U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Scientific Investigations Report 2011–5119

Prepared in cooperation with the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources

Effects of Best-Management Practices in Eagle and Joos 

Valley Creeks in the Waumandee Creek Priority Watershed, 

Wisconsin, 1990–2007
Cover. Downstream view of the streamflow-gaging station at Eagle Creek. 

Photograph by Troy D. Rutter. 
Effects of Best-Management Practices 

in Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks in the 

Waumandee Creek Priority Watershed, 

Wisconsin, 1990–2007

By David J. Graczyk, John F. Walker, Roger T. Bannerman, and Troy D. Rutter

Prepared in cooperation with the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources

Scientific Investigations Report 2011–5119

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

KEN SALAZAR, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Marcia K. McNutt, Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2012

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Suggested citation:

Graczyk, D.J., Walker, J.F., Bannerman, R.T., and Rutter, T.D., 2012, Effects of best-management practices in Eagle 

and Joos Valley Creeks in the Waumandee Creek Priority Watershed, Wisconsin, 1990–2007: U.S. Geological Survey 

Scientific Investigations Report 2011–5119, 25 p.
iii

Contents

Conversion Factors........................................................................................................................................v

Abstract...........................................................................................................................................................1

Introduction.....................................................................................................................................................1

Purpose and Scope ..............................................................................................................................2

Physical Setting.....................................................................................................................................2

Data-Collection Network..............................................................................................................................2

Land-Use and Best-Management Practices Inventory ..........................................................................4

Hydrologic Conditions during the Study Period........................................................................................6

Precipitation...........................................................................................................................................6

Streamflow ............................................................................................................................................8

Water Quality Before and After Implementation of Best-Management Practices ..........................10

Base-Flow Concentrations................................................................................................................10

Distribution and Seasonality of Loads.............................................................................................11

Storm Loads.........................................................................................................................................17

Effects of Best-Management Practices in Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks ........................................21

Effects of Best-Management Practices on 

Water Quality .........................................................................................................................21

Comparison of Results to the Pollutant Reduction Goals for the Waumandee Creek 

Priority Watershed Project..................................................................................................22

Summary........................................................................................................................................................23

References Cited .........................................................................................................................................24

Figures

1. Map showing location of the Eagle and Joos Valley Creek Watersheds in 

Buffalo County, Wis., and data-collection sites.......................................................................3

2. Map showing land use/land cover, Eagle and Joos Valley Creek Watersheds.................5

3. Graph showing yearly precipitation at Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks and 

average NOAA long-term normal at Buffalo County, Wis......................................................6

4. Graph showing cumulative distribution of precipitation events at Eagle Creek, 

Buffalo County, Wis., for periods in which storm loads were calculated...........................7

5. Graph showing cumulative distribution of precipitation events at Joos Valley 

Creek, Buffalo County, Wis., for periods in which storm loads were calculated. .............7

6. Graph showing streamflow characteristics for Eagle Creek, Buffalo County, 

Wis. .................................................................................................................................................9

7. Graph showing streamflow characteristics for Joos Valley Creek, Buffalo 

County, Wis. .................................................................................................................................10

8. Graph showing concentrations and water-year medians of suspended solids 

and nutrients in base-flow samples during the data-collection period at Eagle 

Creek, Buffalo County, Wis. ......................................................................................................12
iv

9. Graph showing concentrations and water-year medians of suspended solids 

and nutrients in base-flow samples during the data-collection period at Joos 

Valley Creek, Buffalo County, Wis. ..........................................................................................13

10. Graph showing average monthly distribution of total phosphorus and suspended 

solids loads at Eagle Creek, Buffalo County, Wis., for water years 1991–94 and 

2003–07 .........................................................................................................................................15

11. Graph showing average monthly distribution of total phosphorus and suspended 

solids loads at Joos Valley Creek, Buffalo County for water years 1991–94 and 

2003–07 .........................................................................................................................................15

12. Graph showing daily distribution of total phosphorus and suspended solids loads 

at Eagle Creek, Buffalo County, Wis., for water years 1991–94 and 2003–07 ...................15

13. Graph showing daily distribution of total phosphorus and suspended solids loads 

at Joos Valley Creek, Buffalo County, Wis., for water years 1991–94 and 2003–07.........15

14. Graph showing annual contributions of stormflow and base-flow periods to 

streamflow, suspended solids and total phosphorus loadings at Eagle and 

Joos Valley Creeks, Buffalo County, Wis., for water years 1991–2007 ..............................16

15. Graph showing suspended solids, total phosphorus and ammonia nitrogen storm 

loads and median storm loads during the pre- and post-BMP period at 

Eagle Creek in Buffalo County, Wis. .......................................................................................18

16. Graph showing suspended solids, total phosphorus and ammonia nitrogen storm 

loads and median storm loads during the pre- and post-BMP periods at 

Joos Valley Creek in Buffalo County, Wis. .............................................................................19

Tables

1 . Summary of targeted and implemented rural BMPs in the Eagle and Joos Valley 

Creek Watersheds, Buffalo County, Wis. .................................................................................4

2. Summary of streamflow characteristics for Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks, preand post-BMP periods.................................................................................................................8

3. Results of the Wilcoxon rank-sum test on the median concentrations of suspended 

solids and nutrients in base flow during, pre- and post-BMP periods, Eagle and 

Joos Valley Creeks, Wis. ...........................................................................................................11

4. Summary of number of samples and estimated concentrations used in computing 

storm loads during the pre- and post-BMP periods .............................................................14

5. Results of the Wilcoxon rank-sum test comparing median storm loads and 

storm-load residuals for pre- and post-BMP periods ..........................................................17

6. Regression results for storm loads at Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks, Wis. .....................20

7. Average percent reductions predicted across all monitored storms using 

separate pre- and post-BMP regressions to predict storm loads .....................................21

8. Percentage of eligible BMPs implemented in three priority watershed 

evaluation-monitoring projects, Wisconsin ...........................................................................21

9. Sediment-reduction goals for streambank erosion and uplands in the Eagle and 

Joos Valley Creek subwatersheds...........................................................................................23
v

Conversion Factors

Inch/Pound to SI

Multiply By To obtain

Length

inch (in.) 25.4 millimeter (mm)

foot (ft) 0.3048 meter (m)

mile (mi) 1.609 kilometer (km)

Area

square mile (mi2) 2.590 square kilometer (km2) 

Flow rate

cubic foot per second (ft3/s) 0.02832 cubic meter per second (m3/s)

Mass

pound, avoirdupois (lb) 0.4536 kilogram (kg) 

ton, short (2,000 lb) 0.9072 megagram (Mg) 

ton per year (ton/yr) 0.9072 megagram per year (Mg/yr) 

Hydraulic gradient

foot per mile (ft/mi) 0.1894 meter per kilometer (m/km)

Temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) may be converted to degrees Fahrenheit (°F) as follows:

°F=(1.8×°C)+32

Concentrations of chemical constituents in water are given in milligrams per liter (mg/L).

Abbreviations

BMPs Best-management practices 

EI Erosivity index 

GIS Geographic Information System 

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

Nonpoint Program Wisconsin Nonpoint Source Water Pollution Abatement Program 

USGS U.S. Geological Survey

USLE Universal Soil Loss Equation 

WDNR Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources

Effects of Best-Management Practices in Eagle and 

Joos Valley Creeks in the Waumandee Creek Priority 

Watershed, Wisconsin, 1990–2007

By David J. Graczyk, John F. Walker, Roger T. Bannerman, and Troy D. Rutter

Abstract

In many watersheds, nonpoint-source contamination is 

a major contributor to water-quality problems. In response 

to the recognition of the importance of nonpoint sources, 

the Wisconsin Nonpoint Source Water Pollution Abatement 

Program (Nonpoint Program) was enacted in 1978. This report 

summarizes the results of a study to assess the effectiveness 

of watershed-management practices for controlling nonpointsource contamination for the Eagle Creek and Joos Valley 

Creek Watersheds. Streamflow-gaging stations equipped for 

automated sample collection and continuous recording of 

stream stage were installed in July 1990 at Eagle and Joos 

Valley Creeks and were operated through September 2007. 

In October 1990, three rain gages were installed in each 

watershed and were operated through September 2007. BestManagement Practices (BMPs) were installed during 1993 

to 2000 in Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks and were tracked 

throughout the study period. By the year 2000, a majority of 

the BMPs were implemented in the two watersheds and goals 

set by the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources and the 

local Land Conservation Department had been achieved for 

the two study watersheds (Wisconsin Department of Natural 

Resources, 1990).

