^Market Diseases

OTHER SMALL FRUITS

John M. Harvey and W. T. Pentzer

Agriculture Handbook No. 189

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Agricultural Marketing Service
THIS HANDBOOK is one of a group of nine reports on "Market

Diseases of Fruits and Vegetables" designed to aid in the recognition and identification of pathological conditions of economic importance affecting fruits and vegetables in the channels of marketing,

to facilitate the market inspection of these food products, and to

prevent losses from such conditions.

Other publications in this group are:

Miscellaneous Publications

98. Potatoes.

168. Apples, Pears, Quinces.

228. Peaches, Plums, Cherries, and Other Stone Fruits.

292. Crucifers and Cucurbits.

440. Asparagus, Onions, Beans, Peas, Carrots, Celery, and Related Vegetables.

498. Citrus and Other Subtropical Fruits.

Agriculture Handbooks

28. Tomatoes, Peppers, and Egg-plants.

155. Beets, Chicory, Endive, Escarole, Globe Artichokes, Lettuce,

Rhubarb, Spinach, Swiss Chard, and Sweetpotatoes.

This Handbook is a revision of and supersedes Miscellaneous Publication 340, "Market Diseases of Fruits and Vegetables : Grapes and

Other Small Fruits."
Market Diseases

of

GRAPES

AND

OTHER SMALL FRUITS

by John M. Harvey and W. T. Pentzer

Agriculture Handbook No. 189

UNWED STATES DEPARTME]\T OF AGRICULTURE

Agricultural Marketing Service

Market Quality Research Division

November 1960

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Govemment Printing Office

Washington 25, D.C - Price 30 cento
CONTENTS

Page

Blackberries, dewberries, and raspberries 1

Anthracnose 1

Blue mold rot 1

Cladosporium rot 1

Gray mold rot 2

Rhizopus rot 2

Blueberries 2

Anthracnose 2

Alternaria rot 3

Gray mold rot 3

Mummy berry 3

Phomarot 4

Rhizopus rot 4

Cranberries 4

Freezing injury 4

Chilling injury 4

Smothering injury 5

Old age (senescence) 5

Fungus rots 5

Currants and gooseberries 6

Gray mold rot 6

Powdery mildew 6

Grapes 6

Almeria spot 6

Alternaria rot 7

Ammonia injury 7

Anthracnose 8

Bitter rot 8

Black measles 9

Black rot 9

Blue mold rot 10

Page

Grapes—Continued

Bruising 10

Cladosporium rot 10

Cracking 11

Dead-arm rot 12

Downy mildew 12

Freezing injury 12

Gray mold rot 13

Hail injury 16

Internal browning 16

Powdery mildew 17

Raisining 18

Rhizopus rot 18

Ring mildew 19

Ripe rot 19

Scarring 19

Shot berry 20

Sulfur injury 20

Sulfur dioxide injury 20

Sun injury 21

Water berry 22

Strawberries 22

Anthracnose 22

Gray mold rot 23

Leather rot 24

Rhizoctonia 25

Rhizopus rot 26

Sclerotinia rot 27

Stem-end rot 27

Tan brown rot 27

Literature cited 28

III
Market Diseases

of

GRAPES AND OTHER SMALL FRUIT

By JOHN M. HABVKT, principal plant pathologist, HoBTictiLTUKAi. CROPS BBANCH

and W. T. PENIZESI, director. Market Quality Eesearch Division, Agricultural Marketing Service

BLACKBERRIES, DEWBERRIES, AND RASPBERRIES

ANTHRACNOSE

(E/s/noe venefa (Burk.) Jenkins)

Anthracnose is primarily a disease of the canes and leaves, but

may also attack the fruit of blackberries, dewberries, and raspberries.

Fruit infected near maturity may be only partially affected by the

disease. If individual drupelets are attacked, they fail to develop

as fast as unaffected ones, causing the fruit to have a deformed shape.

Also the affected drupelets remain green, while unaffected ones ripen

to normal color.

Anthracnose is controlled by spraying the growing crop with

fungicides and by cultural practices that promote air movement

around the plants.

BLUE MOLD ROT

(See blue mold rot of grapes p. 10 and pi. 7, J.).

CLADOSPORÍUM ROT

(Ciocfospor/um herbarum Fr.)

Raspberries, blackberries, and dewberries sometimes arrive on the

market partly covered with an olive to olive-green mold. In raspberries the mold is most abundant on the inside or cup of the berry, but

may also occur on the outside. It causes little or no decay of the

flesh, either in laboratory tests or in commercial shipments, but

renders affected fruit unacceptable for marketing. It is especially

^Italic numbers in parentheses refer to items in Literature Cited, page 28.

1
apt to develop on bruised berries when stored 5 to 7 days at about

40° F.

Control of Cladosporium rot depends primarily on careful handling, expeditious packing and shipment, and refrigeration at temperatures as near 32° F. as possible en route to market.

(See discussion of causal organism under Cladosporium rot of

grapes.)

GRAY MOLD ROT

ÍBotrytís cinérea Fr.)

Gray mold causes a soft, watery rot of blackberries, dewberries,

and raspberries. The fruit may become covered with a dense, dusty,

gray growth of the fungus (pi. 1, A) which rapidly spreads from

one berry to another under marketing conditions, forming "nests"

of decayed fruits.

Gray mold is not as prevalent on brambles in the field as on

strawberries, apparently because the fruit of the former are borne

singly or in small open clusters and not close to or on the ground.

However, the fungus has been found to overwinter in the canes,

which provides a source of spores from which the berries may become

infected. Eain, fog, or heavy dews favor the development of the

disease. Overripe or bruised berries should be culled from the pack

as they are more susceptible to infection than sound ones.

Handling methods to reduce gray mold rot are discussed under

strawberries and a detailed discussion of the causal organism is found

in the section on grape diseases.

(See 17, 48, 63, 76, 98,139, 156,175,176,177,181.)

RHIZOPUS ROT

(Rfifzopu'$ nigricans Fr.)

Bramble fruits are similar to strawberries in their susceptibility

to Rhizopus rot which is one of the most important market diseases

of these fruits. Overripe fruits are particularly subject to the disease

since they have little resistance to infection and also are easily

bruised, which favors entry of the fungus.

Characteristics of the causal organism and its control are given

in the section on Rhizopus rot of strawberries.

(See 13,17,43,98,175.)

BLUEBERRIES

ANTHRACNOSE

(Gfeospoffum sp.)

Blueberries anthracnose is not commonly found on the market except

on very susceptible varieties' such as ßancocas. In severe cases berries may be completely rotted and show masses of spores in glistening

salmon-colored droplets on the fruit surface (PI. 1, 0). 'Kny black
pimples representing fruiting bodies of the fungus are seen on berries

held in a dry atmosphere. Infected fruits have blood-red colored

flesh.

ALTERNARíA ROT

[Ahemaria sp.)

Blueberries affected with Altemaria rot remain firm and show a

luxuriant gray-white woolly fungus growth from injured cap stem

areas when berries are stored in a moist place. Commonly, the

fungus causes nesting of the berries in tight clusters scattered throughout the container. Sot may spread through the fruit and produce a

blood-red color to the otherwise white-colored flesh.

GRAY MOLD ROT

(Bofr/ffs cinérea Fr.)

Decay caused by Botrytis cinérea Fr. may develop in blueberries

that are held in cold storage before marketing. The severity of decay

in storage seems to be associated with weather conditions prevailing

during the growing season. The disease is favored by cool, moist

weather. Decay caused by infections that occur before harvest may

not have advanced far enough to be seen until the fruit has been in

storage for several weeks. Varieties differ in their susceptibility to

gray mold rot. Jersey and Rubel have been found to be among the

best keeping varieties while Cabot is among the poorest. Berries of

the Stanley variety have kept better than those of the Weymouth

variety in some tests.

Gray mold frequently attacks the fruit at either the calyx or stem

end, but may infect almost any area of the berry, causing a soft,

watery decay. The grayish-white growth of the fimgus rapidly

develops on the surface of affected areas (PI. 1,5).

Some control of ^ray mold may be obtained by growing resistant

varieties. The dithiocarbamate fungicides have been very effective

in controlling the disease in the field and in preventing post-harvest

decay.

(See gray mold rot of grapes p. 13 and strawberries p. 23: also

MUMMY BERRY

(Monof7/nfo vocc/nif-cor/mbosi (Reade) Honey)

During certain years the disease known as Mummy Berry may cause

serious damage to blueberries. Fruit affected with the disease grow

almost to normal size, but become shriveled and are covered with a

tan growth of the causal fungus. Diseased fruit is easily shattered

from the bush. Consequently, mummy berry is rarely found on the

market, although occasionally a diseased berry is not sorted out

during the harvesting operation.
The causal fun^ produces a hard resting bo^ (sclerotium)

withm the mummies. These structures enable the fungus to overwinter and produce new spores when the weather is favorable.

Control of the disease has been obtained by field measures such as

removing aflfected shoots and blossoms, raking or disturbing the overwintering mummies to prevent spore formation, and repeated spraying during critical infection periods.

{^^^ 10,11, J^O.IiS.)

PHOMA ROT

(Phoma vacdnU Karst.)

Phoma rot has been found on berries from New Jersey and Michigan

held for 2 to 3 weeks at high temperatures (75° F.). The disease

is evidenced by the appearance of tiny black erumpent fruiting bodies

(pycnidia) on the hard and shriveled berry coat. Under high humidity, a creamy white exúdate (spores) may be seen oozing from these

structures. The organism involved is a facultative parasite and

makes its appearance after berries reach their peak of maturity and

marketability. The disease is not known to spread in storage. Infection probably originates in the field.

RHIZOPUS ROT

( See rhizopus rot ofstrawberries p. 26 and pi. 9,-á).

CRANBERRIES

FREEZING INJURY

Cranberries that have been frozen are tough and rubbery, lack their

characteristic high luster, and are often somewhat sticky. Urlike

normal healthy berries, they are red throughout rather than only in

the epidermis. The cell structure of the berry is not, however,

destroyed; the tissues remain intact. Cranberries freeze at about

30° F.

CHILLING INJURY

Except for the absence of stickiness, the symptoms just described

are also found in cranberries that have been held at or close to 32°

F. for 4 or more weeks, but have not been frozen. This low-temperature or chilling injury can be avoided by holding the fruit at 36° to

40°. Temperatures higher than 40° are undesirable because they

favor decay. Low-temperature injury is not common on the market

because, under the present system of handling cranberries, not many

are held for long periods at temperatures sufficiently low to cause it.

With cold storage becoming more popular, this injury may become

more prevalent on the market if proper temperatures are not

maintained.
SMOTHBIING INJURY

The term "smothering injury" is used to refer to a condition like

that just described, but which is apparently caused by holding cranberries in containers or in storage space where carbon dioxide accumulates and the oxygen supply is low. The injury is found at times in

growers' warehouses, especially if they are overloaded and are not well

ventilated. This type of injury is more prevalent when the fruit is

held at high temperatures.

Smothering injurv is usually found at or near the center of the

container, whereas freezing is more likely to occur aroimd the outside. Chilling injury occurs rather generally throughout the container.

OLD AGE (SENESCENCE)

Natural depletion of the food reserves following long storage can

also cause a lorm of physiological breakdown known as old age or

senescence. Fruit so affected may be rubbery or it may be somewhat

soft and in extreme cases show shrivelling.

FUNGUS ROTS

The rots of cranberries are numerous and are not easily distinguished from each other on causal examination, even by a specialist.

The most important rots that develop in storage are end rot (caused

by Godronia cassandrae Pk.), early rot {Guignardia vaccinn Shear),

bitter rot {Glomerella dngulata (Ston.) Spauld. & Schrenk. var. vaccinii Shear), blotch rot Acanthorhynchvs vaccinii Shear), ripe rot

{Sparonema oxycocci Shear), fruit storage rot {Diaporthe vaccinii

Shear), and black rot (Ceuthospora hmata Shear).

Kots may be distinguished from the various types of nonparasitic

disorders mentioned above since rots generally cause localized spots

that become brown or otherwise discolored with some soft or collapsed

tissue. Some rotted berries become "water bags." The nonparasitic

or physiological disorders generally affect the entire berry causing

a uniform red internal discoloration.

Decay is favored by packing the fruit wet, holding it at high

storage or transit temperatures, or too long out of storage. The

importance of decay is ábown by a recent investigation in which losses

between the grower and the consumer were about 12 to 25 percent

of the total cranberry crop.

Since most fungi affecting cranberries infect the fruit before harvest, rots can be reduced to a considerable extent by spraying with

fun^cides in the field. Care in picking and handling the fruit to

avoid bruising, and cooling it as quickly as possible after harvest

and keeping it cool during marketing are also effective control measures. However, cranberries should not be cooled below 36° F. since

they are subject to low-temperature injury.

For further details concerning cranberry disorders and their control, consult the following references in Literature Cited : {12^ 18^ 19^

60,78,79,131,133, m, 135,136, U7,160,166,169,162,170,171,178.)
CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES

GRAY MOLD ROT

(Bofr/f/s dnerea Fr.)

The gray mold fungus causes small brown spots (PL 1, Z?) to

appear which gradually enlarge until one side or the whole gooseberry is affected. This is followed by a soft rot stage and under

moist conditions by sporulation of the fungus on the surface of

affected fruit.

