Present and Potential

Commercial Timbers

of

The Caribbean

With Special Reference to

• The West Indies

• The Guianas

• And British Honduras

Agriculture Handbook No. 207

U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service
Present and Potential

Commercial Timbers

of

The Caribbean

With Special Reference to

• The West Indies

• The Guianas

• And British Honduras

by

Franklin R. Long\vood

Northeastern Forest Experiment Station, Forest Service;

formerly at the Tropical Forest Research Center of the

Forest Service in Puerto Rico.

Agriculture Handbook No. 207

U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service

Washington, D.C. March 1962
ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The author is indebted to Dr. B. Francis Kukachka, U.S. Forest Products

Laboratory, Madison, Wis., for his assistance in preparing the timber descriptions, and to Dr. Elbert L. Little, Jr., Forest Service Dendrologist, for his

exhaustive check and verification of the common and scientific names and

geographical distribution of the timbers and his thorough review of the text

and tabular material.
CONTENTS

Page

Introduction 1

Selection of important Caribbean timbers 2

Nomenclature 4

Distribution and habitat 4

Tree descriptions 4

Description of the wood 5

Weight and specific gravity 5

Seasoning 8

Shrinkage and movement 10

Strength properties 12

Working properties 13

Resistance to decay 14

Resistance to attack by termites and other

insects 15

Resistance to marine borers 17

Permeability 18

Wood uses 20

Supply 20

Timber Descriptions 27

Angelin 27

Angélique 28

Aromata 30

Baboen and banak 30

Bagasse 33

Balata 34

Balsa 36

Baromalli 38

Bethabara 39

Bois gris 41

Broadleaf 42

BuUhoof 43

Bustic 44

Central American cedar 45

Courbaril 47

Crabwood 49

Dakama 52

Determa 53

Dukali 54

Encens 55

Gommier 55

Demerara greenheart 57

Gronfoeloe 60

Gumbo-limbo 62

Haiari 63

Hura 64

Inyak 65

Kauta, kautaballi, marish 66

Kereti silverballi 68

Page

Kopie 69

Kurokai 70

Kwarie 72

Lignumvitae 73

Magnolia 75

Mahoe 76

Honduras mahogany 76

West Indies mahogany 79

Manbarklak 81

Manni 82

Manniballi 84

Marblewood 85

Mora 86-

Nargusta 88

Pakuri 90

Parakusan 92

Caribbean pine 92

Podocarp 95

Purpleheart 96

Résolu 99

Roble 99

Honduras rosewood 101

Saman 102

Santa-maria 104

Sara 106

Simarouba 107

Snakewood 108

Sterculia HO

Suradan 112

White tabebuia 114

Tatabu 115

Tauroniro 116

Teak US

Tonka 120

Wacapou 121

Wallaba 123

Wamara 125

Yemeri 126

Yokewood 128

Bibliography 1^1

Appendix ^^^

Table 10.—Strength properties of Caribbean

timbers in the green condition 140

Table 11.—Strength properties of Caribbean

timbers in the air-dry condition 148

Table 12.—Maximum allowable stresses for

tropical timbers under different circumstances. 156

Index to the timbers 1^^

ni
Present and Potential Commercial Timbers

of The Caribbean

INTRODUCTION

The steady improvement of social and economic

conditions in the Caribbean countries has brought

about a comparable increase in the consumption of

timber and other wood products. Although the

Caribbean region includes many millions of acres

of forests containing untold billions of cubic feet

of timber, most of the increased demand is met

by imports from outside the region. Softwoods

are imported principally from the United States;

hardwoods, from Europe, Africa, and the Philippines. Many hundred, even thousands of different

timbers are available in the Caribbean forests;

many of them are qualified for the uses filled by

imported timbers, yet the intra-Caribbean trade

in this commodity is limited to a few species. The

present wood consumption in a large part of the

region consists mainly of imported softwood (coniferous) species for construction work and a limited use of homegrown hardwoods (broadleaf) for

furniture, construction, posts, and fuel.

Hardwood timber is, in general, plentiful

throughout the continental area of the Caribbean

and on a number of the Wçst Indies islands. But

some areas, including Puerto Rico, Jamaica, Barbados, and some of the smaller islands of the

Lesser Antilles, are handicapped by a scarcity of

both hardwood and softwood species.

The coniferous resources of the region are

largely confined to British Honduras, Honduras,

Nicaragua, and Mexico on the continent, and to a

limited supply in Haiti, Cuba, Dominican Republic, and the Bahamas in the West Indies. Excepting British Honduras, all Caribbean countries are

importers of softwood timber, though British

Guiana's requirements are nearly met by local

hardwoods. The Caribbean area is considered in

this work to include the three Guianas and the

northern part of Venezuela and Colombia, Central

America, southern Mexico, the southern tip of

Florida, and the West Indies from Cuba and the

Bahamas to Trinidad and Tobago. An increasing

proportion of the softwood lumber imports is coming from within the Caribbean region. Nevertheless, the volume of the softwood resources is so

limited that the bulk of future requirements will

have to be supplied from the outside, largely from

the United States.

In British Honduras the pine industry has

reached its full development, and further expansion must be based on the utilization of lesser

known timbers. In fact, the best pine stands in

Central America are being consumed so rapidly

that a sharp decline is predicted within the next

two or three decades. But in the Guianas the

volume of exportable timbers is increasing with

advancement in the timber production industry.

In this area, vast tracts of unexploited hardwood

forests remain untouched.

Many hundreds, even thousands, of different

woods are available in the forests of the Caribbean countries. Yet the local commençai production and utilization and the exportation of timbers

from the area over the past 300 years, and even

today, are confined to a relatively few of these

woods. Less than twenty timbers are of importance in the present export market. Consequently,

many of the smaller islands and Central American

countries import and use softwood timbers where

indigenous hardwood species would be satisfactory. Also, many local hardwood timbers, if well

manufactured and if properly marketed in quantity, could Satisfy similar needs in other countries

in the region.

Furthermore, it is reasonable to assume that

among the immense number of unused timbers

are many with qualities equal or superior to the

relatively few native hardwood timbers presently

accepted. Some probably possess outstanding

beauty, durability, resistance to insects or marine

organisms, or have such high strength properties

that they would be readily accepted by the local

and export trade.

1
U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

In view of the expanding market and the uncertainty of the present resources of the small

number of timbers being utilized, the need for

using the lesser known species is of first importance. This applies both to the areas having abundant timber supplies and to the islands having

insufficient forest reserves, yet many unused

timbers.

Lack of knowledge, particularly by the consumer, seems the principal deterrent to the utilization of lesser known woods. Needed is information on physical and mechanical properties, as well

as knowledge of air seasoning, kiln drying, durability, machining characteristics, and resistance to

insects and marine organisms. Prospective users

should also have the benefit of reliable recommendations on the acceptable uses for the different

timbers and an estimate of their present and potential availability.

In view of the above considerations, the Fourth

Session of the West Indian Conference held in

1950 recommended that a future conference be

convened to consider the agricultural potentialities of the Caribbean area, with special reference

to developing the timber trade. Later, the objective was restricted to a study of the present and

potential timber trade. The conference, held at

Port of Spain, Trinidad, in April 1953, was attended by representatives from most countries and

islands of the Caribbean area.

Conference delegates agreed on the need for

compiling and publishing a list of the timbers of

present and potential regional importance. They

also agreed that this document should cover the

entire Caribbean, including the independent republics, and should contain all available information on the selected timbers. The principal timbers described in the text were selected largely

by member countries of the Caribbean Commission and do not necessarily include all timbers of

present or potential importance in the entire

Caribbean region.

Countries represented in the selection of timbers are as follows : British Guiana, French Guiana, Surinam, and British Honduras on the

continent; Jamaica, Dominican Republic, and

Puerto Rico in the Greater Antilles; Guadeloupe,

Dominica, Martinique, St. Lucia, St. Vincent,

Grenada, Trinidad, and Tobago in the Lesser Antilles. Although Chiba and Haiti are not included

in this group, they are well represented by the

selections made for other islands in the Greater

Antilles. But important timbers in other parts

of the Caribbean area are not discussed in detail

unless they are also presently or potentially important in the above countries or islands.

The conference by resolution directed the

Secretariat of the Caribbean Commission to ask

the Tropical Forest Research Center of the U.S.

Forest Service for assistance in the project. In

answer to that request, this publication was prepared. It presents, to the best of the author's

knowledge, a summary of all available and worthwhile information on the 71 important timbers in

that part of the Caribbean area described above.

SELECTION OF IMPORTANT

CARIBBEAN TIMBERS

Foresters and other representatives of the Government attending the 1953 Timber Conference in

Port of Spain, Trinidad, selected an initial list of

54 timbers of present or potential commercial importance. The number was later increased to 71

as additional timbers were suggested. This number will surely increase in the years ahead : Remote

areas will become more accessible to improved markets, and further studies will be made of the

quantity and quality of many woods, currently

little known. The final selection of timbers covered in this work and the species chosen are essentially as suggested by the participating

governments. The timbers are listed by their preferred trade and botanical names in table 1.

TABLE 1.—Present and potential commercial timhers of the Caribhean

Trade name Scientific name Page

ÍAndira inermis (W. Wright)

H.B.K 27

A. spp. 27

Angélique Dicorynia guianensis Amsh. _ _ 28

{Clathrotropis macrocarpa

Ducke 30

C. hrachypetala (Tul.)Kleinh. .. 30

Baboen Virola surinamensis (Rol.)

