Joel T. Galofaro and Boris V. Vayner

Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio

Grover B. Hillard

Ohio Aerospace Institute, Brook Park, Ohio

Experimental Tests of UltraFlex Array Designs in 

Low Earth Orbital and Geosynchronous Charging 

Environments

NASA/TM—2011-216752

September 2011
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Joel T. Galofaro and Boris V. Vayner

Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio

Grover B. Hillard

Ohio Aerospace Institute, Brook Park, Ohio

Experimental Tests of UltraFlex Array Designs in 

Low Earth Orbital and Geosynchronous Charging 

Environments

NASA/TM—2011-216752

September 2011

National Aeronautics and

Space Administration

Glenn Research Center

Cleveland, Ohio 44135

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Level of Review: This material has been technically reviewed by technical management. 
NASA/TM—2011-216752 1 

Experimental Tests of UltraFlex Array Designs in Low Earth 

Orbital and Geosynchronous Charging Environments 

Joel T. Galofaro and Boris V. Vayner, 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

Glenn Research Center 

Cleveland, Ohio 44135 

Grover B. Hillard 

Ohio Aerospace Institute 

Brook Park, Ohio 44142 

Abstract 

The present ground based investigations give the first definitive look describing the expected on-orbit 

charging behavior of Orion UltraFlex array coupons in the Low Earth Orbital and Geosynchronous 

Environments. Furthermore, it is important to note that the LEO charging environment also applies to the 

International Space Station as well as to the lunar mission charging environments. The GEO charging 

environment includes the bounding case for all lunar orbital and lunar surface mission environments. The 

UltraFlex thin film photovoltaic array technology has been targeted to become the sole power system for 

life support and on-orbit power for the manned Aires Crew Exploration Vehicle. It is therefore, crucial to 

gain an understanding of the complex charging behavior to answer some of the basic performance and 

survivability issues in an attempt to ascertain that a single UltraFlex array design will be able to cope with 

the projected worst case LEO and GEO charging environments. Testing was limited to four array 

coupons, two coupons each from two different array manufactures, Emcore and Spectrolab. The layout of 

each array design is identical and varies only in the actual cell technology used. The individual array cells 

from each manufacturer have an antireflection layered coating and come in two different varieties either 

uncoated (only AR coating) or coated with a thin conducting ITO layer. The LEO Plasma tests revealed 

that all four coupons passed the arc threshold –120V bias tests. GEO electron gun charging tests revealed 

that only front side area of ITO coated coupons passed tests. Only the Emcore AR array passed backside 

Stage 2 GEO Tests. 

Nomenclature 

EB Beam energy (keV) 

ID Beam current density (nA/cm2

) 

Ne Electron number density (cm–3) 

R–C Resistance ()–Capacitance (F) 

Te Electron temperature (eV) 

VB Array Bias Potential, (kV) 

Introduction 

The Orion arrays represent a unique design challenge in that the arrays will encounter a number of 

different space environments ranging from LEO to cis-lunar with passage through the Van Allen Belts, 

and the lunar orbital environments. Fortunately, the all cis-lunar and lunar orbital and lunar surface 

environments, can be effectively, categorized under a broader category termed the geosynchronous 

environment case. So essentially, there are only two spacecraft environments that apply: LEO and GEO. 

 
NASA/TM—2011-216752 2 

Traditionally, photovoltaic arrays are designed for a single environment. For the Orion mission, a 

single array design is needed for operation in both LEO and GEO space environments. A preliminary risk 

identification for CEV was made early on by the Orion Project Team (Ref. 1). The Orion Team study 

pointed to four major issues: (1) Atomic oxygen degradation of ITO coatings in LEO, (2) ESD 

breakdown of dielectric coatings in GEO during geomagnetic substorm events, (3) ESD arcing due to 

pinholes or damage caused by micrometeorite impacts or orbital debris, and (4) sputtering of ITO 

coatings and related array contamination. 

LEO deployment and operations involve exposure to relatively cold dense plasma with well-known 

interactions issues: floating potential shifts, parasitic power loss, arcing, and atomic oxygen sputtering. 

Parasitic current collection and the resulting associated power losses from the array is closely related 

to a highly non-linear phenomenon termed snapover (Refs. 2 and 3). Under snapover conditions a small 

pinhole in dielectric can collect current as much as would be the case if the entire surface were 

conductive. Thus, high voltage Orion array must be tested against sudden increase in current collection. 