For further information on the causal fungus, see gray mold rot

of grapes p. 13.

(See 36.)

POWDERY MILDEW

[Sphaerotheca mors-uvae (Schw.) Berk & Curt.)

Powdery mildew occurs in practically all parts of the United

States where currants and gooseberries are grown, but is most damaging to the latter species. The fungus produces a white, powdery,

or mealy growth on affected berries. TVTien the fungus disappears,

irregularly shaped russeted areas remain on diseased berries (pi.

1, E, F). Berries subjected to serve attack become deformed and

may even crack open and decay.

Control measures are dusting with sulfur, fall pruning, and the

removal of weeds, especially beneath the bushes, to allow free circulation of air.

The life cycle of the causal fungus is similar to that causing

powdery mildew of grape p. 17.

{See 5,13,36,38,71,72.)

GRAPES

ALMERÍA SPOT

The Almeria (Ohanez) variety of grapes sometimes shows a spotting that does not occur on any other variety except possibly Olivette

de Vendemain. The spots may occur at any place on the surface

of the grape or in any part of the flesh. Those on the surface are

faint purple or gray and slightly sunken; those in the flesh are

brown and they sometimes underlie a sunken area on the surface.

Both kinds resemble drought injury in plums and prunes and can be

seen more distinctly if affected fruits are held before a strong light.

The spots are frequently associated with a brown discoloration of

the vascular bundles (pi. 2,B,0,D).

The cause of the spots is not known. They are not associated

with decay and there is no evidence that they increase in number or

size in transit or storage. No control methods are known.
ALTERNARIA ROT

(Species of Alternaría and StemphyUum)

During the storage of Emperor and some other varieties of grapes,

decay caused by species of Altemaria and StemphyUum may develop.

Infections by these organisms seem to occur quite early in the harvest season, even in the absence of rainfall. The causal fungi often

gain entrance into the berry through the capstem, around which

they cause a localized tan to dark brown decayed area in the berry

(pi. 3, G). Since the fibrous conductive tissue ("brush") that leack

into the berry from the capstem is attacked, affected berries are

easily shaken from the cluster. Species of Altemaria and StemphyUum may occasionally be isolated from other parts of the berry

where they cause symptoms quite similar to those caused by CiadosporiuTTb. The color of Alternaria rot is dark brown, rather than

black as in Cladosporium rot, the texture is less firm, and the margins of the affected areas are less distinct than Cladosporium rot.

{See67,68,ljiO.)

AMMONIA INJURY

In plants using a direct expansion refrigeration system, grapes

are sometimes exposed to ammonia gas that has escaped into the

atmosphere of the storage room. Ked-colored grapes turn blue and

green-colored fruit assumes a slightly bluish cast in the presence of

ammonia (pi. 4, F). The change in color is caused by the reaction

of ammonia with the sap in the cells near the surface of the fruit.

When exposed to the gas the sap becomes less acid and the acidsenstive pigments (anthocyanins) in these cells change color.

Most of the gas enters the berries around the capstem attachment,

and the adjacent tissues develop the greatest discoloration. Similar

discolored areas may form around wounds in the skin. When exposed to ammonia the cap stems turn dark blue or black and portions

of the stems become blue.

When an ammonia leak is detected, the gas should be cleared

from the room as soon as possible because slight discolorations from

the gas disappear when the fruit is removed from the ammonia

atmosphere. The fruit Will not recover from severe injury resulting

from long exposures to the gas. The best way to remove ammonia

from the room is with water. In rooms equipped with a spray

system for clearing the room of sulfur dioxide this can easily be done.

Another way of minimizing damage from ammonia is to neutralize

it with sulfur dioxide. Sulfur dioxide reacts with ammonia to form

ammonium bisulfite, a whitish crystalline substance. Approximately

4 pounds of sulfur dioxide are required to neutralize 1 pound of

ammonia. No more than a 1-percent concentration of sulfur dioxide

should be used, as higher concentrations might cause injury to the

fruit. If commodities other than grapes are stored in the room,

sulfur dioxide cannot be applied.

(See 4ß')
ANTHRACNOSE

(f/s/noe ampelina Shear)

Anthracnose occurs in grapes grown east of the Rocky Mountains,

but is not commonly found in the western part of the United States.

It also occurs in Europe, South Africa, and Australia. Grape varieties differ in their susceptibility to the disease. Concord, one of

the most important American varieties, is quite resistant, as are

Beacon, Delaware, and Niagara. Catawba, Campbell Early, Diamond, Ellen Scott, Norton, and Salem are susceptible. Among the

vinifera varieties, Thompson Seedless, Malaga, Almería (Ohanez),

Muscat, Grenache, and Flame Tokay are susceptible. Carbernet Sauvignon has shown some resistance to the disease.

Anthracnose spots produced on the fruit are usually brown at

first and are surrounded by a narrow zone that may vary from

bright red to purple. This stage of the disease is sometimes called

bird's-eye rot. Later the affected areas of the berry enlarge, turn

gray and become somewhat sunken. The fruit finally dries up and

becomes hard and wrinkled, sometimes forming a mummy.

If the grapes are attacked shortly after bloom, parts of the clusters may be girdled, causing them to dry up. Infections that occur

during later stages of development may cause affected berries to drop

off* or to develop abnormal shapes. Diseased fruit is usually culled

before reaching the market.

The disease is favored by rainfall and warm wet weather. The

causal fimgus overwinters in lesions on the stems that become active

in the spring and produce spores that infect new growth.

Anthracnose is controlled by spraying in the vineyard, pruning,

and using resistant varieties.

( See 5,36, U, H, 55,72,83,121,132.)

BITTER ROT

(Aiefancofif'um fuUg'meum (Scrib. & Víala) Cav.)

Bitter rot is an important disease of muscadine grapes. The disease

also occurs in eastern bunch grapes, but is not as destructive to these

as to the muscadines.

The causal fungus may attack the foliage, causing leaf and stem

flecks, but the berry rot phase of the disease is most common. Berries

are usually not attacked until they begin to mature. Infection frequently occurs at the pedicel and spreads over the entire berry.

Bitter rot causes the berries to become soft and to taste bitter. The

skin of purple varieties is bleached to a pink color. A crust of

black fungus fruiting structures forms over the rotted berry. In

advanced stages of the disease, mummies are formed that provide

a means by which the fungus overwinters. The formation of mummies helps to distinguish the disease from Macrophoma ripe rot

which rarely mummifies the berries and muscadine black rot (Guignardia) which usually does not rot the entire berry. Bitter rot

disease may also cause shelling of the berries when the pedicel is

attacked.
Bordeaux mixture applied for the control of black rot usually

serves to control bitter rot as well. Since late applications may leave

unsightly residues on the fruit, copper acetate is sometimes substituted

for Boraeaux in sprays applied shortly before harvest.

(SeeU, 56,84,87,90,92,103,113,119,120,122.)

BLACK MEASLES

Black measles is a common disease of grapes in the vineyard,

causing losses that range from 4 to 25 percent. The most seriously

affected clusters are culled at harvest, but unfortunately a few less

seriously affected ones reach market. The disease is characterized

by numerous small, irregular, shaped spots, varying in color from

bluish or purplish to black, scattered over the surface of the berry

(pi. 5, B). Berries affected with black measles may occur over

the entire cluster or only on one side. In some varities the disease

imparts a rather pungent, aromatic flavor to the fruit. The varieties most commonly affected are Malaga, Emperor, Muscat (Alexandria), Burger, Thompson Seedless, Red Malaga (Castiza), and

Alicante Buchet. The aisease does not develop or spread in storage

or transit.

No causal organism for black measles has been established with

certainty, but a high correlation exists between the disease and the

incidence of wood decay in the vines caused by Fornes igniarms (L.

ex. Fr.) and a species of Cephcdosporiwri. Toxic materials liberated

during the decay process are thought to cause an expression of

disease symptoms in the fruit and vine.

Control of the disease in California has been obtained by spraying

or swabbing the pruning wounds with sodium arsenite solution while

the vines are dormant. At least 4 weeks should elapse between

pruning and treatment to avoid injury to the vines. For 100 gallons

of spray solution, 3 quarts of sodium arsenite containing an equivalent

of 4 pounds arsenic trioxide per gallon should be used.

(See 8,23,28,37,75,82,101.)

BLACK ROT

{Giiignardia bidwellii (Ell.) Viola & Ravaz)

Black rot is one of the most serious diseases of grapes in the

eastern United States and in Europe. The disease is not found in

the grape-growing areas of California. In the regions where the

disease is found, it does more damage than all other ^ape diseases

combined. Both European and American crape varieties are subject to the disease, but a few American varieties show some resistance. Black rot is essentially a field disease and affected fruit is

usually removed and discarded before reaching the market. Affected grapes that do reach the market are wrinkled, dried up mummies. Black rot does not develop or spread in transit (pi. 6, 2?, E,

F,G).

Muscadine grapes are attacked by a different form of the fungus,

OuigTia/rdia bidwellii f. muscadinii Luttrell, and are not affected by the
form of the fungus found on other grape species. Muscadine varieties

differ in their susceptibility to the disease. The disease is favored by

warm, wet weather.

Control is by spraying in the vineyard and pruning out diseased

branches.

(See U, 16, 30, 31, U, 62, 72, 86, 88, 91,103,117,121,123,163, m,

180.)

BLUE MOLD ROT

iPenkilUum sp.)

Blue mold rot sometimes affects grapes before harvest and may

damage them quite severely in transit and storage. It is characterized by a scanty growth of mold which is white at first and turns

bluish-green later. At harvest the mold is usually associated with

wounds or cracks in the skin, but in storage or transit it may form a

rather heavy growth on the stems and cause berry decay (pi. 7, -4).

The decayed tissues are very soft and watery and have a moldy smell

and taste.

Vinifera grapes that are fumigated with sulfur dioxide in storage

do not usually have the disease. Blue mold rot will develop slowly

at 32° F., however, if the fruit is not fumigated.

(See 29, llfi.)

BRUISING

Bruising injury occurs on grapes that are in contact with the sides,

bottom, or lid of the container during storage or transit. The affected

areas are flattened and vary in size according to the severity of rubbing or pressure to which the berries have been subjected (pi. 4, E).

The affected areas sometimes show no discoloration, but may turn

brown on light-skinned fruit and dark brown or black on dark-skinned

fruit.

Grapes that are fumigated with sulfur dioxide become bleached in

the bruised areas. Severe bruising predisposes the fruit to decay

under favorable temperature conditions.

CLADOSPORIUM ROT

(C/adospor/um hexhotiim FrJ

Occurrence and Symptoms

Cladosporium rot is an important cause of spoilage in grapes held

in cold storage, particularly the Emperor and Flame Tokay varieties.

It is one of the chief causes of spoilage in stored Emperor grapes that

are harvested early in the season, while gray mold rot is more prevalent in grapes harvested late in the season. Cladosporium causes

a black, firm decay that is usually localized on one side or at the

blossom end of the berry. The decay is not definitely sunken, but

the grape is flat or wrinkled on the affected side. The decay is

shallow and usually does not extend to the seeds. The affected

tissue is firmly attached to the skin and can be easily removed with

it. In storage the fungus is usually not present on the surface of

10
the affected berries (pi. 3, 5), but when the fruit is removed from

storage and kept at room temperature, a sparse surface growth of

gray-green or olive-green fungus may be produced (pi. 7, .&).

Causal Factors

The causal fungus is widespread in nature and grows on a wide

variety of dead organic materials. Infection of uninjured grapes

occurs under favorable conditions, but the fungus is more often associated with wounding. The small growth cracks at the blossom end

of the beriy, which frequently occur in Flame Tokay grapes, are often

infected with Cladosporium. If such berries are not culled at harvest,

further spoilage of the affected berries occurs during storage and

decay may spread by contact from diseased to healthy berries.

Growth of the causal fungus has been recorded at temperatures

as low as 18° F., well below the temperature at which grapes are

stored. The fungus grows best at 75° and growth ceases at temperatures above 93.5°. Infection of grapes has been observed to occur at

temperatures between 39° and 86°, the optimum temperatures for infection being between 70° and 75°, depending upon the variety.

Control Measures

Fumigation of vinifera grapes with sulfur dioxide reduces postharvest infections of grapes by Cladosporium and other fungi and

reduces spread of decay from affected to sound berries in storage and

transit. (See details under gray mold rot). Prompt cooling and

storage of 31°-32° F. will delay development of this disease. Applications of fungicides in the vineyard have not resulted in significant

control of Cladorsporium rot in stored grapes.

{See20,ji£,51,53,67,68,69,U0.)

CRACKING

Grapes of the Flame Tokay, Mission, Petite Syrah, Ribier (Alphonse Lavalee), Red Malaga (Castiza), and Thompson Seedless

varieties sometimes show cracking at the blossom end or on the side.

The cracks are rarely more than %-inch long and %-inch deep. In

time the edges of the broken skin become dry and curl inward.

Cracked berries frequently become infected with various decay organisms, especially in storage. That caused by gray mold is the

most serious, develops the most rapidly, and may not only destroy the

grape in which infection originally occurred, but may spread to

others aroimd it. Cracked fruit may also be infected by an olive-green

mold {Cladosporiuni herbarum) which appears in dry, hard pockets

%- to %-inch deep. Cracking associated with rain damage may be

particularly prevalent in Muscat (Alexandria) and Thompson Seedless. This cracking is at the side or at the stem end, the latter taking

the form of partial or complete circles around the capstem.

