Sharon Gibbs with George Saliba 

TROLABES FROM 

[ERICAN fflSTORY 

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Secretary 

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SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY • NUMBER 45 

Planispheric Astrolabes 

from the 

National Museum of American History 

Sharon Gibbs 

with George Saliba 

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION PRESS 

City of Washington 

1984 
ABSTRAC T 

Gibbs, Sharon, with George Sahba. Planispheric Astrolabes from the National Museum of American History. Smithsonian Studies in History and Technology, number 45, 231 pages, 130 figures, 23 tables, 1984.—This monograph 

describes via catalog entries and comparative analysis what has for many 

years been one of the five largest collections of planispheric astrolabes in the 

world. Until 1974, when seven instruments that had been on long term loan 

were returned to their owner, the National Museum of American History of 

the Smithsonian Institution preserved 48 examples of functioning astrolabes. 

This is the first detailed discussion of all 48, together referred to as the 

collection. The majority of the instruments, including the seven no longer on 

loan to the museum, once were part of the collection of Samuel Verplanck 

Hoffman of New York City. 

An introductory chapter, using words and drawings, describes the basic 

elements of a planispheric astrolabe, thereby introducing terms that appear 

frequently in later sections. The section "Historical Perspective" emphasizes 

the information conveyed by the makers' names and dates inscribed on 

instruments in the collection. It places this information in the larger context 

of the history of the development of the astrolabe. Each of the functional 

elements incorporated into the astrolabes in the collection is discussed in detail 

in a chapter devoted to comparative analysis. That section illuminates distinctions between European instruments and instruments made in India or in 

the Muslim world. In each section, the basic features of a functional element 

are described and any remarkable treatments of these features are noted. In 

addition, the traditional function of each element is specified, relying on 

instructions for its use prepared by Masha^'allah, al-Biruni, or Chaucer. 

Photographs illustrate each section. 

Complementing this comparative analysis is an illustrated catalog of the 

collection. It includes transcriptions and translations of inscriptions that 

appear on the instruments. Appended to the catalog are two sections that 

present and discuss the information conveyed by the gazetteers incorporated 

into many Muslim astrolabes and the star networks (or retes) included on all 

complete astrolabes in the collection. Finally, a third appendix describes the 

process used to prepare the ecliptic circle component of the astrolabe's star 

network. In doing so it conveys basic information about the construction of a 

planispheric astrolabe. 

Copyright © Smithsonian Institution 1984 

OFFFCIAL PUBLICATION DATE is handstamped in a limited number of initial copies and is recorded 

in the Institution's annual report, Smithsonian Year. SERIES COVER DESIGN: COVER: Front of 

astrolabe, CCA No. 39 (see page 73). 

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data 

National Museum of American History (U.S.) 

Planispheric astrolabes from the National Museum of American History. 

(Smithsonian studies in history and technology ; no. 45) 

Bibliography: p. 

1. Astrolabes. 2. Astrolabes—Catalogs. 3. National Museum of American History (U.S.) 

Catalogs. I. Gibbs, Sharon L. II. Saliba, George. III. Title. IV. Series. 

QB85.N37 1984 552'.4 83-600270 
Contents 

Page 

Foreword v 

Preface viii 

Design of the Planispheric Astrolabe 1 

Historical Perspective 12 

Comparative Analysis 22 

Catalog of the Collection 61 

Appendix I: Gazetteers 190 

Appendix II: Star Names 207 

Appendix III: The Principle of Stereographic Projection 220 

Notes 223 

Literature Cited 227 

Index 228 

ill 

Foreword 

The astrolabe of Islam was a traveler's instrument. Whether the owner was 

an astrologer, astronomer, geographer, surveyor, religious or civil official, his 

planispheric astrolabe was portable and designed for use across several latitudes. Travel has also been an important factor in accounting for the popularity of astrolabes and pseudo-astrolabes as collectors' items in recent decades. 

Americans and Europeans visiting the shop of an instrument maker in Isfahan 

have been attracted by the esthetic appeal of the twentieth century object, 

just as international visitors in the antique store of a scientific instrument 

dealer in Paris or London have been drawn by the mathematical and scientific 

elegance of the beautifully crafted, traditional, functional object. 

Curiosity about astrolabes is not a recent phenomenon, however. Several 

nineteenth-century studies of individual instruments attest to the interest 

taken by philologists and other scholars in these artifacts, which came to be 

treated as source documents for the study of Islamic civilization and its impact 

on Western learning. Numerous hobbyists and art collectors likewise acquired 

astrolabes out of interest in history, science, or art long before the ownership 

of a single such object (to be displayed in the living room) became a desirable 

goal in itself. Indeed, most of the major known private collections date back 

to the last century. 

The collection of astrolabes in the National Museum of American History 

reflects long-standing American interests in the subject. It was an American 

traveler in Europe who purchased the first astrolabe for the United States 

National Museum in 1888. He was Samuel P. Langley (1834-1906), noted 

contributor to the study of solar radiation and the early history of flight, and 

third Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. He authorized purchase of this 

astrolabe (CCA No. 2569), along with several other scientific instruments, 

from Raoul Heilbrunner in Paris. Subsequent astrolabes came from owners 

representing a variety of economic classes, who had acquired the objects in 

the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, either as single objects of curiosity or 

in the course of building a collection. Among these owners were Americans of 

colonial ancestry as well as recent immigrants. Aside from purchases made 

possible in large part by corporate donors such as International Business 

Machines Corporation, the objects in the collection came through the generosity of individual donors. We owe particular gratitude to E. Nagel, N. 

Grossman, Lessing J. Rosenwald, and an anonymous donor. The bulk of the 

astrolabes in the National Museum of American History belonged to the 

Samuel V. Hoffman collection, however, and came to the Smithsonian 

Institution through the cooperation of his children, the late Edgar and 

Margaret Hoffman. 
v i SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

Samuel Verplanck Hoffman (1866-1942) of New York City was the son of 

Eugene Augustus Hoffman, the dean of the General Theological Seminary, 

and the grandson of Samuel Verplanck Hoffman, a well-to-do New York 

merchant and insurance executive. The family had considerable holdings, 

including a large amount of real estate in Manhattan, which S.V. Hoffman 

managed. A graduate of Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoffman had done 

graduate work at Columbia and, more intensively, at the Johns Hopkins 

University, where he studied astrophysics and chemistry. By the turn of the 

century, he had acquired a reputation as a knowledgeable collector, and gave 

advice on the subject to the Smithsonian Institution. Sections from his sundial 

collection were loaned to the Smithsonian on several occasions. He was closely 

affiliated with the New York Historical Society, serving as its president from 

1903 to 1913, and as a trustee from 1913 until 1942. 

Samuel V. Hoffman bequeathed his fine library on early mathematical and 

astronomical instruments to the New York Historical Society, along with most 

of his collection of sundials, the mariner's astrolabe associated with Champlain, and seven planispheric astrolabes. He bequeathed the major part of the 

astrolabe collection and other assorted pieces to his children, who decided in 

1959 that these objects should become part of the National Collections 

entrusted to the Smithsonian Institution. It is this collection that forms the 

core of the National Museum of American History's astrolabe holdings. The 

present study also includes the seven planispheric astrolabes that had been 

given to the New York Historical Society, since these were loaned to the 

Smithsonian Institution and displayed in this Museum until the New York 

Historical Society sold them at auction in 1975. They are identified by the 

NMAH numbers 322327, 322458-322461, 322463, and 322464 (CCA Nos. 65, 

4, 58, 42, 55, 144, and 88, respectively. 

According to the latest astrolabe census, the collection of the National 

Museum of American History is now the fourth-largest museum collection in 

the world, ranking behind those of the Museum of the History of Science in 

Oxford, the Greenwich Maritime Museum, and the Adler Planetarium in 

Chicago. For that reason, it seemed particularly appropriate to subject the 

objects in this collection to close study. Although there have been a number 

of such studies of individual instruments, and good descriptive accounts of 

certain collections, the only publication that approached the detailed description we found desirable is Gunther's classical two-volume work published in 

1932. While many of our astrolabes were included in that study, the information given was often incomplete. Gunther's unsurpassed achievement in 

describing the world's known astrolabes is not denigrated by the observation 

that we have an advantage over him in working from the object rather than 

the photograph, and in being able to draw on subsequent scholarship such as 

that of Hartner, Michel, or Kunitzsch. 

We have been particularly fortunate in the fact that Sharon Gibbs was 

willing to undertake the arduous task of subjecting each of the astrolabes and 

its components to minute scrutiny and to describe her findings in meticulous 

detail. We are grateful to George Saliba for collaborating with her in the 
NUMBER 45 Vli 

translation of the Arabic inscriptions, and to David Pingree, who provided 

similar help with the Sanskrit. We hope that their work will encourage other 

subject matter specialists to provide similar descriptions. Having the results of 

such studies at our disposal should enable us to address the many unanswered 

questions concerning schools, traditions, and styles that make this subject such 

a fascinating field of inquiry. 

Uta C. Merzbach, Curator 

Division of Mathematics 

The National Museum of American History 
Preface 

The preparation of this monograph would not have been possible without 

the encouragement and cooperation of Dr. Uta Merzbach, who has, for the 

years of my association with them, been the custodian of the National 

Museum's collection of planispheric astrolabes. My gratitude to Dr. Merzbach 

extends also to her assistants, most notably Mrs. Ona Jordan, who has presided 

over many of my examinations of the objects and provided quick access to 

photographs and prints. 

This publication completes, after a long hiatus, work begun as a 1972-1973 

post-doctoral research fellow at the Museum. The work was jointly sponsored 

by Dr. Merzbach and Silvio Bedini, then Assistant Museum Director. Mr. 

Bedini's interest and support have complemented Dr. Merzbach's encouragement and cooperation to lead to the publication of this volume. 

Some years after I had completed my Smithsonian fellowship I learned that 

Dr. George Saliba, now at Columbia University, had also studied those 

astrolabes in the collection with Arabic inscriptions. Dr. Saliba and I agreed 

that collaboration would enhance our efforts. The result is this volume and 

the inclusion (thanks to Dr. Saliba's contributions) of Arabic transcriptions, 

accompanying English translations, and pertinent linguistic commentary. Dr. 

Saliba's research is particularly evident in the appendices on star names and 

gazetteers. Dr. Saliba has frequently obtained the help of Mr. H. Javadi, Mr. 

A. Davaran, and A. Kholdani concerning the deciphering of some Persian 

inscriptions. Their generous assistance is gratefully acknowledged. He is 

especially grateful to Professor Owen Gingerich of Harvard University, who 

encouraged his work on this collection. 

I am grateful to Russell Cashdollar for turning my rough sketches into the 

professional line drawings that illustrate this publication. 

Finally, I owe a special debt of gratitude to an extraordinary typist, 

Rosemary Regan. 

Sharon Gibbs 

Washington 

June 1982 

Vlll 
Planispheric Astrolabes 

from the 

National Museum of American History 

Sharon Gibbs 

with George Saliba 

Design of the Planispheric Astrolabe 

Information on how to make and use a planispheric astrolabe is currently available from a 

variety of sources. A fourth-century work by 

Theon Alexandrinus "on the little astrolabe" apparently can be considered the prototype for all 

later contributions to this literature.^ While the 

remarks in this section follow the tradition established by Theon, they are not intended to be a 

major contribution to it. They are offered primarily as an introduction to terminology employed in the catalog and the analysis of the 

collection of instruments which is the subject of 

this study. 

Some basic components characterize a planispheric astrolabe no matter where or when it was 

made. These are the body, the suspensory apparatus, the alidade, the pin, and the star map (or 

rete). The functions of these parts remain fairly 

constant over a large geographic area and a 

considerable period of time. Together, the body, 

the suspensory apparatus, the pin, and the alidade function as an observational instrument (see 

Figure 10); the star map, the pin, and the body 

Sharon Gibbs, National Archives and Records Service, Washington, 

D.C. 20408. George Saliba, Columbia University, New York, 

N. Y. 10027. 

function as a model of the heavens (see Figure 

13). 

The body constitutes the bulk of the instrument. It is shaped like a thin disk. It has a definite 

front {wajh ov facies)'^ and back {zahr or dorsum). 

In all but a few cases, the front incorporates a 

raised rim {hajra or limbus) and a depressed central 

area {umm or mater). The various surfaces of the 

body of an astrolabe are seldom left uninscribed. 

This inscription (both form and content) may be 

used to identify both the date (see page 13) and 

place of origin of any given instrument. Tables 1, 

2, and 3 list the scales that may appear on the 

back of an astrolabe, and indicate whether each 

can usually be found on an instrument inscribed 

with Arabic characters and made in the mashriq 

(East) or the maghrib (West), or on a European^ 

instrument inscribed with Latin characters. Figures 1, 2, and 3 illustrate the typical placement of 

these scales. Note that, in all cases, at least one 

scale serves to measure the altitude of a celestial 

object when the astrolabe is suspended. 

Just as the scales and tables on the back of an 

astrolabe may be used to distinguish an Arabic 

from a European instrument, so too may the 

inscription on the front rim. Table 4 shows the 
SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

TABLE 1.—Scales that may appear on the back of a mashriqi astrolabe (refer to Figure 1 for an 

explanation of location of entries in "Placement" column; refer to "Comparative Analysis" for 

full explanation of scales) 

Title of 

table/scale 

Outer Circular 

Altitude 

Cotangent 

Arc 

Declination 

Azimuth of Qibla 

Altitude of noon sun 

Hours 

Prayers 

Angle 

Sine 

Cosine 

Box 

Tangent 

Cotangent 

Inner Circular 

Terms 

Zodiacal signs 

Faces 

Lunar mansions 

Inner Box 

Triplicities 

Placement 

Margin 

I, II 

III, IV 

Quadrant 

UR 

UR 

UR 

UL, UR 

UR 

Quadrant 

UL 

UL 

Quadrant 

LL(a), LR(d) 

LL(b),LR(c) 

Quadrant 

LL and LR V, VI 

LL and LR VII 

LL and LR VIII 

LL and LR IX 

Quadrant 

LL and LR X 

Units 

degrees of arc 

feet/fingers 

zodiacal divisions 

cities 

degrees of latitude 

1/12 of daylight 

times of day 

1° or 5° angles 

or 1/60 of quadrant radius 

feet LL, fingers, LR 

feet LL, fingers, LR 

zodiacal divisions 

zodiacal divisions 

zodiacal divisions 

zodiacal divisions 

zodiacal divisions 

Number of units (type) 

90 (equal) 

7-60 (unequal) 

6-60 

1-7 

22-50 

1-6 

1-5 

18-90 (unequal) 

60 (equal) 

7 LL, 12 LR 

7 LL, 12 LR (equal) 

60 (unequal) 

12 (equal) 

36 (equal) 

28 (equal) 

12+ planets and natures 

variety possible. Figures 4 and 5 illustrate the 

placement. To ensure the effective operation of 

the astrolabe as a model of the heavens (see 

below), the rim is interrupted by a hole or a 

projecting tooth. The umm or mater of an astrolabe, 

if it is engraved at all, may contain either a 

stereographic projection of the horizon coordinates for a given latitude (see Appendix III and 

Figure 6) or a list of important cities accompanied 

by geographic parameters (see Appendix I). 

The quality of an astrolabe as an observational 

instrument depends on the care with which it is 

fitted with a means of suspension (see Figure 7). 

An acceptable suspensory apparatus generally 

consists of a rigid appendage to the disk base, 

called the "throne" (kursi or armilla fixa); a loop 

of metal, the handle {^urwa or armilla reflexa), 

which passes through a hole pierced in the highest 

point of the throne and can move only in the 

plane of the disk base; and a metal ring {halqa or 

armilla rotunda) with a diameter large enough to 

encircle a thumb and pass through the handle 

attached to the throne. The preceding description 

FIGURE 1.—Back of an astrolabe made in the mashriq. 

Numbers and letters refer to scales listed in Table 1. 

refers only to the basic characteristics of each 

element of the appratus. Above all, the combination must allow the instrument to hang plumb. 

Shape and the amount of decoration may vary 
TABLE 2.—Scales that may appear on the back of a maghribi astrolabe (refer to Figure 2 for the 

location of entries in the "Placement" column; the calendar scale may be centrally located, in which 

case the 365 days would divide it unequally) 

Title of 

table/scale 

Outer circular 

Altitude 

Cotangent 

Zodiacal signs 

Outer eccentric 

Calendar 

Arc 

Hours 

Box 

Tangent 

Cotangent 

Placement 

Margin 

1,2 

3,4 

5 

Margin 

6 

Quadrant 

UL 

Quadrant 

LL(a), LR(d) 

LL(b), LR(c) 

Units 

degrees of arc 

1/12 of gnomon 

zodiacal divisions 

days of year 

1/12 daylight 

feet 

feet 

Number of units (type) 

90 (equal) 

60 (unequal) 

360 (equal) 

365 (equal) 

1-6 

12 (equal) 

12 (equal) 

FIGURE 2 (left).—Back of an astrolabe 

made in the maghrib. Numbers 

and letters locate scales listed 

in Table 2. 

FIGURE 3 (right).—Back 

of an astrolabe made in Europe. 

Numbers and letters refer to scales listed in Table 3. 

TABLE 3.—Scales that may appear on the back of a European astrolabe: summarizes the content of 

the back of a "standard" European astrolabe but does not characterize those instruments with 

universal projections (refer to Figure 3 for location of entries in "Placement" column; the calendar 

scale may be centrally located, in which case the 365 days would divide it unequally) 

Title of 

table/scale 

Outer circular 

Altitude 

Zodiacal signs 

Outer eccentric 

Calendar 

Arc 

Hours 

Hours 

Box 

Tangent 

Cotangent 

Placement 

Margin 

1,2,3,4 

5 

Margin 

6 

Quadrant 

UL, UR 

UL, UR 

Quadrant 

LL(a), LR(d) 

LL(b), LR(c) 

Units 

degrees of arc 

zodiacal divisions 

days of year 

1/12 of daylight 

1/24 of day 

fingers or 1/60 side of box 

fingers or 1/60 side of box 

Number of units (type) 

90 (equal) 

360 (equal) 

365 (equal) 

1-12 

1-12 

1-12 

1-60 
SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

TABLE 4.—Scales that may appear on the rim of an astrolabe 

(see Figures 4 and 5 for the placement of these scales) 

Title of 

scale 

Degrees 

Degrees 

Winds 

Hours 

Units 

5° and 1° 

5° and 1° 

30° 

15° 

Range 

0°-360° 

4 (0°-90°) 

0°-360° 

0°-360° 

Tradition 

mashriq 

maghrib 

mashriq 

European 

European 

FIGURE 5.—Placement of scales on the rim of an astrolabe 

made in Europe. 

FIGURE 4.—Variations in the placement of scales on the rim 

of an astrolabe inscribed in Arabic characters. 

FIGURE 6.—Astrolabe plate appropriate for 36° latitude. 

Numbers refer to projected lines listed in Table 5. 

according to the taste and ingenuity of the maker. 

As is true with the suspensory apparatus, the 

shape of the alidade {al-^idada or regula) may be 

dictated by stylistic convention. Utility demands, 

however, that its length be approximately equal 

to the diameter of the body; that it be wide 

enough at its center to be pierced by a small 

circular hole; and that each arm incorporate a 

beveled edge that coincides with a line (the linea 

fiduciae), which passes through the center of the 
NUMBER 45 

FIGURE 7.—An astrolabe's suspensory apparatus. 

0 :> O 

O o > 

y 

FIGURE 8.—Alidade with pin and ringlet. 

small central hole. An inscription in Arabic characters and engraved lines invariably decorate the 

alidade of an instrument made in the mashriq 

(see Figure 8). No alidade is complete unless it 

has been fitted with two sighting plates. These 

FIGURE 9.—The star map, '^ankabut, or rete, of an astrolabe. 

Numbers refer to stars listed on page 56. 

TABLE 5.—Coordinates that may be projected on the plate 

of an astrolabe (see Figure 6 for location of numbers, in 

parentheses here, specifying position of scales) 

Projected 

lines 

Colures (1) 

Tropics and 

equator (2) 

Horizon (3) 

Altitudes (4) 

Twilight 

Azimuths 

Equal hours 

Seasonal hours (8) 

Houses 

Prayers 

Number 

2 

3 

1-many 

15-90 

1 

36 

12-15 

12 

12 

4 

Position 

quadrant 

boundaries 

UL,UR,LL,LR 

LL,LR 

UL,UR 

LL,LR 

UL,UR,* 

LL,LR 

LL,LR 

UL,UR,LL,LR 

LL,LR 

Tradition 

all 

all 

all 

all 

all 

all 

mashriq 

all 

European 

maghrib 

* On some astrolabes made in the Muslim world, the 

azimuths extend to the lower half of the plate. 

are usually pierced with two holes (centered on 

each plate's center line). The sighting plates are 

affixed perpendicular to each arm of the alidade 

at equal distances from its center. 

The complete alidade is connected to the body 

of the astrolabe by means of a broad-headed pin 
SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

{qutb or clavus), which passes through the central 

hole in the alidade and a hole in the center of the 

body. The diameter of the pin is such that the 

alidade moves easily, but not loosely, about it as 

an axis. The pin is a small but crucial component 

of the astrolabe's design. Without it the astrolabe 

could not function as an observational tool. In 

fact, the astrolabe's other function as a model of 

celestial motion is equally dependent for its operation on this pin. 

The openwork star map (^ankabUt or rete) is the 

basic component of the astrolabe that completes 

the model of celestial motion (see Figure 9). It 

can be viewed as a thin plate of diameter equal 

to the diameter of the area on the front of the 

astrolabe framed by the rim. It incorporates the 

stereographic projection of the ecliptic and of 

selected bright stars (see Appendices II and III). 

All of the metal that does not either define these 

projections or connect them to the center of the 

plate is cut away. The center itself is pierced with 

a small circular hole so that the star map may fit 

over the pin passing through the center of the 

body and may rotate freely about the pin as axis. 

The star map is of openwork construction to 

allow a view of a fixed stereographic projection 

engraved on the surface under it. This stereographic projection of the horizon coordinates for 

a given latitude may appear on the umm or mater. 

If it does not, and occasionally even it it does, the 

astrolabe may be fitted with a series of solid plates 

(safiha or tympanum) of diameter equal to the 

diameter of the openwork star map. These plates 

are inscribed with stereographically projected horizon coordinates for several latitudes (see Table 

5 for a list of the coordinates that may appear). 

Each plate is modified with a notch or a tooth 

(see Figure 6) that fits into the corresponding 

tooth or notch incorporated into the rim, so that 

when the astrolabe is assembled, the plate is fixed 

inside the umm or mater. 

Most European instruments and some instruments inscribed with Arabic characters include a 

second rotating arm, similar to the alidade, but 

without sighting plates. This index arm is designed to rotate freely about the pin over the star 

map and rim on the front of the astrolabe. 

Once all the separate components of the astrolabe (front and back) are in place, a slot in the 

tip of the consolidating pin extends beyond the 

top layer just enough so that a wedge (faras or 

equus—literally "horse") may be fitted into it. 

When used to make celestial observations, the 

astrolabe is suspended from its ring, and its alidade is adjusted so that either a ray of sunlight 

passes through the two smaller holes in the sighting plates or a star is centered in the two larger 

holes. The fiducial edge of the upper alidade arm 

registers solar or stellar altitude (Figure 10). 

Measurements of solar or stellar altitude can be 

converted with the help of astronomical tables or 

a knowledge of spherical trigonometry into indications of geographic position or time of day or 

night. Sixteenth- and seventeenth-century explorers chose to bring only the observational elements 

of the astrolabe to sea, and to use the resulting 

instrument in conjunction with printed tables to 

help them navigate. 

Those elements of an astrolabe that characterize it as planispheric replace tabulated astronomical data as interpreters of measures taken by the 

alidade. Whereas astronomical tables are arithmetical models of heavenly motion, the astrolabe's rete, plate, and pin constitute a geometrical 

model of heavenly motion. In converting stellar 

altitude to time of night, for example, the astrolabe's geometrical model functions as outlined 

below. 

An engraved plate, appropriate for the observer's latitude, is fitted into the front central 

area of the astrolabe. The rete is positioned over 

the plate and the pin is replaced so that the rete 

may rotate around it. Assuming that one of the 

stars incorporated into the rete is visible above 

the horizon, its altitude is measured. The rete is 

then rotated until the representation of this star 

coincides with the projected circle on the plate, 

which represents its measured altitude. Without 

moving the rete, the position of that point in its 

FIGURE 10.—Noah's Ark, as shown in an Indian painting of 

the early seventeenth century depicting the use of an astrolabe (left middle) as an observational instrument. (Freer 

Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution, Accession No. 48.8). 
liKtegT" 
SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

FIGURE 11.—Astrolabe No. 186. The tip of the pointer identified as Cor Leonis lies in the 

middle of the third seasonal hour. 
NUMBER 45 

FIGURE 12.—Astrolabe No. 262. Assuming that its index arm marks the position of the sun in 

the ecliptic, this astrolabe marks the middle of the third equinoctial hour after midnight. 
10 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

^./^. ^ 

'^,,A'L^;S hz>^X 

•y^A 

^ •, J^^/.l;'^: •^^i'&!^ 

FIGURE 13.—This sixteenth century miniature depicts an astrologer using an astrolabe (left 

middle) to prepare the horoscope of Alexander the Great. (Metropolitan Museum of Art. 

Accession No. 13.228.14 44157. Ms5). 
NUMBER 45 11 

yearly path (the ecliptic) that represents the sun 

is noted. It coincides with a seasonal hour stereographically projected onto the plate (see Figure 

11) or an equinoctial hour radially projected onto 

the rim (see Figure 12).^ 

The same elements of the planispheric astrolabe's design that enable it to function effectively 

as a timekeeper also contribute to its usefulness 

as an astrological computer. By adjusting the rete 

so that it represents the heavens at the place and 

moment of an individual's birth, an astrologer 

equipped with an astrolabe (see Figure 13) can 

avoid many of the complicated calculations involved in casting a horoscope. He can read directly from the adjusted instrument the ascendant, the midheaven, the descendant, and the 

nadir. If the plate includes projections of the 

boundaries of the astrological houses, he can complete the horoscope chart by reading the points 

of intersection between these boundaries and the 

ecliptic circle. In the absence of projected house 

boundaries he can estimate their position by using 

the projections of the second, fourth, sixth, eighth, 

and tenth seasonal hours. Figure 14 shows an 

astrolabe representing the heavens at noon on 9 

December. The horoscopic chart indicated by this 

setting would incorporate the following astrologically significant points: the ascendant, Pisces 

FIGURE 14.—Astrolabe No. 221. The configuration of rete 

and plate represent the configuration of the heavens on 9 

December. 

18°; the midheaven, Saggitarius 25°; the descendant, Virgo 18°; and the nadir, Gemini 25°. 
Historical Perspective 

PRE-FIFTEENTH CENTURY 

The earliest astrolabes in the collection (made 

between the eleventh and fourteenth centuries) 

are inscribed with Kufic characters.^ All of these 

examples (Nos. 4, 15, 144, 2572, 3643, and 4001)^ 

are signed and dated. Their makers worked in or 

near Isfahan, Kerman, Granada, and Seville. 

Thus, several hundred years and several hundred 

miles separate these instruments from their prototype, possibly constructed for Rhodes by Hipparchus in the second century B.C. Reconstruction 

of the steps leading from Hipparchus's discussion 

of stereographic projection to Muhammad ben 

as-Sahli's construction of a planispheric astrolabe 

(No. 2572) in A.D. 1090 is not easily accomplished. 

There is some evidence that the theory was transmitted via a chain that included the following 

links: Claudius Ptolemy [A.D. 150], Theon Alexandrinus [A.D. 375], and Severus Sebokht, Bishop 

of Kenneserin, Syria (A.D. 660). 

Some time near the end of the eighth century, 

the Jewish astronomer Masha^allah discussed 

both the construction and use of the astrolabe in 

a treatise that survived to be published in Europe 

in a Renaissance compendium of learning.^ Similar discussions were included in the works of a 

number of later Arab astronomers.^ For example, 

al-Biruni completed his contribution to this latter 

genre in A.D. 1040,^'^ just a few years before Muhammad dated his astrolabe. 

As is true of planispheric astrolabes in general, 

only subtle differences exist between the instrument described by al-Biruni and the pre-fifteenthcentury examples in the collection. Some of these 

differences may reflect the needs of users; some 

probably the taste of makers. Among the former 

might be included variations in the content of the 

umm (front) and the zahr (back). The latter are 

apparent in the size and shape of the kursi (suspensory apparatus) and the pattern of the "^ankabut 

(star map). 

Users of the two early astrolabes in the collection made in Isfahan (No. 4) and Kerman (No. 

15) apparently had need of a gazetteer inscribed 

in the umm. The practice of including such a table 

continued in and was confined to the eastern 

portion of the Muslim world^^ as long as astrolabes were made there. That users of these two 

early Persian astrolabes were astrologers is suggested by their apparent need for the inclusion of 

astrological tables in the content of the zahr. A 

table of lunar mansions is notably absent from 

both instruments, however. The omission is not 

surprising in light of the fact that al-Biruni's Book 

of Instruction in the Elements of the Art of Astrology 

does not discuss the astrological significance of 

this method of dividing the heavens. 

Makers of these two early Persian astrolabes 

have most clearly asserted their individuality in 

the design of the kursi. That of Hamid ben Mahmud, on an instrument dated A.H. 547 [A.D. 

1152]^' (No. 4), is quite high, and pierced to form 

a vinelike motif. Ja'^far ben '^Umar's kursi, on an 

instrument dated A.H. 774 [A.D. 1372] (No. 15), is 

lower, undecorated, and pierced by only two 

small holes on either side of the suspensory hole. 

The patterns of the "ankabHts of these astrolabes 

are quite similar to each other and to the illustration of an "ankabUt in at least one surviving manuscript of al-Biruni's discussion of the subject.^^ 

The only difference lies in Ja*^far ben "Umar's 

attempt to introduce decorative curves into the 

basic functional design. The two symmetric 

"dips" in the equatorial band are characteristic 

of Ja'^far's work.^^ 

Of the four early astrolabes in the collection 

inscribed with maghribi script, two (Nos. 144 and 

4001) were certainly made in Moslem Spain. The 

plates of a third (No. 2572) also suggest a Moorish 

origin. The same may be said for the fourth 

example (No. 3643), engraved with a now obliterated signature and date. The umm of each of 

these instruments contains the stereographic pro12 
NUMBER 45 13 

jection of horizon coordinates for a specific latitude (i.e., the network usually found on a plate). 

The latitudes are: 37°30', 66°, 90°, and 90°. 

All four of these Moorish astrolabes illustrate 

the fact that such instruments, inscribed with 

Kufic letters and made in the western portion of 

the Moslem world, carry no astrological tables. 

Instead each is engraved with scales (zodiacal 

calenders) that correlate solar position during the 

year with a date in the Christian calendar.^^ 

Instructions for dividing these scales are given in 

surviving editions of Masha"'allah's treatise but 

not in al-Biruni's. 

The variety apparent in the kursis and '^ankabHts 

of Persian instruments is also apparent in the 

analogous elements of these Moorish astrolabes. 

Simple kursis combine with relatively elaborate 

^ankabHts. Ahmad ben Husain's "^ankabUt, on an 

instrument dated A.H. 704 [A.D. 1304] (No. 144), 

is remarkable in that, while it differs noticeably 

from other early examples, it contains elements 

that reappear in the '^ankabUts of later instruments 

(see, for example. No. 2568, dated A.H. 1103 [A.D. 

1691] and No. 2571 dated A.H. 910 [A.D. 1504]).^^ 

The basic design of Muhammad ben as-Sahli's 

'^ankabUt is similar to that of the early Persian 

examples in the collection. The "ankabut of Muhammad ben Fattuh, on an instrument dated 

A.H. 621 [A.D. 1224] (No. 4001), does not survive. 

FIFTEENTH CENTURY 

Remaining evidence suggests that manuscripts 

on the construction and use of the astrolabe were 

available in Europe at least as early as A.D. 1054. 

Chaucer undoubtedly relied on one of these when 

he composed in A.D. 1387 the first English treatise 

on the subject, "Brede and Milke for 

Childeren."^^ Published works in Latin appeared 

in various European centers of learning throughout the sixteenth century.^^ These representatives 

of the "construction and use" genre usually differed only in the epoch^^ of the table of fixed stars 

recommended for inclusion in a rete. The identification of instruments that are engraved with 

Latin characters and are contemporary with this 

early Latin literature has been complicated by 

the fact that, until the sixteenth century, few 

European astrolabe-makers bothered to date their 

work. Dates for instruments from this period have 

been assigned, however, based on epigraphic clues 

and on the calendric correlate of the vernal equinox as revealed by scales engraved on the back of 

each instrument (see note 20). 

The two very early European instruments in 

the collection have been dated by means of their 

zodiacal calendars.^^ No obvious signature appears on either astrolabe, although the earlier of 

the two (No. 304) carries a curious configuration 

of letters stippled on the upper right and left 

quadrants of its back (see Figure 15). 

The zodiacal calender and the rete of the astrolabe with the stippled lettering (No. 304) indicate 

that it was made to be used in the mid-fifteenth 

century. It was designed to be used at a single 

latitude (52°), a characteristic it shares with some 

other European instruments.^^ The second probable fifteenth-century European astrolabe in the 

collection (No. 186) includes six plates, about as 

many as one would expect to find in conFIGURE 15.—Astrolabe No. 304. The stippled letters may be 

a maker's signature, or, more probably, an owner's mark. 
14 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

temporary examples from Persia or North Africa. 

Differences between European astrolabes and 

astrolabes made in the maghrib are even more 

subtle than differences between the latter and 

astrolabes originating in the mashriq.^^ Astrolabes 

used in Moorish Spain can hardly be distinguished from those used in Lancastrian England 

or Medician Italy. However, the evidence on 

preserved instruments does suggest that Europeans had no need for the circular cotangent 

scales found on most maghribi instruments. Certainly this scale is not found on any of the European instruments in the collection.^^ 

A second subtle difference between European 

and Moorish tradition can be seen in the inclusion 

of a scale of equal hours on the rim of an instrument made in Europe. As a rule, no analogous 

scale appears on a Moorish instrument. A similar distinction between European and Moorish 

preferences for timekeeping scales can be made 

with respect to the scale of seasonal (or unequal) 

hours engraved on the back of astrolabes from 

each area. The scale is likely to fill both upper 

quadrants of the back only on European instruments. 

Astrolabes in the collection show that European makers are as likely to distinguish themselves through the design of the rete as Persian or 

Moorish makers are through the design of the 

"ankabUt. The unsigned member of the pair of 

early European astrolabes in the collection (No. 

304) has been assigned to an English source based 

primarily on the recognition of similarities between the rete pattern of this instrument and the 

rete pattern chosen by Chaucer to illustrate his 

"Brede and Milke. "^^ Although it is clear that the 

maker borrowed something from this pattern 

type, he has clearly modified it to suit his taste. 

The early Italian instrument in the collection 

(No. 186)^^ incorporates a rete with a functional 

FIGURE 16.—Astrolabe No. 2006. Lines for a sundial and the probable dial maker's signature 

can be seen on the back of the rete (at left). 
NUMBER 45 15 

FIGURE 17.—The rete of Chaucer's astrolabe, as illustrated in his treatise, "Brede and Milke 

for Childeren." 

design that was adopted by makers of various 

European nationalities.^^ It is distinctively simple, 

much like the early Persian ^ankabUt, but with the 

addition of an upper equinoctial arc. 

It is possible that a third astrolabe in the 

collection (No. 2006) may be added to the group 

of fifteenth-century instruments. Although it is 

unsigned, its inscriptions contain a number of 

clues to its origin. Some of the clues are misleading. The majority of the inscriptions, including 

the zodiacal calendar, suggest a fifteenth-century 

origin. The diversionary clues, all inscribed on 

the back of the rete, include a maker's name (see 

Figure 16); they appear to derive from the seventeenth century. The rete's resemblance to one 

used to illustrate an edition of Chaucer's work on 

the astrolabe (Figure 17) is noteworthy. 

SIXTEENTH CENTURY 

All but one of the sixteenth-century astrolabes 

in the collection are the work of European makers. 

This distribution reflects the distribution of Persian and Moorish makers vs. European makers in 

the whole corpus of extant sixteenth-century astrolabes. There exists an overwhelming majority 

of European examples. The one sixteenth-century astrolabe in the collection inscribed with 
16 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

Kufic characters of maghribi origin (No. 2571) is 

dated A.H. 910 [A.D. 1504]. Except for the addition 

of lines marking the times of Muslim prayer on 

each of its plates, there is little to suggest that use 

of this instrument differed from use of contemporary European examples. The pattern of the 

"^ankabut is distinctive, identifying a maker ("Ali 

ben Muhammad ben Abdallah ben Faraj) influenced by Moorish decorative style (circular support of the equinoctial arc, Moorish arches at the 

ends of the equinoctial arc, studded balls as bases 

for star pointers). 

European fascination with the astrolabe in the 

sixteenth century is suggested not only by the 

number of instruments that survive, but also by 

the number of published works on the topic that 

appeared during the century. A list of some of the 

most popular publications (i.e., works that appeared in several editions) would include works 

by: Gregor Reisch (quoting Masha^allah) (Friburg, 1503), Johannes Stoffler (Oppenheym, 

1512), Reiner Gemma Frisius (Antwerp, 1556), 

Egnazio Danti (Florence, 1569), John Blagrave 

(London, 1585), and Robert Tanner (London, 

1587). The publications are evidence of an international European interest. Instruments in the 

collection support this evidence. 

Four sixteenth-century European instruments 

in the collection are signed and dated as follows: 

Georg Hartman, 1537 (No. 262); M.P., 1542 (No. 

221); I Galois, 1548 (No. 204); Philip Danfrie, 

1584 (No. 2007). The one anonymous sixteenthcentury instrument (No. 2005) is quite similar to 

the astrolabe by Egnazio Danti illustrated in 

Gunther.^® 

If the instruments in the collection are any 

indication, it would seem that European makers 

were far more likely to introduce variety into the 

contents of the back of an astrolabe than were 

their Persian or Moorish counterparts. One astrolabe includes a quadrant (No. 2006). One includes a De Roias projection (No. 2005). One has 

a table of stars, along with the longitude, declination, and magnitude of each star (No. 204). 

One has a set of perpetual calendar wheels (No. 

2007). One has a scale of unequal hours (No. 

262). One includes both a scale of unequal hours 

and a scale of equal hours (No. 221). Only two 

scales seem to have universal appeal: a scale 

correlating the Christian calendar with solar position (zodiacal calendar), and the ubiquitous 

shadow square. 

Examples in the collection suggest that, in 

addition to zodiacal calendar and shadow square, 

at least one other common element characterizes 

sixteenth-century European astrolabes. The divisions of the astrological houses have been included on each plate. These divisions appear on 

the plates of only one Persian instrument in the 

collection (No. 65, attributed to an eighteenthcentury maker). Both Masha^allah and al-Biruni 

advocate using the unequal hour lines as house 

divisions. On the whole, the Persian astrolabes 

document the popularity of this practice. It is 

just possible that European inclusion of house 

lines distinct from unequal hour lines in the 

sixteenth century is evidence of the impact of 

Regiomontanus's contribution to astrology. The 

inscribed houses consistently conform to the 

method of division suggested by Regiomontanus 

as an alternative to methods attributed to Alcabitus or Campanus.^^ 

The youngest European instrument in the collection (No. 2007) includes evidence that European makers distinguished themselves not only 

by means of a preferred rete design but also by 

their choice of materials. Philip Danfrie's astrolabe with its elaborate baroque rete is made of 

heavy paper that has been glued to a wooden 

form and is fitted with a brass alidade. 

With over 20 of his astrolabes surviving to the 

present, Georg Hartman'*^ appears to be the most 

productive of European astrolabe makers. The 

example of Hartman's work included in the collection (No. 262) documents his obviously successful method of production. The telling evidence appears in the form of a very small number 

"12" engraved in unobtrusive places on each of 

the separable parts: in the depression on the front 

of the body, at the lowest point of each plate, on 

the back of the rete, the alidade, and the index 

arm. Hartman's use of such a numbering system 

suggests that he managed a workshop in which 

several astrolabes were being finished simultane-
NUMBER 45 17 

ously. There would be no need to number the 

component parts of astrolabes completed one at 

a time. 

SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 

Those astrolabes in the collection that date 

from the seventeenth century are all inscribed 

with Arabic characters.'*^ These astrolabes are 

typical of the larger corpus of seventeenth-century 

astrolabes by Moorish or Persian makers in that 

they exhibit stylistic variations associated with 

three distinct manufacturing locales, and they are 

products of families of instrument makers. 

Henri Michel has, with typical perspecuity, 

discussed time- and space-dependent elements of 

astrolabe design in Chapter 20 of his Traite.'*^ 

These elements comprise a few basic "styles" 

subject to elaboration by individual makers. Of 

the styles identified by Michel, three are associated with instruments inscribed in Arabic characters: the Hispano-Moorish, the Persian, and the 

Indo-Persian. The collection includes seventeenth-century examples of all three styles. 

The Hispano-Moorish example, made by 

Hasan ben Ahmad al-Battuti (No. 2568), is dated 

A.H. 1103 [A.D. 1691]. Characteristic elements of 

its design include a simple throne, undecorated 

except for a single engraved marginal line, and a 

rete fitted with four turning knobs, incorporating 

star pointers shaped like thin flames attached to 

pierced trefoils and mounted on rectangular 

bases. 

Two instruments in the collection (Nos. 44 and 

25) made in the Persian style are associated with 

the name Muhammad Mahdi (al-Yazdi), who 

is known to have been involved in the production 

of some 20 other astrolabes during the period 

between A.D. 1640 and 1670. According to the 

signature, Mahdi "decorated" one of these instruments (No. 25) in A.H. 1078 [A.D. 1667]; he signed 

the other (No. 44) without dating it and without 

designating his contribution.'*^ The recognizably 

Persian aspects of Mahdi's astrolabes include a 

throne shaped like a scalloped equilateral triangle 

and decorated with embossed vines, flowers, and 

inscription on a stippled background. Like other 

Persian retes, Mahdi's are foliated; star pointers 

are leaf-shaped. Following Persian tradition, he 

has placed his signature in a cartouche below the 

shadow squares on the back of the astrolabe. 

In an attempt to characterize the Indo-Persian 

style, Michel has remarked that it is to the Persian 

style "as German rococo is to regency: too much 

ostentation; too many flourishes; an awkward 

and artificial grace."^^ In the collection, the works 

of Muhammad Muqim (No. 86) and piya"'al-Din 

Muhammad (No. 87), both of Lahore,"*' serve as 

specific examples. Their Indo-Persian origin is 

evident in pierced thrones and in the extensive 

use of dashed division lines.^^ Neither of these two 

specific examples includes a functioning rete. 

Other instruments by these same makers are 

equipped with quite delicate retes. If the retes of 

the two signed Indo-Persian astrolabes in the 

collection were like these, it is easy to see why 

they did not survive. 

Indo-Persian elements can be recognized in 

each of the remaining four seventeenth-century 

astrolabes in the collection, although there is no 

explicit evidence that any originated in Lahore. 

All have pierced thrones. One (No. 2569) also 

includes extensive use of dashed lines and a wellpreserved delicate rete. It is unsigned. One (No. 

85) is signed by a maker from Qayen (in Eastern 

Persia).^ The fact that its rete is missing suggests 

that it may have been delicate. Certainly the 

maker's extensive use of dashed division lines may 

be interpreted as Indo-Persian influence. Although Gunther described as "Indian" the A.D. 

1611 work of "Ali ben "Awad (No. 70), there is 

no evidence other than the pierced throne that it 

really is. The stylistic origins of the instrument 

signed by Khalil and dated A.H. 1067 [A.D. 1656] 

(No. 2567) are equally uncertain. 

At all times in its history, the skills necessary 

for designing the astrolabe, in Hispano-Moorish, 

Persian, or Indo-Persian style, very often were 

cultivated by more than one member of an instrument-making family. The classic example in 

the Muslim world is the family of al-Hadad of 

Lahore.^^ Astrolabes signed by al-Hadad and 

then by his son "^Isa remain from the sixteenth 

and early seventeenth centuries.^^ Muhammad 
18 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

Muqim, who in A.H. 1053 [A.D. 1643] signed an 

astrolabe (No. 86), was al-Hadad's grandson. He 

had a brother, Qa^im Muhammad,^^ whose son 

Diya" al-Din Muhammad, a great-grandson of 

al-Hadad, made in A.H. 1070 [A.D. 1659] an astrolabe (No. 87) now also in the collection. This 

remarkably well-established family interest in instrument making apparently died with Diya^ alDin. At least, no known subsequent makers claim 

a lineage through Diya". 

In the inscription on his instruments the prolific 

Persian astrolabe maker Muhammad Mahdi 

identified himself as the son of Muhammad 

Amin. This Amin may be the maker of two 

seventeenth century astrolabes bearing that signature, or he may be Muhammad Amin ben 

Mirza Khan who signed an astrolabe in A.H. 996 

[A.D. 1587].^^ Hasan ben Ahmad's membership in 

a North African instrument-making family can 

be firmly established. His (probably younger) 

brother Muhammad ben Ahmad al-Battuti 

made both quadrants and astrolabes in the early 

eighteenth century. 

EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 

By the eighteenth century, the astrolabe had 

all but disappeared from the workshops of European instrument makers.^^ However, astrolabes 

inscribed with Arabic characters surviving from 

the period are no less numerous than those surviving from preceding centuries. Thirteen eighteenth-century astrolabes can be identified in the 

collection (almost 25 percent). Many of these 

originated in Isfahan, marking that Persian city 

as a manufacturing center of the importance of 

Lahore or Yazd. Isfahan's most prominent astrolabe maker and decorator was "^Abd al-A^imma. 

His name appears on roughly 50 instruments. A 

careful comparison of many of these recently 

undertaken by Gingerich, King, and Saliba, revealed several to be deliberate forgeries. These 

forgeries contribute as much to the affirmation of 

'^Abd al-A^imma's reputation as do the authentic 

instruments which carry his signature. It is not 

easy to determine when the forgeries were made; 

but their existence does suggest that, at some 

point in its history, the value of a Persian astrolabe could derive more from the reputation of its 

supposed maker than from the precision of its 

component parts. 

All four of the astrolabes signed by "Abd alA^imma in the collection (Nos. 31, 37, 39, 40) 

appear to be authentic examples of his work. 

Characteristically,^' none of the four astrolabes is 

dated. On three (Nos. 37, 39, 40) ""Abd alA^imma's signature appears alone. On one (No. 

31) he is identified as the decorator of an instrument made by Muhammad Amin ben Muhammad Tahir.^^ By comparing these four astrolabes 

it is possible to distinguish "Abd al-A^imma's role 

as "maker" from his role as "decorator." As maker 

he apparently fashioned each of the component 

parts of the astrolabe: he pierced the sighting 

plates of the alidade with two holes; he cut the 

rete in a distinctive style; he habitually paired 

certain projections when he engraved the plates; 

and he selected the tables to be included on the 

back of the instruments. Equivalent component 

parts show the hand of Muhammad Amin in the 

instrument "made" by him. It would seem that 

when "Abd al-A^imma functioned as decorator, 

he worked with partially engraved parts supplied 

to him by a maker. He was responsible only for 

the engraved details. 

The remaining eighteenth-century astrolabes 

in the collection (those not signed by ^Abd alA^imma) fall into three categories: well-made 

Persian instruments; a well-made Indo-Persian 

instrument; and poorly made instruments of uncertain origin. 

Two of the fine Persian astrolabes (Nos. 42 and 

65) exhibit clear affinities with and yet are not 

identical to the work of "^Abd al-A^imma and his 

collaborators. One (No. 42) was made by Hajji 

"Ali; the other is unsigned. At least two, and 

perhaps a third astrolabe in the collection, serve 

as evidence that "Abd al-A^imma's style did not 

entirely dominate the eighteenth century. "Abd 

al-Ghafur (ben Muhammad Sa^id) made one of 

these (No. 55) in A.H. 1198 [A.D. 1783], and is 

almost certainly the maker of a second (No. 54), 

dated A.H. 1196 [A.D. 1781], but unfinished and 

unsigned. The two instruments exhibit similarities in the pattern of their retes, the selection of 
NUMBER 45 19 

scales on the back of each instrument, and the 

inscription of the scale on the rim. This latter 

inscription identifies the rim scale as four 90° 

arcs, a practice associated with seventeenth century Indo-Persian instrument makers.®^ Yet another unidentified Persian maker whose undated 

work is included in the collection (No. 47) inscribed the rim scale in this manner. This anonymous maker also resembles "Abd al-Ghafur in 

the shaping of the throne (exhibiting Indo-Persian tendencies) and in the dividing of the upper 

left quadrant of the back; he otherwise exhibits a 

unique style. 

A single undated astrolabe (No. 88) of definite 

Indo-Persian origin appears, judging on the basis 

of the placement of stars in its rete,^^ to belong to 

the group of eighteenth-century astrolabes in the 

collection. No maker's name is engraved on the 

instrument, but a probable owner (Sahibuhu 

Maghfur al-Husayni al-Jilani) identified his 

property along the outer edge near the throne. 

The relative uncertainty of its date of origin does 

not diminish the value of this astrolabe in defining the enduring aspects of the Indo-Persian style. 

These include the high pierced throne and elaborate delicate rete familiar from seventeenth-century examples. They also include a tendency on 

the part of the maker to used dashed lines in his 

engraving. Further confirmation of its Indo-Persian origin is provided by the two prayer lines 

graphed in the upper right quadrant of the astrolabe's back. A comparison of "^Abd al-Ghafur's 

works with this example emphasizes the former's 

Indo-Persian tendencies. 

An astrolabe signed by Muhammad Sadiq (No. 

52), dated A.H. 1189 [A.D. 1775], and two anonymous instruments (Nos. 57 and 66), also believed 

to be eighteenth century, together document the 

existence of a class of technically correct but 

aesthetically unremarkable products of the astrolabist's workshop. The number and placement of 

divisions on these instruments suggest that their 

makers understood the astrolabe's function but 

were not inclined toward precision or elaborate 

decorative detail. Two of these astrolabes (Nos. 

57 and 66) have a single feature in common with 

Indo-Persian instruments; that is, the normal positions of "feet" and "finger" divisions of tangent 

and cotangent scales (feet-left, fingers-right) have 

been reversed (fingers-left, feet-right). These instruments, though not of fine quality, should in 

no way be confused with fake or pseudo-astrolabes. Examples of this latter type in the collection 

are discussed later (see p. 20). 

NINETEENTH CENTURY 

By no means confined to the late eighteenth 

century, astrolabes of marginal quality more often than not date from the nineteenth century. 

One candidate for this category, dated A.H. 1216 

[1801], bears the signature of Sadiq (No. 53). It 

so closely resembles the work of Muhammad 

Sadiq described above that the former is surely a 

copy of the latter, executed by Sadiq or perhaps 

by "^Abd al-Karim.^^ The two instruments may 

be distinguished on the basis of the units comprising each rim scale. On Muhammad Sadiq's 

astrolabe this scale is divided into 5° intervals; on 

Sadiq's astrolabe, this scale is divided into 6° 

intervals. 

A pair of nineteenth-century instruments in the 

collection serves to illustrate how a well-made, if 

simple, astrolabe can serve as a model for a less 

exacting maker. Unfortunately, nothing is known 

about the place and time of origin of the finer 

member of this pair (No. 3811). Its gazetteer is 

distinctive in that the reported longitudes have 

apparently been measured from the observatory 

at Greenwich rather than from the Fortunate 

Isles. This same distinctive gazetteer fills the 

umm of the astrolabe signed by Mirza Jahan 

Bakhsh (No. 63), also in the collection. This and 

other similarities between the two instruments 

suggest that the latter is a fairly faithful "copy" 

of the former. There is no indication that these 

two astrolabes are the products of one maker. 

Bakhsh's workmanship has an uneven quality not 

apparent in the anonymous effort. By inscribing 

his 5° rim scale so that it begins one division to 

the left of the meridian, Bakhsh has revealed the 

limits of his understanding of both the construction and the use of the astrolabe. 

The collection contains two astrolabes dated 

A.H. 1281 [1864]. One of these (No. 61) has been 
20 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

signed by Sahib "Ali Kabir Khan; the other (No. 

62) carries the signature of ^Ala" al-Din. The two 

instruments are remarkably similar in all respects 

except quality of workmanship. "Ala" al-Din's 

astrolabe may be a copy of, but is by no means 

equivalent to, the well-made astrolabe signed by 

Kabir Khan. Kabir Khan's instrument is itself at 

least reminiscent of the eighteenth-century astrolabes signed by "Abd al-A"imma. The influence 

is most apparent in his choice of rete pattern, but 

it extends to decorative details on the back and 

plates. 

Yet another pair of astrolabes can, on the basis 

of quality of workmanship and placement of stars, 

be traced to a nineteenth-century origin. The 

instruments are virtually identical from rete, 

through plates, to back. Neither one carries a 

maker's name. Because it is complete and carefully (if not finely) made, one instrument (No. 

2566) appears to be the model member of the 

pair. The unfinished, carelessly worked state of 

the other (No. 64) identifies it as the "copy." The 

gazetteer of each instrument begins with Isfahan, 

suggesting that this may have been the site of 

manufacture. A comparison between these twins 

and the works of "^ Abd al-A "imma and his Isfahan 

school reveals a definite difference in attention to 

detail and perhaps supplies subtle commentary 

on changes in the Muslim world. 

Like Kabir Khan's astrolabe, an example in 

the collection signed Hamza (No. 59) includes a 

rete patterned after those included on instruments 

signed by "^Abd al-A"imma. Hamza's astrolabe is 

dated A.H. 1268 [A.D. 1851]. His workmanship is 

creditable. An anonymous and undated astrolabe 

in the collection (No. 49) also incorporates one 

of "Abd al-A"imma's rete designs. The relatively 

inferior workmanship on this example suggests 

that it probably should be attributed to a nineteenth-century maker. None of the other nineteenth-century instruments in the collection exhibit the independent quality of workmanship 

evident in the effort of Muhammad Akbar, dated 

A.H. 1234 [A.D. 1818] (No. 58).^^ His inscriptions 

are clear; his graphs and scales accurate; his 

decorative details beautifully executed. There is 

no evidence that he borrowed his rete pattern 

from an earlier maker. Muhammad Akbar's work 

identifies him as one of the last of the true 

"Asturlabi," exhibiting the qualities of both scientist and artisan. 

One last nineteenth-century instrument in the 

collection remains to be described (No. 4000). 

Except for a brief Persian inscription on the kursi, 

it is inscribed in Sanskrit characters.^^ A Sanskrit 

inscription in the umm identifies the maker of this 

astrolabe as Vitrabhadra, the son of Rama; the 

date is 1805. The Persian inscription identifies an 

owner, Rama of Jodhpur, who acquired the instrument in 1815. The accuracy of the division 

and inscription of the scales of this astrolabe 

indicate that the maker was a knowledgeable 

astrolabist. Some of these scales are familiar, some 

distinctive. The shadow squares are examples of 

the former. On Indo-Persian instruments made 

in Lahore, the left square is divided into fingers; 

the right into feet. Curiously, the placement is 

reversed on this Sanskrit example just as it is on 

Persian astrolabes. A distinctive scale relating 

solar declination to degrees of right ascension 

occupies the lower half of the back of the Sanskrit 

astrolabe. No other instrument in the collection 

carries such a scale. 

PsEUDO-ASTROLABES 

There exists no more convincing evidence of 

the diminished scientific role of the nineteenthcentury astrolabist than the number of astrolabelike instruments characterized by incoherent if 

not entirely nonsensical inscription. The National 

Museum of American History preserves four examples of these pseudo-astrolabes (Nos. 2570, 

4002, 4003, 4004). Objects like them may be 

purchased any day in the markets of the Middle 

East. They are in no way to be confused with 

functional astrolabes. It is, however, easy to see 

how they could be. 

Pseudo-astrolabes have all of the separate 

pieces of their functional counterparts: body, 

plates, rete, alidade. However, any resemblance 

between the two classes of objects ends here. The 

body of a pseudo-astrolabe is characterized by a 

lack of plate holder (no tooth, notch, or cylinder 
NUMBER 45 21 

in the umm). Each plate, in turn, lacks the means 

to be held (no notch, tooth, or hole). The rete is 

characterized by a symmetry, which also extends 

to the placement of the star names. There are 

invariably no sighting holes in the "sighting 

plates" of the pseudo-alidade. 

Inscription on a pseudo-astrolabe is, at the 

most, neat. Engraved lines may be carefully, if 

incorrectly, placed. "Pseudo" does not necessarily 

mean sloppy. Respectable appearances can be 

deceiving. A neatly engraved rim scale with divisions marked in order "80 5 85 5 70 5 75" (as 

on No. 2570) is no rim scale at all. Ten neatly 

engraved lines do not constitute a projection of 

seasonal hours. Pseudo-plates that carry projections forming geometric designs have only that to 

recommend them. They have no astronomical 

significance, and are of no use to serious astrologers. In their clumsy, superfluous way, pseudoastrolabes serve to illuminate the valued qualities 

of a scientific instrument: accuracy, precision, 

and utility. 
Comparative Analysis 

This comparative analysis of the collection focuses on each of the functional elements of the 

instruments: suspensory apparatus, throne, rim, 

front central area, back, plates, rete, alidade, and 

index. Whenever a scale is discussed, both its 

position and its division units are reported before 

any general remarks are made. Conventional trigonometric coordinates are used to specify the 

positions of scales or other features on the astrolabes. Thus, a scale that extends "from the 0° 

point counterclockwise around the rim to the 90° 

point" falls in the quadrant illustrated in Figure 

18. A "tooth at 90°" specifies the feature shown 

in Figure 19. Discussions of the use of parts of the 

astrolabe generally rely upon statements made by 

Masha^allah, al-Biruni, or Chaucer. 

Size 

Astrolabes in the collection range in size from 

75 mm in diameter (No. 15) to 248 mm in 

diameter (No. 2005). This is fairly representative 

of extant portable astrolabes, except for the very 

large instruments (284-590 mm) made in Europe 

in the sixteenth century by the Arsenius brothers. 

Few of the makers represented in the collection 

can be said to prefer a particular size. Neither is 

it possible to identify a given period of time in 

which astrolabes of uniform dimension were constructed. 

Suspensory Apparatus 

Astrolabes in the collection fully illustrate the 

variety one is likely to encounter in the means by 

which this instrument is suspended. In general 

the apparatus consists of a stirrup-shaped handle 

with an axle passing through the throne from 

front to back (see Figure 7) and an attached ring 

which, as Chaucer points out, can be "put on the 

thumb of thy right hand when taking the height 

of things." On most instruments inscribed in 

Arabic characters the ring passes through an 

opening in the handle. Masha^allah emphasizes 

the importance of beveling the edges of the contiguous parts "lest their movement be impeded." 