The distributions of the rainstorms that produced surface 

runoff and storm loads were similar in the pre-BMP (1990–93) 

and post-BMP implementation (2000–07) periods for both 

Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks. The highest annual streamflow 

occurred at both sites in water year 1993, which corresponded 

to the greatest above normal nonfrozen precipitation measured 

at two nearby NOAA weather stations. The minimum streamflow occurred in water year 2007 at both sites. Base-flow and 

stormwater samples were collected and analyzed for suspended solids, total phosphorus, and ammonia nitrogen. For 

both Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks the median concentrations 

of suspended solids and total phosphorus in base flow were 

lower during the post-BMP period compared to the pre-BMP 

period and were statistically significant at the 0.05 significance 

level. The decrease in median concentrations of ammonia 

nitrogen at both sites was not statistically significant at the 

0.05 significance level. Multiple linear regression analyses 

were used to remove the effects of climatologic conditions and 

seasonality from computed storm loads. For both Eagle and 

Joos Valley Creeks, the median storm loads for suspended solids, total phosphorus, and ammonia nitrogen were lower during the post-BMP period compared to the pre-BMP period and 

were statistically significant at the 0.05 significance level. The 

decreases in storm-load regression residuals from the pre- to 

the post-BMP periods for both Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks 

were statistically significant for all three constituents at the 

0.05 significance level and indicated an apparent improvement 

in water-quality in the post-BMP period. Because the rainfall 

characteristics for individual storms in the pre- and post-BMP 

periods are likely to be different, separate pre- and post-BMP 

regressions were used to estimate the theoretical pre- and 

post-BMP storm loads to allow estimates of precent reductions 

between the pre- and post-BMP periods. The estimated percent 

reductions in storm loads for suspended solids, total phosphorus, and ammonia nitrogen were 89, 77, and 66 respectively 

for Eagle Creek and 84, 67, and 60 respectively for Joos 

Valley Creek. The apparent improvement in water quality is 

attributed to the implemented BMPs and to a reduction in the 

number of cattle in the watersheds.

Introduction

In many watersheds, nonpoint-source contamination is 

a major contributor to water-quality problems. In response 

to the recognition of the importance of reducing nonpoint 

sources, the Wisconsin Nonpoint Source Water Pollution 

Abatement Program (Nonpoint Program) was enacted in 1978 

(Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, 1978). When 

first introduced, the Nonpoint Program identified problems in 

130 of the 330 watersheds in Wisconsin. For a given watershed, various management actions, termed best-management 

practices (BMPs), are available for funding support through 

the Nonpoint Program. For example, practices in rural areas 

include conservation tillage, contour strip-cropping, streambank protection, and various barnyard-runoff controls. Using 

priority watersheds as a unit for consideration, the Nonpoint 

Program provides matching funds for voluntary implementation of various BMPs.
2 Effects of Best-Management Practices in Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks in the Waumandee Creek Priority Watershed, Wisconsin, 1990–2007

On the watershed scale little data exists to demonstrate 

the effectiveness of BMPs for improving water quality in 

Wisconsin’s priority watersheds. The Wisconsin Department 

of Natural Resources (WDNR) and the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) developed and began a comprehensive, multidisciplinary evaluation-monitoring program in October 1988 

to assess the effectiveness of the Nonpoint Program (Wierl and 

others, 1996). The evaluation-monitoring program includes 

biological and stream-habitat monitoring by the WDNR and 

water-quality monitoring by the USGS. Eight watersheds 

were chosen for the evaluation-monitoring program. Results 

from three of the watersheds—Brewery, Garfoot, and Otter 

Creeks—have been published previously (Graczyk and others, 

2003; Corsi and others, 2005). 

The USGS, in cooperation with the WDNR, conducted a 

study in the Waumandee Creek Priority Watershed, in western 

Wisconsin, from October 1990 to September 2007 to assess 

the hydrology and water quality before and after implementation of BMPs. Streamflow and water quality were collected at 

Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks, two subwatersheds within the 

Waumandee Creek Watershed. 

Data was collected from October 1990 to September 

1993, and is considered the pre-BMP period in the Eagle 

Creek Watershed. Data was collected from October 1990 to 

September 1992, and is considered the pre-BMP period in the 

Joos Valley Creek Watershed. No BMPs were implemented in 

either watershed during the pre-BMP periods. BMPs were initiated in 1993 within the Eagle Creek Watershed and in 1992 

within the Joos Valley Creek Watershed. The period October 

1993–September 2000 is considered a transitional period in 

the Eagle Creek Watershed, with BMPs being implemented 

periodically throughout the period. The period October 1992–

September 2000 is considered a transitional period in the 

Joos Valley Creek Watershed, with BMPs being implemented 

periodically throughout the period. In October 2000, sufficient 

BMPs were implemented in each watershed to begin the postimplementation period. Data collection began again in October 

2002 and data was collected through September 2007; thus, 

the period October 2002–September 2007 is considered the 

post-BMP period for both watersheds. 

Purpose and Scope

This report summarizes the results of a study to assess the 

effectiveness of watershed-management practices for controlling nonpoint-source contamination for the Eagle Creek and 

Joos Valley Creek Watersheds. Concentrations of selected 

water-quality constituents at base flow and storm loads for 

the defined pre-BMP period are compared and contrasted to 

the base-flow concentrations and storm loads for the defined 

post-BMP period. The effectiveness of implemented BMPs to 

improve the water quality in the watersheds is assessed. This 

report presents results for suspended solids, total phosphorus 

and ammonia nitrogen, constituents which were targeted for 

reduction in the priority watershed plan for the study area 

(Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, 1990).

Physical Setting

Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks are tributaries to Waumandee Creek and are located in Buffalo County in western 

Wisconsin (fig. 1). Joos Valley Creek is a tributary to Eagle 

Creek. Eagle Creek is currently (2010) classified as a Class 

III trout fishery (no natural reproduction, stocking needed to 

maintain the fishery), and has the potential to be classified as 

a Class II cold-water trout fishery (a stream in which some 

natural trout reproduction occurs but artificial propagation is 

needed to maintain a trout fishery). Joos Valley Creek supports 

a warm-water forage fishery, and has the potential to be reclassified to a Class III coldwater trout fishery (Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, 1990). From 1972 to 2009, 34,894 

yearling Brown Trout were stocked in Eagle Creek (Wisconsin 

Department of Natural Resources, 2010). Both streams have 

the potential to improve physical and biotic conditions that 

may improve the fish resources (Wisconsin Department of 

Natural Resources, 1990).

Eagle Creek drains 14.3 mi2

 upstream from the streamflow-gaging station, the stream channel is 7.41 mi long, and 

has a slope of 70 ft/mi. The soils of Eagle Creek primarily are 

silt loams; a majority of these soils are well drained with some 

poorly drained alluvial soils on level lands adjacent to the 

creek (Rappold and others, 1997). The topography typically is 

rolling with narrow steep ridges and rounded ridge tops (Rappold and others, 1997).

Joos Valley Creek drains 5.9 mi2 upstream from the 

streamflow-gaging station. The stream channel is 5.90 mi 

long and has been channelized in some parts; the slope of the 

channel is 86 ft/mi. The soils of the Joos Valley Creek Watershed are silt loams that are well drained with the level lands 

near the stream consisting of alluvial deposits that are not well 

drained (Rappold and others, 1997).

Data-Collection Network

Streamflow-gaging stations equipped for continuous 

recording of stream stage were installed in July 1990 at Eagle 

and Joos Valley Creeks (fig. 1). Measurements of streamflow 

were made according to standard USGS methods (Rantz and 

others, 1982). Discharge measurements were made every 4 to 

6 weeks, and more frequently during high flows, to define a 

stage-discharge relation for each site.

Each gaging station was equipped with a stage-activated, 

refrigerated water sampler for automated collection of water 

samples during medium to high flows. A data logger was 

programmed to collect a sample with each 0.2 ft increase 

in stage after the stream stage reached an initial sampling 

threshold. On the falling limb of the hydrograph, a sample 

was collected with each 0.4 ft decrease in stage. The sampling 

strategy was designed to maximize the number of samples 

collected, with the majority of samples collected on the rising 

limb of the hydrograph when the concentration of constituents 
Data-Collection Network 3

Eagle Creek

Watershed

Joos Valley Creek

Watershed

Base from U.S. Geological Survey 1:24,000:

Dodge, 1973; Fountain City, 1973; Swinns 

Valley, 1973; Waumandee, 1973.