Cracking of eastern grapes (American varieties) seems to be associated with wet weather late in the summer, and there is some evidence that is can be reduced by late cultivation. Rainfall late in the

harvest season causes cracking in the vinifera varieties. Emperor,

11
Ribier, and Almería (Ohanez). Thompson Seedless sometimes crack

when placed in storage at high humidity. It is usually harvested before the rainy season m California, so rarely suffers from rain damage.

{See 94)

DEAD-ARM ROT

iCryptosporella vitícola Shear)

Dead-arm is primarily a disease of the leaves and shoots of the

vine, but may also affect the grape cluster. Usually affected fruit is

culled before reaching market, but occasionally the disease is seen in

marketed table grapes. In California the Flame Tokay variety may

be quite seriously affected with dead-arm. The disease is widespread

on many varieties of grapes grown in the Eastern United States.

Decay of the berries resembles that caused by the black rot orffanism, but is slightly more bluish-gray in color and the pustules are

ess numerous, larger and more scattered than in black rot. The

black fruiting bodies of the fungus are sometimes arranged in concentric circles over the decayed portions of the berries. Affected

berries eventually form mmnmies, but these are not so shrivelled or

hard as in black rot.

Infections by the causal fungus is favored by rainy, foggy, or misty

weather. Control consists of pruning to remove affected snoots and

the application of dormant sprays.

(See 6,7,8,56,66,72,73,71^, 101.)

DOWNY MILDEW

(P/asmopara vificola (Berk.& Curf.) Berl. & De Toni)

Downy mildew does not occur on cultivated grape varieties grown

in California, but causes extensive damage in other grape growing

areas. The disease is rarly seen on fruit on the market. Symptoms

on the fruit are brown or brownish-purple patches that occur at separate points. Later the skin becomes withered and eventually the

whole berry becomes shrunken and dark brown;

Downy mildew, is controlled by a carefully planned spray program

in the vineyard.

{See U, 71,72,137.)

FREEZING INJURY

Native grapes of the eastern United States that are injured by

freezing become shriveled, because of rapid evaporation from the

skin, and usually show a milky, opaque condition of the pulp. Normal uninjured pulp is greenish and semitransparent. Severely

frozen grapes become so watery and disintegrated that breaking the

skin allows all the material inside, including the thin, pulpy layer on

the inner side of the^kin, to come out, leaving only a shell. Blue

varieties undergo no color change in the skin, but red or green varieties may show a slight browning.

12
Vinîfera varieties that are injured by freezing have a dull appearance and are soft and flabby. After severe freezing they turn brown

and become wet and stichy (pi. 4, il). The stems and capstems are

often injured by temperatures that apparently have no effect on the

berries. The frozen stems are at first lunp and pliable, with a watersoaked or dark-green appearance, but they soon drj and become dark

colored. However, if grapes are frozen after havmg been fumigated

with sulfur dioxide in storage, the stems may not turn dark, but

retain their former green or straw-yellow color. When berries, injured by freezing, are pulled off the capstem, the brush (the small

bundle of fibers that extends from the capstem into the berry) is

usually found to be shorter than normal and somewhat browned.

Freezing points of berries vary with the variety and maturity of

the grapes. Average freezing points of Emperor, Eibier, Tokay,

and Thompson Seedless are ^.4°, 27.3°, 26.5°, and 27.2°F, respectively. The freezing points of the stems are somewhat higher than

this, however.

(See 169.)

GRAY MOLD ROT

(Bofiyffs cinérea Fr.)

Occurrence and Importance

Gray mold rot occurs in all the principal crape growing areas of

the world. The fmigus causing this disease is widespread in nature

and causes decay in many kin^ of fruit, vegetables, and ornamentals. This disease is one of the principal causes of spoilage in storage

grapes because the causal organism is capable of growth at low temperatures. The chief storage varieties m California are Emperor,

Eibier, Almeria (Ohanez), Calmería, and Flame Tokay. Gray mold

is particularly prevalent in these varieties when they are harvested

late in the season or after they have been exposed to high moisture

conditions in the vineyard.

Symptoms

Several common names are used to describe the various stages of

^ay mold rot. The early stage of the disease is called "slip skin"

smce, after infection, the tissue just beneath the surface of the berry

is attacked first, loosening the skin from the underlying flesh. A

slight pressure applied to the berry causes the skin to break loose and

separate from the firmer underlying tissue, hence the name, slip skin.

There may be a slight browning of the affected area of the berry, but

at this stage, the decay is not readily discernible by appearance alone

(pi. 3,4 and pi. 6,5, (7).

Later the causal fungus grows through the entire inner flesh of

the beny, resulting in a soft, watery mass of decayed tissue enclosed

in a still somewhat intact, but browned skin. Under moist conditions the fungus sporulates on the surface of the berry, producing

the typical, jjowdery gray mold stage of the disease (pi. 6, A).

Diseased berries gradually lose moisture, shrivel, become a darker

brown color and form the mummy stage of decay. In storage the

13
fungus may spread by contact from diseased berries to adjommg

ones, in which case the "nest rot" stage of the disease is formed.

When nest rot occurs there is usually a rather well developed growth

of grayish-white mold over the surface of the affected fruit.

Casual Factors

The causal fungus, Botrytis cinérea^ is able to grow on many kinds

of dead organic materials in the vineyard. When the weather is

cool and moist, the fungus produces spores which are carried by air

currents to the surface of grape berries. These same cool, moist

weather conditions allow the spores to germinate and infect the

grapes. In California the earljr part of the harvest season is usually

dry, but rains, fog, heavy morning dew, or periods of high himiidity

often occur late in the harvest season. The time required for infection varies with the temperature, the humidity, the presence or absence of free moisture on the berry surface, and with the particular

variety. The optimum temperature for spore germination is about

68° F. Spores lose their viability at temperatures above 111°.

Susceptibility to infection increases with the maturity of the grapes.

Under favorable conditions infection may occur directly through the

uninjured skin of the berry. However, the fungus can also infect

grapes through wounds or cracks in the skin under conditions when

direct infection would not be possible. In the vineyard certain

bunches may be very compact, causing the berries on the inside of

the bunch to split during growth and leak juice. These berries become infected with gray mold and other fungi, causing a condition

known as bunch rot. Such diseased bunches are usually discarded

before the fruit reaches market, but occasionally a bunch that is not

severely affected escapes detection and is marketed. One or two

field infected berries may lead to the development of nest rot during

transit or storage.

When grapes are fumigated with sulfur dioxide, spores on the

surface of the berries are killed, but that part of the fungus which

has already penetrated the berries is not. Such infections may not

have developed far enough to be detected at harvest, but develop

further durmg storage or transit. These infections which occur in

the field are the primary cause of post-harvest spoilage.

Control Measures

Spoilage from gray mold rot in grapes can be reduced by preventing

field infections, by careful handling, precooling and refrigeration,

by post-harvest fumigations, and by judicious marketing of sto;rage

lots according to their decay potential.

Vineyard applications of fungicides to prevent field infections of

vinifera grapes have been effective in reducing decay in storage. In

California a dust containing 10 percent captan may be applied to

varieties that mature late in the season and are likely to be exposed

to high moisture conditions. The first application should be made

while the clusters are still loose (July 1 to 15) and additional applications should be made at 3- to 4-week intervals. The dust should be

directed toward the clusters and applied to every row at the rate of

14
about 20 pounds per acre. Applications of captan may be combined

with the regular sulfur dustings for powdery mildew control.

Pruning, trellising, and thinning methods that lower the humidity

around the clusters and prevent the formation of compact clusters are

helpful in reducing decay in storage since they lower the percentage

of berries infected in the vineyard. Some workers have found that

excess nitrogen fertilization favors gray mold rot. There is evidence

that control of insects that cause wounding of the berries indirectly

reduces gray mold rot.

Grapes for transit should be rapidly cooled to at least 40° F. and

those for storage should be cooled to 31° to 32°. However, since

gray mold is capable of growing slowly even at these low storage temperatures, further control measures are necessary.

American, or eastern, varieties of grapes cannot be fumigated with

sulfur dioxide because of their susceptibility to injury, but vinifera

grapes should be fumigated, either in the refrigetator car or in the

cold storage room. The usual method of application is to release

sulfur dioxide from cylinders of liquified ffas into the car or storage

room where it is allowed to mix with air. A supplemental fan should

be installed in the brace of the load of each refrigerator car to insure

uniform distribution of the gas. Without such a fan the fruit on the

periphery of the load is over-exposed to fumigant (see section on

sulfur dioxide injury) and that within the load does not receive

enough gas to control decay. A one-percent concentration of gas is

used for the first fimiigation and if the grapes are stored, additional

fumigations with lower concentrations of gas (one-fourth percent)

are made at weekly or 10-day intervals. When fumigation is done in

cars, more gas is required if the bunkers contain ice than if they do

not, as sulfur dioxide is readily dissolved in the water on the surface

of the ice.

In addition to the method of fumigation just described there is another that involves the use of sodium bisulfite, a compound that releases sulfur dioxide slowly when brought in contact with moist air.

Five grams of this chemical, sprinkled in the paper pad used at the

bottom of display lugs or mixed with the sawdust sometimes used as a

packing medium, has generally given satisfactory protection against

mold and decay during short periods.

Losses from gray mold rot in storage can be further reduced if

individual lots are selectively marketed according to their decay potential. A rating of lots for storability can be based on a knowledge

of the storage history of fruit harvested in past years from various

vineyards, on the general appearance of the fruit at harvest, on the

weather to which the fruit had been exposed before harvest, on

periodic inspections made during the storage period, or on a laboratory forecast of the potential storage decay present in specific lots of

fruit at harvest. The forecast is based on the measurement of incipient field infections present at harvest, using an incubation technique. The decay that develops in samples taken at harvest and

incubated for 10 days is indicative of the amount of decay that will develop over a much longer period in cold storage. Lots in which a

high decay potential is indicated can be marketed early before decay

has time to develop and lots in which a low decay potential is indi15
cated can be safely stored to take advantage of favorable markets

^lÄTS^^^^^^^ 63, 55, 67, 68, 69, 97, 99, 100,102, 105,106,

lar m^^^ 115;116, ii8;m, ih, iso, m nu m m m.

166,167,168,172.)

HAIL INJURY

Grapes that have been torn by hail are of course easily recognized

if examined a day or two after the injury occurred. There is, however, another form of the injury that may at times be confused with

internal browning (p. 16). This injury occurs when grapes are hit

by hailstones, but in such a way that the skin is not broken. It is

characterized by a browning of the flesh on one side of the fruit

instead of in a zone completely surrounding the seeds, as m mternal

browning. As seen from the outside, it appears merely as a darker

spot on the side of the berry. No study has been made of the effect

of such injured places on quality changes during marketing, but it is

probable that the skin over them is weakened and the fruit is more

susceptible to attack by decay organisms (pi. 2, J.).

INTERNAL BROWNING

Thompson Seedless grapes that are stored for 2 to 3 months frequently develop an internal discoloration that detracts from their

appearance and affects their marketability. The flesh of the lightcolored berries begins to turn a gray or brown color, frequently toward the blossom end. Although deep within the flesh, the

discoloration is visible from the surface, giving the fruit a gray,

dull, lifeless appearance. The disorder may appear in only a few

clusters in a box or in a few scattered berries on each cluster. The

incidence and severity of internal browning increases in proportion

to the length of storage. When the fruit is held at room temperature, following a long storage period, internal browning may double

in severity and percentage of berries affected within a day.

Grapes of the Malaga variety show a similar disorder, some berries

in the cluster appearing slightly darker than the others. When cut,

the flesh surrounding the seeds and extending to within about ^e-i^^h

of the skin is found to have a brownish discoloration.

Internal browning is not due to decay and is not followed by

molding. In Thompson Seedless, it is apparently a symptom of

physiologic aging, since there appears to be a correlation with length

of storage and maturity ; fruit bordering overripeness at harvest is

most susceptible to browning in storage. Under experimental conditions, incidence of this defect is.greater when grapes receive relatively heavy applications of sulfur dioxide in storage than when

they receive a minimum of gas.

Reduction of losses from internal browning lies in the careful selection of fruit of optimum maturity and quality for long-term storage

and in judicious marketing of the fruit before the disorder appears.

Frequent inspection of storage lots should be made to detect the first

appearance of browning.

16
POWDERY MILDEW

(Uncffiu/a necafor (Schw.) Burr.)

Occurrence and Importance

Powdery mildew occurs in practically all parts of the United States

where grapes are ffrown, but it appears on the market almost exclusively on grapes from California. European or vinifera varieties

are much more susceptible than those native to the United States.

Powdery mildew is most frequently observed on Flame Tokay, Carignane, Muscat (Alexandria), Olivette Blanche, Petite Syrah, and

Zante Currant. It is less often found on Alicante Bouschet and

Mataro. However, all vinifera varieties may be injured severely

if weather conditions are favorable for the growth of the fungus and

no effort is made to control the disease.