The ISS Floating potential probe (FPP) measurements revealed potential spikes of 70 V negative (Ref. 4) 

that present danger of arcing on an astronaut’s space suite (Refs. 5 and 6). The addition of new solar 

arrays to ISS and deployment of high voltage Orion solar arrays in LEO demand reevaluation of floating 

potential peaks and differential charging on CEV surfaces. 

The GEO environment is characterized as relatively low-density plasma with high energy particles 

(protons and electrons) subject to violent magnetic storms (Ref. 7). As a spacecraft passes though the 

substorm environment, differential charging can reach a few kilovolts, which create danger of powerful 

electrostatic discharge. During its course to cis-lunar orbital space the Orion spacecraft will basically see 

three GEO space charging environments; spending approximately 73.5 percent of its time in the Solar 

Wind, 13.3 percent of its time in the Magneto-sheath and 13.2 percent of its time in the Magnetotail. Table 1 

gives a comparison of worst case charging environments (Refs. 1 and 7). Table 1 also tabulates the worst 

case GEO charging (Design Case) designated for the Orion CEV spacecraft photovoltaic array surfaces. 

The general practice for spacecraft designers has been to use a single spacecraft design for operation in LEO 

and separate spacecraft design for operation in the GEO environment. As a result, the common practice of 

photovoltaic array manufacturer is to insulate all array cells with SiO2 cover slides for operation in LEO 

environment, and to force the array cell SiO2 cover slide to become conducting by over-coating the 

insulating cover slide with a thin layer of Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) for operation in the GEO environment. 

Because a single array design is required for operation in both LEO and GEO environments, the consensus 

made by the Orion CEV Project Team was to have ITO coating on each photovoltaic array. Since all arrays 

are required to have AR (MgF2) coatings, the only other specification was that the MgF2 coating be thin 

enough to allow charge to bleed through the AR coating, providing a surface resistance of approximately 

107

 Ohm/cm2. The purpose of the current tests is to ascertain the viability of Emcore and Spectrolab array cells 

to satisfactorily perform ESD free under worst case LEO and GEO charging conditions. 

TABLE 1.—WORST CASE GEO CHARGING ENVIRONMENTS 

 Design case Solar wind Magneto-sheath Magneto-tail 

Electron density, cm–3 1.12 9.5 1.1 0.16 

Electron temperature, eV 1.2×104 12.1 26.9 145.6 

Proton density, cm–3 0.24 8.7 1 0.15 

Proton temperature, eV 2.95×104 10.3 79.9 610.1 
NASA/TM—2011-216752 3 

Experimental Apparatus 

All tests were conducted at the NASA Glenn Research Center’s National Plasma Interaction Facility 

Tenney Charging Simulator VF–20 Chamber (See Fig. 1 for details). (Vacuum chamber dimensions: 

1.5 m length and 1.8 m diameter.) The chamber is equipped with large 0.9 m diameter cryogenic pump 

that is provides a background pressure of 2×10–7 Torr. A digital ionization gage was used to readout the 

chamber pressure. The chamber is equipped with a Kaufmann type discharge source that ionizes xenon 

gas neutrals via a hot filament cathode. The Kaufmann xenon discharge source was used to simulate the 

electrical charging conditions encountered in the LEO environment. Tank pressure was adjusted by 

slowly bleeding xenon gas neutrals into the chamber until a pressure of 5.0×10–5 Torr was achieved. 

Plasma parameters were obtained by sweeping a Langmuir Probe (Ne = 106

 cm–3, Te = 0.5 eV). 

For GEO testing the vacuum chamber pumped down to the base tank pressure and the array coupons 

were allowed to outgas in the chamber for a minimum of 8 hr prior to testing. Two electron guns with 

matching 0–20kV accelerating power supplies provided the electron beam flux needed to sufficiently 

charge up the arrays to simulate the GEO environment. Both electron guns were mounted on the chamber 

door. A single photovoltaic array coupon was mounted at the far end of the chamber for testing. A twodimensional (2–D) tracking system was installed in front of the array. The tracking system carried an 

electrostatic non-contact probe for measuring potentials on the array surfaces. The 2–D tracking system 

also included a Faraday Cup for measuring beam current density. A digital high impedance voltmeter and 

respective software were used to plot and save TREK probe position and potential distribution via a 

laptop computer. 