0 1 2 MILES

0 1 2 KILOMETERS

44°14'

91°40'

44°16'

91°37'

Eagle

Creek

Joos

Valley

Creek 

Stream

Watershed boundary

Stream and rain gage

Rain gage and identifier

EXPLANATION

E2

E3

J2

J2

J3

Figure 1. Location of the Eagle and Joos Valley Creek Watersheds in Buffalo County, Wis., and data-collection sites.

Alma

Fountain

City

Eagle Creek and

Joos Valley Creek

 Watersheds

BUFFALO COUNTY

WISCONSIN

Figure 1. Location of the Eagle and Joos Valley Creek Watersheds in Buffalo County, Wis., and data-collection sites.
4 Effects of Best-Management Practices in Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks in the Waumandee Creek Priority Watershed, Wisconsin, 1990–2007

of interest were expected to change most rapidly. The samples, 

which were chilled to 4°C after collection, were analyzed for 

suspended solids, total phosphorus, and ammonia nitrogen. A 

subset of the samples that were collected during storm runoff 

was selected for analysis so as to represent the variation in 

water quality over the stream hydrograph. 

Water samples were collected every 2 weeks in the 

spring, summer, and fall and once a month in the winter. Samples were integrated over the depth and width of the stream by 

use of either a hand-held sampler or a sampler suspended from 

the bridge (Edwards and Glysson, 1988). These samples were 

collected on a fixed time interval and analyzed for suspended 

solids, total phosphorus, and ammonia nitrogen. Concurrent 

manual integrated samples and automated pump samples were 

collected to assess the representativeness of the automated 

samples. In addition, sampler blanks were collected to assess 

possible contamination.

All the constituents were analyzed by the Wisconsin 

State Laboratory of Hygiene according to standard methods 

(American Public Health Association, 1998; Wisconsin State 

Laboratory of Hygiene, 2010). 

In October 1990, three rain gages were installed in each 

watershed (fig. 1). One rain gage was at the stream gage; the 

other two rain gages were placed in locations that resulted 

in approximately equal Thiessen polygon areas. Thiessen 

polygons represent the areas in closest proximity to each rain 

gage; the average precipitation for a rain-gage network can be 

computed as a weighted average using the Thiessen polygon 

areas as the weighting factor (Viessman and others, 1977). 

Precipitation was collected in an 8-in. collector that drained 

into a tipping-bucket rain gage. Each tip represented 0.01 in. 

of rain; all rainfall data were recorded every 5 minutes. The 

rain gages were calibrated once per year using a NovaLynx 

rain gage calibrator (Novalynx Corporation, 2007).

Land-Use and Best-Management 

Practices Inventory

 Inventory of land uses and land treatment in the rural 

watersheds began in 1990 to provide information on changes 

that may affect water quality. A geographic information system (GIS) database retains the land-use and BMP inventories. 

Watershed boundaries, hydrography, roads, streams, woodlots, 

rain gages, and BMPs were digitized from 1:24000 topographic maps. Detailed descriptions of each watershed and its 

BMP programs are reported in Rappold and others (1997) and 

Wierl and others (1996). Targeted and implemented BMPs for 

Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks are summarized in Table 1. Total 

land use and land cover for Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks are 

shown in figure 2. In the two watersheds combined, 43 percent 

of the land is cropland and 41 percent of the land is woodland 

(Rappold and others, 1997). The remaining portions of the 

watersheds are in pasture, grazed woodlots, and other land 

uses. Annual updates of BMPs were obtained by contacting 

the Buffalo County Land Conservation Office. Barnyardrunoff control systems are implemented to reduce the amount 

Table 1 . Summary of targeted and implemented rural BMPs in the Eagle and Joos Valley Creek Watersheds, Buffalo County, 

Wis. 

[BMP, best-management practices]

Management practice Targeted Implemented Targeted Implemented

Eagle Creek Joos Valley Creek

Animal-waste management Animal-waste management

Manure storage (facilities) 4 3 3 0

Barnyard-runoff control 

systems (facilities) 11 8 7 2

Streambank protection Streambank protection

Streambank protection (feet) 20,340 4,580 10,240 6,790

Fencing (feet) 12,730 1,940 10,950 1,700

Stream crossing (numbers of 

crossings) 7 2 2 1

Grade stablization (structures) 10 9 0 1

Upland management Upland management

Nutrient management (acres) 562 470 437 0

Upland BMPs (acres) 1360 260 710 0
Land-Use and Best-Management Practices Inventory 5

Percentage of total land use/land cover

Grazed woodlot (3.70)

Pasture (9.30)

Other* (3.30)

* “Other” includes grassland, open water, wetland,

 farmstead, and road categories.

Cropland

(42.60)

Woodlot

(41.10)

Alma

Fountain

City

Eagle Creek and

Joos Valley Creek

 Watersheds

BUFFALO COUNTY

91°37'

44°16'

91°40'

44°14'

0 1 2 MILES

0 1 2 KILOMETERS

Cropland

Pasture

Grassland

Woodlot

Grazed woodlot

Open water

Wetland

Farmstead

Road

Land-use/land-cover type

EXPLANATION

WISCONSIN

Eagle

Creek

Land use/land cover interpreted from Farm Service Agency

1:4800 aerial photographs, 1986. 

Figure 2. Land use/land cover in Eagle and Joos Valley Creek Watersheds.

Joos

Valley 

Creek

Figure 2. Land use/land cover, Eagle and Joos Valley Creek Watersheds. 
6 Effects of Best-Management Practices in Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks in the Waumandee Creek Priority Watershed, Wisconsin, 1990–2007

of manure reaching the stream by improving the cattle lots and 

adding filter strips. Streambank protection reduces the amount 

of sediment reaching the stream by limiting cattle access and 

can be stabilized by various practices, including fencing and 

installation of watering areas in the stream. Upland-control 

practices reduce the amount of sediment and phosphorus 

delivery to streams by use of a combination of cropland and 

manure management on highly erodible lands.

In 2000, a majority of the goals set by the WDNR and 

County Land Conservation Department had been achieved in 

the Eagle Creek and Joos Valley Creek Watersheds. Additional practices could be implemented for several years but it 

was believed that a majority of sources of nonpoint pollution 

have been controlled by the practices that already have been 

implemented. The land-use tracking was discontinued when 

the post-monitoring phase was completed.

Hydrologic Conditions during the Study 

Period

Precipitation

The 30-year normal annual precipitation for non-freezing periods (March–November) is 30.53 in. at the National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) weather 

station at Mondovi, Wis. (National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration, 2007), approximately 20 mi north of the study 

area. The 30-year normal annual precipitation for non-freezing 

periods is 28.95 in. at the NOAA weather station at La Crosse, 

Wis. (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 

2007), approximately 35 mi south of the study area. The average non-freezing precipitation for the two NOAA stations is 

29.94 in. and will be considered the long-term normal for the 

study period during non-freezing periods. 

Precipitation at the Mondovi gage was above the 30-year 

normal for 3 years (fig. 3: 1992, 1993 and 2007) and below the 

30-year normal for 5 years (fig. 3; 1991, 2003–05, and 2006). 

The 1993 precipitation was 11.88 in. (40 percent) above 

the 30-year long-term normal. The 2003 precipitation was 

8.38 in. (28 percent) below the 30-year long-term non-freezing 

precipitation. 

Precipitation at the La Crosse gage was above the longterm 30-year normal for 5 years (fig. 3: 1991, 1992, 1993, 

2004 and 2007) and was below the 30-year normal for 3 years 

(fig. 3; 2003, 2005 and 2006). Precipitation in water year 1993 

was 9.70 in. (32 percent) above the long-term normal. 

Total event precipitation in the Eagle Creek Watershed 

is summarized for periods in which constituent loads were 

calculated in figure 4. During the pre-BMP period, constituent 

loads were calculated for 28 storms, with total storm precipitation ranging from 0.5 to 4.2 in. (fig. 4). During the post-BMP 

period, constituent loads were calculated for 34 precipitation 

events, with the total event precipitation ranging from 0.2 

to 4.2 in. (fig.4). During the post-BMP period there was a 

somewhat higher percentage of precipitation events less than 

around 1.25 in., whereas during the pre-BMP period a slightly 

higher percentage of precipitation events in the pre-BMP 

period ranging from 1.25 to around 2 in. occurred. The occurrence of precipitation events exceeding 2 in. was roughly the 

same between the two periods.