Warb 30

Tj (Bagassa guianensis Aubl. 33

Bagasse <^ß tiliaefolia (Desv.) R. Ben. _ 33

Balata Manilkara hidentata (A. DC.)

Chev 34

Balsa Ochroma pyramidale ( Cav.)

Urban 36

Banak Virola koschnyi Warb. 30

I Catostemma commune Sandw. _ 38

38 Baromalli- \C. fragrans Benth. ..

Trade name Scientific name Page

Bethabara

Bois gris

Broadleaf

Bullhoof

Bustic I

Cedar, Central I

American |

Courbaril -_|

Crabwood

Dakama

Determa

Tabehuia serratifolia (Vahl)

Nicholson 39

Licania ternatensis Hook, f. _ _ 41

Terminalia latifolia Sw. 42

Drypetes brovmii Standl. 43

Dipholis salicifolia (L.) A.

DC 44

D. spp. 44

Cedrela mexicana M. J. Roem.. 45

C.odorataL. 45

C. guianensis A. Juss. 45

Hymenaea courbaril L. 47

H. davisii Sandw. 47

Carapa guianensis Aubl. 49

Dimorphandra conjúgala

(Splitg.) Sandw. 52

Ocotea rubra Mez 53
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN

TABLE 1.—Present and potential coimnercial timbers of the Cœribhean—Continued

Trade name Scientific name Page

Dukali

Encens

Gommier

Greenheart,

Demerara.

Gronfoeloe

Gumbo-limbo

Haiari

Hura

Inyak

Kauta

Kautaballi

Kereti silverballi..

Kopie

Kurokai

Kwarie

Lignumvitae

Magnolia

Mahoe

Mahogany, Honduras.

Mahogany, West

Indies.

Parahancornia amapa (Huber)

Ducke

Protium attenuatum (Rose)

Urban

Dacryodes excelsa Vahl

Ocotea rodiaei (R. Schomb.)

Mez

ÍQualea rosea Aubl.

Q. coerula Aubl.

Q. alhiflora Warm.

Bursera simaruha (L.) Sarg. __

ÍAlexa imperatricis (Schomb.)

Baill

A. leiopetala Sandw.

Hura crepitans L.

Antonia ovata Pohl

ILicania laxiflora Fritsch

L. mollis Benth.

L. persaudii Fanshawe &

Maguire

(Licania venosa Rusby

\L. majuscula Sagot

(Ocotea wachenheimii R. Ben. __

\0. puherula Nees

Goupia glabra Aubl.

Protium crenatum Sandw.

P. decandrum March.

P. sagotianum March.

^P. schomhurgkianum Engl.

iVochysia guianensis Aubl.

\V. tomentosa DC.

f Guaiacum officinale L.

\G. sanctum 1J.

Talauma dodecapetala (Lam.)

Urban

Hibiscus elatus Sw.

Swietenia macrophylla King

Swietenia mahagoni Jacq.

Eschweilera longipes (Poit.)

Miers

E. subglandulosa (Steud.)

Miers

Symphonia globulifera L. f. —

Inga alba W illd.

Marmaroxylon racemosum

(Ducke) Killip

Licania buxifolia Sandw.

L. densiflora Kleinh.

L. macrophylla Benth.

L. micrantha Miq.

Mora excelsa Benth.

M. gonggrijpii (Kleinh.)

Sandw.

Terminalia amazonia (J. F.

Gmel.) Exell

54

55

55

57

60

60

60

62

63

63

64

65

66

66

66

66

6^6

68

68

69

70

70

70

70

72

72

73

73

75

76

76

79

81

81

82

84

85

66

66

66

66

86

86

86

Trade name Scientific name

Pine, Caribbean,

Podocarp

Purpleheart

Pakuri Plalonia insignis Mart.

(Swartzia jenmanii Sandw.

S. polyphylla DC.

S. schomburgkii Benth.

Pinus caribaea Morelet

' Podocarpus coriaceus L. C,

Rich

P. guatemalensis Stand!.

Peltogyne pubescens Benth.

P. porphyrocardia Griseb.

P. venosa (Vahl) Benth. var.

densiflora (Spruce) Amsh. __

Résolu Chimarrhis cymosa Jacq.

Ti^uip jTabebuia rosea (Bertol.) DC. _

ixoDie ^rp heterophylla (DC.) Britton_

Rosewood, Hon- Dalbergia stevensonii Standl. _.

duras.

Saman Pithecellobium saman (Jacq.)

Benth

Qor^+o rr.oT.io f Calopkyllum brasiUensc CsLUib.

\C. lucidum Benth.

Sara Vouacapoua macropetala

Sandw.

(Simarouba amara Aubl.

\S. glauca DC.

Snakewood Piratinera guianensis Aubl.

ISterculia pruriens (Aubl.) K.

s.l^^iMea'ú:~BT::::::::::::

s. rugosa R. Br.

(Hyeronima laxiflora (Tul.)

Muell.-Arg.

H. alchorneoides Fr. Allem. __

H. caribaea Urban

H. clusioides (Tul.) Griseb. __

ITabebuia insignis (Miq.)

Sandw- var. monophylla

Sandw- -_:

T. stenocalyx Sprague & Stapf _

Tatabu Diplotropis purpurea (Rich.)

Amsh.

Tauroniro Humiria balsamifera (Aubl.)

J. St. Hil

Teak Tectona grandis L. f.

Tonka Dipteryx odorata (Aubl.)

Willd

Wacapou Vouacapoua americana Aubl. _

IEperua falcata Aubl.

E. grandiflora (Aubl.) Benth. .

E. jenmanii Oliver

E. schomburgkiana Benth.

„7- fSwartzia leiocalycina Benth. _ _ Wamara |^^ benthamiana Miq

Yemeri Vochysia hondurensis Sprague _

Yokewood Catalpa longissima (Jacq.)

I Sims

Sinïàrouba.

90

92

92

92

92

95

95

96

96

96

99

101

102

104

104

106

107

107

108

110

110

110

112

112

112

112

114

114

115

116

118

120

121

123

123

123

123

125

125

126

128

Timbers of similar characteristics are commonly

marketed in many parts of the world under a

common trade name. Examples of such group

marketing are the commercial white oak, hickory,

and black gum timbers of the United States, which

commonly include from two to ten or more different species. Individual species of these and

many other timbers are not available separately

on the commercial market. In the Caribbean area

where several hundred species reach saw-log size,

the opportunities for group marketing are not

only more favorable but almost imperative for the

successful exploitation of the tropical forests.

Consequently, species have been grouped ni this

work according to the present marketing practices

in the countries concerned when available knowledge justifies such a grouping. Many additional

species are excluded for lack of information on

their physical and mechanical properties. The

presently accepted groups will undoubtedly be enlarged with added research and more practical

experience.
U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

There is probably less variation between species

in any one timber group than is accepted in the

usual trade groupings used in other areas. Hence,

additional species can eventually be listed in many

of the commercial groups without exceeding the

accepted range of variability in commercial timber. In some instances, species listed as secondary

in importance can be included with the principal

species now listed under the accepted trade name.

NOMENCLATURE

The timber trade names in this work were selected principally by members of the interested

governments. The author made only a few

changes or modifications to clarify the origin of

certain timbers or to separate them more clearly

from others with similar trade names. Trade

names used in the principal country of export are

preferred unless subject to confusion with the

names of other timbers. The trade names accepted

in this work are generally in agreement with those

adopted by the British Standards Institute as

listed in its "Nomenclature of Commercial Timbers Including its Sources of Supply" (36),^

Most tropical timbers are known by different

common names in each country or territory of

origin and often by several names even within

each territory. These names are sometimes variations of connotations of the tree's form, fruit, or

other morphological characteristics, the uses for

its wood and other parts, or certain characteristic

features of the tree or its products. Many of these

local names are misleading. Some are used repeatedly for different species throughout the Caribbean area. They are, on the whole, unreliable

and only of local value, but are listed in this work

to assist the reader in identifying local timbers

with the preferred trade and accepted botanical

names.

The scientific names, including those mentioned

incidentally, have been checked and conform to

current usage under the International Code of

Botanical Nomenclature. Synonyms in use are

also listed in the text and index. Further taxonomic studies of tropical trees and woods may

result in slight revision of the nomenclature.

DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT

Most tropical American tree species and timbers of related species are not uniformly distributed throughout the Caribbean area but may

be arranged into several geographical groups.

Timbers found in one country may be absent from

a nearby country. Several examples will illustrate the main patterns of tree distribution of the

timbers described here.

^ Italic numbers in parentheses refer to Bibliographv.

p. 131.

Balsa {Ochroma pyramidale) is found widely

in tropical America, including West Indies,

Central America, and northern South America.

Some species, such as gommier (Da^ryodes excelsa)^ are confined to the West Indies, and a few,

such as one kind of magnolia (Talaicma dodecapetala)^ are known from only one or a few islands. Others, such as Honduras rosewood

{Dalbergia stevensonii), are restricted to Central

America, or occur also in the West Indies, as does

Caribbean pine {Pinics caribaea).

The trees and timbers of the Guianas and other

parts of northern South America for the most

part are different from those of Central America

and the West Indies. Many timbers described

here are limited to South America {Oatostemma^

Eperua^ Goupia^ Qualea^ etc). In the Guianas

are found many trees of the Amazon rain forest.

Trinidad, which is within sight of the continent,

has trees of South American relationship, not

West Indian. However, some South American

trees extend slightly northward into Central

America and the southern West Indies.