In principal, only the ram side of the array can be tested at a time because of wake effects caused by 

shadowing of the backward facing array surfaces. Therefore, the vacuum chamber needs to be re-opened 

and the array flipped for retesting the backside array surfaces. Array testing was limited to just four 

individual coupons, two each from two different cell manufactures: Emcore and Spectrolab. Emcore 

provided coupons with B Triple Junction Monolithic (BTJM) cell design: one AR coated (AR–BTJM) 

and one with an Indium Tin Oxide (AR–ITO–BTJM) coatings. The two Spectrolab coupons contained the 

Ultimate Triple Junction (UTJ) cells: one with an AR coating (AR–UTJ) and one with an ITO coating 

(AR–ITO–UTJ). Both BTJM and UTJ array designs incorporated a bypass diode in each array string to 

limit current in the case of sustained arcing between adjacent strings. 

The layout of each of the four coupons was identical: four parallel strings with four cells per string. 

An insulating Vectran gore (mesh) was attached to a rigid insulating composite fiberglass (G–11) frame 
NASA/TM—2011-216752 4 

with the cells cemented directly on the Vectran mesh. Emcore used thin conductive strips for each string 

output lead. The thin conductive strips are brought out to the edge of the frame and terminated via the 

string termination pads. All conducting strips have a thin insulating layer of Tedlar covering each 

conductive strip. See Figures 2(a) to 2(d) for details. The Spectrolab arrays had no such conductive strips. 

The Spectrolab arrays also had a thin insulating Kapton (DuPont) sheet masking off the non cell areas. 

The backsides of the CIC cells were left exposed. 
NASA/TM—2011-216752 5 

The circuitry diagram for testing against ESD inception in both LEO and GEO environments is 

shown in Figure 3. Figure 3(a) shows an R–C circuit, current probe and current probe amplifier used to 

detect primary arcs on the array. When an arc occurred and exceeded a pre-programmed trigger level, the 

waveform data were recorded to a specified file on the computer; the scope was then switched back 

automatically into ready mode awaiting the next arc. If an arc occurred between two adjacent strings the 

setup in Figure 3(b) would be used to check for sustained arcs. A color video camera mounted inside the 

vacuum chamber was used for recording arcs on VCR. Additionally, a quadrupole mass spectrometer was 

used to monitor the gas species in the chamber during the test. 
NASA/TM—2011-216752 6 

LEO and GEO Test Procedures 

The following test plan sequence started on delivery of each solar array sample: Photographs of the 

front and backside of the array were taken prior to testing followed by visual inspections to document any 

anomalies during shipment. Array coupons were then hand delivered to our Cell Calibration Flash 

Simulator Laboratory to make a baseline performance measurement at room temperature prior to ESD 

testing. Measurements of short circuit current, open circuit voltage, maximum voltage, maximum current, 

maximum power and cell efficiency were performed for each array string. The array was then hand 

delivered to the Atomic Oxygen Facility for a sweeping 10-day AO/UV exposure expose test of the AR 

(or ITO) coatings. Photographs were taken to document regions of interest that might be degraded from 

AO exposure. Finally, the array was hand carried to the Plasma Interaction Facility (PIF) for extensive 

testing in LEO and GEO environments. 

Stage 1—LEO Test Procedure Details 

Figure 1 shows a single Emcore coupon mounted in the chamber. The output leads of each array 

string were shorted together and connected to a separate high voltage electrical vacuum feed-throughs. 

Parasitic current for each string was measured separately by sweeping bias voltage within the range of 

0 to 120 V. (It is worth noting that the collection current is practically proportional to number density in 

our range of interest because the Debye radius is much shorter than the sample dimension). The array bias 

step voltage was held for one second before recording the collection current measurement at each voltage 

step. Finally, estimates for the parasitic losses were obtained and compared with photovoltaic current—

losses were not exceeded 0.5 percent. 

For the arc threshold tests the bias voltage was initially set to –40 V, and the array was held at this 

bias level for 60 min. If no arc occurred, the bias voltage was decreased in –10 V decrements, and coupon 

was retested for another 60 min. The procedure was repeated down to the –120 V bias voltage limit. (The 

arcing threshold limit of –120 V was modified by the test plan committee after the end of the Emcore 

AR–ITO arc threshold tests. The –120V limit was replaced by a limit of –240 V as a new margin of 

safety.) No arc was registered on all four tested samples biased up to 240 V negative. This result negated 

the necessity of testing against sustained arc inception. 

Stage 2—GEO Test Procedure Details 

All array strings are shorted together and connected to the negative terminal of a grounded high 

voltage power supply. Initially the array bias, VB is set for –1 kV and the electron gun beam energy, EB is 

set to 1.8 keV before proceeding. The beam current densities for both electron guns are initially set to 

1nA/cm2

 and the array sample is irradiated for 30 min. If an arc occurs during this time span, the array 

fails. If no arcs are detected at the end of the 30 min irradiation test, the beam current flux density is 

increased to 2 nA/cm2

 and the array is allowed to sit under irradiation for another 30 min. All four 

samples underwent the GEO tests with current densities of 1, 2, and 5 nA/cm2

, and bias voltages of 1, 2, 

3, and 5 kV. 