In the Joos Valley Creek Watershed during the pre-BMP 

period, 21 storms had loads calculated with total event precipitation ranging from 0.3 to 4.3 in. (fig.5). During the post-BMP 

period, constituent loads were calculated for 34 storms with 

the total storm precipitation ranging from 0.2 to 5.1 in. (fig.5). 

During the pre-BMP period there was a somewhat higher 

percentage of storms less than around 1.75 in., whereas during 

the post-BMP period a slightly higher percentage of storms 

ranging from 1.75 to 2.25 in. occurred. The occurrence of 

storms exceeding around 2 in. was roughly the same between 

the two periods. 

For the most part, the distributions of the rainstorms that 

were monitored and used to calculate storm loads were not 

dramatically different in the pre- and post-BMP periods for 

both Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks. At both sites, slightly more 

post-BMP periods were monitored compared to the pre-BMP 

periods. The median precipitation of monitored storms was 

1.25 in. at Eagle Creek and 1.23 in. at Joos Valley Creek in the 

pre-BMP period. In comparison, the median precipitation of 

monitored storms was 1.32 in. at Eagle Creek and 1.37 in. at 

Joos Valley Creek in the post-BMP period. 

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

Average NOAA long-term normal

1991 1992 1993 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Precipitation during nonfreezing periods

Water year

Mondovi La Crosse

Figure 3. Yearly precipitation at Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks and average NOAA long-term normal at Buffalo County, Wis.
Hydrologic Conditions during the Study Period 7

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

0 1 2 3 4 5

Cumulative probability

Total precipitation, in inches

Pre-BMP period

Post-BMP period

Figure 4. Cumulative distribution of precipitation events at Eagle Creek, Buffalo County, Wis., for 

periods in which storm loads were calculated. 

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

0 1 2 3 4 5

Cumulative probability

Total precipitation, in inches

Pre-BMP period

Post-BMP period

Figure 5. Cumulative distribution of precipitation events at Joos Valley Creek, Buffalo County, Wis., for 

periods in which storm loads were calculated.
8 Effects of Best-Management Practices in Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks in the Waumandee Creek Priority Watershed, Wisconsin, 1990–2007

Streamflow 

Streamflow data collected as part of this study were used 

to determine the hydrologic conditions at Eagle Creek and 

Joos Valley Creek gaging stations (fig. 1). In addition, the 

streamflow data were needed to determine the nutrient and 

suspended solids loads at Eagle Creek and Joos Valley Creek 

gaging stations. Base flow represents sustained groundwater 

discharge to the stream. Daily mean streamflows were separated into daily mean base-flow and stormflow contributions 

by use of the fixed-interval hydrograph-separation method 

(Sloto and Crouse, 1996). HYSEP is a computer program 

that is used to separate a streamflow hydrograph into slowresponse flow (base flow) and quick-response flow (runoff). 

The fixed-interval method assigns the lowest discharge in a 

calculated time interval to all days in that interval starting with 

the first day of the period of record. The assigned values are 

then connected to define the base-flow hydrograph. Runoff—

the difference between the daily mean discharge and daily 

mean base flow—is water that flows over the land surface and 

through the shallow groundwater system and enters the stream 

relatively quickly. Daily streamflow data for the gaging stations for each year of the study period are published in “Water 

Resources Data, Wisconsin, Water Years 1991–95 (Holmstrom 

and others, 1992–96) and Water Years, 2003–07 (Waschbusch 

and others, 2004–08). 

At Eagle Creek, the mean annual streamflow for the 

study period was 9.14 ft3

/s. The mean annual streamflow during the pre-BMP period was 10.1 ft3

/s, which was 11 percent 

greater than the mean annual streamflow for the study period; 

the mean annual streamflow during the post-BMP period was 

7.92 ft3/s, which was 13 percent less than the mean annual 

streamflow for the study period (table 2). The highest annual 

streamflow was 13.5 ft3/s in water year 1993 in the pre-BMP 

period, and the lowest annual streamflow was 6.31 ft3/s in 

water year 2006 in the post-BMP period (fig. 6). The minimum 

streamflow for 7 consecutive days during the study period 

—which is an indication of low flow—was 3.2 ft3

/s which 

occurred in water year 2007 (post-BMP period) (table 2 and 

fig. 6). The mean base flow for the study period was 7.91 ft3/s 

(87 percent of the annual streamflow; table 2). The mean 

base flow in the pre-BMP period was 8.68 ft3/s (86 percent of 

the annual streamflow; table 2). The mean base flow during 

the post-BMP period was 6.86 ft3/s (87 percent of the annual 

streamflow; table 2), which was 13 percent less than the mean 

base flow for the study period. Runoff at Eagle Creek was 

the highest in water year 1993 (2.25 ft3/s), which also was 

the highest for the study period. The peak discharge recorded 

was 2,400 ft3/s on August 14, 1995, in the transitional period 

(Holmstrom and others, 1996).

At Joos Valley Creek, the mean annual streamflow for 

the study period was 3.99 ft3/s; the mean annual streamflow 

in the pre-BMP period was 4.29 ft3/s, which was 8 percent 

greater than the mean annual streamflow for the study period 

(table 2). The mean annual streamflow during the post-BMP 

period was 3.50 ft3/s, which is 12 percent less than the mean 

annual streamflow for the study period (table 2). The highest 

annual streamflow was 5.81 ft3/s in water year 1993 during 

the pre-BMP period, and the lowest annual streamflow was 

2.64 ft3/s in water year 2006 during the post-BMP period 

(fig. 7). The minimum 7day low flow during the study period 

was 0.57 ft3/s, which occurred in 2007 during the post-BMP 

period. The minimum 7-day low flow in the pre-BMP period 

was 1.60 ft3/s. The mean base flow for the study period was 

3.37 ft3/s (85 percent of the annual streamflow; table 2 and 

fig. 7). The mean base flow for the pre-BMP period was 

3.72 ft3/s (87 percent of the annual streamflow; table 2). 

The mean base flow for the post-BMP period was 2.88 ft3/s 

(83 percent of the annual streamflow; table 2). Overland 

runoff was the highest in water year 2004, 0.90 ft3/s (fig. 7). 

Table 2. Summary of streamflow characteristics for Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks, pre- and post-BMP periods.

Streamflow characteristic 

(cubic feet per second, 

unless noted)

Eagle Creek Joos Valley Creek

Pre-BMP 

period 

10/90–9/93

Post-BMP 

period 

10/02–9/07

Period of 

record

Pre-BMP 

period 

10/91–9/92

Post-BMP 

period 

10/02–9/07

Period of 

record

Mean annual streamflow 10.11 7.92 9.14 4.29 3.5 3.99

Minimum 7-day low flow 4.4 3.2 3.2 1.60 0.57 0.57

Mean base flow 8.68 6.86 7.91 3.72 2.88 3.37

Mean base flow percent1 86 87 87 87 83 85

1

 As a percentage of mean annual streamflow.
Hydrologic Conditions during the Study Period 9

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

1991 1992 1993 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Annual streamflow, in cubic feet per second

Water year

Pre-BMP period Post-BMP period

Post-BMP period Post-BMP period

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

1991 1992 1993 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

7-Day minimum flow, in cubic feet per second

Water year

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

1991 1992 1993 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Baseflow runoff, in cubic feet per second

Water year

Pre-BMP period

0.0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

1991 1992 1993 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Overland runoff, in cubic feet per second

Water year

Pre-BMP period Pre-BMP period

Post-BMP period

Figure 6. Streamflow characteristics for Eagle Creek, Buffalo County, Wis.
10 Effects of Best-Management Practices in Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks in the Waumandee Creek Priority Watershed, Wisconsin, 1990–2007

The maximum instantaneous peak flow was 1,480 ft3/s and 

occurred on August 14, 1995 (Holmstrom and others, 1996).

The highest annual streamflow occurred at both sites 

in water year 1993, which corresponds to the greatest above 

normal precipitation in Eagle Creek watershed and the second 

greatest above normal precipitation in Joos Valley Creek 

Watershed. The minimum annual streamflow occurred in water 

year 2006 at both sites (figs. 6 and 7). The greatest below 

normal precipitation occurred in water year 2006, and this may 

have resulted in the low flows in water year 2007. 