Several instruments show that makers paid attention to this detail: good examples in the collection 

are Nos. 37, 57, 85, 144, 2569. For the most part, 

the handles of instruments inscribed in Arabic 

characters are quite plain, but on some examples 

(e.g., Nos. 54, 55, 64, and 87) it has the shape of 

a Moorish arch. On some European instruments 

(e.g., Nos. 221, 2006, 2007) the top of the handle 

has been pierced and fitted with a rotating pin to 

which the ring is attached (see Figure 20). 

Throne 

T H E MASHRIQ 

Thrones on those astrolabes in the collection 

originating in the mashriq seem to fall naturally 

into three categories: high and pierced, high and 

inscribed, of medium height and simple decor. 

The high, pierced variety tends to be associated 

vvith Indo-Persian makers, the Lahore school of 

the seventeenth century. These include especially 

Nos. 70, 85, 86 (in this example, plates cover the 

original pierced throne), 87, 88, 2567, and 2569. 

At least one high, pierced example (No. 4) was 

made in Isfahan in the twelfth century, suggesting 

an early source for the Indo-Persian style. 

Astrolabes in the collection suggest that at least 

as early as the seventeenth century, Persian makers considered the throne to be an appropriate 

location for inscriptions. The most popular is a 

brief quotation from the Koran which incorporates the word kursi. It appears on Nos. 39, 55, 

and 66, all made in the eighteenth and nineteenth 

centuries. Placement of this passage on the kursi 

of an astrolabe amounts to a religious dedication. 

Occasionally, when it is not the appropriate passage from the Koran, the throne inscription will 

identify either the person who commissioned the 

astrolabe (No. 40), or the maker of the instrument 

(No. 63). On at least one example (No. 59) the 

22 
NUMBER 45 23 

180° 0° 180° 

270° 

FIGURE 18.—Scale extending from the 0° point counterclockwise around the rim to the 90° point. 

270° 

FIGURE 19.—Plate with tooth at 90' 

FIGURE 20.—Astrolabe No. 2006. Handle pierced and fitted 

with a rotating pin. 

inscription on the throne records a transfer of 

ownership. 

One of the most interesting throne inscriptions 

appears on the astrolabe constructed by Muhammad Mahdi in A.H. 1078 [A.D. 1667] (No. 25). It 

is a list of towns encircling a hole that once must 

have held a compass. The towns are arranged so 

that they proceed clockwise in order of increasing 

longitude. About half of the listed towns have 

longitudes less than the longitude of Mecca and 

about half have longitudes greater than that of 

Mecca. 

The third category into which thrones from the 

mashriq may be grouped includes examples from 

all Persian schools of design. The early examples 

evidence the simplest taste (see Nos. 15 and 47). 

Decoration involving vines and flowers embossed 

on a stippled background characterizes instruments from the eighteenth century (see, e.g., Nos. 

37 and 42.) 

T H E MAGHRIB 

The thrones of astrolabes in the collection made 

in the maghrib add little bulk or decor. They are 
24 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

small, generally less than half as high as they are 

wide. The earliest designs in the collection, those 

made before the fifteenth century (Nos. 144, 2572, 

3643, 4001) are pierced with holes. Later examples (e.g.. No. 2568) are solid and may carry 

inscriptions identifying the maker. 

EUROPE 

With a few notable exceptions (two in the 

collection, i.e., Nos. 2005 and 2007), the thrones 

of European astrolabes are unpretentious both in 

size and decoration. The latter generally consists 

of rosettes or scroll work. Inscription is rare. It 

occurs on only one instrument in the collection. 

On the back of the throne of astrolabe number 

204, near the body, the word "Midi" has been 

engraved. 

The two exceptionally elaborate thrones 

among the European instruments in the collection were designed in Italy (No. 2005) and France 

(No. 2007). The Italian example (made ca. A.D. 

1580) incorporates a covered compass hole 

flanked by scroll-work. The French example 

(made ca. A.D. 1584) is decorated front and back 

with grotesque masks. 

Front Rim 

T H E MASHRIQ AND MAGHRIB 

Scales of Degrees 

There are two types of degree scales. The first 

(1) is continuous (i.e., a single 360° scale). It 

appears on instruments from both regions. The 

second (2), known only from the mashriq, is really 

a group of four 90° scales. 

Position: (1) The 360° scale extends from the 

90° point clockwise around the rim back to the 

90° point. (2) The 90° scales extend from (a) the 

90° point clockwise around the rim to the 0° 

point (b), from there to the 270° point, (c) then 

from the 270° point to the 180° mark, and (d) 

finally from there back to the 90° point. 

Units: The scales may be marked on the outer 

band every 5° with inscribed numerals and on 

the inner band at 1° intervals (uninscribed). Or 

they may be marked at 6° intervals with inscribed 

numerals and at 1° intervals (uninscribed). 

Use: (1) The 360° scales are used with the 

muri (a marker on the ecliptic circle of the rete at 

0° Capricorn) to measure the right ascension of 

the rising point of the celestial equator. (2) The 

90° scales can be used with the alidade to measure 

either zenith distance (on arcs [a] and [c]) or 

altitude (on arcs [b] and [d]). 

Remarks: (1) The instrument in the collection 

that carries the scale consisting of units of 6° 

apparently dates from the early twelfth century 

(No. 3643). It is inscribed with Kufic characters 

of the maghribi type. On all other Kufic instruments, this scale consists of units of 5°. In inscribing the 5° or 6° scales, some makers were quite 

explicit and wrote out all the digits of each designation from "5 " (No. 2572) or "6 " (No. 3643) 

to "360"; some, on the other hand, streamlined 

the process by implying the hundreds digit except 

in the designation of "100," "200," or "300" (No. 

144). Further modification of this last method, 

whenever scales of 5° intervals were being inscribed, involved writing a "5 " in the first and 

every other interval; thus: "5 10 5 20 5 . . . 300 

. . . 5 60" (No. 4). A maker's decision to write out 

"360," or to drop the first digit, or to write "55" 

or "5 " apparently depended on nothing more 

than individual taste. No national or time-based 

traditions reveal themselves. (2) The perception 

of this scale as a combination of four arcs of 90° 

is characteristic of seventeenth-century Indo-Persian astrolabes (Nos. 86, 87, 2569). It is also found 

on three eighteenth-century astrolabes (Nos. 47, 

54, and 55) and on one astrolabe completed early 

in the nineteenth century (No. 53). All astrolabes 

incorporating this type of scale are engraved with 

Arabic Naskhi characters. The scale is comprised of 6° divisions on three instruments (Nos. 

53, 87, and 2569). 

Altitude Scales 

These 90° scales are found primarily on instruments made in the mashriq. 

Position: These scales extend from the 0° point 

counterclockwise around the rim to the 90° point; 

from the 180° point clockwise to the 90° point; 
NUMBER 45 25 

from the 0° point clockwise to the 270° point; 

and from the 180° point counterclockwise to the 

270° point. 

Units: The scales are marked in units of 5°, 

inscribed with numerals (outer band), and 1° 

uninscribed (inner band), or 6°, inscribed with 

numerals, and 1° uninscribed. 

Use: When used with the muri, these altitude 

scales measure the position of the vernal equinox 

relative to the zenith or nadir. (For the use with 

the alidade arm, see description of altitude scales 

on the back of the astrolabe, p. 30). 

Remarks: Astrolabes in the collection with rim 

scales arranged in this way date from the late 

eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries (Nos. 

58, 61, 62, 66). In every case of their appearance 

on the rim, the altitude scales duplicate similar 

scales on the back of the astrolabe. None of these 

instruments is equipped with a second alidade 

arm. The scale is divided into units of 6° on only 

one instrument, dating from the mid-eighteenth 

century (No. 66). 

EUROPE 

Winds 

Position: This scale extends from the 90° point 

clockwise around the rim back to the 90° point. 

Units: Marked in units equal to one-twelfth 

of a circle, inscribed with the names of the winds. 

Use: This scale identifies direction (e.g., 

north, northeast) with the name of the wind 

associated with that direction (Septentrio, 

Aquilo).^^ 

Remarks: Wind scales appear on two astrolabes in the collection, these being the instrument 

signed "Galois" (No. 204) and the instrument 

signed by Georg Hartman (No. 262). The named 

winds compare as follows: 

Galois 

MERIDIES 

LIBONOTVS 

APHRICVS 

OCCIDENS 

CHORVS 

CIRCIVS 

SEPTENTRIO 

BOREAS 

Hartman 

AVSTER 

LIBONOTVS 

APHRICVS 

FAVONIVS 

CHORVS 

CIRCIVS 

SEPTENTRIO 

AQUILO 

VVLTVRNVS CECIAS 

ORIENS SVBSOLANVS 

EVRVS VVLTVRNVS 

EVROAVSTER EVROAVSTER 

Similar wind scales are incorporated into the 

design of horizontal sundials dating from the 

first and second centuries A.D. 

Equal Hours 

Position: This scale extends from the 90° point 

clockwise around the rim to the 270° point and 

from the 270° point back to the 90° point; or it 

extends from the 90° point clockwise around the 

rim back to the 90° point. 

Units: 1 hour or 15° inscribed with numerals, 

and 12 minutes or 3° uninscribed, or 4 minutes 

or 1° uninscribed. 

Use: A scale of equal hours is used with the 

index arm (or alidade) and the rete to indicate 

the time of day associated with a given configuration of the stars or the sun relative to the 

horizon. 

Remarks: On two instruments in the collection, one signed "MP" (No. 221) and another 

apparently made in Italy (No. 186), the 24 divisions of the hour scale are inscribed with numbers 

from 1 to 24. On all other instruments, this scale 

is inscribed as two successive scales of 12 divisions. 

The scales inscribed by Hartman (No. 262) and 

Danfrie (No. 2007) use Roman numerals. All 

other astrolabists employed Hindu-Arabic numerals. All of the European instruments in the 

collection are fitted with an index arm or with an 

alidade, attached so that it can be used with the 

hour scale. 

Scales of Degrees 

Position: This 90° scale is marked in one of 

three ways. It extends from the 90° point clockwise around the rim to the 0° point; from the 90° 

point counterclockwise around the rim to the 

180° point; from the 270° point clockwise around 

the rim to the 180° point; and from the 270° 

point counterclockwise around the rim to the 0° 

point. Or it extends from the 0° point counterclockwise around the rim to the 90° point; from 
26 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

the 0° point clockwise around the rim to the 270° 

point; from the 180° point counterclockwise to 

the 270° point; and from the 180° point clockwise 

to the 90° point. Or it extends from the 90° point 

clockwise around the rim back to the 90° point. 

Units: This scale is marked in units of 5° 

inscribed with numerals (outer band), or 10° 

inscribed with numerals, and 2° uninscribed. 

Use: Degree scales in the first position were 

apparently designed to be used with an alidade 

to measure zenith distance. Degree scales in the 

second position were apparently designed to be 

used with an alidade to measure altitude. Degree 

scales in the third position were apparently designed to be used with the fixed index incorporated into the rete to measure the right ascension 

of the rising point of the celestial equator. 

Remarks: The various methods of inscribing 

the scale of degrees are distributed as follows: 

scales in the first position appear on all European 

instruments in the collection, with the exception 

of that made by Georg Hartman (No. 262), who 

used the second position, and the early Italian 

astrolabe (No. 186), which includes a degree scale 

in the third position. Evidence in the collection 

suggests that the content of the rim was not as 

firmly established among European makers as it 

was among makers in the Muslim world. 

Front Central Area 

T H E MASHRIQ 

Over half of the astrolabes in the collection 

have been inscribed with a list of cities along with 

their latitudes, longitudes, and one or more other 

geographic parameters (such as distance from 

Mecca). This list or gazetteer can invariably be 

found in the circular depression that constitutes 

the front of the body of a Persian or Indo-Persian 

instrument. Both very early (e.g.. No. 15) and 

very late (No. 62) Persian astrolabes in the collection incorporate such a list. 

For a number of reasons, an astrolabe's gazetteer can be considered to be one of its most 

interesting elements. First of all, its presence ties 

the astrolabe to an instrument-making tradition 

whose earliest surviving products include some 

portable sundials from antiquity. Both the socalled "Tischendorf Dial," dating from the fourth 

century, and the Aphrodisias Dial Plate, probably 

from the same period, are engraved with circular 

tables of places and their latitudes.^° There is, 

then, at least a Byzantine precedent for Ja^far 

ben ^Umar's inclusion (in A.D. 1372) of a circular 

table identifying each of a series of places with a 

longitude and latitude on a portable scientific 

instrument. The tables on the Byzantine dials 

proceed in order of increasing latitude; Ja^far's 

table proceeds in order of increasing longitude. 

While the form of an astrolabe's gazetteer relates it to portable sundials, its content relates it 

to a body of astronomical literature, the earliest 

example of which being "one of the most important astronomical documents of antiquity," Claudius Ptolemy's 'irpoxeipojv Kavovuiv (Handy 

Tables). One of these tables is a list of important 

cities (the 'TToXeia ETnarjiioL), with geographical 

latitudes and longitudes reckoned from the Fortunate Isles. ^ Variations on Ptolemy's theme 

were produced as astronomical zijes by Arab 

authors, beginning in the early ninth century 

with the work of Yahya ben Abi Mansur. These 

zijes typically contain (among other things) lists 

of cities and their geographical coordinates, tables 

of ecliptic coordinates of selections of "fixed" 

stars, and astrological tables of various kinds. 

Persian and Indo-Persian astrolabe makers almost certainly consulted zijcs like Yahya's for the 

information necessary to complete umm, '^ankabUt, 

and zahr. Publication of any one well-known zij 

could easily lead to the identification of astrolabes 

dependent upon it.^^ In the meantime, it will 

have to suffice to discuss the gazetteers of the 

instruments in the collection without knowing the 

exact source of their contents. 

Ja^far ben "^Umar's gazetteer (No. 15), inscribed in the fourteenth century, has been described above. The majority of cities included are 

located in what is now Iran (formerly Persia). 

Longitudes (atwal), reported in degrees and minutes of arc, have been measured from the Fortun-
NUMBER 45 27 

ate Isles. Latitudes {"^urud), reported in degrees 

and minutes of arc, have been measured from the 

equator. The third recorded geographical parameter (inhiraf), the inclination of the azimuth of 

the Qibla, is the measure of the arc of the horizon, 

reported in degrees and minutes, intercepted between the meridian of the listed city and a vertical 

circle passing through the zenith of Mecca. The 

data relating to each city seem to be arranged in 

order of increasing longitude beginning with 

Baghdad (80°00') and ending with Samarqand 

(98°00'). Ibn Ash-Shatir published ca. A.D. 1350 

a zij that included a list of 290 cities related to 

just the three geographical parameters included 

in Ja'^far's gazetteer. It is possible that Ibn Ash 

Shatir was J a "far's source of geographic data. 

The gazetteer inscribed by "^Ali ben "^Awad alMahmudi in the early seventeenth century (No. 

70) is uniquely brief. It consists only of a list of 25 

cities and their latitudes, grouped according to 

some geographic criteria that happen to preserve 

roughly modern national boundaries. The list 

places Mecca and Medina in successive places of 

honor,^^ a practice duplicated in almost all of the 

gazetteers containing these cities. One notable 

exception to the tendency to so distinguish these 

cities is the gazetteer inscribed in A.D. 1643 by the 

Indo-Persian maker Muhammad Muqim (No. 

86). The city of Lahore is given the place usually 

reserved for Mecca. 

Indo-Persian astrolabe makers (at least in the 

seventeenth century), including Muhammad 

Muqim, tended to limit the content of gazetteers 

to longitude and latitude. The practice, no doubt, 

reflects their limited appreciation of the importance of the Muslim religious center. Certainly 

they did not consider it to be an important geographic reference point. The geographic parameters which they do include apparently do not 

derive from a single zij. 

The collection contains only one example (No. 

44, the work of Muhammad Mahdi) of a gazetteer inscribed with geographic parameters 

rounded to the nearest degree. A second astrolabe 

in the collection, dating from the late seventeenth 

century and inscribed by Qasim "^Ali, is noteworthy because the information contained in its gazetteer includes at least the beginnings of a table 

of length of daylight.^^ 

About half of the Persian (distinct from the 

Indo-Persian) gazetteers in the collection include 

a second table (in addition to the inhiraf), which 

relates listed cities to Mecca. This second table, 

labeled jihat or al-jihat, gives the direction of the 

azimuth of the Qibla with respect to the four 

cardinal points. The entries in the table are 

"abbreviations," which can be interpreted as follows: SHSH is Sharqi ash-Shamal or the northeast; 

SHJ is Sharqi al-Janub or the southeast; GHJ is 

Gharbi al-Janub or the southwest; JA Q is Janub alQibla, or south of the Qibla; SHAQ is Shamal alQibla, or north of the Qibla. The latter two terms 

appear on instruments in the collection that date 

from the eighteenth or the nineteenth century. 

These terms do not occur in the two jihat tables 

on astrolabes dating from the seventeenth century. Both of these seventeenth-century instruments (Nos. 25 and 44) are ascribed to the makerdecorator Muhammad Mahdi. 

Figure 21 illustrates the gazetteer of the astrolabe decorated by Muhammad Mahdi in A.D. 

1667 (No. 25). Table 6 is a transcription of the 

contents. The selection and sequencing of cities 

apparent in this example can also be detected in 

the gazetteers of about 14 others in the collection 

(see, e.g., Nos. 31, 37, 39, 40, 42, 47, 49, 55, 57, 

58, 59, 61, 62, 65). Undoubtedly all are derived 

from a single textual source, or zij. The geographic parameters included in these gazetteers 

are similar enough to confirm a common heritage. 

Astrolabe gazetteers which do not follow the 

tradition exemplified by Muhammad Mahdi's 

instrument, at least in this collection, are those 

made most recently, i.e., in the nineteenth century. For example, the astrolabes signed by Muhammad Sadiq (No. 52) and Sadiq (No. 53) 

contain similarly sequenced gazetteers, quite unlike Mahdi's. Astrolabes No. 2566 and No. 64 

contain twin gazetteers that cannot be tied to 

either of the two Sadiqs or to the Mahdi instrument. The sequence of the contents of the gazetteer of the anonymous astrolabe No. 66 is unique 
28 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

FIGURE 21.—Astrolabe No. 25. Gazetteer, with alidade, wedge, and pin. 
NUMBE

R 45 

29 

TABLE 6.—Transcription of gazetteer inscribed on CCA No. 25 

Place name Geographi

c parameters 

OUTER BANDS 

Bilad 

Mecca 

Medina 

Mi§r 

Sana "^ a 

Lahsa 

Bait al-Maqdis 

Dimashq 

Halab 

Mo§ul 

Nakhijewan 

Maragheh 

Tabriz 

Ardabil 

Surra Man Ra^a 

Kufa 

Baghdad 

Basra 

Shustar 

Kazerun 

Shiraz 

Yazd 

Hamadan 

Qazvin 

Gerfadman 

Isfahan 

Kashan 

Qpm 

Taliqan 

Asterabad 

Semnan 

Damghan 

Bilad 

Meshhad 

Nishapur 

Tun 

Sabzawar 

Herat 

Qayen 

Balkh 

Hormoz 

Kerman 

Qandaha r 

Lahore 

Kashmir 

Ganjah 

Tiflis 

Shirwan 

Atwal 77 10 75 20 63 20 77 00 83 30 66 30 70 00 72 10 77 00 81 15 82 00 82 00 82 30 79 00 79 30 80 00 84 00 84 30 87 00 88 00 89 00 83 00 85 00 85 30 86 40 86 00 85 40 85 45 89 35 88 00 88 15 

Atwal 92 30 92 30 92 30 91 30 94 20 93 20 

101 00 

92 00 

92 30 

107 40 

109 20 

88 00 

83 00 

83 00 

91 30 

^Ard 21 40 25 00 30 20 14 30 24 00 31 50 33 15 35 50 34 30 38 40 37 20 38 00 38 00 34 00 31 30 33 25 30 00 31 30 29 15 29 00 32 00 35 10 36 00 34 14 32 25 34 00 34 45 36 10 36 50 36 00 36 20 

"Ard 37 00 36 21 34 30 36 00 34 30 33 40 36 41 25 00 29 50 23 00 31 15 31 00 41 20 43 00 36 00 

INNER BANDS 

Inhiraf 00 00 37 10 18 38 01 15 69 30 45 16 30 31 18 29 07 12 12 15 16 17 15 00 17 33 07 16 12 31 12 15 37 19 35 24 11 17 33 38 48 28 22 16 27 34 33 41 40 18 34 31 31 14 29 13 18 48 36 17 28 00 

Inhiraf 45 06 46 25 55 20 44 12 14 08 14 36 65 36 74 30 62 11 75 05 78 26 75 20 15 49 14 41 44 13 

Al-jihat 00 

SHJ 

SHJ 

SHSH 

GHJ 

SHJ 

SHJ 

SHJ 

GHJ 

GHJ 

GHJ 

GHJ 

GHJ 

GHJ 

GHJ 

GHJ 

GHJ 

GHJ 

GHJ 

GHJ 

GHJ 

GHJ 

GHJ 

GHJ 

GHJ 

GHJ 

GHJ 

GHJ 

GHJ 

GHJ 

GHJ 

Jihan 

GHJ 

GHJ 

GHJ 

GHJ 

GHJ 

GHJ 

GHJ 

GHJ 

GHJ 

GHJ 

GHJ 

GHJ 

GHJ 

GHJ 

GHJ 
30 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

in the collection. While the sequencing of all these 

gazetteers may differ from Mahdi's, the recorded 

geographic parameters are not significantly different. In all cases longitude has been reckoned 

from the Fortunate Isles. 

Two nineteenth-century astrolabes in the collection (Nos. 63, 3811) include gazetteers that 

differ from Mahdi's not only in the sequencing of 

the selected cities but also in the reckoning of the 

geographic parameters. As the inscription on the 

throne of No. 63 explains, the longitudes have 

been reckoned from the Observatory of Greenwich, London. That these parameters were derived independently of the source for earlier parameters is suggested by the fact that no constant 

difference exists between the longitudes on No. 

63 or No. 3811 and the longitudes on Mahdi's 

gazetteer. In addition, considerable differences 

exist in the latitudes recorded by Mahdi and the 

latitudes on Nos. 63 and 3811. 

The gazetteer of Sadiq's astrolabe (No. 53) 

contains, in addition to longitude, latitude, and 

inhiraf, an as yet undescribed scale called al-masafat. This particular parameter is a measure of 

the arc of a great circle intercepted between the 

zenith of a listed city and the zenith of Mecca. 

On Sadiq's instrument this measure is given in 

farsakhs. Sadiq's is the only instrument in the 

collection to contain this scale. 

Appendix I includes a transcription of all gazetteers in the collection. 

T H E MAGHRIB 

Sterographic projections sometimes appear on 

the front central area of maghribi astrolabes. 

There are two types of such projections. The first 

(1) applies to the habitable latitudes. The second 

(2) applies to the Tropic of Capricorn (60 °N) and 

the polar regions (90 °N). 

Position: This projection fills all four quadrants of the base plate. 

Units: (1) See the section on plates (p. 47). (2) 

The projection is marked in units of 3° inscribed 

with numerals, or 6° inscribed with numerals 

(altitude and azimuth). 

Use: (I) See the section on plates (p. 47). (2) 

A stereographic projection for the latitude of the 

Tropic of Capricorn 66°, when used with the 

"^ankabut, functions effectively as an indicator of 

celestial latitude and longitude. A stereographic 

projection for the North Pole, when used with the 

'^ankabut, functions effectively as an indicator of 

the celestial coordinates of right ascension and 

declination. 

Remarks: (1) The two instruments in the collection that incorporate a plate projection into 

the umm were made in A.D. 1090 (No. 2572) and 

A.D. 1504 (No. 2571). The projections correspond 

to 37°30' and 30°, respectively. (2) The two 

astrolabes in the collection containing polar projections were made in A.D. 1101 [?] (No. 3643) 

and 1304 (No. 144). The astrolabe containing a 

projection for latitude 66°N was made in A.D. 

1224 (No. 4001). 

EUROPE 

Stereographic projections of habitable latitudes 

sometimes appear on European instruments. 

Position: The projection of habitable latitudes 

fills all four quadrants of the base plate. 

Units: See the section on plates (p. 47). 

Use: See the section on plates. 

Remarks: Most of the front central areas of 

European instruments in the collection are either 

blank or contain only the skeleton (tropics, equator, and solstitial and equinoctial colures) of a 

stereographic projection. Three instruments contain complete projections, however. For all three, 

this projection constitutes each instrument's only 

plate. The latitudes represented are 52° (Nos. 304 

and 2006) and 48° (No. 204). 

Back 

T H E MASHRIQ 

Altitude Scales 

Position: These central circular scales extend 

from the 0° point counterclockwise around the 
NUMBER 45 31 

outer margin to the 90° point, and from the 180° 

point clockwise to the 90° point. 

Units: The scale is marked every 5° inscribed 

with numerals (outer band) and 1° uninscribed 

(inner band), or 6° inscribed with numerals, and 

2° uninscribed. 

Use: The scale is used in conjunction with the 

alidade (see p. 6) to measure the height of the sun 

or of a well-known fixed star above the horizon. 

Remarks: Two astrolabes in the collection, 

both apparently from Lahore in northern India 

(Nos. 87, 2569), have altitude scales divided into 

units of 2° and 6°. 

Cotangent Scales 

Position: These central circular scales (see Figure 1) extend from the 270° point clockwise 

around the outer margin to the 180° point, and 

from the 270° point counterclockwise to the 0° 

point. 

Units: The scale is divided into "feet," inscribed with numerals and the identification zill 

aqdam (lower left), and "fingers," inscribed with 

numerals and the identification zill asdbi'^ (lower 

right).^® 

Use: The cotangent scales may be used as a 

nomogram (with the altitude scale and the alidade) to determine the altitude of the noon sun 

from the ratio between a gnomon of specific 

length (e.g., 7 feet or 12 fingers) and the length of 

its noon shadow (read on the cotangent scale). 

The scales are also useful for determining times 

of Muslim prayer defined by the ratio between a 

gnomon's length and the length of its shadow. 

The alidade is set at a shadow length appropriate 

for a given prayer, the astrolabe is hung plumb, 

and the prayer begun when a ray of sunlight 

passes between the pinholes of the alidade's sighting plates. 

Remarks: The units adopted for this scale (or, 

more correctly, these two scales) have their origin 

in the shadow table tradition.'^ The use of 7- and 

12-unit gnomons (feet and fingers) to compute 

such tables is known from Greek times. Hartner ®° clearly illustrates the relationship between 

this scale and a second foot or finger scale, the 

box tangent/cotangent scale (or shadow square), 

found on the back of the astrolabe. The latter can 

in a certain sense be viewed as an aid to the 

construction of the former. While the two scales 

can function independently, they tend to appear 

together. This is, in fact, the case for all but five 

of the astrolabes in the collection that are inscribed with Arabic characters. On only one of 

these exceptions (No. 4) does the circular scale 

stand alone. Hartner reports that scales divided 

into "feet" are most often found in the lower left 

quadrant of the astrolabe, while scales divided 

into "fingers" are most often found in the lower 

right. Indeed, most of the instruments in the 

collection (23 examples) follow Hartner's model. 

The 11 exceptions reverse the quadrants (feet 

lower right, fingers lower left). It is difficult to 

assign a reason for the difference, except to note 

that five of the nonconformists were made in 

western Persia or northern India. 

Arc Scales 

Position: The declination arcs are distributed 

in the upper right quadrant (see Figure 1). The 

arcs representing the azimuth of the Qibla are 

graphed on the declination arcs in the upper right 

quadrant between the 0° radius and the 45° 

radius. The arcs representing the altitude of the 

noon sun are graphed on the declination arcs in 

the upper right quadrant between the 45° radius 

and the 90° radius. The arcs representing equal 

or unequal hours are generally graphed onto the 

upper left quadrant, especially when other scales 

occupy the upper right. Prayer arcs are graphed 

onto the upper right quadrant when it contains 

the declination scale. 

Units: The number of declination arcs varies 

from 6 (or one division for each sign of the zodiac) 

to 60 (or one division for each 1/10 sign of the 

zodiac). On some instruments the number of 

divisions varies from one sign of the zodiac to 

another. On most instruments the zodiacal segments are each divided by five arcs. Generally the 
32 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

zodiacal segments are identified by name along 

the 0° radius and the 90° radius. Along the 0° 

radius the inscriptions indicate that the outer arc 

corresponds to the winter solstice and the inner 

arc corresponds to the summer solstice. The inscription along the 90° radius identifies the outer 

arc with summer and the inner arc with winter 

solstice. The number of arcs representing the 

azimuths of the Qibla varies from two to seven, 

each corresponding to a Middle Eastern city and 

inscribed with the name of that city. The arcs 

representing the altitude of the noon sun correspond to latitudes of position ranging from 22° 

to 50° and are inscribed with numerals. The hour 

arcs generally represent seasonal hours or 

1/12 daylight, and are inscribed with numerals. 

The prayer arcs represent prayer times, inscribed 

khatt akhir al- ^asr (line of end of afternoon prayer), 

khatt awwal al-^asr (line of beginning of afternoon 

prayer), khatt az-zawal (line of the going down of 

the sun), khatt nisj an-nahar (line of midday), or 

awwal az-zuhr (beginning of a little time after 

midday). In some cases these inscriptions are 

modified by the designation of a specific latitude 

(e.g., '^ard 32). 

Use: The declination arcs serve primarily as 

the context for other graphed scales. A declination 

scale without accompanying graphs does occur 

on one instrument in the collection (No. 47). The 

quality of workmanship on this particular example, however, suggests that the maker did not 

finish his work on the upper right quadrant. It is 

difficult to imagine a use for the declination arcs 

other than as context for graphs of azimuth, 

altitudes, hours, or prayers. The lines representing 

azimuths of the Qibla have been graphed on the 

declination arcs so that when the alidade of the 

astrolabe is placed at the point where the line for 

a city crosses the arc corresponding to the solar 

declination on a given day of the year, it marks 

on the altitude scale the altitude of the afternoon 

sun as it passes through the azimuth of the direction of Mecca from that city. The lines thus 

provide a means for determining the direction of 

Mecca from important centers of the Muslim 

world. The lines representing the altitude of the 

noon sun function nomographically in a manner 

analogous to the lines indicating the azimuth of 

the Qibla. The noon sun lines essentially aid in 

the determination of due south (the direction of 

the noon sun) for cities and towns at various 

latitudes. 

As Henri Michel has explained,^^ the hour arcs 

can be considered a nomogram to be interpreted 

using the alidade in combination with the central 

circular altitude scale. Given the altitude of the 

noon sun, one can set the alidade at this altitude 

on the altitude scale and mark the point on the 

alidade arm which crosses the sixth hour arc. 

Measures of solar altitude made at any time on 

the given day can be related to a seasonal hour 

by observing the hour line coinciding with the 

mark made on the alidade corresponding to solar 

altitude measured at noon. 

Prayer lines are used as a nomogram with the 

alidade and central circular altitude scale to associate solar altitude with times of Muslim prayer. 

Since each prayer line functions for a unique 

latitude, one might expect to find (as one does on 

examples in the collection) a latitude included as 

part of each inscribed identification. 

Remarks: The declination arcs function 

equally well as a nomogram whether they result 

from stereographic projection or are equally 

spaced. Equally spaced arcs appear on four instruments in the collection (Nos. 42, 63, 70, 4000). 

It seems that the decision to employ one distribution rather than the other was purely a matter 

of taste. On most of the instruments in the collection the Qibla azimuth lines are arranged so that 

cities for which the angular distance between due 

South and the direction of Mecca is greatest 

appear lowest in the quadrant. In order to ensure 

that these Qibla lines will fall into the lower 

eighth of the quadrant, they are associated with 

declination circles identified by the scale along 

the 0° radius of the quadrant. In order to ensure 

that they will fall in the areas of the upper right 

quadrant between the 45° radius and the 90° 

radius, the altitude arcs are related to declination 

circles identified by the scale inscribed along the 

90° radius. On no instrument in the collection 
NUMBER 45 33 

are prayer lines combined with other graphed 

arcs. Prayers are graphed on the declination arcs 

of six of the instruments in the collection made in 

the mashriq (Nos. 4, 70, 85, 86, 87, 88). The 

majority of these are of Indo-Persian origin. 

Angle Scales 

Position: These scales of sines and cosines occupy the upper left quadrant. 

Units: These are the sines (and cosines) of 

angles that are multiples of 1° or 5° (see Figure 

22), or sines (and cosines) of angles having sines 

(and cosines) that are multiples of 1/60 of the 

radius of the quadrant (see Figure 23). 

Use: Sines (and cosines) distributed according 

to multiples of degrees are used with an alidade 

which is graduated so that it can measure off a 

given vertical (or horizontal) component of a sine 

(or cosine) to be related to an angle which can be 

read from the altitude scale. Sines (and cosines) 

distributed according to multiples of 1/60 of the 

quadrant radius require an alidade to measure 

an angle to be related to a sine or cosine, which 

can be read directly from the scale. The former 

distribution would be most useful in cases where 

the trigonomic function is known and its corresponding angle is to be found. The latter scale 

would be more useful when the angle is known 

and its sine or cosine is to be found. 

Remarks: Sines and cosines which divide the 

quadrant into 60 parts are found on astrolabes in 

the collection more often than sines and cosines 

related to multiples of degrees. Only seven instruments exhibit the latter configuration (Nos. 15, 

25, 39, 47, 54, 55, and 70). On a few of the 

astrolabes in the collection, the quadrant containing the cross-hatching of trigonometric parts also 

contains radii evenly dividing the quadrant (Nos. 

58, 63, and 70) or concentric quarter circles corresponding to the solar declination at various 

times of year (Nos. 47, 52, and 85). On six examples, the unequal hours also divide the trigonometric quadrant (Nos. 25, 39, 54, 55, 57, and 

59). On two other examples (Nos. 53 and 4000) 

only a noon line appears (a semi-circle with diameter equal to the quadrant radius). 

Box Scales 

These examples of tangent scales (a and d) and 

cotangent scales (b and c) can be seen in Figure 1. 

Position: The tangent scales extend vertically 

from the radius at 180° to the radius at 225°, and 

from the radius at 0° to the radius at 315°. The 

cotangent scales extend horizontally from the 

radius at 270° to the radius at 225° and from the 

radius at 270° to the radius at 315°. 

Units: These scales are marked in "feet," inscribed with numerals and identified as zill aqdam 

ma'^kHs (a in Figure 1) and zill aqdam mustawi (b in 

Figure 1); and "fingers," inscribed with numerals 

and identified as zill asabi" mustawi (c in Figure 1) 

and zill asabi"^ ma'^kus (d in Figure 1). 

Use: See section on central circular cotangent 

scales (p. 31), and note that the tangent scale has 

a use when the altitude of the noon sun is less 

than 45°; the cotangent scale should be used 

when the altitude of the noon sun is greater than 

45° 

Remarks: Judging from the examples of their 

work in this collection, maker-decorator "Abd 

al-A^imma (Nos. 37, 39, and 40) and maker 

Muhammad Mahdi (Nos. 25 and 44) preferred 

to abbreviate the identification of each cotangent 

scale to mustawi. For related remarks see the section on central circular cotangent scales (p. 31). 

Circular Tables 

Position: The tables extend from the 180° 

point on the astrolabe counterclockwise to the 0° 

point (see Figure 24). 

Units: These tables are marked according to 

the following: astrological term or limit, 1/60 of 

a semicircle, inscribed with the name or the last 

letter of the Arabic name of one of the five visible 

planets that governs the term (generally the outermost band; see Table 7); astrological term or 

limit, 1/60 of a semicircle, inscribed with numerals from 6 to 30, representing term boundaries 

within zodiacal signs (generally the band just 

inside the band of planetary governors of the 

terms; see Table 7); zodiacal sign, 1/12 of a 
34 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

FIGURE 22.—Astrolabe No. 25. Upper left quadrant includes sines of angles, which are multiples 

of r 
NUMBER 45 35 

FIGURE 23.—Astrolabe No. 87. Upper left quadrant includes sines, which are multiples of 1/60 

of the radius of the quadrant. 
36 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOG Y 

-Iff it-'''.^^l. 

m 

^.' • 

FIGURE 24.—Astrolabe No. 37. The lower quadrants contain a full set of astrological tables 
NUMBER 45 37 

TABLE 7.—Planetary governors and degree divisions of terms 

(I = Mushtari, Jupiter; H = Zuharah, Venus; D = ^ Utarid, 

Mercury; K H = Mirrikh, Mars; L = Zuhal, Saturn) 

TABLE 8.—Zodiacal signs 

Zodiacal S 

Planetary 

governors 

I 

H 

D 

K H 

L 

H 

D 

I 

L 

K H 

D 

I 

H 

K H 

L 

KH 

H 

D 

I 

L 

I 

H 

L 

D 

KH 

D 

H 

I 

K H 

L 

gns 0-5 

Degree 

divisions 

6 

12 

20 

25 

30 

8 

14 

22 

27 

30 

6 

12 

17 

24 

30 

7 

13 

19 

26 

30 

6 

11 

18 

24 

30 

7 

17 

21 

28 

30 

Zodiacal S 

Planetary 

governors 

L 

D 

I 

H 

KH 

KH 

H 

D 

I 

L 

I 

H 

D 

L 

KH 

D 

I 

H 

L 

KH 

D 

H 

I 

KH 

L 

H 

I 

D 

KH 

L 

gns 6-11 

Degree 

divisions 

6 

14 

21 

28 

30 

7 

11 

19 

24 

30 

12 

17 

21 

26 

30 

7 

14 

22 

26 

30 

7 

13 

20 

24 

30 

12 

16 

19 

28 

30 

semicircle, inscribed with the Arabic name of 

each sign of the zodiac (generally the third band 

from the outside; see Table 8); astrological face, 

1/36 of a semicircle, inscribed with the Arabic 

name or the last letter of the name of the sun, 

moon, or one of the five visible planets that 

governs the face (fourth band from outside; see 

Table 9); and lunar mansion, 1/28 of a semicircle, 

inscribed with the Arabic name of the lunar 

mansion (innermost band; see the accompanying 

tabulation, Lunar Mansions). 

Use: The term tables associate the five visible 

Number 

0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

Name 

English 

Aries 

Taurus 

Gemini 

Cancer 

Leo 

Virgo 

Libra 

Scorpio 

Saggitarius 

Capricorn 

Aquarius 

Pisces 

Arabic 

al-Hamal 

al- Thawr 

alfawza 

as-Saralan 

al-Asad 

as-Sunbula 

al-Mizan 

al-'^Aqrab 

al-Qaws 

al-Jady 

al-Dalw 

al-Hul 

planets with unequal divisions of each zodiacal 

sign. The zodiacal signs are associated with the 

terms and the faces. The faces table associates a 

visible planet or the sun or moon with each 10° 

division of the zodiac. The table of lunar mansions specifies yet another division of the heavens. 

Sharatan 

Butain 

Thurayya 

Dabaran 

Haq'^ah 

Han'^ah 

Dhira^ 

LUNAR MANSIONS 

Nathrah 

Tarfah 

Jabhah 

Zubrah 

Sarfah 

'^ Awwa 

Simak 

Ghafr 

Zubana 

Mil 

Qalb 

Shaula 

Na "^a^im 

Baldah 

Dhabih 

Bula^ 

Su'^Ud 

Akhbiyya 

Muqaddam 

Mu ^akhkhar 

Rishsha 

Remarks: All of the collection's astrolabes 

containing term tables indicate a preference for 

a system of association between planets and zodiacal divisions that Ptolemy attributes to Egyptian astrologers.®^ On two of these (Nos. 4 and 

2569) the numbers on the inner term table indicate the number of degrees in each division of a 

zodiacal sign rather than the position of each 

division point within the sign. Only one astrolabe 

in the collection contains in addition to a table of 

faces a semicircular table of thirds of a sign, called 

(by Hindus according to al-Biruni)®^ decanates. 

This relatively rare example was signed in Western Kufic characters by Ja^far ben '^Umar (No. 

15). 
38 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

TABLE 9.—Planetary governors (first row) and degree divisions (second row) of astrological 

faces (KH = Mirrikh, Mars; S = Shams, Sun; H = Zuharah, Venus; D = "^Utarid, Mercury; R 

= Qamar, Moon; L = Zuhal, Saturn; I = Mushtari, Jupiter) 

KH 

10 

S 

20 

H 

30 

D 

10 

R 

20 

L 

30 

I 

10 

KH 

20 

S 

30 

H D R 

10 20 30 

L 

10 

I 

20 

K H 

30 

S H D 

10 20 30 

R L I 

10 20 30 

K H 

10 

S H 

20 30 

D 

10 

R L 

20 30 

I 

10 

K H 

20 

S 

30 

H 

10 

D 

20 

R 

30 

L I 

10 20 

KH 

30 

Rectangular Tables 

Position: A table of triplicities fills the shadow 

square (if any) in the lower left and lower right 

quadrants. Generally it consists of five rows (the 

upper one of which contains the table name) and 

ten columns (see Table 10). 

Units: Signs of the zodiac inscribed with numerals or names and associated with planetary 

lords, each identified by the last letter of its 

Arabic name and each associated with one of the 

Aristotelian elements: earth, air, fire, or water. 

Use: The table associates those signs of the 

zodiac which are situated in the zodiac at the 

angles of equi-angled triangles and records the 

nature of each trigon thus formed. In addition, the 

table associates planets with similar "natures" 

with each trigon. 

Remarks: The triplicity scale on No. 2569 fills 

the lower left shadow square only. The inscriptions that specify the nature of each trigon (fiery, 

earthy, airy, watery) can be used to delineate 

subgroups of astrolabes carrying this table. The 

four words that can be recognized as "Arabic" 

terms for these natures appear consistently on 

astrolabes made in Isfahan. At least two instruments (Nos. 55 and 85) carry what Morley calls 

the "Persian" terms for these natures.®^ Some 

instruments (e.g.. No. 58) seem to carry a mixture 

of "Arabic" and "Persian" terminology. 

T H E MAGHRIB 

Altitude Scales 

Position: These circular scales are centered on 

the instrument (see the section on "The Mashriq,"p. 30). 

Units: See section on "The Mashriq." 

Use: See section on "The Mashriq." 

Remarks: On No. 3643 the altitude scale is 

continued into the lower quadrants of the astrolabe back. These additions extend from the 180° 

point counterclockwise to the 270° point, and 

from the 0° point clockwise to the 270° point. 

Cotangent Scales 

Position: These circular scales are centered on 

the instrument. They extend from the 225° point 

clockwise approximately to the 190° point, and 

from the 225° point counterclockwise approximately to the 253° point; also from the 315° 

point clockwise approximately to the 287° point, 

and from the 315° point counterclockwise approximately to the 343° point. 

TABLE 10.—Planetary lords, zodiacal signs, and natures of the triplicities (L = Zuhal, Saturn; 

S = Shams, Sun; KH = Mirrikh, Mars, H = Zuharah, Venus; I = Mushtari, Jupiter, D = "Utarid, 

Mercury, R = Qamar, Moon) 

Planetary lords 

L 

KH 

I 

R 

S 

H 

L 

H 

I 

R 

D 

KH 

L 

KH 

I 

R 

I 

R 

D 

KH 

S 

H 

L 

H 

Zodiacal signs 

Saggitarius 

Capricorn 

Aquarius 

Pisces 

Leo 

Virgo 

Libra 

Scorpio 

Aries 

Taurus 

Gemini 

Cancer 

Natures 

Fiery 

Earthy 

Airy 

Watery 
NUMBER 45 39 

Units: These scales are divided into "fingers" 

or arcs of a circle (with center at the center of the 

astrolabe) bounded by radii that mark off lengths 

along the extended horizontal scale of the shadow 

square. The arcs are inscribed with numerals 

specifying the length marked by the radii, measured in units equal to 1/12 of the shadow square's 

gnomon (see Figure 2). 

Use: See section on "The Mashriq" (p. 31). 

Remarks: On No. 4001 this scale is identified 

with the inscription sah(?) asdbi" az-zillayn. If the 

astrolabes in this collection are representative, it 

appears that this scale is often omitted entirely 

from examples made in the maghrib. 

Zodiacal Tables 

Position: The table extends counterclockwise 

through 360°, starting at the 0° point. 

Units: This table is, inscribed with numerals 

every 5°, and inscribed with the names of the 

zodiacal signs at 30° intervals. 

Use: The table is combined with a circular 

calendar table and the alidade to read the longitude of the sun for a given calendar date. 

Remarks: All non-European astrolabes in the 

collection having a complete 360° central circular 

zodiac table originated in the maghrib. 

Calendar Tables 

Position: The table extends counterclockwise 

360° from a beginning point (representing 1 January), which varies in position from 286° to 292°. 

Units: The table consists of one-day units uninscribed on the outer band, and five- to six-day 

units inscribed with numerals (central band), and 

one-month units, inscribed with month names 

(inner band). 

Use: Combined with a circular table of zodiacal signs and the alidade, this table is used to read 

the longitude of the sun given the date. 

Remarks: All non-European astrolabes carrying a circular calendar originated in the maghrib 

and are associated with a 360° central circular 

zodiac table. Two relatively early non-European 

astrolabes (Nos. 144 and 304) contain eccentrically-centered calendar tables (see Figure 25). 

TABLE 11.—Solar cycle (1 = Sunday, 2 = Monday, etc.) 

Year 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

Day 

of the 

week 

3 

4 

6 

7 

1 

2 

4 

5 

6 

7 

2 

3 

4 

5 

Leap 

year 

indicator 

K 

K 

K 

K 

Year 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

Day 

of the 

week 

7 

1 

2 

3 

5 

6 

7 

1 

3 

4 

5 

6 

1 

2 

Leap 

year 

indicator 

K 

K 

K 

The remaining calendar tables on instruments 

originating in the maghrib (Nos. 2568, 2571, 

3643, and 4001) are concentric with the zodiac 

table. On both maghribi instruments with eccentrically centered calendar tables, the radial position of the apsidal line (the line connecting the 

centers of the zodiacal and calendar tables) is 

about 75°. On one maghribi astrolabe in the 

collection (No. 4001) a series of central circular 

scales relates a day in the week (represented by 

the numerals 1 to 7) to a date in the Julian 

calendar. The table (see Table 11) reflects the 

fact that the day of the week of the first of 

January advances one day every year, except 

following a leap year, when it advances two days 

(365 leaves a remainder of 1 upon division by 7). 

The pattern of possible first days repeats after 28 

years (7 days X 4 years). The count of years is 

often called the solar cycle. 

Arc Scales 

The arc scales on maghribi instruments are 

usually confined to scales of hours. See the discussion of mashriqi arc scales (p. 31). 

Box Scales 

Position: See description under "The Mashriq," (p. 33). 
40 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

FIGURE 25.—Astrolabe No. 144. 

The center of the calendar scale 

does not coincide with the center 

of the scale of zodiacal signs. 
NUMBER 45 41 

Units: These scales are marked in fingers, inscribed with numerals, and identified by the inscription az-zill al-ma "kus and az-zill al-mabsUt. 

Use: See the section on "The Mashriq" (p. 

33). 

Remarks: Two characteristics distinguish the 

box scale on the maghribi instruments in this 

collection from the examples originating in the 

mashriq: the scales are divided into fingers only, 

and the cotangent scale is identified with the term 

mabsut (extended) instead of mustawi (level). 

EUROPE 

Altitude Scales 

Position: These circular scales are centered on 

the instrument. They extend from the 0° point 

counterclockwise to the 90° point, and from the 

180° point clockwise to the 90° point, and from 

the 180° point counterclockwise to the 270° 

point, and from the 0° point clockwise to the 

270° point. 

Units: See section on "The Mashriq" (p. 

31). 

Use: See section on "The Mashriq" (p. 31). 

Remarks: The altitude scale on one European 

instrument in the collection (No. 2007) can be 

read to within half a degree. This is the paper 

astrolabe by Danfrie. The units of the altitude 

scale on the "de Roias" instrument in the collection (No. 2005) are 10° inscribed with numerals, 

and 2° uninscribed. 

Zodiac Tables 

Position: See section on "The Maghrib" (p. 

39). 

Units: See section on "The Maghrib." 

Use: See section on "The Maghrib" (p. 39). 

Remarks: The 5° divisions on the astrolabe 

signed by Hartman (No. 262) are marked with 

Roman numerals. 

Calendar Tables 

Position: The scale extends counterclockwise 

360° from a beginning point which varies from 

279° to 291° (see Figure 26). 

Units: The scale is divided into units of one 

day, uninscribed, and 4-11 days, inscribed with 

numerals, and one month, inscribed with month 

names. 

Use: See section on "The Maghrib" (p. 39). 

Remarks: About half of the calendars on the 

cataloged European instruments have eccentric 

centers on apsidal lines at 90° The paper astrolabe in the collection (No. 2007) contains in 

addition to the calendar a set of tables designed 

to facilitate the determination of the date of 

Easter. The first of these is a table (see Table 12) 

of the solar cycle associated with a dominical 

letter. (On No. 2007, this table is a small circular 

scale in the upper left quadrant of the astrolabe 

back.) The dominical letter is a letter from A to 

G associated with the first Sunday of the year. 

Assignment of the letter A to the first Sunday 

FIGURE 26.—Astrolabe No. 186. The date of the vernal 

equinox (Aries 0°) is 10.5 March. 
42 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

indicates that it is the first day of the year; B, 

that it is the second day, and so on. It should be 

apparent that the pattern of dominical letters 

repeats after 28 years in the same way that the 

pattern of days of the week associated with January first repeats. Hence, the dominical letters 

are found in conjunction with the so-called solar 

cycle. (See the discussion of a related table in the 

section on central circular scales found on maghribi astrolabes, p. 39). Note that leap years in the 

cycle are indicated by two dominical letters. 

The letter on the right is that corresponding to 

the first Sunday of the year. That letter corresponds to subsequent Sundays of the year until 

the leap day is intercalated when the "dominical" 

letter becomes the one on the left. 

A second circular table (see Table 13) found 

on the paper astrolabe (No. 2007) relates the 

golden number, the epact, and the paschal index 

(see Figure 27). The golden number is nothing 

more than a reference to a year in the 19-year 

Metonic cycle connecting lunar and solar cycles 

(235 X 29.53 = 19 X 365.25). The epact is a 

statement of the moon's age on the first day of 

the year. (The table on the paper astrolabe is in 

keeping with the tradition of beginning the Metonic cycle [or golden numbers] at a point when 

the first day of the year coincides with the new 

TABLE 12.—Solar cycle and associated dominical letter 

(taken from CCA No. 2007; extrapolated dates in brackets) 

TABLE 13.—Paschal index and epact with related golden 

number 

Year A.D. 

[1568] 

[1569] 

[1570] 

[1571] 

[1572] 

[1573] 

[1574] 

[1575] 

[1576] 

[1577] 

[1578] 

[1579] 

[1580] 

[1581] 

Solar 

cycle 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

Dominical 

letter 

F, G 

E 

D 

C 

A, B 

G 

F 

E 

C, D 

B 

A 

G 

E, F 

D 

Year A.D. 

[1582] 

1583 

1584 

1585 

[1586] 

[1587] 

[1588] 

[1589] 

[1590] 

[1591] 

[1592] 

[1593] 

[1594] 

[1595] 

Solar 

cycle 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

Dominical 

letter 

C 

B 

G, A 

F 

E 

D 

B, C 

A 

G 

F 

D, E 

C 

B 

A 

Year A.D. 

[1577] 

[1578] 

[1579] 

[1580] 

[1581] 

[1582] 

1583 

1584 

1585 

[1586] 

[1587] 

[1588] 

[1589] 

[1590] 

[1591] 

[1592] 

[1593] 

[1594] 

[1595] 

Paschal 

index 

12 Apr 

1 Apr 

21 Mar 

9 Apr 

29 Mar 

17 Apr 

6 Apr 

26 Mar 

14 Apr 

3 Apr 

23 Mar 

11 Apr 

31 Mar 

18 Apr 

8 Apr 

28 Mar 

16 Apr 

5 Apr 

25 Mar 

Epact 

I 

XII 

XXIII 

IIII 

XV 

XXVI 

VII 

XVIII 

XXIX 

X 

XXI 

II 

XIII 

XXIIII 

V 

XVI 

XXVII 

VIII 

XXIX 

Golden 

number 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

moon.) Note that each epact is 11 days later than 

the one preceding, reflecting the fact that the 

lunar year (12 X 29.5 = 354 days) is 11 days 

shorter than the solar year. The paschal index is 

the date of the first full moon falling on or 

following after the vernal equinox (21 March in 

the Gregorian calendar). 

The third table in the series is a central circular 

table adjacent to the calendar (see Table 14). 

Although it is not identified on No. 2007, the 

table is commonly referred to as the "Gregorian 

Calendar of Epacts." It enables the user to predict 

the dates of the new moon for any year, given its 

epact. The epacts are distributed so that they fall 

next to the date that would correspond to the 

new moon if the moon was the age of the epact 

on 1 January. Sometimes two epacts fall on the 

same day in order to allow for the circumstances 

that some synodic months have 30 days and some 

have 29. (In a year with epact 25, new moons fall 

on the dates opposite 25 if the golden number is 

less than 11, and on dates opposite 25' if the 

golden number is greater than 11.) 

Note that the maker of astrolabe No. 2007 

included the years A.D. 1583, 1584, and 1585 at 
NUMBER 45 43 

^M^-' 

.!u//rr}.m jiMiit,. 

^'i^j aun'- fttflin j:r.: 

•-•:r''' • 7ceu(tc^UJ.ir*yf.'- •'•: 

r 

'•'^if^^iii^'^., 

FIGURE 27.—Astrolabe No. 2007. Calendric wheels can be used to find the date of Easter. 
44 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

TABLE 14.—Gregorian calendar of epacts 

Count 

of days 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

Jan 

29 

28 

27 

26 

25'25 

24 

23 

22 

21 

20 

19 

18 

17 

16 

15 

14 

13 

12 

11 

10 

9 

8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

Feb 

29 

28 

27 

25'26 

25 24 

23 

22 

21 

20 

19 

18 

17 

16 

15 

14 

13 

12 

11 

10 

9 

8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

Mar 

29 

28 

27 

26 

25'25 

24 

23 

22 

21 

20 

19 

18 

17 

16 

15 

14 

13 

12 

11 

10 

9 

8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

Apr 

29 

28 

27 

25'26 

25 24 

23 

22 

21 

20 

19 

18 

17 

16 

15 

14 

13 

12 

11 

10 

9 

8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

29 

May 

28 

27 

26 

25'25 

24 

23 

22 

21 

20 

19 

18 

17 

16 

15 

14 

13 

12 

11 

10 

9 

8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

29 

28 

Jun 

27 

25'26 

25 24 

23 

22 

21 

20 

19 

18 

17 

16 

15 

14 

13 

12 

11 

10 

9 

8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

29 

28 

27 

Jul 

26 

25'25 

24 

23 

22 

21 

20 

19 

18 

17 

16 

15 

14 

13 

12 

11 

10 

9 

8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

29 

28 

27 

25'26 

Aug 

25 24 

23 

22 

21 

20 

19 

18 

17 

16 

15 

14 

13 

12 

11 

10 

9 

8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

29 

28 

27 

26 

25'25 

24 

Sep 

23 

22 

21 

20 

19 

18 

17 

16 

15 

14 

13 

12 

11 

10 

9 

8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

29 

28 

27 

25'26 

25 24 

23 

Oct 

22 

21 

20 

19 

18 

17 

16 

15 

14 

13 

12 

11 

10 

9 

8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

29 

28 

27 

26 

25'25 

24 

23 

22 

Nov 

21 

20 

19 

18 

17 

16 

15 

14 

13 

12 

11 

10 

9 

8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

29 

28 

27 

25'26 

25 24 

23 

22 

21 

Dec 

20 

19 

18 

17 

16 

15 

14 

13 

12 

11 

10 

9 

8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

29 

28 

27 

26 

25'25 

24 

23 

22 

21 

19'20 

appropriate places in the calendric tables. These 

are crucial years following the Gregorian reform. 

These specialized calendric tables were undoubtedly used to compute the date of Easter, a rather 

involved procedure with or without the help of 

tables. For example, to find the date of Easter in 

A.D. 1584, one would consult Table 13 to find 

that year's golden number (8), epact (18), and 

paschal index (26 March). Knowing that Easter 

would be the first Sunday following 26 March, 

one would consult Table 12 to find the dominical 

letter. In 1584, Sunday was the first day of the 

year (day A). By counting by sevens from 1 

January on the calendar scale (and remembering 

that February has 29 days in 1584), one would 

find the first Sunday following 26 March to be 1 

April, Easter Sunday. 

Non-calendric tables are rarely to be found on 

astrolabes of European origin. Only one European instrument in this cataloged collection (No. 

204) contains such a table, and that is a table of 

star names, which also gives their longitude, magnitude, "mediation" (see page 56), and declination. In this example, the stars named are exactly 

those included in the rete design. 

Arc Scales 

Position: The scales of unequal or seasonal 

hours (1) are generally distributed in the upper 
NUMBER 45 45 

left and upper right quadrants. The scale of equal 

hours (2) occupies the upper left quadrant of No. 

221. 

Units: The seasonal hours are inscribed with 

numerals. The equal hours are marked in units 

equal to 1/24 of the time between meridian passages of the sun. 

Use: See the section on "The Mashriq" for a 

discussion of unequal hours, which may be applied to both equal and unequal hours. 

Remarks: (1) On astrolabe No. 221 the scale of 

unequal hours is confined to the upper right 

quadrant, with a scale of equal hours graphed in 

the upper left quadrant. (2) Any equal hour scale 

is only relevant for one latitude.^^ This fact can 

be used to establish the place of intended use for 

an instrument of otherwise uncertain origin. 

Box Scales 

Position: The shadow square, the box scale 

that appears on almost all astrolabes, is discussed 

in the section on "The Mashriq" (p. 33). 

Units: This scale is marked in units of one 

finger, uninscribed, and two, three, or four fingers, inscribed with numerals and identified Umbra Recta (horizontal scales) and Umbra Versa (vertical scales). It may also be marked at every 

sexagesimal unit, uninscribed, and five sexagesimal units, inscribed with numerals. 

Use: See section on "The Mashriq" (p. 33). 

Remarks: Whereas the box scales are identified 

by name on every instrument containing them 

originating in the mashriq or maghrib, such titles 

are omitted from box scales on two European 

instruments in the collection (Nos. 186 and 304). 

Both of the latter are attributed to fifteenth-century makers. On one other European example 

(No. 2006) the box scales are inscribed Corda Recta 

and Corda Versa. 

