

dispatcher and facilitated distribution of the survey materials to their members. Their 

participation was a key element in the successful conduct of the study. The authors are 

especially appreciative of the efforts of Mr. Robert Brogan, FRA Office of Safety, who 

facilitated the Office of Management and Budget approval process for this study. 

The authors also wish to thank several individuals at Foster-Miller for their significant 

contributions to the study. Ms. Susan McDonough managed the database for tracking and 

compensating the survey participants. Ms. Audrey Murray provided invaluable assistance with 

the coding and processing of the data in the background surveys and daily logs. Ms. Gayle 

Staffiere from Foster-Miller’s Publications Department was responsible for layout of the log 

books, and Ms. Eileen Ballard-Sarcone oversaw the printing and mailing of the survey 

documents. Ms. Jeanne Seaquist designed the database for the survey data. 

1

Executive Summary 

In a continuing effort to improve railroad safety and to reduce the number of injuries and 

fatalities to railroad workers, the Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) and the railroad 

industry, through the North American Rail Alertness Partnership (NARAP), have focused on the 

issue of fatigue among train and engine crew personnel. Because railroading is an around-theclock, 7-days-a-week operation, and because a wide array of workers are needed both to operate 

and maintain the Nation’s railroads, other crafts besides train and engine crews can also be 

subject to fatigue. The non-operating crafts, which include right-of-way construction and 

maintenance, signal system construction and maintenance, and dispatchers, fall into this 

category. With all of the non-operating craft groups, staff shortages, expanding territories, call 

schedules, and working conditions may contribute to employee fatigue. In 2001, FRA decided to 

begin exploring non-operating craft workers’ fatigue by initially focusing on signalmen. A 

subsequent study addressed maintenance of way (MOW) workers. This study, similar in 

methodology to the two earlier studies, investigated the fatigue issues of railroad dispatchers. 

This study had two primary objectives: 

• To design and conduct a survey to collect work schedules and sleep data from railroad 

dispatchers. 

• To analyze data to characterize work/sleep patterns and to identify work schedule-related 

fatigue issues. 

The goal was to characterize U.S. railroad dispatchers as a group, not to characterize dispatchers 

on a specific railroad. 

The railroad dispatcher is responsible for the safe, efficient, and economical movement of trains 

and other railway vehicles over the railroad, as well as for the protection of those who work on 

the railroad. Dispatcher jobs fall into two categories, trick dispatcher and assistant chief 

dispatcher. Trick dispatchers manage and control access to a specific territory or track. The 

assistant chief dispatcher oversees several trick dispatchers and assists them as necessary. 

Because an assistant chief dispatcher does not directly control train movements, this position is 

not subject to the limitations of the Hours of Service Law. 

The work schedules for both types of dispatcher jobs are similar, with shifts that cover 24 hours 

(h) of each day, 7 days (d) a week. Three types of work schedules exist for dispatchers: regular 

daily shift (first or day, second or evening, third or night), relief, and extra board. Regular jobs 

work 5 consecutive d on the same shift followed by 2 consecutive d off. Relief jobs work 5 

consecutive d by rotating through the shifts in a pattern such as 2 days, 2 evenings, and 1 night. 

While the regular and relief jobs work the same days each week, the extra board jobs do not have 

a fixed schedule. The extra board dispatchers fill in for regular and relief dispatchers as 

necessary. 

The research described in this report had three phases: preparation, field data collection, and 

data analysis. Since no existing data source would provide answers to the study’s research 

questions, a survey of railroad dispatchers was the only means to obtain the necessary data. The 

preparation phase included securing approval from the Office of Management and Budget 
2

(OMB) for the survey. Representatives from the American Train Dispatchers Association 

(ATDA) worked closely with the researchers throughout the study. 

Survey Design 

The study used two survey instruments–a background survey and a daily log. Survey 

participants used the background survey to provide demographic information, descriptive data 

for their job type and work schedule, and a self-assessment of overall health. The daily log 

provided a place for recording work periods and sleep on workdays and non-work or rest days. 

Dispatchers recorded not only the starting and ending times for each sleep and work period but 

also a subjective assessment of their alertness at different times during their workday. Capturing 

the week-to-week variability in the work schedules of extra board dispatchers required a 2-week 

data collection period. 

Researchers drew a random sample of 963 dispatchers from the ATDA database of actively 

working U.S. dispatchers. Retirees, full-time union officials, and anyone currently holding a 

railroad management position were specifically excluded from the sampling frame. 

Determination of the sample size assumed a 95 percent confidence interval on the estimates for 

mean sleep time, an error tolerance of 20 percent, and a 40 percent response rate. The method 

for sizing the sample assured that the sample could include an adequate number of extra board 

dispatchers. 

Mailing of the survey materials occurred on April 18, 2006. One month (mo) later, every 

dispatcher in the random sample received a reminder postcard encouraging him/her to participate 

and to call the researchers if he/she needed additional materials. 

Survey Response Rate 

The overall response rate for the survey was 46 percent. Table 1 provides a breakdown of the 

survey responses. 

Table 1. Breakdown of survey responses 

 Number Percent 

Returned both background survey and daily log 445 46.2 

Returned only one survey instrument 5 .5 

Materials undeliverable due to invalid address 20 2.1 

No response 493 51.2 

Total number of surveys mailed 963 

Of the 445 complete responses, 2 could not be a part of the analysis because those individuals 

were currently working as a chief dispatcher, which is a management job. 

The non-response bias study based on age found no difference between survey respondents and 

non-respondents. 
3

Dispatcher Demographics 

The majority of survey respondents (87 percent) held trick dispatcher jobs. Ten percent held an 

assistant chief position, and the remaining 3 percent reported their job type as other. Fourteen 

percent of the survey respondents were female. Average dispatcher experience was 14 years 

(yr), but the average for women was 11 yr while that of their male counterparts was 15 yr. 

Nearly half of all dispatchers are 50 yr and older, with male dispatchers being, on average, 3 yr 

older than the female dispatchers. 

The majority of dispatchers (76 percent) are married, but few have children under the age of 2 yr. 

In contrast, 55 percent of U.S. adults age 18 and older are married. Since many railroaders 

report that their work schedule strains marital relationships, finding such a high proportion of 

married dispatchers was surprising. The survey did not, however, ask how many times the 

dispatcher had been married. The lack of young children is consistent with the average age of 

this population. 

Nearly 85 percent of dispatchers rated themselves in good or excellent health. This selfassessment did vary by work schedule with third shift dispatchers having a lower overall health 

self-rating than extra board dispatchers. While the majority of dispatchers rated their health as 

good or excellent, this group averaged 5.6 workdays lost due to illness annually. In comparison, 

U.S. employed adults with paid sick time average 3.6 d. The higher rate of use of sick time may 

be due to the stressful nature of the job or, for those working an irregular schedule, the need to 

catch up on sleep. 

Approximately 9 percent of the dispatchers reported having a diagnosed sleep disorder, and 

7 percent reported having sleep apnea. One-third of these dispatchers have gone without 

treatment. The dispatcher rate for sleep apnea is higher than the estimated norm of 4 percent for 

U.S. middle-aged working men. Two possible explanations exist for the higher rate among 

dispatchers: the sedentary nature of their job which may lead to weight gain which exacerbates 

sleep apnea, and an awareness of the symptoms of sleep apnea which led them to seek diagnosis 

and treatment. 

Job Characteristics 

The around-the-clock nature of railroading requires railroads to staff dispatching centers with 

three 8-h shifts. Dispatchers working permanent first, second, or third shifts rarely work outside 

their typical schedules. The most common relief rotation was to work two first shifts, followed 

by two second shifts, and a third shift. Since extra board dispatchers fill in for dispatchers who 

cannot work their regular shifts, the expectation was that this group of dispatchers would be split 

evenly among the three shifts. This did not occur. Forty-two percent of the shifts worked by an 

extra board dispatcher during the study were on first shift. First shift dispatchers are the most 

experienced and therefore accrue the largest number of vacation and sick days. Due to the 

seniority of first shift dispatchers, vacancies are most likely to occur on first shift and require 

assignment to an extra board dispatcher. A third of the extra board dispatchers experienced no 

shift variability during the study because they filled in for a regular dispatcher on vacation or 

other extended leave. 

Both trick dispatchers and assistant chiefs have a nominal 40-h workweek. While trick 

dispatchers averaged close to 40 h of work during the study, assistant chiefs averaged 

approximately 45 h of work per week. In addition, one-quarter of the assistant chiefs worked a 
4

day per week of overtime. Actual work, as reported in the daily logs, was similar to reported 

typical workweeks for both groups, suggesting that the time period for this study was a typical 

one with respect to dispatcher work schedules. 

Railroad dispatchers have no contractual provisions for breaks. Nearly a third of the time, both 

groups of dispatchers took no breaks during their shift. Trick dispatchers averaged 2 breaks per 

day with the longest break averaging 8 minutes (min). Assistant chiefs averaged 11⁄2 breaks per 

shift with the longest break averaging 10 min. Despite the lack of breaks, this was not a primary 

source of stress for dispatchers. 

Trick dispatchers and assistant chiefs had similar sources of stress. In general, trick dispatchers 

had higher stress ratings than assistant chiefs, with ratings on sleep loss, lack of time off, 

ambiguous rules, and lack of breaks being significantly higher. 

Sleep Characteristics 

The study examined primary and total daily sleep, which includes naps. Dispatchers working 

permanent first shift jobs get considerably less total sleep on workdays than those with other 

work schedules, but these dispatchers appear to make up for their loss of sleep on non-workdays. 

In comparison with shiftwork norms, railroad dispatchers get less sleep than other shiftwork 

populations. First shift for a railroad dispatcher may begin as early as 6 a.m. This early start 

time appears to limit the nighttime sleep for those who work first shift. For total and primary 

sleep, all shifts are statistically different from each other. 

Because many dispatchers on a permanent third shift use a split sleep strategy on workdays, the 

napping rate was highest for this group. The majority of workday naps for all dispatchers 

combined began between 4 and 8 p.m. In contrast, naps on non-workdays tended to start 

between 12 and 4 p.m., a time that coincides with the afternoon nadir in the circadian cycle. 

Comparison of dispatcher sleep with normative data for U.S. adults indicates that, in terms of 

average daily sleep in 24 h, railroad dispatchers are getting less sleep than U.S. adults. While 

29 percent of U.S. adults get 6 or fewer h of sleep daily, 39 percent of dispatchers get this 

amount of sleep. 

Overall, dispatchers gave higher ratings to their non-workday sleep than their workday sleep. 

Dispatchers’ qualitative ratings of their sleep differed based on the shift actually worked. In 

particular, sleep ratings for dispatchers working second shift were statistically different for all 

ratings except ease of arising. Correlations between each of the four sleep quality ratings and 

length of the primary sleep period were all significant but did not show a strong relationship. 

Dispatchers with diagnosed but untreated sleep disorders rated their sleep of lower quality than 

those with treated sleep disorders or no sleep disorders, but these differences were not 

statistically significant. 

Alertness 

Data from dispatchers’ daily logs revealed some differences in alertness levels based on the shift 

worked. For all shifts, alertness peaked after the commute to work but then declined throughout 

the day. The decline in alertness was greatest on third shift. 

Dispatchers with diagnosed but untreated sleep disorders had lower alertness ratings throughout 

the day than those with treated or no sleep disorders, but these differences were not statistically 

significant. 
5

Textual Analysis of Log Book Comments 

A systematic qualitative analysis of the textual comments in the daily logs provided greater 

insight into the concerns of dispatchers and, in many cases, added further insight to the 

quantitative survey results. The most frequently mentioned topics were sleep, workload, 

alertness/fatigue, and naps. Sleep was in three times as many comments as workload, which was 

the second most frequently mentioned topic in the comments. 

Findings and Recommendations 

The following lists the key findings with respect to the dispatcher’s health, work periods, sleep 

patterns, and alertness: 

• Dispatchers average 5.6 workdays lost annually due to illness. In contrast, U.S. 

employed adults with paid sick time average 3.6 d per year. The need of this shiftwork 

population to catch up on lost sleep and the stressful nature of dispatching may be 

responsible for this difference. 

• The 8-h workday of a dispatcher plus commute time allow adequate time for sleep and 

personal activities, but varying and unpredictable schedules for some dispatchers and the 

need to sleep at times that run counter to human physiology may prevent the dispatcher 

from getting adequate rest. For assistant chief dispatchers, the situation has the added 

complication that no limitation exists on the number of hours that they may work in a 

day, thus allowing 2 shifts in 1 d and backward shift rotation. 

• Although dispatchers do not have any planned or guaranteed breaks during their 8-h shift, 

this was not a major source of stress to either trick dispatchers or assistant chiefs, perhaps 

because they have become accustomed to their few short breaks and the need to eat meals 

at their desk. 

• Overall, dispatchers are a sleep-deprived group. They sleep less than other shiftwork 

populations and less than the norm for U.S. adults. Research has shown that sleep 

deprivation leads to performance degradation and may also have health consequences. 

Many dispatchers, who perform a safety-critical function on the railroad, may be unaware 

of their degraded performance. 

• The incidence of sleep apnea among U.S. dispatchers exceeds the U.S. adult norm. Only 

two-thirds of those with sleep apnea or another sleep disorder reported being treated. To 

encourage these individuals to accept treatment, railroads and unions should continue 

their sleep education programs, pointing out the possible performance and health 

consequences of untreated sleep disorders. Initial dispatcher training and periodic rules 

training provide the opportunity for fatigue education that includes discussion of sleep 

disorders, as well as strategies for coping with shiftwork. 

Based on the experience of this study, several methodological changes should be a part of any 

future studies of this nature. Two of the four recommendations below focus on issues unique to 

a shiftwork population. The following lists the recommended changes: 

• Design and test instructions for third shift workers to use in recording their primary sleep 

period. Despite instructions specifically directed at third shift dispatchers, some third 

shift dispatchers failed to record their primary sleep on the correct day. Improved 
6

instructions, inclusion of a hypothetical example in a pilot test, and participation of more 

third shift dispatchers in the pilot test for a future study should correct this problem. 

• Separate the question on job type (e.g., trick dispatcher, assistant chief, other) from the 

one covering work schedule. A poorly worded question on the background survey 

covered both job type and work schedule. Despite this, researchers were able to 

effectively categorize each survey respondent’s job type and work schedule. Two 

questions, one for each characteristic, will avoid confusion and the need to manually code 

these two job characteristics. 

• Include a definition of a work break and guidance on recording break information. The 

lack of a definition for a work break led to some ambiguity among survey participants as 

to how to respond to this entry in the daily log book. 

• Include a question on the background survey that asks, “How many times have you been 

married?” Both shiftwork and railroad careers can lead to marital and family difficulties. 

For this reason, an additional question on the number of marriages would be helpful. 

The researchers have developed an effective procedure and methodology for characterizing the 

work schedules and sleep patterns of railroad workers. Additional studies of other populations 

using this methodology would provide a more complete picture of work schedule and fatigue 

issues in the industry. Yardmasters, locomotive engineers, and conductors are candidate groups 

for study. 

A number of biomathematical models exist for predicting human fatigue and alertness. Model 

developers could use the data from the dispatcher survey, as well as the data from the two earlier 

studies, to further refine their models and predict how the typical railroad worker schedule may 

be affecting on-the-job alertness. 

Further analysis of the dispatcher survey data is possible. Additional analyses might examine the 

relative likelihood (i.e., odds ratio) of getting less than a minimum amount of sleep as a function 

of shift worked or work period start time. A similar analysis could estimate the likelihood of a 

workday nap as a function of shift worked. Comparisons across the different railroad craft 

groups are possible to determine if differences in work schedules and sleep patterns occur when 

a group is subject to the work limitations of the Hours of Service Law. 

 
7

1. Introduction 

In a continuing effort to improve railroad safety and to reduce the number of injuries and 

fatalities to railroad workers, FRA and the railroad industry, through NARAP, have focused on 

the issue of fatigue among train and engine crew personnel. Because railroading is a round-theclock, 7-days-a-week operation, and because a wide array of workers are needed to operate and 

maintain the Nation’s railroads, other crafts besides train and engine crews can also be subject to 

fatigue. The non-operating crafts, which include right-of-way construction and maintenance, 

signal system construction and maintenance, and dispatchers, fall into this category. With all of 

the non-operating craft groups, staff shortages, expanding territories, call schedules, and working 

conditions may contribute to employee fatigue. 

