cost only about $12. A heavier front axle on the smaller of the two
trucks would cost about $41, but it would increase the loading ca-
pacity on the front end from 3, 500 pounds to 5,000 pounds. On the
larger truck a heavier front end would cost $175, but would increase
the loading capacity from 7,000 pounds to 9,000 pounds. A heavy-
duty rear axle would cost $75 for the smaller truck and $280 for the
larger truck but it would increase the capacity about 13 percent. _
Heavy-duty front and rear springs do not cost much extra and per-
haps should be considered. Actually, you should consider your use
for the truck and compare the cost of the extras with the benefits to
determine the best equipment for cost.

In considering dump trucks, there is always a question of how large
a truck you should buy. During the last year or so, we have bought
four dump trucks, ranging in size from 4 cubic yards to 8 cubic
yards. The 4-yard truck with dual rear wheels costs $4, 500; a 6-
yard truck with tandem rear drive costs $8, 400; while two 8-cubic-
yard trucks with tandem rear drive and auxiliary transmission cost
$10,500 each. This will give you some idea of the range in cost for
various sizes of dump trucks. There are advantages to small trucks
and advantages to larger trucks, but due to the variety of work on the
O&M jobs it is probably advisable to have some range in sizes. How-
ever, the larger trucks experience little difficulty in delivering loads
to most any location on the project. For example, a contractor de-
livering transit-mix concrete for our rehabilitation program uses 7-
cubic-yard mixer trucks and successfully delivers concrete to all
construction sites in the area.

Computations can be made to determine the most effective truck size
and matching loading unit, but these determinations, although they
work fine on some construction jobs, seldom fit in maintenance work.
In maintenance work, the amount of fill in any one location is usually
small and borrow sites change often; consequently the hauling dis-
tance is always changing. Even the material hauled changes con-
stantly. The trucks are used to haul muck, dirt, concrete aggre-
gates, and even rock for riprap. Another feature that makes your
dump truck more versatile is the double hinged end gate, that is,
hinged at both the top and bottom. For ordinary dumping you would
use the top hinge. The bottom hinge will allow the end gate to be laid
down level with the floor of the truck thereby providing a longer bed
for hauling lumber or other materials. Because of the type and vari-
ety of work it is difficult to decide what size dump truck would be
most ideal.

WEED BURNERS
Weed control work is to be treated as a separate subject at another

time, but it would be well to consider some of the equipment used in
this work. The first burners used extensively in weed control work

16


in the 2 lengths of the bucket and the operator would have a tendency
to keep on pulling it up to the machine to get it full. He would end
up with it too close to the machine where it takes additional power
to lift it. The use of this additional power for lifting not only costs
money, but it uses power that should be available for faster swing-
ing. This additional pulling of the bucket takes time and slows down
the cycling of the machine.

Dragline buckets are manufactured in three weights, for light, me-
dium, or heavy duty. Perforated buckets are also available and are
very desirable for drain cleaning work. As the bucket is picked up,
the water runs out through the perforations rather than around the
front of the bucket. This has a tendency of drawing the weeds and
other lightweight material into the back of the bucket instead of los-
ing them around the front edge.

When the size of the bucket has been determined, an estimate of the
weight of the material is made and a size of machine is selected that
will handle this weight without exceeding 75 percent of the tipping
load at a working angle and boom length that will reach the maximum
size canal or drain to be cleaned.

State highway weight restrictions also limit the size of machines.
The size of your hauling equipment or the cost of renting heavy haul-
ing equipment likewise imposes a limitation on the size of a machine
and it becomes hard to justify a 2-cubic-yard dragline that will weigh
around 130,000 pounds. A 1-1/2-cubic-yard machine usually weighs
about 100, 000 pounds and can be moved on a 50-ton trailer. Hauling
equipment of this size is not so unusual. Therefore, depending on
your requirements, a machine in the range of 1- to 1-1/2-cubic-yard
capacity would seem to be the best size.

Although these machines are usually purchased for dragline work,
the basic machine is made so that various attachments can be applied
or changed to facilitate or perform other operations carried on in our
maintenance programs. Basically, the machine is a shovel, hoe,
crane, dragline, or clamshell. The last three of these are all used
with the same lattice-type boom and the same drum arrangement for
winding the cable. Draglines usually have a smaller lagging for a
larger size cable on the haulback line. So with a few additional con-
siderations we are able to select a dragline that could also be used
to do crane work or clamshell work or to drive piling. Unless there
is a considerable amount of rock loading or trenching to do, it would
be hard to justify the purchase of a shovel front or backhoe attach-
ment, so let us go back to the basic dragline and see what it takes to
make it a crane, clamshell, and pilehammer.

First of all we have to have at least more than one sheave in the

crown block and it would be better to have three which would cost
about $185 extra. We would need a tagline winder for clamshell work

10



PROJECT OPERATION BY BOARDS OF CONTROL

Boards of Control were developed to serve water users most equita-
bly and economically from common and interrelated irrigation facil-
ities. The merits of the Board of Control type operation, where
joint storage, carriage and other related features are used to serve
contiguous individual irrigation districts has been discussed in sev-
eral of the annual conferences held by irrigation districts and has
received special attention in the Bureau of Reclamation's Irrigation
Operators' Workshop held in 1961, 1962, and 1963 in the Office of
the Chief Engineer, Denver, Colorado.

It has been maintained that the Board of Control type operation has
many advantages and an attempt has been made in the Pacific north-
west to evaluate those opinions, where three boards of control are
operating project facilities. One board represents five irrigation
districts with a total irrigable area of approximately 165, 000 acres,
and has been responsible for operation since 1926; another represents
seven irrigation districts with a total irrigable area of 65,500 acres;
and a third represents two irrigation districts with a total irrigable
area of 39,600 acres. The latter two have been responsible for irri-
gation system operations since 1956 and for operation of a reservoir
and related works common to both, since 1958.