Claims have been made at various times that mildew leads to decay

in transit. It is known to occur on the stems of the bunches, and

while sulfuring in the vineyard (in California) and careful culling

at the packing nouse do much to keep mildew out of the packed fruit,

there is always a possibility that in a mildew season a small percentage of bunches carrying mildew on the stems may go into the

pack. There is no evidence that the mildew develops further after

the Émit leaves the vineyard, or that it predisposes the fruit to decay

except possibly by weakening the skin so that cracks are more common and decay fungi find easier entrance. Mildew russeting as seen

on the market is usually mild, and such cracks as can be found are

very small and have healed over.

Symptoms

On the berries powdery mildew causes a light-brown, lacy russeting (pi. 8, Z?) which is easily distinguishable from the solid brown

patches produced by sunburn and from the small black or purplishbrown spots characteristic of black measles. Affected berries may

be somewhat dwarfed, but no rot is associated with the disease. On

the stems of the bunches, mildew spots are gray at first, then turn

brown. From the central brown patch on the stems, fine, brown,

weblike lines extend in a more or less radiating pattern, eventually

forming spots an inch long or even longer, since several infections

may run together.

Causal Factors

The powdery mildew fungus is favored by moderate temperatures

(70° to 86° F.) such as those that occur in the coastal valleys of

California during the growing season. The high temperatures common to the interior valleys of California tend to inhibit development

of powdery mildew, but are not generally high enough for a long

enough period to prevent the disease. There is a general belief that

the disease is favored by high moisture conditions. However, some

workers have found that moisture has a very slight effect on the

development of powdery mildew, the fungus being able to cause infection at both low and high atmospheric humidity. Temperature

isthe primary factor affecting infection.

17
Control Measures

On vinifera varieties, the disease can usually be controlled by one

to six or more applications of sulfur dust, the number and time

depending on locality, weather, variety, and the exposure of the vine.

Where mildew is severe the first application of sulfur is usually

made when the shoots are 6 inches long. Subsequent applications are

made when the shoots are 12 to 15 inches long and at 14-day intervals

thereafter. Five to ten pounds per acre are applied, the amount being

varied according to local weather conditions. Overapplication should

be avoided in hot weather to avoid sulfur burn.

Spraying with Bordeaux mixture has been found to give satisfactory control of the disease on American grape varieties in New

York. Sulfur dust causes considerable injury to these varieties.

(See 5, m,H, 36, ilM, ^h, 80,179.)

RAISINING

Eaisining may occur in vinifera grapes in California and other

parts of the world when the crop is subjected to extremely hot weather

during the harvest season or when there is too long a delay in removing the crop from the vine. Eaisined berries are usually removed

from the cluster during packing, and consequently advanced stages

of raisining are rarely seen on the market.

Four types of berries can usually be recognized in bunches where

raisining occurs: (1) Plump, fresh berries that have normal color;

(2) berries that are still plump, but have begun to turn brown; (3)

berries that are brown all over, have lost moisture, and are becoming

flabby and soft; and (4) those in which drying has progressed far

enough to reach the color, taste, and physical condition of raisins

(pi. 8, J.). White or green varieties darken as they dry, and when

found in the soft, flabby condition are sometimes thought to be decayed. A correct diagnosis is easily made by tasting a few affected

berries.

Cultural practices which provide a good cover of foliage over the

fruit to protect it from the direct rays of the sun help to prevent

raisining.

RHIZOPUS ROT

{Rhizopi3% nigrkans Ft.)

Khizopus rot may develop in grapes at the market level when the

fruit is not adequately refrigerated. It is not an important cause

of decay in the field, under California conditions, but sometimes

causes field rot in other parts of the country. The disease never

develops in storage grapes, because the causal fungus is incapable of

growth at the temperatures at which grapes are stored, 31° to 32° F.

Rhizopus causes extremely soft, watery decayed areas to develop

which rapidly spread over individual grape berries, from which the

mold moves to adjacent ones. Once started in a box of grapes, the

mold will soon spoil all the fruit it can reach, if temperatures are

favorable. Affected fruit is covered with a luxuriant growth of

18
coarse mold, spotted with the stalked, black fruiting bodies of the

fungus.

Infection is usually through wounds or bruises that may result from

rough handling or through cracks caused by rain or other factors.

Sound berries are infected readily when in contact with diseased ones.

Control of the mold lies in rapid precooling, refrigeration below

40° F., and careful handling to prevent tearing the capstems from the

berries or otherwise injuring the fruit.

See section on Rhizopus rot of strawberries for details on the causal

organism and its control.

(Seei^ö.)

RING MILDEW

Malaga and Muscat (Alexandria) grapes grown in California occasionally show a brown spotting that is known as ring mildew or

fingerprint mildew. No evidence has been obtained that the spotting

is caused by the grape powdery mildew, or indeed by any other organism ; yet it keeps its name and has the appearance of being more

than a mere russet brought about by any mechanical or chemical

agent.

The spotting is well described by its various names. It is entirely

superficial and the spots are more or less in concentric circles (pi.

2j E & F). The spotting may occur anywhere on the berry, but is

usually found at or near the blossom end. Bunches with more than

half a dozen of the spotted berries are rare, and there are vineyards

in which the blemish does not seem to occur at all.

RIPE ROT

(Bofryospfiaer/o r/bis Gross. & Dug.)

Ripe rot has been observed in muscadine grapes (VitiirS rotv/ndifolia

Michx.) where it is second in importance to bitter rot. It develops

about the time the berries reach full size and ripen. Many of the

infected berries fall oflp before they are picked. Thomas, Lucida,

Howard, and Dulcet are susceptible varieties while Hunt, Creek,

Scuppemong, Irene, and Yuga are highly resistant.

The disease first appears as small, brown, sunken spots with light

tan centers on the surface of berries. The fruiting bodies of the

imperfect stage (Dothiorella) of the causal organism may be formed

in this spot. Later a soft brown rot involves the whole berry which

then may dry out leaving a hollow shell covered with the fruiting

bodies of the fungus.

The disease is usually not serious enough to warrant control measures. However, those employed for bitter rot (p. 8) may also be

applied for control of ripe rot.

(See «4, ^^5 5^0

SCARRING

Several diflFerent kinds of marks or spots occur on grapes and may

be grouped under the term "scarring." Among them are the

following:

19
1. Cane or leaf rubs are brown to black in color, somewhat elongated in shape, and usually have a smooth surface (pi. 8, .S').

2. Spots caused by hail injury (see p. 16] when the fruit was

young are tan-colored, have a roughened surface, and are generally

depressed below the uninjured skin around them.

3. Thrips injury causes russeted areas on the berries and sometmies

involves the entire surface.

4. Small, circular, smooth, brown spots or flecking sometmies occur

on the skin of Thompson Seedless and Malaga. The cause of these

is unknown.

5. The spotting known as black measles is described on page 9.

Scarring of any kind detracts from the appearance of the fruit, but,

so far as known, none of the types named here predispose the fruit

to decay.

SHOT BERRY

Shot berry is seen most often in Muscat (Alexandria), Eibier,

Cardinal, and in some years in Emperor and Malaga grapes. This

defect is characterized by small, poorly developed berries that are

scattered among the normal-sized berries in the bunch (pi. 8, C). In

varieties that normally produce seeds these small berries are usually

seedless.

The condition is frequently seen in fruit as it comes from the field

but many of the affected berries are trimmed out before packing. It

is not associated with decay of any kind, either of the stems or of

the berries.

Shot berrjr is apparently a result of poor pollination, through the

factors contributing to the defect are poorly understood.

SULFUR INJURY

Dusting grapes with sulfur to control powdery mildew sometimes

causes severe injury to the skin. The injury is usually on the side of

the berry exposed to the sun and appears as smooth brown areas,

varying in size from about yie- to more than i^-inch across. The

spots are superficial and do not seem to lead to decay. Most packinghouse managers try to keep them out of the table pack, because of

their effect on the appearance and consequently on the market value

of the fruit. They are of no significance in juice stock.

To prevent injury sulfur applications should be withheld when the

temperature is above 110° F. Field tests have shown that sulfur

causes injury to both leaves and fruit above that temperature. Uniform distribution of sulfur is also recommended to prevent injury.

SULFUR DIOXIDE INJURY

In California, grapes are commonly fumigated with sulfur dioxide

to prevent the development of decay. If too much gas is applied, or

if fumigation is continued too long, grapes may be injured enough to

seriously impair their market value. If grapes are weak, immature,

or very warm, they absorb the gas more readily than if they are firm,

mature, or cold, and are^ therefore, more likely to be injured by

fumigation. Some varieties take up the gas faster than others and

20
consequently are more easily injured. Fairly resistant varieties are

Ribier and Alicante Bouschet; susceptible ones are Red Malaga

(Castiza), Flame Tokay, and Emperor.

Injury may occur in two fairly distinct forms: (1) A bleaching or

decolorization of the skin of the fruit, usually most pronoimced at or

near the stem end, around cracks in the skin, or sometimes over a considerable surface of the berry (pi. 4, C) ; and (2) a pitting or

bleaching of scattered small areas over the surface of affected berries

as in the Flame Tokay variety which is particularly susceptible to

this type of injury (pi. 4,5).

If the injury and bleaching occur only in a narrow zone at the

stem end, that part of the skin and the underlying flesh may eventually dry out and collapse, thus forming a small depression or cup

(pi. 4, Z>), winch at first might be mistaken for the beginning of

Altemaria rot. However, the skin over such a depression is bleached,

not brown, and there is no odor or taste of decay.

In mild injury the coloring matter of the skin is not destroyed, or

so little is destroyed that there is no perceptible color change. In

severe injury colored varieties may be bleached and white ones assume a grayish cast. The normal color does not return even though

the fruit is removed from the car or other storage space and exposed

for several days to the air. At such warm temperatures, injured

grapes usually develop a brown, unattractive color, probably resultmg from oxidation of injured tissues. Badly injured grapes usually

have a distinctly disagreeable, astringent flavor.

(See 3,9,52,81,93,105,106, Iff/, 108,118,128,129,167,173,171^.)

SUN INJURY

During periods of extremely high temperature, that may occur in

the desert and central valleys of California during the ripening

season, grapes suffer various degrees of injury from the heat and

the direct rays of the sun. In one of its mildest forms, sun injury

is expressed as a slight roughening or dulling of the grape skin,

usually on the side of the bunch most exposed to the direct rays of

the sun. This symptom is sometimes called "buckskin" and is more

common in Flame Tokay than in other varieties. Exposed Thompson

Seedless fruit frequently turns an amber color. Sun injury in

Malaga, and sometimes in Muscat (Alexandria), Almería (Ohanez),

Emperor, and Olivette de Vendemain, occurs as tan to dark-brown

spote that vary in size from 14 i^^^h in diameter to half the surface

of the berry (pi. 5, J.). Under a hand lens these areas show a delicate

streaking lengthwise of the berry, in contrast to the lacy appearance

of mildew spots. They are largest and darkest on bunches at the top

of the vine or on the southwest side where exposure to the sun is

greatest.

Sun injury in its severest form appears as a definite sunburn of the

berries which may result in the killmg and drying up of part or all

of the fruit in bunches at the top of the vine or m places fuUjr exposed to the sun (pi. 8. B). Unexposed fruit may become wilted

or softened, and sometimes collapsed permanently. In certain

Malaga vineyards known to have suffered from high temperatures,

cavities have been found in the pulp of the collapsed berries.

21
Sun injury usually does not lead to decay during transit and

marketing unless severe enough to cause dead tissue on the surface

of berries or dead berries in the clusters. Fungi, such as Cladosporium and Altemaria species, grow readily on dead tissue and may thus

gain entrance into the fruit. The i)resence of injured berries lowers

the quality of the pack and fruit with slight injury may mistakenly

be classed as overmature, lowering its marketability.

Cultural practices in the vineyard that provide a good canopy of

foliage over the clusters reduce the danger of sun injury. Protecting the fruit is more difficult in vines that are "head primed" than

in those that are trained on a trellis. Affected fruit should, of

course, be carefully trimmed from the clusters before packing.

WATER BERRY

Grapes affected with water berry are soft and watery and so low

in sugar content that the hydrometer test on bunches showing a large

Ïproportion of them may run 5 to 10 percent below the usual figure

or the variety. They are easily cracked or crushed by the handling

incident to picking and packing, and therefore favor the development

of decay during marketing. Water berries may occur anywhere in

the bunch, but are found most frequently toward the lower end or at

the tips of the laterals. The varieties most often affected are Malaga,

Thompson Seedless, Emperor, and Flame Tokay.

The Carignane variety sometimes shows a condition resembling

water berry. Affected berries are soft and flabby and when pulled

from the bunch and squeezed, their contents are found to be in an

almost liquid condition that suggests decay. No decay organisms are

associated with the disorder, however.

The condition known as red berry in the Zinfandel, Comichon,

Mission, and other black varieties shows all the characteristics described for water berry except that affected grapes have a dull-red

color instead of the black or blue-black that is normal for the variety.

Red berry is easily recognizable in the vineyard.

What causes grapes to become watery and fail to develop into

firm, crisp berries is not known. Growers have observed, however,

that firmer, better storage grapes are produced if the vines are not

too heavily loaded. In growing Thompson Seedless grapes, firmer,

larger, and more attractive fruit can be obtained by thinning the

bunches on the vine and the berries on the bunch. Removing the

tips of the bunches where most water berry occurs, and girdling the

canes upon which the fruit is borne is helpful in preventing this

defect.