In 2001, FRA decided to begin exploring fatigue of the non-operating craft workers by initially 

focusing on signalmen. A separate report presents the results of the signalmen study (Gertler & 

Viale, 2006a). Subsequent to the signalmen study, FRA sponsored a similar study of MOW 

workers (Gertler & Viale, 2006b). The study described in this report, which is similar in scope 

and methodology to the two earlier studies, concerns railroad dispatchers. Previous studies of 

dispatcher fatigue (e.g., Popkin, Gertler, & Reinach, 2001) used convenience samples of 

dispatchers rather than a random or stratified sample based on estimates of accuracy and target 

error rate, as was the case for the surveys of signalmen and MOW workers. Unlike the earlier 

dispatcher work, this study provides defensible and definitive data on work/rest cycle parameters 

and fatigue among dispatchers. 

1.1 Nature of the Dispatcher’s Job 

The railroad dispatcher is responsible for the safe, efficient, and economical movement of trains 

and other railway vehicles over the railroad, as well as for the protection of those who work on 

the railroad. The dispatcher’s principle duties include: 

• Monitoring radio and telephone and communicating with other railroad personnel 

regarding train and track information. 

• Scheduling the routing and movement of trains to provide for safe meets and passes. 

• Arranging for track use by engineering forces for maintenance activities. 

• Managing unplanned events to protect the safety of the public, railroad employees, and 

railroad property. 

• Maintaining records of train movements, track assignments, maintenance activities, and 

other events. 

The job requires the dispatcher to issue, monitor, and cancel track usage authorizations in 

accordance with the railroad’s operating rules and procedures. The dispatcher also operates 

signals, switches, and bridges; communicates with train and MOW crews; responds to 

emergency events; and performs administrative and clerical duties. The dispatcher spends a 

significant portion of his/her day communicating on the radio or telephone. 

Every dispatcher is responsible for a predefined territory or portion of the railroad’s network. 

One of the dispatcher’s first tasks at the beginning of the shift is to plan the known track moves 
8

on the territory for the duration of the shift. This strategy takes into account current traffic, 

expected traffic, the physical characteristics of the territory, train priorities (e.g., passenger 

versus freight), track and signal maintenance requirements, characteristics of train performance, 

and the presence of hazardous materials. Information from MOW crews, yard personnel, and 

dispatchers on adjoining territories also contributes to the dispatcher’s action. 

Once this plan is in place, dispatchers spend the remainder of the shift trying to keep the trains 

moving while adjusting for the inevitable occurrence of delays and unforeseen events. Even 

short delays may necessitate the reformulation of the entire plan. Indeed, the dispatcher may 

have to reformulate the plan multiple times during the course of the shift as unplanned events 

transpire. The dispatcher is also responsible for monitoring train crew hours to ensure 

compliance with the Hours of Service Law. Finally, the dispatcher must also assume 

responsibility for railroad and non-railroad problems that are phoned in by railroad personnel, as 

well as the general public, and must be knowledgeable about proper procedure for notifying the 

appropriate authorities in the event of an emergency, such as a hazardous materials spill. 

With few exceptions, today’s dispatchers work with computer-based dispatching and 

communications technology. Dispatchers for the larger Class I railroads work in shifts around 

the clock in large centralized operations. Upwards of 100 dispatchers may work the same shift 

in a large centralized operations center. Some may control territories that are located over 1000 

miles away. As the cost of computer systems decreases, even the smaller railroads are 

abandoning paper forms and radio directives in favor of the computer-based dispatching 

technology. 

To meet the need for 24-h operation, railroads staff their dispatching center with three 8-h shifts. 

Typical shifts are 7 a.m. to 3 p.m. (day), 3 p.m. to 11 p.m. (evening), and 11 p.m. to 7 a.m. 

(night). Three categories of jobs exist in all dispatching centers: regular jobs, relief jobs, and 

extra board jobs. Regular jobs work 5 consecutive d on the same shift followed by 2 consecutive 

d off. Relief jobs work 5 consecutive d by rotating through the shifts, in a pattern such as 2 days, 

2 evenings, and 1 night. Occasionally, a relief job will work the same shift each day but will not 

be responsible for the same territory each day. While the regular and relief jobs work the same 

days each week, the extra board jobs do not have a fixed schedule. The extra board dispatchers 

fill in for regular and relief dispatchers during vacations, training, and road days, as well as when 

an unplanned absence occurs. On occasion, a regular dispatcher on a rest day may fill a vacancy 

if an extra board dispatcher is not available. Most dispatching centers have a guaranteed extra 

board. This means that the extra board dispatchers are guaranteed 5 d of work per week, but the 

days and shifts that they work may change weekly. In addition, extra board dispatchers usually 

do not have 2 consecutive rest days. 

All dispatching centers have a chief dispatcher who oversees the entire dispatching operation. In 

larger centers, assistant chief dispatchers supervise groups of trick dispatchers. (A trick 

dispatcher works as described above. The term dispatcher may refer to an assistant chief or a 

trick dispatcher.) The chief and/or the assistant chief provide backup support to the trick 

dispatchers as required. Like the majority of trick dispatchers, the chief and assistant chief 

positions have an assigned shift. Some assistant chiefs work a relief schedule that involves a 

rotating shift pattern. No extra board exists specifically for assistant chief positions. When a 

vacancy occurs in an assistant chief position, a trick dispatcher or other assistant chief who is 

qualified to work the open position will fill in. 
9

As is the case with train and engine crews and signalmen, the Hours of Service Law limits the 

length of the dispatcher’s workday. The Hours of Service Law stipulates that the dispatcher may 

not remain on duty for more than 9 h, whether consecutive or in the aggregate, in any 24-h 

period, in operations that employ 2 or more shifts. This means that once the dispatcher has 

worked for 9 h, he/she must have 15 h of rest. Where only 1 shift is employed, the dispatcher 

may remain on duty up to 12 h in any 24-h period. During an emergency situation, the law 

allows the dispatcher to remain on duty for an additional 4 h in any 24-h period for a maximum 

of 3 d over the course of 7 d. This law limits the length of the dispatcher’s shift and provides for 

guaranteed time off, but it does not address the number of consecutive days that the dispatcher 

may work. Because chiefs and assistant chiefs are typically not directly responsible for 

overseeing train movements, the Hours of Service Law does not apply to these positions. As a 

result, individuals in these positions may sometimes work for 12 or 16 h to cover a vacancy. 

The majority of U.S. dispatchers earn vacation days, sick leave, and personal days, all in 

proportion to their years of service with their respective railroad. This is true for dispatcher jobs 

covered by a labor agreement, as well as those considered a management position and thus 

covered by company policies. 

The nature of the dispatcher’s job has remained the same for at least the last 30 yr, but changes in 

the technology of dispatching and restructuring of the industry have resulted in a significantly 

different work environment. Today’s dispatcher is likely to work in an office environment with 

suitable lighting and temperature controls. The dispatcher’s work area consists of several 

computer screens, a keyboard, and a mouse. An overhead schematic display of multiple 

territories may also be present, as Figure 1 illustrates. 

Figure 1. Modern dispatching center 

The introduction of computer-aided dispatching has made it possible to control larger territories 

from much farther away. Changes in signal technology have reduced the need for tower 

operators and other field operations personnel, resulting in more direct dispatcher control over 

train movements, an increase in responsibilities, and an increase in the number of individual 

tasks involved in carrying out the same responsibilities. While some believe that these changes 

in technology have made the dispatcher’s job easier, others argue that they have increased the 

dispatcher’s workload and associated job stress and fatigue. Regardless, the dispatcher performs 

a safety critical job with many responsibilities. Alertness is key to his/her ability to carry out 
10

those responsibilities safely and effectively. Staff shortages, causing dispatchers to work on rest 

days, can compromise the dispatcher’s alertness. 

1.2 Objectives 

This study had two primary objectives: 

• To design and conduct a survey to collect work schedules and sleep data from railroad 

dispatchers. 

• To analyze data to characterize work/sleep patterns and to identify work schedule-related 

fatigue issues. 

The goal was to characterize U.S. railroad dispatchers as a group, not to characterize dispatchers 

on a specific railroad. 

Specific research issues that the study sought to answer included the following: 

• What is the distribution of dispatchers among different work schedules? 

• What is average number of hours worked per day? Per week? 

• How does average number of hours worked vary based on type of job? 

• How frequently are dispatchers able to take a break? 

• What are the levels of alertness of dispatchers as a function of work schedule? 

• To what extent is sleep quality a function of age? 

• What is the average number of hours of sleep on workdays? Non-workdays? How does 

this compare with U.S. adult norms and other shiftwork populations? 

• Does quality and amount of sleep vary by shift or work schedule? 

• What is the relationship between number of breaks and end of day fatigue? 

• What is the average number of hours that the dispatcher spends commuting to and from 

work? Is commute time related to level of alertness? 

1.3 Overall Approach 

Since no existing data sources could provide answers to the above issues, a survey of dispatchers 

was the only means to obtain the necessary work schedule and sleep data. The research project 

consisted of three phases: preparation, field data collection, and data analysis (see Figure 2). 

The preparation phase involved designing the survey methodology and procedures, conducting a 

pilot survey to refine the survey instruments and data collection procedure, securing approval 

from OMB, and preparing the final survey instruments. (Because this survey involved more than 

nine participants, Federal regulations required that OMB approve the overall study design.) 

Activities during this phase included discussions with ATDA to assure that the survey 

instruments had suitable wording and would collect the data necessary to address the research 

issues. A pilot survey, conducted in parallel with the OMB review process, assured that the 

survey would capture the data needed to meet the survey objectives. 
11

Figure 2. Overall approach 

The second phase of the research consisted of distributing the survey materials and collecting the 

survey data. Analysis of the survey data was the final phase. A non-response bias study 

validated that no difference existed between the survey participants and the non-respondents. 

The data analysis methods for the survey data included descriptive statistics, analysis of variance 

(ANOVA), correlation analysis, and textual analysis of the log book comments. 

1.4 Scope 

This research involved railroad dispatchers working in the United States. The study 

characterized these workers as a group. It did not attempt to characterize dispatchers working for 

specific railroads. Making recommendations regarding fatigue countermeasures was beyond the 

scope of the study. 

1.5 Organization of the Report 

Section 2 describes the overall survey design and procedures. Section 3 provides analysis of the 

survey results, and Section 4 contains the findings and recommendations. Appendix A contains 

copies of the survey materials. Appendix B contains detailed summaries that support the 

statistical analyses of Section 3, and Appendix C describes adjustments to the data that were part 

of the analysis process. A list of abbreviations and acronyms used in the report follows the 

appendices. 

13

2. Survey Design 

One of the objectives of this study was to characterize the work schedules and sleep patterns of 

U.S. railroad dispatchers. Achieving this objective required a nationwide survey. The only 

practical means of reaching these individuals was through either their union or, in the case of 

non-union dispatchers, their employing railroad. This section describes the potential respondent 

universe, the survey instruments, sampling plan, and procedures that the researchers developed 

to survey this population. This methodology is similar to that used in the earlier studies of 

railroad signalmen and MOW workers. 

2.1 Potential Respondent Universe 

The potential respondent universe is the 3000 actively working railroad dispatchers in the United 

States. The majority of the dispatchers, two-thirds, are members of ATDA. Nearly 30 percent 

are non-union, and the Transportation Communications International Union (TCU) and the 

Association of Commuter Rail Employees (ACRE) represent the remainder. Table 2 shows how 

the potential respondent universe is split among these organizations. 

Table 2. Estimate of number of actively working U.S. dispatchers 

by labor organization 

Labor Organization Number of Members 

ATDA 2000 

TCU–Norfolk Southern Railway 60 

TCU–Long Island Railroad 33 

ACRE–Metro-North Railroad 61 

Union Pacific Railroad (Non-Union) 375 

Other Non-Union 471 

Total U.S. Dispatchers 3000 

Ideally, the survey should have drawn from all of these subgroups, but several factors prevented 

this. First, no way existed to identify and contact the non-union dispatchers. Privacy concerns 

prevent an employer from providing the names and addresses of their employees to researchers. 

The researchers attempted to secure participation of multiple unions in the study; however, this 

was not possible. Since each union’s participants must receive a cover letter from their union 

official, the administrative cost to do this with multiple unions prevented the inclusion of TCU 

and ACRE in the sampling frame. The final respondent universe was the 2000 actively working 

ATDA dispatchers. 
14

2.2 Survey Instruments 

This study used two survey instruments, a background survey and a daily log. (Copies of both 

instruments appear in Appendix A.) The background survey gathered demographic information, 

descriptive data for the dispatcher’s job type and work schedule, and a self-assessment of overall 

health. The purpose for collecting this data was twofold. First, it provided data for 

characterizing the U.S. dispatcher population. Second, it provided identifying data that 

researchers used in conjunction with the daily log to characterize the work/sleep patterns of the 

two major categories of dispatcher jobs: trick dispatcher and chief/assistant chief. This 

instrument also asked participants to rate, using a Likert scale of 1 to 4, potential sources of 

stress at work. The background survey also included a list of life stress events. In the event that 

a participant’s daily log indicated frequent nighttime awakenings or excessive fatigue, the 

researchers could use the individual’s response to this section of the background survey to assure 

that no non-work circumstances were confounding the survey data. Completion of the 

background survey required less than 15 min. 

The daily log provided the means for survey participants to record sleep and work periods on 

both workdays and non-workdays. Dispatchers recorded not only the starting and ending times 

for each sleep and work period but also a self-assessment of alertness at different times during 

the day. These subjective assessments used a five-point Likert scale. The daily log included 

space to record “Comments on today’s sleep experience” and “Comments on today’s work 

experience.” The instructions for the log encouraged participants to use this space to explain 

anything unusual about the day’s sleep or work. These comments proved useful in 

understanding an irregular work or sleep pattern and, in general, complemented the study’s 

quantitative findings. Completion of the daily log required less than a total of 10 min daily. 

2.3 Data Collection Period 

Examination of the relationship between work schedules and fatigue requires data from each 

person that encompasses at least a full work cycle. Fatigue is cumulative, and its effects on the 

individual are not readily identified from 1 or 2 d of data. In addition, adequate data must be 

available to compare sleep periods from both workdays and non-workdays. The typical 

dispatcher work cycle is 7 d. The study used a 2-week data collection period in order to capture 

the week-to-week variability in the work schedules of extra board dispatchers. 

2.4 Sampling Plan 

ATDA maintains a database with the names, mailing addresses, and date of birth for all of its 

members. This database does not include the type of job that the dispatcher is currently working 

or his/her work schedule. Only actively working ATDA members living in the United States 

could be in the sampling frame. Retirees, full-time union officials, and anyone currently holding 

a railroad management position were not eligible for the study. The effective sampling frame 

was 1,963 after these exclusions. The researchers drew a simple random sample without 

replacement from these individuals. 

One of the most important issues in conducting this study was determining how large a sample 

was necessary for the estimates obtained in the sample survey to be reliable enough to meet the 

objectives of the study. In general, the larger the sample, the greater the reliability of the 
15

resulting estimates, but this must be traded off against the expense of a larger sample. The first 

step in this process was to specify the level of reliability needed for the resulting estimates. 

Since the study design includes examining characteristics of subgroups of dispatchers working 

different work schedules (regular shift, relief schedule, extra board), the study design must assure 

that the subgroups have adequate numbers within the overall sample to support reliable estimates 

of their characteristics. One statistic of interest is mean number of hours of sleep per day for 

each subgroup. Using the ATDA estimate of the workforce breakdown by type of work 

schedule, then approximately 1,080 dispatchers work jobs with regular shifts (55 percent), 393 

dispatchers work relief jobs (20 percent), and 491 dispatchers work extra board jobs (25 percent). 

The appropriate sample size, n, for estimating the mean daily sleep time can be computed from 

the following (Levy and Lemeshow, 1999): 

2 2 2

2 2

( 1)

( )

+ − ε

≥

z V N

z NV

n

x

x

where z = reliability coefficient (1.96 for 95 percent confidence level) 

N = population size (regular = 1,080; relief = 393; extra board = 491) 

Vx = unknown population variance (1) 

ε = error tolerance (.20) 

This estimation for sample size also applies to other mean values, such as work and commute 

time, that the study seeks to estimate. 

Webb (1992) estimates that the standard deviation for daily sleep for the general population is 

1 h (Webb, p. 72). Applying this estimate of standard deviation (and hence Vx, variance) to the 

dispatcher population (N) and using an error tolerance of ± 10 percent (ε = .20), the sample must 

include 88 dispatchers working regular jobs, 77 working relief jobs, and 80 working extra board 

jobs. Since relief dispatchers are estimated to be 20 percent of the dispatcher population, using 

the assumptions above, the sample size must be 77/.2 or 385 to be reasonably certain of 

including enough relief job dispatchers in the study. This sample size will include more than 

enough dispatchers working regular jobs and extra board jobs to meet the target error tolerance 

of ± 10 percent. Because it was not possible to know a priori the type of job that each ATDA 

member works, a stratified sample was not possible. 