Special Projections 

T H E QUADRANT.—Position and Units: A special 

projection on the back of one of the European 

instruments in the collection (No. 2006) was first 

described by Profatius in the thirteenth century.^^ 

It consists of the important circles of an astrolabe 

plate and rete folded into a single quadrant (see 

Figure 28). The folded circles in this example 

include Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, Equator, ecliptic and horizons for six cities Qerusalem, 

Carthage, Rome, Paris, Oxford, Berwyk). In order to divide these projected circles, the curved 

boundary of the quadrant carries two scales. The 

outer one (at least on No. 2006) is characterized 

by equal divisions corresponding to degrees of 

right ascension (angular distance along the celestial equator). The unequal divisions of the inner 

one (again, at least on No. 2006) correspond to 

degrees of longitude (angular distance along the 

ecliptic). The radial boundaries of the quadrant 

also carry various scales. Astrolabe No. 2006 contains three scales: an unequally divided scale 

identifying the terrestrial latitude of projected 

horizons; an unequally divided scale identifying 

the celestial declination (angular distance north 

or south of the celestial equator) of projected 

parallel circles; and an equally divided scale of 

sines {sinus droit) and versed sines {sinus versus). 

As outlined below, the sine scales are used in 

conjunction with the only lines comprising the 

quadrant, which are normally found on the back 

of an astrolabe, i.e., the graph of unequal hours, 

including the semicircle corresponding to noon. 

These lines appear on the quadrant as they would 

in the upper right quarter of a familiar European 

or maghribi astrolabe. 

Use: The quadrant projection is useless unless 

it has been fitted with a thin string, fixed to its 

vertex and threaded with a moveable bead (No. 

2006 has both). With string and bead in place, 

the quadrant can best be used to tell the seasonal 

hour from the measured solar altitude. Recall 

that for any day of the year the maximum (or 

noon) altitude of the sun is equal to 90° plus the 

solar declination (which may be a negative number) minus the latitude of position. Using the 

stretched thread, this angle is marked off along 

the right ascension scale (starting at the 0 hour 

line), and the bead is moved to the point of 

intersection of the thread and the sixth hour line. 

Leaving the bead to mark this spot, the stretched 

thread is moved so that it marks off the angle of 
46 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

^"^^ 

FIGURE 28.—Astrolabe No. 2006. Quadrant. 
NUMBER 45 47 

solar altitude as measured. The bead marks the 

appropriate seasonal hour.®^ 

The declination scale can be used to measure 

solar declination by first moving the bead on the 

stretched string so that it intersects the ecliptic at 

the given solar longitude. Keeping the bead in 

place, it is only necessary to move the string to 

the scale and read off the declination. 

D E ROIAS PROJECTION.—Position and Units: 

Whereas in the stereographic projection, utilized 

in the earliest astrolabes, the center of projection 

is the south celestial pole and the plane of projection is the equatorial plane, in the projection 

named after its originator, Johannes de Roias, 

celestial circles and points are projected orthogonally onto the plane of the solstitial colure. Johannes de Roias published a description of this 

projection in A.D. 1550.*^ It is distinguished by 

the straight lines parallel to the equator corresponding to parallel circles of declination and by 

the semi-ellipses that are the projections of meridians of right ascension. On the example in the 

collection (No. 2005), 37 parallels are projected 

(one every 5°) and 37 meridians are projected 

(one every 5°; see Figure 29). The parallels corresponding to the beginning of every sign of the 

zodiac are marked with the appropriate zodiacal 

symbol. The meridians are identified as hours 

before or after noon. In this projection the ecliptic 

becomes a diagonal line, passing through the 

center and the points of intersection of the tropics 

with the solstitial colure. In a major departure 

from the stereographic tradition, de Roias also 

projected bright stars on his network. The example (No. 2005) contains a Cygni, a Aquilae, a 

Leonis, 8 Capricorni, a Canis Minoris, and a 

Tauri. 

Use: In order to function as a nomogram, the 

de Roias astrolabe must be fitted with a ruler 

that can pivot about the center of the projection. 

The fiducial edge of this ruler is the projection of 

a horizon. Often (as the example illustrates) this 

ruler is divided by the orthogonal projections of 

azimuth circles. The ruler is completed by the 

addition of a small perpendicular rule, which can 

move freely along the ruler. This perpendicular 

rule, preserved in other examples, is missing from 

No. 2005. The rule is divided by projections 

corresponding to parallels of altitude. 

With the complete ruler and rule in place, one 

can use the de Roias projection to solve all of the 

familiar astrolabe problems. As an example, consider the determination of the equal hour given 

a measurement of solar altitude. 

Set the ruler so that the angular distance between it and the projection of the Earth's axis is 

equal to the latitude of position. Note the division 

on the rule corresponding to the measured solar 

altitude. Move the rule along the ruler so that the 

noted division intersects the projected parallel of 

solar declination corresponding to the date. The 

projected meridian of right ascension also intersecting at this point is the desired hour curve. 

Plates 

Over half of the astrolabes here considered are 

equipped with four (13 examples) or five (15 

examples) circular plates, each plate containing 

projected lines on both sides. If these plate attachments are part of a proper instrument, their 

edges are each interrupted by a rectangular 

"tooth" or "notch" (see Figure 30) designed to fit 

into or over a notch or tooth in the raised rim of 

the astrolabe body. With one exception, sets of 

toothed plates in the collection are part of the 

instruments of western origin (whether European 

or maghribi). The exceptional set belongs to an 

unsigned astrolabe, which has been attributed to 

Fadl "^Ali (No. 47). Each tooth in the exceptional 

set is situated at the lowest point of a plate (where 

a notch is found on other examples originating in 

the mashriq) and not at the highest point, where, 

based on the western instruments, one would 

expect to find a tooth. 

CONTENTS 

Colures 

While other projected circles may vary from 

instrument to instrument, no functional plate 

ever lacks the basic set of projected tropics, equa-
48 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOG Y 

FIGURE 29.—Astrolabe No. 2005. De Roias projection. 

*-v"V. Q 

/ « 

••' iiltll 

C •« »« J * M I >I0|t , ^ ; 'Jl i ! 

• .:.., J illMJ j 

y 
NUMBER 45 

FIGURE 30.—Astrolabe No. 49. A tooth projecting from the 

rim holds the notched plates. 

49 

\ 

m ^WKmwKKItmSS^^^^^K^^ 
50 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

tor, and solstitial and equinoctial colures. The 

celestial tropics and equator are concentric circles; the colures are orthogonal straight lines. No 

inscription identifies the circles on Islamic instruments. On all six cataloged instruments of maghribi origin, however, the lower half of the solstitial 

colure is identified as Zawal, Az-Zawdl, or Khatt 

Az-Zawdl. Inscriptions do identify the tropics and 

equator on two European instruments: on No. 

262, Capricornus (outer). Equator (middle), and Cancer (inner); and on No. 2007, Tropicus Capricorni 

(outer), Aequinoctialis (middle), and Tropicus Cancri 

(inner). On one set of European astrolabe plates 

(No. 2007) the equinoctial colure is marked Horizon Rectus at left and right. 

The Horizon Line 

Aside from the stereographic projections of the 

solstitial and equinoctial colures (perpendicular 

diameters), the fundamental projected line on an 

astrolabe plate is the northern portion of the 

horizon circle for a given latitude between 23° 

and 64° (see Figure 31). On most instruments 

inscribed with Arabic characters (whether Eastern or Western) this projected line is marked with 

the word Al-Maghrib or Maghrib (west) at right 

and Al-Mashriq or Mashriq (east) at left. Analogous 

identification is rarer on European instruments. 

Only the horizons of the paper astrolabe in this 

collection (No. 2007) are marked Horizon Obliquus 

at left and right. 

Most Arabic or Persian instruments (30 out of 

41 in this collection) include one plate face on 

which only horizons have been projected, from 

four to seven per quadrant, covering the latitudes 

from 4° to 66° at intervals of 2° or 3°. In general, 

only the northeastern segment of each horizon 

(half its usual extent) is projected on this plate. 

An exception is the horizon plate of a European 

instrument made in A.D. 1542 (No. 221) (see 

Figure 32). For four instruments in the collection 

(Nos. 59, 61, 62, and 65) over 50 horizons are 

projected in eight segments of a plate face (rather 

than in four quadrants). Three of these instruments are marked with nineteenth century dates. 

In the absence of compelling contradictory evidence, it seems likely that the fourth, undated, 

instrument (No. 65) is also of nineteenth-century 

origin. 

On almost half of the instruments in the collection inscribed with Arabic characters, the in-

?>•£.*{• 'i»A''i%#v*f««-

FIGURE 31.—Astrolabe No. 4. Inscription on the horizon line 

of the plate marks its eastern and western extension. FIGURE 32.—Astrolabe No. 221. Plate for multiple latitudes. 
NUMBER 45 51 

eluded "horizon plate" also contains scales of 

declination along the solstitial and equinoctial 

colures between the tropics. Al-Biruni does not 

comment on the use of this scale; but no doubt it 

was used to mark the declination of a point on 

the ecliptic. 

Altitudes 

The number of altitudes engraved on an astrolabe plate generally depends on the plate's dimensions. In al-Biruni's words, "A complete astrolabe is one that has ninety altitudes numbered .. . 1 to 90 from horizon to zenith. If the 

instrument is too small to contain all these, then 

only every second altitude (half-size) or third, or 

sixth, or tenth is marked (but not fifth, although 

this form should be made)."^^ All but three of the 

instruments in this collection contain plates with 

altitudes projected at every 2°, 3° or 6°. Astrolabes containing altitudes at every 5° are seemingly as rare as al-Biruni indicates. Only one 

maghribi (No. 3643) and one European (No. 186) 

instrument in the collection are so engraved. The 

diameters of plates carrying altitudes every 3° 

range from 220 mm to 135 mm; diameters of 

plates containing altitudes every 3° range from 

160 mm to 100 mm; diameters of plates containing altitudes every 6° range from 139 mm to 64 

mm. 

On Islamic instruments, altitudes are identified 

with abdjad^^ numbers, normally on both the left 

and right sides of the meridian' (see Figure 33). 

Hindu-Arabic numerals identify the altitude on 

European instruments, which, if they are marked 

at all, are marked both at left and right of the 

meridian line (see Figures 34 and 98). 

Twilight 

The moments of nightfall and dawn are occasions for Muslim prayer, and may be indicated 

on the plates of instruments inscribed with Arabic 

characters by the stereographic projection of the 

lower boundary of twilight (a circle parallel to 

and about 18° below the horizon). Only one 

Arabic instrument in the collection (No. 52) includes such a twilight line (engraved shafaq al-fajr) 

on its plates. However, plates on three European 

astrolabes (Nos. 262, 2005, and 2007) carry the 

FIGURE 33.—Astrolabe No. 65. Plates for 36° latitude (left) and multiple latitudes (right). 

Compare with Figures 32 and 34. 
52 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOG Y 

FIGURE 34.—Astrolabe No. 221. Plates for 49° (top) and 36° 

(bottom). Compare the lower plate with the plate for 36° in 

Figure 33. 

the plates of all but two of the astrolabes in the 

collection. These are distributed, in the overwhelming majority of cases, at intervals of 10°. 

The few exceptions contain azimuths projected 

at 5° (Nos. 25, 64, 187, 2007, and 2566), 6° (Nos. 

2569 and 3643), or 15° (Nos. 85, 304, 4000) 

intervals. Abdjad numbers identify azimuth lines 

on instruments inscribed in Arabic characters; 

Hindu-Arabic numerals, on European instruments. In every case the numbering begins at the 

intersection of prime vertical and horizon and 

continues to 90° at the intersection of solstitial 

colure and horizon. 

A set of astrolabe plates commonly includes a 

projection for latitude 66° (see Figure 35). The 

practice appears to be limited to instruments 

inscribed with Arabic characters (at least in this 

collection). That this face served to verify the 

celestial latitude and longitude of stars included 

in the "ankabUt is suggested by its typical identifying inscription: (safiha) mizan al- "ankabut (Nos. 85, 

86, 87 and 2569). The content of this face is 

generally limited to altitudes and azimuths (with 

major divisions identified by names of zodiacal 

signs). The inclusion of an "^ankabut plate apparently is not confined to a single Islamic maker or 

locale. The instruments in the collection associated with "Abd al-A^imma suggest that some 

makers preferred not to include a rete projection. 

Azimuth lines projected onto an astrolabe face 

generally occupy the area above the projected 

oblique horizon; but, as examples in this collection illustrate, some makers preferred to project 

only the portion below the horizon on some plates 

(see Nos. 15, 44, 57, 65, and 86). Some astrolabists 

projected all the azimuths that fit between the 

projected zenith and Tropic of Capricorn (see 

Nos. 47, 59, and 62). On many examples of plates, 

the prime vertical alone was projected above and 

below the horizon (Nos. 61, 66, 85, and 2569). 

twilight projection. In one case (No. 2007), the 

projection is marked Linea Aurorae sive crepusculinae. Unequal Hours 

Azimuths 

Projections of azimuths, or great circles passing 

through zenith and nadir points, are found on 

On the plates of all but one astrolabe in the 

collection, the projections of tropic and equator 

circles below the horizon are divided into 12 

equal parts by the so-called "seasonal" hour lines. 
NUMBER 45 53 

-^--//o, 

FIGURE 35.—Astrolabe No. 88. Plate for 66° latitude, used to verify celestial latitude and 

longitude of stars on the '^ankabHi. 

The set of plates without seasonal hour lines 

belongs to an instrument of questionable functionality inscribed with Arabic characters (No. 

2570). On European instruments, the unequal 

hours are generally marked by Hindu-Arabic 

numerals. On instruments in the collection inscribed with Naskhi characters, abdjad numbers 

mark the unequal hours; on two Naskhi examples 

(Nos. 25 and 40) these numbers are replaced by 

the ordinals from "first" to "twelfth": Al-Awwal, 

Ath-Thdni, Ath-Thdlith, Ar-Rabi'^, Al-Khdmis, AsSddis, As-Sdbi", Ath-Thdmin, At-Tdsi", Al-^Ashir, 

Al-Hddi, Ath-Thdni ^Ashar. The latter convention 

is more typical on maghribi instruments (specifically, four out of six in the collection). 

Astrolabe No. 2572 incorporates seasonal 

hours, which are identified according to astrological practice as being either male or female, 

and either animal, vegetable, or mineral (see p. 

175). 

Equal Hours 

Astrolabes in the collection that are of European or maghribi origin do not carry plates engraved with hours other than seasonal. Other 
54 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOG Y 

types of hours are projected on plates of the 

collection's instruments originating in the mashriq, in all but three cases. These supplementary 

hours are 1/24 of a day and are of equal duration 

throughout the year. In most examples in the 

collection they are counted from the western horizon {horae ab occasu or Italian hours); in one 

example. No. 2566, they are counted from the 

eastern horizon {horae ab ortu, or Babylonian 

hours); and in four examples (Nos. 54, 58, 87, 

and 88) they are counted from both eastern and 

western horizons. As Hartner^^ points out, an 

explanation for the preference for horae ab occasu 

can be found in the fact that the Muslim day 

begins at sunset. Except in cases where the same 

numbers identify both equal and unequal hours, 

the equal hours on instruments in the collection 

are identified by Hindu-Arabic numerals. On 

only one plate carrying hours counted from both 

horizons are those hours identified (No. 58); other 

double projections are uninscribed. 

Houses 

The astrological houses, a division of the ecliptic into six parts above and six parts below the 

horizon, are rarely projected onto the plates of 

instruments inscribed with Arabic characters. No. 

65 is the only one mashriqi instrument in the 

collection with such a projection (see Figure 33). 

On the other hand, four western instruments 

(Nos. 204, 221, 2005, 2007) include plates with 

house divisions. On the astrolabe from the mashriq, the houses are marked with the ordinals 

(starting at the eastern horizon and proceeding 

counterclockwise): Tdli", Thdni, Thdlith, Rdbi", 

Khdmis, Sddis, Sdbi"", Thdmin, Tdsi", "Ashir, Hddi 

"Ashar, and Thdni "Ashar. The houses on the European instruments are marked either with Roman numerals (Nos. 204, 2005) or with HinduArabic numerals (Nos. 221, 2007). 

The fact that houses are not normally engraved 

on instruments inscribed with Arabic characters 

is perhaps explained by the accepted Muslim 

procedure for determining house divisions as described by al-Biruni (using the rete and appropriate plate): 

To equalize the twelve houses, place the degree of the 

ascendant [the point of the ecliptic rising at the moment of 

birth] on the east horizon, the point of the ecliptic on the 

west horizon is the cusp [beginning boundary point] of the 

seventh house. Then look at the meridian, what has arrived 

there is the sign and cusp of the tenth house To determine the cusps of the other houses, turn the rete inversely so 

that the degree of the ascendant comes under the horizon, 

and is placed on the line indicating the beginning of the 

eleventh unequal hour, i.e., through two temporal 

hours . . . then look at the meridian line to see what sign is 

there and what degree; it will be the cusp of the ninth house 

and its degree, the nadir of which is the cusp of the third. 

Then move the rete .. . so that the degree of the ascendant 

rests on the beginning of the ninth hour. 

Such a systematic use of unequal hour lines makes 

the projection of house divisions unnecessary. 

Prayers 

Plates contained in each of the maghribi instruments in the collection carry lines that mark 

four times of Muslim daily prayer. Although these 

are day times, the lines seldom interrupt the 

altitude circles. Generally they are distributed 

between the projected unequal hours, within the 

second, eighth, tenth, and eleventh. Placed as 

they are, it is thus the intersection of the nadir 

point of the sun with these lines that marks the 

prayer times in the morning, at midday, in the 

afternoon, and at evening. The lines (from right 

to left) are inscribed Khatt Ash-Shafaq (morning 

prayer), Khatt Az-Zuhr (midday prayer), Khatt Al-

'^Asr (afternoon prayer), and Khatt Al-Fajr (evening prayer). In the light of the evidence presented by the collection, it seems that Hartner's 

statement^^ that "most Islamic astrolabes" have 

prayer lines should be revised to refer to "most 

maghribi astrolabes." 

Latitude and Length of Daylight 

The differences between networks of lines projected on the faces of a set of astrolabe plates are 

important, to be sure, but subtle enough to require distinguishing inscriptions. On every functional plate face, an inscription somewhere along 

the meridian, below the horizon, identifies the 

latitude for which the projection applies. On most 

instruments inscribed with Arabic characters this 
NUMBER 45 55 

inscribed latitude {"Ard) is accompanied by an 

associated length of daylight {sd^dtuhu). These 

associations of latitude with length of daylight 

were presumably taken from tables that had been 

a part of the geographic literature since Ptolemy. 

Two distinguishable methods are represented by 

astrolabes in the collection (see Table 15). The 

first (A) is represented by a majority of the examples, including the four instruments signed by 

•^Abd al-A^Imma. It is based on the assumption 

that the obliquity of the ecliptic is 23.59°. The 

second (B) follows the convention of incrementing 

the length of daylight by four minutes of time for 

every increase of a degree of latitude. One very 

early (No. 4) and two relatively late (Nos. 52, 53) 

astrolabes in the collection follow the latter. 

Most Eastern instruments contain plates only 

for integral degrees of latitude. One exception 

(No. 88) has a plate face for latitude 21°40' (= 

Mecca) and a plate face for 31°50' (= Lahore). A 

second exception (No. 42) has a plate face for 

29°26' (=^ Shiraz 29°36') and a plate face for 

32°20' {^ Isfahan 32°35'). Both No. 37 and No. 

64 have plate faces marked 38°05', corresponding 

most closely to the latitude of two towns on the 

gazetteers of these instruments: Tabriz (38°00') 

and Ardabil (38°00'). No. 64 also has a plate face 

marked latitude 42°08'; there is no equivalent 

latitude on its gazetteer. 

TABLE 15.—Length of daylight associated with latitude via 

two distinct traditions 

Latitude 

(°N) 

30 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 

37 

38 

39 

40 

Tradi 

Hours 

13 

14 

14 

14 

14 

14 

Length of 

tion A 

Minutes 

57 

7 

17 

28 

39 

52 

daylight 

Tradit 

Hours 

14 

14 

14 

14 

14 

14 

ion 

M 

B 

inutes 

8 

16 

24 

32 

40 

Latitudes engraved on maghribi and European 

instruments are not generally associated with 

lengths of daylight. Maghribi instruments in the 

collection tend to include plate faces for latitudes 

21°40'(or2r30'),31°30',and33°40'(or33°30'). 

Plate faces on the European instruments in the 

collection are limited to integral degrees except 

for the plate engraved 43°30' (= southern 

France?) on No. 221. 

ENGRAVING STYLE 

The networks projected onto an astrolabe plate 

face are generally made of continuous engraved 

lines, blackened for emphasis. Notched, dotted, 

or jagged lines may appear on maghribi instruments (see Nos. 186, 2571, 3643, 4001). The latter 

technique is used to emphasize prayer lines, prime 

vertical, and certain altitudes (the third, fifth [or 

sixth], tenth, or twentieth). Dotted lines are occasionally incorporated into the networks engraved on plates of European instruments (see 

Nos. 221 and 262). These emphasize every fifth 

altitude or (in one case) the equal hours. The 

unequal hours on plates belonging to instruments 

made in the mashriq are often marked with dotted lines (Nos. 4, 15, 55, 57, 58, 59, 62, 64, 85, 86, 

2566, 2569, 3811, and 4000), very likely to distinguish them from seasonal hours also projected 

below the horizon. On some plates of Eastern 

origin, dotted lines also distinguish some azimuths 

(at least the prime vertical) and altitudes (including the oblique horizon). On the basis of the 

evidence in the collection, it is not possible to 

attribute the use of dotted lines to any motivation 

other than the whim of the maker. None of the 

instruments made or decorated by "^Abd alA^imma incorporate dotted or otherwise interrupted lines. 

Rete 

As instruments in the collection illustrate, functional astrolabe retes invariably incorporate a 

stereographic projection of the ecliptic circle. This 

element of the design is usually defined by the 

beveled outer edge of a circular band attached 
56 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

by thin struts to a flat ring surrounding the 

projection of the celestial poles. The beveled edge 

of the ecliptic band is most often divided into 

degrees; the band itself usually is divided into 36 

subdivisions of 10° of the 12 zodiacal signs. On 

astrolabes made in Europe and the mashriq, the 

zodiacal signs are invariably identified by name; 

the familiar symbols appear on some maghribi 

examples. Numerals identify each subdivision as 

being 10°, 20°, or 30° of a sign. 

When a properly divided ecliptic circle is rotated about the projection of the celestial poles, 

the degree of celestial longitude corresponding to 

solar position on any given day traces the apparent path of the sun. The implications of this fact 

become apparent when the uses of the astrolabe 

are detailed. 

Instructions for properly dividing the stereographically projected ecliptic circle are supplied 

perhaps for the first time, in Ptolemy's essay on 

the planisphaerium.^^ Ptolemy uses radii corresponding to the right ascension of the end points 

of each zodiacal division to achieve his goal. 

Emmanuel Poulle describes five other popular 

division methods, each with its own history in the 

literature^^ (see Appendix III). 

On every astrolabe inscribed with Arabic characters and on two European astrolabes (Nos. 186 

and 204) there is a projection on the ecliptic 

(called a muri in Arabic) at the beginning of 

Capricorn (see Figure 9). It is used to indicate 

positions on the rim scale when the rete is rotated. 

The bands that attach the ecliptic circle to the 

ring around the projection of the celestial pole 

generally follow the projection of the equinoctial 

colure. The best makers incorporated counterchanges into these bands so that the exact position 

of the projection of the equinoctial colure could 

be seen readily. A lack of equinoctial colure bands 

may, but need not, identify a non-functional 

rete. Certainly four suspect retes in the collection 

(Nos. 49, 64, 66, and 86), all of which lack these 

bands, support this suggestion. On the other 

hand, curving vines without equinoctial colure 

bands connect the ecliptic to the celestial poles 

on two well-made retes from the mashriq (Nos. 

54 and 55), both dating from the eighteenth 

century. One could conclude on the basis of 

examples here studied that only very good or very 

bad rete makers eliminated the connecting equinoctial colure bands. 

The astrolabe as a timekeeper is distinguished 

from its near relative, the sundial, by the fact that 

its usefulness can be extended beyond sunset. 

This advantage is achieved through the incorporation of the stereographic projections of selected 

stars into the rete design. As these projected stars 

rotate about the projection of the celestial pole, 

they duplicate the apparent motion of their counterparts in the heavens. If they are sufficiently 

well distributed, the projected stars can thus serve 

as adequate markers of the passage of night time. 

Rete makers positioned star pointers using coordinates supplied by tables of fixed stars. The 

Arab astronomer as-Sufi (A.D. 903-936) effectively published such a list when he designated 

37 stars in his "Treatise on the Fixed Stars" (A.D. 

964) as "astrolabe stars." European works on the 

construction and use of the astrolabe tend to 

include a tabula stellarum fixarum.^^ Most of these 

tabulae give the name of the star, the coeli mediationem (or the point on the ecliptic having the same 

right ascension as the named star), and the declination of the star. All editions of Johannes Stoffler's Elucidatio Fabrica include, besides the typical 

table of mediations and declinations, a table of 

stars along with their celestial latitude and longitude. A maker could plot these latter stars using 

the same procedure he employed in engraving an 

astrolabe plate for latitude 66°. Poulle^® describes 

how makers utilized various parameters (including latitude and longitude) to position stars. 

The list of stars projected onto the retes of most 

instruments (over 30 mashriqi and maghribi) in 

the collection would have to include (1) a Tauri, 

(2) ^ Ononis, (3) a Ononis, (4) a Canis Majoris, 

(5) a Canis Minoris, (6) a Hydrae, (7) a Virginis, 

(8) a Bootes, (9) a Corona Borealis, (10) a Ophiuchi, (11) a Lyrae, (12) a Aquilae, and (13) a 

Cygni (see Figure 9). The first seven of these 

"most popular" stars lie south of (outside) the 

ecliptic between Aries and Libra, the last six lie 

north of (inside) the ecliptic between Libra and 

Pisces. All of the "popular" stars are included in 
NUMBER 45 57 

al-Sufi's list. About 36 other recognizable stars 

appear with varying frequency on retes in the 

collection (see Appendix II). No obvious single 

quality characterizes all of them. Most are either 

quite bright or are located in well-defined positions within a constellation figure (at the corners 

of a box, at the vertices of a triangle, at the 

beginning or end of a line). 

The point projections of stars appear on each 

rete as the tips of leaves or flames or daggers. 

Since none of these could spring from the outer 

edge of the ecliptic band without detracting from 

its usefulness as a timekeeper, additional supporting strapwork had to be included in each rete 

design. Every rete in the collection contains an 

almost complete Capricorn circle in the supporting strapwork. This circle is tied to the ecliptic 

circle by projected equinoctial colure bands (usually counterchanged) and, generally, also by thin 

curved ties near Pisces 0° and Scorpio 0°. No 

other elements of rete strapwork are common to 

all examples in the collection. 

Inside the Capricorn circle, the pattern of supporting strapwork forming an astrolabe rete tends 

to identify its maker (see, for example, Nos. 40, 

37, and 39). Certain components of the generally 

individualistic designs are, however, shared by 

more than one maker. In a majority of examples, 

makers have incorporated some portion of the 

stereographic projection of the celestial equator 

into the pattern of rete strapwork. A second strapwork component shared by a majority of examples is some portion of the stereographic projection of the solstitial colure or meridian circle. 

Retes that do not include either of these elements 

generally consist of arabesque or baroque openwork, or of combinations of non-astronomical 

circular arcs. 

On the back of some astrolabe retes, there can 

be seen the remains of engraved lines and circles. 

These undoubtedly evidence steps in the construction process. The guidelines usually consist 

of stereographically projected colures, tropics, 

and equinox. Occasionally the remains of a divided ecliptic may be detected (see, e.g.. No. 62 

in Figure 36). 

The astrolabe rete is used in combination with 

one of the plates to represent a given configuration of the heavens with respect to the horizon. 

The representation may in turn be interpreted as 

an indication of the time of day or night or as an 

indication of an individual's horoscope. 

According to Masha^allah: 

If you wish to know the hour at night, take the altitude of 

any star marked on the alhanthabuth [rete] . . . ; place the 

cacumen [tip of the star pointer] of the star on . . . its altitude 

[on the plate], and the degree of the sun [on the ecliptic] will 

show you the hour of the night.^ 

According to al-Biruni: 

To determine the ascendant from [a measured solar] altitude, select the disc [plate] constructed for the place of 

observation (or as nearly as possible), place it uppermost, 

and fit the rete over it. Then find and mark the muqanlara 

[projected altitude circle] which has the same number (or 

nearly the same number) as the [measured solar] altitude. 

Thereafter ascertain from a [zodiacal] calendar the exact 

place [longitude] of the sun at that time, and mark that 

point on the corresponding sign of the zodiac [ecliptic] on 

the rete. Then rotate the rete until the degree in question is 

over the muqanlara already marked, and note what sign and 

what degree thereof coincides with the eastern horizon. This 

is the ascendant.^°° 

Accessories 

Alidade Scales 

Position: The scales extend along the left arm 

with beveled edge at top and along the right arm 

with beveled edge at top (see Figure 8). 

Units: The only divisions on the left arm generally correspond to the major divisions of the 

declination scale engraved on the back of the 

astrolabe; i.e., the arcs representing solar declination at the time it enters each zodiacal sign, 

inscribed with names of zodiacal signs (left arm 

at bottom in Figure 8). The beveled edge of the 

right arm normally contains a length equal to 

and coterminal with the radius of the upper left 

quadrant on the back of the astrolabe. This length 

is divided into 60 equal parts, with every fifth 

division extending onto the upper half of the flat 

surface of the alidade and inscribed with a numeral (Figure 8). The lower half of the right arm 

of the alidade in most cases contains five unequal 

divisions extending from the right sighting plate 
# 

r -^'Z I. 

C" 9 

^^;0:^.-

/•> -

Tk 

- -i 

FIGURE 36.—Astrolabe No. 62. Traces of construction guidelines are visible on the back 

of the '^ankabul (upper left). 
NUMBER 45 59 

to the center and corresponding to the length of 

the shadow of the sighting plate as it falls on the 

alidade at the seasonal hours of the day, inscribed 

with numerals (Figure 8). 

Use: The left arm of the alidade essentially 

functions as a moveable equivalent of the names 

of zodiacal signs inscribed along the 0° radius of 

the astrolabe back. The inscription identifies the 

declination arcs upon which prayer lines and 

Qibla azimuths are engraved. By repeating these 

identifiers on the alidade, the astrolabist has 

made easier the interpretation of the lines engraved in the area between the 0° radius and the 

45° radius. The equally divided scale along the 

upper right arm of the alidade can be used to 

measure sine lengths along the 90° radius of the 

back of the astrolabe (and cosine lengths along 

the 180° radius). For that matter, the scale can 

be used to measure the distance along any quadrant radius. 

The scale of unequal divisions engraved on the 

lower right arm represents a time-keeping technique known from Graeco-Roman antiquity. The 

presence of such a scale identifies the astrolabe as 

a portable sundial, equivalent in design and utility to five ancient portable dials found near Bratislava, near Cret-Chatelard, at Rome, Memphis, 

and Aphrodisias. In order for the dial to mark 

the seasonal hours for any day at any given 

latitude of position, the alidade must be suspended so that it lies in the meridian plane, so 

that it is inclined to the vertical by an angle equal 

to the altitude of the noon sun at the given 

latitude on the day in question, and so that the 

shadow of the right sighting plate falls on the 

sundial scale. The second contingency can easily 

be satisfied by making use of the plates of the 

astrolabe (see page 56). If there is no plate for a 

given latitude, the dial can still be used to approximate the seasonal hours by setting the alidade so it is inclined to the vertical at an angle 

equal to the latitude. 

According to Masha^allah: 

If you wish to know the natural [seasonal] hour of the day 

by the horary alidade, set the alidade on the [sun's] altitude 

at midday on the back of the astrolabe suspended, turn the 

back to the sun until the shadow of each corner of the upper 

pinnule falls on the alidade anywhere in line with its side. 

Then the division on which it falls will be the desired hour.^ 

Remarks: Without exception, the alidades on 

European astrolabes in the collection are counterchanged about the center. Only one astrolabe 

of non-European origin in the collection (No. 55) 

has a counterchanged alidade. All other non-European alidades in the collection are not counterchanged. 

The scales described above appear on the alidades of about half the non-European astrolabes 

in the collection. The remaining non-European 

alidades in the collection are uninscribed. None 

of the scales described above appear on European 

astrolabes in the collection. Five of these European alidades are blank. One (No. 2007) is inscribed with a maker's name. On one (No. 204) 

the words Linea Fiducie and Alhidada have been 

inscribed. The alidade accompanying the astrolabe incorporating a de Roias projection (No. 

2005) has been inscribed with two scales: one is 

a scale of equal divisions to be used with a plate 

to convert equal to unequal hours; the other 

represents the stereographic projection of the 5° 

and 10° points between the equator and the 

North Pole of a sphere of radius equal to the 

radius of the Capricorn circle on the plate. 

Index Scales 

Position: The scales extend along the beveled 

edge. 

Units: These scales are marked at twelfths of 

the radius of the front central area (numbered), 

or 5° (unnumbered) and 10° (numbered) units 

of declination (No. 262). 

Use: See the section on "Alidade Scales," the 

discussion of the upper right arm (see above). The 

divisions of this scale coincide with stereographically projected parallels of declination. Thus, the 

scale may be used to measure the declination of 

the sun or any star on the astrolabe rete. Blank 

index arms may conveniently be used in combination with rim scales to determine the equal 

hour. 

Remarks: Only nine astrolabes in the collection are equipped with an index arm. Four of 
60 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

these are radial. Five are complete. The index 

arms on five astrolabes (Nos. 31, 186, 221, 304, 

and 2007) are blank. The complete index arm on 

a non-European astrolabe made in A.D. 1783 (No. 

55) carries no scale but is decorated with vines 

and flowers on a stippled background. The complete index arm on the European astrolabe signed 

"I. Galois" (No. 204) carries no scale but is inscribed Linea Fiducie on each arm. The scale (see 

above) on the radial index arm of the Hartman 

astrolabe (No. 262) is identified with the inscription, Lati: Meridio : Latitvdo Septrionalis. The scale 

on the complete index arm of the astrolabe signed 

Sadiq (No. 52) is untitled. 
Catalog of the Collection 

Each of the 52 astrolabes described in the 

following catalog is identified by the number 

assigned to it in A Computerized Checklist of Astrolabes compiled by Sharon Gibbs, Janice Henderson, and Derek Price and published by the Department of History of Science and Medicine at 

Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut, in 

1973. The Checklist is referenced in the catalog as 

CCA. The numbers assigned by Gibbs, Henderson, and Price preserve numbers assigned to almost 400 astrolabes by R.T. Gunther (1932) in 

his Astrolabes of the World. These numbers are 

correlated with Catalog Numbers of the National 

Museum of American History and the S.V. Hoffman collection in Table 16. 

The date given for each astrolabe, unless it is 

preceded by the qualifier "ca.," is exactly what 

appears inscribed on the instrument. When the 

inscribed date refers to a calendar other than the 

Julian or Gregorian (e.g., the Hegiral calendar), 

it is followed by brackets enclosing the Julian or 

Gregorian equivalent. Signed but undated astrolabes have been assigned to the middle of the 

maker's productive period. In the absence of any 

inscriptions, the astrolabe's date has been estimated from the celestial longitudes of the stars in 

its rete or from the date of the vernal equinox 

indicated on its calendar scale. The "Signature" 

section has been reserved for the name of the 

maker or decorator. 

Translations of inscriptions that were contributed by George Saliba have been identified with 

the symbol "GS." The catalog entries include 

mention of all inscription occurring on each astrolabe. The names of cities and geographic parameters inscribed in the front body of an astrolabe are reported in tabular form in Appendix I. 

Similarly, star names appearing on an astrolabe 

star map or rete are tabulated in Appendix II. 

Unless otherwise indicated, the reader may 

assume that there are no engraved details or other 

TABLE 16.—Cross references to numbers identifying 

astrolabes (CCA = number assigned in A Computerized 

Checklist of Astrolabes, Gibbs, Henderson and Price [1973]; 

NMAH = catalog number assigned by the National 

Museum of American History; H = Number assigned by 

Samuel Verplanck Hoffman) 

CCA 

4 

15 

25 

31 

37 

39 

40 

42 

44 

47 

49 

52 

53 

54 

55 

57 

58 

59 

61 

62 

63 

64 

65 

66 

70 

85 

NMAH 

322458 

336113 

336112 

316767 

333589 

336114 

316761 

322460 

316763 

316764 

333586 

316765 

316766 

333590 

322461 

333587 

322459 

336090 

316768 

316769 

215454.34 

336116 

322327 

316762 

316755 

316750 

H 

28 

13 

12 

39 

20 

16 

18 

37 

26 

6 

8 

24 

27 

30 

31 

10 

11 

14 

7 

22 

25 

23 

32 

21 

4 

38 

CCA 

86 

87 

88 

144 

186 

204 

221 

262 

304 

2005 

2006 

2007 

2566 

2567 

2568 

2569 

2570 

2571 

2572 

3643 

3811 

4000 

4001 

4002 

4003 

4004 

NMAH 

316754 

336115 

322464 

322463 

316757 

316760 

316759 

336117 

316758 

316756 

318198 

322083 

333588 

316770 

316751 

94624-l-A 

315064 

316752 

318178 

316753 

215454.33 

330778 

330779 

333932 

333933 

79.852.01 

H 

29 

19 

5 

2 

33J 

35 

34 

33 

36 

40 

15 

17 

41 

1 

9 

original marks on the edge of the astrolabe. The 

two sides of a given astrolabe plate have been 

designated side "a" and side "b " (e.g., 6a and 

6b). 

All of the astrolabes described in this catalog, 

including those no longer in the National Museum of American History (CCA Nos. 4, 42, 55, 

58, 65, 88, and 144), have been examined by the 

author. 

61 
62 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOG Y 

FIGURE 37.—Astrolabe No. 4. Front view. 

CCA No. 4 

FIGURES 31, 37, 38 

Date: A.H. 547 [1152]. 

Signature: Hamid ben Mahmud al-Isfahani. 

Components: Body with throne (rim with 

throne riveted to backplate with throne), handle, 

ring, three plates, rete, alidade, pin, ringlet, and 

wedge. 

Diameter: 134 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: The pierced throne is a Moorish arch formed by intertwining vines. The handle 

is ring-shaped. The ring itself has no visible join. 

Two concentric circular scales divide the rim into 

1° and 5° intervals. Inscription on the latter 

identifies it as a 360° scale. The first subdivision 

is marked with an abdjad "5; " the last, "60." Eight 

concentric bands engraved in the front central 

area suggest that a gazetteer was planned, but 

never completed. The back margin is divided into 

altitude scales in the upper sections and a cotangent scale in the lower right section. The lower 

left margin has been reserved for the maker's 

signature. The two upper quadrants contain a set 

of six equally spaced declination arcs crossed by 

four prayer lines, two {khatt awwal waqt az-zuhr 

and khatt awwal waqt al-^asj) each for latitudes 

36° and 32°25' (?Isfahan). The two lower quadrants contain five semicircular astrological scales: 

zodiacal signs, planetary governors of terms, 

terms, planetary governors of faces, and face degrees. Five symbols identify the planetary governors of the terms: a Roman Z with horizontal 

slash is Jupiter, a vertical arrow with a ball at its 

tip is Venus; a vertical line topped by a ball 

topped by a Roman U is Mercury; a vertical 

arrow intersecting a ball is Mars; an unmodified 

Roman Z is Saturn. 

Three notched plates fit into the recessed area 

in the front of the astrolabe. Of the six plate faces, 

only one (3a) carries the complete standard network (of colures, equator, tropics, horizon, altitudes, azimuths, and seasonal hours) and it is 

supplemented by a projection of equal Italian 

hours and a projection of Muslim prayer lines. 

No azimuth lines are included in the networks of 

four of the remaining plate faces; two faces that 

lack azimuth lines do have lines for the equal 

Italian hours. Altitudes have been projected at 3° 

intervals. The identifying inscription on each face 

specifies latitude and length of daylight as follows: 

Plate 

lb 

2a 

2b 

3a 

3b 

Latitude 

'^ard 31 

"ard 30 

"ard 34 

"^ard 32 

'^ ard 36 

Length of daylight 

sa^atuhu 14 03 

sa'^atuhu 14 

sa^atuhu 14 19 

sa^atuhu 14 08 

sd'^atuhu 14 30 

The sixth plate face contains four obliquity 

scales and 16 quarter horizons for latitudes 15°, 

16°, 17°, 18°, 25°, 26°, 27°, 28°, 35°, 36°, 37°, 

38°, 45°, 46°, 47°, and 48°. 

The rete is inscribed with the names of 27 

stars. Its design is severely simple, incorporating 
NUMBER 45 63 

FIGURE 38.—Astrolabe No. 4. Back view. 

a non-counterchanged east-west bar and an 

equinoctial arc. The ecliptic band is subdivided 

into units of 6°. The star-pointers are daggerlike. The uninscribed alidade is not counterchanged. It includes a beveled fiducial edge and 

two sighting plates (separated by a distance of 

77 mm), each pierced with a single large hole. 

The pin is a bolt with a flattened head and a 

doorknob-shaped tip. The wedge is a horse's 

head, and it includes appropriate engraved 

details. 

The lettering on this instrument is Kufic of 

the eastern type, and it is consistent throughout. 

Remarks: No other astrolabe by Hamid is 

known. Plate 3a is notably more elaborate than 

the other plate faces. Plates 1 and 3 have each 

been pierced with two holes near the perimeter 

at about 54° and 124° The obliquity scale on 
64 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

plate face la is inconsistently inscribed. The 

segment at 90° is the only one inscribed in 

standard fashion. 

CCA No. 15 

(FIGURE 39) 

Date: A.H. 774 [1372]. 

Signature: sana'^ahu Ja'^far ben "Umar ben 

Daulatshah al-Kirmani. 

Components: Body with throne, three plates, 

rete, alidade, pin, ringlet, and wedge. 

Diameter: 73 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: The uninscribed throne is in 

the shape of a Moorish arch. It is pierced by two 

small holes placed symmetrically on either side 

of the handle hole. The rim is divided into 360° 

with the first unit marked with an abdjad "5, " 

the last, "60." A gazetteer containing 21 place 

names, each associated with longitude, latitude, 

and distance from Mecca, is engraved in the 

front central area. Twenty of the place names 

and parameters are engraved on spiral arms; 

one name (Mecca) is engraved in the center of 

the table. 

The margins of the back of this instrument 

contain altitude scales in the upper portion and 

cotangent scales (fingers left, feet right) in the 

lower portion. The upper left quadrant is 

divided by sine lines for each degree. The upper 

right quadrant contains, in addition to the 

signature, a shadow square divided into fingers 

and a box scale of triplicities inscribed: 

J... I II jL^-:-Jl o l |-.o II 

This translates as follows: "[The Table of| 

Triplicities [with the Planetary Lords of] Day 

[and] Night" (GS). 

The two lower quadrants contain six 

semicircular astrological scales (signs, planetary 

governors of terms, terms, planetary governors 

of faces, planetary governors of decanates, 

degrees of decanates). 

Except for the horizon face, all of the plate 

faces are engraved with projections of horizon, 

FIGURE 39.—Astrolabe No. 15. Gazetteer. 

altitudes, and unequal hours. One plate face 

contains in addition projections of azimuths; 

two faces also contain equal Italian hours; and 

one face contains additional projections of both 

azimuth and equal Italian hours. The plate face 

which contains only horizon, altitudes, and 

unequal hours contains these projections for two 

distinct latitudes. The following engraved 

latitudes and lengths of daylight locate each 

projection: 

Plate 

la 

lb 

2a 

2b 

3a 

Latitude 

^ard 32 

"ard 30 

^ard 36 

^ard 38 

"ard 28 

"ard 34 

Length of daylight 

sd^atuhu 14 08 

sa'^aluhu 13 58 

sd^dtuhu 14 30 

sd'^atuhu 14 48 

sd^atuhu 13 08 

sd'^atuhu 14 19 

The horizon plate face contains 21 quarter 

horizons for every 6° of latitude from 12° to 

84°. Each horizon is identified by inscription. In 

addition, the curious phrase al-bum [.^] 146 
NUMBER 45 •65 

appears in the lower left quadrant of this plate 

face, the phrase al-bum [?] 114 appears in the 

lower right quadrant, and al-bum [?] 72 in the 

upper right quadrant. 

The rete incorporates 19 dagger- or sickleshaped star pointers, each inscribed with a star 

name. The ecliptic is divided into 5° units. The 

plain alidade has a beveled fiducial edge, 

diagonal ends, and a central Moorish arch. It is 

not counterchanged. The sighting plates are 

each pierced with two equal holes, one above 

the other. A plane ringlet fits over the pin. The 

latter has a hemispherical head and doorknobshaped tip. The wedge is a horse's head, 

complete with engraved eye and mouth. 

The alphabet employed by the maker is 

Arabic, Kufic throughout. 

Remarks: Other astrolabes signed by Ja^far 

ben "^Umar include CCA Number 16, Indian 

Museum, Calcutta (dated 790 [1388]); CCA 

Number 1205, private collection (dated 755 

[1354]); and CCA Number 3660, private 

collection (dated 751 [1350]). This instrument is 

incomplete. It has no handle or ring. The simple 

alidade may be a replacement. Ja^far ben 

"^Umar's gazetteer is arranged in order of 

increasing longitude beginning with Baghdad 

just to the left of 90° and reading 

counterclockwise. No other gazetteer in the 

collection is ordered in this way. Except for the 

table of triplicities, none of the astrological 

tables are titled. 

CCA No. 25 

(FIGURES 21, 22,40) 

Date: A.H. 1078 [1667]. 

Signature: namaqahu Muhammad Mahdi 

ben Muhammad Amin al-Yazdi. 

Components: Body, handle, five plates, rete, 

alidade, pin, and wedge. 

Diameter: 114 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: The throne is shaped like a 

Moorish arch. It is decorated front and back 

with embossed vines and flowers. In addition, 

on the front, two embossed birds face a central 

cartouche in which is inscribed the opening 

words of the quotation from the Koran which 

includes the word "throne." 

( ^ . 2 I 9 Cl< I na m 11 rt _ I •" > ^ f^^"^ 

The translation is, "His throne holds the 

Heavens and the earth" (GS). Above this is a 

second inscription which reads: 

This translates, "He is the most exalted" (GS). 

At the base of the throne, on the right, the 

words 

"O! You who lifts" (GS) appear; on the left is 

the word 

"the Heavens" (GS). There is considerable 

inscription on the back of the throne. It is 

framed at left, top, and right by the three words 

mashriq, hut, and maghrib, respectively. In 

addition to these words, there are inscribed the 

names of 23 places arranged as follows 

(beginning at the lower left and proceeding in a 

clockwise direction): Bejeh, Shahr{?), Habashah, 

Mahdiyyah, Darnalar, Belzar{?), Tabariyyah, 

Tardblus, Halab, Amid, Arz Al Rum, Damdam{?), 

Shamakh, Tdliqdn, Bistdm, Tun, Hims, Qpm, Istdneh, 

Ajmer{?), Sumiyan{?), and Najd{?). A shallow 

circular depression 15.5 mm in diameter has 

been cut into the center of this back face of the 

throne. The rim of the astrolabe is divided by a 

scale of 360°. Subdivisions of 5° are identified 

by abdjad numbers from 5 to 360. In the front 

central area has been engraved a gazetteer 

listing 46 places, along with the longitude, 

latitude, azimuth of the Qibla, and direction of 

the azimuth of the Qibla of each. 

On the back of the astrolabe, the upper 

margin has been divided into two altitude 

scales. The lower margin contains cotangent 

scales divided into feet (lower left) and fingers 

(lower right). At the lowest point in the margin, 

the following phrase has been engraved: 
66 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOG Y 

FIGURE 40.—Astrolabe No. 25. Front view. 

C--«^ J-i^J J'^J^ 

Translated this reads: "The familiar year you 

seek is manifest, 1078 is its date" (GS). 

Stereographically-projected declination arcs 

divide the upper right quadrant. Some of these 

arcs are defined by dotted lines. Lines 

representing the altitude of the noon sun have 

been graphed onto the upper left portion of 

these declination arcs. The graphed lines are 

identified with numbers that represent every 3° 

of latitude from 24° to 48°. The inscription 

relating to this graph outside the outermost 

declination arc is transcribed and translated in 

the description of CCA No. 59. In the lower 

right portion of this quadrant, the altitudes of 

the sun when it crosses the azimuth of the Qibla 

at various times of the year have been graphed. 

There is one graphed line identified with Tus 

(lowest line), Yazd, Isfahan, Hamadan, 
NUMBER 45 67 

Baghdad, and Shiraz. The inscription relating 

to the graph inside the innermost declination 

arc is transcribed and translated in the 

description of CCA No. 49. Sine lines for every 

degree have been engraved in the upper right 

quadrant. In this same quadrant, six identified 

equal hours have been graphed. 

Shadow squares divided into feet (left) and 

fingers (right) occupy the lower quadrants of the 

back of this astrolabe. The area framed by these 

squares has been divided into a rectangular table 

of triplicities. The natures are identified with 

Arabic terminology. The maker's signature appears in a cartouche below the shadow square. 

The area between the shadow squares and the 

marginal cotangent scales contains five semicircular astrological scales: 1) the planetary governors of the terms, 2) the terms, 3) the zodiacal 

signs, 4) the planetary governors of the faces, and 

5) the lunar mansions. 

Each of the five plates is notched at 270°. One 

plate face contains 29 stereographically projected 

quarter horizons, one for every two degrees of 

latitude from 10° to 64°. There are, in addition, 

four obliquity scales at the ends of the stereographically projected colures. All the remaining 

plate faces contain stereographically projected 

horizon coordinates for individual latitudes: altitudes (every 3°) and azimuths (every 10°). Eight 

plate faces contain, in addition to these coordinates, projections of seasonal hour lines. (These 

are omitted from plate face 3a). On plate faces 

3b and 4b, the seasonal hours are identified with 

the ordinal numbers in Persian. These two faces 

contain, in addition to seasonal hours, the equal 

Italian hours. One plate face (4a) contains a 

projected twilight line. This last is identified with 

Persian phrases at left and right. Except for the 

horizon face (5b) and plate face 3a, the plate 

faces are each identified with a latitude and 

length of daylight as follows: 

Plate 

la 

lb 

2a 

2b 

3b 

Latitude 

"ari 32 00 

^ard 22 00 

^ard 30 00 

^ard 35 00 

"ard 36 00 

Length of daylight 

sa'^atuhu 14 06 

sa'^atuhu 13 22 

sd'^dtuhu 13 58 

sd^dtuhu 14 24 

sd^dtuhu 14 28 

4a 

4b 

5a 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

34 00 

37 00 

40 00 

sd"atuhu 

sd"dtuhu 

sd"atuhu 

14 17 

14 32 

14 52 

Five lines on plate 4b are inscribed as follows: 

Samt Qiblat Lar (at 135°), Massisjyah (at 115°), 

Lahijan (at 80°), Qpm (at 75°), and Barfurush (at 

70°). 

The rete of this astrolabe is quite simple. It 

consists only of a counterchanged equinoctial bar 

and a section of the stereographically-projected 

equator, in addition to the usual ecliptic and 

Capricorn circles. The latter is decorated with 

Persian inscriptions. 

* L ll ^ Jj^k v>° 

^J>^ ^Sjj ^ &s 

AJ-J* ,L» u^. J »"'•••„. ..J ^ I ji > liL, . 

This may be translated as follows: "O! You Who 

set the zodiac in the heaven. The count includes 

the throne and the zodiac, that according to some 

is in nine layers. The fixed stars are one thousand 

and twenty-four, and each has its own place in 

the throne" (GS). The ecliptic is subdivided into 

units of 3°. There are 22 inscribed star pointers. 

Engraved lines divide the ecliptic on the back of 

the rete. 

The alidade is not counterchanged. It is decorated with vines embossed on a stippled background. The left arm is divided by a sundial scale. 

The right arm is divided by two scales: one a 

scale of 60 equal units; the other composed of 

arcs of stereographically projected declination circles. Two lines of Persian inscription decorate 

the center of the alidade. Two holes pierce the 

sighting plates. The pin is a bolt with a hemispherical cap and a doorknob tip. The wedge is 

in the shape of and is decorated with the details 

of a horse's head. 

The maker employs Arabic Naskhi script 

throughout. 

Remarks: This is one of the most elaborate of 

the Persian astrolabes in the collection. The decoration on the front face of the throne is most 
68 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

unusual. At first glance it appears to consist 

entirely of embossed vines and flowers, but closer 

study reveals the two facing birds. In addition, 

above these birds, two "eyes" can be seen to look 

out under a furrowed "brow." The inscription 

which appears on the back of the throne is not 

typical of that found on most Persian astrolabes. 

Its geographic emphasis supports the notion that 

the shallow depression once held a magnetic compass. The word hut is probably a mistake for janubi 

(or "south"). 

In general, abdjad numbers are used to identify 

projected or dividing lines, but Hindu-Arabic 

numbers identify the unequal hours scale on the 

back of the instrument and the unequal hours on 

some plates. Some lines on the back of the astrolabe are dotted for emphasis. 

The places in the gazetteer are arranged in a 

pattern similar to that adopted by makers of 

other astrolabes in the collection (see, e.g.. No. 

65.) 

The collection includes another, less elaborate 

astrolabe signed by Muhammad Mahdi, No. 44. 

CCA No. 31 

(FIGURE 41) 

Date: Ca. A.D. 1715. 

Signature: sana''ahu Muhammad Amin ben 

Muhammad Tahir (maker) namaqahu "^Abd alA^imma (decorator). 

Components: Body with throne, handle, ring, 

five plates, rete, alidade, pin, wedge, and index 

arm. 

Diameter: 74 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: The throne is a broad, symmetric Moorish arch pierced with two holes. It is 

decorated front and back with embossed vines 

and a central flower. The stirrup-shaped handle 

includes a decorative design above the axle. The 

ring has a circular cross-section. The rim contains 

a scale of 360° subdivided into units of 5° identified with abdjad numerals. Identifying inscription is embossed on a stippled background. Divisions at 15° intervals (starting at the top) are 

marked by an embossed "X. " The front central 

->:... PS-' 

FIGURE 41.—Astrolabe No. 31. Front view. 

area contains a gazetteer consisting of 23 place 

names along with longitude, latitude, azimuth of 

the Qibla, and direction of the azimuth of the 

Qibla for each. 

The margin of the back of the astrolabe contains in its upper half two altitude scales; the 

lower left quadrant contains a cotangent scale 

divided into feet; the lower right quadrant contains a cotangent scale divided into fingers. The 

identifying inscription is embossed on a stippled 

background. The upper right quadrant contains 

stereographically projected declination arcs upon 

which are graphed lines marking the altitude of 

the noon sun at latitudes 32° (leftmost line), 36°, 

40°, and 44°, and lines marking the azimuth of 

the Qibla at Tus (lowest line), Isfahan, and 

Qazvin (see CCA Nos. 49 and 59 for transcriptions and translations of the titles of these graphs). 
NUMBER 45 69 

The upper left quadrant is divided by 30 equally 

spaced sine lines and by 30 equally spaced cosine 

lines. The chord of this quadrant is marked by a 

dotted line. Two shadow squares divided into feet 

(left) and fingers (right) occupy the lower quadrants. There are also four semicircular scales in 

these two quadrants. One lists the planetary governors of terms; one lists the term divisions; one 

lists zodiacal signs; and one lists the planetary 

governors of the faces. 

Each of the five plates is notched at 270°. On 

one plate face 17 quarter-horizons (for every 3° 

of latitude from 18° to 66°) have been stereographically projected. There are four scales measuring declination, along the ends of the projected 

colures between the projections of the solstitial 

circles. All other plate faces contain other stereographically projected arcs in addition to an horizon: altitudes (every 6°), azimuths (every 10°), 

and unequal hours. On all but one face (2b), the 

equal Italian hours have also been projected. The 

faces are identified with various latitudes as follows: 

Plate 

lb 

2a 

2b 

3a 

3b 

4a 

4b 

5a 

5b 

Latitude 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

24 

25 

34 

27 

36 

30 

33 

32 

38 

Length of daylight 

sd"atuhu 

sa"atuhu 

sd"dtuhu 

sa"atuhu 

sa"atuhu 

sd"dtuhu 

sa"atuhu 

sa"atuhu 

sd"dtuhu 

13 30 

13 .34 

14 16 

13 52 

14 28 

13 56 

14 12 

14 07 

14 39 

Abdjad numerals are used to identify all projected 

lines on plates except the Italian hours, for which 

Hindu-Arabic numerals are used. 

The rete design includes a counterchanged 

equinoctial colure, on which diagonal lines have 

been engraved, and an M-shaped support between ecliptic and lower half of Capricorn circle. 

A chain of leaves decorates both the Capricorn 

circle and the support. Twenty-four pointers have 

been inscribed with star names. The ecliptic has 

been subdivided into units of 6°. There are some 

engraved lines including ecliptic divisions still 

visible on the back of the rete. 

The alidade is not counterchanged. Divisions 

on the right half correspond to the positions of 

stereographically projected declination arcs; the 

left half of the alidade contains a partially effaced 

scale of equal divisions and a partially effaced 

sundial scale. There is a notch above a hole in 

each sighting plate. The pin is a screw with a 

hemispherical head. The wedge is a wing nut. A 

radial index arm has been attached to the front 

of this astrolabe. It is thin and narrow, being 

slightly wider at its outer end than it is at the 

point where it connects with its attachment ring. 

The alphabet employed in inscription is Arabic 

Naskhi. 

Remarks: Other astrolabes, similarly signed, 

include CCA No. 32, Indian Museum, Calcutta 

(undated) and CCA No. 1171, City Art Museum, 

St. Louis (undated). The outer surface of this 

instrument is quite worn; the plates are thin and 

bent; the alidade shows signs of having been 

repaired. The index arm, pin, and wedge are 

almost certainly not the work of Muhammad 

Amin. The towns listed in the gazetteer are a 

subset of those included in the gazetteer of No. 

39. 

CCA No. 37 

(FIGURES 24, 42, and 43) 

Date: Ca. A.D. 1715. 

Signature: ""Abd al-A^imma 

Components: Body with throne, handle, ring, 

four plates, rete, alidade, pin, ring, and wedge. 

Diameter: 93.5 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: The throne is shaped like a 

Moorish arch. Both front and back are decorated 

with an embossed design consisting of a vine with 

slender leaves and flowers. On the front this 

design surrounds a central cartouche. The handle 

is stirrup-shaped with diamond cross-section. The 

ring also has a diamond cross-section. The rim is 

divided into a scale of 360°. The last 5° subdivision is marked "60" in abdjad numerals. The front 

central area contains a gazetteer listing 34 place 

names along with longitude, latitude, azimuth of 

the Qibla, and direction of the azimuth of the 

Qibla for each. 
70 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

>^^'^' " 

FIGURE 42.—Astrolabe No. 37. Front view. 

On the back of the astrolabe, the upper margin 

contains an altitude scale. The lower margin 

contains cotangent scales divided into feet (left) 

and fingers (right). The upper right margin contains stereographically projected declination arcs. 