Water Quality Before and After 

Implementation of Best-Management 

Practices

Base-Flow Concentrations

Base-flow water quality generally reflects groundwater 

quality because base flow of a stream largely is a result of 

groundwater discharge to the stream. Consequently, base-flow 

water quality may be affected by land-use practices that affect 

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

1991 1992 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Annual streamflow, in cubic feet per second

Water year

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

1991 1992 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

7-Day minimum flow, in cubic feet per second

Water year

0.00

0.50

1.00

1.50

2.00

2.50

3.00

3.50

4.00

1991 1992 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Baseflow runoff, in cubic feet per second

Water year

0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

0.60

0.70

0.80

0.90

1.00

1991 1992 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Overland runoff, in cubic feet per second

Water year

Pre-BMP period

Post-BMP period

Post-BMP period Post-BMP period

Pre-BMP period

Pre-BMP period Pre-BMP period

Post-BMP period

Figure 7. Streamflow characteristics for Joos Valley Creek, Buffalo County, Wis.
Water Quality Before and After Implementation of Best-Management Practices 11

groundwater. Concentrations of nutrients, for example, may 

become elevated above background concentrations in groundwater as a result of agricultural activities (Dubrovsky and 

Hamilton, 2010). 

Comparisons of the base-flow water-quality concentrations (suspended solids, total phosphorus and ammonia 

nitrogen) during the pre- and post-BMP periods may indicate 

changes that can be attributed to the implementation of BMPs. 

A nonparametric Wilcoxon rank-sum test (Helsel and Hirsch, 

1992) can be used to determine whether significant differences 

are present between data from the two independent periods 

(pre- and post-BMP). The null hypothesis is that the median 

concentration of a selected constituent in base flow during 

the pre-BMP period is the same as that in base flows during 

the post-BMP period. The alternative hypothesis is that the 

median concentration in base flow during the post-BMP period 

is less than that during the pre-BMP period. If the null hypothesis is rejected in favor of the alternative hypothesis, then the 

reduction is considered statistically significant and could be a 

result of changes in land-use practices in the watershed.

Water-quality samples were collected at base-flow 

conditions during the pre-and post-BMP periods. Daily mean 

discharge was separated into overland flow and base flow to 

determine whether a sample collected was during a base-flow 

period. If the ratio of mean daily base flow to mean daily 

discharge was 0.95 or greater (95 percent or more base flow), 

then the day was considered a potential base-flow sample day. 

In addition, an overland-flow time lag was calculated. The 

time lag was equal to the drainage area raised to the 0.2 power 

and rounded up to the next day (Viessman and others, 1977). 

The time lag was used to eliminate samples collected on the 

falling limbs of hydrographs that may represent runoff water 

quality rather than base-flow water quality. The overland-flow 

time lag was determined to be 2 days for both Eagle and Joos 

Valley Creeks. If a potential base-flow sample was collected 

within 2 days of the hydrograph peak, this sample was not 

considered to be a base-flow sample. The Wilcoxon rank-sum 

nonparametric test was applied to the pre- and post-BMP concentrations for the base-flow samples (table 3). Concentrations 

of the base-flow samples for Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks are 

shown in figure 8 and figure 9. Also shown on these figures is 

the median for each constituent by water year.

For both Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks, the median 

concentrations of suspended solids and total phosphorus 

during base-flow conditions decreased between the pre- and 

post-BMP periods (table 3). These decreases were statistically significant at the 0.05 significance level (table 3). The 

median concentrations of suspended solids decreased 75 and 

71 percent at Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks, respectively. Concentrations of total phosphorus during base-flow conditions 

decreased 33 percent at Eagle Creek and 38 percent at Joos 

Valley Creek from the pre- to the post-BMP periods. An apparent decrease in the concentrations of ammonia nitrogen at both 

sites was not statistically significant at the 0.05 significance 

level. 

Distribution and Seasonality of Loads

Daily load and storm-period loads were computed for 

suspended solids and total phosphorus; loads for ammonia 

nitrogen were computed for storm periods only. Instantaneous 

mass transport of a particular constituent was determined by 

multiplying streamflow by the concentration of the constituent and a conversion factor (Porterfield, 1972). The GCLAS 

software implementation of the integration method was then 

Table 3. Results of the Wilcoxon rank-sum test on the median concentrations of suspended solids and nutrients in 

base flow during, pre- and post-BMP periods, Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks, Wis.

[mg/L, milligrams per liter; BMP, best-management practice; < , less than; significance level =0.05]

Pre-BMP period Post-BMP period

Constituent Median 

concentration Sample size Median concentration Sample size Significance level

Eagle Creek

Suspended solids (mg/L) 40.5 48 10.0 67 <0.001

Total phosphorus (mg/L) .07 49 .047 66 <.001

Ammonia nitrogen (mg/L) .027 49 .023 67 .350

Joos Valley Creek

Suspended solids (mg/L) 37.5 40 11.0 67 <0.001

Total phosphorus (mg/L) .08 36 .05 66 <.001

Ammonia nitrogen (mg/L) .028 39 .023 67 .422
0

50

100150

200

Concentration of suspended solids,

 in milligrams per liter 

Water year

Base-flow sampleWater-year medianBase-flow sampleWater-year medianBase-flow sampleWater-year median

Pre-BMP median

Post-BMP median

0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

Concentration of total phosphorus, 

in milligrams per liter Pre-BMP median Post-BMP median

0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

7/1/1990 3/27/1993 12/22/1995 9/17/1998 6/13/2001 3/9/2004 

Concentration of ammonia nitrogen, 

in milligrams per liter Pre-BMP median Post-BMP median

Figure 8. Concentrations and water-year medians of suspended solids and nutrients in base-flow samples during the data-collection period at EaBuffalo County, Wis. 
Water year

Base-flow sampleWater-year median

Base-flow sampleWater-year median

Base-flow sampleWater-year median

0

204060

80

100

120140160180

8/1/1990 4/27/1993 1/22/1996 10/18/1998 7/14/2001 4/9/2004 

Concentration of suspended solids,

 in milligrams per liter Pre-BMP median Post-BMP median

Post-BMP median

Post-BMP median

0

0.020.040.060.08

0.1

0.12

0.140.160.18

0.2

Concentration of total phosphorus, 

in milligrams per liter Pre-BMP median

Pre-BMP median

0

0.020.040.060.08

0.1

0.120.140.160.18

0.2

Concentration of ammonia nitrogen, 

in milligrams per liter 

Figure 9. Concentrations and water-year medians of suspended solids and nutrients in base-flow samples during the data-collection period at Buffalo County, Wis. 
14 Effects of Best-Management Practices in Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks in the Waumandee Creek Priority Watershed, Wisconsin, 1990–2007

used to determine the mass transport of each constituent 

for both daily and storm periods (Koltun and others, 2006). 

Concentration at the beginning of a storm was estimated from 

samples collected during previous base-flow periods between 

storms. Concentration at the end of the storm was estimated 

from samples collected immediately after the end of the storm. 

Some concentration data for individual storms were estimated by the relation between concentration and streamflow. 

Estimated concentrations within a storm period were kept to a 

minimum. A summary of the number of samples and estimated 

concentrations for the storm loads computed during the preand post-BMP periods is given in table 4. Daily suspended 

solids and total phosphorus loads for each year of the study 

period are published in “Water Resources Data, Wisconsin, 

Water Years 1991–95 (Holmstrom and others, 1992–96) and 

Water Years, 2003–07 (Waschbusch and others, 2004–08).

At Eagle Creek, 54 percent of the suspended solids transported during the study period occurred during the months 

of March, April and May (fig.10). A total of 2 percent of the 

suspended solids transported during the study period occurred 

during the months of October, December, and January (fig. 

10). A total of 50 percent of total phosphorus loads transported 

during the study period occurred during the months of March, 

April and May. A total of 3 percent of total phosphorus transported during the study period occurred during the months of 

October, December, and January (fig. 10). 

At Joos Valley Creek, 51 percent of the suspended solids 

load transported during the study period occurred during the 

months of March, April and June (fig. 11). Less than 1 percent 

of the suspended solids transported during the study period 

occurred during the months of October, December and January. A total of 53 percent of total phosphorus loads transported 

during the study period occurred during the months of March, 

May, and June (fig.11). A total of 2 percent of total phosphorus transported during the study period occurred during the 

months of October, December, and January. 

Table 4. Summary of number of samples and estimated concentrations used in computing storm 

loads during the pre- and post-BMP periods

Suspended solids 

samples estimates

Total phosphorus 

samples estimates

Ammonia nitrogen 

samples estimates

Eagle Creek

Minimum 1 0 1 0 1 0

Median 4 3 4 3 4 2

Maximum 19 9 21 8 20 6

Joos Valley Creek

Minimum 1 1 1 1 1 1

Median 4 3 4 3 4 2

Maximum 18 8 18 12 18 8
Water Quality Before and After Implementation of Best-Management Practices 15

0

5

10

15

20

25

Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept.