Since not every dispatcher who is selected to participate in the study would choose to do so, over 

sampling was necessary. The extent of over sampling was a function of the anticipated response 

rate. Since the signalmen and MOW surveys achieved response rates of 50 percent and 30 

percent, respectively, planning for the dispatcher survey assumed a 40 percent response rate, 

which was the average of the 2 prior surveys of this type. If 40 percent of the random sample 

chose to participate, then the random sample had to be 963 (385/.4) to yield 385 participants. 

2.5 Procedure 

In accordance with government regulation, FRA sought approval for the proposed survey from 

OMB. OMB approved this collection of information under OMB control number 2130-0570 on 

February 23, 2006. 
16

Concurrent with submittal of the OMB application, the researchers conducted a 1-week pilot 

survey with 8 participants to refine the data collection procedures and survey instruments. 

ATDA assisted the researchers in identifying suitable participants for this pilot survey. Since 

reporting of third shift work and sleep periods might prove problematic, three third shift 

dispatchers participated in the pilot. In addition, two participants worked first and second shifts, 

two worked relief jobs, and one worked an extra board job. Pilot study participants completed 

the Railroad Dispatcher Background Survey and Dispatcher’s Daily Log, as well as a brief PostSurvey Form to provide feedback on the survey instruments and procedures. Similar to the full 

survey, pilot participants received a $75 gift certificate to a national retail establishment. Based 

on the experience with the pilot survey, the researchers made several changes in the background 

survey. The changes were the following: 

• To allow for comparison of survey results with national data on annual use of sick days, 

the question on use of sick days was reworded. 

• The question concerning the Hours of Service Law was re-worded. 

• Two sources of stress at work were added, “Lack of break time” and “Inadequate time 

off.” 

Because some confusion existed among the third shift dispatchers in the pilot as to where to 

record morning sleep after a work period, the final instruction sheet that accompanied the survey 

materials contained additional instructions that specifically addressed third shift dispatchers. 

Following the pilot survey and before mailing of the survey materials, an article in the March 

2006 issue of the ATDA publication, Train Dispatcher Journal, publicized the upcoming survey. 

The researchers drew a simple random sample of 963 ATDA members, without replacement, 

from the sampling frame derived from the ATDA membership list. The package mailed to each 

participant on April 18, 2006, consisted of the following items: 

• Railroad Dispatcher Background Survey in booklet form. Each page was 5.5 x 8.5 in, 

printed on white paper with no questions on the cover page. 

• Railroad Dispatcher’s Daily Log in spiral notebook form. Each page was 5.0 x 3.25 in. 

The log included 14 sections, one for each day of the data collection period. One of the 

introductory pages contained brief instructions on completing the log. 

• Cover letter signed by the President, ATDA. This letter explained the purpose of the 

study and encouraged ATDA members to participate. 

• Instructions explaining the survey procedures and how to complete the daily log. 

• Return envelope, postage paid. 

• $5 bill.

Copies of the cover letter and instructions appear in Appendix A along with the survey 

instruments. 

All materials were printed on high quality paper, and each letter was individually addressed to 

the recipient. The instruction sheet was printed on yellow paper to increase the likelihood that 

recipients would read it. The mailing label for the survey packet used the ATDA return address, 

rather than Foster-Miller, because it would be familiar to recipients. The purpose of the $5 was 
17

to encourage participation. Those who returned both the background survey and daily log also 

received a $75 gift certificate to a national retail establishment. 

The instructions emphasized that (a) a total of 14 consecutive d of data should be provided, 

(b) data collection should begin on the first day of the next work cycle, and (c) data should not be 

reported during vacation periods. Both the instructions and the log included contact information 

for two Foster-Miller research staff members who were available to answer questions regarding 

the survey instruments and procedures. 

Approximately 6 weeks after mailing of the materials, every survey recipient who had not 

returned the survey materials received a reminder postcard encouraging him/her to participate 

and to call Foster-Miller if he/she needed additional materials. 

19

3. Analysis of Survey Data 

This chapter presents the survey findings based on data provided in respondent background 

surveys and daily logs. The results are organized into six subtopic headings: 

• Survey response rate 

• Non-response bias study 

• Dispatcher demographic characteristics 

• Job characteristics 

• Sleep characteristics 

• Alertness 

A separate section presents the results of the textual analysis of the log book comments. 

This study used a confidence interval of 95 percent. The researchers used SPSS 15.0 to analyze 

the survey data and ATLAS ti V5.2.8 for textual analysis. 

3.1 Survey Response Rate 

The survey materials were mailed to 963 actively working dispatchers. A total of 445 people 

returned both the background survey and the daily log. Five individuals returned only one of the 

survey items, and 20 mailings failed to reach the addressees due to bad addresses. Two 

respondents were chief dispatchers. Since chief dispatcher is a management job, the responses 

from these two people could not be a part of the analysis. (ATDA was unaware of the change in 

status for these people so they were a part of the sampling frame.) The overall response rate was 

46 percent. The final analysis used data from 443 dispatchers who returned both data collection 

instruments. 

3.2 Non-Response Bias Study 

OMB requires that a non-response bias study be conducted if the survey response rate is below 

75 percent. The purpose of the non-response bias study is to assure that no difference exists in 

the characteristics of the survey respondents versus the non-respondents. 

Information about non-respondents was limited to information available from the ATDA 

membership database. In addition to each member’s address, this database includes birthdate. 

Birthdate (or age) is an appropriate variable to use for determining non-response bias. For a 

number of reasons, age is an important characteristic for assessing potential bias in this study. 

First, human sleep patterns change with age (Van Cauter, Leproult, & Plat, 2000). In addition, 

age is highly correlated with years of work experience and seniority. Seniority allows a 

dispatcher more opportunity to select work schedules that meet his/her personal needs. 

All 445 individuals who returned both the background survey and the daily log were 

respondents, and the remaining 518 were non-respondents. Of the 518 non-respondents, ATDA 

membership records included birthdates for 470. Analysis of mean age for each of the groups 
20

found no significant difference between the respondents and the non-respondents, t(913) = 1.93, 

p = .054. 

3.3 Dispatcher Demographic Characteristics 

This section provides demographics, as well as basic job-, family-, and health-related 

information based on responses in the background survey. Where appropriate, the study includes 

comparisons of the study results with national norms. 

Characterization of dispatchers considered a number of factors. These factors are job type, work 

experience, sex and age, marital and family status, overall health, workdays lost due to illness, 

incidence of sleep disorders, and consumption of caffeinated beverages. The sections below 

discuss each of these elements. A brief summary of this information follows. 

3.3.1 Job Type 

Respondents reported their job type as trick dispatcher, assistant chief, or other. The majority 

(87 percent) was trick dispatchers, 10 percent held assistant chief positions, and the remaining 

3 percent reported their job type as other. Review of the other responses to the job type question 

allowed classification of these respondents into one of the other two groups based on whether or 

not the position was covered by the Hours of Service Law. Those positions covered by this law 

became part of the trick dispatcher group, and those not covered were combined with the 

assistant chief group. 

3.3.2 Sex and Age 

Railroad dispatchers are a predominantly male population. ATDA membership in May 2006 

was 14.5 percent female. Fourteen percent of the survey participants were female. 

The average age for all dispatchers is 46.9 yr, and the median age is 49 yr. Figure 3 displays the 

age distribution for dispatchers overall and by sex, based on the survey results. As is typical for 

other railroad crafts, this is an aging work force. Nearly half of all dispatchers are 50 yr and 

older, and over three-quarters are 40 yr and older. Approximately two-thirds of the female 

dispatchers are under 50 yr, but 49 percent of the male dispatchers are in this age group. 

Table 3 presents the overall age data by sex. The mean age for male dispatchers was 47.3 yr and 

for female dispatchers, 43.9 yr. The average female dispatcher is 3.4 yr younger than the 

average male dispatcher, but the median ages for the two groups differ by 6 yr. A statistically 

significant difference exists in the age of the two groups, t(441) = 2.68, p < .05. 

In the early 1980s, railroads did not hire many dispatchers. By the end of this decade when 

railroads began hiring again, an effort to include women and minorities in all crafts, including 

dispatchers, occurred. At the same time, changes in communications technology made the 

position of tower operator obsolete. Traditionally, a tower operator position was on a career path 

to becoming a dispatcher. It was at this time that women began to enter dispatching in larger 

numbers than previously. This hiring pattern is likely responsible for the current difference in 

both age and experience levels between male and female dispatchers. With retirement of the 

senior male dispatchers in the coming years, this difference by sex should become smaller and 

perhaps disappear. 
21

3.7

19.9

25.4

48.2

2.9

4.9

26.2

36.1

29.5

3.3 3.8

20.8

26.9

45.6

2.9

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

20–29 30–39 40–49 50–59 60+

Age Group

Percent

Male

Female

Total

Figure 3. Distribution of dispatchers by age group and sex 

Table 3. Dispatcher age by sex (yr) 

Group Mean Median 

Standard 

Deviation 

Male 47.3 50 9.3 

Female 43.9 44 8.7 

All 46.9 49 9.3 

Research has found that a higher perceived age, relative to chronological age, can be an indicator 

of chronic stress and poor psychological well-being (Barnes-Farrell & Petrowski, 1989, 1991). 

Overall dispatchers reported a lower perceived age (43.2 yr) in comparison with their average 

chronological age (46.9 yr). As shown in Table 4, the dispatcher population tends to feel 

younger as they age. This is the same pattern that Barnes-Farrell and Petrowski found with 

permanent day shift workers in a manufacturing plant. Barnes-Farrell and Petrowski point out 

that younger people tend to report feeling older to reflect perceived maturity. The dispatchers’ 

perceived age follows the pattern reported by Barnes-Farrell and Petrowski and, as such, is not 

indicative of poor psychological well-being. 
22

Table 4. Discrepancies between chronological and perceived age by age group (percent) 

Worker Age (yr) Age 

Perception 20–29 30–39 40–49 50–59 60+ 

Younger 17.6 39.1 54.6 62.4 69.2 

Same Age 35.3 19.6 19.3 15.8 15.4 

Older 41.2 41.3 18.5 15.3 7.7 

3.3.3 Experience 

The average dispatcher in the survey had 14.2 yr of experience as a dispatcher. The median level 

of experience was 11.4 yr. The lower median value indicates that individuals with years of 

experience below the mean dominate the group (see Table 5). Assistant chiefs had more 

experience than the trick dispatchers, which is not surprising, since a dispatcher cannot become 

an assistant chief without desk dispatching experience. 

Table 5. Years of experience as a dispatcher by job type (yr) 

Job type Mean Median 

Standard 

Deviation 

Trick Dispatcher 13.8 11.4 9.5 

Assistant Chief 17.8 14.7 11.8 

Other 16.0 12.9 12.5 

All 14.2 11.8 9.9 

As Table 6 indicates, dispatchers have had nearly all of their dispatching experience with their 

current employer. This is true regardless of job type. On average, dispatchers have been with 

their current employer for 12 yr of their 14-yr career as a dispatcher. It also appears that, based 

on the age of this group of railroad employees, most dispatchers came to dispatching after 

working in another job. The average age of a dispatcher is 47 yr, and he/she has been working in 

this craft an average of 14 yr. (The survey did not collect information concerning whether or not 

the prior job was in the railroad industry.) 

Table 6. Years of experience as a dispatcher with current employer by job type (yr) 

Job type Mean Median 

Standard 

Deviation 

Trick Dispatcher 11.9 9.5 8.7 

Assistant Chief 14.0 12.7 8.9 

Other 13.6 7.0 12.2 

All 12.2 10.0 8.9 
23

Males have historically dominated all railroad crafts. In recent years, however, the dispatching 

profession has seen an increase in the number of women in its ranks. Table 7 presents years of 

dispatching experience by sex. On average, female dispatchers have 4 yr less experience than 

their male counterparts. The level of experience by sex is consistent with the difference in age 

between the two groups. 

Table 7. Years of experience as a dispatcher by sex (yr) 

Sex Mean Median 

Standard 

Deviation 

Male 14.8 12.3 10.1 

Female 10.6 9.2 7.3 

All 14.2 11.8 9.9 

3.3.4 Marital and Family Status 

Most recent statistical data from the U.S. Census indicates that 54.7 percent of the U.S. 

population age 18 and older and 56.6 percent of the U.S. male population 18 and older are 

married (U.S. Census Bureau, 2005). At the time of the study, 75.6 percent of participants were 

married, 12.2 single, 10.4 divorced, 0.5 widowed, and 1.4 categorized themselves as other (these 

people were likely separated or living with a partner). Since many railroaders report that their 

work schedule strains marital relationships, finding such a high proportion of dispatchers who 

are married was surprising. This data, however, does not indicate whether or not the married 

individuals were in an initial marriage or one subsequent to a divorce. 

The survey asked participants whether or not their family included young children, a factor that 

can lead to disrupted sleep. While a large percentage of dispatchers are married, very few have 

children under the age of 2 yr (6.1 percent). This finding is not surprising given the average age 

of a dispatcher. 

3.3.5 Health 

Participants rated their health as excellent, good, fair, or poor. Nearly 85 percent of dispatchers 

rated themselves in good (65.5 percent) or excellent (19 percent) health (see Figure 4). Analysis 

of these self-assessments of health by work schedule revealed that a statistically significant 

difference existed based on work schedule, F(4, 437) = 2.65, p < .05. Post hoc tests identified a 

difference between third shift and extra board dispatchers with third shift dispatchers having a 

lower overall health self-rating (see Table B-1 in Appendix B). 

Figure 5 contains the frequency distribution for dispatcher sick days. While the majority of 

dispatchers rated their health as good or excellent, this group averaged 5.6 workdays lost due to 

illness annually. In comparison, U.S. employed adults with paid sick time averaged 3.6 d of sick 

time (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2006, p. 49). One possible explanation 

for the higher rate of sick days among dispatchers is the stressful nature of the job that may lead 

to stress-related medical conditions. Popkin, Gertler, and Reinach (2001) found a higher rate of 

stress-related medical conditions among dispatchers than U.S. population norms. Another 
24

2

13.3

65.5

19

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Poor Fair Good Excellent

Rating

Percent

Figure 4. Self-assessment of overall health 

20.1

7.1

11.9

9.2

5.9

8.7

5.5

4.3

3.4 3

20.9

0

5

10

15

20

25

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10+

Days

Percent

Figure 5. Workdays lost due to illness in past year 
25

possible explanation is that some dispatchers, particularly those working an irregular schedule, 

may mark off sick to catch up on sleep. 

3.3.6 Incidence of Sleep Disorders 

The Wisconsin Sleep Cohort Study, a longitudinal study of cardiopulmonary sleep disorders 

among middle-aged working adults, estimated that 2 percent of women and 4 percent of men 

have sleep apnea (Young, et al., 1993). (The definition of sleep apnea for this study was an 

apnea-hypopnea score of 5 or higher and daytime hypersomnolence.) The National Sleep 

Foundation (NSF) and the National Institutes of Health report the numbers from the Wisconsin 

study as an estimate of the prevalence of sleep apnea among U.S. adults. Some sleep researchers 

hypothesize that the prevalence of sleep apnea may in fact be higher because many remain to be 

diagnosed. According to the Wisconsin study, 9 percent of women and 24 percent of men have 

undiagnosed sleep-disordered breathing, a condition that in some people results in excessive 

daytime sleepiness. 

Of the 443 participants in this study, 41 or 9.3 percent reported having a diagnosed sleep 

disorder. Of those with a diagnosed disorder, 63.4 percent reported receiving treatment. A 

separate question inquired about sleep apnea. Of the total group, 7.4 percent reported having 

sleep apnea. (This implies that 1.9 percent have a sleep disorder other than sleep apnea.) Twothirds of those with sleep apnea are receiving treatment. Two possible reasons exist as to why 

the dispatchers’ incidence of sleep apnea is higher than the reported norm for U.S. middle-aged 

working adults. Railroad and labor educational programs, as well as media publicity, in recent 

years may have made this group of railroad employees more cognizant of the symptoms of sleep 

apnea and its consequences and caused them to seek medical evaluation. In addition, dispatching 

is a sedentary job that requires sitting in one place for an 8-h period. Sedentary jobs may lead to 

weight gain, which exacerbates sleep apnea. 

3.3.7 Consumption of Caffeinated Beverages 

NSF reports that 250 mg of caffeine a day, the equivalent of a soda and a couple of coffees, 

generally poses no harm. Almost all participants reported consuming caffeinated beverages on a 

daily basis (90.7 percent), and those who did averaged 3.5 beverages a day. Based on this level 

of caffeine consumption, dispatchers are within normal healthy limits, and their sleep, in general, 

is not likely disrupted due to caffeine unless caffeine consumption occurs close to bedtime (NSF, 

2002a). 