On these are graphed lines representing the altitudes of the noon sun for latitudes 28° (left), 30°, 

32°, 34°, 36°, 38°, 40°, and lines representing the 

azimuth of the Qibla for four cities: Tus (bottom), 

Isfahan, Baghdad, and Yazd (for a transcription 

and translation of the inscription on the periphery 

of the declination arcs, see CCA No. 59; for 

inscription inside the declination arcs see CCA 

No. 49). The upper left quadrant contains 60 

equally spaced sine lines and 60 equally spaced 

cosine lines. There are shadow squares divided 

into feet (left) and fingers (right) in the lower 

quadrants. There is a scale of triplicities in the 

rectangle formed by the shadow-square boundary. The scale is entitled: 

^L^ . lL-> L..^_-l_.^l o^i--. I .^ II ^ 1 

meaning, "Natures, Triplicities, Their Lords in 

the Day, Their Lords in the Night." Arabic terms 

have been used to identify the natures. A cartouche below the shadow square contains the 

signature. Also in the lower quadrants are five 

semicircular astrological scales: planetary governors of terms, terms, zodiacal signs, planetary 

governors of faces, and lunar mansions. 

There are four plates. Each has a notch at 

270°. One plate face contains only scales of declination and stereographically projected semi-horizons for every 3° of latitude from 15° to 66°. 

Each of the remaining plate faces contains a 

single stereographically projected horizon and related coordinates: altitudes (every 6°), azimuths 

(every 10°), unequal hours, and equal Italian 

hours. The projected networks are identified: 

Plate 

lb 

2a 

2b 

3a 

3b 

4a 

4b 

Latitude 

li-''ard 

li- "ard 

li-''ard 

li-"ard 

li-''ard 

li-^ard 

li- "ard 

29 

34 

37 

30 

36 

32 

38 

Length of daylight 

sd"atuhu 

sd"atuhu 

sa"dtuhu 

sd"aluhu 

sa "dtuhu 

sa"atuhu 

sa" dtuhu 

13 52 

14 16 

14 38 

13 56 

14 28 

14 07 

14 36 

The rete pattern incorporates an abbreviated 

counterchanged equinoctial colure (inside the 

ecliptic). The area between the ecliptic circle and 

the Capricorn circle contains a vine outlining the 

shape of an inverted Moorish arch. There are 26 

pointers inscribed with star names. The ecliptic 

is subdivided by units of 6°. The circle of a 

stereographically projected equator and the divisions of the ecliptic circle are visibly engraved 

on the back of the rete. 

The alidade (no counterchanges) is divided on 

one arm by arcs corresponding to the stereographically projected declination arcs in the upper right 

quadrant. There are "sundial" divisions on the 

other arm, as well as 60 equally spaced divisions 
NUMBER 45 71 

FIGURE 43.—Astrolabe No. 37. Gazetteer. 

along the beveled edge. Two holes pierce the 

sighting plates; the upper is larger. The pin is a 

bolt with a hemispherical head. The ring is a 

washer. The wedge is a spiral-decorated bar. 

The inscription is in Arabic Naskhi characters. 

Except for identification of the equal Italian 

hours using Hindu-Arabic numerals, the scales 

are identified with abdjad numerals. 

Remarks: This is a well-made instrument. The 

maker has used dotted lines for emphasis on some 

scales on the back. Most lettering is embossed on 

a stippled background. The four plates are identical in content to four of six included in No. 40. 

For other works by the same maker, see No. 39. 
72 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

CCA No. 39 

(FIGURE 44) 

Date: Ca. A.D. 1715. 

Signature: sana^ahu "Abd al-A^imma. 

Components: Body with throne, handle, ring, 

cord, three plates, rete, alidade, pin, ringlet, and 

wedge. 

Diameter: 92.5 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: The throne, a broarl, symmetric Moorish arch, has been embossed with inscription on both sides. The front reads, 

j j P » S I Q C ^ I g O III I 11 rt. • "ly^ ^*"^ J 

"His throne holds the Heavens and the earth" 

(GS). The back contains a lengthy inscription. 

fJxC^ I ,jJj-ouJ l ^—-- O t,-l»— vj>i l A ^ aJ » • rtJLJl 

rea d ^^LasnAJ) ^ ^ La^iU) »_,J;\.i> il I SI ll «_^L-. , I ifta^oif 

11 A<i !•.. I ,J-f-P I—o*» I I J^f:f> i» 1 • J» 9-1' •'' ' » 

This may be translated as follows: "[In the name 

of God.] It has been completed for the sake of the 

namesake of the person sacrificed [by Abraham] 

the most excellent master, the most distinguished 

of the men of pen, the leading pole of the men of 

eloquence [read/M.yaAa"^], the zodiac \falak\ of the 

ministry, Mirza Isma'^il may God preserve him" 

(GS). 

The stirrup-shaped handle has a rectangular 

cross-section. The ring has a circular cross-section. 

A relatively well-preserved cord, consisting of 

faded blue, yellow, and lavender threads, is attached to the ring. A worn gold-colored ornament 

decorates its loose end. 

The rim of this instrument is divided by a scale 

of 360°. Complete abdjad numerals identify each 

5° division. The front central area contains a 

gazetteer listing the azimuth of the Qibla and its 

direction for each of 46 named places, along with 

their respective longitudes and latitudes. 

On the back of this astrolabe, the upper half of 

the margin is divided into two altitude scales. On 

them, every fifth degree is marked with a dot. 

The lower half of the margin contains cotangent 

scales divided into feet (left) and fingers (right). 

The lowest part of the margin contains the following phrase inside brackets: 

^^JL ^ -v^* ^ 

"The intention is to have an image remain after 

us" (GS). The upper right quadrant contains 

stereographically projected declination arcs. Two 

sets of lines have been graphed on these arcs: lines 

marking the altitude of the noon sun at latitudes 

30° (at left), 33°, 36°, 39°, and 42°, and lines 

marking the azimuth of the Qibla sun at Tus 

(lowest), Yazd, Isfahan, Baghdad, and Kufa. For 

a transcription and translation of the titles of 

these graphs, see Nos. 49 and 59. Sine lines for 

every degree divide the upper left quadrant. Six 

lines marking the unequal hours have also been 

engraved in this quadrant. Shadow squares divided into feet (left) and fingers (right) have been 

engraved in the lower quadrants.These quadrants 

also contain six astrological scales. One of these, 

the scale of triplicities (Arabic natures; for title 

see CCA No. 37), fills the area bounded by the 

shadow squares. The remaining five are semicircular and consist of a scale of planetary governors 

of terms, terms, zodiacal signs, planetary governors of faces, and lunar mansions. Much of the 

identifying inscription on the body of the instrument has been embossed on a stippled background. 

There are three plates. Two of these are 

notched at 270° One has four equally spaced 

notches. There are also 18 quarter horizons (one 

for every three degrees of latitude from 15° to 

66°), which have been stereographically projected 

onto one face of the multi-notched plate. The 

remaining plate faces contain, in addition to a 

single stereographically projected horizon arc, altitudes (every 6°), azimuths (every 10°), unequal 

hours, and equal Italian hours. The plate faces 
NUMBER 45 73 

FIGURE 44.—Astrolabe No. 39. Front view 
74 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

are identified as follows: 

Plate 

lb 

2a 

2b 

3a 

3b 

Latitude 

"ard 29 

"ard 30 

"ard 36 

"ard 38 

"ard 32 

Length of Daylight 

sd"dtuhu 13 52 

sd" dtuhu 13 56 

sd"dtuhu 14 28 

sd" dtuhu 14 39 

sd"dtuhu 14 07 

flowers and vines embossed on a stippled background. The inscription on the front of the throne 

reads 

The rete design includes only the part of the 

equinoctial colure inside the ecliptic band. It is 

counterchanged two times. In the area between 

the ecliptic and Capricorn bands, curling vines 

form an inverted Moorish arch. Twenty-six star 

pointers have been inscribed with Arabic star 

names. The ecliptic is subdivided into units of 6°. 

There are no visible marks on the back of the 

rete. 

The alidade is not counterchanged. On one 

arm, six arcs that correspond to the stereographically projected declination arcs in the upper right 

quadrant have been engraved. The other arm is 

divided by a scale of equal divisions and by a 

sundial scale. Each sighting plate has been 

pierced with two holes, the upper larger than the 

lower. The pin is a bolt with a hemispherical 

head and a doorknob tip. The ringlet has a 

rectangular cross-section. The wedge is a horsehead shape with engraved details. 

The alphabet employed by the maker is Arabic 

Naskhi. 

Remarks: The three plates included with this 

instrument are identical (with respect to content 

and arrangement) to three of the five plates included with astrolabe No. 40. 

CCA No. 40 

(FIGURES 45, 46) 

Date: Ca. A.D. 1715. 

Signature: sana''ahu"Abd al-A^imma. 

Components: Body with throne, handle, ring, 

five plates, rete, alidade, pin, and wedge. 

Diameter: 93.5 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: The throne, shaped like a 

Moorish arch, is decorated on the back with 

and can be translated as follows: "According to 

the decree of his excellency Mahdi Qoli Bey 

Zangeneh this was done" (GS). The stirrupshaped handle has a rectangular cross-section. 

The ring has a diamond-shaped cross-section. 

The rim is divided (at intervals of 5°) by a scale 

of 360°. The last unit is marked "60" in abdjad 

numerals. Every fifth degree division is marked 

by a dot. The front central area contains a gazetteer of 34 cities, along with the latitude, longitude, and the azimuth of the Qibla for each. 

The upper margin on the back of the astrolabe 

contains altitude scales. The lower left margin 

contains a cotangent scale divided into feet; the 

lower right margin, a cotangent scale divided into 

fingers. Declination arcs divide the upper right 

quadrant. Lines marking the altitude of the noon 

sun for every two degrees of latitude between 28° 

and 38° and for 42°, and lines marking the 

azimuth of the Qibla for the cities Tus (bottom), 

Isfahan, and Baghdad have been graphed on the 

declination circles. For a transcription of the inscription outside the outermost declination arc, 

see CCA No. 59. For a transcription of the inscription inside the innermost declination arc, see No. 

49. The upper left quadrant is cross-hatched by 

sexagesimal sines and cosines. Shadow squares 

divided into feet (lower left) and fingers (lower 

right) divide the lower quadrants. Outside the 

shadow squares there are semicircular astrological 

scales of planets, terms, signs, faces, and mansions. 

Inside the shadow squares is a rectangular scale 

of triplicities. The natures are identified with 

Arabic terms. The signature is enclosed in a 

cartouche below the shadow square. 

There are five plates, each notched at 270°. 

One plate face contains quarter horizons, one for 

every 3° of latitude between 12° and 66°, and a 

scale of obliquity divided into units of 6° The 
NUMBER 45 75 

I 

FIGURE 45.—Astrolabe No. 40. Front view of 

separate parts. 

rv 

fi\-'\'i r^.^- • • ;3^ 

^^^'i^l\%?<'^^^ .;^ 

4.;.^; V-'V 

J - „ 

•'''*%;i^'<^^A^'"*'*''"' 

] • ^ 
76 

SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

/j-^ ^^^ ^ 

\' 

; ^ N\' V\\ \ \ ^'W; , • 

'.-,• : i-^ . 

^^.i:^::^ 

FIGURE 46.—Astrolabe No. 40. Back view. 
NUMBER 45 77 

remaining faces contain stereographically projected horizon, altitudes (every 6°), azimuths (every 10°) unequal hours, and equal Italian hours 

for a single latitude. These latter plate faces are 

inscribed as follows: 

Plate 

lb 

2a 

2b 

3a 

3b 

4a 

4b 

5a 

5b 

Latitude 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

29 

30 

36 

32 

38 

34 

37 

35 

40 

Length of daylight 

sd" dtuhu 

sd"dtuhu 

sd"dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sd"dtuhu 

sd"dtuhu 

sd"dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sd"dtuhu 

13 52 

13 56 

14 28 

14 07 

14 39 

14 16 

14 38 

14 22 

14 51 

The very simple rete pattern consists of a 

bracket in the area between the ecliptic and the 

Tropic of Capricorn. There is a portion of counterchanged east-west bar inside the ecliptic. The 

ecliptic band is subdivided into units of 6°. There 

are 28 flame-shaped star pointers, each inscribed 

with a star name. Straight lines and ecliptic 

divisions have been engraved on the back of the 

rete. The alidade arm is not counterchanged. One 

arm is inscribed with sundial divisions.The other 

arm is divided by a scale of 60 equal divisions 

along the beveled edge and by lines coinciding 

with the stereographically projected declination 

arcs. The sighting plates are pierced with two 

holes, with the upper larger. The pin is a bolt 

with a doorknob-shaped head and tip. The wedge 

is a simple uninscribed trapezoid. 

The maker has employed Arabic Naskhi script 

with some Hindu-Arabic numerals (equal Italian 

hours). 

Remarks: Most lettering is embossed on a stippled background. The maker has used dotted 

lines only on the declination scale. Plates 1, 2, 

and 3 of this instrument are identical to the three 

plates of CCA No. 39, also by "Abd al-A^imma. 

The selection and arrangement of place names in 

the gazetteer follows the pattern adopted by the 

maker of CCA No. 25. The surface of the body of 

this example is quite worn, but there are no signs 

of repair. The engraving is excellent. Note the 

possibility of an error in the inscribed number of 

unequal hours on plate face 5b. 

CCA No. 42 

(FIGURES 47, 48) 

Date: Ca. A.D. 1795. 

Signature: §ana'^ahu Hajji ""Ali. 

Components: Body with throne, handle, ring, 

six plates, rete, alidade, pin, ringlet, and wedge. 

Diameter: 91 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: The throne is shaped like a 

Moorish arch. It is decorated on front and back 

with embossed leaves and vines surrounding a 

large central flower. The handle is a narrow 

stirrup. There is a scale of 360° on the rim. The 

first division is marked "5, " the last, "60" (in 

abdjad numerals). Inside the front central area 

there is a tooth at 270° In addition, there is a 

FIGURE 47.—Astrolabe No. 42. Alidade (top) and "ankabut. 
78 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOCi 

FIGURE 48.—Astrolabe No. 42. Plates, including plate for multiple latitudes (top), for latitude 

30°, and for latitude 32° 

gazetteer listing 34 places and including for each, 

longitude, latitude, and azimuth of the Qibla. 

The upper margin on the back of the astrolabe 

contains altitude scales. The lower margin contains cotangent scales divided into feet (left) and 

fingers (right). There is a stereographically projected declination scale in the upper right quadrant. Lines marking the azimuth of the Qibla 

have been engraved upon the declination arcs. 

The azimuth lines are identified with the following cities: Tus (lowest), Isfahan, Baghdad, and 

Shiraz. For a transcription and translation of th( 

inscription relating to this scale, see CCA No. 49 

Lines marking the altitude of the noon sun fo: 

every 2° of latitude between 28° (at left) and 40' 

are also graphed onto the declination arcs. For ; 

transcription and translation of the inscriptioi 

relating to these lines, see CCA No. 59. In th( 

upper left quadrant, sines and cosines have beei 

engraved at sexagesimal intervals. The lowe 

quadrants contain shadow squares divided inti 

feet (left) and fingers (right). There is a scale c 
NUMBER 45 79 

triplicities inside these. The title of the scale is 

transcribed and translated in the description of 

No. 37. Both Arabic and Persian terms are used 

to identify natures. The signature occupies a cartouche below the shadow square. Five semicircular astrological scales have been engraved outside the shadow squares. These include the planetary governors of terms, the degree divisions of 

terms, the zodiacal signs, the planetary governors 

of faces, and the lunar mansions. The margin 

contains the following inscription at 270°: 

It reads: "Fifteenth work" (GS). 

Six plates fit into the front central area. All 

have a notch at 270°. One plate face is inscribed 

with 17 stereographically projected quarter horizons, representing every 3° of latitude between 

15° and 66°. There are four declination scales on 

this face as well. All the other faces contain 

stereographically projected coordinates for a single latitude. These include altitudes (every 6°), 

azimuths (every 10°), unequal hours, and equal 

Italian hours. The faces are identified as follows: 

Plate 

l b ' 

2a 

2b 

3a 

3b 

4a 

4b 

5a 

5b 

6a 

6b 

Latitude 

"ard 

li-''ard 

li-''ard 

li-^ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

^ ard 

29 

25 00 

32 00 

29 26 

32 00 

30 

36 

32 20 

36 00 

32 

38 

Length of daylight 

sa" atuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sd"dtuhu 

sd"dtuhu 

sd"dtuhu 

sd"dtuhu 

sa "atuhu 

sd"dtuhu 

sd"dtuhu 

sd" dtjj.hu 

sd" dtuhu 

13 52 

13 24 

14 08 

13 55 

14 06 

13 56 

14 28 

14 08 

13 26 

14 08 

14 39 

The simple rete pattern includes a counterchanged equinoctial colure inside the ecliptic 

band. There is a curling vine springing from the 

lowest point of the Capricorn circle. The Capricorn circle is itself decorated with a zig-zag design. 

The ecliptic is subdivided into units of 6°. There 

are 29 inscribed star pointers. The alidade is not 

counterchanged. One arm is divided into six 

equal units. The other arm contains two scales: 

one (along the beveled edge) consisting of 12 

equal divisions; the other, of 6 unequal divisions. 

Each sighting plate is pierced by two holes. The 

pin is a bolt with hemispherical head and knobshaped tip. There is a washer-shaped ringlet. The 

wedge is shaped like a bird. 

The inscription is in Arabic Naskhi; HinduArabic numerals identify the equal hours on the 

plates. 

Remarks: At least 12 known astrolabes have 

been signed by this maker. Three of these are in 

the United States: CCA No. 3509, private collection (undated); CCA No. 3614, Hayden Planetarium, New York City (undated); and CCA No. 

3678, private collection (undated). Dated astrolabes by ^Ali were made in A.H. 1203 [1788], 1205 

[1790], 1206 [1791], 1207 [1792], and 1208 

[1793].'^' 

The pattern of the rete of this astrolabe is 

remarkably similar to patterns adopted by several 

other makers at work in Isfahan, including "^Abd 

al-A^imma (Nos. 37, 39, and 40). Some of the 

plates of this instrument are less carefully engraved than others (plates 2, 3, 5, and 6). The 

alidade is a very inaccurately engraved replacement. 

CCA No. 44 

(FIGURE 49) 

Date: Ca. A.D. 1660. 

Signature: Muhammad Mahdi. 

Components: Body with throne, handle, ring, 

five plates, rete, alidade, pin, and wedge. 

Diameter: 88 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: The throne is shaped like a 

Moorish arch. A symmetric floral arrangement 

has been embossed on the front; a symmetric vine 

with bifid flowers has been embossed on the back. 

The rim contains a scale of 360° The first division 

is marked "5, " the last, "60," in abdjad numerals. 

The front central area contains a gazetteer listing 

50 places, along with the longitude, latitude, the 

azimuth of the Qibla, and the direction of the 

azimuth of the Qibla for each. 

On the back of the astrolabe, the upper margin 

is divided by altitude scales. The lower margin 

contains cotangent scales divided into feet (left) 
80 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

FIGURE 49.—Astrolabe No. 44. Back view. 
NUMBER 45 81 

and fingers (right). The first two divisions of these 

latter scales contain the following inscription: 

,L^ t^ ^ i > ^ 

Translated, it reads: "The intention is to have an 

image remain after us" (GS). 

The upper right quadrant contains a set of six 

stereographically projected declination arcs. Two 

different sets of lines have been graphed on these 

arcs. Those graphed in the upper portion of this 

quadrant are identified from left to right with the 

numbers 27, 30, 33, 36, 39, 42, and 45; they can 

be associated with an inscription outside the outermost declination band, which reads "The circles 

of mid-day" (see CCA No. 59 for transcription). 

The lower graphed lines are identified as follows 

(beginning with the lowest): Yazd, Tus, Isfahan, 

Basra, Baghdad, Shiraz. These lines can be associated with an inscription inside the innermost 

declination circle, which reads, "The lines of the 

azimuth of the Qibla at the cities." (See CCA No. 

49 for transcription.) 

Sixty equally spaced sine lines divide the upper 

left quadrant. The shadow squares in the lower 

quadrants are divided into feet (left) and fingers 

(right). Inside these squares is a box scale of 

triplicities consisting of four rows and 10 columns. 

The scale is identified with the following inscription: 

J.:JJL^ ^ .1 "• I*. oJ l e-^' 

In translation this is, "Quadrant of Triplicities 

[with the Planetary Lords of] Day [and] Night" 

(GS). Both Persian and Arabic terms are used to 

specify the natures, which are fiery, earthy, airy, 

and watery. 

^ 1 

1 ^ 

A cartouche below the shadow square contains 

the signature. 

One of the four plates is notched four times at 

the ends of the stereographically projected solstitial and equinoctial colures. The remaining four 

plates are notched only once at their lowest point. 

One face of the multinotched plate contains 24 

stereographically projected horizon segments, one 

for every 3° of latitude between 3° and 66° The 

remaining plate faces each contain stereographically projected coordinates for individual latitudes; the parameters include altitudes (every 

6°), azimuths (every 10°), and unequal hours. 

The plate faces are identified with the following 

inscriptions: 

Plate 

2a 

2b 

3a 

3b 

4a 

4b 

5a 

5b 

Latitude 

li-''qrd 

"ard 

li-"ard 

li-"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

^ard 

"ard 

23 00 

30 00 

27 00 

34 00 

33 

34 

37 00 

36 00 

Length of daylight 

sd"dtuhu 

sd"dl 

sd" dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

s a" dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

14 20 [? 

14 25 

The projection on the back of the horizon face is 

unidentified. 

The pattern of the rete includes a counterchanged equinoctial bar inside the ecliptic and 

vines forming an inverted Moorish arch in the 

are between the ecliptic and the Tropic of Capricorn. There are 29 inscribed star pointers. The 

ecliptic is subdivided into units of 6°. Some circles 

and arcs radiating from the center have been 

engraved on the back of the instrument. 

The alidade is neither counterchanged nor inscribed. The pin is a bolt with hemispherical head 

and knob tip. The wedge is duck-shaped. 

The alphabet used in the inscriptions is Arabic 

Naskhi. 

Remarks: The workmanship on this instrument is of varying quality. For example, the 

gazetteer is beautifully engraved, with the places 

arranged (with a few exceptions) in order of 

increasing latitude. However, the lines on the 
82 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

back of the astrolabe—especially the upper left 

quadrant—show signs of less careful work. The 

azimuth lines on all plate faces are of very poor 

quality. On the horizon plate, the outermost arc 

in each quadrant is identified as "66." The rete 

shows signs of having been cast. Its central hole 

is slightly off center. Other astrolabes in the collection with retes similar to this one are Nos. 37, 

39, 40, 59, and 65. There is every reason to believe 

that the alidade, pin, and wedge are replacements. 

If this instrument is indeed the work of its 

signer, Muhammad Mahdi, it is not his best 

effort. Mahdi's signature appears on 21 other 

known astrolabes. In some cases he is specifically 

designated "decorator" or "engraver." Two of 

Mahdi's other works are preserved in the United 

States: one (signed and dated) is No. 25 in this 

catalog; the other, CCA No. 2545, (signed) is 

preserved at the Adler Planetarium in Chicago. 

CCA No. 47 

(FIGURES 50, 51) 

Date: Ca. 1700. 

Signature: None. 

Components: Body with throne, handle, ring, 

four plates, rete, alidade, pin, and wedge. 

Diameter: 95 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: The throne, shaped like a 

Moorish arch, is undecorated and uninscribed. 

The handle is stirrup-shaped with half hexagonal 

cross-section. The ring has a circular cross-section. 

The rim is divided into four scales of 90° inscribed 

with abdjad numerals, each proceeding in a clockwise direction starting at 90°, 0°, 270°, and 180°. 

A gazetteer has been engraved in the front central 

area. It consists of 24 place names with longitudes, 

latitudes, and azimuths of the Qibla. The following phrases have been engraved in the middle of 

the gazetteer, diametrically opposite each other: 

the first. 

On the back of the instrument, the upper 

margin contains altitude scales. The lower margin 

contains cotangent scales divided into feet (left) 

and fingers (right). One upper quadrant contains 

stereographically projected declination arcs. The 

following phrase is written inside these arcs in the 

upper right quadrant: 

"The beginning of the signs and lines of the 

Qibla" (GS). The upper left quadrant is divided 

by the sines of the angles at increments of 5° and 

by radii which divide the quadrant into fivedegree angles. Shadow squares divided into feet 

(left) and fingers (right) have been engraved in 

the two lower quadrants. Also in the lower quadrants there are six bands suitable for astrological 

scales. Only two, a scale of lunar mansions and a 

scale of zodiacal signs are complete. 

Each of the four plates has a tooth at 270°. 

One face on one of these (la) contains only 

stereographically projected semi-horizons, 37 in 

all, between 19° and 66°. Face lb contains only 

stereographically projected colures, tropics, and 

equator. All other plate faces contain a single 

stereographically projected horizon and altitudes 

(every six degrees). Three plate faces (2a, 2b, 3b) 

also contain azimuths (every ten degrees) and 

unequal hours. Five plate faces (all except la, lb, 

2a) contain equal Italian hours. The plates are 

identified as follows: 

Plate 

la 

lb 

2a 

2b 

3a 

3b 

4a 

4b 

Latitude 

safihah dfdqi 

"ard tis"in 

"ard 30 

"ard 42 

"ard 34 

"ard 36 

"ard 37 

"ard 38 

Length of daylight 

sd" dtuhu 13 42 

sd"dtuhu 15 05 

sd" dtuhu 14 17 

sd"dtuhu 14 27 

sd" dtuhu 14 00 

sd"dtuhu 14 40 

means "southeast," the second, 

is "southwest." 

CJ-9 ^ 

The rete design includes a complete equinoctial 

colure and a complete celestial equator. Other 

supporting strapwork is in the shape of twining 

vines. There are 17 star pointers engraved with 

Arabic star names. The ecliptic circle is subdivided into units of 6°. Equator and Cancer circles 

have been engraved on the back of the rete. 

The alidade is not counterchanged. It is unin-
NUMBER 45 83 

FIGURE 50.—Astrolabe No. 47. Front view of separate parts. 
84 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

FIGURE 51.—Astrolabe No. 47. Back view. 

scribed. Each sighting plate is pierced with two 

holes; the upper is larger. The pin is a bolt with 

hemispherical head. The wedge is a stylized 

horse's head. 

The alphabet used by this maker is Arabic 

Naskhi. Hindu-Arabic numbers identify altitudes 

on one plate face. 

Remarks: Gunther attributes this instrument 

to Fadl "Ali. One astrolabe signed by this man is 

preserved in the Museum of the History of Science, Oxford, England (CCA No. 46). On one 

plate of the instrument described here (plate 2) 

the tooth is broken. The body appears unfinished. 

The workmanship is not consistently of the finest 

quality. 

CCA No. 49 

(FIGURES 30, 52, 53) 

Date: See "Remarks." 

Signature: None. 

Components: Body with throne, handle, ring, 

five plates, rete, alidade, pin, and wedge. 

Diameter: 116 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: The throne is shaped like a 

Moorish arch. It is relatively broad and symmet-
NUMBER 45 85 

.A-'- •<• '-3 . ' >' 

FIGURE 52.—Astrolabe No. 49. Front view. FIGURE 53.—Astrolabe No. 49. Back view. 

rical. Embossed vines and flowers decorate front 

and back. The handle is stirrup-shaped with a 

double-lunate cross-section. The ring also has a 

double-lunate cross-section. The rim is divided by 

a scale of 360° The first unit is identified with 

an abdjad "5, " the last, with a "60." There is a 

tooth projecting into the front central area at 

270°. A gazetteer has been engraved on this area. 

It lists 38 places along with the longitude, latitude, and azimuth of the Qibla for each. 

There are altitude scales in the upper margin 

on the back of the astrolabe. The lower margin 

contains cotangent scales divided into feet (left) 

and fingers (right). The declination scale in the 

upper right quadrant is stereographically projected. Five lines marking the azimuth of the 

Qibla for Tus (bottom), Yazd, Isfahan, Baghdad, 

and Shiraz have been graphed on the declination 

arcs. The inscription relating to this graph (inside 

the innermost declination band) reads: 

o-i-c rt-ojJ^^i o^J I ^ ^ rt 1. iiJi ^z.^Ja.^ u^u.;. 

It can be translated: "Lines of Qibla directions in 

the cities marked on the edges in the western 

akitude" (GS). 

Also graphed on the declination arcs are lines 
86 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

marking the altitude of the noon sun for every 

two degrees of latitude between 28° and 42°. For 

a transcription and translation of the inscription 

relating to this graph, see No. 59. Both sines and 

cosines have been engraved at sexagesimal intervals in the upper left quadrant. The shadow 

squares in the lower quadrants have been divided 

into feet (left) and fingers (right). A triplicities 

scale, identified as 

,L^^Jl_ , i_^_,L_,^l CJ I -. L-, o II 2^-I .h II 

has been engraved inside the shadow squares. Its 

translation reads: "The natures of the triplicities 

[and the] Lords [of the] Day [and the] Lords [of 

the] Night" (GS). Arabic terms are used to specify 

the natures. The five semicircular astrological 

scales engraved outside the shadow squares are 

the planetary governors of the terms, the term 

divisions in degrees, the zodiacal signs, the planetary governors of faces, and the lunar mansions. 

The five plates belonging to this instrument 

are each notched at 270°. Twenty-one semihorizons have been engraved on one face, representing every three degrees of latitude between 9° 

and 66°. On this same face, there are four declination scales. Other faces contain stereographically projected coordinates for a single latitude. 

On six of these, the coordinates include altitudes 

(every 3°), azimuths (every 10°), and unequal 

hours. Faces 2b, 3b, and 4b contain these coordinates as well as the equal Italian hours. The 

single latitude faces are identified with the following inscription: 

Plate 

lb 

2a 

2b 

3a 

3b 

4a 

4b 

5a 

5b 

Latitude 

li-"ard 

li-"ard 

li-''ard 

li- "ard 

li-''ard 

li-"ard 

li- "ard 

li-''ard 

li- "ard 

29 

30 

36 

34 

37 

38 

32 

31 

40 

Length of daylight 

sd" dtuhu 

al-sd"dt 

sa" dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sa "dtuhu 

sd" atuhu 

al-sd"dt 

sa" atuhu 

13 52 

13 56 

14 28 

14 16 

14 33 

14 39 

14 07 

14 01 

14 51 

The rete pattern is formed by curling vines. It 

includes a branching vine which springs from the 

lowest point on the Capricorn circle, and it includes, inside the ecliptic, two vines which form 

a design in the shape of the number "88." The 

ecliptic is subdivided into units of three degrees. 

There are 29 inscribed star pointers. The ecliptic 

has been divided on the back of the rete, but 

these divisions do not correspond to the divisions 

on the front of the rete. The alidade is not counterchanged. There are, on the one arm, parts of 

stereographically projected declination arcs. 

There are twelve equal divisions along the bevelled edge of the other arm. Five unequal, sundial divisions have been engraved along the flat 

edge of this arm. Each sighting plate is pierced 

with two holes of equal size. The pin is a bolt 

with a flat edge and a doorknob-shaped tip. The 

wedge has a trapezoidal shape. 

The inscription is Arabic Naskhi. However, 

Hindu-Arabic numerals identify the equal hours. 

Remarks: Clues to the date of this astrolabe 

are provided by the pattern of its rete. The "88" 

design was adopted by a number of makers at 

work in Isfahan in the early eighteenth century. 

Prominent among these are "^Abd al-A ^imma (see 

CCA Nos. 11 and 38) and 'Abd al- "Ali (see CCA 

Nos. 10 and 33). That this instrument was made 

after these examples is evidenced by the slightly 

less exacting workmanship. The decorative details 

are typical of Persian astrolabes, including bracketing of scale divisions and embossed lettering 

and decoration on stippled background, but the 

workmanship is unexceptional. There are errors 

in the inscription of the marginal scales on the 

back of the astrolabe; a correction occurs in the 

scale of zodiacal signs. The plates are characterized by errors in the placement of altitudes and 

the inscription of azimuths. There are also some 

errors in the hour lines. There is an error in the 

division of the ecliptic band on the rete (Leo has 

too few and Sagittarius too many divisions). The 

maker has used some dotted lines in the upper 

quadrants on the back of the astrolabe. 

CCA No. 52 

(FIGURES 54, 55) 

Date: A.H. 1189 [1775]. 

Signature: See "Remarks." 

Components: Backplate with throne laminated 

to rim with throne, handle, ring, five plates, rete. 
NUMBER 45 87 

FIGURE 54.—Astrolabe No. 52. Front view. 
88 

SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

FIGURE 55.—Astrolabe No. 52. Back view. 
NUMBER 45 89 

alidade, pin, wedge, index. 

Diameter: 95.5 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: The throne is broad and 

shaped like a Moorish arch. A shallow, circular 

depression (10.5 mm in diameter) decorates the 

front face. The handle is stirrup-shaped. It has a 

loop for the ring. The ring has a circular crosssection. The rim is divided into a scale of 360° 

with the last division marked "360" in abdjad 

numerals. The gazetteer in the front central area 

is arranged in spiral bands. It includes 47 place 

names with longitude, latitude, and Qibla azimuth for each. Two or three additional, barely 

legible places and parameters, including possibly 

Ka'^bah, are inscribed in the two innermost segments of the spiral bands. 

On the back of the astrolabe, an altitude scale 

occupies the upper margin. Cotangent scales occupy the lower margin with divisions of fingers at 

left and feet at right. The upper left quadrant is 

divided by 60 sine lines and 10 quarter circles. 

The upper right quadrant contains a cartouche 

inscribed as follows: 

>^ o'v.o (j'^ 11 ^ i 9 SI C (j_i I ( c 'I p) v3 I "' k n 11 rt g "iif) 

•<H-^ Kr^ Ci ) (5^1 "••".' (3=^1 • o "^ •..' ' <= C>^ v3'^L-*=' 

hours in addition to unequal hours, altitudes, and 

azimuths. The plates are inscribed as follows: 

.JJl ,l_J l . q .k Ul 

Translated, it reads: "Made by the one who 

yearns for the forgiveness of his rich Lord Muhammad Sadiq ibn "Alinaqi, rightness protects 

me—May the Gentle forgive them both, year 

1189" (GS). 

The shadow squares in the lower quadrants are 

divided into fingers on the left and feet on the 

right. 

There are five plates, each with a notch at 

270°. One plate face is inscribed with 24 quarter 

horizons, one for every 2° of latitude between 22° 

and 68°. The face also contains four declination 

scales. Two plate faces (5a, 5b) contain altitudes 

(every 6°) and azimuths (every 10°) for single 

latitudes. Two other plate faces (2a, 2b) contain 

unequal hours in addition to altitudes and azimuths. Two plate faces contain equal Italian 

Plate 

lb 

2a 

2b 

3a 

3b 

4a 

4b 

5a 

5b 

Latitude 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

34 

30 

39 

32 

33 

36 

37 

42 

45 

Length of daylight 

sd" dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sd"dtuhu 

sd"dluhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

14 14 

14 

14 36 

14 08 

14 12 

14 20 

14 28 

14 48 

15 

The rete of this astrolabe is a very simple 

design. It incorporates a complete straight equinoctial colure and a complete projected equator. 

An engraved chain of diamonds decorates the 

Capricorn circle. Engraved lines and dots decorate equator and equinoctial bar. A piece of metal 

connecting the ecliptic with the equator has been 

inscribed: 

It translates: "O! You Who is true to the promise" 

(GS). The ecliptic is subdivided into units of 6°. 

There are 18 inscribed star pointers. Projections 

of colures, tropics, and equator have been engraved on the back of the rete. The alidade is not 

counterchanged. The one remaining sighting 

plate is pierced by a single hole. A sundial scale 

divides one arm. There are nine equal divisions 

on the other arm. The first division along the 

beveled edge is marked "6, " the last, "54." The 

first division along the flat edge is marked "12;" 

the last, "60." The pin is a bolt with a flat head 

and a doorknob-shaped tip. The wedge is duckshaped. The index is 83.5 mm long. Only one 

arm is engraved with twelve equal divisions. 

These are identified twice: once from center to 

edge from"5" to "60," and once from edge to 

center. The undivided arm is decorated with 

vines and flowers on a stippled background. 

The alphabet is Arabic Naskhi. Hindu-Arabic 

numerals identify lines projected on the horizon 

plate. 

Remarks: The phrasing of the inscription on 

the back of this astrolabe leaves open the possibility that Muhammad Sadiq is its owner rather 
90 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

than its maker. Saliba has observed that the 

inscription on the rete is a play on a portion of 

the maker/owner's name. The circular depression 

on the throne may have once held a compass. 

One of the Hoffman photos shows a cord attached 

to this instrument. It has since been removed. 

While there is currently no plate holder in the 

front central area of this astrolabe, there are 

indications that there was once a tooth at 270° 

The inscription of the front central area is of poor 

quality. The rete, which includes examples of 

good lettering, is slightly bigger than the front 

central area. On most plates the word "mashriq" 

has been written in reverse to preserve a certain 

symmetry near the horizon. 

CCA No. 53 

(FIGURES 56, 57) 

Date: A.H. 1216 [1801]. 

Signature: sana''ahu Sadiq (maker), namaqahu al-Haqir ""Abd al-Karim (decorator). 

Components: Rim with throne laminated to 

backplate with throne, handle, seven plates, rete, 

alidade, pin, ringlet, and wedge. 

Diameter: 96.5 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: The high, symmetric Moorish 

arch is embossed with vines and flowers. It is 

pierced by a central teardrop-shaped hole. The 

handle is decorated with a high, pierced crown. 

The axle of the handle pierces the throne from 

side to side rather than from front to back. The 

rim is divided into four 90° arcs. Each of these 

arcs is subdivided into units of 6° inscribed with 

abdjad numerals. The front central area contains 

a gazetteer of 23 cities along with their longitude, 

latitude, azimuth of Qibla, and distance from 

Mecca (in farsakhs). In the center of the table, 

the phrase 

• • • Y*oS pL^ ^^^j^ ^J/^ .r^ rt_9 jji-o A . t,'^ 

has been inscribed. 

On the back of the astrolabe, the upper half of 

the margin contains two altitude scales. The 

lower half of the margin contains two cotangent 

scales. The upper left quadrant is divided by ten 

sine lines and ten cosine lines separated by equal 

intervals. Four arcs tangent to the first four lines 

of each scale intersect the sines and cosines. 

Semicircles have been engraved on the radii of 

this quadrant. The upper right quadrant contains 

a lengthy inscription embossed on a stippled 

background. 

O-T" I CJ I ^LuJ I iJ.iLu (gic ) "-^^^ ^ 

I q<^ Ltf ^ " '"^ ^^^^j-i\ rtJUl ^i_<j: 

It translates: "The astrolabe of the descendant of 

Sayyids ibn Muhammad Nasir "Abd "Allah "AlRidawi, made by Sadiq" (GS). 

The lower quadrants contain shadow squares 

divided into fingers on the left and feet on the 

right. The inscription inside the shadow squares 

reads: 

It translates: "Decorated by the wretched "^Abd 

al-Karim 1216" (GS). 

Each of the seven plates is notched at 270°. 

One plate face contains 37 stereographically projected semi-horizons, one for every 2° between 

and including 22° and 90°. There are traces of 

unfinished obliquity scales on this face. The other 

plate faces all contain stereographically projected 

horizons, altitudes (every 6°), azimuths (every 

30°), and unequal hours. One plate face (for 

latitude 31°) contains a stereographically projected scale of equal Italian hours as well as the 

unequal hour scale. The plate faces are inscribed 

with the following latitudes and lengths of daylight: 

Face 

lb 

2a 

2b 

3a 

3b 

4a 

4b 

5a 

5b 

6a 

6b 

7a 

7b 

Latitude 

li-"ard 

li-"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ar4 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

42 

22 

33 

30 

48 

34 

31(?) 

35 

37 

36 

66 

38 

39 

Length of daylight 

sd"dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sd"dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sa "dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sa" atuhu 

sa "atuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sd" atuhu 

sd"dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

14 40 

12 ? 

14 12 

14 00 

16 00 

14 16 

14 16 (?) 

14 20 

14 28 

14 24 

24 00 

14 32 

14 36 

The rete design includes a counterchanged 
NUMBER 45 91 

jyri=L_^^ c ,. 

*k 

FIGURE 56.—Astrolabe No. 53. Front view of separate parts. 

equinoctial colure and a complete equator. The Capricorn circles and ecliptic divisions. The 

24 star pointers are bi-lobed flames. The ecliptic straight alidade contains a sundial scale on one 

is subdivided into 60 units of 6° each. Engraved side and the equal divisions of a sexagesimal scale 

lines on the back of the rete include equator and on the other arm. Each sighting plate is pierced 
92 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

FIGURE 57.—Astrolabe No. 53. Back view 
NUMBER 45 93 

with two holes, one above the other. The pin is a 

bolt with conical head. The ringlet is a flat circle. 

The wedge is boot-shaped. 

The inscription is in Arabic Naskhi. Except on 

the horizon plate, where some Hindu-Arabic numerals appear, abdjad numerals have been used. 

Remarks: The reading of the latitude on plate 

4b is uncertain; it may be "34" instead of "31. " 

The reading of the hours marked on this plate is 

also uncertain. It could be "14 04" instead of "14 

16." Construction guidelines are visible on many 

of the plates. Some engraved lines are double. 

Two of the scales on the rim of this astrolabe 

(upper left and lower right) measure altitude; the 

remaining two scales measure zenith distance. 

CCA No. 52 has also been attributed to this 

maker. 

CCA No. 54 

(FIGURES 58, 59) 

Date: A.H. 1196(1781] (GS). 

Signature: None. 

Components: Body with throne, handle, five 

plates, rete, pin, and wedge. 

Diameter: 98.5 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: The delicately pierced throne 

is decorated on the front and back with vines and 

flowers embossed on a stippled background. In 

addition, an inscription on the front of the throne 

reads: 

^-< o I B ll p. ^ I I ^j_iiJ l Jit, 

It translates: "He is the forgiver, O knower of 

mysteries" (GS). The date is inscribed on the 

back of the throne as follows: 

\ n i L ^ 

The handle is itself a high, pierced Moorish arch 

attached to a horizontal axis. The rim is inscribed 

with four contiguous scales of 90°, each proceeding in a clockwise direction. A blank gazetteer 

grid fills the front central area. There is a tooth 

at 270°. 

On the back of the astrolabe, the upper margin 

contains two altitude scales. The lower margin 

contains cotangent scales divided into feet (left) 

and fingers (right). Two arcs of a stereographically projected declination scale have been engraved in the upper right quadrant. The upper 

left quadrant contains sines for every five degrees 

and arcs marking the unequal hours. There are 

shadow squares in the lower quadrants divided 

into feet (left) and fingers (right). A quotation 

from the Koran, Chapter VI, Verse 59, is engraved along the outer edge: 

• jib ^\ L^-aJLa_i ^ • . .» II 

^^^ 1 -lib ^ 

j=*-r^^ J »r^' o-» "-^ r-^> 

\j L^ ^ l»...^ 

• LjiS ^ ^ 3l 

Sll 

Ky-f' 

FIGURE 58.—Astrolabe No. 54. ^Ankabut (left) and plates for latitudes 34° and 37' 
94 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

^: 4 

FIGURE 59.—Astrolabe No. 54. Back view. 
NUMBER 45 95 

The verse translates as follows: "And with Him 

are the keys to the unseen—none knows them but 

He; and He knows what is in the land and the 

sea; and there falls not a leaf but he knows it, nor 

a grain in the darkness of the earth, nor anything 

green or dry but [it is all] in a clear book." 

This astrolabe has five plates. Each is notched 

at 270°. One plate face contains eighteen semihorizons representing every 3° of latitude between 12° and 63°, as well as one complete 

horizon for 66°. Eight plate faces contain stereographically projected coordinates for single latitudes, including altitudes (every 6°), azimuths 

(every 10°), unequal hours, and equal Italian 

hours. One plate face (4b) contains, in addition 

to the coordinates engraved on the other faces, a 

set of equal Babylonian hours. On all singlelatitude faces, the latitude is inscribed accompanied by the word sd'^dtuhu. However, no hours are 

given. The latitudes are: 

Plate 

lb 

2a 

2b 

3a 

3b 

4a 

4b 

5a 

5b 

Latitude 

li-"ard 

li-"ard 

li-" ard 

li-" ard 

li-" ard 

li-" ard 

li-"ard 

li-"ard 

li- "ard 

34 

29 

35 

32 

33 

36 

39 

37 

38 

The rete pattern is remarkably symmetric. It is 

formed by curling vines and incorporates 13 

named stars. The ecliptic is subdivided into units 

of 6°. The Capricorn circle is decorated with an 

engraved chain. On the front of the rete there are 

traces of engraved colures and equator and Cancer circles. On the back of the rete there are traces 

of colures, equator circle, and arc divisions of the 

equator. The alidade is not counterchanged. 

There are crude equal divisions along the beveled 

edge of one arm. The sighting plates are pierced 

with two holes above the fiducial line. The upper 

hole is larger. The pin is a tapered bolt with a 

hemispherical head. The wedge is shaped like a 

duck. 

The inscription is Arabic Naskhi. 

Remarks: The attribution of this astrolabe to 

"^Abd al-Ghafur by Gunther was apparently 

based on the obvious similarity between its rete 

and the rete of an astrolabe signed by that maker 

(see No. 55). There are several indications that 

this is an unfinished work: there are no entries in 

the gazetteer; the declination scale is incomplete; 

no hours of daylight have been engraved on the 

plates. In designing the rete this maker has selected stars that preserve symmetry. All are correctly positioned. "Abd al-Ghafur projects these 

same stars on his instrument. 

CCA No. 55 

(FIGURES 60, 61) 

Date: A.H. 1198 [1783]. 

Signature: ^amal "^Abd al-Ghafur. 

Components: Body with throne, handle, five 

plates, rete, alidade, pin, wedge, and index arm. 

Diameter: 133.5 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: The throne is a high Moorish 

arch, decorated with vines and flowers embossed 

on a stippled background. There is inscription on 

front and back. The inscription on the front 

reads: 

O ^ o..'"'. ' Oj ) ••'*' ••' '3 • >—< o „i g 11 pjLc L_. 

KZJ I O Olll I I rt, tMlyS fLtti a • ' L-w I - • ^ I A >. I g 

and can be translated, "O knower of mysteries, 

they encompass nothing of His knowledge save 

what He will. His throne holds the heavens and 

the earth" (GS). The inscription on the back gives 

the date of the instrument. The handle is basically 

stirrup-shaped, but it has a high, pierced crown. 

The rim is divided by four contiguous scales of 

90°, each proceeding in a clockwise direction. 

There is a tooth in the front central area at 270°. 

In addition, a gazetteer has been inscribed there. 

It lists 46 places along with the longitude, latitude, and azimuth of Qibla for each. 

On the back of the astrolabe, the upper margin 

is divided by altitude scales. The lower margin 

contains cotangent scales divided into feet (left) 

and fingers (right). In the upper right quadrant 
96 

SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

FIGURE 60.—Astrolabe No. 55. Front view 
NUMBER 45 97 

FIGURE 61.—Astrolabe No. 55. Inscribed edge. 

there is a stereographically projected declination 

scale. For a transcription and translation of the 

inscription outside the outermost declination arc, 

see this catalog, CCA No. 59. In the upper left 

quadrant there are sine lines for every five degrees. The unequal hours are also engraved in 

this quadrant, identified with the phrases: 

which translates, "Lines of unequal hours" (GS). 

There are shadow squares in the lower quadrants, 

divided into feet (left) and fingers (right). A scale 

of triplicities has been engraved inside the 

squares. Its title is transcribed and translated in 

the description of CCA No. 37. The natures are 

identified using Persian terms. Outside the 

squares there are semicircular lists of planetary 

governors of terms, terms, zodiacal signs, planetary governors of faces, and lunar mansions. The 

signature fills a cartouche below the shadow 

squares. On the outside edge of the body of this 

instrument, there is an inscription which reads: 

a_o.^ J I yj I J^.«•^• 11 ^j-o AJ U L-> •^9-^ I 

0 - 9 il l U . ° I "• ' ^ . I iV II <-" 

I ^ o I 

^J ^ L_a-o 

^1 

^1 h ^^ 

Translated, it is: "I take refuge in God from the 

devil," followed by Chapter VI, verse 59 of the 

Koran (see p. 95). 

This astrolabe has five plates. Each of these has 

a notch at 270°. Nineteen semi-horizons have 

been engraved on one plate face; there is a horizon for every 3° of latitude from 12° to 66°. On 

this same face there are four scales useful for 

measuring declination. All other faces contain 

stereographically projected coordinates appropriate for a single latitude. The coordinates include 

altitudes (every 3°), azimuths (every 10°), unequal hours, and equal Italian hours. The faces 

are inscribed as follows: 

°late 

lb 

2a 

2b 

3a 

3b 

4a 

4b 

5a 

5b 

Latitude 

"ard 

"ard 

^ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

32 

29 

40 

33 

35 

34 

36 

37 

38 

Length of daylight 

sd"dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sd"dtuhu 

sa"atuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sd"dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

14 06 

13 14 

14 51 

14 12 

14 22 

14 17 

14 28 

14 37 

14 43 

The rete of this astrolabe exhibits remarkable 

symmetry. It is composed of curling vines, some 

of which form a Moorish arch inside the ecliptic. 

The arch is decorated with an embossed chain of 

leaves, as is the Capricorn circle. The ecliptic is 

subdivided into units of 3°. There are 22 inscribed 

star pointers. No construction guidelines are visible either on the front or on the back of the rete. 

The alidade is counterchanged about the center. 

There is no decoration, but each arm is divided 

into 60 equal units. The sighting plates are each 
98 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

pierced with two holes, a larger hole above a 

smaller one. The pin is a bolt with hemispherical 

head and doorknob-shaped tip. The wedge is 

shaped like a duck. This astrolabe is also fitted 

with a radial index arm decorated with embossed 

vines and flowers on a stippled background. 

The inscription is in Arabic Naskhi. 

Remarks: There is some evidence on the back 

of this carefully constructed astrolabe that the 

maker was interrupted in his work. The lengthy 

inscription in the upper right quadrant refers to 

lines marking the altitude of the noon sun at 

various latitudes, but the lines themselves have 

not been drawn. 

One other astrolabe bearing "Abd al-Ghafur's 

signature is in the Hermitage Museum, Leningrad, CCA No. 3669. 

CCA No. 57 

(FIGURES 62, 63) 

Date: A.H. 1202 [1787]. 

Signature: None. 

Components: Body with throne, handle, ring. 

seven plates, rete, alidade, pin, ringlet, and 

wedge. 

Diameter: 89 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: The uninscribed, undecorated, 

and unpierced throne is shaped like a scalloped 

triangle. The stirrup-shaped handle has a diamond cross-section, as does the ring. The rim is 

divided by a scale of 360°. The last division is 

marked 60 in abdjad numeraXs. There is a gazetteer 

in the front central area which lists 30 places and 

gives for each the longitude, latitude, and azimuth of the Qibla. 

On the back of the astrolabe the upper margin 

contains altitude scales. The lower margin contains cotangent scales divided into fingers (left) 

and feet (right). The upper right quadrant contains a rectangular multiple difference table entitled: 

J QOJ I ,J-«-9 

y^j 0-- Jl ^L>T 

which translates "Excess of Revolution / single 

years and tens of years" (GS). 

This quadrant also contains the following: ini 

^ 

FIGURE 62.—Astrolabe No. 57. "Ankabut (right) with plate for 36"^ 
NUMBER 45 99 

Q;,';li,'- iV-^^-p'^ - .> /(!' iK'T;^ 

FIGURE 63.—Astrolabe No. 57. Back view. 

scription: 

'a„.:>.::i ll 9 O^LM-H rt ^ Ic 'L^^j^jb rt_:**M ^ T • T 

which can be translated: "In the year 1202 of the 

Hejira may God's peace and salutations be upon 

him [the Prophet]" (GS). Twelve equally spaced 

sines and an equal number of cosines divide the 

upper left quadrant. Six arcs representing the 

unequal hours are graphed on this grid. Shadow 

squares divided into fingers (left) and feet (right) 

occupy the lower quadrants. Inside the shadow 

squares there is an untitled table of triplicities 

and a table of factors surmounted by the following inscription: 

J jj^ <^j^ -^ ' ^ J.y=' ^'- ^ oL-cL--
100 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

Translated, it reads "66° 30' latitude, longest day 

24 hours." The lower left quadrant contains the 

date "1153 Yazdijirdii.^^ 

The lower right quadrant contains the date "2098 

Alexandra.'" 

rt-.^^ •.'^... I Y • HA 

The astrolabe is fitted with seven plates, each 

notched at 270°. The faces of one plate contain 

only straight lines and circles. Five faces (la, lb, 

3a, 4a, 6a) contain a stereographically projected 

reference frame for a single latitude consisting of 

horizon, altitudes (every 6°), and unequal hours. 

One face (3b) contains a reference frame that 

consists of horizon, altitudes (every 6°), azimuths 

(every 10°), and unequal hours. Six faces (2a, 2b, 

4b, 5a, 5b, 6b) contain a reference frame consisting of horizon, altitudes (every 6°), unequal 

hours, and equal Italian hours. All faces containing the reference frame are engraved as follows: 

Plate 

la 

lb 

2a 

2b 

3a 

3b 

4a 

4b 

5a 

5b 

6a 

6b 

Latitude 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

26 

22 

29 

27 

34 

30 

36 

37 

34 

36 

40 

19(?) 

Length of Daylight 

sd" dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sd"atuhu 

sa" atuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sd" atuhu 

sd"atuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sd" atuhu 

13 21 

13 52 

34 

14 17 

13 57 

14 30 

36 14 

14 17 

14 22 

14 52 

15 

The rete exhibits a certain symmetry. In addition to vines and leaves it also includes a straight 

equinoctial bar and the lower portion of the 

celestial equator. There are only nine inscribed 

and one uninscribed star pointers. The ecliptic 

band is subdivided into units of 6°. The alidade 

is not counterchanged. There are six equal divisions (representing declination arcs) visible on 

one arm. On the other arm there are eight equally 

spaced divisons corresponding with the sine scale 

and at least three sundial divisions. Each collapsible sighting plate is pierced with three holes, 

none above the fiducial line. The pin is a cylinder 

with a hemispherical head. The ringlet has a 

scalloped edge. The wedge is a horse with a duck 

on its back. Eyes of both are drilled. 

The inscription is Arabic Naskhi. 

Remarks: The workmanship evident in this instrument is inferior. Several corrections in positioning and numbering of lines can be seen. The 

inscription on the rete is in an amateur hand. 

The sighting plates cannot be used accurately. 

The maker has used dotted lines to emphasize 

portions of the projections on the plates. The 

tables inside the shadow square and in the upper 

right quadrant compare with ones inscribed on 

No. 2569. It looks as though the maker of this 

astrolabe intended to include the contents of the 

upper right quadrant in the shadow squares. For 

some reason he changed his mind and shifted 

them to their present position. 

CCA No. 58 

(FIGURES 64, 65, 66) 

Date: A.H. 1234 [1818]. 

Signature: sana^^ahu Muhammad Akbar. 

Components: Rim with throne attached to 

backplate with throne, handle, ring, six plates, 

rete, alidade, pin, ringlet, and wedge. 

Diameter: 222 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: The throne is a broad Moorish 

arch, decorated (front and back) with an embossed dedicatory inscription. 

The handle is stirrup-shaped. The ring is quite 

thick. Four scales of 90° have been engraved on 

the rim. Two of these originate at 0° and two at 

180° There is a tooth projecting into the front 

central area at 270°. Inscribed on the front central 

area is a gazetteer that lists 70 places along with 

their longitude, latitude, and azimuth of the 

Qibla. 

On the back of the astrolabe there are altitude 

scales in the upper margin. In the lower margin 

there are cotangent scales divided into feet (left) 

and fingers (right). The divisions and inscription 

of the cotangent scale interrupt a band of engraved vines with leaves. The upper right quad-
NUMBER 45 101 

FIGURE 64.—Astrolabe No. 58. "Ankabut and alidade. 

rant contains a stereographically projected declination scale. Four lines marking the azimuth of 

the Qibla have been engraved on these declination arcs. They are marked Shiraz (bottom), 

Baghdad, Isfahan, Shustar. For a transcription 

and translation of the inscription relating to this 

scale, see CCA No. 49. There are also eight lines 

marking the altitude of the noon such for latitudes 

between 28° and 42°. For a transcription and 

translation of the inscription relating to this scale, 

see No. 59. In the upper left quadrant there are 

sines and cosines at sexagesimal intervals, as well 

as radii every 5°. There are shadow squares in the 

lower quadrants. These squares contain a scale of 

triplicities. The natures are identified using a 

combination of Arabic and Persian terms. Signature and date are inscribed in a cartouche 

below the shadow square. Five semicircular astrological scales occupy the lower quadrants between the shadow squares and the margin. These 
102 

SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

FIGURE 65.—Astrolabe No. 58. Gazetteer. 
NUMBER 45 103 

FIGURE 66.—Astrolabe No. 58. Back view. 
104 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

include a scale of planetary governors of terms, 

degree term divisions, zodiacal signs, planetary 

governors of faces, and lunar mansions. 

The astrolabe is fitted with six plates. Each of 

these has a notch at 270°. One plate is blank on 

one face except for three stereographically projected circles; the other face is divided into 

squares. A second plate has 19 quarter-horizons 

and four declination scales engraved on one face. 

The other face of the second plate contains stereographically projected coordinates for a single 

latitude. These include altitudes (every 2°), azimuths (every 10°), unequal hours, equal Italian 

hours, and equal Babylonian hours. Two plate 

faces (4b and 6b) contain these coordinates except 

for the equal Babylonian hours. Six plate faces 

contain only altitudes, azimuths, and unequal 

hours. The plate faces are inscribed with latitudes 

as follows: 

Plate 

2b 

3a 

3b 

4a 

4b 

5a 

5b 

6a 

6b 

Latitude 

li-"ard 

li-"ard 

ll-'' ard 

li- "ard 

li- "ard 

li-''ard 

li-''ard 

li- "ard 

li- "ard 

38 

22 

35 

29 

36 

37 

43 

34 

30 

Length of Daylight 

al-sd"dt 

al-sd"dt 

al-sd"dt 

al-sa"at 

al-sd"dt 

al-sd"dt 

al-sd"dt 

al-sa"dt 

al-sd"dt 

14 40 

13 21 

14 20 

13 52 

14 28 

14 34 

15 54 

14 17 

13 57 

The rete is quite symmetrical. It includes a 

counterchanged equinoctial colure as well as 

thick twining vines. The ecliptic circle is subdivided into units of 6°. An engraved vine decorates 

both Capricorn circle and equinoctial bar. There 

are 13 inscribed star pointers. The alidade has no 

counterchanges. Six stereographically projected 

declination arcs have been inscribed on one arm. 

The other arm is divided into 12 equal units 

along the beveled edge. There are five unequal 

divisions along the top. Each sighting plate is 

pierced with two holes; the upper is larger. The 

pin is a bolt with a doorknob-shaped tip. The 

ringlet is ocatagonal. The wedge is shaped like a 

duck. 