The section on Distribution and Habitat of the

one or more species providing each timber is based

on published information. For many species this

section is not complete and may be subject to

certain revisions as additional botanical classifications are made. Further botanical exploration

will likely extend the distribution or ran^e of

many timbers and bring about some reclassification or combination of species. Many "species"

have already been combined to increase the range

of certain timbers. Further published accounts

of species occurrence and habitat will also allow

the correction of present knowledge.

TREE DESCRIPTIONS

The section under each timber headed The Tree

should be of special interest to the forester and

other technicians. It will help them correlate the

other descriptive material with the botanical species where tree identity is in doubt. To the nontechnical reader, this information can provide a

measure of the potential size and the quality of

products available from the trees. For example,

it should be clear to the reader that snakewood

{Piratinera guianensis), although moderately resistant to marine borers, does not grow to sufficient

size, length, or in suitable form for use as marine

piling. Similarly, it is evident that Demerara

greenheart (Ocotea rodiaei) is generally of adequate size for this use.

The text also shows the variation in tree size

between countries and, to some extent, localities

and sites. Most writers tend to quote the upper

size limits of trees growing on good sites rather

than the average or common size at maturity. Detailed botanical descriptions of trees do not appear

justified in a text primarily for the reader interested in timber products. This information is
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN

available in other publications dealing especially

with the subject.

DESCRIPTION OF THE WOOD

Description of the physical characteristics of

each timber covered in this text is largely confined

to those macroscopic characteristics and other superficial features easily seen by the unaided eye

and easily understood by the average wood user.

Each timber's description is for the average of that

species or group of species. The wood of any

species commonly varies between countries of origm, from one locality to another, from tree to

tree, and even within the individual tree. Color

and grain are the most variable characteristics.

The description of the wood of each timber is

a summary of the published information on that

timber. Where differences between published references exist, the most logical and generally accepted description was used. As would be expected, disagreement concerning color and texture

occurs most often. This is attributable in part

to variation in the timber and in part to the lack

of established standards for judging these properties.

Descriptions frequently refer to tangential or

radial surfaces and transverse or end ^rain.

Tangential surfaces of boards or other specimens

are those more or less parallel or tangent to the

growth rings of the trees. Radial surfaces are at

right angles to the growth rings. Transverse or

end-grain surfaces are perpendicular to the main

axis of the tree. Thus, if a board is cut from the

perimeter of a log, parallel to the growth rings,

the wide surface of the board will be termed the

tangential surface, the edges of the board will be

radial surfaces, and both ends will show transverse or end-grain surfaces, sometimes called the

cross-sectional surfaces.

Correspondingly, boards cut parallel to the perimeter or growth rings of the tree are termed

"flat-grained," "flat-sawed," or "plainsawed."

Those cut across or at right angles to the growth

rings are termed "quartersawed" or "edgegramed" lumber. Certain advantages and disadvantages are inherent in either j)lainsawed or

quartersawed lumber {2^2). The principal differences are as follows :

1. Flat-sawed lumber generally reveals better

figure patterns resulting from growth

rings than quartersawed stock.

2. Flat-sawed lumber is less subject to loss of

surface appearance and reduction in

strength by round or oval knots or shakes

and pitch pockets.

3. Flat-sawed boards shrink less in thickness

and more in width than quartersawed

boards.

4. Flat-sawed stock is less subject to collapse

in drying than quartersawed lumber.

5. Quartersawed lumber cups and twists less

in drying than flat-sawed lumber.

6. Quartersawed lumber shows up figures resulting from pronounced rays, interlocked grain, and wavy grain more

clearly than flat-sawed lumber.

7. Quartersawed lumber is generally more

costly to produce from the log.

8. Quartersawed lumber will surface-check

and split less in seasoning than flat-sawed

lumber.

9. Quartersawed boards wear more evenly

and often hold paint better than flatsawed boards.

Two other terms commonly used in wood descriptions are texture and grain. Texture is a

term that describes the size of the vessels or pores ;

degrees of texture are very coarse, coarse, medium,

fine, or very fine. Grain is a description of the

direction of the wood elements. The grain may

be straight, wavy, or interlocked. When the grain

is straight, the fibers run parallel to the main axis

of the tree and generally more or less straight to

the length of sawed lumber. Wavy grain, sometimes termed curly grain, undulates back and

forth across the surface of lumber. In interlocked

or roey-grain timber, the direction of the fiber

alinement alternates at intervals, resulting in a

ribbon figure on the quartersawed surface. Splitting specimens having interlocked grain reveals

an uneven surface on the radial plane.

WEIGHT AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Solid wood with all air and moisture excluded

is about 1.5 times the weight of water, regardless

of the species. The fact that the dry wood of most

species floats in water demonstrates that a large

part of wood consists of cell cavities and pores.

Consequently, variations in the size of cell openings and in the thickness of cell walls result in

some species having more Avood substance than

others and, thereby, a higher specific gravity or

weight. Specific gravity is thus a direct index of

the amount of wood substance a piece of dry wood

contains.

Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the

weight of a given volume of wood to that of an

equal volume of water. The weight and volume

of wood change with the shrinkage and swelling

caused by changes in moisture content. The

weight changes with moisture content both above

and below the fiber saturation point (around 30

percent). However, volume changes only in wood

below the fiber saturation point, as shrinkage does

not begin until this point is reached. Hence, a

figure for the specific gravity of wood is meaningless unless itincludes the moisture content at which

the weight and volume of the wood were determined in arriving at the specific gravity figure.

Specific gravity is commonly calculated on two

bases: (1) True specific gravity; and (2) nomi-
6 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

nal specific gravity. True specific gravity is

generally based on the volume and weight of wood

in either the air-dry or the green condition. Nominal specific gravities are usually based on volumes

when green and weights when ovendry. This

specific gravity is based on conditions that could

never occur simultaneously. However, true

specific gravity can be calculated from nominal

specific gravity with perfect accuracy for wood

of any moisture content above the fiber saturation

point (green timber), and with fair accuracy between the fiber saturation point and air-dry by

simply increasing it by a percentage corresponding

to the moisture content in question. Thus, by

quoting the nominal specific gravity based on

green volume and ovendry weight, the reader is

able to compute the true specific gravity for wood

at any moisture content.

The weight of wood per cubic foot is determined

by multiplying true specific gravities by 62.4, or

by multiplying nominal specific gravities by the

product of 62.4 times the sum of one plus the

moisture content of the specimen at the time of

test. The weight per cubic foot for each timber

when air dry at about 12 percent moisture content

and when green is given m table 2.

TABLE 2.—SpecifiG gravity and weight of Cœnbhean timbers

Trade name Scientific name

Specific gravity based

on—

Green

volume and

ovendry

weight

Air-dry

volume and

weight

Weight per cubic

foot

Green Air dry

Angelin

Angélique

Aromata

Baboen

Bagasse

Balata

Balsa 1

Banak

Baromalli

Bethabara

Bois gris

Broadleaf

Bullhoof

Bustic

Cedar, Central American..

Courbaril

Crabwood

Dakama

Determa

Dukali

Encens

Gommier

Greenheart, Demerara

Gronfoeloe

Gumbo-limbo

Haiari

Hura

Inyak

Kauta

Kautaballi

Kereti silverballi

Kopie

See footnote at end of table.

Andira inermis

Dicorynia guianensis

iClathrotropis hrachypetala.

\C. macrocarpa

Virola surinamensis

Bagassa guianensis

Manilkara bidentata^

Ochroma pyramidale

Virola koschnyi

Catostemma commune

Tahebuia serratifolia

Licania ternatensis

Terminalia latifolia

Drypetes hrownii

Dipholis salicifolia

Cedrela mexicana]

C. odorata >

C. guianensis J

ÍHymenaea courbaril

\H. davisii .

Carapa guianensis

Dimorphandra conjúgala.-

Ocotea rubra

Parahancornia amapa

Protium attenuatum

Dacryodes excelsa

Ocotea rodiaei

Qualea rosea

Q. coerula

Q. albiflora

Bursera simaruba.

(Alexa imperatricis

[A. leiopetala

Hura crepitans

Antonia ovata

' Licania laxiflora

L. mollis...

L. persaudii

(Licania venosa

\L. majuscula

(Ocotea wachenheimii

\0. puberula

Goupia glabra

0.63

.60

42

68

,85

44

45

,92

,86

,40

.70

.67

.56

.52

53

88

53

49

30

38

70

0.76

.72

1. 10

1.00

.51

.80

.89

. 16

.53

.60

1. 10

1. 12

.65

.74

.95

.48

.84

.84

.64

1.06

.62

.60

.52

.64

1. 04

.62

.58

.59

.34

.48

.46

.53

1.20

1. 15

.53

.83

Pounds

74

67

51

67

76

51

70

75

77

44

70

70

56

59

52

78

60

60

79

38

40

73

Pounds

47

45

69

62

32

50

64

10

33

37

69

70

41

46

59

30

52

52

40

66

39

37

32

40

65

39

36

37

21

30

28

33

75

72

32

52
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN

TABLE 2.—SpecifiG gravity and weight of Caribhean timbers—Continued

Trade name

KurokaiKwarie..

Lignumvitae

Magnolia

Mahoe

Mahogany, Honduras:

Forest-grown

Plantation-grown. _.

Mahogany, West Indies.

Manbarklak

Manni

Manniballi

Marblewood

Marish

Mora

Nargusta.

Pakuri

Parakusan.

Pine, Caribbean.

Podocarp

Purpleheart

Résolu

Roble

Rosewood, Honduras.

Saman

Santa-maria

Sara

Simarouba

Snakewood

Sterculia

Suradan

Tabebuia, white

Tatabu

Tauroniro

Teak:

Forest-grown

Plantation-grown _

Tonka

Wacapou

Wallaba

Wamara

Yemeri

Yokewood.