3.3.8 Summary of Dispatcher Demographic Characteristics 

At the time of the survey, 87 percent of the dispatchers held trick dispatcher jobs, and the 

remainder worked as either an assistant chief or other non-Hours of Service position. The 

average dispatcher is 47 yr old and has worked as a dispatcher for 14 yr. Nearly half of all 

dispatchers are 50 yr or older, and 14 percent are female. Female dispatchers have, on average, 

4 yr less experience and are 3.5 yr younger. Seventy-six percent are married, but very few have 

children under the age of 2 yr. Nearly 85 percent rate their health as good or excellent, but 

dispatchers’ use of company-paid sick days exceeds that of U.S. working adults with paid sick 

days. Over 7 percent of dispatchers report having sleep apnea, and another 2 percent have sleep 
26

disorders other than sleep apnea. A third of those dispatchers with a sleep disorder remain 

untreated. 

3.4 Job Characteristics 

This section explores several aspects of the dispatcher’s job, including work schedule, hours 

worked, workday breaks, commute time, and sources of workplace stress. 

3.4.1 Work Schedule 

Work schedules fell into five basic categories: permanent first, second, and third shifts; relief; 

and extra board. Researchers defined shifts based on the starting time of the workday as follows: 

first shift–workdays starting between 4:30 a.m. and 10 a.m., second shift–starting after 10 a.m. 

and extending less than 4 h after 12 a.m., and third shift–any shift running at least 4 h after 12 

a.m. Relief schedules are those that forward rotate through shifts but work the same days each 

week. Finally, extra board jobs are those positions requiring filling in for regular and relief 

dispatchers, and hence the schedule is irregular. 

Nearly 70 percent of dispatchers worked the same shift each day. The remainder was split 

between relief (19 percent) and extra board (12 percent). Table 8 compares the work schedules 

of trick dispatchers (i.e., those covered by Hours of Service) and assistant chiefs (i.e., those not 

covered by Hours of Service). Both trick dispatchers and assistant chiefs worked across each 

schedule type. One notable difference between the schedules of the two groups is that 14 percent 

of trick dispatchers worked the extra board, whereas only one assistant chief reported working 

the extra board. Railroads usually have trick dispatchers who are qualified to work their assistant 

chief positions. When they have a need to fill in for an absent assistant chief, a trick dispatcher 

fills the vacancy rather than having an extra board for assistant chief jobs. This is why it is rare 

to find someone holding an assistant chief position with an extra board schedule. 

Table 8. Work schedule by type of job and overall (percent) 

 Job Type 

Work Schedule* 

Trick Dispatcher

(n = 385) 

Assistant Chief 

(n = 58) 

Total 

(n = 443) 

1 26.2 19.0 25.3 

2 19.5 31.0 21.0 

3 22.3 25.9 22.8 

Relief 18.2 22.4 18.7 

Extra Board 13.8 1.7 12.2 

*1 = first or day shift, 2 = second or evening shift, 3 = third or night shift

Table 9 presents age and experience data by work schedule. Dispatchers working first shift are 

older than those working other schedules, F(4, 438) = 8.87, p < .05. (See post hoc test for age in 

Appendix B, Table B-2.) Likewise, first shift dispatchers have more years of experience than 
27

those working other schedules, and extra board dispatchers have the least experience, F(4, 433) = 

33.80, p < .05. (See post hoc test for experience in Appendix B, Table B-3.) 

Table 9. Work schedule by age and experience (yr) 

 Age Experience 

Work Schedule Mean Median Mean Median 

1 50.5 52.0 21.5 21.9 

2 46.6 50.0 13.7 11.8 

3 45.7 47.0 13.1 10.3 

Relief 46.0 49.0 12.5 11.8 

Extra Board 42.7 43.5 5.6 3.1 

A variety of shift rotation combinations for relief jobs exists, but by far the most common is two 

first shifts, followed by two second shifts, and a third shift. The Hours of Service Law precludes 

backward shift rotation for dispatchers. Figure 6 provides a breakdown of the shift patterns of 

relief dispatchers. 

45.8

9.6

7.2

6

4.8

3.6 3.6 3.6

15.8

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

11223 12233 11112 23333 22233 11222 11333 22223 Other

Shift Pattern

Percent

Figure 6. Relief schedules 
28

Because relief jobs rotate through various shifts during the workweek, and because extra board 

jobs work irregular shift patterns, researchers were interested in the actual shifts worked as a 

function of schedule type. Table 10 presents the actual shifts worked by work schedule. Results 

indicate that those working permanent shifts rarely work outside their typical schedules, but due 

to staff shortages, vacations, sickness, and other absences, this can occur. Relief jobs worked 

primarily second shift (40 percent), followed by first shift (33 percent), and third shift (27 

percent). 

Table 10. Actual shifts worked by job schedule (percent) 

 Work Schedule 

Shift Worked 

1 

(n = 112)

2 

(n = 93) 

3 

(n = 101)

Relief 

(n = 83) 

Extra 

Board 

(n = 54) 

1 96.5 1.6 1.9 32.9 42.1 

2 3.0 97.9 3.4 39.7 34.7 

3 0.5 0.6 94.7 27.0 22.9 

It was surprising to find such a large percentage of extra board dispatchers working first shift. 

The expectation was that extra board dispatchers would be split evenly among the three shifts 

with perhaps a slightly smaller proportion on third shift. (Passenger railroads and some freight 

railroads combine desks at night and on weekends so fewer opportunities exist to work third 

shift.) A possible explanation for the survey results is that these dispatchers were filling in for 

experienced dispatchers who take vacation during periods of good weather. (The majority of 

survey respondents completed the survey from the end of April through the end of June.) In 

addition, since regular first shift dispatchers are the most experienced and therefore accrue the 

largest number of vacation and sick days, this is likely the shift that most frequently uses an extra 

board dispatcher, regardless of the time of year. 

Shift variability can lead to fatigue if it disrupts a worker’s normal sleep pattern. Investigation of 

shift variation provided a means to estimate work schedule variability. The study defined a 

variation in shift as a change in shift (e.g., from first to second) from the previous day. If the 

previous day was a non-workday, then no shift variation occurred. The start of the workday 

determined the shift categorization, as previously stated. Table 11 presents the number of shift 

variations for relief and extra board dispatchers throughout the 2-week study period. 

Another surprise was the large percentage of extra board dispatchers who had no shift variation 

through the study period. As stated above, however, this may be explained by extra board 

dispatchers who fill in for more experienced permanent shift dispatchers when they take vacation 

during periods of good weather. If the dispatcher did not have 2 consecutive rest d, then the 

definition of shift variability may also result in underestimation of extra board dispatcher shift 

variability. 

Even though one would expect all relief dispatchers to have some shift variations due to the 

nature of this work schedule, two dispatchers in the survey reported working the same shift 

throughout the study period, therefore having no shift variation. 
29

Table 11. Shift variability for relief and extra board work schedules (percent) 

Work Schedule Number of Shift Variations 

(in 2-week period) Relief Extra Board 

0 2.4 35.2 

1 9.6 22.2 

2 32.5 27.8 

3 19.3 13.0 

4 33.7 1.9 

5+ 2.4 .0 

3.4.2 Hours Worked 

The study collected data on a nominal workweek, a typical workweek, and actual hours worked. 

In the background survey instrument, both trick dispatchers and assistant chiefs reported a 

nominal workweek of 40 h. During the study period, trick dispatchers worked only slightly more 

than this. In contrast, assistant chiefs averaged approximately 45 h of work per week. In fact, 

one-quarter of assistant chiefs worked 48 h or more per week, which is 8 h more than their 

nominal schedules require. The 75th percentile for trick dispatchers’ workweek was 43 h, which 

is only 3 h more than their nominal schedules. 

Actual work was similar to reported typical values for both groups. This suggests that the time 

period for this study was a typical one with respect to dispatcher work schedules. In addition, 

assistant chiefs, who are not covered by the Hours of Service Law, do indeed work substantially 

more than their nominal 40-h workweek. Table 12 presents typical and actual work for trick 

dispatchers and assistant chiefs. 

Table 12. Typical and actual work for 2-week period by job type (h:min) 

Trick Dispatcher Assistant Chief 

Mean Median 

Std. 

Dev. 25th % 75th % Mean Median 

Std. 

Dev. 25th % 75th % 

Typical 

Work 82:22 80:00 6:06 80:00 80:00 90:01 80:00 12:54 80:00 96:00 

Actual 

Work 81:09 80:25 9:49 77:52 86:06 89:19 85:33 13:34 80:11 96:56 

Number 

of Workdays 

10.1 10 1.1 10 11 10.6 10 1.6 10 12 

3.4.3 Breaks 

Unlike railroad crafts such as signalmen and MOW workers, who have contractual provisions for 

a meal break after 4 h on the job, railroad dispatchers have no such contractual provisions. As 
30

such, a trick dispatcher could potentially sit at his/her desk monitoring communications and 

controlling track movements without a break for up to 9 h, or even 13 h in the case of an 

emergency. Assistant chiefs, because they are not covered by the daily limitations of the Hours 

of Service Law, can potentially work 12 to 16 consecutive h without a break. This is somewhat 

concerning knowing that mental fatigue can accumulate as a result of time on task (Popkin, 

Reinach, & Gertler, 2001). 

Dispatchers occasionally leave their desk to use the bathroom or to bring food back to the desk, 

but this is not always possible, however, due to the nature of the job and the workload that a 

dispatcher handles. Leaving the desk means potentially missing important communication from 

train crews, MOW, or others that may require immediate response. 

Each day of the study period, participants recorded the number of breaks they took and the 

duration of their longest break of the day. Trick dispatchers averaged 2 breaks per day, with the 

longest break averaging 8 min. Assistant chiefs averaged 11⁄2 break per day, with the longest 

break averaging 10 min (see Table 13). 

Table 13. Number and length of longest break per day by job type 

Number of Breaks 

Length of Longest Break 

(min) 

Job Mean Median Mean Median 

Trick Dispatcher 2.06 2 8 7 

Assistant Chief 1.53 1 10 10 

Figure 7 presents the number of breaks per day by job type. Almost one-third of the time, both 

trick dispatchers and assistant chiefs took no breaks during their shift. Researchers treated blank 

fields in the diary as missing data rather than zero; therefore, it is likely that the percentage of 

shifts when dispatchers did not have a break was even greater than the survey results indicate. 

Although median values for break length on third shift were higher than those on first and second 

shift, researchers found no differences in the average number of breaks by shift (see Table 14). 
31

29.1

13.1

20.4

17

20.4

31.2

21.5

26

12

19.2

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

0 1 2 3 4 or more

Number of Breaks

Percent

Trick Dispatchers

Assistant Chiefs

Figure 7. Number of breaks per day by job type 

Table 14. Breaks by shift worked 

Number of Breaks 

Length of Longest 

Break (min) 

Shift Mean Median Mean Median 

1 2.05 2 8 7 

2 1.95 2 8 6 

3 1.99 2 8 10 

Assistant chiefs, despite averaging fewer breaks than trick dispatchers, took longer breaks. 

Approximately one-quarter of breaks taken by assistant chiefs were 10 min or more in length, 

compared to only 13 percent of breaks taken by trick dispatchers. Figure 8 presents a more 

detailed breakdown of longest break length by job type. 
32

46.9

39.8

13.3

31

46.6

22.4

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

1–5 6–10 >10

Length of Longest Break (min)

Percent

Trick Dispatchers

Assistant Chiefs

Figure 8. Length of day’s longest break by job type 

3.4.4 Commute Time 

For the purpose of this study, commute time refers to travel between the dispatcher’s home and 

his/her work site. Figure 9 depicts the average dispatcher workday, including commute times, 

for trick dispatchers and assistant chiefs. Both groups of dispatchers travel over 35 min to work. 

This commute is longer than the U.S. Census Bureau (2004) estimate of 25.5 min for U.S. 

workers, excluding those who work at home. The commute home tends to be longer because, 

according to notes in the log books, many dispatchers do errands or other activities on the way 

home. The primary difference in the length of the workday for the two types of dispatcher jobs 

is in the length of the work period. On average, assistant chiefs work 40 min longer each day 

than trick dispatchers. Both trick dispatchers and assistant chiefs arrive 10 to 15 min before the 

start of their shift to begin the transition from the dispatcher working the position on the previous 

shift. 

Figure 10 shows the distribution of commute start times for dispatchers. The tri-modal 

distribution reflects commutes for first, second, and third shifts. Although most first shift 

positions began at 6:30 a.m., some began as early as 4:30 a.m., and hence some of the commutes 

began as early as 4 a.m. 
33

38.7

35.7

524

484

48

50

12.7

11.5

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

Assistant Chiefs

Trick Dispatchers

Minutes

Commute to Work Time Before Start Work Work Commute Home

Figure 9. Commute time and workday by job type 

0 0.4

21.7

14.3

0.5 0.3

21.1

11

0.5 1

16.8

12.3

0

5

10

15

20

25

12:01–2 a.m.

2:01–4 a.m.

4:01–6 a.m.

6:01–8 a.m.

8:01–10 a.m.

10:01 a.m–12 p.m.

12:01–2 p.m.

2:01–4 p.m.

4:01–6 p.m.

6:01–8 p.m.

8:01–10 p.m.

10:01–12 a.m.

Time

Percent

Figure 10. Start of commute to work 
34

3.4.5 Sources of Stress 

In the background survey, dispatchers rated job-related sources of stress. They rated stress using 

a Likert scale with values from 1 to 4 with 1–no stress, 2–a little stress, 3–stressful, and 4–very 

stressful. The top four sources of stress for both trick dispatchers and assistant chiefs were 

management policies, surges in workload, ambiguous rules or procedures, and responding to 

emergencies (see Figure 11). While many of the comments in the trick dispatchers’ daily logs 

bemoaned the lack of regular breaks, lack of break time was in the middle of the list of stressors 

for trick dispatchers. As shown in Table 15, in 4 of the 14 sources of stress, statistically different 

ratings existed between the 2 groups of dispatchers. Trick dispatchers assigned significantly 

higher ratings of stress than assistant chiefs to the following categories: loss of sleep, inadequate 

time off, ambiguous rules or procedures, and lack of break time. The difference in the ratings for 

loss of sleep is likely due to a difference in job schedule. A substantial percentage of trick 

dispatchers work the extra board and must constantly adjust their sleep patterns to obtain proper 

rest. A higher stress rating for lack of break time by trick dispatchers supports the finding that 

assistant chiefs are getting longer breaks. With regard to inadequate time off, trick dispatchers 

typically have less seniority than assistant chiefs and therefore do not have as much vacation 

time. Finally, the difference in stress rating with respect to ambiguous rules may result from the 

fact that assistant chiefs do not necessarily apply or exercise the rules as frequently as trick 

dispatchers. 

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

Management policies

Surges in workload

Ambiguous rules

Emergencies

Communication problems

Responsibility for others' safety

Lack of break time

Inadequate staff

Loss of sleep

Pressure to finish a task

Inadequate time off

Coordination with other departments

Lack of control

Job security

Source of Stress

Rating

Trick Dispatchers

Assistant Chiefs

Figure 11. Sources and levels of stress by job type 
35

Dispatchers had different sources of stress based on their work schedule. Appendix B, Table B-4 

provides ANOVA results for sources of stress by work. The statistically significant differences 

were the following: 

• Permanent first shift dispatchers were less troubled by job security than permanent third 

shift and extra board dispatchers. 

• Permanent third shift, relief, and extra board dispatchers rated inadequate time off as a 

greater source of stress than did permanent first shift dispatchers. 

• Dispatchers working permanent third shift rated sleep loss a greater stressor than those 

working permanent first or second shift. 

• Extra board dispatchers were more concerned about lack of control over their work 

schedule than all other schedule groups. 

• Extra board dispatchers were less concerned about coordination with other departments 

than dispatchers working permanent first, second, or third shifts. 

• Extra board dispatchers felt less pressure to finish a task than those working permanent 

first and second shifts. 

• Ambiguous operating rules or procedures were less a source of stress for extra board 

dispatchers than for permanent first and second shift dispatchers. 

• Extra board dispatchers rated communication problems as less of a source of stress than 

all other schedule groups except permanent third shift. 

3.4.6 Job Characteristics Summary 

The around-the-clock nature of railroading requires railroads to staff dispatching centers with 

three 8-h shifts. Dispatchers working permanent first, second, or third shifts rarely work outside 

their typical schedules. The most common relief rotation is working two first shifts, followed by 

two second shifts, and a third shift. 

Surprisingly, a large percentage of extra board dispatchers worked first shift. This is most likely 

because first shift dispatchers are the oldest and most experienced, therefore likely to have and 

use the most vacation and sick time. This may also explain why more than one-third of extra 

board dispatchers had no shift variation through the study period. 