LEO and GEO Test Results 

Visual inspections of each array showed no cracks or imperfections to the CIC cells, but pointed out a 

number of other abnormalities: large exposed conductive strips need to be insulated, and the Vectran gore 

mesh needs to be under greater tension to provide a flat surface to affix cell coupons. Slight modifications 

were made to each array sample at the PIF Lab prior to installation in the VF–20 chamber. These 

modifications consisted of applications of adhesive backed Kapton tape to cover up the bus bars and 

exposed parts of connecting strips in order to decrease errors in the collection current measurements. 

Kapton tape was also added along the sides of the Vectran gore mesh not properly affixed to the frame. 
NASA/TM—2011-216752 7 

 LEO string current collection was measured by biasing the strings and sweeping bias between 0 

and +120 V in 1 V steps using a sensitive sourcemeter to record the current at each voltage step. Current 

collection are measured for the front and backsides of each of the four UltraFlex arrays. Plotted results for 

the front side of the first Emcore AR–ITO coated array sample in Figure 4(a) Front and backside current 

collection results are plotted for the second Emcore AR coated array sample in Figure 4(b). Similar plots 

for the front and backside of the two Spectrolab AR–ITO coated and AR coated array samples are shown 

in Figures 4(c) and 4(d). Front Side current collection results for are separately plotted for all AR–ITO 

and AR coated array sample coupons for each of the Emcore and the Spectrolab array samples in 

Figures 4(e) and 4(f). It is also interesting to note that the AR–ITO coated array cells collect 1.7 to 

2 times more current than cells only coated with AR coated layer. More quantitative array current 

collection results are conveniently summarized in Table 2. 
NASA/TM—2011-216752 8 

TABLE 2.—SUMMARY OF COLLECTED CURRENT RESULTS 

Coupon Current collected at 

+10-V (25% of max 

string Vop of 35-V), A 

Equivalent 19-cell 

string level current 

collection, A 

Successful 

test? 

Comments 

Emcore AR 0.00030 front 0.00018 Success Higher collected current than AR–ITO 

coupon indicates coupon labels may 

have been switched. Collected current 

difference increases to a factor 2 at 

+50-V bias. 

Emcore AR–ITO 0.00025 front + 0.00026 Success 

 0.00016 back = 

 0.00041 total 

Spectrolab AR 0.00020 front + 0.00030 Success 

 0.00030 back = 

 0.00050 total 

Spectrolab AR–ITO 0.00020 front + 0.00059 Success Current collected is above 0.00040 

amp goal but is still an acceptably 

small value of 0.15% of the string 

operating current. 

 0.00075 back = 

 0.00095 

TABLE 3.—LEO ARC THRESHOLD TEST RESULTS 

Coupon Arc at most negative bias 

required (-80-V, driven by 

mated-ISS case)? 

Yes/no 

Arc at most 

negative bias 

tested? 

Yes/no 

Successful 

test? 

Comments 

Emcore AR No No (to -120-V) Success Good margin demonstrated. 

Emcore AR–ITO No No (to -240-V) Success Very good margin 

demonstrated. 

Spectrolab AR No No (to -240-V) Success Very good margin 

demonstrated. 

Spectrolab AR–ITO No No (to -240-V) Success Very good margin 

demonstrated. 

For the LEO arc threshold tests were performed in separate consecutive one hour runs at increasing 

negative array bias voltages (–10 V steps) down to the maximum level of 240 V negative. Because there 

were no primary arcs no test against sustained arcs occurring was needed. Final LEO arcing threshold test 

results are shown in Table 3. 

Emcore AR–ITO array GEO Results 

All four array strings were shorted together and connected to a high-voltage power supply through the 

R–C circuit shown in Figure 3(a) (resistor and capacitance values in the R–C circuit were R = 1 M, and 

C = 50 nF). A problem developed early on in the tests: a number of arcs were registered on the non-flight 

like areas on the front of the array sample, even at the lowest levels of charging. Discharges were 

registered in less than 1 min after starting array sample irradiation. Peak current reached 8 A with a pulse 

width of about 10 s (Fig. 5). The TREK probe scan of the cell surfaces showed no signs of differential 

charging; thus, the ITO layer was effectively bleeding off charges. The sample was re-irradiated by 
NASA/TM—2011-216752 9 

energizing the EG using the same array bias potential, beam energy and current density settings, and 10 

more discharges were generated. Arc sites were clearly located: arcs occurred on the exposed thin Teflon 