The alphabet employed by this maker is Arabic 

Naskhi, with Hindu-Arabic numerals designating 

the unequal hours on the plates. 

Remarks: Gunther translates the inscription on 

the front of the throne as follows: "Made by the 

order of Mahmud Mirza Kajary Said." According to Gunther the inscription on the back reads: 

"He is God, in accordance with the command of 

the son of the greatest Shah in the paradise-like 

city of Naharwand, the work of this slave Muhammad Akbar was accomplished." These readings are unconfirmed by Saliba. The gazetteer of 

this instrument is remarkable in that it includes 

all diacritical marks. The plates are quite heavy. 

The rete is much repaired. A second astrolabe 

signed by Muhammad Akbar (dated A.H. 1236) 

is in the Whipple Museum of the History of 

Science, Cambridge, England, CCA No. 1006. 

CCA No. 59 

(FIGURES 67, 68) 

Date: A.H. 1268 [1851]. 

Signature: sana''ahu Hamza. 

Components: Body with throne, handle, ring, 

four plates, rete, alidade, pin, ringlet, and wedge. 

Diameter: 90 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: The throne is a simple Moorish 

arch inscribed (beginning on the back and continuing to the front): 

^jLM**ill ^1 a ^^ jib Q-O JJJLE A^^^-OAJI ^^^J 

O^L- -b.l-s^JU i/l J.a_x_, ^j p U II Jftl ,j^ 

\ TIA • tS' ^ o-L: 

The inscription translates: "Donated by Hamza 

to whomever is in the charity house of the people 

of learning and not to be removed except with 

the permission of the teacher and under his supervision. May I be with them on the right path" 

(GS). The handle is shaped like a stirrup; it has 

a rectangular cross-section. The ring has a diamond cross-section. There is a scale of 360° on 

the rim. It is divided into 15° units, the first of 

these being marked "5 15" (in abdjad numbers) 

and the last "360." There is a tooth projecting 

from the rim at 270° A gazetteer has been en-
NUMBER 45 

105 

I 

FIGURE 67.—Astrolabe No. 59. "Ankabut and gazetteer. 
106 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

FIGURE 68.—Astrolabe No. 59. Back 
NUMBER 45 107 

graved on the front central area which lists 46 

place names with their longitudes, latitudes, azimuth of Qibla, and distance from Mecca. 

On the back of the astrolabe, the outer margin 

contains altitude scales in the upper half and 

cotangent scales of feet (left) and fingers (right) 

in the lower half. There is a stereographically 

projected declination scale in the upper right 

quadrant. Four lines have been engraved on this 

scale representing the azimuth of the Qibla at 

Tus (bottom), Isfahan, Baghdad, and Shiraz. For 

a transcription and translation of the inscription 

relating to these lines (inside the innermost declination arc), see No. 49. Also graphed on the 

declination arcs are fine lines representing the 

altitude of the noon sun at every 2° of latitude 

between 26° and 42°. An Arabic inscription outside the outermost declination arc relates to this 

graph: 

"iuo-s j^oJl ^^Jys—i\ (j_9 jL^_;<Jl LJLo-Jl ^^1^ ^ 

.L<_JI^ I ^ ^ 

It translates: "Circles of midday in the latitudes 

marked at their extremities" (GS). 

Sines and cosines have been engraved on the 

upper left quadrant at sexagesimal intervals. 

Shadow squares in the lower quadrants have been 

divided into feet (left) and fingers (right). A Persian inscription is engraved inside the squares: 

j->.^^ lS-Uft> ^„H- ^ J-zf-^' 

^ ^ ^^^^^ CJ^ "-^^ -T* ^ 

This is a poetic code (explained at CCA No. 61) 

for the rulers of the triplicities. It translates: "At 

night the second letter is kept in mind." There 

are five semicircular astrological scales outside 

the shadow squares, which are the planetary governors of terms, the term divisions in degrees, the 

zodiacal signs, the planetary governors of faces, 

and the lunar mansions. 

Each of four plates is notched at 270°. On one 

face there are engraved 51 quarter-horizons representing every degree of latitude between 12° 

and 62°. All remaining faces contain stereographically projected coordinates for a single latitude. 

On one plate (plate 2) these consist only of altitudes (every 6°) azimuths (every 10°), and unequal hours. The equal Italian hours have been 

added to other faces. The projections are identified with the following inscriptions: 

Plate Latitude 

lb li-"ard 

2a li-"ard 

2b li-"ard 

3a li-"ard 

3b li- "ard 

4a as-safiha mizdn 

al-" ankabut 

4b li-"ard 

Length of daylight 

26 sd" dtuhu 13 12 

33 sd"dtuhu 14 00 

30 sd"dtuhu 13 52 

35 sd"dtuhu 14 23 

34 sd" dtuhu 14 18 

36 sa"atuhu 14 27 

The relativity simple rete pattern includes a 

counterchanged equinoctial colure inside the 

ecliptic. A branching vine springs up from the 

lowest part of the Capricorn circle. There are 30 

inscribed star pointers. The ecliptic is subdivided 

into units of 6°. Lines making the colures, tropics, 

and equator are visible on the front of the rete. 

The alidade has no counterchanges. Both arms 

have been divided into 60 units along the beveled 

edge. On the flat of one arm there are portions of 

six stereographically projected declination arcs; 

on the other, there are five sundial divisions. Each 

sighting plate is pierced with two holes above the 

fiducial line. In each case the upper hole is larger. 

The pin is a bolt with hemispherical head. The 

ringlet has a rectangular cross-section. The wedge 

is shaped like a pistol. 

The Naskhi script is used to inscribe both 

Arabic and Persian phrases on this instrument. 

Remarks: Both Hamza's signature and the 

date appear in the lower margin of the back of 

the instrument. There are no other known astrolabes with this signature; however, the rete pattern adopted by Hamza is one used by makers in 

Isfahan (notably "^Abd al-A^imma) in the eighteenth century. Some dotted lines are used in the 

upper quadrants on the back of Hamza's astrolabe. 

CCA No. 61 

(FIGURES 69, 70) 

Date: A.H. 1281 [1864]. 

Signature: See "Remarks." 

Components: Body with throne (cast in one 
108 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

': wif.ji„.x-!i^,v>s->^, 

FIGURE 69.—Astrolabe No. 61. Front view. 
109 

NUMBER 45 

FIGURE 70.—Astrolabe No. 61. Back view. 
no SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

(_j-i—••v.o 

piece), handle, ring, five plates, rete, alidade, pin, 

and wedge. 

Diameter: 118.5 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: The throne is a high Moorish 

arch inscribed on both faces. The inscription on 

the front consists of a list of God, Muhammad, 

the 12 Imams, and a blessing, as follows: 

JI ^J'•^^>• (j<o"> i-o )l o-L f ijy-alarfuoJl 

I I.N n "v o I .»_,•, ^J-Ls^ ,\ It »• II O-s" 

n-

\-^j-i\ cr-J-C C^L£^\ 

O^ 

The blessing may be translated, "May the prayers 

and peace of God be upon them all" (GS). The 

inscription on the back consists of the following 

quotation from the Koran: ^ ^ 

.JyJl ^L ^ ^J\^J 

^ ^ \ \j. ^ 

. .j^oJl . H I I jSj^ ill 

It translates: "And lo! those who disbelieve 

would fain disconcert thee with their eyes when 

they hear the Reminder, and they say: Lo! he is 

indeed mad; when it is naught else than a Reminder to Creation" (GS). 

The handle is stirrup-shaped and has a diamond cross-section. The ring has no visible join; 

its cross-section is a flattened circle. The rim is 

divided into 360° The front central area contains 

a gazetteer consisting of 52 named places along 

with the longitude (measured from the Fortunate 

Isles), their latitude, the azimuth of the Qibla, 

and the direction of the azimuth of the Qibla for 

each. The back margin contains altitude scales 

divided into degrees in the upper quadrants and 

cotangent scales divided into feet (left) and fingers 

(right) in the lower quadrants. The upper right 

quadrant contains a set of stereographically 

projected declination arcs (separated by 10° or 6° 

intervals) intersected by graphs indicating (1) the 

altitude of the noon sun at 11 latitudes (beginning 

at 22° and separated by 3° intervals between 23° 

and 50°) and (2) the azimuth of the Qibla at Tus, 

Yazd, Isfahan, Basra, Baghdad, Shiraz, and Kufa 

(?). For transcriptions and translations of the 

inscriptions relating to these graphs, see CCA 

Nos. 49 and 59. The upper left quadrant is divided by both sines and cosines at sexagesimal 

intervals. Both lower quadrants contain shadow 

squares divided into feet (left) and fingers (right). 

A lengthy embossed inscription fills the area 

framed by the adjacent shadow squares. That the 

first line of this inscription, 

^fiKi^ (5vi-lfi> ^^H- - J-Tf"^ 

is a mnemonic for the astrological triplicities is 

suggested by the second line, which reads 

and may be roughly translated, "At night the 

second letter is kept in mind" (GS). The first 

letter in each "word" in the first line stands for 

one of the four natures: Ndri (fiery), Turdbi 

(earthy), Hawd^i (airy), Md^i (watery). The second letter represents the planetary lord of the day 

associated with that nature: Shams (sun), Zuharah 

(Venus), Zuhal (Saturn), and Zuharah (Venus). 

The third letter represents the appropriate planetary lord of the night: Mushtari (Jupiter), Qamar 

(moon) "^Utdrid (Mercury), and Mirrikh (Mars). 

The fourth letter represents those planets that, 

according to their nature, have dominion both 

day and night: Zuhal (Saturn), Mirrikh (Mars), 

Mushtari (Jupiter), and Qamar (moon). A name. 

Sahib "^Ali Kabir Khan, and date, 1281, are 

inscribed in a cartouche below the shadow 

squares. The following semicircular tables fill the 

area between the shadow squares and the cotangent scales (beginning with the outermost and 

proceeding inward): planetary governors of 

terms, terms, zodiacal signs, planetary governors 

of faces, and lunar mansions. (An unidentifiable 

semicircular scale lies between the cotangent scale 

and the table of planets; it is divided into unequal 

sections but not inscribed.) 

Eight plate faces are engraved with the standard network of lines including altitudes at 3° 

intervals and azimuths at 10° intervals. A latitude 

and length of daylight has been embossed below 

the horizon on each plate face as follows: 
NUMBER 45 

Plate 

lb 

2a 

2b 

3a 

3b 

4a 

4b 

5a 

Latitude 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

^ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

45 

22 

25 

28 

34 

30 

38 

32 

Length of daylight 

sa" dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sd"dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sd"dtuhu 

sd"dtuhu 

sa" dtuhu 

22 00 

13 21 

13 30 

13 42 

14 17 

13 36 

14 39 

14 07 

A ninth plate face (5b) contains the standard 

network (utilizing 3° and 10° intervals) supplemented by a stereographic projection of the Italian hours. The latitude and length of daylight 

embossed below the horizon are 36 and 14 18. 

The tenth plate (la) face contains stereographically projected colures, tropics, equator, and 

quarter-horizons for every degree of latitude between 14° and 66°; scales of declination (with 2° 

and 4° divisions, the latter inscribed) are also 

included. 

The rete is inscribed with the names of 27 stars. 

Its relatively simple pattern includes a counterchanged equinoctial colure and a modified Moorish arch in the area between the projection of the 

ecliptic circle and the Tropic of Capricorn. The 

ecliptic band is subdivided into units of 6°. Tropics, equator, and ecliptic divisions have been engraved on the back of the rete. The alidade is not 

counterchanged, but it includes a beveled fiducial 

edge and sighting plates, each pierced with two 

holes of slightly different diameter. The plates are 

separated by a distance of 71 mm. Scales engraved on the arms of the alidade include a set of 

declination arcs (distributed in the same way as 

the declination arcs on the back of the body), a 

scale of sexagesimal divisions, and a shadow scale. 

The pin is a bolt; the wedge is the head of an 

animal. 

The inscription is entirely Arabic Naskhi, except for the Hindu-Arabic numerals used to designate latitudes on the horizon plate. 

Remarks: The degree scale on the rim of the 

instrument is engraved as if it were going to be 

used as an altitude scale; the 5° divisions in each 

quadrant are numbered from "5 " to "90." In the 

selection and ordering of the series of cities in the 

inner circle of its gazetteer, the instrument closely 

111 

resembles Nos. 59 and 62. Scales and networks of 

lines are characterized by a lack of precision. The 

bolt, the wedge, and the sighting plate on the 

arm of the alidade engraved with declination arcs 

all appear to be modern replacements. The name 

in the cartouche below the shadow squares may 

be identified only tentatively as that of the instrument's maker. The possibility that he may be its 

owner is suggested by the fact that his signature 

differs noticeably from the other writing on the 

astrolabe. No other astrolabes have been attributed to this "maker." 

CCA No. 62 

(FIGURES 36, 71, 72) 

Date: A.H. 1281 [1864]. 

Signature: "amal "^Ala^ al-Din. 

Components: Body with throne, two rings, five 

plates, rete, alidade, pin, and wedge. 

Diameter: 120.5 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: The throne is broad and 

shaped like a bracket. It is decorated on front and 

back with two engraved parallel lines that follow 

the edges. The suspensory apparatus consists of 

two rings. The rim contains four scales of 90°. 

Two of these proceed clockwise starting at 0° and 

180°. Two scales proceed in a counterclockwise 

direction starting at 0° and 180°. The abdjad 

numbers identifying subdivisions of this scale are 

bracketed in groups of three. A tooth projects 

from the rim into the front central area. The front 

central area contains an incomplete gazetteer that 

lists 23 places and associates each with a longitude, a latitude, an azimuth of the Qibla, and a 

direction of the azimuth of the Qibla. 

The upper half of the outer margin on the back 

of this astrolabe contains altitude scales. The 

lower half contains cotangent scales divided into 

feet (left) and fingers (right). Stereographically 

projected declination arcs fill the upper right 

quadrant. Several lines have been engraved on 

these arcs, six representing the altitude of the 

noon sun at various unspecified latitudes and one 

representing the azimuth of the Qibla at an un-
112 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

-^"n> 

C . c -

•^-'•I'k ..„ ir*" -^i' . 

• ° p 

:-^/ t 

•^^€^ 

FIGURE 71.—Astrolabe No. 62. Front view of separate parts. 
NUMBER 45 113 

r 

FIGURE 72.—Astrolabe No. 62. Back view. 

known city. (For a transcription and translation 

of the inscription relating to the altitude scale, see 

CCA No. 59. For a transcription and translation 

of the inscription relating to the azimuth arcs, see 

CCA No. 49.) 

Sines and cosines have been engraved at sexagesimal intervals in the upper left quadrant. The 

radii of this quadrant are the diameters of two 

intersecting semicircles. Shadow squares in the 

lower quadrants have been divided into feet (left) 

and fingers (right). The area inside these shadow 

squares has been divided into a rectangular scale 

of triplicities. The natures are identified using 

Arabic terminology. The area outside the squares 
114 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

contains a cartouche inscribed with the signature 

and date and five semicircular astrological scales, 

including: the planetary governors of terms, the 

position of each term boundary within each zodiacal sign, the zodiacal signs, the planetary governors of the faces, and the lunar mansions. 

There are five plates. Four of these are notched 

at 270°. One is notched at 0°, 90°, 180°, and 

270°. One face of the plate with the four notches 

contains 53 quarter-horizons representing every 

degree of latitude between 14° and 66°. On this 

same face there are also four scales indicating 

declination. All other plate faces contain stereographically projected coordinates for a single latitude. On seven faces the coordinates include 

altitudes (every 3°), azimuths (every 10°), and 

unequal hours. On both faces of plate 5 the 

coordinates include altitudes (every 3°), azimuths 

(every 10°), unequal hours, and equal Italian 

hours. The plate faces are identified with inscriptions as follows: 

Plate 

lb 

2a 

2b 

3a 

3b 

4a 

4b 

5a 

5b 

ll 

h 

h 

ll 

ll 

ll 

h 

h 

It 

Latitude 

-''ard 45 

-^ard 22 

-^ard 24 

-^ard 28 

-^ard 34 

-"ard 32 

-^ard 30 

-"ard 36 

-^ard 38 

Length of daylight 

sd"dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sd"dtuhu 

sd"aluhu 

sd"dtuhu 

s a" dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

15 22 

13 21 

13 30 

13 00 

14 17 

14 7 

13 36 

14 27 

14 39 

The rete pattern incorporates a complete, 

counterchanged equinoctial colure. Most of the 

support for star pointers comes from a branching 

vine, which springs from the lowest point on the 

inner edge of the Capricorn band. There are 27 

inscribed star pointers. The ecliptic is subdivided 

into units of 6° There are a number of lines 

engraved on the back of the rete, including divisions of the ecliptic and Capricorn bands. The 

alidade is not counterchanged. One arm contains 

portions of six stereographically projected declination arcs. The other arm is divided into 60 

equal units along the beveled edge and into five 

sundial marks along the flat. The maker's signature and date are also inscribed on the alidade. 

Of the two holes in each sighting plate, the upper 

is larger. The pin is a bolt with a flat head. The 

wedge is shaped like a horse and includes engraved details. 

The inscription is in Arabic Naskhi. The equal 

Italian hours and the declination scale on the 

horizon face are marked with Hindu-Arabic numerals. 

Remarks: While this astrolabe appears to be 

functional, it is not impressively precise. Some 

divisions (as those in the upper left quadrant) 

seem crudely drawn. There are crude divisions on 

the horizon plate face. The alidade, pin, and 

wedge described in this catalog entry do not 

appear in photos taken by Hoffman. The latter 

two (pin and wedge) apparently replaced the 

screw and wing nut photographed by Hoffman. 

CCA No. 63 

(FIGURES 73, 74) 

Date: See "Remarks." 

Signature: See "Remarks." 

Components: Body with throne, handle, eight 

plates, rete, alidade, pin, and wedge. 

Diameter: 128 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: The throne is quite high and 

triangular in shape, with scalloped edges. On the 

front of the throne, large embossed letters spell 

out the beginning of the throne inscription: "His 

throne includes the heavens and the earth" (see 

CCA No. 39). On the back of the throne there is 

a lengthy engraved inscription which reads: 

J ^ • 6y>^ ^ ^ yjs.:^^ a^L uP^j J ^ 

Jai. -,1 , p ,^ 4 • ^jySJ^ ^.•:...' 1^ ?^3^ '^•^^ 

^ji^.^ I jib L ^ 

<\ on V n rtS<n 

(see "Remarks" for translation). The handle is 

shaped like an elongated stirrup. A scale of 360° 

divides the rim. The first division is marked "5, " 

J ' 

t5J> ''" 
NUMBER 45 115 

FIGURE 73.—Astrolabe No. 63. Gazetteer. 

the last, "360," in abdjad numerals. There is a 

tooth projecting into the front central area at 

270°. Engraved on the front central area is a 

gazetteer with longitude, latitude, azimuth of the 

Qibla, and direction of Mecca for 42 named 

places. The inscription is incomplete. 

On the back of the astrolabe, altitude scales 

divide the upper margin. The lower margin contains cotangent scales divided into feet (left) and 

fingers (right). The upper right quadrant contains 

equally spaced declination arcs. Seven lines representing the azimuth of the Qibla have been 

graphed on these arcs. The lines are identified as 

follows: 

jLjiJLo 

or: Multan (lowest), Shustar, Qandahar, Tus, 

Isfahan, Basra, and Medina. The inscription inside the innermost declination arc provides instructions for finding the Qibla: 

J ,j„.a^ J aJaL 'LJ >>il.inc *^j)o (jj»-

,L_:iJI rtl-^ o . •i<: FL-aJi^l vjL-j <^\ ".si rtUi ^j-j Jt , i> ?fOj J5 

^ I _• ° >-• a Jill <^ o,Xu> ^>-9l 9 ij l >—> n.jrtM) &S J 

^ %^ fc^HI' ' 

In the upper left quadrant, there are 13 equally 

spaced sine lines. In addition, there are radii every 

5°. The shadow squares in the lower quadrants 

are divided into feet (left) and fingers (right). 

There is a scale of triplicities inside the squares. 

The natures are identified using both Arabic and 

Persian terms. Outside the squares, there are three 

semicircular astrological scales: zodiacal signs, 

lunar mansions, and planetary governors of the 

zodiacal signs. The inscription in each division is 

contained within brackets. 

The astrolabe has been fitted with eight plates, 

each notched at 270°. Plate face la is illegible. 

Plate 2a contains altitudes, and 3a contains altitudes marked at every 6°, unequal hours, and an 
116 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

FIGURE 74.—Astrolabe No. 63. Back view. 
NUMBER 45 117 

arch of unknown significance. All remaining faces 

contain altitudes (every 6°) and unequal hours. 

There is only one inscription identifying the latitude of the stereographically projected coordinates. It is on plate 8a and reads "34 98 ^ard 34." 

The rete is relatively simple. It includes a complete equinoctial colure and part of the equator 

defined by a scalloped band. In all, there are 22 

inscribed star pointers. There are no subdivisions 

on the ecliptic band. Engraved colures and Capricorn circle are visible on the front of the rete. 

The alidade has no counterchanges and no markings. Each sighting plate is pierced with two holes. 

The pin is a bolt with hemispherical head and 

doorknob tip. The wedge is shaped like a horse. 

The alphabet employed by the maker is Arabic 

Naskhi. 

Remarks: This astrolabe is quite similar, especially in the content and arrangement of the 

gazetteer, to CCA No. 3811. According to 

Gunther, the entries in the gazetteer are explained 

in the inscription on the back of the throne: 

"Longitude and latitude of countries are recorded 

on the Hajrah. Longitude from the Observatory 

of Greenwich, London. Latitude from the Equator as is well known, is taken from dictionaries 

(?), and the direction from Mecca extracted from 

the European sine of the shadow. All completed 

by Mirza Jahan Bakhsh." There are no other 

instruments with this signature. There are several 

indications on this instrument that the maker was 

a careless worker. For example, the sine scale does 

not originate at the center of the back of the 

astrolabe. The declination arcs, some of them 

dotted, are quite carelessly drawn. Altitudes and 

hour divisions are also carelessly projected. 

CCA No. 64 

(FIGURE 75) 

Date: Ca. A.D. 1850. 

Signature: None. 

Components: Body with throne, handle, ring, 

four plates, rete, alidade, pin, and wedge. 

Diameter: 148 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: The throne is shaped like a 

Moorish arch and pierced with three large holes. 

The handle is basically shaped like a stirrup, but 

its top is shaped like a Moorish arch. The ring is 

a scalloped circle with rectangular cross-section. 

The rim contains a scale of 360°. The first subdivision is marked "5; " the last, "360" in abdjad 

numerals. Inscribed in the front central area is a 

worn gazetteer which lists 23 legible places and 

associates each with a longitude, latitude, and 

azimuth of the Qibla. A small post interrupts this 

inscription near the rim at 270°. 

On the back of the astrolabe, altitude scales 

occupy the upper margin. In the lower margin, 

there are cotangent scales divided into feet (left) 

and fingers (right). The upper right quadrant is 

blank. Sines have been engraved in the upper left 

quadrant. The lower quadrants are occupied by 

shadow squares divided into feet (left) and fingers 

(right). 

There are four plates. Three of these are 

notched at 270°; one is notched at 0°, 90°, 180°, 

and 270°. One face of the multi-notched plate 

(3a) is inscribed with 28 quarter horizons representing every 2° of latitude between 12° and 66° 

There are also four scales of declination along the 

outer ends of the projected colures. All other plate 

faces, including the reverse of the horizon plate, 

contain a sterographically projected network of 

coordinates for a single latitude. On plate faces 

la, 2a, 3b, and 4a these coordinates include altitudes (every 2°), unequal hours, and equal Italian 

hours. On plate faces lb and 2b these coordinates 

include altitude (every 2°), azimuths (every 5° or 

every 10°), and unequal hours. Plate face 4b 

contains altitudes, azimuths, unequal hours, and 

equal Italian hours. The plates are inscribed as 

follows: 

Plate Length of daylight 

la 

lb 

2a 

2b 

3b 

4a 

4b 

Latitude 

"ard 30 00 

"ard 28 00 

"ard 38 05 

"ard 36 00 

"ard 42 08 

"ard 34 00 

"ard 32 00 

sd dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sd"dluhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

13 57 

[?] 39 

14 38 

14 29 

15 04 

14 17 

14 07 

The rete pattern includes a straight equinoctial 
118 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

FIGURE 75.—Astrolabe No. 64. "Ankabut. 

colure and a portion of celestial equator between 

ecliptic and Capricorn band. The central support 

of the celestial equator is shaped like foliage. 

There are 22 inscribed star pointers. The ecliptic 

is subdivided into units of 6°. The alidade is not 

counterchanged, inscribed, or decorated. There 

are two holes and a notch above the fiducial line 

on each sighting plate. The pin is a bolt with 

hemispherical head and doorknob tip. The wedge 

is shaped like a horse with engraved details. 

The alphabet employed by this maker is Arabic 

Naskhi. 

Remarks: This astrolabe is almost identical 

with CCA No. 2566. The rete of one is the image 

of the rete of the other, except that the rete of 

No. 2566 has one more star pointer than that of 

this astrolabe. Any identifying inscription that 

may once have been on the "extra" pointer has 

since been obliterated. The gazetteers are also 

alike in content and arrangement. The similarity 
NUMBER 45 119 

is obvious even though the gazetteer of this instrument is partially obliterated. The rim divisions appear carelessly executed. The same can 

be said of the sine lines in the upper left quadrant. 

There are numerous dents and scratches on the 

back of this astrolabe. Carelessness is also evident 

in the inscription on the plates. The rete of this 

astrolabe is less finely cut than the rete of No. 

2566, and the back of this astrolabe seems incomplete. Thus, the evidence suggests that the astrolabe being described in this entry may be a copy 

of the astrolabe described in No. 2566 or that 

both astrolabes derive from a third, as yet unidentified, instrument. The approximation of the 

date of this instrument is based on the placement 

of the stars on the rete, and, if one accepts the 

premise that workmanship has declined over 

time, the quality of the workmanship. 

CCA No. 65 

(FIGURES 33, 76, 77) 

Date: Ca. A.D. 1750 

Signature: None. 

Components: Body with throne, handle, ring, 

four plates, rete, alidade, pin, and wedge. 

Diameter: 114 mm. 

Material: Brass 

Characteristics: The throne is unsigned, undecorated, and unpierced. Its shape is a broad, 

symmetric Moorish arch. The stirrup-shaped 

handle has a triangular cross-section. The ring 

has a circular cross-section. The rim is divided by 

a scale of 360°. The last unit is inscribed with the 

abdjad numeral "60." The front central area contains a gazetteer listing 46 place names along 

with the latitude, longitude, azimuth of the 

Qibla, and direction of azimuth for each place 

named. 

There is an altitude scale in the upper margin 

on the back of this instrument. A cotangent scale 

divided into feet (left) and fingers (right) fills the 

lower margin. A stereographically projected declination scale divides the upper right quadrant. 

Upon it have been graphed lines representing the 

altitude of the noon sun for every 2° of latitude 

between 28° and 40°, and lines representing the 

FIGURE 76.—Astrolabe No. 65. "Ankabut and alidade. 

azimuth of the Qibla for Tus (bottom), Isfahan, 

Baghdad, and Shiraz. The inscription inside the 

innermost declination arc relating to the azimuth 

graph is transcribed and translated in the description of CCA No. 49. The inscription outside the 

outermost declination arc relating to the altitude 

graph is transcribed and translated in the description of CCA No. 59. Sixty sines and as many 

cosines divide the upper left quadrant. The two 

lower quadrants contain shadow squares divided 

into feet (left) and fingers (right). Outside these 

squares are semicircular astrological scales of 

planetary governors of terms, term divisions, zodiacal signs, and planetary governors of faces. 
120 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

4a 

4b 

"ard 36 00 

"ard 38 00 

sa" atuhu 

sd"dtuhu 

14 27 

14 39 

FIGURE 77.—Astrolabe No. 65. Back view. 

Each of the instrument's four plates is notched 

at 270°. Plate face la contains only projected 

quarter-horizons, one for each degree of latitude 

between 14° and 66°. All other plate faces contain a stereographically projected reference frame 

for a single latitude, consisting of a horizon and 

altitudes (every 3°), azimuths (every 10°), unequal hours, and astrological houses. The plate 

faces are inscribed as follows: 

Plate 

lb 

2a 

2b 

3a 

3b 

Latitude 

"ard 42 00 

"ard 28 00 

"ard 30 00 

"ard 32 00 

"ard 34 00 

Length of daylight 

sd"dtuhu 15 07 

sd"dtuhu 13 47 

sd" dtuhu 13 56 

sd"dtuhu 14 07 

sd"dtuhu 14 n 

The rete's design incorporates an inverted 

Moorish arch between the ecliptic band and the 

Capricorn band. A counterchanged portion of 

the equinoctial band connects the ecliptic with 

the central circle. The ecliptic band is subdivided 

into units of 3° There are 23 inscribed star 

pointers. Straight lines and circles are engraved 

on the back of the rete. The alidade arm contains 

on one arm divisions coinciding with the declination scale and on the other arm divisions coinciding with the sine/cosine grid and sundial 

divisions. Each sighting plate is pierced with two 

holes, with the upper larger. The pin is a bolt 

with flattened hemispherical head and doorknob 

tip. The wedge is shaped like a duck. 

The alphabet employed by the maker is Arabic 

Naskhi. 

Remarks: Several aspects of its design distinguish this instrument from other astrolabes with 

which it can be compared. The embossed and 

stippled decoration typical of other eighteenthcentury astrolabes made in the Middle East is 

notably lacking on this example. Engraved vines 

and flowers surround only one astrological scale. 

There is no scale of triplicities inside the shadow 

squares. The stereographically projected horizon 

reference frames are arranged on the plates in 

order of increasing latitude. Such an arrangement 

of plate faces is rare among Eastern makers. 

Finally, the plate faces contain house divisions 

distinct from the unequal hours, another practice 

rarely found among Eastern makers. These distinguishing elements combine with resembling elements. The rete, for example, has affinities with 

the rete of CCA No. 40. The selection and arrangement of the gazetteer is similar to that found 

on CCA No. 25. A dot emphasizes every fifth 

degree subdivision of the rim scale; this is also the 

case on No. 40. On this instrument the numeral 

signifying "90" on the right-hand altitude scale 

forms a design with the numeral signifying "90" 

on the left-hand altitude scale. The maker uses 

dotted lines to emphasize every fifth sine/cosine. 

A few errors mar the astrological scales. The 

unequal hours are named rather than numbered. 
NUMBER 45 121 

FIGURE 78.—Astrolabe No. 66. Front view of separate parts. 
122 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

CCA No. 66 

(FIGURES 78, 79) 

Date: Ca. A.D. 1750. 

Signature: None 

Components: Body with throne and handle, 

ring, five plates, rete, alidade, pin, wedge. 

Diameter: 89 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: The high, Moorish archshaped throne is decorated on the front with the 

following inscription: 

n „• h g 11 (^ I g 11 3^ 3 

It can be translated as follows: "His throne holds 

the heavens and earth and He is not fatigued by 

keeping them and He is the High, the Great" 

(GS). The handle, cast in one piece with the 

throne, is a pierced disk. The ring has a circular 

FIGURE 79.—Astrolabe No. 66. Back view. 
NUMBER 45 123 

cross-section. The rim is divided by four scales of 

90°, two commencing at 0° and proceeding clockwise and counterclockwise, and two commencing 

at 180° and proceeding clockwise and counterclockwise. The scales are subdivided into units of 

6°, each inscribed with a^<//a</numerals. The front 

central area contains a gazetteer listing 23 place 

names along with the longitude, latitude, azimuth of the Qibla, and direction of azimuth for 

each. 

Altitude scales divide the upper margin of the 

back of this astrolabe. The lower margin contains 

cotangent scales divided into fingers (left) and 

feet (right). The upper right quadrant contains 

declination arcs and two lines apparently representing the azimuth of the Qibla for latitudes not 

given. One line is marked "Qibla." The upper 

left quadrant contains 30 sine lines. Shadow 

squares divided into fingers (left) and feet (right) 

occupy the lower quadrants. 

All five plates are notched at 270°. Plate face 

la is divided by 28 quarter-horizons, one for every 

2° of latitude between 10° and 66°. Horizons for 

14° and 22° have been omitted. Three other plate 

faces (lb, 2a, 2b) contain stereographically projected horizon, altitudes (every 6°), azimuths (every 10°), unequal hours, and equal Italian hours 

for a single latitude. Six plate faces contain horizon, altitudes, azimuths, and unequal hours only. 

The plate faces are inscribed as follows: 

mte 

lb 

2a 

2b 

3a 

3b 

4a 

4b 

5a 

5b 

Latitude 

"ard 

li-"ard 

li-''ard 

li-'' ard 

li-'~ ard 

li-^ard 

li-''ard 

li-"ard 

li-"ard 

37 

30 00 

32 00 

34 00 

36 00 

37 

37 07 

40 

Length of daylight 

sd"dt 

as-sd"dt 

as-sa "at 

as-sd"dt 

as-sd"dt 

as-sa at 

as-sd"dl 

as-sd"dt 

sd"dt 

14 32 

13 53 

14 08 

14? 

14 31 

14 34 

15 35 (?) 

15 14 

A remarkably symmetric rete pattern is 

formed by vines and flowers. Inside the ecliptic 

band vines form a fleur de lis. The ecliptic band 

is subdivided into units of 6°. There are only 13 

recognizably inscribed star pointers. The alidade 

is neither counterchanged nor inscribed. The 

sighting plates are not pierced. The pin is a bolt 

with flattened hemispherical head and 

doorknob tip. The wedge is trapezoidal. 

The maker has used Arabic Naskhi alphabet 

with some Hindu-Arabic numerals (hours). 

Remarks: The workmanship evident in this 

instrument is of notably poor quality. Only the 

horizon plate escapes this assessment. The 

divisions on the back of the instrument are 

imprecise, though each is correctly numbered. 

Markings on plates 2-5 are consistently poor. 

The divisions on the rete's ecliptic band are 

uneven and identified with carelessly formed 

and poorly placed numerals. The alidade is nonfunctional. 

CCA No. 70 

(FIGURES 80, 81) 

Date: A.H. 1020 [1611]. 

Signature: "^Ali ben ""Awad al-Mahmudi. 

Components: Body with throne (cast in one 

piece), handle, ring, rete, pin (with threads), and 

"wedge" (a square nut). 

Diameter: 85.5 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: The high Moorish arch-shaped 

throne is pierced with five large holes and a small 

hole for the stirrup-shaped handle. The small ring 

exhibits no visible join. The rim is divided into 

72 5° divisions (outer scale) and 360 1° divisions 

(inner scale). The 5° divisions are identified by 

abdjad numerals, proceeding clockwise beginning 

with a "5 " in the first division to the right of 90° 

and ending with a "60" in the division to the left 

of 90°. The front central area contains a gazetteer 

listing 25 cities and their latitudes. 

The back margin contains altitude scales in the 

upper quadrants. The margin in the lower quadrants is divided into inscribed 5° and uninscribed 

1° cotangent scales. The upper left quadrant is 

divided by radii into 18 5° sectors; in addition, it 

is divided by a series of 11 roughly parallel and 

equally spaced horizontal lines. Finally, 10 concentric arcs of circles tangent to the parallel lines 

also divide the upper left quadrant. The upper 
124 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

'^ uAat, 

FIGURE 80.—Astrolabe No. 70. Gazetteer (top) with "ankabut. 

right quadrant is divided into seven concentric 

bands of equal width. These are crossed by two 

prayer lines, inscribed awwal az-zuhr It- "ard 38 

(upper line) and awwal al-"asr (lower line). The 

outer six of the concentric bands are numbered 

so as to suggest that they represent zodiacal divisions. The lower two quadrants are divided by 

shadow squares. Phrases which on any other instrument would be considered titles of shadow 

square scales are written along diagonals of the 

squares of this instrument: zill al-asdbi" (on the 

left diagonal) and zill al-aqddm (on the right diagonal). The date of the instrument is inscribed 

inside the shadow squares. The maker's signature 

appears outside the lower border of the squares. 

No plates belonging to this astrolabe have been 

preserved. 

The rete is inscribed with the names of 25 stars. 

The ecliptic band is subdivided into units of 6° 

A few construction guidelines appear on the back 

of the rete. The pattern of the openwork is relatively simple, consisting of a counterchanged, 

complete equinoctial bar and an arc of the projected celestial equator. 

A screw with cylindrical head and a square nut 

hold the rete inside the body. No alidade is 

preserved. 

Both scales and signature are inscribed in Arabic Naskhi. 

Remarks: This instrument is functional, but 

rather carelessly engraved. (For example, on the 

rim scale, the symbol for 100 also identifies divisions 200 and 300.) The back of the astrolabe 

bears a striking similarity to one "finished" by 

Muhammad Saffar in A.H. 882 [1477].^°^ 'AH ben 

"^ Awad's signature is known to appear on a second 

astrolabe, preserved in the Topkapi Museum in 

Istanbul (CCA No. 3705). 

CCA No. 85 

(FIGURES 82, 83) 

Date: Ca. A.D. 1682. 

Signature: Qasim "^Ali Asturlabi Qa^ini. 

Components: Body with throne, handle, ring, 

six plates, pin, and wedge. 
FIGURE 81.—Astrolabe No. 70. Back view. 
126 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

FIGURE 82.—Astrolabe No. 85. Front view of separate parts. 
NUMBE

R 45 

127 
128 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

Diameter: 244 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: The throne is a pierced Moorish arch with six lobes and 44 holes, including a 

hole for the handle; decoration consists of embossed vines and flowers on a scored background. 

The stirrup-shaped handle has a diamond crosssection, as does the ring. The rim is divided into 

a scale of 360°. In addition to 5° and 1° subdivisions of this scale, there are also lines which 

subdivide each degree into thirds. The front central area is engraved with a gazetteer consisting 

of 91 recognizable place names (and two unknowns), along with latitude, longitude, and, in 

a few cases, length of daylight. The following 

phrase has been engraved in the center of gazetteer: 

(^ •• . I ii ,jJLc ( ^)(—>SK-o ^j-f tr ^ >Xo.-ai>.a diSJ L ^ 

>l ••• o , < aJ l w-<3-C 9 I ..ii>. V - V \-> (^ ) rt>^„. ."^ 2-0J3 

• y^j^ 

It translates: "Its owner Muhammad Taqi son of 

Muhib [?] ^Ali Qa^'ini [may it ward off the wrath 

of God]" (GS). 

The back margin contains both altitude scales 

divided into degrees and cotangent scales (fingers 

left, feet right). Equally spaced arcs and a prayer 

line are engraved in the upper right quadrant; 

the upper left quadrant is divided by sines at 

sexagesimal intervals and by declination arcs contiguous with those in the upper right quadrant. 

Both lower quadrants contain shadow squares: 

tangent and cotangent scales divided sexagesimally on the left, and tangent and cotangent 

scales divided into feet on the right. A table of 

triplicities (Persian titles) has been engraved inside the box formed by the shadow square scales, 

a cartouche below the shadow squares is inscribed 

with the signature. Six semicircular tables fill the 

remaining area of the two lower quadrants: zodiacal signs, lunar mansions, planetary governors 

of terms, term divisions, planetary governors of 

faces, and face divisions. There are no engraved 

details or original markings on the edge of the 

instrument. 

Of the six plates, three are engraved on both 

faces with the stereographic projection of the 

horizon for a single latitude, altitudes (every degree on plates 3 and 5, every 2° on plate 6), 

azimuths (every 6° except on plate face 6a, which 

is marked every 3°), unequal hours, and equal 

Italian hours. Two other plates are similar to 

these three. Plate 2a is marked with altitudes 

every 5°, 2b every 3°, 4a and 4b every 2°, and 2a 

is marked with azimuths every 5°, 2b every degree, and on faces 4a and 4b every 6°, except that 

one face of each (2b and 4b) has no hour projections, and one face (2a and 4a) has no equal 

Italian hours. (Plate faces 2b, 4a, and 4b, have 

coordinates for two latitudes.) Plate lb contains 

only horizon, altitudes (every 2°), and azimuths 

(every 6°), and plate la contains parts of stereographically projected horizons for every degree of 

latitude. The horizon plate face also contains four 

declination scales subdivided into units of 6°. The 

plates are identified as follows: 

Plate 

lb 

2b 

3a 

3b 

4a 

4b 

5a 

5b 

6a 

6b 

Latitude 

safiha mizdn 

al- "ankabdt 

"ard 18 

"ard 72 

li- "ard 22 

li- "ard 25 

ll- "ard la 

"ard tis "in 

"ard 24 

"ard kan(?) khafi (?) 

ll- "ard 27 

It- "ard 29 

It- "ard 32 

li- ^ard 36 

Length oj 

sd"atuhu 

sd "atuhu 

sd"dtuhu 

sd"atuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sd"dtuhu 

sd"dtuhu 

' dayligl 

13 

13 

13 

13 

13 

14 07 

14 28 

The pin holding the plates in the body is a 

bolt with a flat head. The wedge is a pin with a 

rectangular head. 

Except for some Hindu-Arabic numerals 

designating equal hours on the plates, all 

inscription is Arabic Naskhi. 

Remarks: Both rete and alidade are missing 

from this instrument. The engraver has made 

use of dotted lines on plate faces and in a few 

places on the body of the astrolabe. Only four of 

the spaces in the gazetteer set aside for length of 

daylight have been completed. Workmanship of 

varying quality is evident in the plates. On plate 
NUMBER 45 129 

6 the projections on the faces are displaced by 

90° from the orientation of the projections on 

the other plates. Azimuths show signs of having 

been re-engraved on plates 2 and 4. A second 

astrolabe signed (and dated) by Qasim "Ali is in 

the History of Science Museum, Oxford, 

England, CCA No. 1219. 

CCA No. 86 

(FIGURES 84, 85) 

Date: A.H. 1053 [1643]. 

Signature: sana''ahu Muhammad Muqim ben 

"Isa ben al-Hadad Asturlabi Hamayoni Lahori. 

Components: Body, throne, handle, ring, five 

plates, rete, alidade, pin, and wedge. 

Diameter: 144 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: The throne is basically triangular in shape, decorated with lobes and fillets. It 

is covered front and back with plates attached 

with rivets. The handle is stirrup-shaped; the ring 

is a corrugated circle. The rim is divided into four 

90° scales. The front central area contains a 

gazetteer listing 77 places along with their geographic latitude and longitude. Diacritical marks 

are used throughout. 

On the back of the astrolabe, the upper half of 

the margin contains two altitude scales. The 

lower half of the margin contains cotangent scales 

divided into feet (right) and fingers (left). Six 

equally spaced declination arcs divide the upper 

right quadrant. Two noon lines are graphed on 

these arcs. The upper is inscribed khatt nisJ annahdr li "^ard 27; the lower is inscribed khatt nisfannahdr li- "^ard 32. Thirty equally spaced sines and 

cosines divide the upper left quadrant. Shadow 

squares divided into feet (right) and fingers (left) 

have been engraved in the lower quadrants. In 

the area bounded by these squares are two concentric semicircular tables: the outer is a table of 

zodiacal signs; the inner is a table of lunar mansions. The signature is inscribed inside the astrological tables; the date is inscribed below the 

shadow square. 

Each of the five plates is notched at 270° Plate 

face la is inscribed with 32 stereographically 

projected horizons, one for every 2° between 4° 

and 66°. This face also carries scales which measure the degrees of arc between the projected 

equator and the tropics. On the back of this face 

is one which is divided only by stereographically 

projected altitudes (every 6°) and azimuths (every 10°). Eight other plate faces contain stereographically projected horizon, altitudes (every 6° 

or every 3°), azimuths (every 10° or every 6°), 

unequal hours, and equal Italian hours. Two of 

these (2b and 3b) also have equal Babylonian 

hours. The projections are identified as follows: 

•'late 

lb 

2a 

2b 

3a 

3b 

4a 

4b 

5a 

5b 

Latitude 

safiha mizdn 

al- "anka[b]ul 

li-"ard 36 

li-"ard 

li-"ard 

li-"ard 

li-"ard 

li-"ard 

li-"ard 

li-"ard 

36 

40 

31 

32 

25 

22 

Length of daylight 

sd" dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sd"dtuhu 

sd"dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sd" atuhu 

sd"dtuhu 

14 

14 

14 

14 

14 

14 08 

13 

13 

The rete pattern is comprised of trailing vines, 

trained to form a monogram inside the ecliptic. 

The ecliptic is rather crudely divided. Only one 

star name is legible; it is Qalb al-^Aqrab (at 

approximately 257° right ascension). The 

alidade is not counterchanged; it carries no 

inscription. Each sighting plate is pierced with a 

single hole. The pin is a bolt with hemispherical 

head and doorknob-shaped tip. the wedge is a 

small trapezoid. 

The alphabet used by this maker is Arabic 

Naskhi. 

Remarks: It is possible that the covers over 

the throne hide a delicate, pierced design 

characteristic of other astrolabes from Lahore. 

Certainly the use of dotted lines on the body 

and on the plates is consistent with this 

acknowledged origin. The plates on which these 

dotted lines are used to designate altitudes and 

azimuths (1, 3, 5) are notably more accurate 

than the two plates which use only continuous 

lines for these projections. These latter two 

plates, along with the rete and the alidade. 
130 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

FIGURE 84.—Astrolabe No. 86. Front 

view of separate parts. 

^^y-:^t--^--•-•: :^-fe:., 

l-p. It''' ' 

it^'':^^T'^M; ••rv>' '\\- \^^. 

v^:%-' 
NUMBER 45 131 

f'ysswiagtt, 

FIGURE 85.—Astrolabe No. 86. Back 

view of separate parts. 

' '.^^wiJij ^ 

'^y-t 

i^^ -
132 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

probably are not the work of Muhammad 

Muqim. The rim scales measure both altitude 

(in the upper left and lower right quadrants) 

and zenith distance (in the upper right and 

lower left quadrants). 

The Computerized Checklist of Astrolabes lists 24 

other instruments by Muhammad Muqim, 

including two on which he had collaborated 

with his brother Qa^im Muhammad (Nos. 69 

and 3820). Examples of Muqim's work in the 

United States include an astrolabe in the 

Peabody Museum in Salem, Massachusetts 

(CCA No. 3655), and one at Yale University, 

New Haven, Connecticut (CCA No. 3807). 

CCA No. 87 

(FIGURES 23, 86, 87) 

Date: A.H. 1070 [1659]. 

Signature: ["amal aqall al-'ibad] Diya^ al-Din 

Muhammad ben Qa^im Muhammad ben Mulla 

"Isa ben Shaikh al-Hadad Asturlabi Hamayoni 

Lahori. 

Components: Body, handle, ring, five plates, 

rete, alidade, pin, and wedge. 

Diameter: 88 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: The throne is a pierced Moorish arch formed by intertwining vines. The stirrup-shaped handle has a rectangular cross-section. The ring has a lens-shaped cross-section. 

Four 90° arcs, each divided into units of 6° 

occupy the rim. There is a gazetteer in the front 

central area that lists 38 places along with the 

geographic longitude and latitude of each. The 

band of place means is introduced by the phrase 

asmd" al-buldan. 

The upper half of the margin on the back of 

this astrolabe contains altitude scales divided into 

units of 6° and 2°. The lower half of the margin 

contains cotangent scales divided into feet (right) 

and fingers (left). The upper right quadrant contains a set of six equally spaced declination arcs. 

Two prayer lines have been graphed on these. 

The upper is identified khatt nisf an-nahdr li-'^ard 

27; the lower is identified khatt nisf an-nahdr li-''ard 

32. The upper left quadrant is divided by 30 

equally spaced sine lines. There are shadow 

squares in the lower quadrants divided into feet 

(right) and fingers (left). The signature and date 

are each inscribed inside the shadow squares. 

Two semicircular tables of zodiacal signs and 

lunar mansions fill the area between the shadow 

squares a,nd the lower margin. 

Each of the five plates is notched at 270°. Plate 

face la contains the stereographic projections of 

32 quarter-horizons, one for every two degrees of 

latitude from 4° to 66°. Opposite this face is a 

face containing only stereographically projected 

altitudes (every 6°) and azimuths (every 10°). All 

other plate faces contain, in addition to stereographically projected altitudes and azimuths, the 

unequal hours and both the Italian and the Babylonian equal hours. The projections are identified as follows: 

''late 

lb 

2a 

2b 

3a 

3b 

4a 

4b 

5a 

5b 

Latitude 

safiha mizan 

at-" ankabut 

It 

h 

It 

It 

h 

ll 

ll 

h 

-"ard 

-"ard 

-"ard 

-"ard 

-"ard 

-''ard 

-"ard 

-"ard 

36 

[?] 

1 

32 

22 

24 

18 

20 

Length of daylight 

sd "dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sd"dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

14 

[?] 

14 05 

13 

13 05 

13 14[?; 

The rete pattern incorporates a decorative bar 

and a bird's head inside the ecliptic. A 

symmetric pattern of vines connects the Tropic 

of Capricorn to the center of the rete. No star 

names have been inscribed. The division line on 

the ecliptic corresponding to the first point of 

Aries corresponds with 110° when the muri is 

aligned with 90°. 

There are no counterchanges in the 

uninscribed alidade. A single hole above the 

fiducial line pierces each plate. The pin is a bolt 

with hemispherical head. The wedge is a 

rectangle. 

The alphabet employed by the maker is 

Arabic Naskhi. 

Remarks: The obvious difference in quality 

between the body of this astrolabe and the 
NUMBER 45 133 

FIGURE 86.—Astrolabe No. 87. Gazetteer. 
134 SMITHSONIA

N STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

various separable parts suggests that the latter 

were not the works of Diya'' al-Din. The rete is 

unquestionably nonfunctional. The numbers 

identifying altitudes on the plate faces do not 

correspond to specific divisions. There are 

several stray arcs among the projected hour 

lines. The body is itself characteristic of the 

Lahore school. Many of its divisions are marked 

by dotted lines. The throne is delicately pierced. 

The scales on the rim can be used to measure 

both altitude (in the upper left and lower right 

quadrants) and zenith distance (in the upper 

right and lower left quadrants). 

The Computerized Checklist of Astrolabes lists 25 

other astrolabes signed by Diya^. Five of these 

are in the United States, including three in the 

collection of the Adler Planetarium in Chicago: 

one dated A.H. 1047 [1637] (CCA No. 2558), one 

dated A.H. 1057 [1647] (CCA No. 1095), and 

one dated A.H. 1071 [1660] (CCA No. 2554). 

The example in the Brooklyn Museum in New 

York (CCA No. 3555) is undated; the example 

in a private collection (CCA No. 3809) is dated 

A.H. 1073 [1662]. 

CCA No. 88 

(FIGURES 35, 88, 89) 

Date: Ca. A.D. 1750. 

Signature: See "Remarks." 

Components: Body with throne, handle, ring, 

five plates, rete, alidade, pin, and wedge. 

Diameter: 159.5 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: The high, Moorish arch-

shaped throne is pierced in a symmetric pattern 

and decorated with an engraved vine and flowers 

and leaves. The stirrup-shaped handle has a rec-

tangular cross-section. The ring has a double-

lunate cross-section. The rim is divided into 360°. 

The last unit is marked with the abdjad numeral 

signifying "360." The front central area was pre-

pared to accommodate a gazetteer of 70 place 

FIGURE 87.—Astrolabe No. 87. "AnkabUt with plates. 
NUMBER 45 135 

FIGURE 88.—Astrolabe No. 88. Back view. 
136 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

ML41JL 

sasssJSKWWW"**^ 

r ^ 

FIGURE 89.—Astrolabe No. 88. Inscribed edge. 

names. Only 47 places are listed, however, along 

with the latitude and longitude of each. 

On the back of this astrolabe, the upper margin 

is divided by altitude scales. The lower margin 

contains cotangent scales divided into fingers 

(left) and feet (right). The upper right quadrant 

contains an equally spaced declination sc^le. 

Lines representing the beginning and end of the 

prayer al-"asr and the sunset line are graphed 

onto these declination arcs. Sixty sine lines divide 

the upper left quadrant. There are shadow 

squares divided into fingers (left) and feet (right) 

in the lower quardrants. 

One of the five plates is notched at 0°, 90°, 

180°, and 270°. One face of this plate contains 

the projections of quarter-horizons for every 2° of 

latitude between 4° and 66°. This same plate 

face contains four obliquity scales subdivided into 

units of 6° and ending at 23°30'. Remaining 

plates are notched only at 270°, and remaining 

plate faces each contain a stereographically projected horizon reference frame for a single latitude. On plate face 4b this network consists only 

of a horizon, altitudes (every 6°), and azimuths 

(every 10°); the zodiacal signs are also named on 

this face. Plate face lb contains only horizon, 

altitudes (every 5°), azimuths (every 10°), and 

unequal hours. All other plate faces contain horizon, altitudes (every 3°), azimuths (every 10°), 

unequal hours, equal Italian hours, and equal 

Babylonian hours, the inscription on the plate 

faces reads as follows: 

Plate 

lb 

2a 

2b 

3a 

3b 

4a 

4b 

5a 

5b 

Latitude 

30 

21 40 

25 

27 

31 50 

36 00 

mizan al-"ankabut 

"ard 38 00 

"ard 45 00 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

Length of daylight 

sd" dtuhu 

sd"atuhu 

sd"atuhu 

sd"atuhu 

sa "atuhu 

sd"dtuhu 

sd"atuhu 

13 21 

13 35 

13 44 

14 8 

14 30 

14 42 

15 28 

The relatively symmetric pattern of the rete of 

this astrolabe is formed by twining vines. There 

is a complete, counterchanged (once) equinoctial 

colure. The ecliptic band is subdivided into units 

of 6° There are 31 inscribed star pointers; on 

them a small dot marks the part of the flower 

which represents the star. Circles have been engraved on the back of the rete. One arm of the 

alidade contains divisions corresponding to the 

placement of the declination arcs in the upper 

right quadrant. Divisions corresponding to the 

sine scale have been inscribed on the other arm. 

A single small hole pierces the sighting plates. 

The pin is a bolt with a hemispherical head. 

There is a washer functioning as a ringlet. The 

wedge is shaped like and decorated to resemble a 

horse's head. 

The inscription is Arabic Naskhi. 

Remarks: The pierced throne, relatively fragile 

rete, division of cotangent scale, and content of 

gazetteer all suggest that this instrument is of 

Indian origin. It is unusually thick (9.5 mm). No 

latitude is given for which the prayer lines in the 
NUMBER 45 137 

upper right quadrant would be appropriate. The 

sine scale has been carelessly inscribed, but the 

other workmanship appears to be of good quality. 

The rete is in excellent condition. The alidade 

appears to have been cast in one piece. 

A name, Sahibuhu Maghfur al-Husayni al-Jilani, has been engraved on the edge of this astrolabe near the top. Since the hand is different from 

that of the other inscription on the astrolabe, it 

seems likely that the name identifies an owner 

rather than a maker. 

CCA No. 144 

(FIGURES 25, 90) 

Date: A.H. 704 [1304]. 

Signature: Ahmad ben Husain ben Baso. 

Components: Rim with throne riveted to backplate with throne, handle, ring, ten plates, rete, 

alidade, pin, and wedge. 

Diameter: 166.5 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: Both front and back faces of 

the throne are engraved with the details of trifid 

flowers. Three holes, in addition to a handle hole, 

pierce its Moorish arch-shaped form. The handle 

is a stirrup with a diamond cross-section. The 

ring also has a diamond cross-section. The rim is 

engraved with a scale of 360°. The engraved lines 

in the front central area essentially constitute a 

stereographic projection of altitudes and azimuths for latitude 90°. Altitudes are projected 

every 6°; azimuths, every 10°. 

The outer margin of the back contains two 

altitude scales in the upper portion and two 

cotangent scales in the lower portion. A scale of 

the zodiacal signs follows the perimeter of the 

quadrant area just inside the outer margin. An 

eccentric calendar scale borders the quadrant 

area just inside the zodiac scale. The vernal equinox (Aries, 0°) on the latter scale coincides with 

the date 14.5 March on the former. A scale of 

unequal hours has been engraved in the upper 

left quadrant. The signature and date are inscribed in the upper quadrants. Two shadow 

squares, both graduated into finger units, fill the 

lower quadrants. 

Each of the ten plates includes a tooth. On 

eight of the plates and on the body the inscription 

is in Kufic script of the maghribi type. Of the 16 

faces on these plates, 9 (lb, 3a, 3b, 4a, 4b, 5a, 5b, 

6a, and 6b) contain stereographically projected 

horizon, altitudes (every 6°), azimuths (every 

10°), unequal hours, and prayers: plate 10b contains only horizon, altitudes, and azimuths (every 

6°); five (8a, 8b, 9a, 9b, and 10a) contain horizon 

and houses; la contains only horizons and altitudes (every 6°). The plates are identified with 

the following inscriptions: 

Plate Inscription 

l a li-jdmi" al-"urild 

lb "ard Ghamdta wa kull balad "arduhu 37 30 

3a ^ard Mecca wa kull balad "arduhu 21 40 

3b "ard Iskandaria wa kull balad "arduhu 31 

4a "ard Mardkesh wa kull balad "arduhu 30 

4b "ard Fds wa kull balad "arduhu 33 

5a "ard Sinna [.^] wa kull balad "arduhu 35 20 

5b "ard al-Jazirah wa kull balad "arduhu 34 30 

6a "ard al-Ria[?\ wa kull balad "arduhu 36 30 

6b ^ard Malagha wa kull balad "arduhu 31 

8a "ard 36 30 

8b "ard 33 

9a madhhab al-Ghafdr "ard 37 30 

9b madhhab Batlamyus[?\ "ard 37 30 

10a madhhab Hermes "ard 37 30 

10b [no identifying inscription] 

Two of the plates are inscribed in Arabic Naskhi script. Of the four faces on these, one (2a) is 

blank and three contain stereographic projections 

of horizon, altitudes (every 6°), azimuths, unequal hours, and prayers. The projections are 

located as follows: 

Plate Inscription 

2b "ard al-Madina al-Munawwarah wa kull balad 24 

"arduhu 

7a "ard Qustantiniyah wa kull balad 41 

"arduhu 

7b "ard Adrina wa kull balad 42 

"arduhu 

The rete of the astrolabe incorporates 27 star 

pointers, each consisting of a pierced ball or trefoil 

base and a hook pointer. An engraved star name 
138 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

FIGURE 90.—Astrolabe No. 144. "Ankabut and alidade. 

can be identified with each pointer. The ecliptic 

is subdivided into 6° units. The alidade has a 

central semicircle and half brackets at the ends of 

its arms. Its beveled fiducial edge is not interrupted by counterchanges. One arm of the alidade is divided by 60 (along fiducial line) and 12 

equally separated lines and by 5 lines separated 

by unequal distances. No numbers or letters appear on these scales. The boltlike pin has a semicircular head and a doorknob-shaped tip. The 

wedge is shaped like a bird with a long beak. Eyes 

and headfeathers have been engraved on the 

basic shape. 