Percentage of total load

Month

Total phosphorus

Total suspended solids

Figure 10. Average monthly distribution of total phosphorus and suspended solids loads at Eagle Creek, Buffalo County, Wis., for water 

years 1991–94 and 2003–07.

Month

Total phosphorus

Total suspended solids

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept.

Percentage of total load

Figure 11. Average monthly distribution of total phosphorus and suspended solids loads at Joos Valley Creek, Buffalo County for water 

years 1991–94 and 2003–07. 

Total phosphorus

Total suspended solids

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

Percentage of total load

Day

Figure 12. Daily distribution of total phosphorus and suspended solids loads at Eagle Creek, Buffalo County, Wis., for water years 

1991–94 and 2003–07

Total phosphorus

Total suspended solids

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

Day

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Percentage of total load

Figure 13. Daily distribution of total phosphorus and suspended solids loads at Joos Valley Creek, Buffalo County, Wis., for water years 

1991–94 and 2003–07.
16 Effects of Best-Management Practices in Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks in the Waumandee Creek Priority Watershed, Wisconsin, 1990–2007

Loads were separated into storm loads and base-flow 

loads. On average for the study period, 87 percent of the 

streamflow was comprised of base flow, with the remaining 

13 percent comprised of stormflow at Eagle Creek (fig. 14). 

For Joos Valley Creek, 85 percent of the annual streamflow 

was comprised of base flow, with the remaining 15 percent 

was comprised of stormflow (fig. 14). While the majority of 

the streamflow was comprised of base flow, the majority of the 

suspended solids and total phosphorus loads were transported 

by stormflow. At Eagle Creek, 89 percent of the annual average suspended solids load was transported during storms 

(fig. 14). Similar results were found for total phosphorus; 80 

percent of the annual average total phosphorus was transported 

as stormflow (fig. 14). At Joos Valley Creek, 90 percent of 

the annual average suspended solids was transported during 

stormflows, and 84 percent of the average annual total phosphorus was transported during stormflows (fig. 14). 

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Streamflow

Eagle Creek

Suspended solids Total phosphorus Streamflow Suspended solids Total phosphorus

Percentage of total flow or loadPercentage of total flow or load

Joos Valley Creek

Stormflow

Base flow

Stormflow

Base flow

Figure 14. Annual contributions of stormflow and base-flow periods to streamflow, suspended solids and total phosphorus 

loadings at Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks, Buffalo County, Wis., for water years 1991–2007. 
Water Quality Before and After Implementation of Best-Management Practices 17

Storm Loads

Fixed-interval sampling, particularly at a monthly 

frequency, may not show changes resulting from BMP 

implementation (Walker and Graczyk, 1993; Walker, 1994) 

because a majority of the annual suspended solids and nutrient 

transport occurs during storms. Consequently, mass transport 

resulting from individual storms was analyzed further to determine the effects of BMP installation. 

The median storm loads and storm-load regression 

residuals for all three constituents for the pre- and post-BMP 

periods are listed in table 5 and figs. 15 and 16, respectively.

The two periods were compared statistically by means of the 

Wilcoxon rank-sum test described previously (table 5). For 

both Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks, the median storm loads for 

all three constituents were lower during the post-BMP period 

compared to the pre-BMP period (table 5, figs. 15 and 16). 

With the exception of ammonia nitrogen at Eagle Creek, all of 

these decreases were statistically significant at the 0.05 level 

(table 5, significance level for median storm loads).

Although the general hydrologic conditions were similar 

during the pre- and post-BMP periods, different rainfall characteristics and seasonal factors could produce differences in 

storm loads that are not a result of the management practices. 

To overcome the obstacle that different rainfall characteristics and seasonal factors can complicate the interpretation of 

changes in data, three statistical analyses were performed: (1) 

development of regression equations to identify significant 

variables related to climatic and seasonal factors; (2) analysis 

of the storm-load regression residuals that were generated 

by these equations; and (3) development of separate pre- and 

post-BMP regression equations.

Regressions relating the storm loads to variables representing climatic and seasonal conditions were used to reduce 

the natural variability due to climatic and seasonal factors. 

If the independent variables represent the natural climatic 

and seasonal conditions, then the variability remaining in the 

regression residuals (the difference between the measured 

value and the value predicted by the regression equation) 

represents the combination of lack-of-fit for the regression 

model and changes induced by the BMPs. In theory, it should 

be possible to detect smaller differences between the pre- and 

post-BMP periods compared to detecting differences in the 

storm loads because the regression, by design, reduces variability in the data (Walker, 1994).

A number of independent variables were selected, most 

of which were based on various measures of precipitation for 

each distinct rainstorm. These included total rainfall (P), the 

15- and 30-minute maximum intensities (I15 and I30), and the 

Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) erosivity index (EI) 

(Wischmeier and Smith, 1978). Additional precipitation-based 

measures included the 1-, 3-, and 5-day antecedent precipitation (API1

, API3, and API5, respectively), which is computed as 

the total rainfall for the 1, 3, and 5 days prior to the beginning 

of each storm, respectively. Terms combining total rainfall 

and the antecedent precipitation also were considered (for 

example, P+API1). Finally, two seasonal terms were included 

to allow for variations arising solely based on the time of year. 

The seasonal terms were based on the serial date of the storm 

(T), using a period of 1 year and both sine and cosine terms 

to allow for amplitude and phase-shift estimation (Helsel and 

Hirsch, 1992). 

Table 5. Results of the Wilcoxon rank-sum test comparing median storm loads and storm-load residuals for pre- and post-BMP 

periods.

[<, less than, significance level =0.05]

Median storm loads1 Storm-load residuals

Constituent Pre-BMP 

period

Post-BMP 

period Z-value Significance level Z-value Significance level

Eagle Creek

Suspended solids 121 22.5 3.638 0.000 5.162 <0.001

Total phosphorus 248 75.4 3.186 .0014 4.113 <.001

Ammonia nitrogen 25.0 15.2 1.872 .0613 4.102 <.001

Joos Valley Creek

Suspended solids 19.7 3.4 3.195 0.001 4.094 <0.001

Total phosphorus 56.7 15.3 2.588 .0097 3.851 .0001

Ammonia nitrogen 8.43 2.76 2.976 .0029 3.972 <.001

1

Suspended-solids loads are in tons; loads of other constituents are in pounds.
18 Effects of Best-Management Practices in Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks in the Waumandee Creek Priority Watershed, Wisconsin, 1990–2007

Pre-BMP median

Pre-BMP median

Pre-BMP median

1

10

100

1,000

10,000

Suspended solids storm load, 

in tons 

1

10

100

1,000

10,000

Total phosphorus storm load, 

in pounds 

1

10

100

1,000

3/1/1991 11/25/1993 8/21/1996 5/18/1999 2/11/2002 11/7/2004 8/4/2007

Ammonia nitrogen storm load, 

in pounds 

Date

Ammonia nitrogen storm load

Total phosphorus storm load

Suspended solids storm load

Post-BMP median

Post-BMP median

Post-BMP median

Figure 15. Suspended solids, total phosphorus and ammonia nitrogen storm loads and median storm loads during the pre- and postBMP period at Eagle Creek in Buffalo County, Wis. 
Water Quality Before and After Implementation of Best-Management Practices 19

0.01

0.1

1

10

100

1,000

Suspended solids storm load, in tons

Suspended solids storm load

Pre-BMP median

0.1

1

10

100

1,000

10,000

Total phosphorus storm load, in pounds 

Total phosphorus storm load

0.1

1

10

100

1,000

3/01/1991 11/25/1993 8/21/1996 5/18/1999 2/11/2002 11/07/2004 8/04/2007

Ammonia nitrogen storm load, in pounds

Date

Ammonia nitrogen storm load

Pre-BMP median

Pre-BMP median

Post-BMP median

Post-BMP median

Post-BMP median

Figure 16. Suspended solids, total phosphorus and ammonia nitrogen storm loads and median storm loads during the pre- and postBMP periods at Joos Valley Creek in Buffalo County, Wis. 
20 Effects of Best-Management Practices in Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks in the Waumandee Creek Priority Watershed, Wisconsin, 1990–2007

Preliminary regression results indicated that for many of 

the constituents and storms, simple linear regressions resulted 

in the prediction of negative storm loads. Because this would 

result in erroneous conclusions when comparing pre- and 

post-BMP periods, the final regressions were based on a logarithmic transformation of the storm loads, thus assuring that 

negative loads cannot be predicted. 