(DuPont) paper sheet and on the Tedlar (DuPont) dielectric coatings. At this point the decision was made 

to modify the array by covering all exposed Tedlar strips on the front of the array with Kapton tape 

(Fig. 6). No modifications were made to the backside of the array. These modifications allowed testing 

cell area only. No surface charging was found at current densities 1, 2, and 5 nA/cm2

 and beam energy up 

to 3.5 keV. The array was next biased at –2.9 kV negative and irradiated with electron beam energy 

3.5 keV and current density of 7 nA/cm2

. Kapton tape strips were charged and an arc discharge occurred. 

Sample was dismounted from the VF–20 chamber and brought to calibration laboratory. No indication of 

visual damage or burn marks were found on the sample. The Calibration Laboratory recorded a loss of 

efficiency in each of the four strings. After the sample was returned a last attempt was made at biasing the 
NASA/TM—2011-216752 10 

array sample at –2.9 kV irradiating the sample with a beam energy of 3.5 keV and beam current density 

of 7 nA/cm2

 for a 5 min exposure. Electron gun power supply’s were shut down and an electrostatic probe 

scan was performed directly after e-beam exposure. The electrostatic probe scan clearly demonstrated 

charging of Kapton tape and a complete absence of charging on any of the cell surfaces whatsoever 

(Fig. 7). The Emcore AR–ITO BTJM array successively passed all Stage 2—GEO tests. GEO tests were 

not performed on the backside of the Emcore AR–ITO array. 

Emcore AR GEO Results 

Initially the Emcore AR array was biased at –1.1 kV. Note that the top cell (cell 1) on the array string 

U4 was cracked, while trying to remove section of Kapton tape which fell on the cell. Figure 8(a) shows 

an example of a surface probe scan of potentials for the Emcore AR array biased at 1.1 kV, but not 

irradiated. Figure 8(b) shows a surface scan of potentials after irradiation, with the array still biased at 

–1.1kV under an e-beam using a beam energy of 1.8 keV and with beam current density of 2 nA/cm2

. No 

arcs were detected but a scan of surface potentials shows the Emcore AR coated array appears to have 

acquired differential charging on CIC cells of the order of –900V, which clearly indicates that no ITO 

layer is present on the CIC coupons. Beam current density was increased to 5 nA/cm2

 and one arc 

occurred on the cracked cell. String U4 was removed from the circuit. Continued irradiation at the 

previous beam current density showed no arcing occurred. Array bias level was increased to –2 kV with 

the beam energy was raised to 2.8 keV and the sample was tested at beam current densities 1, 2, 5, and 

10 nA/cm2

 with no arcs detected on the flight like cell surfaces. However, three arcs were triggered on the 

non-flight like array, first two arcs occurred on the Teflon sheet and the third arc was detected on the 

Kapton covered Tedlar strip. Resumed testing with the array biased at –3 kV, beam energy 3.5 keV and a 

beam current density of 2, 3, and 5 nA/cm2

 with no arcs detected on the flight like areas of the Emcore 

AR array. Beam current density was increased to 10 nA/cm2

 and a discharge occurred in the area covered 

by Kapton tape after 10 min of irradiation (Fig. 9). The chamber was opened and additional Kapton 

covers were added to areas of the composite frame and connecting strips. Array sample bias was 

increased to –3kV and irradiated with a beam energy of 3.5 keV with a current density of 2 nA/cm2

. The 

first arc occurred on the string U2 interconnect between cells 3 and 4. A probe scan of surface potentials 

indicated differential charging up to 1.5 kV. Beam current density was increased to 3 nA/cm2

 and another 

arc occurred on the interconnect between cells 3 and 4 on string U1. Beam current was increased to 

5 nA/cm2

 and an arc occurred between cell 3 on string U1 and cell 3 on string U2. A final arc was 

detected about 15 min later on string U3 between cells 2 and 3. Therefore, the front side of the Emcore 

AR array failed to pass Stage 2 GEO tests due to arcing on the flight like areas of the array. 
NASA/TM—2011-216752 11 

The chamber was opened and the backside of the Emcore AR coated array was reinstalled with the 

electron guns pointed directly at the backside of the array. Backside testing started the –2 kV array bias. 