There is considerable variation in the size of the individual irrigation
districts comprising the three boards of control. This is recognized
in that representation on the boards is on the basis of irrigable acre-
age. In order to obtain an evaluation of the operations, a question-
naire was mailed to 44 directors of the 14 individual irrigation dis-
tricts involved, several of whom were members of one of the boards
of control. Eight specific questions were asked. In addition volun-
tary comments were included on many of the questionnaires upon
their return. Like polls of this type, no response was received from
some directors, but the overwhelming opinion of those answering, as
discussed below, was favorable to the board of control approach to
operation. It also should be remembered that some of the districts
replying have operated by both board of control and individual district-
type operations.

Question 1--Has joint operation of your district's irrigation facilities
made it (more difficult or less difficult) for a water user to contact
the right people for corrective action on a problem?

More difficult 21 percent
Less difficult . 74 percent
No difference 5 percent

Question 2--Has distribution of project water supply been equitable
and satisfactory under joint operation?

VYOS oo. ee eee eee 100 percent



DIRECTOR AND MANAGER TEAMMATES
By
R. W. Hendrick, President, Okanogan
Irrigation District, Okanogan, Wash. *

It couldn't be

If I were to read the minutes of a meeting of the Board of Directors
from one of the irrigation districts represented here today, would
they read like this? ''The meeting was called to order at 1:00 p. m.
by the Chairman of the Board with all members and the Secretary
present. Minutes of the last meeting were read and approved.
Vouchers were signed and after some discussion the meeting
adjourned at 2:00 p.m."

Iam sure these are not the minutes of any of your Boards of Direc-
tors, for the very fact that you are attending this Conference indi-
cates that you have more of an interest in the welfare of your Dis-
trict than is apparent in the District I just suggested. Now then,
admitting these minutes are rather ridiculous and assuring ourselves
they are not at all like our own, let's take a little closer look and see
if our own operations parallel in any way those of the District I sug-
gested. AsI read these minutes, undoubtedly each of you formed in
your own minds a mental image of the operations of such a District,
just as I did as I wrote them.

I arrived at two possible conclusions as to the operations of sucha
District. I am sure there are many other possibilities, but the two
possibilities as I see them are:

(1) The Manager of the District is sucha capable person,
doing such a fine job of operating the District that every one
is perfectly happy and therefore there is no need of the direc-
tors doing anything but signing vouchers.

(2) The second possibility that came to my mind was that
each of the directors has a personal friend, or a brother-
in-law employed by the District and is therefore kept well
informed about the operation of the District.

In accordance with the conclusions, the directors do not have to take
up a lot of time during their meetings discussing problems with their
Manager, for after all, they have a direct line of communication
straight through to the employee. There is no need of my going into
any detail as to the weakness of such an operation under either pos-
sibility I suggested. The problems involved here are very apparent
and I suggested them, only, to stimulate your thinking as to the prob-
lems you might have with your Director-Manager relationship. [

*Presented at the 13th Annual Irrigation Operators! Conference,
Boise, Idaho, January 21, 1964.



consisted of a high-pressure pump that forced the oil through nozzles
on the boom where it was atomized and burned. This operation usu-
ally resulted in a lot of black smoke and even unburned oil left on the
vegetation. These units could burn from 1, 200 to 1, 800 gallons of oil
per shift. Since oil presently costs about 12 cents per gallon, the cost
for fuel alone would vary from $144 to $216 per day. Onthe Yuma
Project a burner was developed that uses an air compressor to force
air along with the burner oil into two suction atomizer torches. Two
of these torches were mounted on a hydraulic-controlled 30-foot boom.
This type of burner reduced the oil consumption to less than 50 gal-
lons per hour as compared with 170 to 250 gallons per hour without
the air and produces a flame temperature of 2, 700° F. On this proj-
ect contaminated JP-4 jet fuel is available from the Air Force or the
Marines at little or no cost. Latest information indicates this ma-
chine will use 47 gallons of JP-4 jet fuel per hour, averages 1.1 miles
per hour which is also 1.1 acres per hour, and averages 43 gallons
per acre of area burned. The jet fuel produces considerably more
heat than ordinary burner oil and is not dangerous to use. Recently,
new torches have been built in the shop to spread the flame to cover

a wider area.

On another project where liquified petroleum gas is used in the burners,
a machine is used that has six burner heads, three for each bank and
both banks of small laterals are burned at the same time. This re-
quires about 165 gallons of fuel per mile with the fuel costing about

8 cents per gallon.

WEED MOWERS

You are all familiar with the sickle type of mower so we can skip that.
However, in recent years a newer rotary type of mower has been de-
veloped that performs well on irrigation works. It consists of one, two,
or three synchronized rotating heavy cutting blades that are powered
from the power takeoff on the tractor. They do an excellent job of mow-
ing and handle fairly large brush. The three cutter units fit our purpose
best as one set of blades can be hung over the inside or outside slope of
the canal bank and, it not only cuts off the brush and weeds, but it will
throw most of the cuttings up the bank, out of the water. Weed cuttings
from the sickle type of mower fall into the canal water and usually cre-
ate trash problems in the ditch. Altogether, the rotary mower will cut
a 15-foot swath.

The main limitation is that the outside units cannot be lowered as much
as we would like. By modifying the machine and cutting away some of

the deck plate, however, we are able to lower it to about 30° below the

horizontal.

17



P163-D-43732 NA

Figure 3 Figure 4

Figure 5 Figure 6

of course, are utilized to tighten the cables sufficiently to bind the
load to the trailer.

The winches and cable eliminate the need for the conventional chains
and "boomers" that are frequently utilized for binding loads. Actually
this has resulted in a savings in cost since discarded cable from drag-
lines or other pieces of similar equipment can be utilized. The winches
shown were made inthe project shops. Similar winches are available
commercially.



working, how vital it is in case of emergency, and the cost and avail-
ability of rental equipment? Some types of equipment must be imme-
diately available in case of emergencies. If this equipment can also
be utilized enough in the normal maintenance program, it will un-
doubtedly be wise to own the equipment. Rental companies intend to
make a profit on their operations, and this profit could be converted
to a savings to the irrigation district. Equipment needed for emer-
gencies must be purchased if it is not always immediately available
on a rental basis.

All projects should be continually searching for newer and more effi-
cient ways to handle maintenance work, and this usually involves new
machinery. The use of new machines should not only speed up the
work, but should also reduce the number of employees required.
This single development has probably been responsible for keeping
O&M costs somewhat in line in spite of the continual increases in
wages and other costs.