Scientific name

(Protium decandrum

\P. schomburgkianum --

iVochysia guianensis

\V. tomentosa

r Guaiacum officinale

\ G. sanctum

Talauma dodecapetalaHibiscus elatus

Swietenia macrophylla

Swietenia mahagoni

Eschweilera subglandulosa

Symphonia globulifera

Inga alba

Marmaroxylon racem^sum

{Licania buxifolia

L. macrophylla

f Mora excelsa

\M. gonggrijpii

Terminalia amazonia

Platonia insignis

ÎSwartzia jenmanii ._

S. polyphylla

S. schomburgkii

Pinus caribaea

Podocarpus coriaceus

(Peltogyne pubescens

\P. venosa var. densiflora

Chimarrhis cymosa

{Tabebuia rosea

T. heterophylla

Dalbergia stevensonii

Pithecellobium saman

Culophyllum brasiliense

Vouacapoua macropetala

(Simarouba amara"]

\S. glauca )

Piratinera guianensis

Sterculia pruriens

Hyeronima laxiflora

Tabebuia insignis var. monophylla.

Diplotropis purpurea

Humiria balsamifera

Tectona grandis

Dipteryx odorata

Vouacapoua americanaEperua falcata

(Swartzia leiocalycina

\S. benthamiana

Vochysia hondurensis. _.

Catalpa longissima

Specific gravity based

Green

volume and

ovendry

weight

0.53

.48

. 40

.59

,45

,42

, 56

,87

.58

,88

,76

,78

, 66

,65

74

75

, 49

,58

, 48

.52

38

44

65

55

,78

66

,79

,78

,87

37

Air-dry

volume and

weight

0.64

.53

.54

.43

1. 28

.64

.75

.53

.50

.77

1.08

.72

.57

1. 15

1.09

.93

1.00

1.03

,80

.80

.78

.77

.51

.87

.87

.75

.58

.67

1.00

. 56

.61

.93

. 44

1. 20

.59

.79

.68

.93.

.80

.68

.69

1.08

.95

.93

1.06

.88

.45

.80

Weight per cubic

foot

Green

Pounds

50

56

67

67

72

44

40

68

78

67

75

71

77

71

57

41

75

77

56

59

51

51

40

53

74

65

78

67

62

63

81

75

76

75

67

Air dry

Pounds

40

33

34

27

80

44

47

33

31

48

67

44

36

72

68

58

62

64

50

50

49

48

32

54

54

47

36

42

62

35

38

58

27

75

37

49

42

58

50

42

43

67

59

58

66

55

28

50

1 Wood selected for export generally weighs 7 to 10 pounds per cubic foot air-dry with a specific gravity of 0.11 to 0.18

based on air-dry volume and weight.
8 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

Table 2 also carries both the nominal specific

gravity based on green volume and ovendry

weight of wood, and the true specific gravity

based on the air-dry volume and weight of the timber. Several different specific gravity values are

often reported in the literature for each timber,

and sometimes cover a considerable range. This

is to be expected as many factors are included that

influence the density of wood. Density often

varies considerably between sites and country of

orgin and, as many of the timbers have extensive

distribution, a considerable range in density is expected. The specific gravities and weights m table

2 are, therefore, the averages of the individual

published results from the areas included.

Most specific gravities and weights per cubic

foot quoted in the tables and text for air-dry wood

are based on a moisture content of 12 percent.

The change between 12 and 15 percent moisture

content is so minor that no reference is made to the

few data based on the higher moisture content.

Some difficulty is encountered in listing specific

gravities and weight per cubic foot for the wood

of those timbers with two or more species. Where

the difference between species is great, the gravity

and weight are cited for each species. In other

cases, these are combined and represent the timber

group. Where this information is available for

only one or two species of a trade group, itis stated

for the individual species rather than the entire

group.

SEASONING

Wood can be air-seasoned in the open or kilnseasoned in dry kilns using artificial heat and

humidity. Few dry kilns are available in the

Caribbean area so most lumber is air-seasoned.

Because of their diffuse porous nature, tropical

hardwoods generally season with less defect than

most ring çorous woods in the temperate zones.

The tropical climate of the Caribbean area presents both favorable and unfavorable conditions

for air-seasoning. One combination bringing

about favorable conditions is high temperature

and relative humidity throughout the year that

allow continuous and uniform drying. This reduces the possibility of serious surface checking,

end splitting, cup, bow, and other seasoning

defects.

On the other hand, lumber piles should be

roofed or under some cover for successful airseasoning; otherwise, the frequent tropical rains

may prevent any appreciable amount of drying

during the rainy season or, for that matter, any

time of the year. When properly protected from

rain, lumber will season throughout the year in

most areas of the American tropics. Under cover,

lumber li/4 inches thick will usually air-season in

2 to 6 months. Lumber will normally air-season

to a moisture content between 15 and 20 percent,

depending on the species, location, and time of

year.

Table 3 groups the different timbers according

to their ease of air-seasoning. The timbers,

divided into three groups, are rated on the time

required for each to season and the amount and

severity of defects that normally occur. Of necessity, only a small number or groups are used.

Thus, where two timbers are quite similar, .one

may fall in the bottom of one class and the other

in the top of the next lower class. This is unavoidable. To a marked extent, the grouping

presents the average air-seasoning; it does not

cover the possibilities of improving the seasoning

qualities of the different timbers by bettering

seasoning practices.

Many timbers are degraded during seasoning

because of an excessive rate of drying. This can

be largely overcome by reducing air circulation;

that is, by closer piling, by use of thinner stickers,

and by placing shields or covers on one or more

sides of the lumber stacks. Other factors such as

sticker spacing, width of lumber stacks, and exposure to sun or rain are important in the drying

rate and amount of seasoning defect.

End splitting and end checking occur during

the seasoning of some timbers. But these faults

may be prevented by coating the ends of boards

with a moisture-resistant pamt, pigments, waxes,

or other material to prevent the over-rapid loss

of moisture at these places. A commercial mixture of asphalt and plastic roof coating has been

used by the Tropical Forest Eesearch Center with

excellent success; when end-coated with this material, 60 species of tropical hardwoods were

seasoned with no appreciable end defect. The

nailing of end cleats or narrow wooden strips to

the ends of boards or planks is of only limited

value in air-seasoning; during kiln-seasoning this

practice can even cause end splits to develop or

extend.

The humidity and temperature conditions in

the Caribbean area are very favorable for the

development of sap-stain fungi in logs and lumber.

The best ways to prevent this type of damage are

early conversion of logs after felling or storage of

logs under water. The application of antiseptic

sprays to ends and places from which the bark

is removed will also protect most species of logs

for 1 or 2 months if wood-infesting insects are

not prevalent. Unfortunately, insects are a problem in tropical areas. To prevent their entry

into logs and the transmission of fungi to the

wood, applying an insecticide to the log is also

necessary. In some species, adding an end coating

is also required to prevent seasoning checks

through which insects or fungi can enter {2^2),

Molds and stains are confined largely to the sapwood ; their colors vary. Molds are not responsible for much staining. The discoloration caused

by them is mostly superficial and largely due to

the cottony or powdery surface growths easily

removed by brushing or lightsurfacing.
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN

TABLE 3.—Caribbean timbers grouped as to their ease of air-seasoning

Trade name Scientific name

EASY TO SEASON

i. ¡Andira spp. Angelm [^ tWm^/

Bagasse Bagassa guianensis

Bethabara Tahehuia serratifolia

Cedar, Central [^¿tt'ca^^^^^

American. [ç, odorata

Encens. Protium attenuatum

Gommier — Dacryodes excelsa

Gumbo-limbo Bursera simaruha

xr^,.«+i aiUruT-Koiii fOcotea wachenheimii Kereti silverballi-...|^ vuherula

Magnolia Talauma dodecapetala

Mahogany, Hon- Swietenia macrophylla

duras.

Mahogany, West Swietenia mahagoni

Indies.

Manni Symphonia glohulifera

D^,1^««^r^ (Podocarpus coriaceus Podocarp [p. guatemalensis

D , j (Tahehuia heterophylla

Saman Pithecellohium saman

Simarouba. iSimarouha amara

S. glauca

Teak Tectona grandis

Tonka Dipteryx odorata

MODERATELY DIFFICULT TO SEASON

Angélique Dicorynia guianensis

Baboen Virola surinamensis

Banak Virola koschnyi

T» „. (Catostemma commune

Baromalh.. -[c. fragrans

Bois gris Licania ternatensis

Bullhoof Drypetes hrownii

Courbaril Hymenaea courharil

Orabwood Carapa guianensis

Determa Ocotea ruhra

Greenheart, Demerara- Ocotea rodiaei

Gronfoeloe_

Qualea rosea

Q. coerula

Q. albiflora

Hura Hura crepitans

[Licania laxiflora

Kauta.

KautaballiL. mollis

,L. persuada

Licania venosa

\L. majuscula

Stains resulting from sap-staining fungi penetrate into the sapwood (not heartwood) and cannot be removed oy surfacing. The discoloration

of the wood is visible as specks, spots, streaks, or

patches. At times it can be seen throughout the

entire sapwood layer. Shortly after the lumber

is cut from the logs, it may become infected by

airborne fungi. Stains develop rapidly and

noticeable discoloration may be evident within 24

hours after conversion.

Stain may be controlled by piling products

immediately after conversion, so that the wood's

surface dries rapidly. This is often impractical,

Trade name Scientific name

Kopie_._

KurokaiKwarie__

Manbarklak.