No arcs were detected in a 17 min test under irradiation with beam energy of 2.8 keV and beam current 

density of 5 nA/cm2

. Bias level of the array was increased to –3 kV with beam energy set to 3.5 keV and a 

beam current density of 1 nA/cm2

. One arc occurred near the top left side of the Kapton cover. Two more 

arcs were detected on the backside of the array in the area on the conducting strip near the edge of the 

composite frame. Array bias voltage was increased to –5 kV and the backside of the array was irradiated 

with e-beam energies of 5.7 keV with a current density of 5 nA/cm2

. Three more arcs were recorded: one 

arc occurred near the top middle region of the array on the Kapton cover applied over the composite 

frame and the other two arcs on the Vectran gore mesh near to the string conducting strips. A final 

attempt was made to see the effects of charging the backside of the array at extreme GEO levels. For this 

test the array sample was biased at 9.5 kV and the backside of the array was irradiated with a beam 

energy of 10 keV and a current density of 10 nA/cm2

. This extreme charging test resulted in multiple 

number of very intensive arc discharges scattered over face of the backside of the array (Fig. 10). 
NASA/TM—2011-216752 12 

Spectrolab AR–ITO GEO Results 

All four strings were biased at –2 kV potential, and TREK probe scan was performed across the 

surface of the array. Array surface was next irradiated with e-beam energy of 2.5 keV with an e-beam 

current flux of 2 nA/cm2

. No arcs occurred in the 20 min allotted time interval. Surface potential scan 

demonstrated that the ITO layer effectively prevented differential charging (Fig. 11). Beam Current 

density was increased to 5 nA/cm2

 and no arcing occurred at the –2 kV bias level. Bias voltage was then 

increased to –3 kV and exposed to e-beam and irradiated for 15 min with beam energy at 3.5 keV and an 

e-beam flux of 5 nA/cm2

. One arc occurred at dielectric and conductor junction located at the bottom right 

corner on the bus bar . Continued irradiation of sample for another 15 min using the same beam 

parameters showed that no arcs occurred and an electrostatic probe scan demonstrated the absence of 

differential charging of array surfaces. Finally, the array bias and beam energy was increased to –5 kV 

and 5.5 keV, respectively, using a current beam flux 2 nA/cm2

. No arcs were found during 15 min 

exposure time. Increasing current flux to 5 nA/cm2

 resulted in multiple discharges appeared to originate 

on the insulated cable leads at the upper left side of the snapshot (Fig. 12). Arcs also appeared on the 

non-flight like dielectric and conductor junctions located at the top of the array in Figure 12. Sample 
NASA/TM—2011-216752 13 

The chamber was opened and the array was mounted with the backside facing the electron guns. 

When testing resumed the backside of the array was biased at –2 kV and irradiated at beam energy of 

2.5 keV and beam current flux of 5 nA/cm2

 in a 35-min test. Four arcs were registered on back of the 

array. The bias level was then increased to –3 kV and irradiated with a 3.5 keV beam having a beam 

current flux of 5 nA/cm2

 which resulted in four more arc discharges being registered. One example arc 

on the backside of the array is shown in Figure 13. As a result the backside of the Spectrolab AR–ITO 

array failed to pass the Stage 2 GEO tests. 
NASA/TM—2011-216752 14 

Spectrolab AR GEO Results 

Output leads of all the four strings of the Spectrolab AR array was connected to the negative terminal 

of the high voltage power supply through the R–C network (Fig. 3). All four array strings were biased at 

–2kV and a surface potential scan was performed before irradiating the array coupons (Fig. 14(a)). The 

array was then irradiated with 2.8 keV and 1 nA/cm2

 beam. First arc occurred on the top right corner of 

array string U1 and a second arc occurred at the same site after 2 min of irradiation. A third arc was 

recorded at the same position as the first two arcs some 7 min later. Beam current was increased to 

3 nA/cm2

. One arc was registered on the bus bar at the top of string U3. After total of 10 min under 

irradiation, an electrostatic probe scan indicated differential charging of approximately 800 V 

(Fig. 14(b)). 

One arc occurred at the top right corner of the array. The e-beam flux was increased to 5 nA/cm2

 and 

a second arc was triggered at the same location. The vacuum chamber was opened and both bus bars were 

covered with Kapton tape. The sample was reinstalled in the chamber and allowed to pump down to the 

base operating pressure. Testing resumed by biasing the array at –2kV and irradiated with a beam energy 

of 2.8 keV and e-beam current flux of 5 nA/cm2

. An arc discharge was initiated between cells 1 and 2 on 

string U1 after 7 min under irradiation. The bias voltage, beam energy and current flux was increased to 

–3 kV, 3.6 keV, and 2 nA/cm2

 and another arc was registered at the same location (top right corner of 

string U1) as before after 3 min of e-beam exposure. Increasing the e-beam current flux to 5 nA/cm2

resulted in four more arcs. Figure 15 shows a plot of current pulse recorded for the fourth arc discharge. 