METAL PIPE BAND CLAMP
(Suggestion R5RG-62-7)

The sketch below is a suggestion by Robert P. Marin, Machinist,
Rio Grande Project, Texas, for a tool to install corrugated steel
pipe couplings, safely and easily. This tool has been used to advan-
tage in closing and expanding the collar by merely turning the crank
handle.

/ Lock block, vig" Hole
2" Threaded rod-. YY

Handle

“tock”



double-drum type mounted on the rear of the tractor can provide
power for the dozer blade and have a spare drum for other uses such
as a towing line for the weed cutter. Both drums are needed for
scraper work and the side sloper also requires two drums. The
hydraulic-controlled power unit is usually restricted to use witha
dozer. About the only instance I can think of where the hydraulic
dozer has an advantage over the cable type is in blading a rocky or
extremely hard surface where positive down pressure is required.
This makes the dozer more adaptable to pick out rock or other hard
material that the cable-type dozer will sometimes skim over.

SHOVEL LOADERS

The rubber-tired front-end loader is a very practical piece of equip-
ment for use on maintenance work. Not only is it an excellent dirt
loader, but also its mobility makes it extremely handy for use in re-
pairing canal breaks or other emergency work. However, I believe
the front loader should have a bucket capacity of not less than 1-

1/2 yards. Sometimes this large a bucket is not needed, but a
smaller machine is often too light to dig into hard spoil banks.

In selecting a front loader, it is a good idea to consider the purchase
of a forklift attachment so that it can be substituted for the bucket.
The unit can then be used in your warehouse or outdoor storage area
to stack materials or load them onto trucks. If such a unit is avail-
able, and the warehoused materials are stacked on pallets or in such
a manner that the forklift can get at the material, the cost of handling
can be greatly reduced and more use made of the equipment. This
unit can also handle a concrete bucket in placing concrete into forms
that are too high for the mixer truck to discharge into. A standard
concrete bucket can be set on the forks and attached to the frame. In
this manner the unit can often release a crane for other work or elim-
inate man-hours or hard work shoveling concrete into the forms.

MOTORGRADERS

The selection of a motorgrader is often influenced by the condition

of the roadway on which it will have to travel. Narrow bank roads
may lead you to decide to purchase a medium-sized grader or smaller
grader. However it is difficult to do a good job with equipment that

is too small. A complete analysis of the specifications on motor-
graders will indicate that there are comparatively small differences
in the actual length and width of the larger model and one of medium
class. The main difference is in the weight and horsepower and it is
these two features that are most necessary for accomplishing the work
with a motorgrader. Usually a roadway that is too narrow to accom-
modate a good sized motorgrader is also too narrow to carry on even

14


cause fatigue. When lubrication is inadequate, the stresses in a rope
are increased by the high frictional resistance to the movement of
wires over each other and fatigue failures occur more quickly. Cor-
rosion is also a principal cause of wire rope failure. Though lubricants
for other services may not even be expected to provide corrosion re-
sistance, wire rope lubricants are normally formulated to provide re-
sistance to rust and other corrosive attacks. Surprising to many is the
large area open to such attack. For example, for every 100 feet of
length, a 1-inch-diameter 6x7 rope has 110 square feet of wire surface.

The sketch at left shows motor-driven wire
brushes that can be used to clean off hard,

built-up dirt from wire rope. The brushes,
as shown, are set in line with the helix an-
gle of the strands and the rope runs down-

ward past the brushes.

Another principal threat to wire rope life
that lubrication is called upon to lessen is
deterioration of the fiber core. Wear, de-
terioration by water or dripping can all
cause the core diameter to shrink and re-
-duce its support of surrounding strands. Strands then tend to overlap
and severe cutting or nicking may occur. The lubricant can minimize
friction and wear at the core surface, seal it against water, and pre-
vent drying.

When lubricating wire rope by pouring,

it should be applied while the rope is mov-
ing slowly and as it touches the sheave.
This is illustrated by the drawing at left.
The contact with the sheave and the re-
sulting bending will distribute the lubri-
cant. The swab also helps to distribute
the lubricant and removes excess.

Lubricant requirements

To do its job, then, wire rope lubricant
should:

1. provide lubrication between pul-
leys or sheaves and the wire rope

2. penetrate between adjacent wires to lubricate them, protect
them against wear, and keep the core from drying out

3. protect against rust or corrosion from the atmosphere, acid,
alkaline or saline surroundings.


Location

Width

Length

Loading

Cost:
*Materials
Prestressed sections
Labor at bridge site

Equipment:
Jet pump
Trucks
Truck-crane

Total

Per square foot

Hansen San Elizario
Franklin Canal Lateral Lateral
Sta 1165+78 Sta 15+01 Sta 52+44
16'-6" 16'-6" 16'-6"
34'-0" 25'-0" 211-0"
H-20 H-20 H-20
$ 884.96 $ 611.95 $ 602.45
1,530.00 1,065. 90 928.20
767. 76 595. 60 647. 92
5.00 4.00 6.00
84.00 351.00 40.11
297.00 84.00 135. 00
3, 568. 72 2,971.10 2,566.94
6.60 7.20 7.45
3K 3K Kk

26

GPO 842-351


District? This is where board members can function best by simply
going home and taking care of their own operations. After all, most
board members have full-time businesses of their own to operate.

At the time of policy making the description of the functions of the
Manager should have been sufficiently broad enough to allow him the
full use of his own judgment as to the business and administrative
operations of the District. When a Board hires a Manager, they
must allow him the freedom that is necessary to handle the district's
business in a professional and efficient manner. If the manager is
not capable of doing this, then you must let him go and find some one
that is capable. This much authority placed upon a man requires an
equal amount of responsibility from the man who accepts that author-
ity. Perhaps there are those of you that would disagree with me on
the amount of authority your Manager should be allowed, but I believe
it is necessary. For if you place full authority and responsibility on
the Manager for carrying out the programs and procedures of the
Board and then he fails, you only have to point your finger at one man.

It is only human to make mistakes, this applies to directors and man-
agers alike. When a manager errs, he will have to correct the error
to the satisfaction of the board. However, if the Board of Directors,
by a majority vote, makes a decision that is contrary to the philos-
ophy of the Manager, he will have to abide by that decision or vacate
the position he holds.