Both trick dispatchers and assistant chiefs reported a nominal workweek of 40 h. Trick 

dispatchers worked just slightly over their nominal amount, while assistant chiefs worked 

approximately 45 h per week. One-quarter of assistant chiefs worked 48 h or more per week, 8 h 

more than their nominal schedules require. Because the Hours of Service Law does not apply to 

assistant chiefs, the additional work hours could be either an extra day of work or more than 8 h 

in a single day. Actual work was similar to reported typical values for both groups, suggesting 

that the time period for this study was a typical one with respect to dispatcher work schedules. 

Railroad dispatchers have no contractual provisions for breaks. Almost one-third of the time, 

both trick dispatchers and assistant chiefs took no breaks during their shift. Assistant chiefs take 

fewer but longer breaks than trick dispatchers. 
36

Table 15. Stress ratings by job type 

Source of Stress 

Trick 

Dispatcher 

Assistant 

Chief Significance Test 

Management policies 2.98 2.95 t (440) = .29, p = .776 

Surges in workload 2.86 2.71 t (439) = 1.25, p = .211 

Ambiguous rules or 

procedures 

2.85 2.57 t (440) = 2.13, p < .05* 

Responding to emergencies 2.74 2.81 t (440) = -.56, p = .573 

Communication problems 2.69 2.43 t (440) = 1.93, p = .054 

Responsibility for safety of 

others 

2.68 2.48 t (440) = 1.44, p = .152 

Lack of break time 2.66 2.14 t (439) = 3.57, p < .05* 

Inadequate staffing 2.52 2.36 t (440) = 1.13, p = .261 

Loss of sleep 2.51 2.22 t (440) = 2.34, p < .05* 

Pressure to finish a task 2.47 2.57 t (440) = -.83, p = .407 

Inadequate time off 2.39 2.07 t (440) = 2.14, p < .05* 

Coordination with other 

departments 

2.31 2.43 t (439) = -.96, p = .337 

Lack of control over work 

schedule 

1.97 1.79 t (438) = 1.27, p = .207 

Job security 1.96 1.88 t (440) = .57, p = .570 

Note: 1 = no stress, 2 = a little stress, 3 = stressful, 4 = very stressful *

statistically significant at α = .05

Trick dispatchers and assistant chiefs had similar sources of stress. In general, trick dispatchers 

had higher stress ratings than assistant chiefs, with ratings on sleep loss, lack of time off, 

ambiguous rules, and lack of breaks being significantly higher. Some differences existed in 

stress ratings by work schedule. 

3.5 Sleep Characteristics 

This study examined primary sleep, as well as naps. For first and second shift dispatchers, 

primary sleep refers to nighttime sleep. For third shift dispatchers, this study defined primary 

sleep as the first sleep period following the end of the individual dispatcher’s work period. An 

alternative way to define primary sleep for third shift dispatchers would have been to select the 

longest sleep period of the day, but this would have complicated the design of the log book. 

Designing a log book that dispatchers working all shifts could use presented a challenge in terms 

of where to record the primary sleep period and the related sleep quality ratings. To facilitate 
37

design and use of the log book for all study participants, the daily log book contained only one 

sleep period for each day that had sleep quality ratings. The log book sleep section was 

chronological with the first entry being the nighttime or primary sleep period. First and second 

shift dispatchers recorded their nighttime sleep in this section upon arising in the morning. 

When a dispatcher worked third shift, he/she recorded his/her morning sleep period in this 

section. The next page of the log’s sleep section provided space to record sleep periods or naps 

that occurred later in the day. 

Some adjustment of the nap data was necessary to accurately identify naps versus split primary 

sleep periods. The diary instructions asked dispatchers to record split nighttime sleep as a 

primary sleep period plus a nap. (This scheme permitted a more accurate computation of 

nighttime sleep.) For nap entries on non-workdays, if the nap began between 12 a.m. and 7 a.m., 

then the researchers added nap duration to primary sleep duration. For first shift dispatchers’ 

workday entries, if the nap began after the person went to sleep, but before he/she began the 

commute to work, then the nap was considered split primary or nighttime sleep and was added to 

the primary sleep duration. For second and third shift dispatchers, if the nap began less than 1 h 

after the recorded wake-up time or before 6 a.m., then the nap time was added to primary sleep 

time and was not a part of the nap analysis. 

The ending time of the sleep period determined its assignment to a calendar day. The 

categorization of each calendar day as a workday or a non-workday depended upon whether or 

not a work period began on that day. In other words, if a sleep period ended on a day on which 

the individual began a work shift, then the sleep period was in the category workday sleep. 

Understanding the method for categorizing sleep as workday versus non-workday is important 

when reviewing the sleep results. 

The following sections discuss primary and total daily sleep, sleep quality, sleep latency, and 

naps or supplementary sleep periods. 

3.5.1 Primary and Total Daily Sleep 

The study considered both total daily sleep and the primary sleep period. Table 16 contains the 

sleep data for total daily sleep by type of day and work schedule. These data indicate that 

dispatchers working first shift jobs get considerably less sleep on workdays than those with other 

work schedules, but first shift dispatchers appear to make up for their loss of sleep on nonworkdays. When interpreting these data, it is important to keep in mind that on the last day of 

the work cycle, a dispatcher working third shift may choose to take only a short morning nap 

after work or to not sleep at all until that night. This means that his/her non-workday sleep for 

the first non-workday could be 0 h or merely a nap for a few hours. Similarly, the night before 

the dispatcher’s first third shift, he/she usually gets a full night’s sleep. For this reason, the 

workday sleep for the third, relief, and extra board jobs is higher than what might be expected for 

dispatchers who work third shift, and the non-workday sleep appears understated. For example, 

the workday sleep for permanent third shift dispatchers is 6:52 (h:min), and their non-workday 

sleep is 6:16. 

Results from a meta-analytic review of shiftworker sleep provide data that can be compared with 

the results from the present study. Pilcher, Lambert, and Huffcutt (2000) examined 168 primary 

studies of shiftworkers and selected 36 for their meta analysis. These 36 studies met the 

following criteria: the study had to report on actual shiftwork, not laboratory-based shiftwork; 
38

the shift length had to be 8 h in duration and had to be either permanent evening, permanent 

night, or rotating; and the study had to include data on self-report of sleep length. Sleep length 

for their control group, non-shiftwork day workers, came from a 1998 NSF report. The article 

does not specify the data collection instrument (log book versus questionnaire) for these studies. 

Further, it is not clear from the article if sleep refers to the primary sleep period or total daily 

sleep. 

Table 16. Total sleep by type of day and work schedule (h:min) 

Type of 

Day Work Schedule Mean Median 

Standard 

Deviation

25th

Percentile 

75th 

Percentile

1 6:23 6:26 0:46 5:50 6:55 

2 7:05 7:05 0:49 6:25 7:42 

3 6:52 6:58 1:11 5:58 7:40 

Relief 7:00 7:08 0:56 6:22 7:39 

Workday 

Extra Board 6:57 6:49 1:05 6:13 7:54 

1 7:53 7:58 1:13 7:04 8:47 

2 7:22 7:14 0:55 6:45 8:02 

3 6:05 6:00 1:35 5:18 7:03 

Relief 6:16 6:23 1:34 5:29 7:14 

NonWorkday 

Extra Board 7:21 7:15 1:48 5:57 8:29 

Table 17 compares the total workday sleep of dispatchers, by type of work schedule, with the 

data from the Pilcher, Lambert, and Huffcutt (2000) study. In comparison with the shiftwork 

norms, first and second shift railroad dispatchers get less sleep than other shiftwork populations, 

and first shift dispatchers get the least sleep. The reason that the third shift and relief dispatchers 

appear to get more sleep is most likely because of how this study assigned sleep to workdays 

versus non-workdays. The researchers also surmise that the other shiftwork studies used a 

questionnaire that inquired about usual sleep duration on workdays. This type of questionnaire 

would lead to a shorter sleep duration for third shift than a daily log book study, such as the one 

used for this study, that includes the nighttime sleep before the first workday in the average 

workday sleep. 
39

Table 17. Total sleep by work schedule versus shiftwork norms for workdays (h:min) 

Work Schedule Mean Median 

Standard 

Deviation 

25th

Percentile 

75th 

Percentile 

Shiftwork 

Norm* 

1 6:23 6:26 0:46 5:50 6:55 7:00 

2 7:05 7:05 0:49 6:25 7:42 7:34 

3 6:52 6:58 1:11 5:58 7:40 6:36 

Relief 7:00 7:08 0:56 6:22 7:39 6:39 

Extra Board 6:57 6:49 1:05 6:13 7:54 n/a 

*Source: Pilcher et al., 2000. 

n/a = not available 

Since relief and extra board dispatchers work different shifts over the course of their workweek, 

it is appropriate to examine the dispatcher sleep patterns by shift actually worked. Table 18 

presents total and primary sleep by shift actually worked. The difference between the primary 

and total sleep for dispatchers working third shift reflects that the majority of dispatchers 

working this shift employ a split sleep strategy on workdays. Among shiftworkers, second shift 

workers typically get the most sleep because they do not have to get up early to go to work. First 

shift workers get less sleep than second, and third shift people get the least sleep. This is the 

case with the dispatcher results for primary sleep. Once again, the primary sleep for third shift 

includes the nighttime sleep that occurred the night before the first third shift workday. For both 

total and primary sleep, all shifts are statistically different from each other, F(2, 4398) = 137.49, 

p < .05 and F(2, 4398) = 243.13, p < .05. 

Table 18. Total and primary sleep on workdays by shift worked versus shiftwork norms 

(h:min) 

Dispatchers 

Shift Worked Total Sleep Primary Sleep 

Shiftwork 

Norm* 

1 6:19 6:08 7:00 

2 7:14 7:06 7:34 

3 6:59 5:54 6:36 

*Source: Pilcher et al., 2000. 

Effect size is a measure of the degree to which a relationship exists between two factors. By 

computing the effect size for the relationship between total sleep and shift worked, and primary 

sleep and shift worked, it is possible to compare the relative effect of shift worked on the two 

sleep metrics. The effect size for total sleep is .24, and for primary sleep it is .32. According to 

Cohen (1988), an effect size of .25 is a medium effect size. Using Cohen’s criteria, the effect 

size for total sleep is small, and that for primary sleep is medium. This means that shift worked 

has more of an effect on primary sleep than total daily sleep. 
40

Table 19 provides additional descriptive statistics for primary sleep by shift worked. Both the 

total and primary sleep results for first shift appear low in comparison with the shiftwork norms. 

More than 75 percent of those working a first shift get less than the shiftwork norm of 7 h of 

nighttime sleep. The reason may be that 91 percent of first shift dispatchers begin work by 

7 a.m., and 43 percent start by 6:30 a.m. As Figure 10 illustrates, over 20 percent of the 

dispatcher commute trips to work begin before 6 a.m. This early start of the commute to work 

requires arising between 5 and 5:30 a.m. Getting 7 h of sleep requires the first shift dispatcher to 

go to sleep by 10 p.m., a bedtime which most find difficult to accommodate. 

Table 19. Primary sleep by shift worked (h:min) 

Shift 

Worked Mean Median 

Standard 

Deviation 

25th

Percentile 

75th

Percentile 

Shiftwork 

Norm* 

1 6:08 6:15 1:07 5:29 6:55 7:00 

2 7:06 7:10 1:30 6:10 8:05 7:34 

3 5:54 5:55 2:00 4:30 7:15 6:36 

*Source: Pilcher et al., 2000.

Analysis of primary sleep on workdays by age group did not reveal any differences, 

F(4, 438) = .14. This analysis used the 10-yr age groupings of Figure 3 (e.g., 20-29, 30-39). 

Comparison of dispatcher sleep with results from surveys of other adult groups is difficult 

because the dispatchers are a shiftwork population. The NSF 2002 Sleep in America Poll

provides data on nighttime sleep on workdays for U.S. adults. Because third shift dispatchers do 

not have nighttime sleep, their sleep data is not comparable to the NSF data. Permanent first and 

second shift dispatchers, however, sleep at night so their sleep data is comparable to the NSF 

data. Figure 12 presents a frequency distribution of workday sleep for this group of dispatchers 

in comparison with the results from the NSF survey. Approximately 59 percent of U.S. 

permanent first and second shift dispatchers are getting less than 7 h sleep on work nights in 

contrast with 39 percent of U.S. adults. The proportion getting less than 6 h sleep (25.4 percent) 

is considerably larger than that for U.S. adults. 

A total of 11 dispatchers averaged less than 5 h of sleep on workdays. For nine of these, nonwork reasons may have contributed to the lack of sleep. Seven reported multiple personal and 

family factors or an illness, and two people reported a change in sleeping habits. For the 

remaining two, no information existed in either the background survey or the daily log to explain 

the lack of sleep. 

The National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) provides another set of normative sleep data for 

comparison with dispatchers. The Centers for Disease Control, U.S. Department of Health and 

Human Services, conducts this annual survey to obtain information on a number of health-related 

issues. It includes the question, “On average, how much sleep do you get in a 24-hour period?” 

This data is slightly different than that from the NSF 2000 Sleep in America Poll. NSF 

differentiates between work nights and weekends while the NHIS data do not. In addition, NHIS 

employs a rounding scheme to convert all responses to a whole number of hours. The interview 

protocol rounded responses of half-hours or more to the next whole hour so, for example, 61⁄2 h 
41

15

24

29 30

25.4

43.4

28.3

2.9

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

< 6 6–6.9 7–7.9 ≥8

Hours

Percent

U.S. Adults

Dispatchers

Source: U.S. adult data from NSF, 2002b. 

Figure 12. Nighttime sleep on workdays for permanent first and 

second shift dispatchers versus U.S. adults 

was entered as 7 h. Applying the same rounding scheme to the dispatcher data made comparison 

with the NHIS results possible (see Figure 13). The categories in this comparison differ from 

those in Figure 12 due to the NHIS rounding. In addition, the dispatcher data in Figure 13 use 

average total daily sleep across both workdays and non-workdays for the dispatcher population. 

This comparison, similar to the comparison in Figure 12, shows that dispatchers are getting less 

sleep than U.S. adults, but the difference is not as great as the comparison with NSF data. 

Adults getting less than an average of 7 to 8 h of sleep per night are chronically sleep-deprived. 

The primary manifestation of sleep loss is excessive daytime sleepiness, but depressed mood and 

poor memory or concentration may also result. Chronic sleep loss has serious consequences for 

job performance and health. Performance effects of sleep loss can affect the dispatcher’s ability 

to work safety and efficiently. Belenky et al. (2003) have shown that performance declines 

initially with mild to moderate sleep restriction of 7 and 5 h, and after a few days it stabilizes at a 

less than fully rested level. The relevant performance effects include the following (Institute of 

Medicine, 2006): 

• Involuntary microsleeps occur. 

• Attention to intensive performance is unstable, with increased errors of omission and 

commission. 

• Cognitive slowing occurs in subject-paced tasks, while time pressure increases cognitive 

errors. 

• Response time slows. 
42

31.9

8.9

38.8

25.8

18.6

16.9

29.9 29.2

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

≤ 67 8 ≥9

Hours

Percent

U.S. Adults

Dispatchers

 Source: U.S. adult data from National Health Interview Survey, 2005. 

Figure 13. Sleep in 24 h for dispatchers versus U.S. adults 

• Performance declines in short-term recall of working memory. 

• Performance requiring divergent thinking deteriorates. 

The job performance of those dispatchers getting less than 7 h of sleep on workdays is likely 

compromised. Recent research has revealed that sleep loss has neurobehavioral effects, such as 

those listed above, that often go unrecognized by the affected individuals (Van Dongen, 

Mullington, & Dinges, 2003). These sleep-deprived dispatchers are probably unaware of the 

extent of their performance degradation and the increased risk of error. 

3.5.2 Sleep Ratings 

Dispatchers recorded subjective ratings for primary sleep on both workdays and non-workdays. 

They rated their ease of falling asleep, ease of arising, length of sleep, quality of sleep, and 

alertness upon arising. The ratings shown in Table 20 used a Likert scale ranging from 1 to 5, 

with 1 being the lowest or worst rating, while 5 indicated the highest or best. 