Manniballi..

MarishNargusta

Pine, Caribbean.

Purpleheart

Résolu

Rosewood, Honduras

Santa-maria

Sara

Sterculia

Suradan.

Tatabu

TauroniroWacapou--

Wallaba.

Wamara_

Yemeri__

Goupia glabra

{Protium crenatum

\P. decandrum

I P. saaotianum

[p. schomhurgkianum

iVochysia guianensis

V. tomentosa

Eschweilera longipes

E. suhglandulosa

Inga alba

I Licania huxifolia

L. macrophylla

L. densiflora

L. micrantha

Terminalia amazonia

Pinus carihaea

(Peltogyne puhescens

P. perphyrocardia

P. venosa var. densiflora

Chimarrhis cymosa

. Dalhergia stevensonii

(Calophyllum hrasiliense

\C. lucidum

Vouacapoua macropetala

Sterculia pruriens

S. carihaea

ß. rugosa

Hyeronima laxiflora

H. alchorneoides

H. carihaea

H. clusioides

Diplotropis purpurea

Humiria halsamifera

Vouacapoua americana

' Eperua falcata

E. grandiflora

E. jenmanii

E. schomburgkiana

JSwartzia leiocalycina

\S. henthamiana

Vochysia hondurensis

DIFFICULT TO SEASON

Balata Manilkara bidentata

Balsa Ochroma pyramidale

Courbaril Hymenaea davisii

__ . . jAlexa imperatricis

Haiari 1^ Uiopetala

^. ., fGuaiacum sanctum

Lignumvitae j^ officinale

-- (Mora excelsa

Mora ^][f gonggrijpii

or results in excessive seasoning degrade from the

too rapid loss of moisture during the early stages

of drying. Stain may also be controlled by dipping, spraying, or brushing the wood with antiseptic solutions, such as chlorinated phenols,

organic mercury compounds, and borax. Numerous commercial products are also on the market

for this use. Early treatment is imperative : once

sap stain is established it cannot be controlled by

treating the wood surface with chemicals. Kapid

air-seasoning or kiln-drying below 20 percent

moisture content is the most effective control

measure once sap stain is present.
10 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

Most information on kiln-seasoning of Caribbean timbers has been developed by the Forest

Products Research Laboratory in England. Frequent reference is made in this text to the kiln

schedules recommended for different timbers in

their "Kiln Operator's Handbook" {^2). One of

their more recent publications, No. 42, provides

new schedules for faster drying and more severe

kiln conditions. Any reader interested in kilnseasoning of tropical American timbers should acquire these publications for details on kiln

schedules and recommended operating techniques.

The U.S. Forest Products Laboratory, Madison,

Wis., also lists kiln schedules in its report D-1791

that may be used for tropical hardwoods by experienced kiln operators.

SHRINKAGE AND MOVEMENT

Freshly sawed lumber contains from 30 to more

than 300 percent water, based on the ovendry

weight of the wood. The percentage of moisture

varies according to species. In the green condition, dense, close-grained wood contains less

moisture than open-grained, less dense wood. As

an example, very heavy woods often contain 30 to

40 percent moisture in the green condition, compared to as much as 300 percent or more in some

very light woods such as balsa.

Water is present in wood in two forms; as free

water in the cell cavities and intercellular spaces

of the wood and as absorbed water held in the

walls of the wood elements. When the free water

is removed but all the absorbed water remains in

the cell walls, the wood is said to have reached the

fiber saturation point. This condition occurs at

about 30 percent moisture content but may vary

considerably between species. Shrinkage does not

occur in wood until this point has been reached.

However, as a piece of wood dries, the outer part

is reduced to a moisture content below the fiber

saturation point sooner than the interior. Consequently, the whole piece may show some shrinkage near the surface before the average moisture

content reaches the fiber saturation point.

Wood shrinks as it loses moisture below the fiber

saturation point. Wood that has reached the airdry condition at 15 percent moisture content has

undergone about half the shrinkage possible. For

each 1 percent loss of moisture below the fiber

saturation point (30 percent moisture content),

wood shrinks about one-thirtieth of the total possible shrinkage. Shrinkage values are normally

calculated and reported as the total shrinkage

from green to ovendry wood, and expressed as a

percent of the original green volume.

For Caribbean timbers, shrinkage values are

presented on this basis in table 4, and in the sections discussing shrinkage of the timbers in the

text. Shrinkage from green to 15 percent moisture

content (the air-dry moisture content often used

for timbers in this area) amounts to half the total

shrinkage. Shrinkage to 10 percent and 20 percent moisture contents amounts to % and % of the

total shrinkage respectively.

Wood generally shrinks about twice as nauch in

the direction of growth rings (tangential) as

across the growth rings (radial) and very little

along the grain (longitudinal). Consequently,

wood that contains cross grain (interlocked) or

irregular grain will shrink more longitudinally

than straight-grained wood because of the tangential and radial surfaces. The total shrinkage in

all directions quoted as one sum is termed volumetric shrinkage.

The relationship of radial shrinkage to tangential shrinkage is often an indication of the

inherent tendency of a wood to cup and otherwise distort during seasoning. Generally, woods

that have a low ratio of tangential to radial

shrinkage season with less cupping and other defects than woods with a higher ratio. Likewise,

because of the greater shrinkage in the direction

of the growth rings, "flat-sawed" or "plainsawed"

boards are more apt to cup and surface check

than "quartersawed" or "edge-grained" boards.

Flat-sawed boards are also subject to greater

shrinkage across the surface and less in thickness than quartersawed boards.

In general, heavier pieces of wood shrink

more than lighter pieces of the same species.

There are, however, many exceptions where heavy

species shrink less than those that weigh less and

where lightweight woods have large shrinkage

values. Recent studies at Yale University {250)

show that tropical woods, with few exceptions,

undergo lower shrinkage than United States

woods of similar density. They found no correlation between volumetric shrinkage and specific gravity, indicating something other than

weight was the dominant factor controlling

shrinkage.

Shrinkage during drying is to some extent a

criterion of subsequent shrinkage and swelling

that will occur in the wood as a result of changes

in atmospheric conditions. Wood is exposed to

continuous daily and seasonal changes in relative

humidity. Its tendency to absorb or give off

moisture to come into balance with the surrounding air is accompanied by swelling or shrinking

of the v7ood. This movement may be in the same

proportions as the initial shrinkage in seasoning.

In the absence of specific movement values, it is

reasonable to assume a dimensional change of onethirtieth of the shrinkage from green to ovendry for each 1-percent change in moisture content.

However, recent studies at the Forest Products

Research Laboratory in England show that all

woods do not undergo dimensional changes in

response to changed atmospheric conditions in

proportion to their initial shrinkage values {108).

They found that some woods shrink appreciably

in drying, yet may undergo comparatively small

dimensional changes in use.
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN

TABLE 4.—Shrinkage properties of Caribbean timbers

11

Trade name

Angelin

Angélique.

Baboen

Balata.

Balsa (17 Ibs./cu. ft.).

Banak

Baromalli

Bethabara

Cedar, Central American.

CourbariL

Crabwood

Determa

Gommier

Greenheart, Demerara.

Gronfoeloe

Gumbo-limbo

Hura

Kereti silverbalü_

Kopie

Kurokai

Kwarie

Mahogany, Honduras:

Forest-grown

Plantaxion-grown

Mahogany, West Indies.

Manbarklak

Manni

Manniballi

Marblewood

Marish

Mora

Nargusta

Pakuri

Pine, Caribbean.

Purpleheart

Roble

Rosewood, Honduras _

Saman

Santa-maria

Simarouba

Sterculia

Suradan

Tabebuia, white.

Tatabu

Tauroniro

Teak:

Forest-grown

Plantation-grown.

Tonka

Wacapou

Wallaba

Wamara

Yemen

Scientific name

Andira inermis

Dicorynia guianensis

Virola surinamensis

Bagassa guianensis

Manilkara bidentata

Ochroma pyramidale

Virola koschnyi

Catostemma fragrans

Tabebuia serratifolia

(Cedrela guianensis

C. odorata

C. mexicana

(Hymenaea courbaril

\H. davisii

Carapa guianensis

Ocotea rubra

Dacryodes excelsa

Ocotea rodiaei

Qualea rosea

Q. coerula

Q. albiflora

Bursera simaruba

Hura crepitans

Ocotea wachenheimii

Goupia glabra

Protium schomburgkianumí Vochysia guianensis

{V. tomentosa

Swietenia macrophylla

Swietenia mahagoni

Eschweilera subglandulosa

Symphonia globulifera

Inga alba

Marmaroxylon racemosum

jLicania buxifolia

\L. macrophylla

Mora excelsa

Terminalia amazonia

Piatonia insignis

Pinus caribaea

Peltogyne pubescens

r Tabebuia rosea

\T. heterophylla

Dalbergia stevensonii ^

Pithecellobium saman

Calophyllum brasiliense

Simarouba amara

Sterculia pruriens

Hyeronima laxiflora

{Tabebuia insignis var. monophylla.

\T. stenocalyx

Diplotropis purpurea

Humiria balsamifera

Tectona grandis

Tectona grandis

Dipteryx odorata

Vouacapoua americana.

Eperua falcata

Swartzia benthamiana. _

Vochysia hondurensis. _.