Now this seems like a rather unilateral arrangement but we must not
lose sight of the fact that it is the director who is responsible to the
water user for the best operation possible.

Responsibility to water users

I have discussed at some length now the relationship of the Board and
Manager, policy making, authority, and responsibility to the water
user. Responsibility to the water user has been discussed the least
and in my opinion it is the most important. For, after all, the only
reason the positions of director, manager, or ditchdigger, even exist
is to serve the water users. I would like to summarize then, by sug-
gesting some of the most important ways in which a director can meet
the responsibility he has to the water user.

1. Provide a sound fiscal policy, one that is consistent with
adequate and dependable irrigation services.

2. Provide these services at the lowest possible cost to the
water user and still provide adequate reserves.

3. Make all decisions, such as water use and deliveries, with
fairness and impartiality.



think at times we need to take a look at ourselves through the back
door, so to speak, for a glimpse as to the way we really operate.

Let's be serious

So far I have taken a rather negative approach to this subject, sort
of backed into it. Now, I would like to take the straight forward,
positive approach, and suggest some things I think are essential to
a well-organized district operation.

The success or failure of a district is generally believed to be related
to management. This is true in a sense of the word for when we think
of management we must remember that the Board of Directors has the
sole responsibility of the successful operation of an irrigation district
in that it is responsible to the water users for the kind of management
that has been provided the district.

With emphasis then on the Board of Directors, who in turn provides
good management, we need to add just one thing - the proper relation-
ship between the two. Let us define then the respective duties of the
Board of Directors and the management and see how they can work
together for the best interest of the water user.

Policy formulation

It is my opinion that foremost in importance is the establishment of

a clear understanding between the Board of Directors and the Manager
as to precisely the functions which are to be carried out by each. If
not clearly defined, this can be one of the weakest areas of an organi-
zation's operation. Generally speaking, a Board of Directors is rec-
ognized as the policy making body of any organization. However, one
of management's primary functions is to aid in the development of pol-
icies and operating procedures. Management then can recommend such
items to the policy making body without any hesitation. A Board of
Directors by its very make-up has every right to disagree with poli-
cies made by the Manager and develop policies of their own.

Policy making is a vital function of any organization and should be a
two way street Whereon the Board and Manager have an opportunity
for free exchange of ideas which may eventually merge into sound and
workable policies. At the time policies are being made, individual
board members and the manager should express their ideas frankly
and openly. But once a decision has been made by a majority vote,
then individual board members and the manager should abide by this
decision and not air their differences in public. At no time should

we ever let prejudice or special privileges influence our better judg-
ment.

Daily operations

So far, I have discussed policy making and the relationship between
the Board and its Manager. But what about the daily operations of a

2


the routine operation and maintenance work. The larger motor-
graders can also be used to handle the side slopers if it is desired.
If the motorgrader is to be used with the sloper it is necessary to
get the lifting device for the scarifier attachment since this device
is needed to pick up the front end of the sloper blade.

TRUCKS

In the selection of trucks, let us start with the pickups. Under hard
and continuous use there is no doubt that the 3/4-ton models stand
up better than the 1/2-ton trucks. The employees used to object to
the 3/4-ton models because they were hard to steer and the heavier
springs caused them to be hard riding. The new 3 /4-ton models,
however, are as easy to handle and ride in as the 1/2-ton trucks.
The larger units have a longer life with less maintenance work so
the only other consideration is the additional original cost. The
best estimate that I can get indicates that the 1/2-ton model would
cost the Government about $1,640, while cost of a 3/4-ton pickup

is about $110 more. It does not take very many repair jobs to equal
this additional cost.

A desirable feature that is rather new in pickups, and larger trucks
also, is the six-man cab. A 3/4-ton pickup with a six-man cab would
provide an excellent crew truck for a small work crew. Six men can
ride in the cab and there is plenty of space in the pickup bed for haul-
ing tools. A rack can be built extending over the cab to haul ladders,
long-handled tools, and lighter pieces of building materials. A six-
man cab, 3/4-ton pickup will cost about $500 more than a regular
3/4-ton pickup. If you are using several crews in the field and are
now providing each with a heavier truck to haul men and material, it
would be a good idea to consider these smaller faster units for trans-
porting the crews and probably one heavier truck for hauling mate-
rials to all the crews.

In the matter of heavier trucks, most projects would have a require-
ment for both flatbed trucks and dump trucks. Flatbed trucks are
used to haul materials and, with recent development in precasting
and prestressing concrete structures, it would be well to consider
trucks of sufficient capacity to haul these structures as well as other
materials required in maintenance work. For example, an 18, 200
pound GVW truck, properly equipped will cost about $2, 900, while a
larger 27,500 pound GVW truck costs $4,800. This increases your
cost $1,900, but you have a truck that will handle precast structures
or other loads up to 9 tons without overloading instead of 5-1/2 tons.
Unless you have a requirement for several flatbed trucks in this
range, the larger of the two trucks will be much more versatile.

Another thing to consider in the selection of trucks is the extras.
For instance an oversize clutch on either of these two trucks would

15



costly down-time rather than take the trouble to maintain and lubri-
cate wire rope properly. Helpful information on this subject comes
from E. S. Reynolds, senior engineer, of a major oil company, and is
presented in the following:

Wire rope can be considered as a machine with many moving parts.
To get the most out of it, careful lubrication is essential.

A lubricant especially formulated for wire rope will provide the long-
est rope life with the fewest applications, but engineers setting up
equipment lubrication programs do not always recommend a special
wire rope lubricant. Where only a few wire ropes are involved, it is
often preferable to use one of the greases or oils used for other appli-
cations. There are many oils and greases that can approximate the
performance of a special wire rope lubricant if applied more frequently.
More frequent application may be simpler and more economical than
ordering, storing, handling and dispensing a special lubricant.

A wire rope consists of wire strands laid evenly around a core--usu-
ally made of hemp or other fiber, but, in some cases, also of wire.
Each strand consists of several wires laid--or helically bent, not
twisted--around a core.