STRAWBERRIES

ANTHRACNOSE

(Gfoeospor/um sp.)

Occurrence and Importance

This disease is presently of minor importance having been noted

only in small amounts on truck shipments of ripe fruit from

Louisiana.

22
Symptoms

The fungus produces brown to dark brown, slightly sunken lesions

of varying sizes anywhere on the surface of the berrj (pi. %p).

The rot is shallow, somewhat firm, and imder humid conditions

salmon-colored spore masses may be produced on the surface.

Causal Factors

This decay is favored by warm, wet weather conditions and is probably spread to the berries from previously infected parts of the

strawberry plant.

Control

Specific control measures have not been established but it is thought

that routine fungicidal measures maintained by growers for leaf

spotting diseases will assist in checking the ripe fruit rot.

GRAY MOLD ROT

(Bofr/ffs cinérea Fr.)

Occurrence and Symptoms

Gray mold rot is one of the most serious diseases of strawberries. It

is most common in the cooler producing regions, where it sometimes

causes a loss of 10 percent or more of the crop in the field. The disease is caused by the same species of Botrytis that attacks grapes.

Gray mold rot is especially favored by wet weather and is worse in

places where heavy leaf cover provides conditionsthat are particularly

favorable for the growth of the fungus on flowers, flower stalks, fruitstalks, and various kinds of debris on the soil as well as on the fruit.

Gray mold rot of strawberries is firm and fairly dry superficially.

There is no marked collapse of the tissues and little or no leakage of

juice. Affected areas on berries are brown at first, but as the fungus

spreads over the entire berry, powdery, gray fructifications are produced (pi. 10,4,/^, <?).

Causal Factors

The causal organism and its relation to temperature and moisture

are discussed in detail under gray mold rot of grapes (p. 13).

Control Measures

Control of the rot in the field is difficult if conditions there favor

its development, but recent work with certain fungicides (captan and

ferbam) show that decay can be greatly reduced both in the field

and after harvest by field applications of fungicides. Control in

transit and during marketing depends on careful handling of the fruit

to avoid bruises and skin breaks, careful culling wherever feasible

to remove decaying fruits, and a temperature below 40° F. Culling

is most effective when done in the field, because this practice avoids

much of the bruising likely to occur if culling is done in the packing

shed. During long transit periods, as occur in strawberries shipped

23
from California to eastern markets, temperatures between 32° to 35

are desirable. Eefrigeration is sometimes supplemented with carbon

dioxide (dry ice) to modify the atmosphere in the refrigerator car.

Atmospheres high in carbon dioxide tend to slow the respiration rate

of the fruit, thus extending its market life, and also reduce the activity

of decay-causing organisms.

Development of gray mold rot and other rots on the market can

best be prevented by moving the fruit into consumption as quickly

as possible and, when holding the fruit is necessary, storing it at 31°

to 32° F. Treating the berry boxes (hallocks) to prevent mold

growth in fruit destined for processing has been quite effective in

reducing decay.

(See ^, 16, 32, 33, 31^, 39, J^S, l^ï, 59, 60, 70, 77, 86, 95, 96, 110, 111,

112, 125,126,138,139, Hß, U8, U9,152, m, 158,161,165,175,176,

177.)

LEATHER ROT

iPhytophthora cactorum (Leb. & Cohn) Schrote.)

Occurrence and Symptoms

Leather rot is a fungus disease of strawberries that has been found

in the field in Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, Tennessee, Virginia,

Maryland, Missouri, Illinois, and Kentucky and on the market in carlot shipments of strawberries from these States.

Leather rot is characterized by a rather slight softening of affected

tissues, by both external and internal discoloration, and by a marked

bitter taste. The tissues, become tough and leathery, so that the

softening never even approximates the mushy, leaky condition produced by Rhizopus, nor the soft-spot condition produced by certain

other molds. The discoloration, particularly on the outside, varies

considerably. Affected areas of immature fruit are yellow to light

brown at the center and shade from this through darker brown to

purple to the natural red of the berry ; ripe, fully colored fruits sometimes show no color change at all except a slight darkening of the red

over affected spots, or sometimes a faint tinge of the purple (pi. 10,

B). A superficial growth of white mold, rare in the field, is frequently seen on affected fruit on the market.

In cross and longitudinal sections, strawberries affected by leather

rot show a marked browning of the water-conducting system, accompanied usually by a less intense browning of all the* other tissues

(pi. 10, O). In very early stages this browning in the vessels is often

the only visible symptom. There is no clear line of demarcation between diseased and healthy flesh and the two cannot be separated by

mechanical means; it is not possible to lift or scoop out the part

affected as can so easily be done with the rotten spots produced by

Rhizopus.

Causal Factors

The fungus that causes leather rot is able to penetrate the uninjured skin of strawberry fruits. The disease has always been found

associated with wet weather in the field and for that reason is known

24
to growers as water soak. Leather rot is also favored by moderately

high temperatures. Very little of this rot develops when rain is

followed by cool weather, but when rain is followed by warm periods,

leather rot may cut down the marketable crop by 20 percent or more.

In berries exposed to warm weather following heavy rains, leather

rot does not appear until about the third day after the rain and becomes most prevalent about the fourth or fifth day. When a heavy

rain is followed by dry weather for a week or more, the last traces of

leather rot, in the field, may be expected to disappear by the seventh

or eighth day.

Control Measures

Precooling strawberries to 40° F. or lower and keeping them below

40° in transit reduces the development of leather rot to a minimum.

Some control of leather rot is obtained by field mulching or the use

of treated paper or polyethylene materials under the plants, which

keeps the berries from coming in contact with the soil.

{S&Q 47, m, 125,126.)

RHIZOCTONIA ROT

[Rhizoctonia so/ani Kuehn)

Occurrence and Symptoms

Khizoctonia rot is known to occur in central Florida, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas. In rainy seasons strawberries from all

these districts show this rot on the market, sometimes in such percentage that their market value is seriously reduced. All varieties

grown where the rot occurs are susceptible.

Affected berries are usually one-sided and show a decayed spot to

which soil often adheres. Affected tissues are dry, spongy, and darkbrown to black. There is usually a distinct margin between decayed

and sound tissues. Infection begins on the under side where the

berry touches the soil, usually before it begins to turn red and sometimes before it is a third grown. Early infection results in deformed

fruits, but since the rot develops slowly there may be no sign of it

on the upper side of the berry. Consequently it is difficult to keep

affected fruit out of the pack (pi. 10, Z?).

The rot is caused by Rhizoctonia solani, a soil fungus, which is the

cause of disease in a number of other plants. A study of artificially

inoculated strawberries shows that infection takes place in the small

pits in which the seeds are embedded; it is not known whether the

hyphae can penetrate the uninjured epidermis or are dependent on

wounds for an entrance.

Cultural practicessuch as mulching to prevent the fruit from coming

in contact with the soil, prompt precooling, and transit refrigeration

are probably the best means of control. When fruit is held below

40° F., there is little danger of the disease spreading from diseased

to healthy berries.

25
RHIZOPUS ROT

{Rhîiopvs nigrícans Fr.)

Occurrence and Symptoms

The fungus Rhizopus has a wide distribution in nature and attacks

many kinds of fruit, probably causing more post-harvest losses than

all other decay organisms combined.

Rhizopus causes a very soft rot of strawberries sometimes known

as "leak", the name having originated from the fact that the fungus,

as it spreads through the fruit, breaks down the tissues and allows the

juice to escape. In late stages there is almost always an odor of fermentation, but at no time does the fungus produce the marked browning that is characteristic of this type of decay in some other fruits.

Causal Factors

The cause of Ehizopus rot of strawberries is designated as Rhizopus

nigricans^ although other species are sometimes involved. At room

temperature the fungus is characterized hj a heavy growth of coarse

white mold and small spherical spore-bearing heads which are white

and glistening when young, but later become black and dull (pi. 9,

A^ B). Under moderate refrigeration in storage or transit only a

scant growth of mold is produced and the heads are formed in dense

gray or black masses near to the surface of the fruit.

In warm wet weather, Rhizopus rot is occasionally found on strawberries in the field. Rains followed by temperatures above 70° F.

favor infection, but most of the decay develops during transit and

marketing. Spores on the surface of the berries readily germinate

under favorable conditions, causing new infections, particularly in

injured or bruised tissue. The mold spreads rapidly from diseased

berries to otherslying near or touching them.

The development and spread of Rhizopus rot is greatly favored by

water on the fruit, provided the temperature of the fruit is moderately

high. Investigations in a number of States have shown, however,

that there is a distinct advantage in picking strawberries in the morning when they are cool even though they may be wet from rain or dew.

Such berries are 15 to 20 degrees cooler than those picked a few hours

later and, when used in test shipments, have always been found to

arrive on the market with less rot than the fruit harvested later in

the day.

Control Measures

The incidence of Rhizopus rot in transit is favored by the presence

of skin breaks and moisture, but temperature is the critical factor determining its development. Rhizopus rot can develop at temperatures

slightly above 50° F., but refrigerating strawberries below 50° protects

them from this particular type of decay. Berries should be held

below 40° to retard the development of other types of decay, however.

Any delay in cooling provides an opportunity for the rot to develop.

In California strawberries are usually precooled before loading into

26
railway express cars or trucks. In areas where berries are loaded

warm into the cars, precooling should be started immediately after

loading.

(See 32, 43, lit, 69, 71, 72,125,126,127, llß, U8,149,163,164,157,

160,176.)

SCLEROTINIA ROT

iSclerofinia sp., probably S. sc/erof/orum (Lib.) d By.)

Strawberries affected with Sclerotinia rot are firm, but rather

watery and usually show small patches of a white, cottony, fungus

growth that becomes quite luxuriant if the berries are held under

moist conditions. If held in a dry place, the berries shrivel, the

fungus growth collapses, and hard, rounded black masses known as

sclerotia or resting bodies are formed.

The disease occurs in various sections of the South, but is not often

seen on the market. Losses caused by it are probably not large.

STEM-END ROT

(Dencfrophoma obscurans (Ell. & Ev.) H. W. Anderson)

Strawberries in Michigan and eastern Canada are sometimes attacked by Dendrophoma. Another organism, Gnomonia fragariae

Eleb., is often associated with the disease. The fungus frequently

becomes established first on the calyx from which it spreads to the

fruit, causing a rot at the stem-end. The fruit may also be attacked

directly. W^en mature berries are affected they soften, turn brown,

and the rot gradually spreads over the entire berry. There is usually

a distinct margin between the diseased and healthy tissue. Small

brownish fruitmg bodies (pycnidia) are produced on affected areas.

These frequently appear first under the calyx, but later are produced

elsewhere on the berry.

Little is known regarding control measures against the disease.

{^eif^ 1,2,6,27,68,60.)

TAN BROWN ROT

(Dfscohaines/a oenofherae (Cke. & Ell.) Nannf.)

Occurrence and Symptoms

Tan brown rot of strawberries has been found in Cuba, Louisiana,

Florida, Arkansas, Tennessee, Virginia, Maryland, Ohio, Wisconsin,

Oregon, and Alaska. When neld and transit conditions are favorable

for its development it may cause serious losses in fruit shipped to the

market.

Symptoms on both green and ripe fruit are sunken, softened, tancolored spots (pi. 10, E), which extend more deeply into the flesh of

the berry than might be suspected from their surface diameter. The

rotted tissues are throughly permeated and held together by the fungus, forming a core that easily can be removed intact. The spots

27
vary in diameter from about i^ to ^ inch, but may be larger on ripe

fruit because the fungus has had a longer time to grow and the development of the rot on ripe fruit is more rapid than on less mature

berries.

Causal Factors

Tan brown rot is caused by the fungus Discohainesia oenotherae^

which also is found on about 50 different host plants widely distributed throughout North and South America and Europe. It is a weak

parasite that usually, perhaps always, is dependent on some injury

to gain entrance into the host. Development of the rot is favored by

warm, wet weather.

Control Measures

Mulching with pine needles or straw is apparently the only method

of controlling tan brown rot in the field. The use of paper or plastic

film to keep the berries off the ground serves the same purpose. Control in transit and on the market depends on careful handling, temperatures blow 40° F., and prompt movement of the shipments.

(See^^,^7,i^,i^.)

LITERATURE CITED

(1) ALEXOPOULOS, C. J., and CATION, D.

1948. STEM-END ROT OF STRAWBERRIES. Phytopathology 38: 698-706.

(2) , and CATION, D.

1952. GNOMONIA FRAGARiAE IN MICHIGAN. Mycologia 44 I 221-223.

(3) ALLEN, F. W. and PENTZER, W. T.

1950. (COLD STORAGE OF) APPLES, PEIARS, AND GRAPES. IN THE REFRIGERATING DATA BOOK. Amor. Soc. Befrigerating Engin., New

York, pp. 173-187.

(4) ANDERSON, H. W.

1947. STRAWBERRY FRUIT ROTS AND THEIR CONTROL. III. State Hort.

Soc. Trans. (1946) 80: 239-243.

(5)

1956. DISEASES OF FRUIT CROPS. McGraw-HiU Co. 501 pp., Ulus.

New York.

(6) , and COLBY, A. S.