As a result the front side of the Spectrolab AR coated array failed to pass the Stage 2—GEO tests. 

 
NASA/TM—2011-216752 15 

The chamber was opened and the Spectrolab AR coated array was pointed with the backside of the 

array facing the two electron guns. Arc discharges began to be registered at a bias voltage set to – 3kV 

and when subsequently exposed to e-beam irradiation using beam energy of 3.6 keV and a current density 

of 2 nA/cm2

. A snapshot taken from the video record of an arc discharge on the backside of the array is 

shown in Figure 16. Beam current flux was next increased to 5 nA/cm2

, at the same energy and array bias 

and an another arc discharge was initiated on the backside of the array. As a result the backside of the 

Spectrolab AR array sample also failed to pass Stage 2—GEO tests. A summary of front and backside 

Stage 2 GEO tests results for all Emcore and Spectrolab arrays tested is given in Table 4. 

TABLE 4.—SUMMARY OF STAGE 2—GEO TESTS FOR FRONT SIDE AND BACKSIDE OF 

ALL FOUR EMCORE AND SPECTROLAB ULTRAFLEX ARRAY SAMPLE COUPONS 

Coupon Arcing at or below most negative 

bias and e-beam charging 

parameters tested? 

Yes/no 

Any arcing margin? 

Yes/no 

Successful 

test? 

Comments 

Emcore Thin BTJM AR–ITO 

Front to e-beam No (up to -3 kV, 3.5 keV, 

7 nA/cm2

, 0 V differential 

charging) 

N/A, not tested Successful (1) Coupon does have ITO on the covers as 

proven by the lack of differential charging (tek 

probe data) under e-beam exposure. Arcing 

did occur on non-flight design flat cabling at 

-1.1 kV bias, 1 nA/cm2

, 2 keV e-beam. These 

~10-A arcs degraded cell IV performance. 

Back to e-beam Not tested N/A, not tested Not tested 

Emcore Thin BTJM AR 

Coupon does not have ITO on the covers as 

proven by the large differential charging (tek 

probe data) under e-beam exposure. Arcing 

did occur on non-flight design flat cabling at 

-2 kV bias, 5 nA/cm2

, 2.8 keV e-beam and 

1.2 kV differential charging. These ~10-A arcs 

degraded cell IV performance. 

Front to e-beam Yes (at -3 kV, 3.5 keV, 2 nA/cm2, 

1.5 kV differential) 

No Unsuccessful 

 

Back to e-beam No (up to -5 kV, 5.7 keV, 

5 nA/cm2

) 

Yes (arcs at next test 

point of -9.5 kV, 

10 keV, 5 nA/cm2

) 

Successful 

Spectrolab Thin UTJ AR 

Coupon arced at string terminal pad and 

connection point with round wire cabling. Cell 

to cell arcs occurred at -2 kV, 2.8 keV and 

5 nA/cm2

 resulting in 1.3 kV differential bias. 

Front to e-beam Yes (-2 kV, 2.8 keV, 1 nA/cm2, 

0.8 kV differential) 

N/A, not tested Unsuccessful 

 

Back to e-beam Yes (-3 kV, 3.6 keV, 2 nA/cm2) N/A, not tested Unsuccessful 

Spectrolab Thin UTJ AR–ITO 

Coupon arced at string terminal pad and 

connection point with round wire cabling 

under conditions of -3 kV bias, 3.5 keV, 

2 nA/cm2

 e-beam. 

Front to e-beam No (up to -5 kV, 5.5 keV, and 

2 nA/cm2

, 0-V differential) 

N/A, not tested Successful (2)

 

Back to e-beam Yes (-2 kV, 2.5 keV, 5 nA/cm2) N/A, not tested Unsuccessful 
NASA/TM—2011-216752 16 

Conclusions 

Generally speaking, all Emcore and Spectrolab UltraFlex, AR and AR–ITO coated, array designs 

successfully passed the Stage1 LEO tests results, showing no signs of arcing down to –240 V array bias. 