Like any moving part it is subject to frictional wear where it bears
against its surroundings--rollers, sheaves, drums, and not infrequently
rubbing against rock, grit, etc. But, even more important is internal
wear as the rope's many parts bear on and move with or against each
other continuously.

Each wire of a rope can be in contact with three or more wires over

its entire length. Actually,
the line of contact widens toa
band because of deformation
under load. As a result, the
total bearing area in a wire
rope is relatively large--prob-
ably greater than in any other
piece of machinery of equal
weight.

The sketch at left shows
trough application which is
particularly appropriate
where lubricant must be
ROLLER heated to be applied. In any
of these methods the swab
helps to remove excess.

Metal fatigue is a main cause
of wire rope failure. Bend-
ing and tension stresses, re-
peated over and over again,



Question 3--Do you feel that joint operation of your district has had
an adverse, a favorable, or no effect on the operation and maintenance
costs you are paying?

Favorable effect ........---+--+5 95 percent
No effect .... 0.0... cee eee eee 5 percent

Question 4--Do you feel that distribution facilities for your district
have been maintained as well under joint operations as they would
have been under separate district operations ?

VOSS 2 eee eee tees 100 percent

Question 5--Do you feel that joint use of managerial, technical, and
clerical personnel, and of equipment has proved to be advantageous,
disadvantageous, or no difference?

Advantageous ......--4. eee sees 100 percent

Question 6--Has joint operation given you an operating financial re-
serve ata lesser cost than what you would have had under separate
operations ?

VOS occ ee eee 100 percent

Question 7--Has a joint board of control made it easier to resolve
problems that arise between your district and the other districts in
the board of control, than it would have been had you been operating
under a separate operating organization?

VOS oo ee ee eee 100 percent

Question 8--Do you feel that joint operation has been an advantage to
your district ?

VOSS cece cece eee 100 percent

The voluntary comments from the directors covered personnel, water-
control, maintenance, administration, equipment, and costs involved
in project operation. Advantages cited were the centralization of ad-
visory, operation and maintenance responsibility, and the fact that as-
sistance was more easily and quickly obtained; that better use was be-
ing made of personnel and equipment, therefore, better equipment and
personnel can be afforded; that this utilization of personnel and equip-
ment includes office accounting, records, and other administrative
and clerical activities.

Costwise the directors claimed that there was no question but what
joint operation was less costly. The joint operation avoids duplica-
tion, overhead expenses were smaller, fixed costs are spread over a
larger average and it is possible under the joint ownership of special

21



MOVE

)

- DO NOT RE

LAST COPY

Department of the Interior
Bureau of Reclamation

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

EQUIPMENT AND PROCEDURES
RELEASE NO. 48

APRIL, MAY AND JUNE 1964

P2I4-D-43727 NA

CONTENTS

Director and Manager Teammates (Okanogan Irrigation District)
How Wire Rope Lubrication Pays

Equipment Management
Metal Pipe Band Clamp

Project Operation by Boards of Control
Small Winches Bind Loads

Growth of Algae on Measuring Devices
Prestressed Concrete Bridges


lubricant to these ropes by hand, and they are usually relubricated
by means of a mechanical force-feed device. These devices cannot
handle lubricant that forms the heavy coatings used to protect stays
and a less viscous lubricant must be applied.

At left is an illustration, showing drop-
LyeRIGANT feed lubricator which provides continu-
OUTER ous lubrication, with many advantages.

cuene. The use of heat and insulation of the res-

HEATER BANDS ervoir as indicated, are required only
PETCOCK. with the more viscous lubricants.

vane

nsucATiOn Earth handling equipment

ELECTRIC
CONNECTOR Wire ropes in this service operate in

dirt and dust that adhere to the rope lu-
bricant and tend to form an abrasive
compound. Exposed to the extremes of
weather, the lubricant must resist be-
ing washed off by rain and protect the
wires from rusting. Nor should it be-
come brittle and strip off at low tem-
peratures.

Drippage after application generally is of little concern. A lubricant
similar to that used for wire ropes in vertical-shaft mines and for
under water service will provide the rust protection needed and, if
applied in relatively thin films, dust and dirt do not tend to form a
grinding compound with it. Some operators even prefer to use a
relatively light lubricant applied at more frequent intervals to wash
off dirt accumulations.

Obviously, some of wire rope lubricant requirements are conflicting
and probably no single lubricant will be developed to meet them all.
However, recent formulations are very effective, and are designed
to have the important characteristics listed above.

Methods of applications are relatively standard. The accompanying
drawings show techniques for cleaning and applying lubricants. What-
ever lubricant and method of application is chosen, the single most
important point in any wire rope lubricant program is frequency. Lu-
bricants should be used regularly. It is the simplest way to cut rope
maintenance costs.

%
*
%


To do this job for an extended period of time the lubricant should:
1. form a coating that does not throw or wipe off
2. resist being washed off

3. remain pliable and resist stripping at the lowest temperature
of operation

4. resist softening or thinning at high temperatures so that it is
not thrown off and doesn't drip.

From a practical operating standpoint, some additional characteris -
tics should be considered, and in many cases, these additional char-
acteristics are the more important insofar as selection of a wire rope
lubricant is concerned.

Thus, a good wire rope lubricant should:

1. form a light colored transparent film so that wear, corrosion,
or broken wires can be readily detected

2. form non-sticky films so that dust and dirt will not build up

3. be capable of easy application.

Yq- IN. ORILLED HOLES

(6 To 10 HOLES DEPENDING
ON ROPE SIZE)

ROPE DIAMETER

ROPE DIAMETER
PLUS I IN,

PLUS Yq IN,

The illustration at left shows how to clean
wire rope with compressed air. This can
be done with this simple, multi-jet device.
Such cleaning should be done after the rope
has been soaked with penetrating oil. This
same device can be used for steam clean-
ing which must be followed with compressed
air for drying.

Stationary ropes

For stays and guys exposed to all kinds of
weather and wide variations in tempera-
ture, the critical requirement is protection
against rusting and corrosion. A coating
is required that will resist the washing ef-
fect of driving rain or salt spray and that
will protect against rust and corrosion.
The lubricant must not drip off during ap-
plication or as a result of softening under
high summer temperatures and must re-

main pliable--not crack or peel off--under low winter temperatures.