1943. DEAD ARM DISEASE OF GRAPE IN ILLINOIS. U.S. Bur. Plant Indus.,

Soil, and Agr. Engin., Plant Dis. Bptr. 27: 245-246.

(7) ANDERSON, P. J.

1924. BOTRYTis CINÉREA IN ALASKA. Phytopathology 14: 15^155.

(8) ANONYMOUS.

1959. PEST CONTROL PROGRAM FOR GRAPES. Calif. AffT. Expt. Sta.

Leaf. 79.

(9) APP, J., LORANT, G. J., WORTHINGTON, O. J., and others.-

1951. MORE STORAGE TIME FOR GRAPES. Ice and Befrig. 129: 43-45.

(10) BAILEY, J. S.

1948. FURTHER OBSERVATIONS OF MUMMY BERRY ON CULTIVATED BLUEBERRIES. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sei. Proc. 52: 299-303.

(11) , and SPROSTON, THOMAS

1946. FERMATE FOR THE CONTROL OF MUMMY BERRY OF THE CULTIVATED

BLUEBERRY. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sei. Proc 47: 209--212.

(12) BAIN, H. F.

1926. CRANBERRY DISEASE INVESTIGATIONS ON THE PACIFIC COAST. U.S.

Dept. Agr. Bui. 1434, 29 pp.

(13) BAKER, B. E., and BUTTERFIELD, H. M.

1951. COMMERCIAL BUSHBERBY GROWING IN CALIFOBNIA. Unlv Calif.

Agr. Ext. Serv. Cir. 169. 50 pp.

28
(14) BARRETT, H. a

1953. BLACK ROT RESISTANCE IN GRAPES. Univ. 111. Diss. Abstr., 13: 2.

(15)

1953. A LARGE-SCALE METHOD OF INOOULATING GRAPES WITH THE BLACK

ROT ORGANISM. U.S. Bur. Plant Indus., Soils, and Agr. Engin.,

Plant Dis. Rptr. 37:159.

(16) BARTA, EDWARD J., WOLFXWU), E. R., and LOWE, E.

1951. TREATMENT OF BERRY BOXES (HALLOCKS) TO REDUCE MOLD GROWTH.

Food Tech. 5: 512-517.

(17) BENEKE, E. S., and YOUNG, W. J.

1952. REDUCING MOLD COUNTS IN CANNED OR FROZEN BLACK RASPBERRIES.

(Abstract) Phytopathology 42: 2.

(18) BERGMAN, H. F.

1935. COOPERATIVE CRANBERRY INVESTIGATIONS. MaSS. AgT. Expt. Sta.

(Ann. Rpt. 1934) Bui. 315: 32^34.

(19) , and WILCOX, M. S.

1936. THE DISTRIBUTION, CAUSE, AND RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF CRANBERRY FRUIT ROTS IN MASSACHUSETTS IN 1932 AND 1933, AND

THEIR CONTROL BY SPRAYING. Phytopathology 26: 656-664.

(20) BERRY, J. A., and MAGOON, G. A.

1934. GROWTH OF MICROORGANISMS AT AND BELOW 0** c. Phytopathology

24: 780-796.

(21) BEYERS, E.

1939. FURTHER INVESTIGATIONS OF FACTORS AFFECTING "DROP" AND

DESICCATION OF STALKS OF WALTHAM CROSS IN STORAGE. Uuion

So. Africa, Dept Agr. and Forestry, Ann. Rpt. Low Temp.

Research Lab., Capetown, 1937-38: 79-87.

(22) BIOLETTTI, F. T.

1907. OIDIUM OR POWDERY MILDEW OF THE VINE. Calif. Agr. Dxpt.

sta. Bui. 186, pp. (315)-352, illus.

(23)

1923. BLACK MEASLES, WATER BERRIES, AND RELATED VINE TROUBLES.

Calif. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 358, pp. 509-524, illus.

(24) , and FLOSSFEDER, F. C. H.

1915. OïDIUM OR POWDERY MILDEW OF THE VINE. Calif. Agr. Expt. Sta.

Cir. 144,12 pp.

(25) BLUMER, S.

1947. VERSUCHE ZUR BEKÄMPFUNG DER GRAUFÄULE (BOTRYTIS CINÉREA).

Schweiz. Ztschr. f. Obst u. Weinbau, 56: 51-61.

(26)

1951. DIE BEKÄMPFUNG DER KRANKHEITEN UND SCHÄDLINGE IM REBBAU.

Schweiz. Ztschr. f. Obst. u. Weinbau, 60: 173-179.

(27) BOLTON, A.T.

1954. GNOMONiA FRUCTicoLA ON STRAWBERRY. Canadian Jour. Bot

32: 172-181.

(28) BONNET, L. O.

1926. A PROMSING REMEDY FOR BLACK MEASLES OF THE VINE. Calif.

Agr. Expt. sta. Cir. 303,10 pp., ülus.

(29)

1928. ENEMIES OF THE FLOWER AND FRUIT. Calif. Grape Grower 9(3) :

6, 7.

(30) BRAUN, A. J.

1949. PLANT PATHOLOGY. Rpt. N.Y. State Agr. Expt. Sta., 1948,

67: 26-^3.

(31)

1950. PLANT PATHOLOGY. Rpt. N.Y. State Agr. Expt. Sta., 1949,

68: 20-28.

(32) BROOKS, A. N., WATSON, J. R., and MOWRY, HAROLD.

1929. STRAWBERRIES IN FLORIDA. Culture, diseases, and insects. Fla.

Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 204, pp. (481)-523, illus.

(33) BROOKS, CHARLES, BRATLEY, C. O., and MCCOLLOCH, L. P.

1936. TRANSIT AND STORAGE DISEASES OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES AS

: AFFECTED BY INITIAL CARBON DIOXIDE TREATMENTS. U.S.

Dept. Agr. Tech. Bui. 519,24 pp.

29
(34) BROOKS, CHARLES, MILLER, E. V., BRäTLET, C. O., and others.

1932. EFFECT OF SOLID AND GASEOUS CARBON DIOXIDE UPON TRANSIT

DISEASES OF CERTAIN FRUITS AND VEGETABLES. U.S. Dept.

Agr. Tech. Bui. 318, 59 pp.

(35) BUCHWALD, N. F.

1949. STUDIES IN THE SCLEROTINIACEAE. I. TAXONOMY OF THE SCLEROTiNiACEAE. Vet. Hojsk Aarsskr. 1949, pp. 75-191.

(36) BUTLER, E. J. and JONES, S. G.

1949. PLANT PATHOLOGY. 979 pp., illus. LondoH.

(37) CHIARAPPA, LUIGI.

1959. WOOD DECAY OF GRAPE VINES AND ITS RELATIONSHIP V7ITH BLACK

MEASLES DISEASE. Phytopathology 49: 510-519.

(38) DARROW, G. M. and DETWILER, S. B.

1924. CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES: THEIR CULTURE AND RELATION TO

WHITE-PINE BLISTER RUST. U.S. Dcpt. AgF. Farmers' Bui.

1398, 42 pp., illus. (Revised 1934)

(39) , and WALDOW, G. F.

1932. EFFECT OF FERTILIZERS ON PLANT GROWTH, YIELD AND DECAY OF

STRAWBERRIES IN NORTH CAROLINA. AmeF. SOC. Hort. Scî.

Proc. 29:318-324.

(40) , WiLcox, R. B. and BECKWITH, C. S.

1^4. BLUEBERRY GROWING. U.S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bui. 1951,

38 pp.

(41) DELP, C. J.

1954. EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY ON THE GRAPE POWDERY

MILDEW FUNGUS. Phytopathology 44: 615-626.

(42) , HEWITT, W. B., and NELSON, K. E.

1951. CLADOSPORIUM ROT OF GRAPES IN STORAGE. (AbStract) PhytOpathology 41: 937-938.

(43) DEMAREE, J. B.

1941. DISEASES OF STRAWBERRIES. U.S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bui.

1891, 27 pp., illus.

(44) , and STILL, G. W.

1951. CONTROL OF GRAPE DISEASES AND INSECTS IN EASTERN UNITED

STATES. U.S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bui. 1893, 36 pp.

(45) , and WILCOX, M. S.

1947. FUNGI PATHOGENIC TO BLUEBERRIES IN THE EASTERN UNITED

STATES. Phytopathology 37 : 487-506.

(46) DEWEY, D. H.

1952. AMMONIA DAMAGE TO STORED FRUITS AND NUTS ; SULFUR DIOXIDE

AS A CORRECTIVE TREATMENT. Ice and Refrig. 123(3) : 19-22.

(47) DODGE, B. O. and STEVENS, N. E.

1924. THE RHIZ0CT0NIA BROWN ROT AND OTHER FRUIT ROTS OF STRAWBERRIES. Jour. Agr. Res. 28: 643-648, illus.

(48) , and WILCOX, R. B.

1941. DISEASES OF RASPBERRIES AND BLACKBERRIES. U.S. Dept. Agr.

Farmers' Bui. 1488, 33 pp.

(49) DOxXEN, I.

1^2. MOULD CONTROL IN GRAPES. RESULTS OBTAINED WITH THE USE OP

SULPHUR DIOXIDE. Farming in So. Africa 17(192) : 199-208.

(50) DRIGGERS, B. F.

1927. A COMPARISON OF DUSTS AND SPRAY TO CONTROL FUNGUS DISEASES

OF THE CRANBERRY. N.J. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. 450, 16 pp.

(51) DuFRENOY, J., and GENEVOIS, L.

1935. DEVELOPPEMENT DU CLADOSPORIUM HERBARUM SUR DES RAISINS A

BASSE TEMPERATURE. C. R. Soc. Biol. Paris 118: 708-710.

(52) DUNNE, T. C.

1940. WASTAGE IN EXPORT GRAPES, PRELIMINARY STUDIES WITH POTASSIUM METABISULPHITE. JouT. Dept. Agr., W. Aust., pp. 439-

443.

(53) DUPLESSIS, S. J.

1936. STUDIES ON THE WASTAGE OF EXPORT GRAPES WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THAT CAUSED BY BOTRYTIS CINÉREA PERS. ÜDÍOn SO.

Africa Dept. Agr. and Forestry Sei. Bul. 151, 163 pp., illus.

(54)

30

1940. ANTHRACNOSE OF THE VINE. Farming in So. Africa 15(168) :

97-100, 104.
(55) DUPLESSIS, S. J.

1943. SWAWEL VIK DIE BESTKYDING VAN WINGERDSIEKTES. ( SULFUR FOR

THE CONTROL OF VINEYARD DISEASES.) Farming in So. Africa

43(207) : 472-474, 477.

(56)

1950. THREE I^IPORTANT VINE DISEASES WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO

BACTERIAL BLIGHT, AND FACTS ABOUT VINEYARDS AND VINE

NURSERIES IN SOUTH AFRICA. Union ot So. Africa Dept. Agr.,

Sei. Bul. 323,30 pp., illus.

(57) EGUTIS, MAKSIS, JOHNSON, FOLKE, and CROWLEY, D. C.

1952. STRAINS OF BOTRYTIS PATHOGENIC TO BLUEBERRIES. (AbStract)

Ph^ytopathology 42: 513.

(58) FALL, J. E.

1951, STUDIES ON FUNGUS PARASITES OF STRAWBERRY LEA\TES IN ONTARIO. Canadian Jour. Bot. 29: 299-315.

(59) FISHER, D. F. and LUTZ, J. M.

1937. HANDLING AND SHIPPING STRAWBERRIES WITHOUT REFRIGERATION.

U.S. Dept. Agr. Cir. 515,16 pp., illus.

(60) FULTON, R. H.

1956. HOW TO RECOGNIZE AND CONTROL STRAWBERRY FRUIT ROTS. Michigan State Ext. Folder F-220. 6 pp.

(61)

1957. HOW TO RECOGNIZE AND CONTROL RASPBERRY ANTHRACNOSE. Michigan State Ext. Folder F-219. 6 pp.

(62)

1958. HOW TO RECOGNIZE AND CONTROL BLACK ROT OF GRAPE. Michigan

State Univ. Ext. Folder F-256. 8 pp.

(63) GEARD, I. D.

1955. PROGRESS REPORT ON BERRY FRUIT SPRAYING TRIALS. Tasmanian

Jour. Agr. 26(3) : 243-253.

(64) GLADWIN, F. E.

1928. DOWNY AND POWDERY MILDEWS OF THE GRAPE AND THEIR CONTROL.

N.Y. State Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 560,14 pp.

(65) GOHEEN, A. C.

1950. BLUEBERRY SPOILAGE IN COLD STORAGE. N.J. AgF. Expt. Sta., 19th

Annual Blueberry Open House, Proc. pp. 2-5.

(66) GREGORY, C. T.

1913. A ROT OF GRAPES CAUSED BY CRYPTOSPORELLA VITíCOLA. PHJTOpathology 3: 20-23.

(67) HARVEY, J. M.

1955. DECAY IN STORED GRAPES REDUCED BY FIELD APPLICATIONS OF FUNGICIDES. Phytopatholi^y 45: 137-140.

(68)

1955. A METHOD OF FORECASTING DECAY IN CALIFORNIA STORAGE GRAPES.

Phytopathology 45: 229-232.

(69)

1959. REDUCTION OF DECAY IN STORAGE GRAPES BY FIELD APPLICATIONS

OF CAPTAN. U.S. Dept. Agr. Plan Disease Rptr. 43: 889-891.