For each constituent, stepwise regressions were done on 

the combined pre- and post-BMP periods using the independent variables described above (table 6). For each regression, 

additional variables were considered if the improvement in the 

resulting regression was considered large enough to warrant 

the use of additional variables. In addition, various regression 

plots were examined to verify that the underlying assumptions 

of regression analysis were not violated. For cases where only 

one of the seasonal sine/cosine terms was statistically significant, both terms were included in the final regression to assure 

proper characterization of the amplitude and phase shift of the 

combined seasonal term.

A second statistically based indication of the effects 

of the BMP implementation can be identified by an analysis of the differences in the storm-load regression residuals 

between the two periods, which would represent variability in 

the loads not explained by climatic and seasonal influences. 

The decreases in pre- and post-BMP storm-load regression 

residuals for both Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks were statistically significant for suspended solids, total phosphorus, and 

ammonia nitrogen at the 0.05 level (table 5, significance level 

for storm-load regression residuals). Therefore, the differences 

in pre- and post- BMP storm loads likely are owing to the 

BMPs implemented.

A third analysis was used to provide estimates of the 

percent change between the pre- and post-BMP periods. Using 

separate pre- and post-BMP regressions, it is possible to predict the theoretical pre- and post-BMP storm loads for different values of the independent variables. Separate regressions 

were used because the seasonal and storm rainfall characteristics were different for the pre- and post-BMP periods. The 

difference in the loads predicted by the pre- and post-BMP 

regressions represents a theoretical reduction in load for each 

storm. Separate regressions were determined for the pre- and 

post-BMP periods using the same set of independent variables determined previously (table 6). The resulting pre- and 

post-regressions were applied to the conditions represented 

by the storms in the pre- and post-BMP periods, and median 

values across all the storms were determined. The resulting 

average percent reductions were based on the median values 

for the entire study. In general, the likely percent reduction 

in suspended solids (89 and 84 percent), total phosphorus 

(77 and 67 percent) and ammonia nitrogen (66 and 60 percent) 

at Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks, respectively (table 7) are 

much greater than expected. Load reductions were greater 

in the Eagle Creek watershed than in the Joos Valley Creek 

watershed.

Table 6. Regression results for storm loads at Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks, Wis.

[In, n-maximum precipitation intensity; P, total precipitation; APIn, n-day antecedent precipitation; T, serial date of storm; 

EI, USLE erosivity index; R2, fraction of the variance of response variables explained by the explanatory variables for the model; 

< , less than ; values in bold are statistically significant at the 0.05 level]

Dependent 

variable

Independent 

variables Sample size Significance level Adjusted R2 Standard error

Standard 

error, in percent

Eagle Creek

Suspended solids P, EI, sin(T), 

cos(T)

73 <0.001 0.254 1.80 295

Total phosphorus EI 73 <.001 .248 1.55 225

Ammonia nitrogen I15, EI, P+API1, 

sin(T), cos(T)

73 <.001 .338 1.15 142

Joos Valley Creek

Suspended solids P+API2, sin(T), 

cos(T)

43 <0.001 0.558 1.42 195

Total phosphorus P+API2, sin(T), 

cos(T)

43 <.001 .617 1.09 132

Ammonia nitrogen P+API2, sin(T), 

sin(T)

43 <.001 .518 1.00 117
Effects of Best-Management Practices in Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks 21

Effects of Best-Management Practices 

in Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks

Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks are affected by a mixture of 

BMPs, and each BMP has varying success in influencing different aspects of the water quality, habitat, and biology of the 

streams. A similar mixture of BMPs is used in most Wisconsin 

Priority Watershed Projects that involve agricultural land uses. 

BMPs can be divided into five main categories: animal wastemanagement systems, streambank protection, fencing, nutrient 

management and upland-management practices (table 1). A 

description of the BMPs and their potential effects on water 

quality was summarized in the results from an earlier evaluation-monitoring project (Graczyk and others, 2003). The same 

five categories of BMPs were used in two earlier evaluationmonitoring projects with some improvements in water quality 

(Graczyk and others, 2003; Corsi and others, 2005).

Effects of Best-Management Practices on 

Water Quality

 Sampling results indicate a change in water quality in 

Joos Valley and Eagle Creeks when comparing base-flow concentrations and average storm loads in the pre- and post-BMP 

periods (tables 3 and 7). Median concentrations of suspended 

solids in base flow for Joos Valley and Eagle Creeks decreased 

71 and 75 percent, respectively, while the median concentrations of total phosphorus in base flow decreased 38 and 33 

percent, respectively, these decreases were statistically significant. There was a reduction of concentration of ammonia in 

base flow but this difference was not statistically significant. 

The reduction in average storm loads for suspended solids, 

total phosphorus, and ammonia nitrogen, as predicted by the 

pre- and post-BMP regression equations, ranged from 60 to 

89 percent (table 7). The large reductions in median base-flow 

concentrations and average storm loads observed in Joos Valley and Eagle Creeks should be indicative of very high levels 

of BMP implementation. The levels of BMP implementation 

were less in the Joos Valley and Eagle Creek Watersheds as 

compared to previously studied watersheds (table 8; Corsi and 

others, 2005; Graczyk and others, 2003). In most cases, the 

level of BMP implementation in Joos Valley and Eagle Creek 

Watersheds was about two-thirds less than other watersheds 

studied. 

Protecting the area in and around the two creeks was 

especially important, because the Buffalo County Land 

Conservation Department staff observed livestock pasturing 

next to the channels or standing in the water along both creeks 

(T. Schultz, Land Conservation Buffalo County, Wis. verbal 

commun., 2009). Streambank erosion was especially severe 

along Joos Valley Creek where the livestock were allowed to 

trample most of the banks. Streambank erosion, pasturing, 

and grazing in woodlots were considered major sources of 

suspended solids in the two study areas (Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, 1990). Implementation of the 

BMP categories certainly contributed to the water-quality 

improvements in Joos Valley and Eagle Creeks. This fact 

alone does not seem to explain, however, why the reduction of 

median base-flow concentrations and loads is so high when the 

level of implementation of BMPs is relatively modest. 

Table 7. Average percent reductions predicted across all 

monitored storms using separate pre- and post-BMP regressions 

to predict storm loads.

Median predicted loads

Variable Pre-BMP Post-BMP Percent 

reduction

Eagle Creek

Suspended solids (tons) 156 17.0 89

Total phosphorus (lb) 246 57.5 77

Ammonia nitrogen (lb) 36.9 12.6 66

Joos Valley Creek

Suspended solids (tons) 21 3.4 84

Total phosphorus (lb) 55 18.0 67

Ammonia nitrogen (lb) 11.0 4.5 60

Table 8. Percentage of eligible BMPs implemented in three 

priority watershed evaluation-monitoring projects, Wisconsin.

[NA, information not available]

Type of BMP Eagle 

Creek1

Joos 

Valley 

Creek1

Otter 

Creek2

Garfoot 

Creek3

Brewery 

Creek3

Animal-waste management

Manure storage 25 100 75 NA NA

Barnyard runoff 

control systems 54 57 100 70 50

Stream bank protection

Streambank 

protection 35 36 94 100 86

Fencing 36 25 100 100 0

Grade 

stabilization 80 0 100 100 100

Upland management

Nutrient 

management

41 0 100 26 58

Upland BMPs 19 0 54 19 22

1

 Waumandee Prority Watershed Project (current study).

2

 Sheboygan River Priority Watershed Project (Corsi and others, 2005).

3

 Black Earth Priority Watershed Project (Graczyk and others, 2003).
22 Effects of Best-Management Practices in Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks in the Waumandee Creek Priority Watershed, Wisconsin, 1990–2007

To help understand the reasons for the large improvements in water quality in Joos Valley and Eagle Creeks, the 

Buffalo County Land Conservation Department staff reviewed 

landowner records for any other changes not included in the 

main BMP categories. The most important item found in the 

records was the decrease in the number of farms with cattle. 

Of the 25 farms that had livestock at the beginning of the 

Waumandee Priority Watershed Project, only 7 farms had 

cattle by the end of the project (T. Schultz, Land Conservation Buffalo County, WI., verbal commun., 2009). Because 

the average herd size in the remaining 7 farms did not increase 

appreciably, a loss of 18 farms with cattle means a very large 

decrease in the number of cattle in the study areas. Without the 

cattle trampling the banks and grazing adjacent to the creek, 

the net effect on the stream water quality could be as effective 

as the implemented streambank protection and fence installation. Removing a large number of cattle from the watershed 

also could explain the decrease in base-flow concentrations of 

suspended solids and total phosphorus. Without the cattle to 

re-suspend bottom sediments, the turbidity is reduced and so 

is the concentration of phosphorus associated with the solids. 