Shrinkage—green to ovendry

Radial

Percent

3.6

4.6

5.3

5.2

6.3

3.0

4.8

5.4

6. 6

4. 1

4.5

4. 1

3. 1

3.7

4. 1

8. 2

4. 4

3.7

4.0

2.3

2.7

3.6

4. 5

4.2

4.8

2. 5

3. 1

2. 4

4. 6

5.8

5.7

3. 1

7.5

6. 8

6.9

4. 8

6.3

5.8

3.6

4. 1

2.9

2.9

4.8

2.3

5.7

5. 3

5.8

4.6

7.2

2.3

2. 1

5.0

4.9

3.6

2.0

Tangential

Percent

7. 1

8.2

12. 4

6.6

9.4

7.6

13.4

11.7

8.0

4.9

8.5

7-6

7.6

7.6

6.4

9.6

8.4

7.9

7.7

3.6

4. 5

7. 2

8.0

6.8

8.2

8.8

4.2

4.2

5.4

10.3

9.7

7.2

11.7

10. 6

9.8

7.9

7.8

8. 4

6. 1

5.5

4.6

4. 4

7. 1

5.0

9. 2

9.4

7.7

7.0

9.7

4.2

4.6

7.6

6.9

6.9

8.0

Longitudinal

Percent

0.24

. 16

.09

,23

, 47

16

.27

.51

. 10

. 26

. 24

.08 11. 4

. 14 12. 7

8. 6

.48 7.3

8. 18 12.6

10.7

.07 15.4

.42

28

15

21

31

36

18

, 16

,28

,34

,26

,03

,27

,34

, 15

,09

,37

. 13

, 12

, 17

17

Volumetric

Percent

10. 6

14.0

17. 6

10.2

16. 9

10. 8

From Dalbergia sp.
12 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

Several factors may be responsible for this

phenomenon; the most apparent is the difference

in the fiber saturation point between species.

Those woods having a low fiber saturation point

are likely to shrink or swell more than woods having a high fiber saturation point. Another factor

is the range in moisture content of the different

woods at any given range of atmospheric moisture conditions. The method of seasoning may

also affect the initial shrinkage. It may cause collapse or honeycombing, and thereby change the

wood structure enough so that subsequent movements do not correspond to the initial shrinkage

values. Other minute but important cellular

changes may also occur in seasoning that may alter

the wood's response to changes in moisture

content.

Shrinkage and movement values have practical

application in determining the proper moisture

content for woods used in different conditions.

Movement values are often important in the selection of wood for certain uses. The preference for

teak for ship decking is a prime example of this.

STRENGTH PROPERTIES

The uses for many timbers are based largely on

their strength or mechanical properties. Tests

of mechanical properties have been conducted on

most of the Caribbean timbers discussed in this

report. Tables 10 and 11 in the appendix present

results of tests for green and air-dry wood for

most of the timbers covered in the text. For comparison, data for a number of well-known woods

from Europe and the United States are also

included.

Tests were made on small clear specimens 2 by 2

inches or smaller in cross section and of specific

lengths, according to the test specifications.

Standard testing procedures of the American Society for Testing Materials or the "Monnin System" as used in most European countries were

followed {13). Actually, these values are not safe

working stresses because they were obtained for

material free from all defects, such as knots,

checks, shakes, and distorted grain that have an

appreciable effect on the strength of seasoned timber.

Anyone designing timber structures will find

table 12 in the appendix of some value, as it shows

the maximum allowable stresses for certain tropical timbers under different circumstances. Data

for these tables were taken from J. Ph. Pfeiffer's

"De Houtsoorten Van Surinam" (Surinam Timbers), V. 2, pp. 192-193 (Í7J). The conversion

from kilograms per cubic inch to pounds per cubic

inch was computed in the Central Secretariat of

the Caribbean Commission {50). Any changes

in species botanical names from those listed by

Pfeiffer were made in accordance with a more

recent publication by the Surinam Forest Service.

As it dries, wood increases in strength {260) but

not until the fiber saturation point is reached.

However, not all strength properties are increased

with a decrease in moisture content. In fact,

toughness or shock resistance, which is dependent

upon both strength and pliability, sometimes decreases as the wood dries. This is largely due to

the inability of dry wood to bend as far as green

wood before failure, even though it will sustain

a greater load.

In general, the strength of wood increases about

in proportion to the increase in specific gravity.

Thus, in most woods, the heavier of two pieces or

species at the same moisture content will be superior in most strength properties. Yet there may be

marked differences in certain specific properties

between timbers of the same weight due to differences in the structure of the wood. This point is

illustrated by the toughness of ash compared to

other woods of similar weight.

Strength tests of 126 tropical American hardwoods, conducted at Yale University {260)^ show

that tropical timbers in the green condition are

usually superior in bending strength, crushing

strength, and a number of other propnerties to hardwoods of similar density growing in the United

States. After seasoning, however, the tropical

woods generally show less improvement in most

strength properties than domestic woods. As a

result,fropical woods lose much of their superiority in strength over woods from the United

States after air-drying. Also tropical woods are

commonly lower in cleavage and tension perpendicular to the grain when air-dried than when

green.

The strength properties cited in the tables and

discussed later in the timber descriptions are listed

below. The descriptions are largely from the

Wood Handbook {2Jt2) and Technical Bulletin

479 {160) prepared by the U.S. Forest Products

Laboratory.

Fiber stress at proportional limit in static bending,—This property is the measure of the computed stress at which the strain (or deflection)

becomes no longer proportional to the stress

(load). It is, therefore, the stress (load) at which

the load-deflection curve departs from a straight

line. This is the upper limit to the stresses or

loads that can be used in the design of permanent

structures.

Modulus of rupture in static bending.—This is

a measure of the capacity of a beam to support a

slowly applied load for a short time. Of particular importance in timbers subject to transverse

bending, it is used to determine the safe working

stresses (loads) for timbers of different species

and with certaiai defects.

Modulus of elasticity in static bending.—^A

measure of stiffness or rigidity. In a beam, the

modulus of elasticity is a measure of its resistance

to deflection (bending) ; hence, the greater the
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 13

stiffness the less the deflection. It is useful for

computing the deflection of beams, joists, and

stringers under loads that do not cause stresses

beyond the proportional limit. It is also used in

computing the load that can be carried by a long

column.

Work to proportional limit in static hending,—

A measure of the energy absorbed by a beam when

it is stressed to the proportional limit. While the

values cannot be used directly in strength calculations, they are a comparative measure of the toughness of a piece to the elastic limit. It is also a

value by which different species can be compared

in their ability to absorb shock without permanent

Work to nuiximum load in static bending.—

The ability of timber to absorb shock with some

permanent deformation and more or less injury to

the timber. It is a measure of combined strength

and toughness of wood under bending stresses, and

is of particular importance where timbers are

subjected to considerable bending under heavy

loads.

Fiber stress at proportional limits in compression parallel to the grain,—The greatest stress at

which the compressive load remains proportional

to the shortening of the specimen. This property

helps to determine safe working stresses for short

columns as well as design values for bolted joints

and similar values.

Maxirrmm crushing strength in compression

parallel to the grain.—The maximum capacity of

a short piece to withstand loads applied on the end

grain. It is a means to estimate the endwise

crushing of wood in short structural timbers, design of Dolted joints, and other similar uses in the

development of safe working stresses. It is of

considerable importance where short columns or

props are to be used.

Modulus of elasticity in compression parallel to

the grain.—A measure of stiffness useful in calculating the strength of long columns.

Hardness.—Represents the resistance of wood

to wear and marring. Values are presented for

end-grain surfaces and side-grain surfaces. Sidegrain values are the calculated average for the

radial and tangential surfaces combined. Hardness is important when timber is used for such

purj)oses as flooring, furniture, paving blocks,

bearing blocks, and railway ties.

Compression perpendicular to grain-fiber stress

at proportional limit.—The maximum across-thegrain stress of a few minutes duration that can be

applied through a plate covering only part of a

timber surface without causing injury to the timber. It is especially useful in deriving safe working stresses for computing the bearing area for

beams, stringers, and joists and in comparing

species for railway ties.

Tension perpendicular to grain.—^An expression

of the average maximum stress sustained acrossthe

596544 0-62—2

grain by the wood. It is useful in comparing

species and for estimating the resistance of timber

to forces acting across the grain.

ßhear {parallel to the grain).—A measure of the

ability of timber to resist slipping of one part

upon another along the grain. It is an important

property in beams, where the stress tends to cause

the upper half of the beam to slide upon the lower

and m timbers fastened by bolts and other connectors.

Cleavage.—The maximum load required to

cause splitting. It is an important factor where

timbers are nailed or bolted. However, a low

cleavage value can be advantageous where timbers

must be split prior to use.

Toughness.—A measure of the ability of a wood

to withstand shock or impact loads. It is a means

of comparing species and of selecting stock of

known properties, particularly when used in conjunction with specific gravity.

WORKING PROPERTIES

The working properties of the different timbers

are often an important factor in their selection

for specific uses. These properties are important

when either hand or machine tools are used, for

timbers vary in their workability as they do in

other properties. The section on working properties for each timber summarizes the published information concerning the various operations in

woodworking. Unless otherwise stated, the descriptions are for air-dry timber, ordinarily from

12 to 18 percent moisture content. One general

exception are the tests at the U.S. Forest Products

Laboratory in which wood was seasoned to 6 percent moisture before testing (6S).

Table 5 lists the different timbers by their working qualities, including the ease with which the

timbers can be sawed or machined, as well as the

quality or grade of the machined surface. A wood

that works with considerable ease but produces

many defective pieces would not be classed as a

timber that is "easy to work." However, the more

dense woods tend to be more difficult to machine.