Overall, dispatchers gave higher ratings to their non-workday sleep than their workday sleep 

(see lower right-hand section of Table 20). While all of the work schedule groups rated their 

non-workday sleep of higher quality than their workday sleep, only the first shift dispatchers’ 

ratings were statistically different for workdays and non-workdays. 
43

Table 20. Ratings of primary sleep (mean of means) by work schedule and type of day 

 First Shift Second Shift 

 Workday 

NonWorkday Significance Test Workday NonWorkday Significance Test 

Ease of 

Falling 

Asleep 

3.67 4.09 t(215) = -4.60, p < .05 3.98 4.01 t(179) = -0.20, p = .85 

Ease of 

Arising 3.18 3.61 t(215) = -4.12, p < .05 3.18 3.40 t(179) = -1.81, p = .07 

Length of 

Sleep 3.06 3.75 t(215) = -7.36, p < .05 3.30 3.45 t(179) = -1.36, p = .18 

Quality of 

Sleep 3.31 3.80 t(215) = -5.51, p < .05 3.42 3.58 t(179) = -1.24, p = .22 

Alertness 

Upon 

Arising 

3.25 3.71 t(215) = -4.64, p < .05 3.31 3.46 t(179) = -1.23, p = .22 

 Third Shift Relief 

 Workday 

NonWorkday Significance Test Workday NonWorkday Significance Test 

Ease of 

Falling 

Asleep 

4.04 4.14 t(197) = -0.99, p = .32 3.86 4.14 t(161) = -2.51, p < .05 

Ease of 

Arising 3.16 3.30 t(196) = -1.25, p = .21 3.19 3.08 t(161) = 0.83, p = .41 

Length of 

Sleep 3.07 3.20 t(197) = -1.18, p = .24 3.23 3.05 t(161) = 1.52, p = .13 

Quality of 

Sleep 3.35 3.63 t(197) = -2.49, p < .05 3.46 3.42 t(161) = 0.30, p = .76 

Alertness 

Upon 

Arising 

3.28 3.45 t(197) = -1.53, p = .13 3.27 3.24 t(161) = 0.26, p = .79 

 Extra Board All 

 Workday 

NonWorkday Significance Test Workday NonWorkday Significance Test 

Ease of 

Falling 

Asleep 

3.62 3.80 t(105) = -1.18, p = .24 3.85 4.06 t(865) = -4.15, p < .05 

Ease of 

Arising 2.97 3.11 t(105) = -0.90, p = .37 3.15 3.33 t(864) = -3.17, p < .05 

Length of 

Sleep 3.14 3.41 t(105) = -1.83, p = .07 3.15 3.38 t(865) = -4.42, p < .05 

Quality of 

Sleep 3.32 3.30 t(105) = 0.15, p = .88 3.37 3.58 t(865) = -4.02, p < .05 

Alertness 

Upon 

Arising 

3.21 3.38 t(105) = -1.33, p = .19 3.27 3.47 t(865) = -3.76, p < .05 
44

Dispatchers’ qualitative ratings of their sleep differed based on the shift actually worked. 

Table 21 contains these ratings. Second shift ratings were statistically different for all categories 

except ease of arising. The results for length and quality of sleep and alertness upon arising are 

consistent with the fact that second shift dispatchers have the longest primary sleep period. With 

the exception of ease of falling asleep, ratings from first and third shift dispatchers are similar. 

Correlations between length of primary sleep period and the four sleep period ratings were all 

significant. The largest correlation (.53) was between the length of the primary sleep period and 

the rating for adequacy of the length of the sleep period. 

Table 21. Workday primary sleep period ratings by shift worked 

 Shift Worked 

Sleep Characteristic 1 2 3 

Correlation 

with Primary 

Sleep (r) 

Ease of Falling Asleep 3.67 3.90 4.01 .05* 

Ease of Arising 3.14 3.20 3.10 .25** 

Length of Sleep 3.05 3.37 3.04 .53** 

Quality of Sleep 3.32 3.46 3.34 .28** 

Primary Sleep (h:min) 6:08 7:06 5:54 -- 

*Significant at p < .05, **Significant at p < .01 

3.5.3 Sleep Quality and Sleep Disorders 

A total of 41 dispatchers (9.3 percent) reported having a diagnosed sleep disorder. Twenty-six of 

those dispatchers (63.4 percent) reported receiving treatment for their disorder. The remainder 

with a diagnosed sleep disorder reported that their problem was untreated. (Two survey 

participants did not answer the questions regarding sleep disorders.) 

Analysis of the sleep ratings included a comparison across three groups: (1) the untreated sleep 

disorder group (n = 15), (2) the treated sleep disorder group (n = 26), and (3) those with no 

diagnosed sleep disorder or the normal group (n = 400). Table 22 contains the average sleep 

ratings for the three groups. While the average ratings indicate that those in the untreated sleep 

disorder group had lower ratings and a shorter primary sleep period, no statistically significant 

differences by sleep disorder status existed (see Appendix B, Table B-5). 

An analysis of sleep ratings for workdays and non-workdays combined produced similar results 

with no statistically significant differences by sleep disorder status (see Appendix B, Table B-6). 

The small number of dispatchers in the two sleep disorder categories makes achieving statistical 

significance difficult. 
45

Table 22. Sleep ratings and duration by sleep disorder status (workdays only) 

Sleep Characteristic 

Untreated Sleep 

Disorder (n = 15) 

Treated Sleep 

Disorder (n = 26) Normal (n = 400) 

Ease of Falling Asleep 3.81 3.84 3.85 

Ease of Arising 2.80 3.21 3.17 

Length of Sleep 2.78 3.21 3.17 

Quality of Sleep 2.99 3.39 3.39 

Primary Sleep (h:min) 6:12 6:27 6:24 

3.5.4 Sleep Latency 

Sleep latency is the time from lights out until the beginning of sleep. Sleep experts consider the 

adult norm to be 20 min or less. Table 23 displays the sleep latency results based on the 

dispatchers’ sleep log entries. These results refer to the primary sleep period, not supplementary 

sleep periods or naps. 

Table 24 contains similar sleep latency data by shift actually worked. 

Table 23. Sleep latency by type of day and job type (min) 

 Workdays Non-Workdays 

Job Type Mean Median > 20 min Mean Median > 20 min 

Trick Dispatcher 23 15 35% 20 15 29% 

Assistant Chief 23 15 34% 19 15 26% 

Table 24. Sleep latency by shift worked (min) 

Shift Mean Median > 20 min 

1 26 15 40% 

2 24 15 35% 

3 19 15 26% 

Sleep latency does not differ based on job type. On workdays and non-workdays, mean and 

median sleep latency for both groups is nearly the same. In addition, the majority of trick 

dispatchers and assistant chiefs are falling asleep within the 20-min adult norm. On nonworkdays, both groups fall asleep slightly more quickly than on workdays. This is likely due to 

the lack of work-related stress on non-workdays and the cumulative fatigue of the workweek. 
46

Examination of the sleep latency data by shift actually worked reveals that those working third 

shift fall asleep most rapidly. This is a statistically significant difference, F(2, 4385) = 27.99, 

p < .05. Individuals are typically not accurate judges of how long it takes them to fall asleep, so 

drawing conclusions from the dispatchers’ self-report data requires caution. Some dispatchers 

who read in bed or watched TV may not have reported their true lights out time, so their sleep 

latency would be overstated if this were the case. 

3.5.5 Naps 

Data from participants’ daily logs indicate that the frequency of napping is a function of the 

individual’s work schedule (see Table 25). Those working permanent third shift napped most 

frequently. This group averaged 4.9 naps in the study’s 2-week period. Second shift dispatchers 

were the least likely to nap and averaged 1.6 naps during this period. Over half of second shift 

dispatchers reported taking no naps during the study period while nearly a third of the third shift 

dispatchers reported 8 or more naps in 2 weeks. Many third shift dispatchers employ a split 

sleep strategy on workdays, which accounts for the high number of naps for this group. 

Similarly, relief and extra board dispatchers will use this sleep strategy when they work third 

shift. During the study, as reported in Table 10, relief dispatchers worked third shift on 

27 percent of the reported relief work periods, and extra board dispatchers worked third shift 

23 percent of the time. 

Table 25. Number of naps in 2-week period by work schedule 

 Number of Naps 

Work Schedule Mean Median 

1 2.4 1 

2 1.6 0 

3 4.9 4 

Relief 3.7 3 

Extra Board 2.5 2 

Dispatcher nap length varies by work schedule and type of day (see Table 26). First and second 

shift dispatchers take longer naps on non-workdays than on workdays. They are most likely 

compensating for loss of sleep during the workweek. Those working third, relief, and extra 

board schedules most likely take longer naps on workdays because they employ a split sleep 

strategy when working third shift. The differences in nap length by work schedule on nonworkdays were not statistically significant, F(4,135) = .68, p = .604. For workdays, however, the 

differences were significant, F(4,283) = 16.39, p < .05. (Appendix B, Table B-7 contains the 

Tukey honestly significant difference (HSD) post hoc test results.) 
47

Table 26. Mean nap length by work schedule and type of day (h:min) 

 Type of Day 

Work Schedule Workday Non-Workday 

1 1:02 1:35 

2 1:12 1:26 

3 2:12 1:51 

Relief 1:57 1:41 

Extra Board 1:46 1:48 

Nap length differed by shift worked, F(2, 1048) = 143.90, p < .05. Dispatchers working third 

shift tended to nap twice as long as those working the other two shifts (see Table 27). These 

differences are statistically significant (see post hoc test results in Appendix B, Table B-8). 

Again, this is likely because of a split sleep strategy when working third shift. 

Table 27. Nap length on workdays by shift worked (h:min) 

Shift Worked Mean Median 

25th

Percentile 

75th

Percentile 

1 1:05 0:58 0:30 1:20 

2 1:10 1:00 0:35 1:30 

3 2:13 2:00 1:20 3:00 

Start time of naps differs depending upon the type of day. As shown in Figure 14, nearly half 

(49 percent) of all first naps on workdays began between 4 and 8 p.m. First shift dispatchers 

returning from work and third shift dispatchers taking a pre-work nap account for these naps. 

The second most popular nap start time was 2 to 4 p.m., a time when first shift dispatchers were 

likely to nap after returning home from work. Individuals napping during their commute to or 

from work account for the limited number of early morning naps. (Some dispatchers reported 

sleeping during their train ride or carpool trip.) 

Naps on non-workdays occur at different times of the day than those taken on workdays. Naps 

on non-workdays tend to start between 12 and 4 p.m. (see Figure 15). This is a time that 

coincides with the afternoon nadir in the circadian cycle. 

3.5.6 Sleep Characteristics Summary 

Dispatchers working permanent first shift jobs get considerably less sleep on workdays than 

those with other work schedules, but first shift dispatchers appear to make up for their loss of 

sleep on non-workdays. In comparison with sleep norms for other shiftwork populations, 

dispatchers averaged less primary daily sleep than the shiftwork norms for comparable groups. 
48

0.1 0.0

0.8

2.7

3.5

6.0

9.4

17.7

24.3

25.3

9.9

0.3

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

12:01–1 a.m.

2:01–4 a.m.

4:01–6 a.m.

6:01–8 a.m.

8:01–10 a.m.

10:01 a.m.–12 p.m.

12:01–2 p.m.

2:01–4 p.m.

4:01–6 p.m.

6:01–8 p.m.

8:01–10 p.m.

10:01 p.m.–12 a.m.

Start time

Percent

Figure 14. Nap start times for workdays 

0.0 0.0 0.0

1.6

10.5

8.5

30.0

25.1

13.4

5.3 4.9

0.8

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

35.0

12:01–1 a.m.

2:01–4 a.m.

4:01–6 a.m.

6:01–8 a.m.

8:01–10 a.m.

10:01 a.m.–12 p.m.

12:01–2 p.m.

2:01–4 p.m.

4:01–6 p.m.

6:01–8 p.m.

8:01–10 p.m.

10:01 p.m.–12 a.m.

Start time

Percent

Figure 15. Nap start times for non-workdays 
49

The nighttime sleep of permanent first and second shift dispatchers is less than that of U.S. 

adults. One quarter of these dispatchers get less than 6 h of nighttime sleep in contrast with 

15 percent of U.S. adults. The majority of first shift dispatchers begin work by 7 a.m., making it 

difficult to get adequate nighttime sleep. 

Nap frequency is a function of the individual’s work schedule. Dispatchers working permanent 

third shift averaged 4.9 naps during the 2-week period of the survey, while more than half of the 

second shift dispatchers took no naps. Nap length also varied by shift worked, with third shift 

dispatchers taking naps that were on average 2:13, nearly twice that of those who worked first or 

second shift. 

Sleep quality ratings were higher for non-workdays versus workdays. These differences were 

statistically significant for only the permanent first shift dispatchers. Sleep quality ratings were 

lower for those with untreated sleep disorders, but no statistically significant differences existed, 

most likely due to the small number in the untreated sleep disorder category. 

3.6 Alertness 

This section presents the survey results with respect to self-assessments of alertness. The study 

collected self-assessments of alertness in two ways. The background survey had questions about 

overall alertness, and dispatchers recorded their self-assessments of alertness at different points 

during the workday in their daily log. One section discusses alertness relative to job type, 

another relative to work schedule, and the third relative to sleep disorders. 

3.6.1 Job Type 

Through questions on the background survey, dispatchers rated their overall alertness at work 

and after work. Assistant chiefs generally reported being alert at work more often than trick 

dispatchers and were less likely to be mentally drained after work (see Tables 28 and 29). These, 

however, are not statistically significant differences, χ

2

(2, n = 443) = 1.89, p = .39 and χ

2

(2, n = 

443) = 3.31, p = .19. 

Table 28. Alertness at work by job type (percent) 

Alert at Work? 

Trick 

Dispatcher 

Assistant 

Chief 

Always 7.8 6.9 

Frequently 47.3 56.9 

Occasionally 41.3 34.5 

Never 3.6 1.7 
50

Table 29. Mentally drained after work by job type (percent) 

Drained After 

Work? 

Trick 

Dispatcher 

Assistant 

Chief 

Always 17.1 8.6 

Frequently 46.8 46.6 

Occasionally 34.8 41.4 

Never 1.3 3.4 

3.6.2 Work Schedule 

Examination of these responses by job schedule did, however, result in statistically significant 

differences overall, χ

2

(8, n = 443) = 16.26, p < .05. Table 30 contains the responses to the 

background survey questions regarding alertness at work by work schedule. Pairwise 

comparison of the work schedule groups revealed that first and second shifts were statistically 

different from third, and second differed from relief (see Appendix B, Table B-9, for the 

statistical test results). Those dispatchers working a permanent first or second shift reported that 

they were more frequently alert at work than those working third shift. Similarly, second shift 

dispatchers reported that they were more frequently alert at work than those working a relief 

schedule. Although the data in Table 30 indicate that the dispatchers working the extra board 

report being alert at work less frequently than those working other work schedules, the small size 

of this group relative to the other work schedule groups was most likely responsible for the lack 

of statistical significance in comparisons with this group. 

Table 30. Alertness at work by work schedule (percent) 

 Work Schedule 

Alert at Work? 1 2 3 Relief 

Extra 

Board 

Always 8.9 9.7 5.9 8.4 3.7 

Frequently 55.4 58.1 39.6 41.0 46.3 

Occasionally 33.0 30.1 47.5 47.0 50.0 

Never 2.4 2.2 6.9 3.6 0.0 

Table 31 summarizes the responses to the question, “How often do you feel mentally drained at 

the end of your work period?” The responses from the five work schedule groups were not 

statistically different, χ

2

(2, n = 442) = 9.42, p = .31. 
51

Table 31. Mentally drained after work by work schedule (percent) 

 Work Schedule 

Drained After 

Work? 1 2 3 Relief 

Extra 

Board 

Always 7.1 9.7 5.9 3.6 1.9 

Frequently 38.4 30.1 40.6 33.7 38.9 

Occasionally 47.3 43.0 42.6 48.2 53.7 

Never 7.1 17.2 10.9 14.5 5.6 

Data from dispatchers’ daily logs revealed some differences in alertness levels based on shift 

worked. For all shifts, alertness peaked after the commute to work but then declined throughout 

the day, as shown in Table 32. The decline was greatest for third shift and least for first shift. 

These results are consistent with the time of day when the dispatcher from each shift arrives 

home and how long the dispatcher has been awake. The first shift dispatcher arrives home midafternoon while the second shift dispatcher arrives home around midnight, a time when most 

adults are ready for nighttime sleep. The third shift dispatcher arrives home after being awake 

through the night and trying to counteract the body’s need for sleep. 

Table 32. Alertness throughout the day by shift worked 

 Shift Worked 

Time of Rating 1 2 3 

Upon Awakening 3.20 3.36 3.24 

After Commute to Work 3.59 3.80 3.65 

Mid-Shift 3.51 3.43 2.97 

After Arriving Home 3.05 2.69 2.26 

Table 33 contains the results of a linear regression analysis to explain alertness as a function of 

time on shift using the data in Table 32 . The β coefficients indicate the more rapid decline of 

alertness over the work period on second and third shifts relative to first shift. An alternative 

formulation for this model that incorporated shift worked as an independent category variable 

did not have better predictive power than the three separate models. 