Tramways and carrier ropes are stationary ropes subject to the same
conditions as stays and guys. However, it is not practical to apply



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4. Provide the District with a Manager that is capable of
administering the affairs of the district, and then let him do
this without interference.

Operating rules or regulations

I have made four suggestions in summarizing, and I have just one
more. First, let me say that the purpose of this Conference is to
give to each of you something that you can take home to your own
District, and put to use in such a way as to improve your program.
If I have made some suggestions so far that are of a benefit to you,
this is wonderful. I think, though, that any of you here could sit
down with your own boards, make an analytical study of your pro-
gram and come up with things more pertinent to your operations.
Now then, suggestion Number 5, the very last one and by far the
most important one is this.

Provide yourselves with a set of rules to follow in the operation of
your District. Now you can take these rules and call them By-Laws,
rules and regulations, operating procedures, or any other thing you
want. But get them down in black and white. Why is this so impor-
tant? Here is why. If you take ideas you have garnered from this
Conference or ideas of your own and formulate them into operating
policies of your District without writing them down on paper, they
are not policies at all but just hear-say.

I believe you will find many advantages in having the policies govern-
ing the operation of your District included in some way in your By-
Laws. Each year then, as your new Board of Directors is organized,
they can look at what has been the policy in the past, decide what
their policy will be in the future and in this way lend some continuity
between one board and the next. If you have done this, a Director or
Manager will never have to say, "I think the policy is,'' when asked

a question by one of the water users.

I have attempted discussing this subject in general terms only, leav-
ing out details of operation. If I have given you anything that will
improve the operation of your District, the pleasure was mine.

HOW WIRE ROPE LUBRICATION PAYS

(Reprinted from the September 1963 issue of WESTERN CON-
STRUCTION with the permission of the Editor)

The dividends that come from good wire rope lubrication are often
overlooked. Too often we put up with frequent replacements and even


JUSTIFICATION OF EQUIPMENT PURCHASES

There are several different ways of justifying the purchase of new
equipment. The one most common is the replacement of old or worn
out equipment. Although proper maintenance will increase the life of
equipment, eventually the repair costs become too high and the equip-
ment has to be replaced. Downtime, or time lost from production also
has to be considered, particularly if the piece of equipment is vital to
the maintenance program or if it is used in conjunction with other
equipment. An example of this would be a loader used for loading
trucks. If it breaks down, the trucks are idle too unless they can be
diverted elsewhere.

In replacing used equipment, we usually have previous operating costs.
It is a matter of determining when a piece of equipment has outlived
its usefulness and can be replaced with new equipment that can be op-
erated at less cost.

In purchasing any equipment, whether it is a replacement or a new
type of machine, not only the cost of operating the machine but also
the cost of just owning the equipment must be considered. The depre-
ciation and some of the other costs of ownership go on whether the ma-
chine is used or not. Some pieces of equipment need careful study to
determine if their usefulness will outweigh the cost of ownership and
operation. Many projects have probably found themselves owning
equipment on which they will never recover the original cost. In se-
lecting any new equipment, and especially when the new equipment

will make a change in your methods of maintenance, it is a good prac-
tice to estimate the number of hours the equipment will be used annu-
ally and predetermine as closely as possible the depreciation and other
costs of ownership right down to an hourly basis. To this, add the cost
of operation and maintenance to determine if it is feasible to purchase
the equipment or whether it would be better to rent it.

Depreciation on equipment can be figured several ways. The Bureau

of Reclamation uses a straight line method and depreciates cars, pickups,
and other automotive equipment up to 1 ton in 7 years, 1-1/2- to 2-1/2-
ton trucks 8 years, 3- to 10-ton trucks in 10 years, and over 10-ton in
12 years. Other mobile equipment, such as construction machinery,
usually is depreciated as it is used at a rate sufficient to equal the to-
tal depreciable value of the equipment during the expected useful life.
Another method of depreciating equipment is to take a certain percent
of the undepreciated value of the equipment each year. Using this
method the depreciation is high when the equipment is new and it gets
less each year. There always remains some depreciation charges and
there is also some value in the equipment. As the depreciation de-
creases each year, the maintenance and repair costs increase so that
the total operating cost seems to level out over a period of years.

The question of rental or ownership of equipment depends on several
considerations: How much of the time the equipment can be kept

18


GROWTH OF ALGAE ON MEASURING DEVICES
(Suggestion R2-64-42)

The growth of algae in measuring devices has long been a problem
on canals. Mr. Arthur W. Thomas, Fresno Field Division, Central
Valley Project, California, suggested the erection of a shade over

the throat of a Parshall flume for Lateral 6.1 of the Madera Canal.

In past years, it had been impossible to obtain a stable discharge
rating, due to varying algae growth which affected the velocity through

Photo No. 1

Photo No. 2

24




at a cost of about $245. For good crane work we need an independ-
ent boom hoist, that is, independent of the swing arrangement and
equipped with power boom lowering, preferable through a self-
locking worm drive. This feature will cost about $960.

Another good feature for crane work is the power load lowering at-
tachment. This device would cost about $1,165. To do crane work
we would also need a weighted crane hook with at least two sheaves
and a hook of the same capacity as the crane.

Pile driving can be accomplished by attaching the top of the pile
leads to the boom. With the lines from both drums over the crown
blocks, use one for the hammer, and the other to handle piling. If
the machine is to be used mostly for pile driving, it would be pref-
erable to have three active drums and use the third drum to handle
free swinging leads.

Last, but probably the most important decision to make, is whether
to buy a truck-mounted dragline or one on crawlers. In selecting a
crawler-mounted machine it is also necessary to consider hauling
equipment. Either a trailer and truck tractor will have to be pur-
chased, or this equipment will have to be rented for each move.
The rented equipment is seldom immediately available in an emer-
gency, so we lose some time getting to the emergency. Ifa truck
and trailer are purchased only for moving heavy equipment, the cost
per mile can be extremely high because we have high annual depre-
ciation charges to write off on a comparatively small number of
miles of operation each year.