In the absence of a specific method for rating

the different working properties, the ratings are

based on the general opinion and experience of

woodworkers and research technicians as reported

in various publications. Consequently, a timber

at the bottom of one class may not be much different from one in the top of the next lower class.

The machining tests on Caribbean timbers have

usually been made imder standard working conditions on commercial machines. Ordinarily developed for timber of average properties, these

working conditions are often not entirely suitable

for very dense or light timber, or for those woods

having a particular machining problem. Consequently, the working properties of many timbers

can be improved under different or special ma-
14 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO, 207

TABLE 5.—Classification of Garibhean timbers as to their working properties

Trade name Scientific name

Cedar, Central

American.

EASY TO WOBK

. ,. (Andira spp. Angelm 1^ inermis

Angélique Dicorynia guianensis

Baboen Virola surinamensis

Tj. (Bagassa guianensis

Bagasse [g tüioefolia

Balsa Ochroma pyramidale

Banak Virola koschnyi

Broadleaf Terminalia latifolia

Bustic Dipholis spp.

{Cedrela guianensis

C. mexicana

C. odorata

Crabwood Carapa guianensis

Determa Ocotea rubra

Dukali Parahancornia amapa

Encens Protium attenuatum

Gommier Dacryodes excelsa

Gumbo-limbo Bursera simaruha

TT • • fAlexa imperatricis

Haiari \A, leiopetala

Hura Hura crepitans

Inyak Antonia ovata

xr««^+; „íUr««K«iií fOcotea wachenhemii Kereti silverballi__..|() j^^i^^rula

IProtium crenatum

P. decandrum

P. sagotianum

P. schomhurgkianum

Magnolia Talauma dodecapetala

Mahoe Hibiscus elatus

Mahogany, Hon- Swietenia macrophylla

duras.

Mahogany, West Swietenia mahagoni

Indies.

Manni Symphonia globulifera

Manniballi Inga alba

Swartzia jenmanii

Parakusan \S. polyphylla

S. schomburgkii

Pine, Caribbean Pinus caribaea

T>^j^«„ fPodocarpus coriaceus Podocarp |p gy^at¿malensis

Résolu Chimarrhis cymosa

Tj_^ui« (Tabebuia heterophylla

Saman Pithecellobium saman

cj +„ _,„^;„ (Calophyllum brasiliense Santa-maria 1^ ¿J^J^^

Sara Vouacapoua macropetala

Simarouba {f7^« " ""'^' ^

iSterculia pruriens

S, caribaea

S. rugosa

Tabebuia, v,iúte.....{^"l^^Í^J¿Snis var. monophylla

Teak Tectona grandis

Yokewood Catalpa longissima

Trade name Scientific name

PurpleheartSuradan.

MODERATELY DIFFICULT TO WORK

. , (Clathrotropis brachypetala

^o. macrocarpa

Balata Manilkara bidentata

T^ II. (Catostemma commune Baromalh [(-, f^^grans

Bethabara Tabebuia serratifolia

Bullhoof Drypetes brownii

^ u -1 ÍHymenaea courbaril Courbaril [H davisii

Dakama Dimorphandra conjugata

Greenheart, Deme- Ocotea rodiaei

rara.

Gronfoeloe {fí^^T

Kopie Goupia glabra

lyyr (Mora excelsa iviora ^^ gongrijpii

Nargusta Terminalia amazonia

Pakuri Platonia insignis

Peltogyne pubescens

P. porphyrocardia

P. venosa var. densiflora

Hyeronima laxiflora

H. alchorneoides

H. caribaea

[H. clusioides

Tatabu Diplotropis purpurea

Tauroniro Humiria balsamifera

Wacapoua Vouacapoua americana

iEperua falcata

E. grandiflora

E. jenmami

E. schomburgkiana

"WT'oTr.QT.o (Swartzia leiocalycina

w amara 1^ benthamiana

DIFFICULT TO WORK

Bois gris Licania ternatensis

(Licania laxiflora

Kauta - L. mollis

L. persaudii

Kautaballi feÄr

(Vochysia guianensis

\V. tomentosa

Lignumvitae {g—r^'^"»'^

M-barklak.. {f^aÄr*

Marblewood Marmaroxylon racemosum

ILicania buxifolia

L. macrophylla

L. densiflora

L. micrantha

Rosewood, Dalbergia stevensonii

Honduras.

Snakewood Piratinera guianensis

Tonka Dipteryx odorata

Yemeri Vochysia hondurensis

Kwarie.

chining conditions. Changing the cutting angle,

feed rate, spindle or rim speed, or using special

cutters or saw blades can often improve the machinability of a timber. Tests at the U.S. Forest

Products Laboratory have indicated that "in general the tropical hardwoods machined as well as do

our native hardwoods and with most of them at

least it seems unlikely that machining difficulties

would restrict their use much" (€8).

RESISTANCE TO DECAY

The ability to resist decay is important when

woods are selected for certain uses, but it is of little

consequence where the wood will not be subject to
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 15

conditions favorable for decay. Decay is an everpresent hazard in the tropics where the conditions

of moisture and temperature are ordinarily ideal

for the development of fungi. Unless preservative treatment is applied, only timbers with considerable decay resistance should be used for posts,

poles, railway ties, foundations, and other uses

where the timber may become damp or wet. Decay resistance is not important where wood is used

for furniture, cabinetwork, millwork, and other

interior or protected uses. Then too, wood will

not ordinarily decay in exterior uses where it is

subjectto frequent wetting, unless the construction

is such that the wood is prevented from drying out

after each wetting.

Most decay occurs in wood with a moisture content above the fiber saturation point—about 30

percent moisture content. On the other hand,

wood that is continuously water soaked or continuously dry will not decay. Thus, the underwater portion of piling and bridgework or air-dry

timber at 20 percent or less moisture content is

safe from damage. Wood kept at the air-dry

moisture content of 15 to 20 percent in the Caribbean area is, consequently, in no danger of decayHowever, decay is almost certain to occur if the

construction allows any part of a board or timber

to remain wet for long periods of time.

The description in the text of the decay resistance of each timber is based on the durability of

untreated heartwood, which is more durable than

sapwood. It is doubtful if the sapwood of any

species is durable without preservative treatment.

Information on durability was available from published results of graveyard tests, pure culture

laboratory tests, and from published observations

on the durability of the different woods while in

use.

Information derived from graveyard tests, in

which untreated heartwood posts of tropical

species (either round or square) are set in the

ground and inspected periodically for decay, is

available from Surinam, British Guiana, Trinidad,

St. Lucia, Panama, Puerto Rico, England, and

the United States. The results sometimes vary

between countries but are generally in good

agreement.

In pure culture tests small heartwood specimens

are exposed to fungal attack under closely controlled laboratory conditions, and the relative

durability of different woods is determined on the

basis of the loss in weight through decay. The

results of these tests at Yale University and the

U.S. Forest Products Laboratory are in very good

agreement. However, the results of graveyard

tests and pure culture tests are not in agreement

for some timbers. When this occurs, the laboratory tests generally show the higher decay resistance. It appears that the laboratory tests

conducted under closely controlled conditions may

be the most reliable. In the laboratory, it is not

difficult to distinguish heartwood from sapwood ;

but in graveyard tests, it is sometimes very difficult in timbers without well-defined heartwood to

be certain whether the posts used contain heartwood or sapwood. This may be the reason for

some of the discrepancies between different graveyard tests.

Table 6 lists the timbers by durability classes, according to the published results of field and laboratory tests. Four classifications are used : Very

resistant, resistant, moderately resistant, and nonresistant. When authors report differences in

tests and results, the most consistent or reliable

rating is used. Timbers reported to be quite variable in durability and those rated on the basis of

general reputation alone are indicated by

footnotes.

RESISTANCE TO ATTACK BY

TERMITES AND OTHER INSECTS

The sections on durability in the timber descriptions contain a brief summary of the published

information on damage by wood-attacking insects.

Unfortunately, very little information is available

concerning insect attack on the Caribbean timbers

except for the comprehensive laboratory tests conducted by G. N. Wolcott {262, 263) on the resistance of woods to attack by the West Indian

dry-wood termite {Cryptotermes hrevis Walker)

and a less comprehensive study of damage by subterranean termites of Trinidad timbers (39).

Most information on other insect damage to logs

and sawed products is based on casual observations and experience which, although generally

reliable, is often influenced by local conditions

peculiar to a small area.

The most common wood-attacking insects in the

Caribbean region are the ambrosia beetles (Scolytidae and Platypodidae), both dry-wood and

subterranean termites (Order Isoptera), and

powder-post beetles (Bostrychidae and Lyctidae).

Ambrosia beetles, more often called pinhole borers,

are a common menace in green logs and lumber

and sometimes attack living trees. Both unseasoned sapwood or heartwood may be attacked.

Attack by these insects is evidenced by numerous

holes i/so to Vs inch in diameter, according to the

species of pinhole borer responsible. Entry of

pinhole borers is often associated with staining

of the wood around the holes. Damage by this

insect is liable to be severe if logs are not converted soon after felling or if they are not protected by insecticide sprays.

Attack ceases when the timber is seasoned.

Damage can be prevented in freshly sawed lumber

or living beetles destroyed by dipping the product in a water solution containing 0.2 percent of

gamma benzene hexachloride. It is also a common practice to include in the same solution an

ingredient to prevent sap stain and keep the

lumber bright.
16 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

TABLE 6.—Classification of Carihiean timbers as to their resistance to decay

Trade name Scientific name

VERY RESISTANT TO DECAY

Baga.se {ÄÄ^'""'

Balata Manilkara bidentata

Bethabara Tabehuia serratifolia

Greenheart, Ocotea rodiaei

Demerara.