The Emcore and Spectrolab ITO coated cells and interconnect regions appear to be well designed for 

operating ESD free in LEO plasma environment. Furthermore, the reported string currents measurements 

are low (approx. 4 mA) even for the Spectrolab ITO coated array sample which collects slightly more 

current than the Emcore array, so that parasitic current loss should not be an issue for either of these 

arrays. The front side of the ITO coated CIC array samples from Emcore and Spectrolab also appear to be 

suitable for use in the GEO charging environments because the ITO coated array cells did not arc on the 

front side flight like regions of the array. (Surface potential scans after e-beam irradiation show that the 

ITO layer effectively bleeds off the charge). Emcore and Spectrolab CIC coupons layered with ITO are 

extremely promising in mitigating differential charging effects n the front side of the array, but still have a 

number of basic technical engineering problems that needs to be overcome before they can be safely used 

for operations in the GEO and Lunar mission environments. For example, minor “flight wing” design 

changes are needed to eliminate differential charging effects on the Teflon mask and the Tedlar dielectric 

coatings in the non-flight like areas of the array. String termination pads and wiring need to be redesigned to eliminate arcs on non flight like array regions on the front side of the array. Backside of the 

Vectran gore mesh also needs to have additional insulation added to prevent arcing on the backside of the 

array. The current test results have provided much valuable information concerning the expected complex 

charging behavior and survivability of the Orion CEV UltraFlex array design in both the LEO and GEO 

mission environments. In conclusion, a single UltraFlex photovoltaic array can be designed to 

satisfactorily cope with extended operations in the in low earth orbit and geosynchronous mission 

environments provided technical problems are properly addressed. 

References 

1. Hillard, G., Vayner, B., Galofaro, J., Snyder, D., Dever, J.A., and Miller, S.K., “Preliminary 

Assessment of Environmental Interactions for the Orion Solar Arrays,” NASA/GRC Internal 

Document (not Published), June 15, 2007. 

2. Ferguson, D., Hillard, G., Snyder, D., and Grier, N., “The Inception of Snapover on Arrays: A 

Visualization Technique,” AIAA–98–1045, 36th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit, 

Reno, NV, Jan. 12–15, 1998, pp. 1–8. 

3. Galofaro, J.T., Vayner, B.V., Degroot, W.A., Ferguson, D.C, Thomson, C.D., Dennison, J.R., and 

Davies, R.E., “Inception of Snapover and Gas Induced Glow Discharges,” NASA/TM—2000-

209645, Jan., 2000. 

4. Caven, P., Coffey, V., Schneider, T., Vaughn, J., Wright, K., and Minow, J., “Survey of International 

Space Station Charging Events,” AIAA Paper 2009–0119, Jan. 2009. 

5. Carruth, M.R. et al., “ISS and Space Environment Interactions Without Operating Plasma Contactor,” 

AIAA Paper 2001–0401, Jan. 2001. 

6. T. Schneider et al., “Minimum Arc Threshold Voltage Experiments on Extravehicular Mobility Unit 

Samples,” AIAA Paper 2002–1040, Jan. 2002. 

7. Purvis, C.K., Garrett, H.B., Whittlesey, A.C., and Stevens, N.J., “Design Guidelines for Assessing 

and Controlling Spacecraft Charging Effects,” NASA TP–2361, 1984. 
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Experimental Tests of UltraFlex Array Designs in Low Earth Orbital and Geosynchronous 

Charging Environments 

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Galofaro, Joel, T.; Vayner, Boris, V.; Hillard, Grover, B. 

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WBS 644423.06.32.03.05.03 

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14. ABSTRACT

The present ground based investigations give the first definitive look describing the expected on-orbit charging behavior of Orion UltraFlex 

array coupons in the Low Earth Orbital and Geosynchronous Environments. Furthermore, it is important to note that the LEO charging 

environment also applies to the International Space Station as well as to the lunar mission charging environments. The GEO charging 

environment includes the bounding case for all lunar orbital and lunar surface mission environments. The UltraFlex thin film photovoltaic 

array technology has been targeted to become the sole power system for life support and on-orbit power for the manned Aires Crew 

Exploration Vehicle. It is therefore, crucial to gain an understanding of the complex charging behavior to answer some of the basic 

performance and survivability issues in an attempt to ascertain that a single UltraFlex array design will be able to cope with the projected 

worst case LEO and GEO charging environments. Testing was limited to four array coupons, two coupons each from two different array 

manufactures, Emcore and Spectrolab. The layout of each array design is identical and varies only in the actual cell technology used. The 

individual array cells from each manufacturer have an antireflection layered coating and come in two different varieties either uncoated 

(only AR coating) or coated with a thin conducting ITO layer. The LEO Plasma tests revealed that all four coupons passed the arc threshold 

-120 V bias tests. GEO electron gun charging tests revealed that only front side area of ITO coated coupons passed tests. Only the Emcore 

AR array passed backside Stage 2 GEO Tests. 

15. SUBJECT TERMS

Orion; Photovoltaic (PV) array 

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