A 50-ton-capacity low-bed trailer with a truck tractor to handle it
will cost in the neighborhood of $29, 000 and a considerable portion
of the cost of this equipment will be charged off to moving your drag-
line if you are going to have a 50-ton machine. Your next heaviest
piece of equipment is usually a,crawler tractor which will weigh only
about 30 tons with a dozer. In‘other words, if you did not have the
dragline you could get by with a’30-ton tractor truck and trailer. So
the difference in cost between a 30- and 50-ton trailer all should be
charged off to your dragline. When you consider the cost of the
crawler-mounted machine, plus the additional cost of the trailer and
tractor, the truck-mounted machine appears to be more feasible and
much easier to justify on an investment basis. The greater efficiency
of the truck-mounted machine is also to be considered, as it is more
readily available at various sites for emergency work.

The increased use of precast and prestressed concrete structures,
makes it desirable to have a good lifting crane and if it is readily
portable the efficiency is greatly increased. In a structure replace-
ment program, the mobility of a truck crane greatly speeds up the
work. Old structures can be removed with the crane and a wrecking
ball. Smaller structures can be precast and hauled to the site and

11



tools or attachments. For example, on the Rio Grande Project we
built a special 8-inch-wide bucket to dig cutoff walls for structures,
8 inches wide and 4 feet deep. Also we made a vibrating screed at-
tachment to screed off concrete on 1:1 slope paving on check struc-
tures or short pieces of concrete canal paving. The screed is about
12 feet long and is vibrated by two pneumatic bin shaker-type vibra-
tors. Screed forms are set across the canal or check lining. The
vibrating screed is drawn along the screed forms, striking off the
concrete to grade and compacting the concrete on slopes as steep as
1:1. The concrete is well compacted on the slopes and the work of
the concrete finishers is reduced considerably. Perhaps many of
you have developed similar uses or your own shop built attachments
and it would be well to discuss these later so all could take advan-
tage of the experience gained on various projects.

CRAWLER TRACTORS

The crawler tractor is said to be the most basic and versatile ma-
chine in the construction industry and it also plays an important role
in our maintenance work. It serves as a prime mover for pulling or
pushing loads, a power unit for winches and hoists, and a moving
mount for bulldozers, side slopers, side booms, and front-end
bucket loaders. On most maintenance projects the primary use for
the tractor is for bulldozer work, leveling spoil piles, building
roads, repairing canal breaks, and the like. Particularly in the
case of the canal breaks where the area is usually wet the crawler
tractor is well adapted to handle the situation. In addition to the
dozer work the tractor can also be used extensively for operating
the side sloper or for pulling the radial blade type of brush cutter.
A Class VI crawler tractor with a 225-horsepower engine handles
the side sloper without much difficulty. A Class V tractor witha
horsepower of 185 can also handle this same sloper and do a satis-
factory job, but the side draft on the machine causes the steering
clutches to take considerable abuse. It is apparent that the heavier
machine with the additional power handles the sloper better.

Either machine can handle the medium weight radial blade type of
brush cutter alone along the bank of a canal or drain, but it takes

two tractors, one on each side, to pull the brush cutter in the bot-
tom of the drains, particularly when there is much water present.

Normally in maintenance work there is not much use for scrapers.
When dirt moving is necessary these small volumes can usually be
handled with trucks and loading equipment.

In selecting the power control unit for your tractors, I believe it is

best to pick the cable type rather than the hydraulic control as this
unit is more readily adapted for use with our type of equipment. The

13



OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
. EQUIPMENT AND PROCEDURES
Release No. 48

APRIL, MAY AND JUNE 1964
INTRODUCTION

The Operation and Maintenance Equipment and Procedures bulletin
is published quarterly, for the benefit of irrigation project opera-
tion and maintenance people. Its principal purpose is to serve as
a medium of exchanging operation and maintenance information. It
is hoped that the labor-saving devices or less costly equipment and
procedures developed by the resourceful water users will be a step
toward commercial development of equipment for use on irrigation
projects in a continued effort to reduce costs and increase operat-
ing efficiency.

On page 1 there is an article written by R. W. Hendrick, President,
Okanogan Irrigation District, Okanogan, Washington, on the rela-
tionship between director and managers; page 4 carries an article
reprinted from WESTERN CONSTRUCTION with the permission of
the editor on ''How Wire Rope Lubrication Pays, '' and on page 9 is
a talk given at the Irrigation Operators! Workshop in 1962 on the
use and selection of equipment.

To assure proper recognition of those individuals whose suggestions
are published in the bulletins, the suggestion number as well as the
person's name is given. All Bureau offices are reminded to notify

their Suggestions Award Committee when a suggestion is adopted.

Division of Irrigation Operations
Office of Chief Engineer
Denver, Colorado



equipment to maintain and operate more economically with such spe-
cialized equipment that could not be afforded by a smaller operating
unit.

Emphasis was given the need for cooperation between the directors

of the different districts, the manager, and the watermasters, if
board of control operation is to succeed. Also stressed was the opin-
ion that operation under a board of control is desirable only as long
as the project has an efficient operating organization.

SMALL WINCHES BIND LOADS
(Suggestion R5-MR6-64-1)

A good practical scheme for binding loads on a trailer by the use of
cables and small ratchet-type winches has been used to advantage on
the Middle Rio Grande Project, New Mexico.

The suggestion by Eugenio Marquez, Belen Field Branch, of the Irri-
gation Division, is shown in use in photographs below and on the fol-
lowing page.

Figure 1 shows two of the winches welded to the side of the frame of
a project trailer. Figure 2, below, and Figure 3 on the following
page are more detailed views of the winches and method of mounting.

As shown in Figures 4 and 5, the winches also can be used for load-

ing some rather heavy and unwieldy materials. The metal pipe shown
in Figure 6, was loaded by use of the small winches by one man util-
izing the two winches alternately. After loading the pipe, the winches

PI63-0-43731 NA

Figure 1 Figure 2

w
ie}


Cover Sheet. Photograph shows erection of shade over the throat
of a Parshall flume on the Madera Canal, Central Valley Project.
The shade inhibits the growth of algae on measuring devices.
P214-D-43727


the turnout. As the throat of the flume is only 12' wide, ten2"x12"x14!
planks were laid across the top of the vertical walls and scabbed to-
gether, see Photographs No. 1 and 2 on the preceding page. This pro-
vided suitable shade, and during the 1963 season the rating has re-
mained constant.