Remarks: Two black depressions on either side 
NUMBE

R 45 139 

of the handle hole may have been holes, which 

were filled in. The third month on the calendar 

scale is spelled Mars. On the shadow squares, a 

single designation az-zill al-mabsut extends below 

both tangent scales. On two plates, the line of 

morning prayer is designated qaws ash-shafaq. On 

one of these, both the afternoon and the evening 

prayer are also so designated. The metal of the 

two plates engraved in Naskhi script is not as 

highly polished as that of the other plates. It is 

unlikely that these plates are the work of Ahmad 

ben Husain. 

The Ahmad signature appears on three other 

astrolabes: CCA No. 132 dated A.H. 664 [1265] 

and now in the Reale Academia de Historia, 

Madrid; CCA No. 1080 dated A.H. 704 [1304], 

now in the Societa Ligure de Storia Patria; and 

CCA No. 1203 dated A.H. 709 [1309], now in a 

private collection in Europe. 

CCA No. 186 

(FIGURES 11, 26, 91) 

Date: Ca. A.D. 1475 (see "Remarks"). 

Signature: None. 

Components: Body with throne, handle, ring, 

six plates, rete, alidade, pin, wedge, and index. 

Diameter: 105 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: The uninscribed armilla fixa has 

Moorish affinities. Engraved leaves decorate the 

front. The handle is stirrup-shaped with diamond 

cross-section. The ring has an oval cross-section. 

The outer circular band on the rim is divided 

by a scale of 24 hours. The inner circular band is 

divided by scales of 360° composed of units of 5° 

and 1°. Stereographically projected tropics and 

equator are the only engraved lines on the front 

central area. 

The outer margin of the back contains four 

altitude scales (one in each quadrant). The cir-

cular band inside these scales is divided by a 

zodiacal scale. An eccentric calendar scale is en-

graved just inside the zodiacal scale. The vernal 

FIGURE 91 .—Astrolabe No. 186. Plates for latitudes 37°, 40°, 

and 48° 
140 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

equinox corresponds to 10.5 March. A scale of 

unequal hours has been engraved in the upper 

quadrants. Two shadow squares (divided into 

finger units) have been engraved in the lower 

quadrants. The inscription is Latin. 

Four of the six plates have a tooth at 90°. Plate 

6 has a notch at 90°; plate 5 has neither tooth 

nor notch. Each plate face is engraved with the 

stereographic projection of horizon, altitudes (every 5°), azimuths (every 5°), and unequal hours. 

The altitudes and the unequal hours are identified with inscribed numerals only on plate 5a. 

Each face is inscribed as follows: 

Plate 

la 

lb 

2a 

2b 

3a 

3b 

4a 

4b 

5a 

5b 

6a 

6b 

City 

Sicilie 

Emed 

Alexandrie 

Damascum 

Venetie 

Parisius 

Neapolis 

Tvnini 

Castelli 

Roma 

Prvgis 

Rotomagvs 

Latitude 

37 

35 

31 

33 

45 

48 

40 

38 

43 

42 

52 

50 

The rete design incorporates a complete counterchanged east-west bar, a partial counterchanged meridian, and upper and lower equinoctial arcs. Twenty flame-shaped star pointers 

are inscribed with the Latin names of stars. One 

uninscribed star pointer is shaped like an anthropoid stick figure. The ecliptic circle is subdivided 

into units of 10° and 1°. Three of the star names 

are engraved on the backs of their respective 

pointers. 

The alidade is counterchanged about the center. It has a beveled fiducial edge and diagonal 

ends. Each sighting plate is pierced with two 

holes; the lower hole is larger. The pin is a 

cylinder with a hemispherical head. The wedge 

is shaped like a pin with a head. The index arm 

is radial with beveled edges and a pointer near 

the center. 

Remarks: The numerals identifying the unequal hours 10, 11, and 12 on the scale of the 

back of this astrolabe are mirror images of the 

correct numerals. The anthropoid figure incorporated into the rete appears to point to the star 

y Bootis. The right ascension of a Leonis is 141° 

The assumed date is based on information conveyed by the zodiacal calendar and the rete. 

CCA No. 204 

(FIGURES 92, 93, 94) 

Date: A.D. 1548. 

Signature: I Galois. 

Components: Body and throne plate, handle, 

ring, rete, alidade, pin, wedge, and index arm. 

Diameter: 150 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: The throne is shaped like a 

high crown. On the back it has been inscribed 

with the word "MIDI. " The stirrup-shaped handle includes decorative disks at the ends of the 

crossbar. 

The margin of the front face of the body plate 

is divided by five concentric circular scales. 

The outermost of these is a wind-circle with 

12 divisions inscribed, "*MERIDIES* / 

LIBO*NOTVS / APHRICVS* / *OCCIDENS* / CHORVS* / CIRCIVS* / *SEPTENTRIO* / BOREAS* / VVLTVRNVS* / *ORlENS* / EVRVS* / EVRO*AVSTER. " Next 

innermost is a scale of 24 equal hours inscribed 

with Hindu-Arabic numerals as two scales of 12 

hours. Next is an uninscribed scale of 360° 

marked at intervals of 1°. Next is an uninscribed 

scale of 72 5° units. The innermost marginal scale 

measures altitude; it consists of 72 inscribed 5° 

units. The front central area contains the stereographically projected horizon coordinates for latitude 48°. Projected lines include horizon (inscribed at left, "P PRIMA HORA DIEI" and 

on the right, "PRIMA HORA NOCTIS"), altitudes (every 3°), azimuths (every 10°), houses 

(12), and unequal hours. 

The marginal scales on the back of the astrolabe include (from outermost to innermost) an 

uninscribed scale of 360° marked in 1° units, a 

scale of zodiacal degrees marked in units of 5°, a 

zodiacal scale, an uninscribed scale of 366 days, 

an inscribed scale of day-groups, and a scale of 

months. The vernal equinox corresponds to 10.5 
NUMBER 45 141 

z 

FIGURE 92.—Astrolabe No. 204. Front view. 

March. A semicircular table (giving the sign of have been engraved in upper and lower quadthe zodiac, the mediation [see page 56], the name, rants. The signature and date are inscribed below 

the magnitude, and the declination of 20 stars) the shadow squares, 

and shadow squares (divided into units of fingers) The rete is a simple design, incorporating a 
142 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

FIGURE 93.—Astrolabe No. 204. Back view. 

complete equator and complete solstitial and 

equinoctial colures. An "8 " has been engraved at 

270° on the Capricorn band; a "Q " has been 

engraved at 90°. There are 20 flame-shaped star 

FIGURE 94.—Stdffler's table of fixed stars, including parameters identical to those inscribed on the back of Astrolabe 

No. 204. This rendition appears on folio 17 verso of Elucidatio 

Fabricae Ususque Astrolabii (Oppenheym, 1512). 
NUMBER 45 143 

^o» L. Et ttolc cqptons 8^ybi rcgula tangit diamcmim^ Ch* pm^^ 

tcpcdcmvniimciramalioinccmro.c.ffantcmhocpundum:e^aVc^^^^ 

to vcrtc pcdcm mobilcmmlmeam occultam Sdimprimcnotam que propofitc ftdic 

fi^oaageaimalnslkUistabuIeJmponcndocuilibctffgnodu^ 

ABVLA STELLAR FIXAR 

continens earum longitudinem Fm cell mediationem dechV 

nationcs,»partcs ftCmagiiitudmes earundcm* 

pgcm6 Orftopcie, 

Dcyrmm Uritg perfWl 

Ca.ptie<>ijf»i» ~ 

y6ciim0^Auri. 

Gimfjgr peg <6riowit 

Cdnie mM^t* 

CAni6 min^r* 

g>^ifufnX^»fng« 

2V)»eer i^uimrud <6rioni6 

Caput €femini antccs^tntie, 

Capiat Cctntfti fftt»mng 

Ccrui>^ynie» 
144 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

pointers, 18 of which are identified with Latin 

inscriptions. The ecliptic is divided into 180 units 

of 2° and 36 units of 10°. The alidade is counterchanged about its center. The words "LINEA 

FIDVCIE" and "ALHIDADA" are engraved on 

the arms. The index is complete, counterchanged 

about the center, and inscribed with the words 

"LINEA FIDVCIE" on each arm. An "8 " has 

been engraved on one arm of the index; a "Q " 

on the other. A rivet serves as pin. The wedge is 

in its simple form. 

Remarks: There are a number of clues embodied in this instrument which indicate that the 

maker consulted an edition of Johannes Stoffler's 

Elucidatio Fabricae Ususque Astrolabii. The scales 

and projection on the front of this instrument are 

similar to those Stoffler describes and illustrates. 

But the most convincing clue can be found on the 

back of the work marked "I. Galois." The parameters in Galois's table of star names are exactly 

those given in Stoffler's "Tabulae stellarum fixarum." Nineteen of the entries come from Stoffler's table giving the mediation or mediationem for 

certain stars; one entry comes from Stoffler's table 

giving stellar longitude.^"^^ The 20 stars listed on 

the back of Galois's astrolabe are the same stars 

incorporated into Galois's rete. 

There are some errors in the calendar scale: six 

day divisions between 19 April and 26 April; six 

day divisions between May 19 and May 26; five 

day divisions between 24 December and 1 January. The engraver has employed both a Gothic 

" 4" and a sixteenth-century "4" in inscriptions 

on this instrument. 

The marks "8 " and "Q " on the rete and the 

moveable index resemble the symbols used to 

indicate conjunction (Q) and opposition (8) in 

astrology and astronomy. 

No other instruments are known to have been 

signed by Galois. 

CCA No. 221 

(FIGURES 14, 32, 34, 95) 

Date: A.D. 1542. 

Signature: M.P. 

Components: Rim, backplate, throne, handle, 

ring, four plates, rete, alidade, pin, wedge, and 

index arm. 

Diameter: 207 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: The triangular throne is 

formed by two symmetric scrolls topped by a 

disk. The stirrup-shaped handle has a revolving 

attachment for holding the ring. 

The outer band of the rim is divided by a scale 

of 24 equal hours (numbered 1 to 24 in HinduArabic numerals). The inner band is divided by 

four altitude scales. In between these bands is a 

band divided into 360 equal parts. The front 

central area is blank. 

Marginal scales on the back include a band of 

four altitude scales, a band divided into 360 equal 

parts, a band containing the 5° subdivisions of a 

zodiacal scale, and a band containing 12 equal 

divisions, each identified with a zodiacal symbol. 

Inside the zodiacal scale is an eccentric calendar 

scale, the months inscribed in Latin. The vernal 

equinox coincides with 10.5 March. The upper 

right quadrant contains a scale of unequal hours. 

The upper left quadrant contains a scale of equal 

hours constructed for use at a latitude of approximately 48° 15' (Munich?). Shadow squares divided into finger units are engraved in the lower 

quadrants. The initials of the maker and the date 

have been inscribed below these squares. 

All four plates have a tooth at 90° Except for 

one (la) which has only a series of stereographically projected horizons, all plate faces have horizon, altitudes (every 2°), azimuths (every 10°), 

houses (seven to twelve), and unequal hours. 

These latter conventional plate faces are inscribed 

with the following latitudes: 

Plate Latitude 

lb 36 

2a 41 

2b 43 30 

3a 45 

3b 47 

4a 49 

4b 51 

The rete has an east-west bar that is counterchanged twice, and the lower half of a meridian 
NUMBER 45 145 

FIGURE 95.—Astrolabe No. 221. Back view. 

bar. The remaining strapwork consists of intersecting arcs of circles. There are 21 flame-shaped 

star pointers. Each of these is inscribed with a 

Latin star name, sometimes in combination with 

a zodiacal symbol. The ecliptic is subdivided into 

units of 2° and 10°. There are no markings on 

the back of the rete. 

The sighting plates of the counterchanged alidade are each pierced by a slit above a hole, both 

in the plane of the fiducial edge. The pin is 
146 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

cylindrical with a flat head. The wedge is a 

rectangle. The radial index arm has a beveled 

edge and a curved bracket design at the outer 

end, similar to that which decorates the ends of 

the alidade. 

Remarks: The initials "M.P." are characteristic of the Munich clock- and compass-maker Markus Purmann, who marked some of his work with 

his initials. All known instruments with Purmann's initials are sundials, however, and all date 

from a period at least 40 years after the date on 

this astrolabe. 

CCA No. 262 

(FIGURES 12, 96, 97, 98) 

Date: MDXXXVII [or A.D. 1537]. 

Signature: Georgivs Hartman Norenberge. 

Components: Body with throne, handle, ring, 

four plates, rete, alidade, pin, wedge, and index 

arm. 

Diameter: 160 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: The throne is a triangle, composed of three disks and decorated with the details 

of rosettes. The ends of the axle of the stirrupshaped handle are decorated with rosettes. The 

ring has a circular cross-section. 

The relatively wide rim of this instrument contains three different circular scales. The 12 divisions of the outermost scale are inscribed with the 

Latin names of the winds. Roman numerals 

(identified as two groups of 12 hours) mark off 24 

equal hours on the next band. Inside the hour 

scale are four altitude scales. Stereographically 

projected tropics, equator, and colures have been 

engraved on the front central area. In addition, 

the following inscribed phrase is barely visible 

between the equator and the Tropic of Cancer: 

"Appartenne a Galileo Galilei;" just outside the 

Tropic of Capricorn at 270° there has been engraved a small "12." 

Three different circular scales divide the margin of the back. These include a set of four 

altitude scales (outermost circle), a zodiacal scale 

with 5° subdivisions identified with Roman numerals (middle bands), and a concentric calendar 

scale (inner band). The vernal equinox coincides 

with 10 March. A scale of unequal hours fills the 

upper quadrants. A double-headed eagle decorates the circle defined by the sixth-hour lines. 

Two shadow squares, divided into fingers, have 

been engraved in the lower quadrants. The area 

inside the left square is decorated with an eagle 

with a human head. Half the area inside the right 

quadrant is decorated with an eagle; the other 

half is decorated with diagonal bars. 

Each of the four plates has a tooth at 90°. 

Every plate face (except 3b) contains at least the 

following stereographically projected lines: horizon and altitudes (every 2°). Five plate faces also 

contain stereographically projected azimuths (every 10°), unequal hours, and houses. On plate 3a, 

only equal Italian hours supplement the basic 

projection. On plate 4a, the basic projection is 

supplemented by azimuths (every 10°), houses, 

and by both unequal hours and equal Italian 

hours. Plate face 3b is badly scratched; it contains 

no projected lines. The projections are identified 

with the following inscriptions: 

Plate Latitude 

la LATITV GRA XL VIII 

lb LATITV GRA XLV 

2a LATITV GRA LIIII 

2b LATITV GRA LI 

3a [no inscription] 

4a LATITV GRA XLII 

4b LATITV GRA XXXIX 

In addition to the identifying inscription along 

the meridian between the equator and the 

Capricorn circles, the degrees of latitude for each 

face have been engraved in Hindu-Arabic numerals on the tooth. A small "12" has been 

engraved just outside the Capricorn circle on 

faces lb, 2b, and 3b. 

The rete design incorporates a multiply counterchanged (six times) east-west bar. Other structural supports are made up of strings of arcs. The 

star pointers are 27 pierced bulbar sickles. Each 

is identified with a Latin inscription. The ecliptic 

circle is subdivided into units of 6°. The ecliptic 

divisions and the Capricorn circle have been engraved on the back of the rete; a small "12" has 

been engraved at 270°. 
NUMBER 45 147 

FIGURE 96.—Astrolabe No. 262. View of body with inscription. 
148 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

FIGURE 97.—Astrolabe No. 262. Back view. 

The alidade is counterchanged about the center. Its sighting plates collapse; each is pierced 

with two holes in the plane of the beveled fiducial 

edge. A small "12" has been engraved on the 

underside. The pin is a bolt, the head of which is 

decorated with a five-petalled rosette. The wedge 

is shaped like a pipe. The radial index arm is 

divided by a scale of celestial declination. A leaf 
NUMBER 45 149 

= < '•/ / 

'W'iW 

/ \/7 - /• J : , . • • -

\ 2 )*s^--xr--^'-<«...._ / 

•'/ / 

FIGURE 98.—Astrolabe No. 262. A plate without identifying inscription (upper left) is 

compared with plates for 39°, 45°, and 51° 

design decorates its end. A small "12" and some 

straight lines have been engraved on the underside. 

Remarks: Surviving examples of Georg Hartman's work indicate that he made at least 22 

astrolabes in the period between A.D. 1525 and 

1548. All of these, except a gilt example preserved 

in the Rijksmuseum voor de Geschiedenis det 

Naturwetenschappen in Leyden and a paper example preserved in the Museum of the History of 

Science in Oxford, are made of brass. Other 

Hartman astrolabes in collections in the United 

States include one dated 1537 (CCA No. 3035) at 

Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut, and 
150 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

one dated 1540 (CCA No. 267) in the Adler 

Planetarium in Chicago. 

Hartman's astrolabes have a distinctive style, 

and this example is typical. The inscription in the 

front central area relating to Galileo is in a hand 

different from that used to inscribe the rest of the 

instrument. The functional inscription and the 

signature can be traced to the sixteenth century. 

The sixteenth-century Diirer "4" used on some 

scales is a telling bit of evidence. The lines engraved on the back of the rete and on the back of 

the index arm may be interpreted as construction 

guidelines. 

CCA No. 304 

(FIGURES 15, 99) 

Date: Ca. A.D. 1450. 

Signature: See "Remarks." 

Components: Rim with throne attached to 

backplate with throne, handle, ring, rete, alidade, 

pin, wedge, and index. 

Diameter: 145 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: The armilla fixa is a simple design consisting of three lobes. The ends of the bar 

of the stirrup-shaped handle are decorated with 

FIGURE 99.—Astrolabe No. 304. Front view. 
NUMBER 45 151 

six-petalled rosettes. The rim is divided by two 

scales of 12 hours (outer circle) and a scale of 12 

minute intervals (inner circle). Stereographically 

projected horizon, altitudes (every 4°), azimuths 

(every 15°), and unequal hours for "LA 52" fill 

the front central area. 

The outer margin of the back is divided into 

four altitude scales. A circular zodiac scale (subdivided into units of 15°) divides the margin just 

inside the altitude scales. An eccentric calendar 

scale has been engraved just inside the zodiac 

scale. The date of the vernal equinox is 11 March. 

Two shadow squares (incorporating finger units) 

divide the lower quadrants. The inscription is in 

Latin. 

There are no separable plates. The rete design 

incorporates a Y-shaped structure inside the ecliptic and a double-linked equinoctial band between 

the ecliptic and the Tropic of Capricorn. There 

are 13 star pointers, only 11 of which are identified with Latin inscriptions. The two uninscribed 

pointers are the head and tail of a dragon. Except 

for a face with a long nose (inscribed "Vega"), 

all other pointers are flame-shaped. The ecliptic 

is divided partly into units of 15° (lower portion) 

and partly into units of 10° (upper portion). 

The alidade is counterchanged about the center. It is uninscribed. Each of the two sighting 

plates has a single hole above the fiducial line. 

The pin is a cylinder with a head decorated with 

a five-petalled rosette. The wedge is just what its 

name implies. The index arm is complete and 

counterchanged about the center. 

Remarks: The gothic, uncial letters "d," "q," 

"p, " "n," "c " (or "e"), and "I" have been stippled 

onto the upper quadrants on the back of this 

astrolabe. No other known instruments have been 

marked in this way. 

CCA No. 2005 

(FIGURES 29, 100) 

Date: Ca. A.D. 1580. 

Signature: None. 

Components: Body with throne, handle, ring, 

one plate, rete, alidade, rule with pin, and wedge 

Diameter: 248 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: A circular depression with a 

movable cover has been incorporated into the 

front side of the throne. The throne itself is a 

triangular shape formed by scrollwork. The remainder of the suspensory apparatus consists of 

a pin with an eye (for holding the ring) attached 

to the throne with a circular washer and a square 

nut. The rim is divided into equal hours (two sets 

of twelve) and degrees (four arcs for measuring 

altitude). The front central area is blank. There 

is a cylindrical post near the rim at 270°. 

The outer margin of the back face is engraved 

with a scale of degrees (again four arcs for measuring altitude). A de Roias projection consisting 

of 37 parallels of declination and 37 meridians 

fills all four quadrants. The positions of six bright 

stars (inscribed "CIGNVS, AQVILA, COR 

LEONIS, CADE CAPRICOR, CANIS MINOR, 

OCVLVS TAVRI") and the ecliptic are included in the projection. None of the meridian 

lines extend to the north and south points, but all 

stop at the engraved parallels for declination 66° 

north and south of the equator. There are no 

engraved details or original markings on the edge 

of the instrument. 

The single preserved plate has a circular hole 

at 270°. It contains on the one side a conventional 

stereographic projection for latitude 45°, and on 

the other the scales usually found on the back of 

European astrolabes. The former includes altitudes (every 9°), azimuths (every 10°), houses (all 

12 numbered with Roman numerals), and unequal hours. The latter consists of the following 

marginal scales: a scale of equal hours (in two 

groups of 12); a scale of 360 equal divisions; a set 

of four 90° scales which, because of their orientation, measure zenith distance; a second scale of 

360 equal divisions; a set of twelve 30° scales; a 

zodiacal scale inscribed with symbols; and concentric calendar scales on which the names of all 

the months except "MARZO" are abbreviated. 

The vernal equinox corresponds to 12 March. 

There is a scale of unequal hours in the upper 

right quadrant of this second plate face. In the 

lower left quadrant is a scale for converting equal 

to unequal hours; it is inscribed in Latin. The 
152 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

< ^ 

^ I ' 

FIGURE 100.—Astrolabe No. 2005. Front view. 

lower right quadrant contains a shadow square 

divided into fingers. 

The east-west bar of the rete is counterchanged 

six times. A meridian bar extends between the 

upper portion of the complete equinoctial circle 

and the ecliptic. A pair of symmetric scrolls supports the lower portion of the equinoctial arc. 

There are 25 lambent star pointers engraved with 
NUMBER 45 153 

Latin names. The ecliptic circle is subdivided into 

units of 1° and units of 10°. 

The alidade arm is counterchanged; it has a 

beveled fiducial edge and tapered outer ends. 

One arm is divided into 18 unequal parts, inscribed (from end to center); [blank], 20, 30, 40, 

50, 60, 70, 80, 90. The other arm of the alidade 

is divided into 12 equal parts. Near the beveled 

edge these divisions are inscribed (center to end): 

11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1. Along the arm 

these divisions are inscribed (center to end): 2, 3, 

4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, and OC. The sighting 

plates are pierced with one hole above the fiducial 

edge. The pin is attached to a rule with outer 

ends shaped like brackets. This rule is divided by 

the orthogonal projections of azimuth circles. The 

wedge is a cylinder. 

Remarks: The assignment of this astrolabe to 

the late sixteenth century is based largely on clues 

supplied by the rete. The rete pattern is quite 

similar to that adopted by Egnazio Danti about 

1580. The longitude of Cor Leonis is appropriate 

for that time. 

Analysis of the unequal divisions of the alidade 

arm indicates that these are the stereographic 

projection of points on a sphere between the pole 

and the equator of a circle of radius equal to the 

radius of the Tropic of Capricorn on the plate of 

this astrolabe. 

CCA No. 2006 

(FIGURES 16, 20, 28) 

Date: See "Remarks." 

Signature: See "Remarks." 

Components: Body with throne, handle, ring, 

rete, alidade, pin, and wedge. 

Diameter: 127.5 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: The throne of this astrolabe is 

shaped like a narrow rectangle connected to a 

disk. The stirrup-shaped handle has a revolving 

attachment for holding the ring. Plates decorated 

with an embossed braided rope molding have 

been applied to the front and back of the handle. 

The ring has a circular cross-section. 

The wide rim is divided by three different 

scales. The outer one consists of two sets of 12 

equal hours. Inside this is a scale consisting of 

four altitude arcs. Inside this is a zodiacal scale. 

The front central area contains stereographically 

projected horizon, altitudes (every 4°), azimuths 

(every 10°), and unequal hours for latitude 52°. 

There are no marginal scales on the back of 

this astrolabe. Instead, all the scales and engraved 

lines likely to be found on a quadrant occupy the 

entire back area. The stereographically projected 

lines that have been folded into the quadrant 

include: tropics and equator, divided ecliptic, 

unequal hours, and horizons, identified as follows: 

City Latitude 

lERUSALEM [34] 

CARTAGO [38] 

ROME [42] 

PARISIUS [49] 

OXONIA [52] 

BERWYK [57] 

The perimeter of the quadrant is divided by 

various scales. Along the arc are scales of degrees 

of right ascension (5° and 10° units) and degrees 

of longitude (5° and 10° units). The radial borders are divided by scales of terrestrial latitude 

(10° and 4° units) and celestial declination (10° 

and 4° units) and by sexagesimal scales of sines 

(in units of 10, 5, 1). A shadow square (divided 

into fingers) has been engraved tangent to the arc 

of the quadrant. A plumb bob hangs across the 

engraved quadrant from a rectangular hole at the 

upper corner of the quadrant square. 

The star-pointer supporting rete structure 

forms a Y inside the ecliptic and a brace {r^) 

between the ecliptic and the Tropic of Capricorn. 

All 25 star-pointers are identified with Latin inscriptions. Only three pointers are flame-shaped; 

one other pointer is a bird. The remaining 

pointers are shaped like heads of dogs. The ecliptic band is divided into units of two 2° as well as 

units of 10° and 30°. A calendar scale has been 

engraved on the Capricorn circle. When consulted in conjunction with the zodiac scale, it 

shows that the vernal equinox is 12 March. The 

back of the rete has been signed and inscribed as 

a sundial for latitude 53° 15'. In addition, two 

Latin star names have been engraved on the back 

of dog-shaped pointers. 
154 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

The alidade is counterchanged about the center. Its sighting plates are notched above the 

fiducial line. The pin is a cylinder with a flat 

head. The wedge is a rectangle. 

Remarks: The number symbols and contractions used in inscriptions on the body and rete of 

this instrument suggest a fifteenth-century origin. 

The hand used to inscribe the sundial and to sign 

the back of the rete is obviously different from 

the hand of the other inscriptions. The natural 

conclusion is that the signature can be related 

only to the sundial and not to the astrolabe. Two 

knobs visible on the front of the rete may have 

been used to attach a gnomon to the dial face. 

The hour lines radiate from the back of one of 

these knobs. The engraved lines are appropriate 

for use with a gnomon inclined at an angle equal 

to latitude 53° 15'. The inscribed name may be 

that of Thomas Wright, an English instrument 

maker who made orreries and surveyor's levels in 

Fleet Street, London, between 1715 and 1740. 

CCA No. 2007 

(FIGURES 27, 101) 

Date: A.D. 1584 and 162? (see "Remarks"). 

Signatures: (1) PHILIPVS Danfrieus Siderographus Regius Generalis Lutetiae, (2) Franc. 

Galandius, and (3) A PARIS Chez Johan Moreau 

rue St. Jacques a la Croix blanche. 

Components: Body (paper-covered wooden 

frame) with handle (brass) and ring (brass), four 

plates (paper), rete (paper), alidade (brass), index 

arm (brass), rivet screw (brass), and wing nut 

(brass). 

Diameter: 207 mm. 

Materials: Wood, heavy paper, and brass. 

Characteristics: The truncated triangular 

throne is decorated on the front with a grotesque 

mask in a human likeness and on the back with 

a grotesque mask in an animal likeness. The 

handle is stirrup-shaped with a revolving attachment for holding the ring. 

The rim is divided by the following scales: 24 

equal hours identified as two sets of 12; 360 equal 

divisions; and a set of four altitude arcs. On the 

second scale, every other division is shaded. The 

front central area is blank. 

The marginal scales on the back include: a set 

of four altitude scales; a scale of 720 equal divisions; a scale of 360 equal divisions; a set of twelve 

30° scales; and a set of 12 pictures symbolizing 

the signs of the zodiac. A series of eccentric circular scales inside the marginal scales include a 

Gregorian calendar of epacts and a calendar of 

days and months. The 12 months are identified 

both with inscriptions and with allegorical pictures. The vernal equinox is 21 March. The two 

lower quadrants contain shadow squares divided 

sexagesimally. Inside the rectangle formed by 

these squares the following lines have been engraved: 

Ad inuenienda autem nouilunia Epactae 

luxta singulos dies mensium hie scriptae 

sunt Quare cuicunq diei adiacet ani labentis 

Epacta eo die fieri nouiluniu scire conuenit 

This can be translated, "The epacts are written 

next to the days of the month so that one can 

find the new moon. Thus, the epact for the 

current year adjacent to a given date indicates a 

day of new moon." 

The maker's signature appears below the 

shadow squares. The upper quadrants contain 

wheels to be used to assist in converting from one 

calendar date to another. The wheel in the upper 

left quadrant is identified with the following inscription: 

Vsus harum duaru 

Rotularum ab anno 

1582 vsque in vltimum 

diem futuri proxime 

Seculi duraturus est 

"These two wheels can be used from 1582 until 

the last day of the next century." 

The wheel on the upper right quadrant is 

identified with the following inscription: 

[Dies domenica] p[ro]xime 

Sequinti Pascalis 

Indicem [que est 

lunia] decima quarta 

Primi mensis, sacru 

Pascha celebratur 
155 

NUMBER 45 

FIGURE 101.—Astrolabe No. 2007. Front view. 
156 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

"Easter is celebrated on the first Sunday following 

the Paschal Index, which is the full moon of the 

first month." 

The following inscription appears in the left 

spandrels of the upper quadrants: 

Hoc Dorsum kalendario 

reformato precise 

acomodatum 

est 

"This Back is precisely adjusted to the reformed 

calendar." Also in the upper quadrants is the 

address of Chez Moreau. 

Each of the four plates has a tooth at 90°. One 

plate face is blank, but all the others contain 

stereographically projected horizon, twilight, altitudes (for every 2°), azimuths (every 5°), houses 

(all twelve), and unequal hours. The functional 

plates are identified with the following inscribed 

latitudes: 

'^late 

lb 

2a 

2b 

3a 

3b 

4a 

4b 

Latitude 

48 

39 

45 

42 

51 

54 

57 

The rete pattern consists of a baroque design 

involving interwoven strapwork. The 28 flameshaped star pointers are each engraved with Latin 

star names. The ecliptic is subdivided into units 

of 1° and units of 5°. 

The alidade, inscribed "Franc. Galandius," is 

counterchanged about the center. There are no 

engraved scales. The sighting plates are pierced 

in the plane of the fiducial edge by a slit above a 

hole. The complete index arm is also counterchanged about the center. No scales divide it. A 

button-headed rivet screw and wing nut serve as 

"pin and wedge." 

Remarks: The use of the various calendar 

scales is explained in the introduction to this 

catalog. The dates on this astrolabe may be interpreted as follows: the date 1584 associated with 

Philip Danfrie specifies the date when Danfrie 

engraved the plates from which paper astrolabes 

of the style illustrated by the example were 

printed; and the date 162? associated with the 

dealer Johan Moreau may be interpreted as the 

terminus ad quern for the "publication" of this particular instrument. Another astrolabe signed by 

Danfrie (and dated 1578) is preserved by the 

Service Hydrographique de la Marine in Paris 

(CCA No. 524). 

CCA No. 2566 

(FIGURES 102, 103) 

Date: Ca. A.D. 1850. 

Signature: None. 

Components: Body, handle, ring, four plates, 

rete, alidade, pin, and wedge. 

Diameter: 151 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: The throne is shaped like a 

high Moorish arch. It is decorated on front and 

back with engraved vines, which on the front 

follow the shape of the throne and on the back 

form a heart. The stirrup-shaped handle has a 

perforated crest. The soldered, circular ring is 19 

mm in diameter. The rim contains a scale of 

360°. The first division of this scale is labeled "5 " 

and the last division is labeled "360" in abdjad 

numerals. Inside the front central area there is a 

gazetteer which lists 34 places along with the 

longitude, latitude, and azimuth of the Qibla for 

each. An inscription at the center of the gazetteer 

list reads: 

^1 C*«,l ^j^j.Js>. y^y-fji^ ^-aSb »i.iL. ^j_-^ ^ 'K I .. 

It can be translated: "The direction of these cities 

[from Mecca] is S.W. except for Damascus" (GS). 

There is a post projecting from a point near the 

rim at 270°. 

On the back of the astrolabe, the outer margin 

contains two altitude scales in the upper quadrants. There are cotangent scales in the lower 

quadrants which are divided into feet (left) and 

fingers (right). The upper right quadrant contains 

stereographically projected declination arcs. 
NUMBER 45 157 

^S #kjf '• . ^*. I f 

^^ 

^ 

jr*.'' j^.jr' o > ^i?'^'^~-M/^ 

FIGURE 102.—Astrolabe No. 2566. Back view. 

Graphed on these arcs are seven lines representing arc has been transcribed and translated in the 

the altitude of the noon sun at latitudes 5°, 15°, description of CCA No. 59. Also graphed on these 

20°, 25°, 30°, 35°, 40° The inscription relating arcs are four lines representing the azimuth of the 

to this graph outside the outermost declination Qibla for the following cities: Tus (bottom). 
FIGURE 103.—Astrolabe No. 2566. Front view 

of separate parts. 

.^^, 

- h . '4^., 

V\ 

?^^ 

'». " 

fir'- • " , 

'' - / ' 

• / 

^P' 

'-t''-' 

:.- / V 

_' 
NUMBER 45 159 

Isfahan, Baghdad, Shiraz. For a transcription and 

translation of the inscription relating to this graph 

inside the innermost declination arc, see the description of CCA No. 49. Sines and cosines divide 

the upper left quadrant. Shadow squares divided 

into feet (left) and fingers (right) occupy the lower 

quadrants. The area circumscribed by these 

squares is divided into 6 rows and 13 columns. 

The rows in the first column contain the title of 

the scale inscribed in the remaining rows and 

columns. The scale proceeds from top to bottom 

and from right to left, and gives the names of the 

planetary governors of terms, the number of degrees in each term division, and the position of 

each term division in its zodiacal sign. According 

to Saliba, the poorly written inscription outside 

the shadow squares associates angular measures 

with measures of time, such as 1 ° with 4 minutes 

and 90° with 6 hours. He notes, however, that 

many of the associations are erroneous: 54° with 

3 hours, 51° with 5 hours. The entire outer edge 

is inscribed. 

The astrolabe is fitted with four plates. There 

is a small hole in each near the edge at 270°. On 

one plate face there are 28 stereographically projected quarter horizons, one for every 2° of latitude between 12° and 66°. Each of the other 

plate faces contains a network of stereographically projected coordinates for a single latitude. 

On two of these faces (3b and 4b), the stereographically projected coordinates include altitudes (every 2°), azimuths (every 5° or every 

10°), and unequal hours. Lines representing the 

equal Italian hours have been projected onto the 

other faces. Identifying inscription on the plates 

reads: 

Face 

lb 

2a 

2b 

3a 

3b 

4a 

4b 

Latitude 

"ard 42 00 

"ard 34 00 

"ard 32 

"ard 30 

"ard 28 00 

"ard 38 5 

"ard 36 00 

Length of daylight 

sd"dtuhu 15 4 

sd"dtuhu 14 17 

sd"dtuhu 14 7 

sd" dtuhu 13 17 

sd"dtuhu 13 39 

sd"dtuhu 14 38 

sd"dtuhu 14 29 

The rete design includes a complete equinoctial 

colure without counterchanges. There is a portion 

of a celestial equator outside the ecliptic. A foliated central support of the equator contributes 

to the generally symmetric pattern. An inscription along the Capricorn band appears to associate signs of the zodiac with masculine or feminine 

natures, with "changing," "stable," or "mutable" 

characters, with the elements of fire, earth, wind, 

or water, with a planet, and with numerals. It 

reads: 

'^^*-'>* ->^ • ^ • ^ ty^^ A-1<L> , ^ o«^^' I HJJ.O %S^^^a )J.a"» 

Ol_ - ^i.> Oli * I JJ^ 

dLjL > .J^ v 

^ ' -^ <*| I in ytM 

• W \i*^jjo (j_*l^ ^ a»^ ^ O^LL. * AJ/L ^ A I • ••••. • Y»T 

Urf^^^JLt • JY ^^—f '-• I *>_:• o jS^i^ *,j^J> 4-:*L> ^J\ j-f^ 

AJ/Li. o-J-* T«T v ' .j^ ^j ^ A_jLij_^L > t •. I '4 '• o (Ji'-Jj A_l.Li- (5* ^ • ^ » T ,^» ^ o«-^' "-^^J*^ 

• ^ • • ^ fS^jo ^ L_< Oi_i L i (J* ^ *-^ Li- j-i^ • Y '—^9-° 

A tentative translation reads as follows: 

Aries, Male, Changing, Fire, House of Mars, 201; 

Taurus, Female, Stable, Earth, House of Venus, 41; 

Gemini, Mutable, Wind, Male, House of Mercury, 42; 

Cancer, Changing, Female, House of the Moon, Water, 

202; 

Leo, House of the Sun, Stable, Fire, Male, 202; 

Virgo, House of Mercury, Mutable?, Earth, Female, 42; 

Libra, House of Venus, Male, Changing, Fire, 42; 

Scorpio, House of Mars, Female, Stable, Water, 202; 

Sagittarius, House of Jupiter, Mutable?, Fiery, Male, 402; 

Capricorn, House of Saturn, Changing, Earth, Female, 2; 

Aquarius, House of Saturn, Stable, Fire, Male, 4001; 

Pisces, House of Jupiter, Mutable?, Water, Female, 201 

(GS). 

There are 23 named star pointers. The ecliptic 

band is subdivided into units of 6°. Tropics, 

equator, and ecliptic divisions have been engraved on the back of the rete. The alidade is not 

counterchanged. One arm has been divided into 

the five unequal hours; the other arm contains 11 

equal divisions. Each sighting plate is pierced by 
160 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

two holes and notched at its upper edge. The pin 

is a bolt with a tapering end. The wedge is shaped 

like the heads of a horse, upon which eyes and 

mane have been engraved. 

The inscription is Arabic Naskhi. 

Remarks: The inscription on this astrolabe 

suggests that at least two different scribes were 

responsible. One hand is apparent in the scales 

on the back of the astrolabe; another in the tables 

in the lower quadrants and around the edge. 

There is further evidence of combined efforts on 

the plates, where the azimuths are numbered in 

a hand different from that used elsewhere on the 

plates. The maker(s) have employed some dotted 

lines in the upper quadrant on the back and on 

the plates. The upper left quadrant is only 

crudely divided. The rete shows evidence of repair. Its pattern is identical to that of No. 64. 

Neither holes nor notch of sighting plates lie 

above the alidade's fiducial line. 

CCA No. 2567 

(FIGURES 104, 105) 

Date: A.H. 1067 [1656]. 

Signature: "^amal [?] Khalil. 

Components: Rim with throne attached to 

backplate with throne, handle, ring, two plates, 

rete, alidade, pin, ringlet, and wedge 

Diameter: 132 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: The throne of this astrolabe is 

quite high and pierced to form intertwined vines. 

The stirrup-shaped handle has a double lunate 

cross-section. The rim contains a scale of 360° 

divided by units of 1° (uninscribed) and 5° (inscribed). The front central area is blank except 

for engraved projections of the solstitial and 

equinoctial colures. 

The upper half of the margin at the back of 

the astrolabe contains two altitude arcs. The 

lower half of this margin is blank. There are no 

scales in the upper half of the quadrant area. The 

lower half of the quadrant area contains two 

adjacent shadow squares. 

The two plates are each notched at 270°. All 

faces contain stereographically projected horizon 

(inscribed), altitudes (every 6°), and unequal 

hours. The projections are identified: 

Plate 

la 

lb 

2a 

2b 

Latitude 

"ard 20 

^ard 24 

"ard 40 

"ard 35 

The simple rete pattern includes the equinoctial colure and the lower arc of the equator circle. 

The ecliptic is subdivided into 60 units of 6° The 

16 star pointers are dagger-shaped. The signature 

and date and parts of the stereographically projected equator and Tropic of Cancer are inscribed 

on the back of the rete. 

There are no counterchanges in the alidade. 

The beveled edge of one arm is divided into 60 

equal parts; every fifth division line continues 

onto the top of the arm. The units of five are 

numbered. Five unequal divisions on the other 

arm are not identified. Each sighting plate is 

pierced with one large hole. The pin is a bolt with 

a rosette head. The ringlet is octagon-shaped. 

The wedge is a high trapezoid. 

The alphabet of the inscription is Arabic Naskhi. 

Remarks: All of the engraving on this instrument is quite worn. The plates are particularly 

thin and crudely inscribed. Concerning the word 

"amal in the signature, Mayer^° has said, "With 

the exception of a Sultan, not a single man who 

signed his astrolabe in this way is known from 

literature." 

CCA No. 2568 

(FIGURES 106, 107) 

Date: A.H. 1103 [1691]. 

Signature: sana^ahu al-Hasan ben Ahmad alBattuti. 

Components: Rim with throne, backplate with 

throne, handle, rin, end of cord, three plates, rete, 

alidade, pin, and wedge. 

Diameter: 131.5 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: The throne is high, but un-
NUMBER 45 161 

FIGURE 104.—Astrolabe No. 2567. Front view 

of separate parts. 

, J 

yL 

K\^^^/-' 

I I *•--• -'•J^^ « 
162 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

FIGURE 105.—Astrolabe No. 2567. Back view of 

separate parts. 

O 1 
NUMBE

R 45 163 

FIGURE 106.—Astrolabe No. 2568. 

Front view. 
164 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

FIGURE 107.—Astrolabe No. 2568. Back view. 

^ 

1 

,!• 

•H -.•=^!^!! :. 

:\ ' \ ,i^-'^-'-i) ^ •'"<•'' 

irifiM fe-
NUMBER 45 165 

pierced and of simple design. Its edges have the 

shape of inverted brackets. In addition to a signature and date, the following phrase has been 

inscribed on the back of the throne: al-Hamd liAllah (Thanks to God). The rim has been divided 

into a scale of 360°. The first division of the rim 

scale is inscribed with the Kufic number "5" ; the 

last division has been inscribed "60." The latter 

indicates that the script is of western origin. The 

front central area is completely blank. 

The upper half of the back margin is divided 

by two altitude scales. The lower half of this outer 

margin is blank. Just inside the margin there has 

been engraved a circular zodiacal scale and a 

concentric calendar scale. The date of the vernal 

equinox indicated by these scales is 9 March. The 

two upper quadrants are blank. Two shadow 

squares, divided into fingers, have been inscribed 

in the lower quadrants. 

Each of the three plates has a tooth at 90°. All 

have been inscribed with stereographically projected altitudes (every 6°), azimuths (every 10°), 

unequal hours, and prayers. On each face, 

notched lines designate three altitude lines (for 

18°, 30°, and 60°), the prime vertical, and the 

prayers. The projections are identified with the 

following inscription: 

Plate 

la 

lb 

2a 

2b 

3a 

3b 

Inscription 

"ard Mecca Sharrafaha Allah 

"ard Tardbalus wa al-fazd^ir 

"ard Mas [.^] 

li-kull balad "arduhu 

"ard Marikdsh 

"ard Fds 

21 

30 

36 

31 30 

33 40 

The rete pattern incorporates an equinoctial 

colure (counterchanged four times) and an arc of 

the celestial equator. A small circle provides central support to this arc. There are 23 inscribed 

star pointers. The pointers are sickle-shaped with 

pierced balls on trefoils as bases. In addition, 

there is a pointer (uninscribed) along the inner 

edge of the ecliptic band near the boundary 

between Gemini and Cancer. The ecliptic band 

is subdivided into uninscribed units of 6°. 

The alidade is neither inscribed nor counterchanged. Each of its sighting plates is pierced by 

a single hole. The pin is a bolt with a flat head. 

The wedge is a flat wire bent into the shape of a 

T. 

The alphabet employed by the maker of this 

astrolabe is Arabic Kufic maghribi. 

Remarks: The date on the back of the throne 

is written in both Kufic abdjad and Hindu-Arabic 

characters. Other astrolabes signed by al-Hasan 

include one dated A.H. 1097 [1685] in a private 

collection (CCA No. 2707) and one dated A.H. 

1106 [1694] in the Museum of Islamic Art in 

Cairo (CCA No. 3804). 

CCA No. 2569 

(FIGURES 108, 109, 110, 111) 

Date: Ca. 1650. 

Signature: None. 

Components: Backplate with throne, rim, front 

throne, handle, ring, brass chain, five plates, two 

retes, alidade, pin, and wedge. 

Diameter: 153 mm. 

Materials: Brass. 

Characteristics: The throne is a high pierced 

Moorish arch decorated with embossed vines and 

flowers. The stirrup-shaped handle has a diamond cross-section. The ring also has a diamond 

cross-section. The brass chain is in excellent condition. 

The rim of this instrument is divided into four 

90° arcs. These arcs are further subdivided into 

units of 6°, 2°, and 1°. Division lines are dotted. 

The gazetteer engraved in the front central area 

lists 97 place names along with their terrestrial 

latitude and longitude. A tooth projects into the 

front central area at 270°. 

The upper half of the margin on the back of 

this instrument contains two altitude scales, divided by dotted lines into units of 6°, 2°, and 1°. 

Dotted lines divide the lower left margin into the 

fingers of a cotangent scale; the feet of a cotangent 

scale divide the lower right margin. Equally 

spaced declination arcs (some dotted) divide the 

upper right quadrant. Dotted lines representing 

the altitude of the noon sun at latitudes 27° and 

32° have been graphed onto the declination arcs. 

These are inscribed: khatt nisf al-nahdr li-'^ard 27 
166 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

..'*•/• 

'i 

/,:iU;^ ^|''•\ VV.5>H 

« 

FIGURE 108.—Astrolabe No. 2569. Gazetteer. 

(upper) and khatt nisf al-nahdr li-'^ard 32 (lower). 

Sixty equally spaced sine lines (some dotted) 

divide the upper right quadrant. The shadow 

square in the lower left quadrant is divided into 

60 equal units; the shadow square in the lower 

right quadrant is divided into feet. The lower 

quadrants of this astrolabe also contain nine astronomical or astrological tables. Three of these 

are rectangular and divide the area inside the 

shadow square. The upper left one is a table of 

triplicities, labeled. 

^^^-(r^J ij-Kf-i Jja* 

or, "Table of rulers of triplicities by night and 

day" (GS). The lower one is a table showing 

multiples of the difference (in degrees and minutes) between the approximately correct length 

of the tropical year and 365 days, labeled, 
NUMBER 45 167 

I 

FIGURE 109.—Astrolabe No. 2569. Back view. 

This translates as, "Table of excess of revolution" 

(GS). The upper right rectangular table gives the 

length of longest daylight in hours and the corresponding latitude for upper and lower limits of 

the seven "climates" or bands of geographic latitude, titled: 

^ ' { > " * -»<n.l V-<LCL>V • • • y_^Jj^ yjj,^ 

which translates as, "Table of extent of [?] hours 

at midday" (GS). The six circular tables include 

lunar mansions, zodiacal signs, planetary governors of terms, terms, planetary governors of decans, and decans. 

Each of the five plates included in this instru-
168 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

FIGURE 110.—Astrolabe No. 2569. Full "ankabut (2569A). 

ment has a notch at 270°. One plate face contains 

67 stereographically projected quarter-horizons— 

one for each degree of latitude between 4° and 

65°, four for latitude 66°30', and one for latitude 

70°. There are also four obliquity scales at the 

ends of the projected colures. The greatest obliquity is 23°30'. All remaining plate faces contain 

stereographically projected horizon, altitudes (every 2°), and azimuths (every 6°). Eight of these 

also contain stereographically projected unequal 

hour lines and hour lines corresponding to the 

equal Italian hours. Some of the projected lines 

are dotted. The plates are identified with the 

following inscriptions: 
NUMBER 45 169 

FIGURE 111. 

Plate 

la 

lb 

2a 

2b 

3a 

3b 

4a 

4b 

5a 

5b 

—Astrolabe No 

Latitude 

safiha ^dfdqi 

safiha mizan 

al-" ankabut 

li-"ard 

li-"ard 

li- "ard 

li- "ard 

li- "ard 

li-"ard 

li-"ard 

li-"ard 

2569. 

25 

27 

29 

32 

30 

38 

36 

40 

Small "ankabut (2569 

Length of daylight 

sd" dtuhu 

sd"atuhu 

sd"dtuhu 

sd"atuhu 

sd"dtuhu 

sd" dtuhu 

sd"dtuhu 

sd"dtuhu 

13 25 

13 43 

13 52 

14 08 

13 53 

14 42 

14 32 

14 52 

This astrolabe is equipped with two retes. The 

design of the larger of the two is quite delicate 

and non-symmetric. It incorporates a counterchanged east-west bar. Tropic of Capricorn, and 

ecliptic. There are 43 inscribed star pointers, 

shaped like leaves. A dot on each pointer marks 

the position of the star. The ecliptic circle is 

subdivided into units of 6° and 2°. There are no 

markings on the back of this rete. The second rete 

is smaller and of simpler design, incorporating 

the arcs of three circles. The 10 leaf-shaped star 

pointers, all inside the ecliptic circle, are inscribed 

with the names of stars, most of which duplicate 

stars on the larger rete. 

The alidade is not counterchanged. It is inscribed with three different scales: a stereographically projected declination scale on one arm and 

a scale of 60 equal divisions and a sundial on the 

other arm. Each sighting plate is pierced by three 

holes, with the uppermost largest and the other 

two of equal size. The pin is a bolt with a flattened 

hemispherical head and a knob tip. The wedge is 

a small trapezoid. 

Remarks: This anonymous instrument exhibits 

many of the characteristics of astrolabes known 

to have been made in Lahore: dotted division 

lines, equally spaced declination arcs, graphed 

prayer lines, delicate rete. The rectangular "table 

of differences" on the back of this astrolabe is 

similar to tables included on astrolabes with the 

following CCA numbers: No. 78 (made by Muhammad Muqim ben "^Isa in Lahore); No. 74 

(made in India); and No. 94 (inscribed in Sanskrit). The rim scale is divided so that the arcs in 

the first and third quadrants measure zenith distance and the arcs in the second and fourth 

quadrants measure altitude. All five plates appear 

to have been engraved by the same astrolabist 

who was responsible for the inscription on the 

body. On the alidade, both the declination scales 

and the sundial are incorrectly lettered and the 

declination scale (at least) appears to have been 

re-engraved by someone other than the original 

maker. The errors could have been made by the 

person who made the obvious repairs on the 

alidade sighting plates. In fact, the present engraved area appears to have been laminated onto 

another alidade. 

CCA No. 2570 

(FIGURE 112) 

Diameter: 94 mm. 

Material: See "Remarks." 

Remarks: This instrument can easily be distinguished from functional astrolabes. There is no 

holder for the four plates and there are no holes 
170 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

FIGURE 112.—Astrolabe No. 2570. Front view of separate parts. 
NUMBER 45 171 

in the sighting plates of the alidade. The rim of 

the body has been accurately divided into 72 

units, but the numbering of these divisions proceeds in nonsensical order. The front central area 

has been neatly divided by concentric bands and 

radial lines, as if to contain a gazetteer, but again 

the inscribed numbers are meaningless. Of all of 

the scales engraved on the back of the astrolabe, 

only the altitude scales in the upper margin and 

a circular scale of zodiacal signs have any recognizable validity. All lines on the plates are neatly 

engraved and arranged as if stereographically 

projected. Identifying numbers, however, are inscribed virtually at random and the inscriptions 

purporting to give latitudes have no relation to 

reality. The rete is neatly patterned and includes 

a bird figure above center and a counterchanged 

equinoctial colure. The inscription of the ecliptic 

band, which should begin at 180° and proceed 

counterclockwise actually begins at 90° and proceeds clockwise. Most of the inscriptions on the 

rete are not familiar star names, and of the four 

recognizable names, two are obviously misplaced. 

The beveled edges on the alidade do not follow 

the fidicual line. Clearly legible names of zodiacal 

signs have been engraved on both arms but the 

numbers have no meaning. There is much internal evidence that the maker of this instrument 

was familiar with the language found on an 

astrolabe but that he knew nothing of the astronomy embodied in such an object. Neither the 

identity of the maker nor the provenance of this 

example of his work is known. 

The script employed throughout is Arabic 

Kufic. The instrument is made of a silver-colored 

metal. 

CCA No. 2571 

(FIGURES 113, 114) 

Date: A.H. 910 [1504]. 

Signature: "" Ali ben Muhammad ben Abdallah 

ben Faraj. 

Components: Rim with throne attached to 

backplate with throne, handle, three plates, rete, 

alidade, pin, and wedge. 

Diameter: 178 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: The throne is low and shaped 

like a bracket. It is undecorated and uninscribed. 

The handle is shaped like a stirrup. The ring is 

pear-shaped with a groove around the outer edge. 

A scale of 360°, subdivided into units at 6°, has 

been inscribed on the rim. The first unit is designated "6; " the last unit, "60." There is a notch 

in the rim at 90°. A crude stereographic projection of colures, tropics, equator, altitudes, and 

horizon for approximately 30° has been engraved 

on the front central area. 

On the back of the astrolabe, the upper margin 

is divided by altitude scales. Inside the margin, 

there are six complete concentric circular scales 

consisting of 1° and 5° subdivisions of the zodiacal signs, the zodiacal signs, one and five, six, or 

eight day divisions of the calendar year, and the 

Christian months. The date 13.5 March is opposite Aries 0°. The signature and date are inscribed 

in the upper quadrants. There are shadow squares 

in the lower quadrants. These are divided into 

fingers on the left and feet on the right. 

There are three plates, each with a tooth at 

90°. On one plate face (la) there have been 

engraved stereographically projected straight 

lines, declination circles (19), horizons (15), and 

altitudes (15 °N and 4°S of the horizon at latitude 

0°). The face is identified as li-jdmi'' al-''urud. The 

other five plate faces contain stereographically 

projected coordinates for a single latitude. These 

coordinates include altitudes (every 3°), azimuths 

(every 10°), unequal hours, and lines representing 

times of prayer. The prayer lines are identified 

fajr (below the left horizon), al-^asj (within the 

tenth unequal hour), az-zuhr (within the eighth 

unequal hour), shafaq (below the right horizon), 

az-zawal (mid-heaven). On each plate face, an 

inscription identifies the latitude of the stereographic projection: 

Plate Latitude 

lb 

2a 

2b 

3a 

3b 

li-''ard 

li-''ard 

ti-''ard 

li-''ard 

li-"ard 

31 30 

30 

33 40 

34 30 

36 30 

The rete is a relatively simple design. It in-
172 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

*v>' 

FIGURE 113.—Astrolabe No. 2571. Front view. 

eludes a counterchanged equinoctial colure and 

the lower portion of a stereographically projected 

celestial equator. This equator arc is supported 

by a central circle. There are 30 inscribed star 

pointers. Each of these extends from a base decorated with stud. The ecliptic is subdivided into 

units of 3° The tropics and equator circles have 

been engraved on the back of the rete. The plain 

alidade is not counterchanged. Each sighting 

plate is pierced with a single wide hole. The pin 

is a bolt with a flattened head. The wedge is an 

animal shape with engraved eyes, nose, and 

mouth. 

The alphabet employed by this maker is Arabic 

Kufic maghribi. 

Remarks: An astrolabist with the name "Ali 
NUMBER 45 173 

FIGURE 114.—Astrolabe No. 2571. Back view of separate parts. 

ben Muhammad ben [?] ben Faraj is listed in 

Mayer's Islamic Astrolabists. ^^^ An uncertainly read 

date of A.H. 1010 [1601] is assigned to the one 

example of the work of "Ali described by Mayer. 

Except for the use of a Kufic mashriqi numeral 

to designate 300, the instrument described in this 

catalog entry appears to be inscribed with Kufic 

maghribi characters. The rete shows signs of repair. Alidade, pin, and wedge are apparently 

replacements. 
174 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

CCA No. 2572 

(FIGURES 115, 116, 117) 

Date: A.H. 483 [1090]. 

Signature: sana''ahu Muhammad ben as-Sahli. 

Components: Rim with throne attached to 

backplate with throne, handle, ring, five plates, 

rete, and pin. 

Diameter: 107 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: The low Moorish throne is 

pierced by four holes, two on each side of the 

handle hole. The handle is shaped like a flattened 

stirrup decorated with pierced trefoils at its sides. 

The ringlet has a diamond cross-section. The rim 

has been inscribed with a scale of 360° The first 

unit is marked "5; " the last, "360." The following 

coordinates, appropriate for latitude 37°30', have 

been projected stereographically onto the front 

central area: horizon, altitudes (every 6°), azimuths (every 10°), and unequal hours. In addition to numerals identifying the various projections, the following inscription appears: (below 

horizon) Ishbiliyah wa Malagha wa Gharnata '^ard 37 

SOsd'^dtuhu 14 19; (along the solstitial colure below 

the horizon) khatt az-zawdl. 

Four altitude scales (one in each quadrant) 

divide the outer margin on the back of this astrolabe. The inner margin is divided by a zodiacal 

scale. An eccentric calendar scale divides the 

FIGURE 115.—Astrolabe No. 2572. Front view of "ankabut. 
NUMBER 45 175 

FIGURE 116.—Astrolabe No. 2572. Back view of "ankabut with inscription. 

perimeter of the quadrants just inside the zodiacal 

scale. According to this calendar, the date of the 

vernal equinox is 15 March. The signature and 

date are engraved in the upper quadrants. 

Shadow squares divided into finger units fill the 

lower quadrants. 

All faces of all five plates have been engraved 

with stereographically projected horizon, altitudes (every 6°), azimuths (every 10°), and unequal hours. In addition, prayer lines {ash-shafaq, 

fajr, zuhr, '^asj) have been included on both plate 

faces of one plate (number 4). The unequal hours 

are not only identified by number words and 

symbols, but are also associated with the Arabic 

terms for animal {hayawan, hours 1, 4, 7, 10), 

mineral {ma^dan, hours 2, 5, 8, 11), vegetable 

{nabat, hours 3, 6, 9, 12), and male {mudhakkarah, 

hours 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11) and female {mu^annathah, 

hours 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12). Inscription on each plate 

face associates it with a geographic location as 

follows: 

Plate Inscription 

la 

lb 

2a 

2b 

3a 

3b 

4a 

4b 

5a 

5b 

[No latitude at the equator] 

"ard 

li-Madinat 

as-sin "arduha 

li-Mecca, [May God Honor it] 

[Medina of the Prophet, Peace upon him] 

wa "arduha 

Akhmin wa " arduha 

Qurtubah wa "arduha 

Ishbiliyah "arduha Gharndta 

al-Miria min al-iqlim ar-rdbi" wa'' arduha 

"ard Saraqusta 

Hours 12 

66 

18 

21 30 

24 

27 

33 30 

37 30 

36 

42 
176 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

^%Mx K 

i: 

1.1 f-- -/-^^f- /••-J 

vy ^< 

t^rzT^T—f^rT:i^' fe^)^ c^V f^%* 

FIGURE 117.—Astrolabe No. 2572. Back view of disassembled astrolabe. 
NUMBER 45 177 

Inscription on these plates and on the body of 

the astrolabe is Arabic Kufic of the western type. 