(70) HAYNES, R. D., ELâiRLiN, HARRIET, MUNDT, J. O., and STOKES, ROY

1953. THE USE OF DETERGENTS IN REMOVING MOLD FROM STRAWBERRIES.

Quick Frozen Foods 15 (7) : 53-54, 56.

(71) HEALD, F. D.

1933. MANUAL OF PLANT DISEASES. Ed. 2, 953 pp., iUus. New York

and London.

(72) HESLER, L. R. and WHETZEL, H. H.

1917. MANUAL OF FRUIT DISEASES. 462 pp., illus., New York.

(73) HEWITT, W. B.

1947. SODIUM ARSENITE, A PROMISING CONTROL OF DEAD-ARM OF

GRAPES. (Abstract) Phytopathology 37: 362.

(74)

1951. GRAPE DEAD-ARM CONTROL. U.S. Bur. Plant Indus., Soils, and

Agr. Engin., Plant Dis. Rptr. 35:142-143.

(75)

1952. SOME RESPONSES OF GRAPEVINES TO SODIUM ARSENITE SPRAY APPLIED FOR BLACK MEASLES CONTROL. Phytopathology 42: 158-

161.

31
1952. GREY MOULD WILT OF RASPBERRY. Sci. Agr. 32(3) : 150-152.

(77) HORN N. L.

1952. STRAWBERRY FUNGICIDE SCREENING TESTS. U.S. BUF. Plant Indus., Soils, and Agr. Engin., Plant Dis. Rptr. 36: 30^310,

(78) HRUSCHKA, H. W., and KAUFMAN, J. „^^^«

1951 STORAGE TESTS WITH PREPACKAGED MCFARLIN AND LATE HOWES

CRANBERRIES. 1950-1951. U.S. Dept. Of Agr., Handling,

Transportation & Storage Office Bpt 248, 5 pp.

(79) , KAUFMAN, J., REDIT, W. H. and others.

1955. EFFECTS OF PRECOOLING, SALTING, CARTON VENTILATION, AND

LOAD PATTERN ON TEMPERATURE, MOISTURE CONDENSATION AND

SPOILAGE IN RAIL SHIPMENTS OF PREPACKAGED EARLY BLACK

MASSACHUSETTTS-GROWN ORANBEBRIES. U.S. Dept. Agr., AMS43, 23 pp.

(80) JACOB, H. E.

1929 POWDERY MILDEW OF THE GRAPE AND ITS CONTROL IN CALIFORNIA. Calif. Col. Agr. Ext. Cir. 31,18 pp., illus.

1929. THE USE OF SULFUR DIOXIDE IN SHIPPING GRAPES. Calif. AgT.

Expt. Sta. Bui. 471, 24 pp., illus.

(82) and WiNKLER, A. J. ^^ « r^- ^^a

1950. GRAPE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. Calif. Agr. Bxt. Serv. Cir., 116,

80 pp.

(83) JENKINS, A. E. and BITANCOURT, A. A.

1943. GOUIRAND AND BERGERON'S TREATMENT OF SPHACELOMA AMPELlNUM. Mycologia 35: 272-276.

(84) JENKINS, W. A. ^ ^ ^ ^

1941. DISEASES OF MUSCADINE GRAPES. In Savage, E. F., et (M., FURTHER STUDIES WITH THE MUSCADINE GRAPE. Ga. Agr. Expt.

sta. Bui. 217: 19--29.

(85)

1941. SOME LEAP SPOTS AND BERRY ROTS OF MUSCADINE GRAPES IN

GEORGIA. (Abstract) Phytopathology 31: 767-768.

(86) KiRBY, A. H. M., MOORE, M. H., and WILSON, D. J.

1955. STRAWBERRY BOTRYTIS ROT (GREY MOULD) CONTROL: A FIELD

TRIAL OF CAPTAN AT EAST MALLING. J. Hort. Scl. 30(4) :

220-224.

(87) LoucKS, K. W.

1936. SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS FOB THE CONTROL OF CERTAIN GRAPE

DISEASES. Fla. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 294, 16 pp.

(88) LUTTRELL, E. S.

1946. BLACK ROT OF MUSCADINE GRAPES. Phytopathology 36: 905-924.

(89)

1948. BOTRYOSPHAERIA RIBIS, PERFECT STAGE OF THE MACROPHOMA

CAUSING RIPE ROT OF MUSCADINE GRAPES. Phytopathology

38: 261-263.

(90)

1953 MELANCONIUM LEAP ANE STEM FLECK OF GRAPES. PhytOpatholOgy

43:347-348.

(91) and MURPHY, M. M.

1948. BOTANY. Ga. Expt. Sta. Rpt., 1947-8. pp. 62-68.

(92) , and MURPHY, M. M.

1953. EFFECT OF SPRAYING ON INCIDENCE OF DISEASES AND YIELDS OF

MUSCADINE GRAPES. Phytopathology 43: 629-633.

(93) MALAN, H.

1954. LONG-TERM STORAGE OF GRAPES. Farming in So. Africa 29(335)^:

157-159.

(94) MANNS, T. F.

1935. FACTORS CONCERNED IN THE CONTROL OF BLACK ROT OF GRAPE.

Peninsula Hort. Soc. (Del.) Trans. 49: 55-57.

(95) MARSH, R. W., MARTIN, J. T. and CRANG, ALICE.

1955. THE CONTROL OF BOTRYTIS ROT (GREY MOULD) OF STRAWBERRIES,

AND THE EFFECTS OF FUNGICIDE SPRAY RESIDUES ON THE PROCESSSED FRUIT. J. Hort. Sci. 30(4) : 225-233.

32
(96) McCuNTOCK, J. A.

1946. SPRAYING FOB 6TRÂWBEBBY FRUIT ROTS IN 1946. HoOSier Hort.

28(10) : 147-148.

(97) MüLLER-STOLL, W. R.

1950. VERSUCHE ZUM PROBLEM DER WIRKSAMKEIT VON SEIFEN- UND

SEIFENERSATZMITTELN GEGEN DEN TRAUBENSCHIMMEL (BOTRYTis CINÉREA). Pbytopath. Ztschr. 17: 265-286.

(98) NARASIMHAM, K. L., BEDFORD, C. L. and ROBERTSON, W. F.

1954. TÖE EFFECT OF HARVESTING CONDITIONS ON MOLD COUNT OF

BLACK RASPBERRIES. Mich. AgT. Expt. Sta. Quart. Bui. 36:

280-284.

(99) NELSON, E. E.

1951. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE INFECTION OF TABLE GRAPES BY

BOTRYTis CINÉREA. Phytopathology 41: 319-326.

(100)

1951. EFFECT OF HUMIDITY ON INFEICTION OF TABLE GRAPES BY BOTRYTIS

CINÉREA. Phytopathology 41: 859-864.

(101) , HEWITT, W. B. and BREAK, R. A.

1949. ARSENITE SPRAY INJURY TO GRAPE CANES THROUGH LEAF SCARS.

Phytopathology 39: 71-76.

(102) OSTERWALDER, A.

1943. VON TEILWEISEN LAHMSTiELER-TRAUBEN. (On grapes wlth partial pedicel lameness). Schweiz. Ztschr. f. Obst u. Weinbau.

52: 635-638.

(103) PARIS, G. K. and STOVER, L. H.

1947. SPRAYING GRAPES FOR DISEASE CONTROL IN FLORIDA 1945-1947.

Fla. Hort. Soc. Proc., 1947: 93-94.

(104) PELLETIER, E. N. and HILBORN, M. T.

1954. BLOSSOM AND TWIG BLIGHT OF LOW-BUSH BLUEBERRIES. Maine

Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 529, 27 pp.

(105) PENTZER, W. T.

1939. METHODS OF APPLYING SODIUM BISULPHITE TO GRAPE PACKAGES

FOR MOLD CONTROL. Blue AnchoF 16(7) : 2.

(106) , and ASBURY, C. E.

1934. SULPHUR DIOXIDE AS AN AID IN THE PRESERVATION OF GRAPES IN

TRANSIT AND STORAGE. Blue Anchor 11(8) : 2-4, 23, illus.

(107) , and ASBURY, C. B.

1935. THE SODIUM BISULPHITE TREATMENT OF GRAPES TO RETARD MOLD

GROWTH. Blue Anchor 12(5) : 6, 26, 27.

(108) , ASBURY, C. E. and HAMMER, K. C.

1933. EFFECTS OF FUMIGATION OF DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF VINIFERA

GRAPES WITH SULPHUR DIOXIDE GAS. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sei.

Proc. (1932) 29: 33^-344, illus.

(109) , and BARGER, W. R.

1941. A COMPARISON OF FUNGICIDAL TREATMENTS FOR THE CONTROL OF

BOTRYTIS ROT OF GRAPES IN STORAGE. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci.

Proc 39: 280-284.

(110) POWELL, DWIGHT.

1952. THE EFFECT OF EARLY SPRING FUNGICIDES ON BOTRYTIS CINÉREA.

U.S. Bur. Plant Indus., Soils, and Agr. Engin., Plant Dis.

Rptr. 36: 97-98.

(Ill)

(112)

1953. AN EVALUATION OF CHEMICAL TREATMENT FOR THE CONTROL OF

BOTRYTIS CINÉREA ON STRAWBERRY. (Abstract) Phytopathology 43: 482.

1954. THE EFFECT OF CAPTAN ON GREY MOULD ROT INCIDENCE AND YIELD

OP STRAWBERRY. U.S. BuF. Plant Indus., Soils, and Agr.

Engin., Plant Dis. Rptr. 38: 209-211.

(113) QuAiNTANCE, A. L. and SHEAR, C. L.

1921. INSECT AND FUNGOUS ENEMIES OF THE GRAPE. U.S. Dept. AgT.

Farmers' Bui. 1220, 75 pp. iUus.

(114) RATTRAY, J. M.

1938. GRAPE WASTAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1937. UuiOU So. Africa, Dcpt.

Agr. and Forestry, Ann. Rpt. Low Temp. Research Lab.,

Capetown, 1936-37: 75-91.

33
1939' GRAPE WASTAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1938. Union So. AfncR, Dept

Agr. and Forestry, Ann. Rpt. Low Temp. Research liab.,

Capetown, 1937-38: 65-74.

T^O THE EFFECT OF SOa GENERATING TABLETS. Union So. Africa, Dcpt.

Agr. and Forestry, Ann. Rpt. Low Temp. Research Lab.,

Capetown, 1938-39: 48-60.

(117) REDDICK, DONALD. ^ „ ^r . A -m J.

1911. THE BLACK ROT DISEASE OF GRAPES. Comell UniV. AgT. Expt.

Sta. Bui. 293, 364 pp., illus.

(118) REYNEKE, J. and PIAGET, J. E. H.

1952 THE USE OF BISULPHITES IN THE CONTROL OF WASTAGE IN FRESH

GRAPES. Farming in So. Africa 27(319) : 477-479.

(119) RHOADS, A. S.

1923. NOTES ON THE FAILURE OF GRAPEVINES TO SET FRUIT AND ON

SHELLING. Phytopathology 13: 513-519.

(120)

(121)

(122)

1924. RIPE ROTS OF GRAPES AND THE COPPER ACETATES AS NONSTAINING

SPRAYS FOR LATE APPLICATIONS TO CONTROL THEM. Fla. State

Plant Board Quart. Bui. 8: 97-102.

1924. GRAPE DISEASES WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO BLACK ROT AND

ANTHRACNOSE. Fla. State Plant Board Quart. Bui. 8: 102-

112.

1926. DISEASES OF GRAPES IN FLORIDA. Ma. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 178,

82 pp.

(123) RICHARDS, M. C.

1946. SPRAYING GRAPES TO CONTROL BLACK ROT. U.S. Bur Plant ludUS.,

Soils, and Agr. Engin., Plant Dis. Rptr. 30: 464.

(124) ROSE, D.H.

1924. LEATHER ROT OF STRAWBERRIES. Jour. Agr. Res. 281 357-376,

illus.

(125)

(126)

1926. RELATION OF STRAWBERRY FRUIT ROTS TO WEATHER CONDITIONS

IN THE FIELD. Phytopathology 16: 229-232.

1926. DISEASES OF STRAWBERRIES ON THE MARKET. U.S. Dcpt. AgF.

Cir. 402, 8 pp., illus.

(127) , and GORMAN, E. A., JR.

1936. HANDLING, PRECOOLING, AND TRANSPORTATION OF FLORIDA STRAWBERRIES. U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bui. 525, 58 pp., illus.

(128) , and PENTZER, W. T.

1947. COMMERCIAL METHODS OF FUMIGATING GRAPES WITH SULPHUR

DIOXIDE. The Blue Anchor. 24(4) : 6-7, 34.

(129) RYALL, A. L. and HARVEY, J. M. ^. « ^ «^ A TT .i

1959. THE COLD STORAGE OF VINIFERA GRAPES. U.S. Dept. AgT. ManQbook 159. 46 pp.

(130) SCHELLENBERG, A.

1955 KULTURMASSNAHMEN ZUR VERMINDERUNG DER TRAUBENFAULNIS.

Schweiz. Ztschr. f. Obst. u. Weinbau. 64: 107-112.