The shading has effectively controlled the previous fluctuations in
the rating curve for this station and algae growth has now become
negligible. The cover is strong enough for occasional foot traffic,
yet heavy enough that it is not likely to be disturbed. This method
of shading may be applied to other weirs or flumes where algae
growth is a problem.

PRESTRESSED CONCRETE BRIDGES

Prestressed concrete sections are being used on the Bureau of Rec-
jamation constructed and operated Rio Grande Project, in Texas and
New Mexico, over project canals and laterals. The drawing on the
following page gives the general design details and construction cost
figures for three typical bridges. These have been supplied by Proj-
ect Manager, W. F. Resch, El Paso, Texas, from whom additional in-
formation can be obtained if desired.

Design Details

The bridges consist of six prestressed concrete channel girders, each
section being 2 feet 9 inches in width, to make up a total width of

16 feet 6 inches. The abutments are constructed of precast-concrete
piling with a combination reinforced cast-in-place concrete cap and
abutment block. The drawing also gives a bar list and bending dia-
gram for reinforcement required. The overall design is based upon
an H-20-44 single lane loading. It has been suggested that angle iron
placed on the ends of the channel girders at the abutments would pre-
vent damage to the girder edges.

It will be noted from the drawing that steel sillplates, bearing plates
and nylon bearing pads for the bridge are provided and also that 6- by
6-inch precast curbs along the outer girder have been provided with
attachment of the curbs to the girders being accomplished with epoxy
bonding compounds.

Bridge Construction Costs

The cost figures cover all field costs of construction, including su-
pervision and warehousing, but not the cost of design and general
overhead expense. The materials cost designated by an asterisk (*),
includes labor and materials for precast-concrete piling and curbs;
and all other materials except for the prestressed sections; anda

12 percent warehousing charge.

25



EQUIPMENT MANAGEMENT
Use and Selection

by
William L. McCaig*

INTRODUCTION

All irrigation projects, or even parts of projects, although similar
in many respects, have unique differences. It is these differences
that make it almost impossible to set down a list of equipment that

is necessary for the operation and maintenance of an irrigation proj-
ect. Equipment requirements are determined by the size of the proj-
ect, the type of construction, whether the delivery system is con-
crete lined or unlined, the type soil that predominates, along with
many other characteristics of the areas, such as climate and crops,
and even to some extent by the type of personnel that is available to
operate the equipment.

Various types of work will be handled in just about as many different
ways as there are people to do the work, so Iam not going to attempt
to tell you what kind of equipment should be selected for your irriga-
tion project. I would rather take the units of equipment that are more
or less common to all projects and discuss the features of these units
that make them more adaptable to particular types of work.

DRAGLINES

A necessary part of all irrigation projects is the drainage system
and most drainage systems consist of open drainage channels. The
maintenance work on drains usually calls for dragline work. The
size of the dragline depends upon the size of the drain or canal to be
cleaned and the reach necessary. Often there is a tendency to pur-
chase larger oversize equipment because it has a greater earth han-
dling capacity and you find yourselves overexcavating the drains both
in depth and width. This destroys the designed hydraulic properties
of the drains and makes for nonuniform flows which tend to build up
deposits of sediment and encourages growth of aquatic weeds.

A 2-cubic-yard dragline bucket is approximately 51 inches wide,

38 inches high, and 54 inches long. Good dragline operating proce-
dure is to set the bucket down and pull it not more than 2 lengths of
the bucket, then pick it up, swing and dump. You therefore must
have a drain with sufficient bottom width to accommodate this opera-
tion to justify using this size of bucket and the depth of cut would
have to be at least 2 feet. Otherwise the bucket would not be filled

*Chief, Irrigation Division, Rio Grande Project, El Paso, Texas,
given at the Irrigation Operators' Workshop, Denver, Colorado, 1962



set into position with a crane after the excavation work has been com-
pleted. In some instances the concrete forms can be built and assem-
bled in a central shop area and the reinforcing steel can be placed in
the forms before hauling to the jobsite. These are loaded with the
crane and after delivery to the construction site also set into place
usually by the same truck crane. We use this system on our lateral
check replacement program. The crane is also used to place concrete
with the concrete bucket.

When all of the advantages are properly considered, I feel it is dif-
ficult to justify the purchase of a crawler-mounted dragline unless
the machine is required to handle a bucket larger than 1 cubic yard,
or unless crawlers are necessary because of unstable ground con-
ditions.

HYDRAULIC-CONTROLLED EXCAVATOR

Another of our most used pieces of excavating equipment is a
hydraulic-controlled excavator. This machine comes with numer-
ous attachments and is therefore quite versatile and can be adapted
to many of your jobs. Excavation for structures can be practically
completed with such a machine and a good operator leaves only a
small amount of this work to be performed by hand. The digging
buckets come in several widths and the machine can excavate and
cast or load trucks. It takes a good operator to get more than three
buckets per minute and about the maximum is four. This and the
bucket size limit the production of these machines.

When these machines are used to clean canals or laterals, it is nec-
essary for the operator and the truck driver to coordinate their op-
erations as it is often necessary to move the machine with each buck-
etful taken. When the machine is to be used for this type of work, it
is preferable to purchase the equipment with a torque converter in
the truck drive. This is of great assistance to the truck driver,
otherwise he would have to press down on the clutch pedal and re-
lease it on an average of three to four times each minute throughout
the working shift. The heavy spring in the clutch makes this almost
impossible. (With the torque converter he has to depress the clutch
once and put the transmission in gear, release the clutch and from
then on he has only to step on the foot throttle and, usually, the brake. )
When the truck driver and the operator properly coordinate their work
the driver moves the truck while the operator is swinging and dump-
ing the bucket. Inasmuch as it is often necessary to make more than
one bucketful before moving, it is a good idea to have some means of
communication between the operator and the truck driver, such asa
horn or bell signal so the operator can signal when to move. The
manufacturers build several attachments for this type of machine,

all of which are well tested and proven to be adequate for the work
intended. In addition to these, various users have built their own

12