The rete of this astrolabe is of simple design, 

incorporating a complete, counterchanged eastwest bar and a portion of equinoctial arc (outside 

the ecliptic). There are 22 star pointers. Twelve 

of these are inscribed with Hebrew star names; 

the remainder are blank. The ecliptic circle is 

divided by scratched lines. There is no inscription 

on it. Two star pointers are inscribed in Hebrew 

on the back of the rete. In addition, there is a 

single Hebrew word inscribed along the back of 

the ecliptic circle. 

The pin is a short bolt with a flat head. A thin 

wire serves as wedge. 

Remarks: This instrument is remarkable for a 

number of reasons. If the reading of the date is 

correct, it is the earliest astrolabe in the collection. 

The phrase bi-Balansiya follows the date. Saliba 

believes that it refers to the city of Valencia. One 

of the plates (number 4) is heavier than its fellows, 

and it exhibits a slightly different style of composition. The designation of the unequal hours 

found on all plate faces is rather unusual. It is 

unlikely that Muhammad ben as-Sahli is responsible for the inscription currently found on the 

rete of this instrument. However, smoothed surfaces on the rete suggest that an inscription may 

have been erased to make way for the Hebrew, so 

the rete pattern may indeed be due to the originator. No alidade and no wedge are preserved with 

this instrument. 

The maker is the younger member of a fatherson team of instrument makers working in Valencia.^^^ His name appears together with that of 

his father, Ibrahim ben Sa^id, on a globe finished 

A.H. 478 [1085], and preserved in the Museo di 

Storia della Scienza in Florence. 

CCA No. 3643 

(FIGURE 118) 

Date: Not legible. 

Signature: Not legible. 

Components: Body with throne, handle, ring, 

six plates, rete, alidade, pin, and wedge. 

Diameter: 118 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: The throne is shaped like a 

Moorish arch. It is pierced with four holes, placed 

symmetrically on either side of the handle hole. 

The handle is stirrup-shaped; the ring has no 

visible seam. A scale of 360° has been engraved 

on the rim; it has been subdivided into units of 

6° and 1°. The front central area contains stereographically projected altitudes (every 6°, uninscribed), azimuths (every 5°), and a prayer line 

{az-zawdl) for latitude 90°. 

The outer margin of the back contains four 

altitude scales. The inner margin contains a scale 

of zodiacal divisions and a concentric calendar 

scale. The date of the vernal equinox is 14 March. 

The two upper quadrants contain an illegible 

inscription in Naskhi script. A barely legible date 

and an illegible signature are inscribed in the 

lower quadrants below two shadow squares. 

Each of the six plates includes a tooth (at 90°). 

All but two plate faces contain stereographic 

projections of a horizon, altitudes (every 6°) and 

azimuths (every 10°), unequal hours, and prayers 

{shafaq, fajr, az-zawdl, zuhr, "asj). The projections 

are identified as follows: 

Plate Latitude 

2a li-"ard Misr wa kull balad "arduhu 30 00 

2b li-"ard Menerah wa kull balad "arduhu 39 00 

3a li-"ard al-Iskandaria wa kull balad "arduhu 31 00 

3b il-"ard "Asqaldn wa kull balad "arduhu 34 00 

4a li-"ard Mardkesh wa kull balad "arduhu 31 30 

4b li-"ard Qurtubah wa kull balad "arduhu 38 00 

5a li-"ard Fas wa kull balad "arduhu 33 40 

5b li-"ard Falastin wa kull balad "arduhu 32 30 

6a li-"ard Ishbiliyah wa kull balad "arduhu 37 00 

6b li-''ard Tulaitilah wa kull balad "arduhu 40 00 

Some prayer lines on these faces are hatched. 

Of the two remaining plate faces, one contains 

stereographically projected horizon, altitudes (every 5°), and azimuths (every 6°) for latitude 66°; 

the other contains horizons and altitudes for latitude 0°; it is inscribed li-jdmi'' al-''urud. The 

inscription on all plates is Arabic Kufic maghribi. 

The rete includes 26 bent dagger-shaped star 

pointers, each inscribed with a star name. The 

ecliptic is subdivided into 6° units. The inscrip-
178 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

FIGURE 118.—Astrolabe No. 3643. Back view of body 

with separate parts. 

' \ i 

\* 

Ix-r 

1 V 

i. -7*« 

f ' 

?^^^^ 

*^.J^' f 

^Sfi|k 

I ^SBL 

/**. ^Mt 

**• 

/ 

\ , 

V • .=.-'9 iU*j-»-
NUMBER 45 179 

tion on both star pointers and ecliptic is Arabic 

Naskhi. The rete's pattern incorporates a counterchanged east-west bar, an interrupted and 

counterchanged meridian, and upper and lower 

sections of equinoctial arc. The uninscribed alidade is not counterchanged. It has a central 

semicircle, beveled diagonal edges, and a beveled 

fiducial line. The sighting plates are each pierced 

with a single hole. The pin is a bolt with a 

flattened semicircular head and a doorknob tip. 

The wedge is a simple rectangle. 

Remarks: The titles of the shadow square 

scales on this instrument have been inscribed 

inside the squares. Both digits and words identify 

the divisions of the unequal hour scales on all 

plate faces inscribed with such a scale. Some 

altitudes and azimuths on all plates are emphasized using hatched lines. The fact that the rete 

is inscribed in a hand different from that of the 

body places its origin in doubt. The simplicity of 

the alidade suggests that it may be a replacement. 

In his discussion of this instrument, Gunther 

translates the modern Arabic inscription on the 

back as follows: "Bestowed on the Greatest Mosque the 6th of Muharram year 1308." 

CCA No. 3811 

(FIGURES 119, 120) 

Date: Ca. A.D. 1850. 

Signature: None. 

Components: Body with throne, handle, ring, 

four plates, rete, alidade, pin, and wedge. 

Diameter: 111 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: The relatively broad, Moorish 

arch-shaped throne is uninscribed and undecorated, except for a geometric design etched on the 

back face. The handle is stirrup-shaped. There is 

a heavy ring. The rim is divided into a scale of 

360° with the first unit marked "5 " and the last 

unit marked "360" in abdjad numerals. Inside the 

front central area, there is a tooth at 270°. There 

is also a gazetteer listing 52 places with longitude, 

latitude, azimuth of the Qibla, and direction of 

azimuth of the Qibla for each. 

Altitude scales divide the upper margin on the 

back of the astrolabe. The lower margin contains 

cotangent scales divided into feet (left) and fingers 

(right). There is a scale of stereographically projected declination arcs in the upper right quadrant. Seven lines, marking the azimuth of the 

Qibla for various locations, have been graphed 

on these declination arcs. These locations include 

Medina (top), Basra, Isfahan, Tus, Qandahar, 

Shustar, and Multan. For a transcription of the 

inscription relating to this scale inside the innermost declination arc, see the description of No. 

63. There are sines at sexagesimal intervals in the 

upper left quadrant. Shadow squares divided into 

feet (left) and fingers (right) occupy the lower 

quadrants. There is a scale of triplicities inside 

the squares. The natures are identified using Arabic words. Outside the squares, there are two 

semicircular astrological scales: a scale of the 

zodiacal signs, and a scale of lunar mansions. 

Three other concentric bands have been engraved 

in these lower quadrants. They are divided but 

not inscribed. There is a geometric design along 

the edge of the instrument similar to that etched 

on the back of the throne. 

This astrolabe is fitted with four plates. Three 

of these are notched at 270°. One has notches at 

0°, 90°, 180°, and 270°. The plate with four 

notches contains 30 quarter horizons on one face, 

representing every 2° of latitude from 10° 

through 66°. This face also contains four declination scales, one at each notch. The other face 

of this plate contains only stereographically projected tropics and equator. The remaining plate 

faces contain stereographically projected coordinates for a single latitude. One of these (4b) has 

only altitudes (every 6°) and azimuths (every 

10°). One plate face (3a) has altitudes (every 3°), 

azimuths (every 10°), and unequal hours. One 

plate face (3b) has altitudes (every 3°), azimuths 

(every 10°), unequal hours, equal Italian hours, 

and a prayer line (marked samt Qiblat Tus). Three 

plate faces contain altitudes, azimuths, unequal 

hours, and equal Italian hours. The plates are 

inscribed with the following latitudes: 
180 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

FIGURE 119.—Astrolabe No. 3811. Gazetteer. 

^late 

2a 

2b 

3a 

3b 

4a 

4b 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

"ard 

mizdn 

Latitude 

al-" ankabut 

29 

32 

34 

37 

36 

Length of daylight 

sd"dtuhu 13 42 

sd"dtuhu 14 07 

sd" dtuhu 14 17 

sd"dtuhu 14 32 

sd"dtuhu 14 28 

The rete pattern consists largely of curling 

vines, which frame a bird-like figure just above 

the center. There is a complete equinoctial bar 

with one counterchange. There are 34 inscribed 

star pointers. The ecliptic is subdivided into units 

of 6°. Colures, tropics, and equator have been 

engraved on the back of the rete. The alidade is 
NUMBER 45 181 

FIGURE 120.—Astrolabe No. 3811. Back view. 

not counterchanged. It is neither decorated nor 

inscribed. There are two holes in each sighting 

plate. The pin is a bolt with hemispherical head 

and tapered tip. The wedge is an amorphous 

shape pierced by a small hole. 

The alphabet employed by this maker is Arabic 

Naskhi. 

Remarks: The longitudes in the gazetteer have 

been measured from Greenwich. Similarly measured and arranged longitudes can be found on 

No. 63. The maker uses dotted lines to emphasize 

some division lines in the upper quadrants on the 

back of the astrolabe. There are also some dotted 

lines on the plates. 

CCA No. 4000 

(FIGURES 121, 122, 123) 

Date: 1861 [1805] (see "Remarks"). 

Signature: Virabha (Vitrabhadra). 
182 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

FIGURE 121.—Astrolabe No. 4000. Inscribed edge. 

FIGURE 122.—Astrolabe No. 4000. Rete. 

Components: Body with throne, handle, ring, 

eight plates, rete, alidade with sighting tube, pin, 

and wedge. 

Diameter: 141 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: The throne has the shape of a 

high Indian arch. The signature and date are 

inscribed on the front in Arabic. The handle is 

stirrup-shaped, with a diamond-shaped cross-section. The ring has a circular cross-section. The 

rim is divided by a scale of 360° divided into 

units of 6°. The first unit is marked "1; " the last 
NUMBER 45 183 

^:'V:''^M 

•^^*^^iii 

FIGURE 123.—Astrolabe No. 4000. Back view. 

unit, "60." A tooth projects into the front central 

area at 90°. The front central area has been 

divided by concentric circles and radial lines. The 

maker may have intended to include a gazetteer. 

but has filled one concentric band only, with the 

following inscription in Sanskrit: "The headman 

Sri Rama, government of the town of Jodhpur, 

1235 [1819]." 
184 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

On the back of the astrolabe, the upper margin 

contains altitude scales. The upper right quadrant contains equally spaced declination arcs. 

Engraved on these arcs are lines representing the 

unequal hours and two prayer lines. In addition, 

there are two engraved semicircles and two engraved quarter circles. Sines and cosines have 

been engraved at sexagesimal intervals in the 

upper left quadrant. There are shadow squares in 

the lower quadrants divided into feet (left) and 

fingers (right). Outside these squares are four 

semicircular scales. Two of these give measures of 

solar declination; two record right ascension. Together the scales relate solar declination to every 

degree of right ascension. There are two scales 

engraved on the outer edge of this astrolabe, each 

divided into 46 units. The divisions of the first of 

these are inscribed with the even numbers from 

2 to 90. The divisions of the second are inscribed 

as follows: 343 39 (adjacent to 2), 181 36, 114 08, 

85 23, 68 03, 46 27, 48 48, 40 26, 36 42, 32 58, 30 

00, 27 00, 24 36, 22 10, 20 30, 18 40, 17 34, 16 31, 

15 21, 14 00, 13 19, 12 06, 11 36, 10 48, 10 07, 9 

22, 8 43, 8 06, 7 30, 6 52, 6 23, 5 51, 5 25, 4 50, 4 

22, 3 54, 3 26, 3 00, 2 32, 2 16, 1 41, 00 50, 00 38, 

00 12, 00 00 (adjacent to 90), 12 (adjacent to a 

division inscribed with an illegible character). 

The instrument has been fitted with eight 

plates. Each of these is notched at 90°. Plate face 

la contains only quarter horizons (41), representing every degree of latitude from 10° to 67°. Plate 

2a contains, in each of four quadrants, stereographically projected altitudes (every 6°) for a 

single latitude. All remaining plate faces contain 

the following stereographically projected coordinates: altitudes (every 6°), azimuths (at various 

intervals), unequal hours, and equal Italian 

hours. The following latitudes, locations, and parameters are inscribed on the plate faces: 

Plate Inscription 

lb Latitude 26 Ajmer / Shadow 5 50 

2a [UL] Latitude 48 / Shadow 13 50; [UR] Latitude 

60 / Shadow 20 3; [LL] Latitude 42 / Shadow 11 

10; [LR] Latitude 52 / Shadow 15 50 

2b Kuruksetra [=Panipet] 30 / Shadow 06 55 

3a Tilanqa 18/Shadow 03 55 Longest Daylight 32 

(ghatikas) 

3b Daulatabad 20 / Shadow 04 20 

4a Ahmadabad 19 / Shadow 04 18 

4b Delhi 29 / Shadow 06 40 Longest Daylight 34 34 

(ghatikas) 

5a Latitude 21 Burhanpur / Shadow 04 30 

5b Latitude 27 Gwalior / Shadow 05 35 

6a Agra 27 / Shadow 06 06; Mecca 22 / Shadow 04 04 

6b Agra 27 / Shadow 06 06 

7a Nepalapura 31 / Shadow 06 20 

7b Samarqand 40 / Shadow 11 23 

8a Lahore 32 / Shadow 07 31 

8b Kashmir 35 / Shadow 08 03 

The rete pattern is symmetrical. It includes a 

bird figure just above center, a straight equinoctial colure, and a stereographically projected celestial equator. There are 15 inscribed star 

pointers. The ecliptic is subdivided into units of 

6° and 2°. Tropics and equator have been engraved on the back of the rete. There are no 

counterchanges in the alidade. Neither are there 

markings of any kind. The sighting device includes a tube which connects the sighting plates. 

Each of these latter is pierced with two holes. The 

pin is a bolt with bell-shaped head and doorknobshaped tip. The wedge is rectangular. 

Remarks: Inscription of the divisions of the 

ecliptic consists of the first two letters of the 

Indian names of the zodiacal signs. The "shadow" 

parameter given on the plates is the length in 

digits of the noon equinoctial shadow of a 12-

digit gnomon at the given latitude. The date 

inscribed on the instrument is a year in the 

Vikrama era which began in 57 B.C. Hence, the 

equivalent date in the Gregorian calendar is A.D. 

1805. 

CCA No. 4001 

(FIGURES 124, 125) 

Date: A.H. 621 [1224]. 

Signature: Muhammad ben Fattuh alKhama^iri. 

Components: Rim with throne laminated to 

backplate with throne, handle, four plates, pin, 

and wedge. 

Diameter: 184 mm. 

Material: Brass. 

Characteristics: The throne is shaped like a 

Moorish arch pierced with two small holes. The 
NUMBER 45 185 

w/ttzJm 

FIGURE 124.—Astrolabe No. 4001. 

Back view. 

Hi 

front is decorated with an engraved geometric 

design. The back is inscribed with the maker's 

signature and date. The stirrup-shaped handle is 

decorated with rosettes at the end of the crossbar. A geometric design decorates its top. A scale 

of 360° divides the rim. A stereographic projection of altitudes (every 3°) and azimuths (every 

6°) for latitude 66° fills the front central area. On 

the back of the astrolabe, the margin is divided 

by two altitude scales (upper portion) and two 

cotangent scales in finger units (lower portion). A 

scale of zodiacal divisions (in units of 1°, 5°, and 

30°) and a concentric calendar scale (divided into 

units of days, groups of five, six, or eight days, 
186 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

FIGURE 125.—Astrolabe No. 4001. Plates for latitudes 38°30' (upper left), 21°40' (upper 

right), 31°30'(lower left), and 30° (lower right). 

and months) are inscribed just inside the outer 

margin. The date of the vernal equinox is 14.9 

March. Just inside the calendar scale there have 

been engraved three scales designed to assist in 

calendric computation. These are a solar cycle 

(28 divisions), a scale of days of the week corresponding to the solar cycle (28 divisions), and a 

scale of leap year designations (28 divisions). The 

upper quadrants contain no inscription. The two 

lower quadrants contain shadow squares divided 

into finger units. 

This astrolabe is fitted with four plates. Each 

includes a tooth at 90°, and each is inscribed with 

stereographically projected horizon, altitudes (ev-
NUMBER 45 187 

ery 3°), azimuths (every 10°), unequal hours, and 

prayers (on plates la, 2, and 4a: ash-shafaq, azzawdl, az-zuhr, al-^asr, al-fajr; on plates lb, 3, and 

4b: as above, but no az-zuhr and al-^asr). The 

projections are identified by the following inscription: 

Plate Inscription 

la li-"ard Mecca 214 0 

lb li-"ard Medina al-Musharrafah 25 30 

2a li-"ard Misr wa li-kull mawdi" "arduhu 30 00 

2b li-"ard Mikndsa az-zitun wa li-kull mawdi" "arduhu 34 

3a li-kull mawdi" "arduhu 31 30 

3b li-kull mawdi" "arduhu 36 30 

33 30 

38 30 

4a li-kull mawdi " "arduhu 

4b li-kull mawdi " "arduhu 

Most of the inscription is Arabic, Kufic maghribi; but on two of the plates (numbers 3 and 4) 

some Naskhi has been scratched near the meridian. 

The pin is a bolt with a flattened head. The 

wedge is a bird with a pierced eye. 

Remarks: The plates included with this instrument are remarkably varied. Plates 1 and 2 appear to consist of cast metal, and plates 3 and 4 

appear to have been rolled. Plate color varies as 

well: number 1 is a dark golden color, 2 and 4 are 

the color of yellow gold, and 3 is copper colored. 

On all of the plates the prayer lines are jagged. A 

few other jagged lines designate altitudes (about 

every sixth) and azimuths (prime meridian) on 

all plates but the third. There are obvious construction guidelines on all plates. The rete is 

missing. 

A second astrolabe made by Muhammad ben 

Fattuh in A.H. 621 (CCA No. 130) is quite similar 

to this example. It is preserved in the Museum of 

the History of Science, Oxford. Another of ben 

Fattuh's astrolabes, in the collections of the Adler 

Planetarium, Chicago (CCA No. 153), is dated 

A.H. 634. Ben Fattuh's signature on the Smithsonian instrument identifies him with the city of 

Seville in Spain. 

CCA Nos. 4002, 4003 

(FIGURES 126, 127) 

Diameter: 80 mm (4002), and 103 mm (4003). 

Remarks: These two objects are examples of 

fC.^^S^'^^fJ^n^,, 

FIGURE 126.—Astrolabe No. 4003. Front view. 

pseudo-astrolabes. They each have all of the components of authentic instruments (body with 

throne, handle, three plates, rete, alidade, pin, 

and wedge), but claims to authenticity do not 

extend beyond form. For example, divisions of 

the rim number 44 in the one case (No. 4002) and 

56 in the other (4003). Inscription in the front 

central area of each looks like a gazetteer but 

hardly reads like one. No notch or tooth holds the 

plates fixed. There are, in each case, four circular 

scales on the back. Only one of these is recognizable, consisting of pictures representing the zodiacal signs. There is a rectangular "scale" composed 

of four rows and four columns inside these circles. 

The maker may have seen the back of an astrolabe, but he almost surely did not understand it. 

The lines on the plates in some cases form a floral 

design. In no case do they correspond to stereographically projected coordinates. The retes exhibit amateur workmanship. No recognizable star 
188 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

FIGURE 127.—Astrolabe No. 4002. Back view. 
NUMBER 45 189 

names appear. In the one case (No. 4002) the 

ecliptic is divided into 19 units: in the other (No. 

4003) it is divided into 26 units. The markings on 

each alidade have no significance. There are no 

sighting holes in the "sighting plates." All the 

inscription employs Hebrew letters, perhaps to 

make it less accessible to prospective buyers. It 

appears likely that the same anonymous maker is 

responsible for both objects. 

CCA No. 4004 

(FIGURE 128) 

Diameter: 140 mm. 

Remarks: This object, like entry Nos. 4002 and 

4003, exhibits the characteristics of a pseudo-astrolabe. An irregularly divided rim; a "gazetteer," 

which lists place names without geographic parameters; loose, indistinguishable plates; a zodiacal scale incorporating pictures; and a symmetrical rete without recognizable star names—all 

preclude the object's identification as a functioning scientific instrument. Although the alidade of 

this object includes sighting plates pierced with 

holes, there is no altitude scale against which 

"sightings" can be measured. To the casual observer, the scales and tables on the back of the 

instrument look functional; but closer examination reveals that with the exception of the zodiacal scale, no useful astrological information is 

conveyed. The maker has used the Arabic alphabet and Naskhi script to decorate the object with 

numbers, and recognizable names of places and 

•"'^i^^t>'7r. 

• <- ' 

FIGURE 128.—Astrolabe No. 4004. Back view. 

zodiacal signs. The placement of the inscription, 

however, combines with other clues to suggest 

that although the maker may have seen a functional astrolabe, he did not understand it. 
Appendix I 

Gazetteers 

One faces a number of problems in attempting 

to transcribe cities written in the Arabic alphabet 

into a European alphabet. One can adopt a 

"generally accepted spelling" (such as that found 

in the Times Atlas of the World) or one can choose 

a phonetic representation which somehow accounts for etymological quirks and native shifts 

of sounds that have no equivalents in the European alphabet. The city names that appear in the 

tables in this Appendix represent an effort to 

preserve the intent of the native scribe without 

losing any geographic information. Whenever the 

spelling in the Times Atlas could be considered a 

faithful transcription of the Arabic city name, it 

was adopted as the standard spelling. The list 

that follows Table LA. identifies deviations from 

the standard spelling and probable spelling errors. (An asterisk preceding the place name in the 

table indicates that it is annotated in the list.) 

When adoption of a Times standard would misrepresent the Arabic or when no Times standard 

could be identified, a phonetic transcription of 

the Arabic was included in the table. An effort 

was made to identify puzzling place names in 

works of prominent Arabic geographers. 

The task of transcribing the geographic coordinates associated with a place named in the 

gazetteer of an astrolabe presents no fewer problems than the task of transcribing the place name 

itself. Whether written in Kufic or Naskhi, certain 

Arabic numbers are easily misread. For example, 

only the presence of a dot or the length of a stroke 

distinguishes the numerals 15, 35, and 55. Similar 

problems arise in relation to the numerals 45, 85, 

and 105. In general, numbers between 11 and 19 

can be confused with numbers between 31 and 

39 and with numbers between 51 and 59. In 

addition, numbers between 41 and 49 can be 

confused with numbers between 81 and 89 and 

between 101 and 109. Moreover, it is often difficult to distinguish numbers between 101 and 109 

from numbers between 111 and 119. The convention for representing zero can easily be read as 

the number 45. 

The information included in the gazetteers of 

the astrolabes from the National Museum of 

American History is presented in three tables. 

Table LA. summarizes all of the geographic 

information appearing on the instruments. The 

table is annotated to report Saliba's research on 

citations in the Arabic geographic literature and 

to indicate readings that vary from the listed 

parameters. 

Wherever the information can be ascertained 

from the instruments, the table includes geographical longitude (in degrees and minutes), 

latitude (in degrees and minutes), azimuth of the 

Qibla (in degrees and minutes), distance from 

Mecca (or al-masdfat measured in farsakhs), and 

direction of the azimuth of the Qibla with respect 

to the four cardinal points {the jihat). 

The following symbolism has been adopted: 

A = Name and geographic parameters appear 

on the instrument as listed in the table. 

V = Geographic parameters on the instrument 

vary from those listed in the table. The 

reader is referred to the note associated 

with the place name for information about 

the nature of the variation. 

R = Geographic parameters rounded to the 

nearest degree (for the rounded values see 

Table LB.). 

190 
NUMBER 45 191 

G = Geographic parameters measured from * = Annotation in the list following the table. 

Greenwich Observatory (for these param- Numbers in parentheses following the CCA numeters see Table I.C.). bers indicate the number of geographic parame-

? = Problematic reading or identification. ters included in the gazetteer (e.g., (2) = longitude 

- = Tentative identification. and latitude). 
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NOTES TO TABLE I.A 

Refer to Literature Cited for bibliographic details. 

Abarquh: Modern Abarqu. Le Strange (1966) lists Abarkuh. 

"Aden: No. 2569 has longitude 77 00. 

Adhoun: No. 55 has Qibla azimuth 11 13; No. 52 has 51 

18 for this same parameter. The characters forming the 

place name can also be read Uzen. Yaqut (volume 1, page 

167) locates this named place in the area of modern Rayy 

and Teheran. 

Agra: Nos. 39 and 55 have longitude 84 00 and latitude 27 

33. 

Ahmadabad: No. 87 has longitude 88 00. 

Ajmireh: Modern Ajmer. No. 87 has latitude 24 00. No. 85 

has latitude 25 00. No. 86 has latitude 26 26. 

Akbarabad: This city is not in the Times Atlas, but see 

Bartholomew (1893) map 27 Db with coordinates close to 

27° in latitude. No. 87 has longitude 114 00. 

Akhlat: Nallino (no. 164) has this city as Khilat, longitude 

78 00 and latitude 39 20. (Nallino, no. 164 refers to an 

entry in the table in Al-Battani sive Albatenii Opus Astronomicum, volume 2, pages 33-54.) 

Allahabad: Bartholomew (1893) (map 28, Bc) has latitude 

around 25 50. 

Al-lan: Nallino (volume 2, no. 172) mentions this city. 

Al-Rum: See also Ard Rum and Arz al-Rum below; see 

Nallino (1899-1907, volume 2, pages 41, 46). 

Amid: This city is not in the Times Atlas; but see Nallino 

(1899-1907, volume 2, page 41) for a mention. 

Amol: No. 42 has longitude 87 20, latitude 36 15 and 

azimuth 35 00. No. 52 has latitude 36 15 and azimuth 34 

57. No. 58 has latitude 36 15 and azimuth 36 45. No. 70 

has latitude 38 00. 

Amol Qasabat T.: The word Qasabat is usually used to refer 

to a large city; i.e., a capital or administrative city of a 

region, or simply <a large city in a given region (Yaqut, 

volume 7, page 95). The Qasabat named here is the same 

as the city of Amol listed above in the table. See Nallino 

(1899-1907, volume 2, page 53), where he spells this city 

Amul. 

"^Amuriyyah: Nallino (volume 2, page 44) mentions this 

city. Morley (in Gunther, no. 76) has the same coordinates. 

This city is not on a modern map (no. 76 refers to Morley's 

list of cities in the gazetteer of the Shah's astrolabe which 

appears on pages 24-26 in Gunther's edition of Morley's 

description. The parameters on this astrolabe are rather 

certain because the inscribed numbers are written out in 

words.) 

Ardabil: The following variant readings appear in the 

collection: longitude 82 00 (No. 88); latitude 33 00 (No. 

39), and latitude 38 17 (on Nos. 59 and 61); and azimuths 

17 33 (on Nos. 25, 31, and 52), and 57 13 (on No. 64). 

Ard Rum: See note for Al-Rum above. Arz and Ard sound 

alike in Persian. 

Asku Qasabat J.: This could be the Medieval city of 
NUMBER 45 201 

Abskun (according to Yaqut) or Abaskun (according to 

Le Strange). It does not appear on modern maps. 

•^Asqalan: Nallino (volume 2, page 38) gives longitude 65 

00, latitude 31 50. The city may be Ascalon, Israel. 

Asterabad: The following variant readings appear in the 

collection: longitudes 81 35 (on No. 58) and 89 30 (on 

Nos. 66 and 85); latitude 36 05 (on no. 66) and azimuths 

18 48 (on Nos. 25, 39, and 49), 38 47 (on entry Nos. 47 

and 2566) and 37 48 (on entry no. 58). 

Awadh: The Arabic spelling of modern Oudh reflects the 

aspirated final d in the native pronunciation. For coordinates, see Bartholomew (map 28, Cb). Forrest's map has 

Oude northeast of Lucknow. 

Bab al-Abwab: This city is modern Derbent (Darband). 

See Nallino (volume 1, page 172) for mention. No. 88 has 

latitude 43 00. 

Babulghar: This city may be Babol Sar in the area of the 

Bulgar river delta. 

Badakhshan: Variant readings for parameters include: 

longitude 84 24 (Nos. 39, 49, and 55); latitudes 37 20 (No. 

39) and 34 10 (No. 52); azimuths 44 09 (No. 49) and 64 

19 (No. 55). 

Badhaghis: Morley (No. 89) has these coordinates. See 

Abulfeda (volume 2:2, page 194) where he quotes the 

book Atwdl and gives coordinates for this city (longitude 

83 30 and latitude 35 20). 

Baghdad: Variant readings include: longitudes 82 00 (on 

Nos. 42, 44, 52, 57, 59, 65, and 2569), 80 30 (on No. 85) 

and 100 00 (on No. 66); latitude 34 00 (on No. 61); and 

azimuths 13 00 (on No. 15), 32 45 (on No. 52), 12 85 (on 

No. 49), 12 15 (on No. 25) and 7 16 (on No. 61). 

Bait al-Maqdis: Variant readings include azimuths 45 43 

(on No. 58) 45 16 (on No. 25) and 47 (on Nos. 59 and 61). 

This city is modern Jerusalem. 

Bakar: Bartholomew (map 26, Bb) has Bakar in Afghanistan with latitude ca. 26° and a longitude equivalent to 

105° east. Thus, longitude 85 00 may be a misreading. 

Bakouyeh: The astrolabe could be read as Bakewir. See 

Yaqut (1861-1906, volume 1, page 45) and Barbier de 

Meynard (1861, page 78) for Bakouyeh, a city in the 

district of Derbent. 

Balkh: Variant readings include: latitudes 36 00 (on No. 

86) and 36 11 (on No. 2569); and azimuth 65 36 (on No. 

25). 

Banaras: Entry No. 88 has longitude 117 20. 

Barda*": Modern Barda in Azerbaydzham. No. 59 has 

latitude 36 27. 

Barfurush: Morley (No. 26) has these coordinates. Nos. 58 

and 65 have longitude 87 50. Nos. 61 and 62 have azimuth 

34 14. 

Basra: Variant readings include: longitude 14 00 (on No. 

53) and 44 30 (on No. 31); latitude 30 11 (on No. 86); 

azimuths 37 19 (on Nos. 25, 37, 39, 49, 55, 57, 61, 65, and 

66), 36 00 (on Nos. 52 and 53), 36 05 (on No. 2566), 37 11 

(on No. 58), and 17 19 (on No. 31). 

Bastam: Variant readings include latitude 36 20 (on Nos. 

39, 49, 52, and 59) and azimuths 36 50 (on No. 2566), 18 

13 (on Nos. 39, 49, and 55), 38 13 (on Nos. 59, 61, and 

62), and 38 53 (on No. 65), 39 33 (on Nos. 40 and 47), and 

39 53 (on No. 37). 

Bijapur: Bartholomew (1959, map 34, Ba) has latitude ca. 

17 00 and longitude near 75 00. No. 2569 has longitude 

104 20 and latitude 17 40. 

Biyar: See LeStrange (1966) for a mention of this city. 

Broach: The astrolabe may be read Buruj; see al-Idrisi 

(1960, page 81). 

Budaun: The astrolabe may be read Badawin for Budaun 

near modern Dehli. 

Bukhara: Variant readings include: longitude 96 30 (on 

No. 15); latitudes 39 20 (on No. 15) and 34 20 (on No. 

70); and azimuths 47 34 (on No. 15), 45 08 (on No. 39), 

49 38 (on No. 49), and 49 37 (on No. 2566). 

Bulghar: For the region and city known as Bulghar, see 

Yaqut (volume 2, pages 272-274) and Abulfeda (1848-

1883, volume 2:1, pages 324-325). The name was given to 

the land of the Slavs north of the Caspian Sea around the 

Volga River. 

Burhanpur: Nos. 86 and 2569 have longitude 103 00 and 

latitude 20 30. 

Daibul: 2569 has longitude 81 40 and latitude 38 00. 

Nallino (No. 189) lists Daibul with longitude 100 00 and 

latitude 25 20. No. 88 appears to equate Daibul with the 

city of Tibbat. The two cities have different geographic 

coordinates, however. 

Damavand: See Kushyar in Lelewel (volume 1, pages 182, 

183) for this city as Damavend. 

Damghan: Variant readings include: longitudes 18 15 (on 

Nos. 42 and 49), 88 15 (on Nos. 25, 31, 40, 47, 55, and 57), 

and 108 55 (No. 58); latitude 36 41 (on No. 62); azimuths 

28 00 (on Nos. 25, 39, and 49), 36 20 (on No. 62), 38 00 

(on Nos. 31 and 55), and 38 15 (on Nos. 42, 59, 61, and 

65). 

Daulatabad: This is the Indian city Daulatabad. Variant 

readings include longitude 111 00 and latitude 20 30 (both 

on entry Nos. 86 and 2569). 

Dehli: This is modern Dehli. The spelling on the astrolabes 

usually includes the aspiration before the /. No. 85 has 

longitude 114 48 and latitude 28 47. No. 88 has longitude 

103 35 and latitude 28 20. 

Dhaka Bengale: The maker of the astrolabe which includes 

this place name has apparently conflated the longitude of 

Dacca in Bengal with the latitude of Dhaka in Bihar, 

India. 

Dimashq: Variant readings include: latitudes 13 55 (on 

No. 39), 13 15 (on No. 61), and 33 25 (on No. 59) and 

azimuths 12 45 (on No. 61), 29 06 (on No. 2566) and 42 

45 (on No. 59). 

Dinawar: This place name does not appear in a modern 

atlas; it is, however, listed by Morley (1856) (No. 57). 

Firuzabad: No. 86 has latitude 28 00. 

Fowman: Morley (No. 28) transcribes this city name as 

Fuman. 
202 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

Ganjah: Morley (No. 48) has these coordinates; entry No. 

70 has latitude 40 40. 

Garh-Manikpur?: This is a difficult reading. The two cities 

apparently named are in the vicinity of modern Ahmadpur with longitude near 81 00 and latitude near 25 00. 

Gerfadman: This city is not on a modern map. Yaqut 

(volume 3, page 73) has a city by the name of Garbadgan, 

between Hamadan and Isfahan, which would fit these 

coordinates. Variant readings on instruments in the collection include: longitude 84 30 (on Nos. 37 and 42); 

latitude 34 15 (on Nos. 58 and 62); and azimuths 18 41 

(on Nos. 58 and 62), 33 41 (on No. 25), and 38 00 (on 

Nos. 31,42, and 61). 

Ghazyab: Probably Ghaznayn, a variant spelling of 

Ghazni, or a different city in the same region. See Le 

Strange (page 348) and Yaqut (volume 6, page 289) for 

Ghaznayn as a different city from Gazni. 

Golkonda: Nundo Lai Dey (pages 84 and 234) has KalaKunda as a city around 7 miles from modern Hyderabad. 

Variant readings include longitudes 114 19 (on No. 2569) 

and 114 39 (on No. 87) and latitude 18 04 (on No. 87). 

Gorgan: No. 66 has longitude 94 00, latitude 36 50, and 

azimuth 52 45. 

Gwalior: No. 87 has longitude 115 00. 

Halab: This is modern Aleppo. Variant readings include: 

latitude 35 06 (on Nos. 58 and 70) and azimuths 33 29 

(on No. 57), 36 00 (on No. 59), 38 26 (on No. 47), and 70 

31(?) (on No. 58). 

Halvan: Variant readings include: longitudes 102 15 (on 

No. 85) and 82 15 (on No. 61) and latitudes 36 03 (on No. 

61) and 34 00 (on No. 85). 

Hamadan: Variant readings (probably due to different 

sources) include: longitudes 84 00 (on No. 15), 85 00 (on 

Nos. 61 and 62), and 88 00 (on Nos. 55 and 66); latitudes 

36 00 (on Nos. 61 and 62), and 30 10 (on No. 66); and 

azimuths 22 17 (on No. 40), 27 26 (on Nos. 61 and 62), 22 

36 (on No. 42), 24 16 (on Nos. 53 and 58), and 25 30 (on 

No. 15). 

Herat: Variant readings include: longitudes 93 30 (on Nos. 

52 and 53) 94 33 (on No. 87), and 94 13 (on No. 85); 

latitudes 34 35 (on Nos. 64 and 2566) and 37 30 (on No. 

15); and azimuths 14 08 (on Nos. 25, 42, and 57), 14 35 

(on No. 66), 51 38 (on No. 53), 53 11 (on No. 15), 53 54 

(on No. 2566), 54 05 (on No. 58), and 54 08 (on Nos. 59 

and 61). 

Hims: No. 61 has latitude 34 03. 

Hormoz: Variant readings include: longitude 92 20 (on 

No. 2569) and azimuth 73 41 (on No. 15). 

Irwan: This city which seems to be on the southeast side of 

the Caspian Sea, cannot be identified. No. 59 has azimuth 

37 20. 

Isfahan: Variant readings include: longitudes 87 40 (on 

Nos. 85 and 86) and 86 00 (on Nos. 52 and 53); latitudes 

32 24 (on No. 49), 32 35 (on No. 2569), and 34 25 (on 

Nos. 59, 61, and 62); and azimuths 30 23 (on No. 15), 40 

25 (on No. 59), 40 18 (on Nos. 25, 39, 49, 55, and 65), 40 

28 (on Nos. 31 and 57), and 40 45 (on No. 47). 

Jaj wahu Shash: This name appears to be an attempt to 

render the pronunciation of a letter/ which is lateralized 

to sound like SH. Hence the astrolabist has both Jaj and 

Shash. See al-Biruni, Nallino (No. 80), Suhrab (No. 534) 

and Khwarizmi (No. 1585) for possible mentions. 

Jazirat Bani Kawan?: The term jazirat means "island." 

Juniper: This city is sometimes spelled Jaipur, a name of 

many cities and one district in India in the vicinity of this 

city. 

Kabul: The city with this name listed by Morley (1856) 

(No. 64) has longitude 104 40, latitude 34 07, and azimuth 

69 57. Variant readings on instruments in the collection 

include: longitudes 84 24 (on No. 52), 54 40 (on No. 61), 

84 40 (on Nos. 39, 40, 49, 55, 62, 87, and 2569); latitudes 

34 16 (on No. 57), 34 20 (on No. 52), 34 30 (on Nos. 86, 

87, and 2569) and 34 36 (on No. 40); and azimuths 69 30 

(on No. 55), 64 34 (on No. 62) and 17 09 (on No. 52). 

Kannauj: Arab sources traditionally write this city's name 

as Ginnuj. See Idrisi (page 159 and index) for an example. 

This city also may be identified with Yaqut's Qattuj. 

Kashan: The few variant readings include: longitude 86 

40 (on No. 15) and azimuths 34 33 (on Nos. 64 and 2566) 

and 36 08 (on No. 15). 

Kashgar: Both Nos. 86 and 2569 have latitude 44 00. 

Kashmir: Variant readings include longitude 88 00 (on 

No. 25), latitude 31 00 (on No. 25) and azimuths 68 40 

(on No. 58) and 75 20 (on No. 25). 

Kazerun: Variant readings include: latitude 29 45 (on No. 

55) and azimuths 11 07 (on No. 58), 51 17 (on Nos. 57, 59, 

and 61), and 51 57 (on Nos. 40 and 65). 

Kerej: See al-Biruni's Qanun (page 568) for a reference to 

Kerej Abu Dalf. 

Kerman: Variant readings include: longitudes 91 30 (on 

Nos. 86 and 2569), 91 40 (on No. 66) and 92 33 (on No. 

40); latitudes 30 00 (on No. 66) and 30 05 (on Nos. 15, 86, 

and 2569); and azimuths 60 00 (on No. 66), 62 11 (on No. 

25) and 63 00 (on Nos. 15 and 52). 

Kharma Habash: See al-Biruni [Qanun, page 549), Khwarizmi (No. 75, page 8) and Suhrab (No. 61, page 16) for 

possible mentions. 

Khenpayet: This is the modern city of Cambay, Bombay, 

India. See al-Biruni [Qanun, page 552) and Idrisi (page 86) 

for possible mentions. No. 87 has latitude 22 20. 

Khujand: This is the city of Khujandah in Le Strange 

(1966, map IX). No. 86 has longitude 100 35. 

Khuwana: Jacques de Morgan (1894) mentions a certain 

Khouna as a "village du delta du Kizil-Ouzen" in the 

district of Jilan. It could be the same as the city named 

here. 

Khwarizm: This is definitely the region of Khwarizm, 

birthplace of Khwarizmi, al-Biruni, and others. Its capital 

is modern Khiva in Uzbekistan, USSR. 

Kufa: Variant readings include: longitude 79 10 (No. 86) 

and azimuths 11 59 (No. 2566), 12 35 (No. 65), and 37 25 

(No. 66). 
NUMBER 45 203 

Kufa wa Najaf: Modern al-Kufah and an-Najaf in Iraq 

which are very close to each other. An-Najaf is a sacred 

city for Shi^'ites, being the site of the grave of ''Ali, the 

fourth caliph. 

Kul wa Jalali: These are the two cities of Koil, modern 

Aligarh and Jalai in Uttar Pradesh, India. 

Lahawar: The Medieval spelling of modern Lahore is Lahawar. See, for example, al-Idrisi (1960, pages 66 and 90). 

Lahijan: Variant readings include: longitude 84 00 (Nos. 

42, 59, and 61) and azimuth 29 40 (No. 42). 

Lahsa: This is the city Ahsa" in Bahrain mentioned by 

Yaqut (volume 1, page 137), built by the Qarmatian Abu 

Tahir al-Hasan Ben Abi Sa^id al-Jannani. See Abulfeda 

(1848-1883, volume 2:1, page 135) for the spelling Lahsa 

as a vulgar form of al-^Ahsa^ Al-Alwal, as quoted by 

Abulfeda [ibid), gives the coordinates longitude 73 00 and 

latitude 22 00. No. 52 has latitude 34 00. If longitude 83 

00 is interpreted as an error, the reference could be Lhasa, 

Tibet, with longitude 103 00. 

Lahore: Morley (No. 66) has 78 26 as the azimuth of 

Lahore. No. 25 has this azimuth and latitude 31 15. 

Madayin: No. 2569 has longitude 72 00 and latitude 33 

10. Al-Biruni [Qdndn, page 558) mentions al-mada^in as 

being Tabsun. 

Mahdiyyah: Lelewel (volume 1, page 139) has Mahadia 

reported at latitude 32 30 by Nasir al-Din al-Tusi and 

others. 

Maragheh: Variant readings include: longitude 92 00 (on 

No. 66); latitudes 36 20 (on No. 66) and 37 13 (on No. 

85); and azimuths 17 17 (on No. 47), 36 17 (on No. 31), 

and 56 57 (on Nos. 39 and 42). 

Marw: This is modern Mary in Yurkemaniya, USSR. 

Variant readings include: longitude 107 00 (on No. 52) 

and azimuths 57 30 (on Nos. 40 and 61) and 52 30 (on 

No. 55). 

Marw al-Roudh: This is a different city from Marw. See 

Lelewel (volume 1, page xlj) where he has Mervalroud 

with longitude 90 00, latitude 39 00. Marw is mentioned 

as another city in the fifth climate. 

Mashhad-Turshiz: See Meshhad and Turshiz below. 

Mazinan: This city could be modern Kalateh-ye Mazinan. 

Mecca Mu^azzamah: Mecca and Medina are often mentioned with honorific names such as mubdrakah (blessed), 

and mu"azzamah (glorified). 

Medina: Variant readings include azimuths 23 00 (on No. 

58), 27 10 (on No. 42) and 27 27 (on No. 47). 

Meshhad: No. 86 has latitude 36 00. 

Mimand: Al-Biruni [Qanun, page 561) has longitude 93 40 

and latitude 33 20. 

Mi§r: This is modern Egypt. Variant readings include: 

azimuth 58 38 (on No. 37). 

Mosul: Variant readings include: latitude 36 30 (on No. 

70) and azimuths 4 12 (on No. 58), 6 54 (on No. 59), and 

7 12 (on Nos. 25 and 39). 

Multan: Variant readings include: longitudes 87 35 (on 

Nos. 39, 55, and 64), 106 35 (on No. 85) and 107 25 (on 

No. 2569); latitude 39 40 (on No. 64); and azimuth 80 48 

(on Nos. 39, 40, and 55). 

Nahrvara: This must be modern Patan. See al-Idrisi (1960, 

page 9). 

Najwaseru: This reading is quite uncertain; the place name 

is inscribed in the center of the gazetteer with only the 

azimuth of the Qibla given. 

Nakhijewan: Variant readings include: latitude 18 40 (on 

Nos. 39 and 49) and azimuth 12 14 (on No. 59). 

Nishapur: Variant readings include: latitude 36 00 (on No. 

55), and azimuths 45 00 (on No. 15) 46 13 (on No. 55), 46 

26 (on No. 2566) and 46 35 (on No. 58). 

Paniphateh: This is modern Panipat. Entry No. 2569 has 

latitude 28 50. 

Penjahir ez-Kabul: For Penjahir, see al-Biruni [Qanun, 

page 574) with coordinates longitude 94 20 and latitude 

35 00. 

Qandahar: There are two cities called Kandahar: one in 

Afghanistan, latitude 31 36; and one in India, latitude 18 

54. Hence one can expect the coordinates given for this 

city to be confused. Variant readings include: longitudes 

84 40 (on Nos. 39, 49, and 55), 87 40 (on Nos. 59 and 66), 

106 40 (on No. 85); latitudes 18 00 (on Nos. 39 and 49), 

23 00 (on No. 25), 33 40 (on Nos. 59 and 61), 33 45 (on 

No. 70), and 38 00 (on No. 55); and azimuths 74 00 (on 

Nos. 52 and 53), 74 31 (on Nos. 49 and 55), 74 59 (on Nos. 

64 and 2566), 75 31 (on Nos. 39 and 61), and 42 00 (on 

No. 66). 

Qanuj: No. 88 has Qanuj dar malik Hind, longitude 115 50 

and latitude 26 36. 

Qayen: This city's name is also spelled Qain or Qayin. 

Variant readings include: latitude 13 40 (on No. 39) and 

azimuths 14 36 (on No. 25), 52 01 (on No. 58), 15 01 (on 

Nos. 39 and 55), and 54 04 (on No. 2566). 

Qayrawan: Al-Biruni [Qanun, page 555) has longitude 31 

00 and latitude 31 40. Entry No. 2569 has latitude 31 00. 

Qaysariya: See Nallino (1899-1907, No. 110) and al-Biruni 

[Qanun, page 557) for mention. 

Qazvin: Variant readings include: longitude 87 00 (on No. 

53); latitudes 36 15 (on No. 58), 36 41 (on No. 62), 36 45 

(on No. 2569), and 36 55 (on Nos. 66 and 85); and 

azimuths 25 34 (on No. 55), 27 26 (on Nos. 59, 61, and 

62), 27 30 (on No. 15), 27 36 (on No. 66), and 27 37 (on 

No. 42). 

Qolzum: This is the name of the Red Sea. For mentions of 

Qolzum, see Khwarizmi (1926, No. 160) and Suhrab 

(1929). See also Yaqut (1861-1906, volume 7, pages 145-

147) for the name of the sea in which Pharoah drowned. 

Qom; Variant readings include: longitudes 86 40 (on No. 

15), and 87 40 (on No. 52); latitudes 34 40 (on No. 53), 35 

00 (on No. 66) and 35 45 (on No. 85); and azimuths 31 54 

(on Nos. 31, 37, 40, 53, and 65), 31 55 (on Nos. 66 and 

2566), 32 14 (on No. 15), and 34 31 (on No. 55). 

Qostantin: This is modern Istanbul. Al-Biruni [Qanun, page 

577) has Qustantiniya. See also Nallino (pages 33, 44, 212, 

and 217) for coordinates. 
204 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

Rayy: This name refers to an area close to modern Shah 

•^ Abdul- ''Azim, modern Shahr Rey, south of Teheran. See 

Jacques de Morgan, (1894, page 392); Nallino (1899-

1907, no. 172) and Yaqut (volume 4, pages 355f). Variant 

readings include: longitudes 16 20 (on No. 42) and 87 20 

(on No. 47); latitude 35 41 (on No. 62); and azimuths 31 

33 (on No. 15), 36 22 (on No. 62), and 36 26 (on Nos. 37, 

47, 52, 53, 61, and 65). 

Rumieh: For comments on this city, see Nallino (page 44). 

Also see Khwarizmi and al-Biruni [Qanun, page 574) for 

coordinates. 

Sabzawar: Variant readings include: latitudes 36 05 (on 

Nos. 37, 40, 47, 58, 64, 87, and 2566), 36 10 (on No. 86), 

and 36 21 (on No. 62) and azimuths 41 13 (on No. 55), 44 

12 (on Nos. 25, 37, and 52), 41 13 (on No. 39), 44 12 (on 

No. 47), 44 46 (on Nos. 64 and 2566), 44 52 (on No. 40), 

and 46 25 (on No. 62). 

Samarqand: Variant readings include: longitudes 98 00 

(on No. 15), 99 34 (on No. 62), 99 36 (on Nos. 39, 52, 55, 

58, and 59), and 99 56 (on Nos. 87 and 2569); latitudes 39 

36 (on No. 55), 39 37 (on No. 58), and 40 00 (on Nos. 15 

and 70); and azimuths 12 14 (on No. 62), 24 00 (on No. 

59), 49 00 (on No. 15), 52 14 (on No. 58), 52 33 (on No. 

2566), 52 54 (on No. 52), and 54 54 (on Nos. 85 and 61). 

Samirah: This city is modern Samarra, which is the same 

as Surra Man Ra' a below. No. 2569 has longitude 79 15 

and latitude 34 15. 

$ana^a: No. 55 has latitude 34 30 and azimuth 1 55. 

Sarakhs: No. 52 has azimuth 11 14. 

Sarandib: See Lelewel (1852-1857, volume 5, page 74) for 

longitude 125 00, latitude 10 00. The reference is to 

modern Ceylon. 

Sari: Variant readings include: longitude 83 00 (on Nos. 

52 and 53), and azimuths 22 14 (on No. 53), 32 10 (on 

No. 37), 32 54 (on No. 2566), and 34 25 (on No. 58). This 

place name appears twice on No. 3811. 

Sariyeh: This is a variant spelling of Sari. 

Sarmin: Abulfeda (volume 2:2, page 42) quotes Atwdl, 

longitude 61 50 and latitude 31 15; Yaqut (volume 5, 

page 75) also gives coordinates. 

Sarouj: Abulfeda (volume 2:2, page 52) spells this city's 

name as Saroug and quotes Atwdl, with longitude 62 40 

and latitude 36 50 and Qanun with longitude 62 15 and 

latitude 37 40. There is a discrepancy between the Hyderabad edition of al-Biruni's Qanun and the edition quoted 

by Abulfeda. 

Sawah: Variant readings include: latitude 35 40 and azimuth 29 10 (on No. 15), latitude 36 00 and azimuth 39 36 

(on No. 42) and latitude 34 00 and azimuth 29 36 (on No. 

52). 

Semnan: Variant readings include: longitudes 88 41 (on 

No. 62), and 83 00 (on No. 85); latitudes 36 41 (on No. 

62); and azimuths 34 35 (on No. 64), 34 38 (on No. 2566), 

36 20 (on Nos. 61 and 62), 37 17 (on No. 55) and 36 37 

(on No. 66). 

Shahjahanabad: This is the modern city of Jahanaba d in 

Uttar Pradesh, India. Shahjahan was one of the Mogul 

Emperors of India in the late seventeenth century (LanePoole, pages 322ff). The city Khohanabad, above, may be 

a mistake for this city. 

Shahrazur: Variant readings include: longitudes 80 20 (on 

No. 2569) and 83 20 (on No. 61) and latitude 35 30 (on 

No. 2569). 

Shamakhi: No. 70 has latitude 40 45. 

Shapur: This is known to be an ancient site in Iran, close 

to Kazerun. 

Shiraz: Variant readings include: longitude 108 00 (on No. 

64); latitudes 29 00 (on Nos. 25, 39, 49, 53, 55, and 65) 

and 29 30 (on No. 15); and azimuths 13 18 (on Nos. 31 

and 37), 23 28 (on Nos. 39, 55, 59, 61, and 65), 23 38 (on 

No. 40), 33 18 (on No. 42), 33 20 (on No. 52), 33 30 (on 

No. 53), 33 38 (on No. 25), 43 18 (on No. 47), 51 22 (on 

No. 15), 53 18 (on No. 58), 53 28 (on No. 57) and 53 38 

(on No. 66). 

Shirwan: Variant readings include: longitudes 81 30 (on 

No. 66) and 91 30 (on Nos. 25, 42, and 53); latitudes 36 

00 (on Nos. 25, 53, and 66) and 36 05 (on No. 42); and 

azimuths 44 13 (on No. 25), 36 17 (on No. 53) and 44 14 

(on No. 66). The two sets of parameters suggest that two 

distinct Shirwans are identified in the gazetteers. In fact. 

No. 42 lists both. These two Shirwans undoubtedly correspond to the two modern cities of Shirvan in Iran. 

Shustar: Variant readings include longitude 34 30 (on No. 

53) and azimuths 35 29 (on Nos. 64 and 2566) and 36 24 

(on No. 55). 

Sialkut: See Bartholomew (1959, map 25, Aa) for Sialkut; 

al-Biruni [Qanun, page 562) has longitude 99 00 and 

latitude 33 00. 

Sijilmasah: Al-Biruni [Qanun, page 554) has longitude 18 

45 and latitude 31 30. 

SoUaniyeh: No. 2569 has longitude 85 00 and latitude 36 

30. 

Sowiet: This is a reference to a whole country. The coordinates given are in the modern Omsk region of the 

USSR. 

Suhraward: Barbier de Meynard (pages 329, 330) comments on the history of this city. Yaqut (volume 5, page 

185) and Le Strange (page 223) locate this city close to 

Sultaniyyeh near Zanjan. 

Sultan Kot: This city appears to be located in the vicinity 

of modern Moradabad, India. 

Sumyat: This is probably the Sumaysat of Medieval 

writers. Nallino (No. 148) has longitude 72 00 and latitude 

37 50. 

Surra Man Ra^a: This is modern Samarra". Yaqut (volume 5, page 75) gives this city's history. Variant readings 

include: longitude 79 30 (on No. 55) and azimuths 7 36 

(on Nos. 59, 61, and 65) and 7 56 (on Nos. 55 and 57). 

Tabariyyah: This is modern Tiberias. 

Tabas: Entry No. 52 has azimuth 12 15. 
NUMBER 45 205 

Tabas Kylek: This city is the same as Tabas. Kylek could 

be the name of the district. 

Tabriz: Variant readings include: longitude 81 15 (on No. 

88); latitude 38 45 (on No. 88); and azimuths 15 00 (on 

No. 25), 15 30 (on No. 15) and 15 47 (on No. 37). 

Tahert Ulya: This city may be the Tahart mentioned by 

Shems al-Din (Lelewel, 1852-1857, volume 1, page 177) 

with coordinates longitude 33 20 and latitude 34 00. AlBiruni [Qanun, page 564) lists two cities called Tahert: 

Tahert al^Ulya with longitude 20 00 and latitude 33 50, 

and Tahert al-Sufla with longitude 19 50 and latitude 34 

55. 

Taliqan: Variant readings include: longitudes 85 00 (on 

No. 47), 85 31 (on No. 62) and 85 05 (on No. 61); latitude 

36 20 (on Nos. 39, 61, and 62); and azimuths 21 30 (on 

No. 58), 29 10 (on Nos. 31, 62, and 65), 29 13 (on No. 49), 

29 20 (on No. 61), and 29 13 (on Nos. 25 and 39). 

Tehran: No. 66 has longitude 85 40, latitude 34 45 and 

azimuth 37 26. 

Thanah: Modern Thano near Hyderabad, called Thano 

Bula Khan in Pakistan, with modern longitude 67 51 and 

latitude 25 23. 

Thaniser: No. 2569 has longitude 112 00. 

Tibbat: No. 2569 has longitude 100 00. 

Tiflis: No. 52 has azimuth 14 11. 

Tun: Variant readings include: longitude 52 10 (on No. 

58); latitude 32 30 (on No. 87); and azimuths 10 20 (on 

No. 58), 50 24 (on No. 2566), and 55 20 (on No. 25). 

Turshiz: Barbier de Meynard (1861, pages 135 and 390) 

lists this city under "Tourschisch." Now the city is called 

Kashmar. See Morley (1856, No. 32) for coordinates. 

Variant readings include: longitude 92 41 (on No. 62); 

latitude 34 00 (on Nos. 61 and 62); and azimuth 48 11 

(on No. 53). 

Tus: Variant readings include: longitudes 84 30 (on No. 

66) and 94 30 (on No. 87); latitude 36 00 (on Nos. 15 and 

85); and azimuths 40 00 (on No. 62), 40 06 (on No. 53), 

45 00 (on No. 61), 45 09 (on Nos. 64 and 2566), 45 43 (on 

No. 15), and 45 46 (on No. 66). 

Wasit: No. 57 has azimuth 20 54. 

Yazd: Variant readings include: longitude 109 00 (on No. 

85); latitudes 31 33 (on Nos. 15 and 87) and 32 30 (on No. 

66); and azimuths 43 28 (on No. 66), 47 17 (on No. 15), 

48 27 (on Nos. 47, 52, 53, 64, and 2566), 48 28 (on Nos. 

25, 31, 37, 39, 55, 57, and 65), 48 40 (on No. 58), and 88 

18 (on No. 49). 

Zanjan: No. 2569 lists this place name twice, once with 

longitude 83 40. 

TABLE I.B.—List of names and geographical parameters on No. 44 

Place name 

Agra 

Amol 

Ardabil 

Asterabad 

Baghdad 

Bait al-Maqdis 

Balkh 

Ba§ra 

Damghan 

Dimashq 

Ganjah 

Gerfadman 

Halab 

Hamadan 

Herat 

Hormoz 

Isfahan 

Kashan 

Kashmir 

Kazerun 

Kerman 

Kufa 

Lahawar 

Lahsa 

Maragheh 

Longitude 

114 

88 

82 

90 

82 

67 

81 

84 

83 

70 

83 

87 

72 

83 

94 

92 

87 

86 

88 

87 

93 

80 

89 

84 

82 

Latitude 

26 

36 

38 

37 

33 

32 

37 

30 

36 

33 

41 

34 

36 

35 

34 

25 

32 

34 

31 

29 

30 

32 

31 

24 

37 

Azimuth 

17 

35 

17 

39 

13 

46 

13 

37 

38 

32 

16 

39 

18 

22 

34 

74 

40 

35 

75 

11 

42 

12 

73 

70 

16 

Place name 

Mecca 

Medina 

Meshhad 

Misr 

Mosul 

Multan 

Nakhijewan 

Nishapur 

Qandahar 

Qayen 

Qazvin 

Qom 

Sabzawar 

Sana'^a 

Semnan 

Shiraz 

Shirwan 

Shustar 

Surra Man Ra^'a 

Tabriz 

Taliqan 

Tiflis 

Tun 

Yazd 

Longitude 

77 

75 

92 

63 

77 

87 

82 

93 

88 

93 

85 

86 

91 

77 

88 

88 

91 

85 

79 

82 

86 

83 

92 

89 

Latitude 

22 

25 

37 

30 

35 

30 

39 

36 

73? 