(131) SHEAR, C.L. 4 x. -.-. o«. >.-.

1917. ENDROT OF CRANBERRIES. JOUr. AgT. RCS. 111 ¿5-41.

(132)

1929 THE LIFE HISTORY OF SPHACELOMA AMPELINUM DE BARY. PhytOpathology 19: 67^-679.

(133) , and BAIN, H. F.

1929. LIFE HISTORY AND PATHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF GODRONIA CASSANDRAE PECK (FUSICOCCUM PUTREFACIENS SHEAR) ON CRANBERRY. Phytopathology 19: 1017-1024.

(134) , STEVENS, N. E., and BAIN, H. F.

1931. FUNGOUS DISEASES OF THE CULTIVATED CRANBERRY. U.S. Dcpt.

Agr. Tech. Bui. 258, 58 pp.

(135) -, STEVENS, N. E., and RUDOLPH, B. A.

1917. OBSERVATIONS ON THE SPOILAGE OF CRANBERRIES DUE TO LACK OF

VENTILATION. Mass. Agr. Expt. sta. Bui. 180: (235)-239.

34
(136) SHEAB, C. L., STEVENS, N. E., WILCOX, R. B., and RUDOLPH, B. A.

1918. SPOILAOE OF CRANBERRIES AFTER HARVEST. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul.

714, 20 pp.

(137) SMrrH, R. E.

1941. DISEASES OF FRUITS AND NUTS. Calif. Agr. Ext. Serv. Cir.

120,168 pp.

(138) SMITH, W. H.

1952. DEXTERIORATION IN FRUITS AND VEGETABLES DURING MARKETING.

Fruit Grower 1952 (2949) : 22-23.

(139)

1957. THE APPLICATION OF PBECOOLING AND CARBON DIOXIDE TREATMENT

TO THE MARKETING OF STRAWBERRIES AND RASPBERRIES. Sci.

Hort. 12(1) : 147-153.

(140) SPRAGUE, RODERICK.

1953. FIELD ROTS OF GRAPES IN NORTH-CENTRAL WASHINGTON. NORTHwest Science 27:1-16.

(141) STAEHEUN, M.

1946. STATION FEDERALB D'ESSAIS VITICOLES ET ARBORICOLES ¥TT DE CHIMIE

AGRICOLE, À LAUSANNE ET À PULLY. RAPPORT D*ACTIVITÉ 1945.

Ann. Agr. Suisse. 47(8) : 741-842.

(142) , and WuRGLER, W.

1947. STATIONS FEDERALES DRESSAIS VITICOLES, ARBORICOLES ET DE

CHIMIE AGRICOLE, À LAUSANNE ET À PULLY. RAPPORT D'ACTIVITÉ 1946. Ann. Agr. Suisse. 48 (8-9) : 701-792.

(143) STALDER, L.

1953. UNTERSUCHUNGEN ÜBER DIE GRAUFÄULE (BOTRYTIS CINÉREA PERS.)

AN TRAUBEN. 1. MITTEILUNG. Phytopath. Ztschr. 20: 315-

344.

(144)

1953. WITTERUNG UND TRAUBENFÄULNIS. SchWCiZ. ZtSChr. f. ObSt. U.

Weinbau. 62: 477-484.

(145) STEVENS, F. L., and PETERSON, ALVAH.

1916. SOME NEW STRAWBERRY FUNGI. Phytopathology 6: 258-267.

(146) STEVENS, N. E.

1916. PATHOLOGICAL HISTOLOGY OF STRAWBERRIES AFFECTED BY SPECIES

OF BOTRYTIS AND RHizoPus. Jour. Agr. Res. 6: 361-366.

(147)

(148)

(149)

(150)

(151)

(153)

(153)

(154)

1917. TEMPERATURES OF THE CRANBERRY REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES

IN RELATION TO THE GROWTH OF CERTAIN FUNGI. JOUr. Agr.

Res. 11: 521-529.

1919. KEEPING QUALITY OF STRAWBERRIES IN RELATION TO THEIR TEMPERATURE WHEN PICKED. Phytopathologj 9: (171)-177.

1922. ROTS OF EARLY STRAWBERRIES IN FLORIDA AND SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA. Amer. Jour. Bot. 9: 20^211, illus.

1924. NOTES ON CRANBERRY FUNGI IN MASSACHUSETTS. Phytopathology 14:101-107.

1929. A METHOD OF TESTING THE KEEPING QUALITY OF CERTAIN SMALL

FRUITS. Phytopathology 19: 593-596.

1932. MARKET DISEASES OF STRAWBERRIES FROM THE SOUTHEASTERN

STATES, 1926 to 1930. U.S. Dept. Agr. €ir. 219, 4 pp.

1932. KEEPING QUALITY AS A FACTOR IN SELECTING NEW VARIETIES OF

SMALL FRUITS. Phytopathology 22: 715-719.

1935. STRAWBERRY DISEASES. U.S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bul. 1458,

10 pp., illus.

(155) , and BERGMAN, H. F.

1921. THE RELATION OF WATER RAKING TO THE KEEPING QUALITY OF

CRANBERRIES. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 960,12 pp.

(156) , and CHIVERS, A. H.

1919. FANNING STRAWBERRIES IN RELATION TO KEEPING QUALITY.

Phyt(^athology 9: 547-553.

35
(157) STEVENS, N. E., and HAWKINS, L. A.

1917. SOME CHANGES PRODUCED IN STRAWBERRY FRUITS BY RHIZOPUS

NiGRicANS. Phytopathology 7 : (178)-184.

(158) , and HAWKINS, L. A.

1925. GROWTH OP BOTRYTIS ON STRAWBERRIES UNDER REFRIGERATION.

Ice and Refrig. 69: 375^376, illus.

(159) , and MORSE, F. W.

1919. THE EFFECT OF THE ENDROT FUNGUS ON CRANBERRIES. Amer.

Jour. Bot. 6: 235-241.

(160) , and WILCOX, R. B.

1917. RHIZOPUS ROT OF STRAWBERRIES IN TRANSIT. U.S. Dept. AgT.

Bul. 531, 22 pp., illus.

(161) , and WILCOX, R. B.

1917. FURTHER STUDIES OF THE ROTS OF STRAWBERRY FRUITS. U.S.

Dept. Agr. Bui. 686,14 pp.

(162) , and WILCOX, R. B.

1918. TEMPERATURES OF SMALL FRUITS WHEN PICKED. The Plant

World. 21: 17^183.

(163) SUIT, R. F.

1945. FIELD RESULTS ON THE CONTROL OF CERTAIN GRAPE DISEASES IN

NEW YORK. N.Y. State Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 712, 26 pp.

(164) SWARTWOUT, H. G.

1941. SPRAYING GRAPES WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO BLACK ROT. Mo.

Agr. Expt. Sta. Cir. 211, 4 pp.

(165) THOMAS, H. E.

1939. THE PRODUCTION OF STRAWBERRIES IN CALIFORNIA. Calif. AgF.

Ext. Serv. Cir. 113, 92 pp.

(166) UoTA, M. and COOK, F. L.

1958. IMPROVED METHODS NEEDED FOR SO2 GRAPE FUMIGATION. Blue

Anchor 35 ( 3 ) : 20-21, 36.

(167) VAN DER PLANK, J. E.

1939. GRAPE WASTAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1938. Union So. Africa, Dept.

Agr. and Forestry, Ann. Rpt. Low Temp. Research Lab.,

Capetown, 1937-38: 76-78.

(168) VAN DER PLANK, J. E. and RATTRAY, J. M.

1939. GRAPE WASTAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1938. Union So. Africa, Dept.

Agr. and Forestry, Ann. Rpt. Low Temp. Research Lab.,

Capetown, 1937-38: 74-76.

(169) WHITEMAN, T. M.

1957. FREEZING POINTS OF FRUITS, VEGETABLES, AND FLORIST STOCKS.

U.S. Dept. Agr. Mktg. Res. Rpt. 196, 32 pp.

(170) WILCOX, R. B.

1940. CRANBERRY FRUIT ROTS IN NEW JERSEY. N.J. AgF. Expt. Sta.

Cir. 403, 4 pp.

(171)

1949. CERTAIN FACTORS AFFECTING FRUIT ROT IN NEW JERSEY CRANBERRY BOGS. Amer. Cranberry Growers' Assoc. Proc. 79:

8-18, 20-24.

(172) WILHELM, A. F.

1944. UNTERSUCHUNGEN ZUR FRAGE EINER CHEMISCHEN BEKÄMPFUNG

DER TRAUBENFäULE' {Botrytis cinérea), Wein u. Rebe

26(4-6) : 29-49; (7-9) : 67-73.

<173) WINKLER, A. J., and JACOB, H. E.

1925. THE UTILIZATION OF SULFUR DIOXIDE IN THE MARKETING OF

GRAPES. Hilgardia 1 : (107)-131, illus.

(174) , and JACOB, H. E.

1925. TREATING GRAPES WITH SULFUR DIOXIDE FOR SHIPMENT. Blue

Anchor 2(12) : 28, 68-72, illus.

(175) WINTER, J. D., ALDERMAN, W. H., and WAITE, W. C.

1935. PICKING, HANDLING, AND REFRIGERATION OF RASPBERRIES AND

STRAWBERRIES. Minn. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 318, 39 pp., illus.

(176) , LANDON, R. H., and ALDERMAN, W. H.

1939. USE OF CO2 TO RETARD THE DEVELOPMENT OF DECAY IN STRAWBERRIES AND RASPBERRIES. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sei. Proc. 37: 583-

588.

36
(177) WINTER, J. D., LANDON, R. H., VOGEL, A. C, and ALDERMAN, W. H.

1937. THE CARBON DIOXIDE TREATMENT OF RASPBERRIES AND STRAWBERRIES. Amer. Soc. Hort Sei. Proc. 35: 188-192.

(178) WRIGHT, R. C, DEMAREE, J. B., and WILCOX, M. S.

1936. SOME EFFECTS OP DIFFERENT STORAGE TEMPERATURES ON THE

KEEPING QUALITY OF CRANBERRIES. Amer. SOC. Hort. Sci.

Proc. 34: 397-401.

(179) YARWOOD, C. E., SIDKY SOUMAN, COHEN, MORRIS, and SANTILLI, VINCENT.

1954. TEMPERATURE RELATIONS OF POWDERY MILDEWS. Hilgardia 221

603-622.

(180) YOUNG, V. H.

1934. OBSERVATIONS ON THE CONTROL OF BLACK ROT OF GRAPES. Phytopathology 24: 841-842.

(181) YOUNG, W. J., and BENEKE, E. S.

1952. TREATMENTS TO PREVENT FRUIT STORAGE ROTS. (Abstract)

Phytopathology 42: 24.

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: I960 37
Plate 1.—A, Gray mold rot on blackberry. B, Gray mold rot

C, Anthracnose on blueberry. D, Gray mold rot on gooseberry,

mildew on gooseberry.

on blueberry,

f, F, Powdery
I

í

Plate 2.—A, Hail injury on Niasara grapes. B, Almería (Ohanez) spof. C, Almeria

spot on longitudinal section. D, Almeria spot in cross section. E, F, Ring mildew

on Malaga grapes.
su

B

Plate 3.-Types of decay found in stored Emperor grapes: A. Various stages of gray

mold rot. B, Stages of Cladosporium rot. C, Stages of Alternaría rot.
Plate 4.—A, Sound Emperor sropes (left), and Freezing injury (right). Note loss of

luster. B, Pitting caused by sulfur dioxide injury to Flome Tokoy grapes. C, Sulfur

dioxide injury to Emperor grapes appearing as a sharply delineated, decolorized

area at the stem end. D, Later stage sulfur dioxide Injury to Emperor grapes appearing as sunken capstems. f, Box bruising of Emperor grapes. F, Ammonia injury

to Emperor grapes,- note darkening of capstems.
Plate 5.-A, Sun injury on Malasa srapes. B, Black measles on Malasa grapes.
éè "ti ^ ^^ C^^ D /

Ptot« 6.—A, Gray mold rot on Zinfandcl jrapct. B, C, Slip ilcln condition o( Emperer

Srapcs aft«r obout 3 months' itoraje. D, E, F, G, Various stages of black rot on

Concord jrap««.
Plate T.—A, Blu« mold tot on black juice grapes (note moldy stems). B, Clodosporium

rot on Emperor grapes after holding at warm temperature (note velvety, green growth

of mold).
Plate 8.—A, Raisinins, lafe stase, on Zinfandel srapes. 8, Sunburn on Zinfandel

grapes. C, Shot berry of Emperor grapes. D, Powdery mildew on Alexandria

(Muscat) grape. E, Scarring on Malaga grape.
Plate 9.—/, Rhizopus rot on strawberries. B, Rhizopus rot on individual strawberry.

C, Anthracnose on strawberry.
Plat* 10.—A, Gray mold rot on strawberries, late stase. 6, Leather rot on Aromq

strawberry. C, Longitudinal section of Aroma strawberry afFected with the same

disease. D, Rhizoctonia brown rot on Missionary strawberry (color of rot partly

masked by adhering soil). ï., Tan brown rot on Missionary strawberry, f, Gray

mold rot on green strawberry a short time after infection. G, Gray mold, early

stag«, on ripe strawberry. (8, C, D, f, and f, from Dodge and Stevens (47).)