Table 33. Linear regression results by shift for alertness and time on shift 

Shift β Constant R2

1 -.14 3.79 .86 

2 -.28 4.14 .96 

3 -.35 4.00 .99 
52

3.6.3 Sleep Disorders 

Dispatchers with untreated sleep disorders had lower alertness ratings throughout the workday 

than those with treated or no sleep disorders (see Table 34). These results do not reveal a 

statistically significant difference due to the small number with untreated sleep disorders (see 

Appendix B, Table B-10). The sleep literature contains numerous studies documenting the 

performance risks of untreated sleep disorders, in particular sleep apnea. A fatigue education 

program for dispatchers should caution all dispatchers about these risks. 

Table 34. Alertness and sleep disorders (workdays only) 

Time of Rating 

Untreated Sleep 

Disorder (n = 15)

Treated Sleep 

Disorder (n = 26) 

Normal 

(n = 400) 

Upon Awakening 3.03 3.25 3.28 

After Commute to Work 3.48 3.51 3.70 

Mid-Shift 2.95 3.31 3.33 

After Arriving Home 2.35 2.64 2.70 

3.7 Textual Data 

The daily log included two separate spaces for participants to record any comments regarding 

their sleep and work periods each day. This section presents an overview of participants’ 

comments on their sleep and work experiences throughout the 2 weeks of the study. 

Commenting on sleep or work experiences in the daily log book was not a requirement of 

participation. Rather, the diaries provided an opportunity for dispatchers to qualify part of their 

day. As such, some participants chose not to comment, while others commented frequently. For 

this reason, a statistical analysis of these comments was not possible. Researchers, however, 

scanned a number of participant log books to determine common themes presented in the 

comments and performed a simple tabulation of the frequency of topics mentioned. The 

following themes emerged from this review: 

1. Sleep 

2. Workload 

3. Alertness/Fatigue 

4. Naps 

5. Work Schedule 

6. Stress 

7. Personal Issues (family, leisure activities) 

8. Weather 

9. Territory 

10. Communication 
53

11. Safety 

12. Management 

13. Responsibility 

Researchers used ATLAS.ti® software V5.2.8 to autocode comments based on keyword 

searches and tally the number of comments made under each topic area. Table 35 lists the 

keywords that were the basis for each topic area search. 

These categories were not mutually exclusive. As a result, many of the comments fell into more 

than one category. For example, a comment on work schedule may also be counted in the stress 

category, or a sleep comment may be in both the alertness/fatigue and naps categories. The most 

frequently mentioned topics in the section for sleep comments were sleep, naps, personal issues, 

and work schedule. Comments on workload, alertness/fatigue, stress, and sleep dominated the 

work experience section. The comments complement the quantitative survey results by 

providing personal examples of the effect of work or sleep patterns present in the survey data. In 

this way, the comments provide a more complete picture of dispatchers’ fatigue-related concerns. 

Table 36 presents more detailed results of keyword searches. 

The selected comments that appear following Table 36 illustrate the consequences of the work 

and sleep patterns in the survey data. For example: 

• Many of the comments related to Sleep touch upon the difficulty of sleeping during the 

day for those working third shift, the challenge in adjusting or maintaining one’s sleep 

schedule when working a variable schedule, and the general deficiency or poor quality of 

sleep due to work schedules. 

• Comments on Workload related to heavy traffic volume and the large variety of 

responsibilities a dispatcher must handle. Many of these comments linked workload to 

the lack of breaks. 

• A number of participants commented on the difficulty of staying Alert on third shift. 

Others (assistant chiefs) mention Fatigue due to long workdays. Many dispatchers 

commented that being busy at work made it easier to stay alert. 

• The comments with regard to Naps illustrate how some survey participants, primarily 

those working third shift, have split sleep patterns. Those individuals typically sleep in 

the morning after work and then nap in the evening in preparation for their next night 

shift. 

• Comments on Work Schedule concern primarily the difficulty in working relief or extra 

board jobs and how those jobs affect one’s personal schedule, including sleep, as 

mentioned above. 

• Dispatchers mentioned Stress in relation to a variety of issues, such as traffic volume, 

workload, communication difficulty, weather issues, train delays, and dealing with train 

and engine crews and track crews. 

• Some survey participants described Personal Issues that affected their sleep. 
54

Table 35. Keywords used for each topic area search 

 Topic Keywords 

Alertness (mental)/Fatigue (physical) Alert*, aware*, awake, attentive*, watchful, 

vigilant, prepared, fatigue*, tired, sleepy, 

exhaust*, weary, energy, weak* 

Communication Communicat*, dispatcher, track gang, track 

crew, track department, signal department, 

yardmaster, radio, communication 

equipment 

Management Manage*, boss, supervis*, company, policy, 

organization, administration, control, chief, 

rule*, staff, inadequate 

Naps Nap* 

Personal Issues (family, etc) Personal, private, family, domestic, son, 

daughter, wife, kid*, baby, father, mother, 

grand*, relative*, child*, husband 

Responsibility Responsib*, duty, blame, reliab*, 

accountab* 

Safety Safe*, accident, incident, injury, casualty, 

error, protect* 

Sleep Sleep*, rest, bed 

Stress Stress*, pressure, strain, anx*, worr*, tense 

Territory Desk, territory, coverage, area, region 

Weather Weather, heat, hot, degrees, temperature, 

cold, freezing, wet, rain, snow, sleet, light*, 

dark, sun, ice, climate, condition* 

Work Schedule Schedule, overtime, unscheduled, shift, 3rd, 

third, extra*, night shift, relief, break, hours, 

lunch, double 

Workload Busy, work load, workload 

Note: ATLAS.ti search logic uses the symbol “*” as a wildcard. For example searching for “stress*,” would result in all 

words starting with s-t-r-e-s-s and would include any ending (such as stressful, stressor, etc.).
55

Table 36. Frequency of comments by topic area and source 

Source of Comments 

Topic Sleep Log Work Log Total 

Sleep 1877 298 2175 

Workload 17 678 695 

Alertness/Fatigue 109 393 502 

Naps 432 36 468 

Work Schedule 169 178 347 

Stress 33 308 341 

Personal Issues 258 47 305 

Territory 2 55 57 

Communication 3 38 41 

Safety 0 28 28 

Weather 0 28 28 

Management 9 8 17 

Responsibility 2 9 11 

Total 2911 2104 5015 

The limited comments relating to Management and Responsibility were not meaningful and are 

therefore not presented below. 

Selected comments by topic follow: 

Sleep 

• “Sleeping during the day is not the same as sleeping at night. I’ve been on third shift for 

8 years and I have never gotten used to it.” 

• “Being on a relief job you never have enough time to catch up on your rest because you 

only have one and a half days off each week, and how much of that is really a day off?” 

• “Did not get enough sleep because worked second shift on Friday and first shift on 

Saturday.” (assistant chief) 

• “Was not good sleep due to job called me at 0600 to be at work at 0630. I was scheduled 

to work at 1430, so my sleep was planned on that schedule.” (extra board dispatcher) 

• “Woke up from 1200-1215. Even on off days I try to stay on same sleep schedule. If I 

keep trying to change my schedule around, I will be more tired, grumpy, and have less 

energy. Feel groggy all day.” 
56

• “My change of assignments also meant going from third shift to afternoons so my sleep is 

now much better! It took about 4 months to get 6 straight hours.” 

• “It’s a day off and I slept more. The extra nap helped a lot. I went to bed at 2200 hours. 

I use my days off to catch up on lost sleep so I don’t get much else done on my days off 

except SLEEP.” 

Workload 

• “Sunday was a little lighter workload, but trains, duties, responsibilities, rules increase 

regularly. Eating, taking a break is next to impossible because the workload increases 

continuously! We are also responsible for numerous weather alerts, warnings, and have 

to constantly devote excess time to notifying every train and document data–feel like a 

weather reporter.” 

• “Extremely busy. Multi-tasking non-stop for full shift. Very stressful. Had to rest in 

parking lot before feeling fit to drive home.” 

• “Very busy day today–barely had a chance to eat or go to the bathroom. By 6 p.m. I was 

really tired, physically and mentally. Each phone call began to be overwhelming halfway 

through the shift. Days like this would be so much easier if you would get a 30 minute 

break away from the desk.” 

• “Sunday night–Did not sleep very soundly. I think the anticipation of the coming day’s 

events (workload) makes sleeping difficult.” 

• “Very busy. Break long enough to go to the restroom and get coffee. No time for lunch. 

Signal trouble late in shift.” 

• “Because of enormous increase in traffic volumes, every day is extremely busy and 

intense. Opportunities for breaks are few, if any, due to the constant demand for my 

attention. The long, intense mental workout leaves me mentally drained and tired by end 

of day. This usually leaves me needing a nap in the afternoon, which disturbs a normal 

sleep at night and unrested in the morning.” 

• “Regarding ‘breaks’ during the work day: we do not have ‘break’ time built into the 

work schedule. The only break I ever take is to use the restroom or get my lunch from 

the refrigerator and return to my work site. I eat lunch while continuing my work. Time 

passes really fast during the work day. Most days I’m mentally exhausted at the end of 

the day.” 

Alertness/Fatigue 

• “Typical day for the night shift. It’s like a pattern of not enough sleep and always tired.” 

• “I work days, sleep nights, get good rest. Things were different when I worked nights. I 

was tired all the time.” 

• “Work was slow. When it’s that way, it’s hard to stay awake sometimes. Busier is 

better.” 

• “Very good work day. A steady day where time went by quickly and felt rested and alert 

all day.” 
57

• “Another very long night... Fighting to stay awake, drank 7 cups of coffee and took 3 

‘NoDoz’ pills to keep going. So tired I started to invert numbers and forgot what I was 

going to say to people.” 

• “Did not sleep. Marked off work for third shift starting tonight at 2230. Due to being 

dangerously exhausted.” 

• “It seems that I just reached the point of total exhaustion. I need to try to go to bed at the 

same time every night, but being on the extra board makes it hard to. The last 2 weeks 

have been the exception as I had somewhat of a normal shift. Not always true!!!” 

• “I feel very alert when leaving work, but after 10 minutes in the car ‘winding down’ the 

fatigue envelopes me.” 

• “I did not feel very alert all day, nodding off frequently at my desk. No matter how many 

breaks I took, I couldn’t seem to fully concentrate on my work because I was so tired. 

I’m looking forward to tomorrow, a rest day, to catch up on some much needed sleep. At 

this point of the week, I’m burned out.” 

• “3rd day to work 12 hour shifts and very tired!” 

Naps 

• “Generally when my shift changes from evening shift to night shift, I split my sleep. So 

I will mostly take a nap for abut 3 or 4 more hours of sleep.” 

• “Took a short nap. Didn’t want to waste any of my day and a half off.” 

• “Had to take nap before work, may have to double.” 

• “Short nap to relieve stress–felt better after nap.” 

• “Took a nap–trying to stay rested in case called for third shift. Did not get the call for 

third until 11:40 p.m. for an 11 p.m. shift. Had just gone to bed and dozed off.” 

• “Decent night’s sleep but will spend the remainder of the day dreading third shift tonight. 

Short nap prior to work I find to be very helpful, makes the night at least tolerable.” 

• “Slept extra today–coming off rest day and going to work third–extra sleep so I don’t 

have to take a nap.” 

Work Schedule 

• “Had to work a double shift last night. By the time I got home had only one thing on my 

mind. Go to bed. Was worried about getting into a car accident on way home I was so 

tired.” 

• “The hardest part of the job–working this swing shift–is staying alert on third shift. The 

workload is OK, but I’m never able to get enough rest to work effectively.” 

• “Was told I was working third shift. Went to bed and was called to take a rest day and 

come first shift on the 5th. Yo-yo sleeping messes me up. ‘Circadian rhythm out of 

whack.’” 

• “Making the transition to third shift one night a week is very difficult. The next day, ‘my 

so called day off,’ I am pretty much exhausted because if I sleep too long when I get 
58

home, I won’t sleep that night. Have to get back on a regular schedule. Overall work 

day OK but I feel like I gradually go downhill.” 

• “Always seem to have trouble falling asleep after day off. Originally supposed to work 

second trick today, but when we got home yesterday evening found a message saying I’m 

working first trick, which required me to rush and get all my stuff ready and my lunch, so 

instead of winding down before sleep time, I go to sleep all keyed up. I really believe 

when they call you and change your schedule on your rest day, extra compensation 

should be given.” 

• “On call–don’t know if I’ll work. Sleeping in case they call me for third shift. They did 

not call.” 

• “Very tired all night. Tough to go from day schedule to night schedule. Also slow night 

for trains, doesn’t help at all.” 

• “Going from second to third shift is tough. I don’t always get a chance to take a nap so I 

am usually very tired by the end of my shift.” 

• “People on third shift should be allowed short naps if needed. I get very tired at night for 

no reason.” 

Stress 

• “Busy day. Student present today, adding to stress. Lots of impatient T&E and MOW 

employees making comments about their delays for lack of being able to get in contact 

with the dispatcher. This in turn causes more stress on the dispatch. Stayed over 45 

minutes to help smooth the operation for the shift transfer.” 

• “Many problems at work due to weather problems. Being tired and having a busy work 

shift makes for a very long night. Fatigue intensifies on rough work shift. Stress makes 

things worse.” 

• “More stress today than usual. Trains close to Hours of Service Law. Plans made by 

trainmasters, and dispatcher not made aware of plans.” 

• “Lately work has been really stressful. You have people constantly giving you a hard 

time. They call and call on the radio despite the fact that they can hear that you are 

talking to someone else. THEY mess up on something and you somehow get dragged 

into it...It is like babysitting 60 people all at once who should know how to act like adults 

but don’t.” 

• “Total chaos. Train traffic heavy and late, MOW people anxious to get time on track. 

Too much to be done by one dispatcher safely and efficiently by the rules and 

instructions. I chose the safe route.” 

• “Medium traffic. Steady work. Many communication and computer issues. Crew in 

emergency did not notify me, had trains going by–unprotected. I was stressed...” 

Personal Issues 

• “Wanted to sleep more but have to work this afternoon and I’ll take time away from 

family if I do.” 
59

• “On every other Saturday and Sunday I have only a 2-hour (plus or minus) window to 

sleep. I’m divorced and have split custody of my two children. The kids are brought 

here around 10:00 and I bring them to their mother’s at 20:20.” 

• “Difficult falling asleep–daughter has strep and worried about her–wife with difficulties 

at her work.” 

• “Mother’s Day–spent time with grandchildren and cut back on sleep. I’m used to being 

tired.” 

• “Due to having worked third shift the night before, I only sleep a few hours so I will be 

able to fall asleep at a normal time tonight and spend time with my children during the 

day.” 

Territory 

• “I work a very busy desk that keeps me alert throughout the shift.” 

• “Another stressful day. Rank 4 out of 5. Too much territory to control safely by one 

dispatcher.” 

• “I was shifted off my regular desk. I worked a much busier desk. By 12:30 p.m. I was 

bushed. By 1:30 p.m. I was completely tired and ready for a nap. 11⁄2 hours still left.” 

Communication 

• “Trains in emergency. Ongoing radio and CADS problems. Crossing failures–one radio 

tower has been down for weeks. It makes communicating with certain areas nearly 

impossible. Intermittent radio outages randomly occur on all other towers and constant 

repeating. The transmissions do not seem to be going out, as well as the fact the radio 

quality [is poor].” 

• “The radio problems are ridiculous. In my opinion, they are unsafe. It’s not just the 

radios. It’s the noise, speakers, air box, etc... When I try to talk to another dispatcher on 

the intercom system there is a lot of feedback, same with my open lines to yards. The 

computer system has so many glitches that it is causing more work than it saves.” 

Safety 

• “0825–rear end collision between two loaded coal trains. Total chaos. Crewmembers 

injured. Millions of dollars damage. Main lines blocked. The kind of shift no dispatcher 

ever wants, but must be ready for.” 

• “Full throttle. Many trains and the trauma of a crossing incident. I am so fatigued 

mentally and physically.” 

Weather 

• “Another hard day. Lots of weather-related problems and account maintenance work lots 

of trains went dead due to hours of service and our responsibilities, including lining up 

transportation as well. Life of a dispatcher is constantly changing.” 

• “Stress with weather conditions to protect. Wind in excess of 50 mph and flash floods 

until 0200.” 
60

• “Blizzard conditions–stressful, switches, etc. Won’t lock up. Vans delayed. Trains dead 

on hours of service, etc.” 

• “Tornado warnings. Heavy rain. Signal problems. Very stressful.” 
61

4. Findings and Recommendations 

Analysis of the data from this study provides some insights into the demographics of the U.S. 

dispatcher population, as well as how their work schedules and sleep patterns affect their 

alertness on the job. The data came from a random sample of U.S. dispatchers who are members 

of ATDA. Nevertheless, the results are representative of the Nation’s dispatcher population at 

the time of the survey for two reasons. First, approximately two-thirds of the Nation’s 

dispatchers are ATDA members. In addition, it is a reasonable assumption that the work 

schedules and sleep patterns of dispatchers in non-union dispatching jobs and at railroads with 

different labor representation are similar to those of the ATDA dispatchers because of the work 

hour limitations of the Hours of Service Law. 