34 

36 

35 

36 

14 

36 

29 

36 

32 

34 

38 

36 

8 3 ? 

34 

32 

Azimuth 

0 

37 

15 

19 

17 

81 

12 

46 

32 

55 

10 

32 

44 

5 

36 

13 

44 

35 

7 

16 

10 

15 

50 

48 
206 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOG Y 

TABLE I.C.—List of names and geographical parameters on No. 3811 (five place names could 

not be read and have not been included in the table) 

Place name 

Ardabil 

Asterabad 

Badkuba 

Baghdad 

Bahihan 

Barfurush 

Bastam 

Bukhara 

Damghan 

Dehli 

Firuzabad 

Ganjah 

Gerfadman 

Hamadan 

Herat 

Irwan 

Isfahan 

Kashan 

Kermanshah 

Kerman 

Kernal 

Kufa 

Maragheh 

Longitude 

48 18 

54 32 

29 55 

44 25 

50 30 

52 45 

55 00 

64 29 

54 38 

49 00 

52 45 

46 22 

44 55 

48 00 

62 20 

44 35 

51 50 

51 28 

47 40 

56 30 

23 55 

45 00 

46 12 

Latitude 

38 10 

36 31 

40 20 

33 20 

30 34 

36 30 

36 25 

39 45 

36 07 

30 20 

35 40 

40 30 

32 00 

34 52 

34 45 

40 10 

32 40 

33 59 

34 23 

29 50 

32 40 

31 30 

37 08 

Azimuth 

25 09 

43 31 

26 17 

28 42 

48 12 

39 39 

44 59 

55 41 

44 46 

33 55 

41 14 

14 15 

20 ? 

29 22 

61 39 

20 

45 08 

41 10 

25 40 

60 11 

14 16 

15 ? 

20 17 

Direction 

SW 

SW 

SW 

SW 

SW 

SW 

SW 

SW 

SW 

SW 

SW 

SW 

SW 

SW 

SW 

SW 

SW 

SW 

SW 

SW 

SW 

SW 

SW 

Place name 

Marw 

Mecca 

Medina 

Meshhad Muqaddas 

Nahawand 

Nakhijewan 

Nishapur 

Nowshehr 

Qandahar 

Qazvin 

Qom 

Sabzawar 

Samarqand 

Sarakhs 

Sari 

Semnan 

Shiraz 

Shustar 

Surra Man Ra^a 

Tabriz 

Tehran 

Turshiz 

Yazd 

Longitude 

62 10 

40 10 

39 55 

59 50 

44 53 

48 08 

58 46 

50 56 

66 20 

49 55 

40 56 

57 22 

66 50 

61 00 

53 05 

53 32 

58 40 

49 00 

44 00 

46 25 

51 20 

58 50 

56 00 

Latitude 

37 30 

21 33 

25 00 

36 20 

34 05 

36 45 

36 08 

29 01 

32 35 

36 10 

34 30 

36 12 

39 56 

36 30 

36 29 

35 33 

29 37 

32 00 

34 00 

38 00 

35 40 

39 08 

32 10 

Azimuth 

56 10 

00 00 

?7 22 

14 32 

30 25 

28 04 

53 07 

55 17 

? 2 2 

34 46 

38 59 

50 17 

23 03 

56 10 

40 28 

43 25 

57 15 

39 03 

? 8 

19 51 

37 30 

54 51 

57 14 

Direction 

SW 

00 

SE 

SW 

SW 

SW 

SW 

SW 

SW 

SW 

SW 

SW 

SW 

SW 

SW 

SW 

SW 

SW 

SW 

SW 

SW 

SW 

SW 
Appendix II 

Star Names 

The names of stars inscribed on the "ankabuts 

or retes of the astrolabes described in the catalog 

entries are grouped here in four annotated tables. 

Table II.A lists all stars inscribed using Arabic 

characters. Table II.B lists the stars named on the 

rete inscribed with Hebrew characters. Table II.C 

lists stars named on the astrolabe inscribed with 

Sanskrit characters. Table II.D groups the stars 

found on retes inscribed with Latin characters. 

The following symbolism has been adopted in all 

four tables: 

? = Problematic reading or identification. 

A = Name appears on instruments as listed in 

the table. 

V = Name on instruments is a close variant of 

the name listed. The reader should refer 

to the note associated with the star name 

for information about the nature of the 

variation. 

B = Name inscribed on back of "ankabut or 

rete. 

* = Annotation appears in list following table. 

Standard astronomical abbreviations have been 

used in the "star" column to identify the stars 

named. 

In Table II.A the conventions for transcribing 

Arabic characters adopted in the text and catalog 

are adhered to in this table. Column 2 of the 

table contains references to the two primary 

sources of information leading to the identification of the named stars. Entries in this column 

beginning with "A" refer to the numbered Astrolabesterne discussed by P. Kunitzsch in Arabische 

Sternnamen in Europa (pages 59-96). Entries in the 

same column beginning with "K" refer to one of 

the stars numbered and discussed in the main 

portion of Kunitzsch's Sternnamen text. Three 

other references proved helpful in solving problems of identification. They are: R.H. Allen, Star 

Names, Their Lore and Meaning; As-Sufi, Suwaru ^lKawakib; and Ulugh Beg, Catalogue of Stars, translated by E.B. Knobel. 

Bernard Goldstein's article, "The Hebrew Astrolabe in the Adler Planetarium," proved to be 

the most helpful source of information about the 

Hebrew star names in Table II.B. The identifications tabulated there are tentative. The reader 

is referred to a forthcoming study of this astrolabe 

(CCA No. 2572) by Professor Goldstein and 

George Saliba. The table adheres to the conventions for transliteration adopted by Goldstein in 

"The Hebrew Astrolabe." 

The information in Table II.C was kindly provided by Professor David Pingree of Brown University, who examined photographs of the rete of 

No. 4000. The reader is referred to Professor 

Pingree's article, "History of Mathematical Astronomy in India," especially pages 626-628, for 

further discussion of Sanskrit star names. 

The references cited above for Table II.A also 

proved helpful in preparing Table II.D. The entries in column 2 in this table refer to P. Kunitzsch's Arabische Sternnamen, as explained above. 

A numerical reference to the brightness of a given 

star is inscribed following its name on two entries, 

Nos. 221 and 2007. 

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NOTES TO TABLE II.A 

"Abur: Read al-"Abur on No. 144. 

•^Ayyuq: Read al-"Ayyuq on No. 4 and No. 144. 

Al-Dabaran.: Read al-Dabar on No. 144; read Dabardn on 

Nos. 15, 58, 63, and 2571. 

Al-Dubb: This name, appearing on No. 2568, apparently 

refers to the whole constellation of Ursa Major. 

Al-Fard: Read Fard on Nos. 52, 53, and 54. 

Al-Ghul: Read Ghdl on Nos. 25, 31, 37, 39, 42, 44, 59, 61, 

62, 65, 2568, 2569B, and 2571. 

Al-Ghumay§a: Read Ghumaysd on Nos. 2568 and 2571. 

Al Ghurab: Identified with y Corvis, but could refer to the 

entire constellation. 

Al-Hani al-Nahr: Kunitzsch has inhindt an-Nahr. 

Al-Hawwa: Probably identical with Ra^s al-Hawwd. Read 

Hawwd on No. 63. 

Al-Inaq: See Allen, page 440, for identification. 

Al-Jizah: Difficult reading; unidentifiable. 

Al-Kaff al-Jadhma ^: Read Kaff al-Jadhmd on Nos. 44 and 

47. 

Al-Khadib: Read Khadib on Nos. 44 and 2571. 

Al-Maqbid Yad al-Yusra: Difficult reading; unidentifia-

ble. 

Al-Minkab: Read Minkab on entry Nos. 4, 65, and 3811. 

Al-Minkab: Read Minkab on entry Nos. 2568 and 2571. 

Al-Musalsalah: Kunitzsch (1959) has rijl al-Musalsalah. 

Al-Naqar: See Allen, page 103, for identification. 

Al-Nasr: Difficult reading. 

Al-Qalb: On No. 144, this star name is in the position of 

Qalb al-"Aqrab. 

Al-Ramih: Read Rdmih on Nos. 25, 37, 39, 40, 42, 44, 59, 

61, 62, 63, 64, 2566, 2567. 

Al-Ra^s: This star appears to be identical with Ra^s alMuthallath. 

Al-Ridf: Read Ridf on Nos. 4, 37, 39, 40, 42, 44, 59, 61, 62, 

64, 65, 70, 2566, 2567, 2568, and 2571. 

Al-Sarfah: Read Sarfah on Nos. 53, 64, 88, 2566, and 2571. 

Al-Sha^ra al-Shamiyyah: Read Sha''ra Shdmiyyah on Nos. 

52, 55, 58, 88, and 2569A; read Sha"ra Shdmion No. 3811. 

Al-Shira": Unidentifiable. The phrase means the "sail" 

and may refer to a part of Puppis. 

Al-Simak al-A'^zal: Read Simak A "zal for all entries except 

No. 4, which reads al-Simdk al-A "zal, and Nos. 65, 70, and 

2569A, which read, Simak al-A"zal. The word A"zal is 

repeated on entry No. 47. 

Al-Tayir: Read Tdytr on Nos. 44, 63, and 2569B. 

Al-Waqi": Read IVdqi" on Nos. 42, 44, 63, 64, 70, 2566, 

2568, 2569A and B, and 2571. 

Al-Yamaniyyah: Read Yamdniyyah on Nos. 15, 64, 2566, 

and 2567. 

Dhanab al-^Uqab: See Allen (1899, page 61) for identifi-

cation. 

Dhanab al-Jadiy: Read Dhanab Jadiy on No. 31. 

Dhanab Janubi Qaytus: Read Dhanab fanubi on No. 66. 
214 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOG Y 

Dhanab Qaytus: Read Dhanab al-Qaytus on Nos. 44 and 88 

and Dhanab al-Qaytus 3 on No. 2569A. 

Dhanab Qaytus: This pointer could refer to either t or jS 

Ceti on Nos. 4 and 42. A pointer marked Dhanab Qaytus 12 

on No. 2569A may refer to A Ceti. 

Dhanab Qaytus Janubi: Read Dhanab al-Qaytus Janubi on 

No. 55. 

Fam al-Faras: Read Fam Faras on No. 44. Read Fam on 

No. 2569B. 

Fam Qaytus: Read Fam al-Qaytus on Nos. 88 and 2569A. 

Fard al-Shuja*^: Read Fard on No. 15 and Fard Shujd" on 

No. 44. 

Janah al-Ghurab: Kea.d Jandh on entry No. 53 a.ndjandh 

Ghurdb on entry No. 44. 

Ka"b: See Kunitzsch (1959, page 180, note 2). 

Ka'^b al-Faras: This should probably be read as Karab. See 

Kunitzsch, Untersuchungen zur Sternnomenklatur der Araber 

(1961, No. 145). 

Lira^s al-Hawwa: The maker probably intended Ra^'s alHawwd. 

Mankib: See Allen (1899, page 89) for this identification. 

Marfiq: See Kunitzsch (1959) main entry No. 121, for this 

identification. See also Allen, page 331. 

Marfiq Thurayya: Ibid. 

Masafat al-Nahr: The reading on No. 144 is problematic. 

Nos. 31, 37, 39, 40, 42, 59, 61, and 62 have Masdfat. 

Minkab al-Faras: Read Minkab Faras on Nos. 39, 44, and 

2571. No. 2569b has f'araj. 

Minkhar Shuja": See Allen (1899, page 250) for identification. 

Minqar al-Dajajah: Read Minkdr on Nos. 64 and 2566. 

The reading on No. 66 is problematic. 

Mirzam al-Shamaliyyah: Read Mirzam on No. 63. 

Muqaddam: See Allen (1899 page 231) for problematic 

identification. 

Muqaddam Qa'^idat: Read Muqaddam for No. 2567. This 

star is also known as Mutaqaddtm-li-l-Qattdf 

Nasr Tayir: Read Nasr al-Tdyir on No. 55. 

Nathr Sahabi: See Kunitzsch (1959, page 63, No. 10) for 

identification. 

Nayyir Fakkah: Read Nayyir al-Fakkah on Nos. 42, 47, 52, 

53, 59, 61, 62, 64, 2566, 2567, and 3643. 

Nayyir Qa^id: Possibly a combination of Qd^id and Nayyir 

Fakkah. 

Qadam al-Jawza": Qadam is equivalent to rijl. 

Qa'^idat al-Batiyah: The word al-Bdtiyah is repeated on No. 

47. 

Qalb al-^Aqrab: Read Qalb "Aqrab on No. 44. 

Qalb al-"Asad: Read Qalb on No. 15. 

Qaytus: On No. 3811, the word Qaytus appears to be 

followed by the word Shamali, thus linking this pointer 

with t Ceti. The identification is problematic for No. 70. 

Ra^s al-Hawwa: Read Ra" s Haw wd on No. 44; read Ra^s 

on No. 2569B. 

Ridfah: Problematic reading on No. 31. 

Rijl Dubb: See Kunitzsch (1959, page 75, for identification. 

Rijl al-Jawza^: No. 70 has Rijl on two separate pointers. 

One of these undoubtedly represents yS Orionis; the identity of the second is problematic. No. 63 has Rijljawza" 

Rijl al-Jawza" al-Yumna: See Allen (page 318) for identification. 

Rijl Yumna: Ibid. Read RijI al-Yumnd on No. 58. 

Rijl al-Yusra: Read RijI on No. 15; read Rijl Yusrd on No. 

39. 

Sabiq al-"Awwal: The reading on No. 2569A is problematic. 

Sadr Qaytus: Read Sadr al-Qaytus on No. 2569A. The reading on No. 65 is problematic. 

Saif al-Shara: Doubtful reading; unidentifiable. 

Saq "Ayman: Reading on No. 66 is problematic. 

Saq "Ayman Sakib: Possibly a combination of Saq '' Ayman 

and Sdkib al-Md , both references to the constellation 

Aquarius. 

Saq Sakib al-Ma": The reading on No. 52 is problematic. 

Sha''ra Yamaniyyah: Read Sha"ra Yamdni on all entries 

except Nos. 25, 52, 53, 58, and 88. 

Shami: Read Shdmiyyah on Nos. 15, 53, 64, and 2566. 

Simak Ramih: Read Simdk al-Rdmih on Nos. 55 and 65. 

Suhail al-Fard: See Allen (1899, page 249) for identification. 

Wasat al-Batiyah: Identification is problematic. 

Yad Dubb: Ibid. 

Yad Qaytus: Ibid. 

Yad al-Jawza": Read YadJawzd on No. 63. 

Yad al-Jawza' al Yusra: Read Yad al-Jawzd" on No. 

2569A. 

Yad Yumna: Read Yad on Nos. 4 and 15. See Kunitzsch 

(1959, pages 63, 64) for distinction between Yad Yumnd 

and Yad Yusrd. 

Zahr al-Dubb: Reading on No. 88 is problematic. 

3 al-Na^amat: This name appears to refer to a group of 

stars, possibly TJ and 6 in Cetus. 
NUMBER 45 215 

TABLE II.B.—Star names inscribed with Hebrew characters 

on CCA No. 2572 

Star Name 

Al-A "zal 

Dabaran 

Fakka 

Ha-Ramih 

Lev ha-'^Agrav 

Lev ha-^Aryeh 

Me'"off ef 

Nofel 

Regel 

Zenev ha-Gedi 

Qayt us[?]* 

Ridf* 

Reference 

A39 

A18 

A45 

A41 

A48 

A30 

A54 

A53 

A19 

A59 

•> 

A56 

Star 

a YIR 

aTAU 

aCBR 

a BOO 

a SCO 

a LEO 

a AQU 

aLYR 

)8 0RI 

5 CAP 

CET 

aCYG 

* These two star names are engraved on the back of this 

"ankabdt. There is a third, as yet undeciphered word or 

phrase inscribed on the back of the ecliptic band of this 

"ankabut. 

TABLE II.C.—Star names inscribed with Sanskrit characters 

on CCA No. 4000 (two star names, including one possibly 

referring to a Cygni, were undecipherable from the photograph) 

Star Name 

Ardra 

Avijit 

Chitra 

Dhanuk 

Hasta 

Lubdhaka 

Magha 

Purvab 

Rohini 

Samudrapakshi 

Skavana 

Swati 

Star 

aOR I 

aLY R 

a VIR 

aOP H 

y COR 

aCM A 

a LEO 

/?PEG 

aTA U 

L CET 

a AQU 

a BOO 
216 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

TABLE II.D.—Star names inscribed with Latin characters 

Star Name 

Agorab 

Al 

Alabor 

Alacrab 

Alchimech 

* Aldebaran 

Alfard 

Alfeta 

Alfra 

Algeber 

Algnib 

Algol 

* Algomeisa 

Alhaio 

Alhave 

Allot 

* Altaire 

Andromeda 3 

Aquila 2 

Aramech 

* Arcturus 1 

Arturus 

Audicns 

C E q 

* Canis Maior 1 

Canis Meridionalis 

* Canis Minor 1 

Cap Med 2 

Capra 

Caput Dragonis 

* Caput Herculis 

Caput Ophiuchi 3 

Caput Serpen 

Cast 

* Cauda Capricor 3 

Reference 

A36 

A41 

A23 

A48 

A39 

A18 

A29 

A45 

A62 

A19 

A15 

A14 

A25 

A20 

A51 

A28 

A54 

A7 

A54 

A41 

A41 

A41 

A41 

A62 

A23 

A23 

A25 

A14 

A20 

A52 

A49 

A51 

A51 

A24 

A59 

Star 

y COR 

a BOO 

aCM A 

a SCO 

a VIR 

aTA U 

a HYD 

aCB O 

fi PEG 

/3 0R1 

a PER 

;8PER 

aCM I 

a AUR 

aOP H 

t UMA 

a AQI 

/SAND 

a AQI 

a BOO 

a BOO 

a BOO 

a BOO 

/SPEC 

aCM A 

aCM A 

a CMI 

/8PER 

a AUG 

y DRA 

a HER 

aOP H 

aOP H 

a 

8 CAP 

186 

B 

B 

A 

A 

A 

A 

204 

V 

A 

V 

A 

CCA No. 

- H CM ' f 

CM CO O 

CM CM CO 

A 

A 

V 

A 

V 

A 

A 

V 

A 

A 

V 

A A V 

V 

A 

A 

2005 

A 

A 

A 

V 

A 

A 

V 

2006 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

2007 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 
NUMBER 45 217 

TABLE II.D.—Continued 

Star Name 

Cauda Ceti 3 

Cauda Delphin 3 

* Cauda Leonis 

* Cauda Signi 2 

Caudaurse 

CoUarium Canis 

* Cor Leonis 1 

Corona 

Cor Scorpii 2 

Corvus 

* Crus Aquarii 

Crus Pegasi 2 

Delphin 

Denebalgida 

* Dex Humerus Orio 1 

Dex Lat Per 2 

* Dor Ur Maio 2 

Extre Cau Ur Ma 2 

Fundus Vasis 4 

* Gallina 

Gorgo 

* Hemerus Equi 

Hidra 

Hircus 1 

Holor 

Idra 

Lanceator 1 

Lancis Libre 

Lira 1 

* Lucida Hidrae 2 

Markeb 

Menchar 

Mirach 

Mus Pega 3 

Mychar 

Reference Star 

A6 

A55 

A35 

A56 

A33 

A23 

A30 

A45 

A48 

A36 

A62 

A55 

A59 

A22 

A15 

A33 

A40 

A32 

A56 

A14 

A63 

A29 

A20 

A56 

A29 

A41 

A43 

A53 

A29 

A27 

A13 

A58 

/3CET 

e DEL 

y8LEO 

aCY G 

a UMA 

aCM A 

a LEO 

aCB O 

a SCO 

y COR 

a AQU 

ySPEG 

e DEL 

aOR I 

a PER 

a UMA 

TJ UMA 

aCR A 

aCY G 

ySPER 

a PEG 

a HYD 

a AUR 

aCY G 

a HYD 

a BOO 

a LIB 

aLI R 

a HYD 

p PUP 

a CET 

/3UMA 

e PEG 

e BOO 

CO 

00 

A 

A 

A 

A 

B 

V 

A 

204 

A 

V 

V 

V 

V 

A 

A 

V 

221 

A 

V 

V 

V 

A 

A 

V 

A 

A 

V 

A 

CCA No. 

CM • * 

CO o 

CM CO 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

V 

A 

A 

A 

5002 A 

A 

A 

A 

V 

A 

A 

A 

2006 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

B 

B 

2007 

A 

A 

V 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 
218 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

TABLE II.D.—Continued 

Star Name 

Naris Ceti 3 

* Oculus Tauri 1 

Os Ceti 

Palma Ophiuchi 3 

Patera 

Pentecaitos 

Pec Cassiop 

Pegasus 

Perses 

* Pes Orion 

Pleiades 

Prima Caude Ur Ma 2 

Procion 

Rasaden 

Raz Alawe 

* Rigil 

Rostrum Corvi 3 

Septentri 

* Sini Hu Bootis 3 

* Sinister Pes Orion 1 

* Spica Virginis 1 

Tibia Aquar 

Umbi Andro 3 

* Ursa Maior 

Venter Ceti 3 

Vertebrum Aquarii 

* Vultur Cadens 1 

* Vultur Cadens 

Vultur Volans 

* Wega 

Yed 

Reference 

A8 

A18 

A13 

A47 

A32 

A8 

A5 

A63 

A15 

A19 

A16 

A3 7 

A25 

A52 

A51 

A45 

A42 

A19 

A39 

A60 

A7 

A40 

A8 

A60 

A53 

? 

A54 

A53 

A47 

f CET 

aTA U 

a CET 

S OP H 

aCR A 

f CET 

a CAS 

a PEG 

a PER 

/?ORI 

T; TA U 

e UMA 

a CMI 

y DRA 

a OPH 

XORI 

a COR 

aCB O 

y BOO 

/?ORI 

a VIR 

8 AQU 

/3AND 

TJ UMA 

f CET 

8 AQU 

a LYR 

p 

a AQU 

a LYR 

5 OPH 

CO 

CO 

V 

A 

V 

V 

A 

A 

A 

A 

204 

V 

A 

A 

V 

A 

V 

221 

A 

V 

V 

A 

V 

A 

A 

A 

CCA No. 262 

A 

V 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

V 

A 

A 

304 

V 

V 

2005 

A 

A 

A 

A 

V 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

2006 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

2007 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 
NUMBER 45 219 

NOTES TO TABLE II.D 

Aldebaran: Read Aldeb'an on No. 304. 

Algomeisa: Read Algomesa on No. 304. 

Altaire: Read Altair on No. 304. 

Arcturus 1: Read Arctur' on No. 262. 

Canis Maior 1: Read C. Maior on No. 204; read Caniz on 

No. 304. 

Canis Minor 1: Read Canis Min on No. 221; read Can" Min 

/ on No. 2005. 

Caput Herculis: Read C. Herculis on No. 204. 

Cauda Capricor 3: Read Cauda Capricorni on No. 2005. 

Cauda Leonis: Read Cauda Q 2 on No. 2007. 

Read Cauda Signis in No. 204. 

Read Cor Q I on No. 221; read C*Leo on 

Cauda Signi 2: 

Cor Leonis 1: 

No. 204. 

Crus Aquarii: Read Crus ssr on No. 221. 

Dex Humerus Orio 1: Read Dex Hu Orion I on No. 

read Hu Orionis on No. 204. 

Dor Ur Maio 2: Read Dorson Urse on No. 204. 

Gallina: Read GalP on No. 2005. 

221 

Hemerus Equi: Read Hurne:Equi on No. 262; read Hu E 

Ma on No. 221; read H Eq on No. 186. 

Lucida Hidrae 2: Read Lucida Hy 2 on No. 221; read Lucida 

Hydre on No. 204. 

Oculus Tauri 1: Read Oculus on No. 262 and Oculus I on 

No. 221; read 0 Tauri on No. 204; read Oculus Taurus on 

No. 186. 

Pes Orion: Read Pes Sinis Orio I on No. 221. Read Pes 

Orionis on No. 2005. 

Rigil: Read Regel on No. 304. 

Sini Hu Bootis 3: The rete of No. 186 incorporates an 

unscribed anthropomorphic figure, which appears to point 

to this star. 

Sinister Pes Orion 1: Read Si: Pes Orionis on No. 262. 

Spica Virginis 1: Read Spica on No. 186; read Spica ^1 

on No. 221 read Spica Virgini on No. 204. 

Ursa Maior: Read Ursa on No. 262. 

Vultur Cadens 1: Read V Cadens on No. 204. 

Vultur Cadens: Entry No. 2005 has a star pointer marked 

Lira in addition to this one marked Vultur Cadens. 

Wega: Read Vega on No. 304. 
Appendix III 

The Principle of Stereographic Projection 

The design of the astrolabe is based on a simple 

model of the universe which assumes that the sun 

moves on the surface of a vast celestial sphere 

centered on the earth. The principle of stereographic projection is used to represent the apparent circular path of the sun (the ecliptic) on the 

planar surface that constitutes the astrolabe rete. 

Stereographic projection, as developed by Hipparchus and applied by Claudius Ptolemy in his 

"Planisphaerium" (see his Opera), involves projecting figures on a sphere representing the celestial sphere from one of its poles onto a plane 

parallel to its equator (see Figure 129). The important characteristic of this projection is its presSTEREOGRAPHIC 

PROJECTION 

OF TH E \ 

ECLIPTIC p ^ 

ECLIPTIC 

CELESTIAL 

EQUATOR 

SOUTH POLE 

OF TH E 

CELESTIAL 

SPHERE 

FIGURE 129.—The principle of stereographic projection. 

220 
NUMBER 45 221 

ervation of circles and angles. The stereographic 

projection of a circle on the sphere is a circle in 

the plane of projection. 

One way of judging the skill of an astrolabist 

is to assess the precision with which he utilizes 

stereographic projection to produce the various 

representational lines and circles on the parts of 

his instrument. For example, an evaluation of the 

precision of an astrolabe can result from examination of the ecliptic circle, which forms part of 

its rete. In his account of the utilization of stereographic projection, Ptolemy shows that the zodiacal divisions of the ecliptic may be accurately 

positioned on the stereographic projection of the 

ecliptic by first locating the points of intersection 

of the celestial equator with great circles passing 

through the poles of the celestial sphere and the 

zodiacal boundary points. Points thus located on 

the projection of the celestial equator (the "right 

ascensions" of the zodiacal boundary points) connected to the center of the projection of the 

celestial equator define a radius that intersects 

the stereographic projection of the ecliptic at 

points identical with the stereographic projections 

of the zodiacal boundary points. Figure 130 shows 

the correct angular separation of zodiacal boundary points as located by Ptolemy's method. 

Emmanuel Poulle describes five alternative 

STEREOGRAPHIC 

PROJECTION 

OF TH E 

ECLIPTIC 

STEREOGRAPHIC 

PROJECTION 

OF TH E 

CELESTIAL 

EQUATOR 

FIGURE 130.—Methods of dividing the ecliptic. 
222 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

methods of dividing the ecliptic band in his "La 

fabrication des astrolabes au Moyen Age." The 

least accurate of these, preferred by Hermann 

Contractus and many astrolabists, entails approximating the location of the zodiacal boundary 

points by considering them to be identical with 

the points of intersection between the stereographic projection of the ecliptic and radii connecting the center of the projection of the celestial 

equator with points defining 30° arcs on that 

projection. Figure 130 shows that this method, 

however lacking in its theoretical base, can result 

in a very close approximation of the position of 

the zodiacal boundaries on an astrolabe rete. 
Notes 

1. The modifier, planispheric, limits this discussion to 

instruments that include in their design a plane projection 

of the celestial sphere. The most frequently employed means 

of projection is described in Appendix III. 

2. Henri Michel's Traite de I'Astrolabe, published in Paris 

in 1947 and now available in a 1976 edition, remains the 

best modern contribution to this genre. W. Hartner's "The 

Principle and Use of the Astrolabe,'' published in OriensOccidens in 1968 is an excellent treatment of the subject in 

English. The recent appearance of several make-it-yourself 

astrolabe kits suggests the existence of an enduring interest 

in the instrument's structure and application. 

3. Theon's work on the astrolabe is available only indirectly in the works of later authors. Otto Neugebauer has 

traced the transmission process and reconstructed the original Theon in an article on "The Early History of the 

Astrolabe." 

4. The Arabic (first) and Latin (second) terms are given 

for each of the astrolabe's major components. Conventional 

transliteration has been used throughout. 

5. In this discussion, the term "European" is used exclusively to refer to astrolabes inscribed with Latin alphabetic 

characters. Astrolabes made in Spain and inscribed with 

Arabic characters are identified as maghribi. 

6. The history of the sea or mariner's astrolabe is ably 

presented by David Waters in Agrupamento de Estudos de 

Cartografia Antiga, Seccao de Coimbra. There is one Spanish 

example dating from the mid-sixteenth century in the collections of the National Museum of American History. 

7. The seasonal (or "temporal" or "unequal") hours are 

those utilized by the ancient Greeks and Romans to divide 

each day's light or nighttime into twelve equal parts. Because 

the length of daylight (and nighttime) varies with the seasons, so too do the lengths of the seasonal hours. Equinoctial 

hours are of equal length on all days of the year and 

represent 1/24 of the time between successive noons. 

8. The term Kufic refers to a calligraphic style consisting 

of stiff, angular, Arabic characters analogous to printed 

Roman characters. 

9. The numbers in parentheses refer to catalog entries. 

10. Neugebauer, "The Early History of the Astrolabe," 

page 240, quotes from Synesius (d. A.D. 412) to support the 

suggestion that Hipparchus invented the method of stereographic projection. 

11. See note 3. 

12. Several editions of the compendium, Margarita Philosophica, are known. The earliest of these, edited by Gregor 

Reisch was published in 1503. 

13. For example, Abu-1-Husayn '^Abd ar-Rahman ben 

Umar a|-$ufi (A.D. 903-986), Kitdb al-"amal bi-l-asturldb. 

14. Al-Biruni's discussion of the construction and use of 

the astrolabe appears in his Book of Instruction in the Elements 

of the Art of Astrology, completed ca. A.H. 1020; especially 

pertinent are sections 324-346. 

15. An effort has been made throughout this introductory 

essay to employ terminology familiar to the maker in describing his work. 

16. The term mashriq is used throughout this essay to 

mean that portion of the Muslim world now referred to as 

the "Middle East." 

17. Hejira dates inscribed on astrolabes made in the 

mashriq or the maghrib have been converted to A.D. dates 

(given in brackets) using the method described in Augustus 

de Morgan's The Book of Almanacs. Before 1585, the conversion involves the Julian calendar; after 1585, the Gregorian 

calendar. 

18. The "ankabut is shown opposite page 195b in Wright's 

translation of al-Biruni. 

19. R.T. Gunther illustrates another example of Ja'^far's 

work in The Astrolabes of the World, page 130. 

20. Henri Michel has pointed out in his Traite', (pages 

135-141) that this convention makes possible the dating of 

astrolabes constructed before the period of calendar reform. 

The telling element is the date of the vernal equinox (Aries, 

0°) which, in the Middle Ages, progressed backward through 

the month of March at the rate of about one day every 100 

years. A comparison of vernal equinox days with inscribed 

dates on the pre-fifteenth century maghribi astrolabes in the 

collection leads to the following results: 

CCA No. 

3643 

144 

4001 

2572 

Aries 0° 

14 March 

14.5 March 

14.9 March 

15 March 

Inscribed date 

[illegible] 

A.H. 704 

A.H. 621 

A.H. 483 

21. These enduring elements include numerous counterchanges in the bar representing the equinoctial colure and 

a support for an equatorial arc flanked by Moorish arches. 

22. This is the date of death of Hermann Contractus, 

author of what is believed to be the first European treatise 

on the astrolabe (see Gunther, Astrolabes). 

23. The most accessible edition of Chaucer's treatise can 

223 
224 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

be found in Gunther's Chaucer and Messahalla. 

24. The bibliography appended by Gunther to his Astrolabes of the World lists most known early works and reveals 

that many appeared in several editions. 

25. The epoch of a table of astronomical parameters is 

the date for which it has been calculated. Since precession 

affects the values of these parameters in a predictable way, 

knowledge of a table's epoch enables its user to update it if 

necessary. 

26. These are No. 304, with a vernal equinox coinciding 

with 11 March, and No. 186, with a vernal equinox at 10.5 

March. 

27. In Morley's "Description of a Planispheric Astrolabe 

Constructed for Shah Sultan Husain Safawi" (page 9), first 

published in 1856 (also reprinted by Gunther in his Astrolabes 

of the World), Morley observes that the designation of this 

single-latitude instrument is unique to Latin writers who call 

it "unius latitudinis aut elevationis polaris astrolabium." 

28. The term maghrib is used throughout this essay to 

refer to Arab-occupied territory in North Africa and Spain. 

29. The relevance of the cotangent scale in Arab lands is 

easily understood. It readily enables the user to determine 

the ratio between the height of a gnomon and the length of 

its shadow at any time of day. Such a ratio is a determinant 

of prayer-time in many Muslim sects. The scale would have 

no analogous European use. To a European maker or user 

the cotangent scale would appear to duplicate superfluously 

the scales of the shadow square. 

30. Gunther describes an interesting maghribi exception 

to this "rule." On its rim, the 24 hours are marked by small 

dotted circles [Astrolabes of the World, page 290). Hartner 

suggests a reason for the absence of equal hour scales on 

Arab astrolabes when he explains that while the European 

way of counting equal hours from midday and midnight 

was known to Islamic astronomers it was never used in civil 

life ("Principle and Use of the Astrolabe," page 297). 

31. The relevant figure (precisely, from MS Cambridge 

Dd. 3.53) is reproduced on page 6 of Gunther's Chaucer and 

Messahalla on the Astrolabe. 

32. The Italian ascription is due to the evidence supplied 

by the several plates engraved for Italian cities: Venetie, 

Neapolis, Castelli, Roma. 

33. See Gunther, No. 192, p. 341, and No. 247, p. 423. 

34. CCA No. 2006 is not the only one that presents dating 

problems. In fact, the student of early scientific instruments 

must be alert constantly to the possibility that an object of 

study may have passed through a number of hands before 

being subjected to his scrutiny. Previous owners of scientific 

instruments may well be suspected of modifying an object to 

suit their needs. The separable parts of an astrolabe make it 

especially vulnerable to this type of modification. It is therefore risky to make any assumptions about the origins of 

unsigned parts of an astrolabe. 

35. Gibbs, Henderson, and Price, in A Computerized Checklist of Astrolabes list 19 authentic (not fake) Arab instruments 

and 197 authentic European instruments made between 

1499 and 1600. 

36. See the plates accompanying the description of astrolabe No. 180 in Gunther, The Astrolabes of the World. 

37. A portion of the comparative analysis section of this 

essay has been devoted to elucidation of these various scales. 

38. For details see the section on plates, p. 54. 

39. In his Tabulae Directionum, completed in 1467 (available in a 1972 edition), Regiomontanus proposed that the 

boundaries of the astrological houses be great circles running 

through the north and south points on the horizon and 

dividing the equator into 12 equal parts. 

40. Regiomontanus mentions these two men as authors 

of systems of houses, which his own system is designed to 

replace. Alcabitus or al-Qabisi was an Iraqi astronomer who, 

about A.H. 950, composed an "Introduction to the Art of 

Astrology" in which he described houses bounded by great 

circles that coincided with the great circle approximations 

of the unequal hour lines. Regiomontanus' mention of Campanus of Novara (d. 1296) and his astrological houses 

(bounded by great circles that pass through the north and 

south points on the horizon and divide the prime vertical 

into 12 equal parts) established the latter astronomer as an 

authoritative astrologer. No specific astrological treatise can 

be attributed to him with certainty, however. 

41. Hartman was born in Eggolsheim in 1489 and died 

in Nuremberg in 1564. 

42. Relatively few astrolabes inscribed with Latin characters survive from this period. They include an instrument 

signed by Anthony Sneewins in 1661, now in the Musee des 

Arts et Metiers in Paris (Gunther, The Astrolabes of the World, 

page 402) and an instrument signed by P. Sevin in 1682, 

now in the Adler Planetarium in Chicago. 

43. Michel has grouped the variable elements of astrolabe 

design into the following styles: Egyptian, Hispano-Moorish, 

Gothic, Renaissance, Persian, Indo-Persian, and Hindu. 

44. The geographic qualifier al-Yazdi is not part of 

Mahdi's signature on either of these instruments. His association with the Persian city of Yazd is documented by 

signatures on other instruments (Gunther, The Astrolabes of 

the World, page 121) and by his collaboration with Muhammad Muqim al-Yazdi (see L.A. Mayer, Islamic Astrolabists and 

Their Works, pages 70, 71). 

45. In discussing this second instrument, Mayer [Islamic 

Astrolabists and Their Works, page 71) notes that the "character 

of the script and of the decoration differs from all his 

[Mahdi's] other signatures." 

46. See Michel, Traite de I'Astrolabe, page 157. 

47. The signature on each of these two instruments ends 

with the phrase asturldbi humdyuni Ldhdri; hence, the association with Lahore. 

48. The pierced throne of Muhamma d Muqim's astrolabe is presently covered by two plates attached with rivets. 

49. The use of dashed lines in the rim scale seems especially indicative of the Indo-Persian style. 
NUMBER 45 225 

50. The signature on this instrument reads: s,ahib Qasim 

"Ali asturldbi Qd^ini. 

51. The family was first recognized by Gaston Wiet, who 

reported his conclusions in 1936 [Bulletin de ITnstitut Francais 

d'Archeologie Orientale, Cairo, volume 36, pages 97-99). Wiet's 

work was extended in 1937 by Nabia Abbott and Syed 

Sulaiman Nadvi in articles in Islamic Culture (volume 11, 

pages 144-146; volume 11, pages 537-539). 

52. An astrolabe signed by al-Hadad dated A.H. 975 [A.D. 

1567], is reportedly preserved in the Library of Sir Salar 

Jung Bahadar of Hyderabad. An astrolabe bearing "Isa's 

signature, dated A.H. 1013 [A.D. 1604], is preserved in the 

instrument collection of the Adler Planetarium, Chicago. 

53. The collection of Qazi Obeidu^l-Bari in Calcutta 

preserves one of the few remaining astrolabes signed by 

Qa^im Muhammad; the instrument is dated A.H. 1034 [A.D. 

1624]. 

54. Dated astrolabes by Muhammad Mahdi, none of 

them in the collection, indicate that he worked between A.H. 

1059 [A.D. 1649] and A.H. 1070 [1659] (see Mayer, Islamic 

Astrolabists, page 70.) The signature Muhammad Amin appears on two instruments dated A.H. 1086 [1675] and A.H. 

1097 [1685]. The chronology undermines the possibility of a 

father-son relationship involving these two. The date of the 

work of Muhammad Amin ben Mirza Khan makes it probable that if such a relationship existed, he is the father. 

55. Muhammad ben Ahmad's name appears on some 20 

instruments made between A.D. 1715 and 1737. Two of these 

are preserved in the collection of instruments at the Adler 

Planetarium, Chicago. Only three of Hasan's instruments 

(all astrolabes created between A.D. 1685 and 1694) are 

preserved. 

56. No European instruments inscribed with explicit 

eighteenth century dates survived to be included in Gibbs, 

Henderson, and Price's A Computerized Checklist of Astrolabes. 

57. The study of Gingerich, King, and Saliba, "The '^Abd 

al-A^imma Astrolabe Forgeries" shows that dates only rarely 

appear on authentic '^Abd al-A^imma instruments and then 

only in dedications (see their table 1, page 189.) 

58. "^Abd al-A^imma also decorated at least one instrument for Muhammad Amin's father, Muhamma d Tahir; 

Tahir's astrolabe is in the City Art Museum in St. Louis. He 

collaborated with Muhamma d Khalil on several instruments 

(four are preserved in the Museum of History of Science, 

Oxford). His name appears with that of '^Abd al-'^Ali on one 

astrolabe (also in the Museum of the History of Science, 

Oxford). These other astrolabists can be considered to be the 

most important members of '^Abd al-A^imma's "school." 

59. "^All's name appears on 12 surviving instruments 

made between A.H. 1203 [1788] and A.H. 1208 [1793]. The 

example in the collection is numbered "the fifteenth." This 

practise of numbering each instrument calls to mind the 

similar practise of the European astrolabist, Georg Hartmann. There is a major difference, however, in that only the 

body of "^All's instrument is numbered. 

60. See, for example, CCA No. 87, signed by Diya^ alDin Muhammad ben Qa^im Muhammad. 

61. See Derek Price's article "An International Checklist 

of Astrolabes" for a description of the method used. 

62. The one curious stylistic anomaly evident in this 

example is the rim scale. It neither incorporates dashed lines 

nor consists of four 90° arcs. 

63. Sadiq's name, preceded by the term "§ana'^ahu," 

appears in a cartouche on the back of this instrument. The 

date, "1216," and the name ""^Abd al-Karim" appear within 

the shadow squares. 

64. See the commentary on gazetteers, p. 26. 

65. The only other known astrolabe signed by Muhammad Akbar is preserved in the Whipple Museum, Cambridge. Its diameter is less than half that of the example of 

his work in this collection. 

66. This instrument is not the only example in the collection inscribed in two languages. Astrolabe No. 2572 consists 

of a body and plates inscribed in Arabic and a rete inscribed 

in Hebrew. The names of maker and owner of the Sanskrit 

astrolabe were suggested by David Pingree, who kindly 

provided a translation. 

67. Translation, from Gunther, Chaucer and Messahalla on 

the Astrolabe, p. 5. 

68. The term Naskhi refers to a calligraphic style consisting of rounded, cursive, Arabic characters as distinct from 

the angular Kufic script. 

69. For a discussion of the ancient origins and use of 

these wind scales see A. Rehm's "Griechische Windrosen." 

70. The dials are identified in Derek Price's article, 

"Portable Sundials in Antiquity, Including an Account of a 

New Example from Aphrodisias." 

71. O. Neugebauer emphasizes the importance of Ptolemy's tables in his History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy, 

page 969. The earliest known edition of the tables was 

prepared by Theon in the fourth century A.D. The identity 

of the primary point of longitude in Ptolemy's geographical 

coordinate system remains uncertain. It could be any group 

of islands off the African coast, e.g., Canary or Madeira. 

72. E.S. Kennedy describes a number of zijes in his 

"Survey of Islamic Astronomical Tables." 

73. For example, access to Sedillot's published translation 

of Ulugh Beg's list of important cities led William H. Morley 

to identify this list as the source of the gazetteer inscribed on 

the astrolabe made for Shah Sultan Husain in A.D. 1712. 

Ulugh Beg's zij was written about A.D. 1440. It could well 

have been the standard reference for all later astrolabes. 

74. Sectors containing Mecca and Medina are adjacent 

(in a counterclockwise direction) to the sector containing the 

titles of the various components of the circular table. 

75. This characteristic can be considered another indication of Qasim '^All's Indo-Persian affinities. His gazetteer 

does not contain geographic parameters relating to Mecca. 

76. The sequence is not based on increasing latitude or 

longitude or on any progression of the other parameters in 
226 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 

the scale. It does, however, seem to follow well-traveled 

routes between cities in the Muslim world. 

77. The equivalence between farsakh and degree of arc 

varies from geographer to geographer anywhere from 25 

farsakhs to \8^ farsakhs per degree. 

78. The use of the term "feet" in this context has origins 

in the Greek practise of measuring the length of the shadow 

cast by a human gnomon by setting one foot in front of 

another. The height of the average human gnomon was 

seven human "feet," leading to the practise of dividing any 

given gnomon into sevenths and using the term "feet" to 

refer to the divisions. The use of the term "fingers " to refer 

to the 12 divisions of a gnomon of given length has its origin 

in the Babylonian observation that a finger held at arm's 

length obscured 1/12 of a degree of the night sky. 

79. O. Neugebauer provides a detailed description of this 

tradition in of A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy, 

pages 736-748. 

80. See Hartner, "The Principle and Use of the Astrolabe," page 302, figure 850. 

81. See Michel, Traite, page 90. 

82. Ptolemy compares this Egyptian system of terms with 

a Babylonian system in the Tetrabiblos, volume 1, page 20. 

83. See al-Biruni, Book of Instruction, page 263. 

84. For a discussion of how each group was formed, see 

Ptolemy, Tetrabiblos, volume 1, page 18. 

85. See Morley's "Description of a Planispheric Astrolabe," page 19. 

86. Michel explains this relationship in his Traite\ pages 

83, 84. 

87. See Michel, Traite, page 22. 

88. See Michel, Traite, pages 127, 128. 

89. See de Roias, Commentarium in Astrolabium. 

90. See al-Biruni, Book of Instruction, p. 197. 

91. The term abdjad is used to refer to numerals formed 

from letters of the Arabic alphabet (e.g., " = 1, b = 2, j = 3, 

d = 4). 

92. See Hartner, "Principle and Use," page 297. 

93. See Wright's translation of al-Biruni, Book of Instruction, pages 205, 206. 

94. See Hartner, "Principle and Use," page 299. 

95. See Ptolemy, "Planisphaerium" (in the Opera), sections 8 and 9. 

96. See Emmanuel Poulle, "La fabrication des astrolabes 

au Moyen Age," pages 117-128. 

97. See the section on Hermannus Contractus in 

Gunther's Astrolabes, pages 406, 407. Also relevant are 

Reisch's Margarita Phtlosofica; Gunther's Chaucer and Messahalla, pages 1057, 1058; Stoffler, pages 33, 34, and 39-41; 

and Egnazio Danti, pages 162, 163. 

98. See Poulle, "La fabrication des astrolabes au Moyen 

Age," pages 124, 125. 

99. See Gunther, Chaucer and Messahalla on the Astrolabe, 

page 171. 

100. See al-Biruni, Book of Instruction, page 200. 

101. See Price on "Portable Sundials," pages 253-262. 

102. See Gunther, Chaucer and Messahalla on the Astrolabe, 

page 174. 

103. For a discussion of other works by "^Abd al-A^imma, 

see Gingerich, King, and Saliba's 1972 article on astrolabe 

forgeries, pages 188-198. 

104. All dates are from Gibbs, Henderson, and Price, A 

Computerized Checklist of Astrolabes. 

105. See L.A. Mayer, Islamic Astrolabists and their Work, 

plate 13. 

106. See Stoffler, pages 33, 34, and 39-41. 

107. See Mayer, Islamic Astrolabists, page 14. 

108. See Mayer, Ibid., page 42. 

109. See Mayer, Ibid., page 50. 

110. See Gunther, Astrolabes of the World, page 302. 
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.M63, No. 40.] 

Neugebauer, O. 

1949. The Early History of the Astrolabe. Isis, 

40(121): 240-256. 

1975. A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy. Volumes 

1-3. New York: Springer-Verlag. 

Pingree, David 

1978. History of Mathematical Astronomy in India. Volume 15 in Dictionary of Scientific Biography. New 

York: Charles Schribner & Sons. 

Poulle, E. 

1955. La fabrication des astrolabes au Moyen Age. Techniques et Civilisations, 4(4): 117-128. 

Price, Derek 

1955. An International Checklist of Astrolabes. Archives 

Internationales d'Htstoire des Sciences, 32:243-263; 

33:363-381. 

1969. Portable Sundials in Antiquity, Including a New 

Example from Aphrodisias. Centaurus, 14:242-266. 

Ptolemy, Claudius 

1907. Opera Astronomica Minora. Volume 2 in Opera, 

edited by J.H. Heiberg. Leipzig: Teubner. [Includes "Introduction to the Handy Tables"(pages 

157-185) and the "Planisphaerium" (pages 225-

259).] 

1964. Tetrabiblos. Edited and translated by F.E. Robbins 

for the Leob Classical Library. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 

Regiomontanus, Johannes 

1972. Opera Collectanea. Osnabruck: Otto Zeller. 

Rehm, A. 

1916. Griechische Windrosen. Sitzungsberichte der Kdntglich 

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Reisch, Gregor 

1503. Margarita Philosophica. Friburg. [Available in the 

Dibner Library, Smithsonian Institution.] 

de Roias, Johannes 

1550. Commentariorum in Astrolabium. Lutetiae. [Available 

in the Dibner Library, Smithsonian Institution.] 

Saliba, George 

1973. The Buffalo Astrolabe of Muhamma d Khalil. AlAbhath,2&:\\-\8. 

Stoffler, Johannes 

1512. Elucidatio Fabricae Ususque Astrolabii. Oppenheym. 

[Available in the Dibner Library, Smithsonian 

Institution.] 

a§-$ufi, Abu-1-Husayn 

1954. Suwaru'l-Kawdkib. Hyderabad, India. 

Suhrab 

1929. Das Kildb "agd^ib al-Akdlim as-Sab"a des Suhrab. 

Edited by H.V. Mzik, Leipzig: Harrassowitz. 

Tanner, Robert 

1587. The Traveller's joy and felicitie, or a Mirror for Mathematics. London. [Available in the Dibner Library, 

Smithsonian Institution.] 
NUMBER 45 229 

Ulugh Beg 

1917. Ulugh Beg's Catalogue of Stars. Translated by E.B. 

Knobel. Washington: The Carnegie Institution. 

Waters, David 

1966. The Sea- or Mariner's Astrolabe. Agrupamento de 

Estudos de Cartografia Antiga, Seccao de Coimbra, number 15. Coimbra. 

Wiet, Gaston 

1936. Une famille de fabricants d'Astrolabes. Bulletin de 

I'Institut Francais d'Archeologie Orientale (Cairo), 

36:97-99. 

Yaqut ibn "^Abd allah al-Hamawi al-Rumi al-Bagdadi 

1861-1906. Kitdb Mu"jam al-Bulddn. Volumes 1-10. 

Cairo. 

Zinner, Ernst 

1931. Die Geschichte der Sternkunde. Berlin: J. Springer. 

1956. Deutsche und Niederlandische Astronomische Instrumente 

des 1L-18. Jahrhunderts. Munich: Beck. 
Index 

"Abd al-A"imma, 18, 20, 33, 52, 55, 68, 69, 72, 74, 77, 79, 

86, 104, 225 note 58, 226 note 103 

"Abd al "Ali, 86, 225 note 58 

"Abd al-Ghafur (ben Muhammad Sa'id), 18, 19, 95, 98 

"Abd al-Karim, 19, 90, 225 note 63 

"Ala" al-Din, 20, 111 

"Ali, 203 

"Ali ben "Awad al-Mahmudi, 17, 27, 124 

"Ali ben Muhammad ben Abdallah ben Faraj, 16, 171, 172, 

173 

"Isa ben al-Hadad, 17, 225 note 52 

Abbott, Nabia, 225 note 51 

Abulfeda, 201, 203, 204 

Abu-1-Husayn "Abd ar-Rahman ben Umar a§-Sufi, 223 note 

13 

Abu Tahir al-Hasan ben Sa^id al-Jannani, 203 

Ahmad ben Husain ben Baso, 13, 137, 139 

Al-Biruni, Abu al-Raihan, 12, 13, 16, 22, 37, 51, 54, 56, 202, 

203, 204, 205, 223 notes 14 and 18, 226 notes 83, 90, 93, 

and 100 

Alcabitus (al-Qabisi), 16, 224 note 40 

Al-Hadad, 17, 225 note 52 

Al-Hasan ben Ahmad al-Battuti, 17, 18, 160, 165, 225 note 

55 

Al-Idrisi, al-Sharif, 201, 202, 203 

Allen, Richard Hinckley, 207, 213, 214 

As-Sufi, Abu-1-Husayn, 56, 57, 207 

Bahadar, Sir Salar Jung, 225 note 52 

Barbier de Meynard, Charles Adrien, 204, 205 

Bartholomew, John George, 200, 201, 204 

Blagrave, John, 16 

Campanus, 16, 224 note 40 

Chaucer, 13, 14, 15, 22, 223 note 23 

Contractus, Hermann, 222, 223 note 22, 226 note 97 

Danfrie, Philip, 16, 25, 41, 154, 156 

Danti, Egnazio, 16, 153, 226 note 97 

de Morgan, Augustus, 223 note 17 

de Morgan, Jacques Jean Marie, 202, 204 

de Roias, Johannes, 47, 226 note 89 

Dey, Nundo Lai, 202 

Diya" al-Din Muhammad ben Qa^im Muhammad ben 

Mulla "Isa ben Shaikh al-Hadad, 17, 18, 132, 134, 225 

note 60 

Fa(^l "Ali, 47, 84 

Forrest, Charles, 201 

Galandius, Franc , 154, 156 

Galois, I., 16, 25, 60, 140, 144 

Gemma Frisius, Reiner, 16 

Gibbs, Sharon, vi, 62, 224 note 35, 225 note 56, 226 note 104 

Gingerich, Owen, 18, 225 note 57, 226 note 103 

Goldstein, Bernard, 207 

Grossman, N., v 

Gunther, R.T., vi, 16, 61, 84, 95, 104, 117, 179, 200, 223 

notes 19 and 22, 224 notes 23, 24, 30, 33, 36, 42, and 44, 

225 note 67, 226 notes 97, 99, 102, and 110 

Hajji "Ali, 18, 77, 79 

Hamid ben Mahmud al-Isfahani, 12, 62, 63 

Hamza, 20, 104, 107 

Hartman, Georg, 16, 25, 26, 41, 60, 146, 149, 150 

Hartner, W., vi, 31, 54, 223 note 2, 224 note 30, 226 notes 80, 

92, and 94 

Heilbrunner, Raoul, v 

Henderson, Janice, 61, 224 note 35, 225 note 56, 226 note 104 

Hipparchus, 12, 220, 223, note 10 

Hoffman, Edgar, v 

Hoffman, Eugene, vi 

Hoffman, Margaret, v 

Hoffman, Samuel Verplanck, v, vi, 61, 90, 114 

Ibn Ash-Shatir, 27 

Ibrahim ben Sa^id, 177 

Ja"far ben "Umar ben Daulatshah al-Kirmani, 12, 26, 37, 

64, 65, 223 note 19 

Kennedy, E. S., 225 note 72 

Khalil, 17, 160 

Khwarizmi, M., 202, 203, 204 

King, David, 18, 225 note 57, 226 note 103 

Knobel, E.B., 207 

Kunitzsch, P., vi, 207, 213, 214 

Lane-Poole, Stanley, 204 

Langley, Samuel P., v 

Lelewel, Joachim, 201, 203, 204, 205 

Le Strange, G., 200, 201, 202 

Masha"allah, 12, 13, 16, 22, 57, 59 

Mayer, Leo Ary, 160, 173, 224 notes 44 and 45, 225 note 54, 

226 notes 105, 107, 108, and 109 

230 
NUMBER 45 231 

Michel, Henri, vi, 17, 32, 223 notes 2 and 20, 224 notes 43 and 

46, 226 notes 81, 86, 87, and 88 

Mirza Isma"il, 72 

Mirza Jaha n Bakhsh, 19, 117 

Moreau, Johan, 154, 156 

Morley, W.H., 38, 200, 201, 202, 203, 205, 224 note 27, 225 

note 73, 226 note 85 

M.P., 16, 25, 144, 146 

Muhamma d Akbar, 20, 100, 104, 225 note 65 

Muhammad Amin ben Mirza Khan, 18, 225 note 54 

Muhammad Amin ben Muhammad Tahir, 18, 68 

Muhammad ben Ahmad al-Baftuti, 18, 225 note 55 

Muhammad ben as-Sahli, 12, 13, 174, 177 

Muhammad ben Fattuh al-Khama"iri, 13, 184, 187 

Muhammad Khalil, 225 note 58 

Muhammad Mahdi ben Muhammad Amin al-Yazdi, 17, 

18, 23, 27, 33, 65, 68, 69, 79, 82, 224 notes 44 and 45, 225 

note 54 

Muhammad Muqim ben "Isa ben al-Hadad, 17, 18, 27, 129, 

132, 169, 224 note 48 

Muhammad Sadiq, 19, 27, 89 

Muhammad $affar, 124 

Muhammad Tahir, 225 note 58 

Muhammad Taqi ben Muhib(?) "Ali Qa^ini, 128 

Nadvi, Syed Sulaiman, 225 note 51 

Nagel, E., v 

Nallino, C , 200, 201, 203, 204 

Neugebauer, O., 223 notes 3 and 10, 225 note 71, 226 note 79 

Pingree, David, vi, 207 

Poulle, E., 56, 221, 226 notes 96 and 98 

Price, Derek J. de Solla, 61, 224 note 35, 225 notes 56, 61, 70, 

and 101, 226 note 104 

Profatius, 45 

Ptolemy, Claudius, 12, 26, 37, 55, 56, 220, 221, 226 notes 82, 

84, and 95 

Purmann, Markus, 146 

Qa'im Muhammad ben "Isa ben al-Hadad, 18, 132, 225 note 

53 

Qasim "Ali Asturlabi Qa'ini, 27, 124, 129, 225 note 75 

Qazi Obeidu=l-Bari, 225 note 53 

Regiomontanus, Johannes, 16, 224 notes 39 and 40 

Rehm, A., 225 note 69 

Reisch, 16, 223 note 12, 226 note 97 

Rosenwald, Lessing J., v 

Sadiq, 19, 27, 30, 60, 90, 225 note 63 

$ahib "Ali Kabir Khan, 20, 110 

Sahibuhu Maghfur al-Husayni al-Jilani, 19, 137 

Saliba, George, vi, 18, 207, 225 note 57, 226 note 103 

Sebokht, Severus, 12 

Sedillot, 26 

Sevin, P., 224 note 42 

Shahjahan, 204 

Shems al-Din, 205 

Sneewins, Anthony, 224 note 42 

Stoffler, Johannes, 16, 56, 144, 226 notes 97 and 106 

Suhrab, 202, 203 

Synesius, 223 note 10 

Tanner, Robert, 16 

Theon Alexandrinus, 1,12, 223 note 3 

Ulugh Beg, 207, 225 note 73 

Vitrabhadra, 20, 181 

Waters, David, 223 note 6 

Wiet, Gaston, 225 note 51 

Wright, Thomas, 154 

Yahya ben Abi Man§ur, 26 

Yaqut ibn "Abd allah al-Hamawi al-Rumi al-Bagdadi, 200, 

201,202, 203, 204 

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