Improvements in base-flow quality for Garfoot Creek in the 

Black Earth Creek watershed also were attributed to restricting access of the livestock to the channel (Graczyk and others, 

2003).

A reduction in the number of cattle also would reduce 

pollutant loads from important sources further from the creeks. 

Upland pastures and woodlots would have time to return 

to more natural conditions, so they would no longer be an 

important source of suspended solids and total phosphorus. 

With fewer cattle, less manure is stored in the barnyards and 

spread onto the fields. The importance of reducing manure in 

the runoff is reflected in the large reduction in ammonia loads. 

Less manure in the runoff from the barnyards and fields also 

would reduce the loads of suspended solids and total phosphorus. A dramatic reduction in the number of cattle likely played 

a substantial role in the observed improvements in water 

quality, because the presence of cattle can affect the sources 

of pollutants, both around a stream channel and some distance 

from the channel. 

Although reducing the number of cattle in a watershed 

appears to contribute to improved water quality, it is not consistent with efforts to promote sustainable farming practices. 

It is possible that the reduction of livestock in the watershed 

acted as a surrogate for the ability of fencing and streambank 

protection to improve water quality. Greater efforts to reduce 

livestock access to the stream, use of proper manure and 

nutrient management, appropriate sites for grazing, and proper 

upland-management practices might produce water-quality 

benefits that are similar to those observed in this study.

Comparison of Results to the Pollutant 

Reduction Goals for the Waumandee Creek 

Priority Watershed Project

The Nonpoint Source Control Plan for the Waumandee 

Creek Priority Watershed Project (Wisconsin Department of 

Natural Resources, 1990) describes pollution-reduction goals 

and water-resource objectives for each of the 12 subwatersheds comprising the Waumandee Creek Priority Watershed. 

Eagle Valley Creek is one of the 12 subwatersheds, and 

contains both Eagle and Joos Valley Creek. The pollutantreduction goals for the Eagle Valley Creek subwatershed are 

as follows:

• Reduce upland sediment loads for the entire subwatershed by 50 percent. The sources targeted for reducing the sediment load include cropland, pastures, and 

grazed woodlots. 

• Reduce streambank erosion along Eagle Creek by 80 

percent. This targets the entire length of Eagle Creek, 

not just the 7.41 mi in the study area.

• Reduce streambank erosion along Joos Valley Creek by 

60 percent.

• Reduce the organic load from the “top” 70 percent of 

barnyards draining to Eagle Creek. This targets the 

entire length of Eagle Creek, not just the 7.41 mi in the 

study area.

• Reduce the organic load from the “top” 50 percent of 

barnyards draining to Joos Valley Creek. 

The organic load represents the sum of the phosphorus, 

nitrogen and organic material that originates from manure 

washed off from barnyards as a result of the 10-year, 24-hour 

rainfall event. Phosphorus runoff during the 10-year, 24-hour 

rainfall is an indication of organic load and bacteria entering 

the creek, so the reduction in organic load is likely proportional to a reduction in phosphorus. 

The sediment and phosphorus reduction goals selected 

for the Eagle Creek Watershed seem to have been achieved 

in the two study areas. Analytical methods for suspended 

solids and suspended sediment are different and the results 

of the two analytical methods are not comparable (Gray and 

others, 2000). Because the comparison is in the percentage 

of changes of loads and not actual loads and the erosional 

and transport properties are the same for both constituents, a 

comparison between the percentage reductions in the overall 

sediment loads and those of the median suspended solids loads 

can be considered valid. The estimated reductions in average 

loads for suspended solids exceed the percentage-reduction 

goals for both the uplands and streambank erosion (table 9). 

This comparison is not entirely valid, however, because the 

suspended solids reductions measured in the study areas 

combine the effects of BMPs on both sources of sediment. 
Summary 23

Table 9. Sediment-reduction goals for streambank erosion and uplands in the Eagle and Joos Valley Creek subwatersheds.

Sediment source Annual sediment load, 

in tons per year1

Reduction goal, 

in percent

Reduction in annual sediment load, 

in tons per year

Cropland 1,480 50 740

Pasture and grazed woodlots 1,210 50 605

Streambank erosion—Eagle Creek 890 80 712

Streambank erosion—Joos Valley Creek 439 60 263

Streambank erosion—Tributaries to Eagle Creek 13 60 8

Totals 4,032 2,328

1

 Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, 1990.

A more useful comparison is to combine the reduction goals 

for uplands and streambank erosion into one goal; this can 

be done by using the annual sediment loads presented in the 

Waumandee Creek Priority Watershed Plan. After multiplying the annual sediment loads predicted for each source by the 

desired percent reduction, the combined sediment-reduction 

goal for the entire subwatershed is 2,328 ton/yr (table 9). This 

represents a 58-percent reduction in the annual sediment load 

for the subwatershed. Since the measured percent suspended 

solids reductions are over 80 percent, the combined goal of 

58 percent for the subwatershed easily is achieved in the two 

study areas. 

If one assumes that the major source of phosphorus in the 

study areas was from barnyards, then the phosphorus-reduction goals for the barnyards (50 percent) would be achieved in 

the two study areas, which showed total phosphorus reductions of at least 67 percent. The reduction goals for organics 

are the same as for phosphorus, since the calculation for barnyard loads is done in terms of phosphorus. It is not clear if the 

measured reduction in total phosphorus is a result of barnyard 

work or the control of some other source, such as streambank 

erosion or manure spreading practices. While it is not entirely 

possible to determine if the phosphorus goals for the subwatershed were achieved, it is obvious that a very large reduction in 

total phosphorus occurred in the two study areas. 

Summary

Streamflow-gaging stations equipped for automated sample collection and continuous recording of stream stage were 

installed in July 1990 at Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks and 

operated through September 2007. In October 1990, three rain 

gages were installed in each watershed and operated through 

September 2007. Implemented best-management practices 

(BMPs) for Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks were tracked 

throughout the study period; BMPs were implemented during 

1993-2000. In 2000, a majority of the BMP-implementation 

goals set by the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources 

(WDNR) and local Land Conservation Department had been 

achieved for the two study watersheds. Base-flow and stormwater samples were collected and analyzed for suspended 

solids, total phosphorus, and ammonia nitrogen. Data results 

were compared for the pre-BMP (1990–93) and post-BMP 

(2002–07) periods.

For the most part, the distributions of the rainstorms 

that were monitored and used to calculate storm loads were 

not dramatically different in the pre- and post-BMP periods 

for both Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks. The highest annual 

streamflow occurred at both sites in water year 1993, which 

also corresponds to the greatest above-normal precipitation at 

the rain gages in both watersheds. The minimum streamflow 

occurred in water year 2007 at both sites. For both Eagle and 

Joos Valley Creeks, the median concentrations of suspended 

solids and total phosphorus during base flow were significantly lower during the post-BMP period than the pre-BMP 

period. The decrease in the concentrations of ammonia nitrogen at both sites was not statistically significant at the 0.05 

significance level. For both Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks, the 

median storm loads for suspended solids, total phosphorus, 

and ammonia nitrogen were lower during the post-BMP period 

than the pre-BMP period. Multiple linear-regression analyses 

were used to remove the effects of climatologic conditions 

and seasonality from computed storm loads. The decreases in 

pre- and post-BMP storm-load regression residuals for both 

Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks were statistically significant for 

suspended solids, total phosphorus, and ammonia nitrogen 

at the 0.05 significance level. Separate pre- and post-BMP 

regressions were used to estimate the likely percent reduction 

in suspended solids (89 and 84 percent), total phosphorus (77 

and 67 percent) and ammonia nitrogen (66 and 60 percent) at 

Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks, respectively.

These differences in the pre- and post-BMP stormload regression residuals were attributed to the BMPs that 

were implemented during the study period combined with a 

decrease in the number of farms with livestock, which mimicked the water-quality benefits of BMPs, such as fencing and 

streambank protection.
24 Effects of Best-Management Practices in Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks in the Waumandee Creek Priority Watershed, Wisconsin, 1990–2007

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Director, Wisconsin Water Science Center

U.S. Geological Survey

8505 Research Way

Middleton, Wisconsin 53562

http://wi.water.usgs.gov/
Graczyk and others—Effects of Best-Management Practices in Eagle and Joos Valley Creeks in the Waumandee Creek Priority Watershed, Wisconsin, 1990–2007— SIR 2011-5119