This section presents the key findings of the study, as well as some recommendations for 

methodological changes for future field studies of this nature. The section concludes with some 

suggestions for additional research using the survey data from this study. 

4.1 Key Study Findings 

The following subsections highlight the study’s key findings with respect to dispatcher 

demographics, work periods, and sleep patterns and alertness. 

4.1.1 Dispatcher Health 

Dispatchers average 5.6 workdays lost annually due to illness. In contrast, U.S. employed adults 

with paid sick time average 3.6 d of sick time. Several possible explanations exist for the more 

frequent usage of sick days among dispatchers. First, this is a shiftwork population, and 

shiftworkers tend to have a higher rate of medical conditions, such as gastrointestinal problems 

and headaches. The stressful nature of the job may also lead to medical problems. Finally, some 

dispatchers, especially those working third shift or irregular schedules, may find it necessary to 

mark off sick to catch up on sleep. 

Due to the around-the-clock nature of railroading, dispatchers will always be shiftworkers. If 

dispatchers understand how the body responds to irregular work schedules and working at night, 

and if they have strategies for coping with shiftwork, they will be better able to manage this work 

arrangement and to minimize its health consequences. An initial dispatcher training program 

should include education on shiftwork, as well as the potential health consequences of 

inadequate sleep. For dispatchers who have had no shiftwork or fatigue training, annual rules 

training might provide the opportunity to cover this information. 

4.1.2 Work Periods 

Both trick dispatchers and assistant chief dispatchers have a nominal workweek of 40 h, but 

assistant chiefs, on average, work more hours per week. Since the Hours of Service Law does 

not apply to assistant chiefs, on occasion they will work 12 or even 16 h in 1 d. Based on the 

survey data, the primary reason that the assistant chiefs worked more hours than the trick 

dispatchers was that they worked an extra workday. A quarter of the assistant chiefs averaged 
62

1 d or more of overtime per week during the study. A regular work pattern like this with only 1 

rest day does not allow adequate time for rest and recovery from the workweek. 

The 8-h workday of a dispatcher plus commute time should provide adequate time for sleep and 

personal activities, but many aspects of their work schedules may prevent this. First shift for 

over 90 percent of the dispatchers begins by 7 a.m., necessitating an early wake-up time that 

compromises nighttime sleep. Third shift, relief, and extra board dispatchers must contend with 

varying and unpredictable work schedules, as well as sleeping at times when their bodies say 

they should be awake. For assistant chiefs, the situation has the added complication that no 

limitation exists on the number of hours that they may work in a day; thus two shifts in 1 d and 

backward shift rotation may occur. 

Dispatchers working relief and extra board jobs experience variability in their shift start times. 

Although the survey indicated that relief dispatchers have more shift variability than extra board 

dispatchers, relief dispatchers work the same schedule each week so at least the variability is 

predictable. In contrast, an extra board dispatcher who is not filling in for a regular dispatcher on 

vacation or other extended leave has no predictability in his/her schedule from week to week. 

Because of the way that this analysis computed shift variability, the extra board dispatcher’s 

variability may be underestimated. 

Since dispatchers do not have any planned or guaranteed breaks during their 8-h shift, the 

researchers were surprised to find that lack of breaks was not a major source of stress to either 

trick dispatchers or assistant chiefs. Perhaps dispatchers have become accustomed to their few 

short breaks and the need to eat meals at their desks. 

4.1.3 Sleep Patterns and Alertness 

Overall, dispatchers are a sleep-deprived group. They get less sleep than other shiftwork 

populations and less sleep than the norm for U.S. adults. Only dispatchers working first shift 

appear to be making up for their poor workday sleep on rest days. When working a third shift, 

many dispatchers employ a split sleep strategy, which is common in other shiftwork populations 

as well. The dispatchers’ overall lack of sleep is a concern since research has shown that 

performance decrements occur with less than 7 h sleep, particularly if it is consistently at this 

level. Even more disconcerting is that nearly 40 percent of dispatchers averaged 6 h or less sleep 

overall (for both workdays and non-workdays), and these individuals, who perform safety critical 

jobs, are probably unaware of the extent of their performance degradation and the potential 

health consequences of lack of sleep. 

One of the dispatcher daily log books included the comment that participating in the survey 

made this dispatcher aware of the extent of the dispatcher’s lack of sleep. The same entry 

included the comment that as a result of the survey, this dispatcher planned to make an effort to 

get more sleep. This one experience illustrates that fatigue education would likely make 

dispatchers aware of their inadequate sleep, hopefully leading to some changes in sleep patterns. 

The incidence of sleep apnea among U.S. dispatchers exceeds the U.S. adult norm. This may 

reflect an awareness of the symptoms of sleep apnea and its consequences. A third of those with 

sleep apnea have gone without treatment. Railroads and unions should continue their education 

programs pointing out the possible performance and health consequences of untreated sleep 

apnea and encouraging those with sleep apnea to accept treatment. Initial dispatcher training and 
63

periodic rules training provide the opportunity for fatigue education that includes discussion of 

sleep disorders. 

Dispatchers’ self-ratings of alertness throughout the workday increased after the commute to 

work and then declined from mid-shift. This pattern was the same regardless of shift worked, 

but the greatest decline occurred with those working third shift. 

4.2 Recommendations for Improvements in Study Procedures 

This was the third FRA-sponsored study of work schedules and sleep patterns of railroad 

workers. The experiences of each successive study have resulted in improvements in the 

subsequent one. Based on the experience of this study, several methodological improvements 

should be a part of any future studies to collect work schedule and sleep pattern data. Because 

this was the first survey of a railroad shiftwork population, the first two of the four 

recommendations below focus on issues unique to a shiftwork population. The recommended 

changes are the following: 

• Design and test instructions for third shift workers to use in recording their primary sleep 

period. Despite having instructions specifically for third shift dispatchers, some third 

shift dispatchers did not record their sleep on the correct day. Several things can 

potentially solve this problem. First, the instructions require re-evaluation. In addition, 

the pilot test of the survey instruments for another shiftwork population could include a 

hypothetical third-shift day to record. Examination of the pilot test participants’ 

responses to this hypothetical example is a means to evaluate whether or not the revised 

instructions are effective. Finally, if at least half of the participants in a future pilot test 

are third shift workers or workers on a relief schedule that includes third shift, then 

adequate evaluation of these instructions will occur. (OMB regulations limit the pilot test 

to a total of nine participants.) 

• Separate the question on job type (e.g., trick dispatcher, assistant chief, other) from the 

one covering work schedule. Question 5 on the background survey asked “What type of 

dispatcher job do you currently work?” Possible responses were the following: regular, 

relief, extra board, assistant chief, other. These categories are not mutually exclusive. 

For example, a dispatcher could work a regular schedule as an assistant chief. This 

question should have had the following three responses: trick dispatcher, assistant chief, 

other. A separate question, under “Your Work Schedule” should have asked, “What type 

of work schedule do you work?” with the following possible responses: regular first 

shift, regular second shift, regular third shift, relief, extra board. In spite of this poorly 

worded question, the researchers were able to effectively categorize each survey 

respondent’s job type and work schedule using the information in the background survey. 

• Include a definition of break and guidance on recording break information. The survey 

instructions did not define a break and did not provide any guidance on recording breaks. 

Based on log book comments, some dispatchers did not record any breaks because they 

do not get official planned breaks. The intent was to capture any opportunity for the 

dispatcher to leave his/her desk. The instructions should also specify to record 0 if the 

dispatcher took no breaks during the shift. 
64

• Include a question on the background survey that asks, “How many times have you been 

married?” Both shiftwork and railroad careers can lead to marital and family difficulties. 

Railroaders frequently report instances of divorce due to the life style of a railroader. For 

this reason, an additional question on the number of marriages would be helpful. 

4.3 Recommendations for Additional Research 

The researchers have developed an effective procedure and methodology for characterizing the 

work schedules and sleep patterns of railroad workers. Each of the three populations surveyed to 

date have had some differences, but the researchers used the same basic approach with the 

signalmen, MOW workers, and dispatchers. Additional studies of other railroad populations 

using this methodology would provide a more complete picture of work schedule and fatigue 

issues in the industry. Yardmasters, a group not subject to the limitations of the Hours of Service 

Law, have job responsibilities similar to a dispatcher and would be a candidate group for such a 

survey. Pollard (1996) collected data on sleep and work patterns of locomotive engineers using a 

sample of convenience rather than a random sample. Another survey of engineers would provide 

a more systematic assessment of these groups. Conductors, who have work schedules similar to 

those of locomotive engineers, might be surveyed concurrently. 

A number of biomathematical models exist for predicting human fatigue and alertness. FRA has 

sponsored a number of studies to improve and apply the Sleep, Activity, Fatigue, and Task 

Effectiveness model (SAFTE) to locomotive engineers (Hursh et al., 2004). SAFTE model 

developers could use the data from the dispatcher survey, as well as the data from the two earlier 

studies, to further refine this model and predict how the typical railroad worker schedule may be 

affecting on-the-job alertness. SAFTE also provide a means to examine the potential of 

alternative work schedules to reduce fatigue and risk of an error. 

Further analysis of the dispatcher survey data, as well as that from the signalmen and MOW 

workers, is possible. Additional analyses might examine the relative likelihood (i.e., odds ratio) 

of getting less than a minimum amount of sleep, such as 6 h, as a function of shift worked or 

work period start time and length of the work period. A similar analysis could estimate the 

likelihood of a workday nap as a function of shift worked. Comparisons across the different 

craft groups are possible to determine if differences exist between groups covered by the Hours 

of Service Law and those that are not. 
65

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Appendix A. 

Survey Materials 

This appendix contains copies of the following survey materials: 

• Cover letter to ADTA members from ADTA President 

• Instructions to participants on making entries in the Daily Log 

• Dispatcher Background Survey 

• Dispatcher Daily Log (1 day) 
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Appendix B. 

Supporting Data 

This appendix contains detailed data summaries that support the technical analysis in the main 

sections of this report. 

Table B-1. Tukey HSD post hoc test results for health status and work schedule 

Work 

Schedule 2 3 Relief 

Extra 

Board 

1 p = 1.0 p = .268 p = .988 p = .533 

2 -- p = .324 p = .994 p = .555 

3 -- -- p = .645 p < .05 

Relief -- -- -- p = .337 

Table B-2. Tukey HSD post hoc test results for age and work schedule 

Work 

Schedule 2 3 Relief 

Extra 

Board 

1 p < .05 p < .05 p < .05 p < .05 

2 -- p = .957 p = .989 p = .084 

3 -- -- p = 1.000 p = .275 

Relief -- -- -- p = .234 

Table B-3. Tukey HSD post hoc test results for years as dispatcher and work schedule 

Work 

Schedule 2 3 Relief 

Extra 

Board 

1 p < .05 p < .05 p < .05 p < .05 

2 -- p = .985 p = .889 p < .05 

3 -- -- p = .993 p < .05 

Relief -- -- -- p < .05 
86

Table B-4. Significant Tukey HSD ANOVA and post hoc test results for 

sources of stress and work schedule 

Work Schedule 3 Relief Extra Board 

Lack of control over work schedule 

F(4, 435) = 19.07, p < .05 

1 p = .0 p = .0 

2 p = .0 

3 p = .0 

Relief p = .0 

Loss of sleep 

F(4, 437) = 4.54, p < .05 

1 p = .042 

2 p = .027 p = .039 

Coordination with other departments 

F(4, 436) = 6.08, p < .05 

1 p = .016 p = .0 

2 p = .018 

3 p = .013 

Pressure to finish a task 

F(4, 437) = 4.88, p < .05 

1 p = .041 p = .001 

2 p = .014 

Ambiguous operating rules or procedures 

F(4, 437) = 2.94, p < .05 

1 p = .016 

2 p = .033 

Job security 

F(4, 437) = 3.40, p < .05 

1 p = .017 p = .030 

Communication problems 

F(4, 437) = 4.04, p < .05 

1 p = .004 

2 p = .011 

Relief p = .047 
87

Work Schedule 3 Relief Extra Board 

Inadequate time off 

F(4, 437) = 5.14, p < .05 

1 p = .014 p = .017 p = .002 

Table B-5. Significance tests for sleep ratings by sleep disorder status (workdays) 

Sleep Characteristic ANOVA 

Ease of Falling Asleep F(2, 438) = .03, p = .967 

Ease of Arising F(2, 438) = 1.71, p = .181 

Length of Sleep F(2, 438) = 2.38, p = .094 

Quality of Sleep F(2, 438) = 2.23, p = .109 

Table B-6. Significance tests for sleep ratings by sleep disorder status (all days) 

Sleep Characteristic ANOVA 

Ease of Falling Asleep F(2, 438) = .03, p = .968 

Ease of Arising F(2, 438) = .62, p = .538 

Length of Sleep F(2, 438) = .88, p = .415 

Quality of Sleep F(2, 438) = 1.24, p = .290 

Table B-7. Tukey HSD post hoc test results for nap length on workdays by work schedule 

Work 

Schedule 2 3 Relief 

Extra 

Board 

1 p = .931 p < .05 p < .05 p < .05 

2 -- p < .05 p < .05 p = .113 

3 -- -- p = .489 p = .132 

Relief -- -- -- p = .869 
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Table B-8. Tukey HSD post hoc test results for nap length by shift worked 

Shift 

Worked 2 3 

1 p = .770 p < .05 

2 -- p < .05 

Table B-9. Significance tests for alertness ratings by work schedule 

Work 

Schedule 2 3 Relief Extra Board 

1 χ2

(2, n = 205) = .27, 

p = .87 

χ2(2, n = 213) = 7.57, 

p < .05 

χ2(2, n = 195) = 4.53, 

p = .10 

χ2(2, n = 166) = 3.79, 

p = .15 

2 -- χ2

(2, n = 194) = 9.72, 

p < .05 

χ2(2, n = 176) = 6.25, 

p < .05 

χ2(2, n = 147) = 5.28, 

p = .07 

3 -- -- χ2

(2, n = 184) = .55, 

p = .76 

χ2(2, n = 155) = .85, 

p = .65 

Relief -- -- -- χ2

(2, n = 137) = 1.33, 

p = .51 

Table B-10. Significance tests for alertness ratings by sleep disorder status (workdays only) 

Time of Rating ANOVA 

Upon Awakening F(2, 438) = .82, p = .440 

After Commute to Work F(2, 438) = 1.42, p = .243 

After Lunch F(2, 438) = 1.79, p = .169 

After Arriving Home F(2, 438) = 1.38, p = .253 
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Appendix C. 

Adjustments to the Data 

Population Means versus Mean of Individual Means 

Some analyses of the daily log data calculated a mean for each survey participant and then the 

analysis used the individual means. Analysis of the following measures used this method: actual 

hours worked (for 2 weeks), primary and total sleep by type of day and job schedule, sleep 

latency by job type and by type of day, and all sleep disorder comparisons. All other analysis of 

the data from the daily logs pooled the data from all participants without first computing a mean 

for each individual. For example, the analysis of commute time used the mean of the data for all 

workdays in the survey data. The researchers used this latter approach where it was desirable to 

characterize a typical day rather than the individual dispatcher’s experience. 

Relief Jobs 

The schedule for a relief job may require the dispatcher to work different days and/or shifts. 

Two survey participants held relief jobs that worked the same shift each day but did not work the 

same desk each day. Since the focus of this study was on work schedules and sleep patterns, the 

analysis of the survey data treated these two relief jobs as straight shift jobs. 

Type of Work Schedule 

A few dispatchers held jobs that consisted of some days on a specific shift and the remainder on 

the extra board. For these jobs, the category for the majority of days determined the type of 

work schedule for that dispatcher. For example, if the dispatcher worked 3 d on second shift and 

2 d on the extra board, then the job was a second shift job for purposes of analysis by work 

schedule. 

Break Time 

Since this study sought to determine the extent to which dispatchers are able to take breaks away 

from their desk, the analysis of break time did not include breaks that occurred while a 

dispatcher was in a training class, rode a train for territory familiarization, or was in a meeting. 

Comments in the log books made it possible to identify these situations. 

91

Abbreviations and Acronyms 

ACRE Association of Commuter Rail Employees 

ANOVA analysis of variance 

ATDA American Train Dispatchers Association 

d day 

FRA Federal Railroad Administration 

h hour 

HSD honestly significant difference 

in inch 

min minute 

mo month 

MOW maintenance of way 

n/a not available 

NARAP North American Rail Alertness Partnership 

NHIS National Health Interview Survey 

NSF National Sleep Foundation 

OMB Office of Management and Budget 

SAFTE Sleep, Activity, Fatigue, and Task Effectiveness model 

TCU Transportation Communications International Union 

yr year