TToJo-i (Alexa imperatricis naian \A. leiopetala

Lignumvitae {Kdr^""'^^

Mahogany, West Swietenia mahagoni

Indies.

Manbarklak ÍEschweilera longipes

\E. subglandulosa

Rosewood, Honduras. Dalbergia stevensonii

Snakewood Piratinera guianensis

Tatabu ^ Diplotropis purpurea

Tonka Dipteryx odorata

Wacapou Vouacapoua americana

IEperua falcata

E. grandiflora

E. jenmamt

E. schomburgkiana

Wamara iSwartzia leiocalycina

\5. benthamiana

RESISTANT TO DECAY

Angelin Undira spp.

"^ \A. inermts

Angélique Dicorynia guianensis

Bois gris 2 Lficania ternatensis

Bustic 2 Dipholis spp.

Cedar, Central ¡Cedrela mexicana

Am¿rican.i C. odorata

[C. guianensis

Courbaril [Hymenaea courbaril

\H. daviszi

Determa Ocotea rubra

Kopie Goupia glabra

Mahoe ^ Hibiscus elatus

Mahogany, Hon- Swietenia macrophylla

duras.

Manni Symphonia globulifera

Marblewood ^ Marmaroxylon racemosum

Mora [Mora excelsa

'\M. gonggrijpii

Nargusta Terminalia amazonia

Pakuri 2 Platonia insignis

Pine, Caribbean Pinus caribaea (also moderately

resistant).

Podocaro iPodocarpus coriaceus

(Peltogyne pubescens

Purpleheart P. porphyrocardia

[p. venosa var. densiflora

Résolu 2 Chimarrhis cymosa

üQJJI (Tabebuia heterophylla

^rp jrosea

Saman Pithecellobium saman

Santa-maria > {c'flJiduT *''"***"*'

IHyeronima laxiflora

H. clusioides

Trade name Scientific name

Teak Tectona grandis

Yokewood ^ Catalpa longissima

MODERATELY RESISTANT TO DECAY

Aromata (Clathrotropis brachypetala

\C. macrocarpa

Broadleaf Terminalia latifolia

BuUhoof Drypetes brownii

nr.Ac.r, n^«+«oi [Cedrela mexicana

\C. guianensis

Crabwood ^ Carapa guianensis

Dakama 2 Dimorphandra conjúgala

Gommier Dacryodes excelsa

{Qualea rosea

Q. coerula

Q. albiflora

Hura Hura crepitans

Inyak ^ Antonia ovata

Kautaballi fLicania venosa xs.a,utaw»iii '^j^ majuscula

{Ocotea wachenheimii

0. puberula Kereti silverballi.

Kwarie ^ _ _ [Vochysia guianensis

_ yy^ tomentosa

Magnolia 2 Talauma dodecapetala

ÍLicania macrophylla

L. densiflora

L. micrantha

{Swartzia jenmanii

S. polyphylla

S. schomburgkiana

Pine, Caribbean Pinus caribaea (also resistant)

Sara Vouacapoua macropetala

Tabebuia, white ¡Tabebuia insignis var. monophylla

, ^rp^ stenocalyx

Tauroniro Humiria balsamifera

Yemeri ^ Vochysia hondurensis

NONRESISTANT TO DECAY

Baboen Virola surinamensis

Banak Viróla koschnyi

Balsa Ochroma pyramidale

Baromalli [Catostemma fragrans

\C. commune

Dukali 1 ^ Parahancornia amapa

Encens__ Protium attenuatum

Gumbo-limbo Bursera simaruba

(Lficania laxiflora

L. mollis

L. persaudii

IProtium crenatum

P, decandrum

P. sagotianum

P. schomburgkianum

Manniballi Inga alba

Simarouba ^ ¡Simarouba amara

\<S. glauca

{Sterculia pruriens

S. rugosa

8. caribaea

1 Variable in decay resistance. ^ Based on reputation for durability; not substantiated by research.
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 17

Subterranean termites are a more widespread

menace in the Caribbean area than the dry-wood

termite. Subterranean termites develop and

maintain their colonies in the ground, but reach

their food supply by building tunnels through

the earth and over obstructions to the wood above.

They must keep contact with the ground or perish

for lack of moisture. Although this insect often

works in obscure locations, the presence of the

above-ground tunnels signifies their presence.

Termites can be controlled by thoroughly poisoning the soil beneath and adjacent to wooden

structures, by placing barriers or shields between

the ground and wooden members, or by using

treated or termite-resistant wood.

Dry-wood termites are more difficult to control

than subterranean termites because they are able

to exist concealed in either damp or dry wood

without contact with the ground. Consequently,

their depredations are often severe before their

presence is noted; and once found, they are still

difficult to exterminate except by thorough fumigating. Most control methods, such as dipping

infested wood in insecticides and injecting poisonous dust or solutions into the nests or tunnels, are

not successful in the Caribbean areas, where these

insects are the most active.

Attack by the winged adults can be controlled

by full-length treatment of all wood with wood

preservatives or insecticides or by using wood

having a high natural resistance to their attack.

However, the slow volatization of many preservatives eventually reduces their toxicity to a point

where the termites can survive. In the absence of

other treatments, a heavy unbroken coverage of

paint or other similar material will normally prevent the entrance of dry-wood termites.

The timbers are rated in table 7 according to

their resistance to attack by both dry-wood and

subterranean termites. These ratings are based

largely on work by Wolcott in Puerto Rico {£62^

268) and Brooks, Adamson, Baker, and Crowdy

in Trinidad {89). Ratings not substantiated by

research are so indicated. In all woods examined,

their respective ratings are based on the resistance

of heartwood to termite attack as the sapwood of

all species is considerably more susceptible to

attack than the heartwood. Where the published

information indicates a difference in a timber's

resistance to dry-wood and subterranean termites,

the lower rating was usually accepted. These differences are generally discussed in the sections

on insect attack of the respective timbers.

Powder-post beetles attack either freshly cut

or seasoned wood of both softwoods and hardwoods, but generally prefer the sapwood of timber

having pores of sufficient size for the female to

deposit her eggs. Larvae emerging from these

eggs burrow through the wood, leaving tunnels

%6 to %2 of an inch in diameter, which are packed

with a fine powder. The packed, fine powder

serves as a means of identification. Later, small

holes are left in the surface of the wood when the

winged adults emerge. Powder-post infestations

can be prevented or controlled by sterilizing the

wood with steam or by soaking it in DDT, pentachlorophenol, or other suitable insecticide.

Tropical hardwoods may also be attacked by

wood-boring grubs, roundheaded borers, flatheaded borers, and other wood-boring insects. As

a rule, they are considerably less destructive than

the insects discussed above.

RESISTANCE TO MARINE BORERS

No timber is known to be entirely resistant to

marine borers or teredo. A number of Caribbean

timbers do exhibit a high resistance to these marine

animals. However, the service life of these timbers

is often influenced by local conditions and the

particular species of marine borers present. Of

course, resistance of timbers to marine boring animals is important only when the timber is used

in salt or orackish waters. Timbers that show

high resistance to teredo in Caribbean waters are

sometimes far less resistant along the Atlantic

coast of the United States or in the vicinity of

Hawaii. Similarly, timbers may vary in their

resistance between salt and brackish waters. These

differences are considered to be the result of different types and species of marine borers from one

place to another.

The silica content of the wood may be important

in resistance to marine borers as many of the most

resistant woods contain appreciable amounts of

silica. One explanation may be that the high

silica content wears down or blunts the teeth of

the boring apparatus of the mollusk, thereby preventing his penetration into the wood. However,

some nonsilicious woods exhibit considerable resistance to marine borers, indicating other factors

may also have an effect on a timber's natural

resistance.

The most practical protection for piling and

other timbers used in sea water is heavy treatment

with coal-tar creosote or creosote-coal-tar solution.

Concrete casing or metal armor that prevents the

marine borers from attaching themselves to the

wood is also used with success.

Resistance of the different timbers to marine

borers is covered in the sections on durability and

is summarized in table 8, in which the timbers are

rated by classes of resistance—high, moderate, and

low. This information was principally available

from recent tests made in Hawaii, the Canal Zone,

and along the Atlantic coast of the United States.

Also identified in the table are timbers rated by

reputation rather than by research, and those that

exhibit considerable variability in resistance to

marine borers. Further research may change

many of these ratings.
lg U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

TABLE 7,—Classification of Ganbhean timbers as to their resistance to termite attack

Trade name Scientific name

VERY RESISTANT TO TERMITES

Balata . Manilkara hidentata

Bethabara Tahebuia serratifolia

^ , ., (Hymenaea courharil

Courbaril [H davisii

Greenheart, Deme- Ocotea rodiaei

rara.

T . ., (Guaiacum officinale

Lignumvitae [g sanctum

Mahogany, West Swietenia mahagoni

Indies.

,, , , , , (Eschweilera longipes

Manbarklak 1j^, subglandulosa

^ (Mora excelsa

Mora <^j^ gonggrijpii

fPeltogyne pubescens

P. porphyrocardia

P. venosa var. densiflora

Snakewood Piratinera guianensis

RESISTANT TO TERMITES

. ,. (Andira spp. Angelm 1^ inermis

Bois gris ^ Licania ternatensis

Cedar, Central (Cedrela mexicana

American. ^-^^^'^^V- [C. guianensis

(Licania laxiflora

Kauta* JL. mollis

L. persaudii

Kautaballi ^ /^f^cania venosa

\L. majuscula

Kopie Goupia glabra

Marblewood Marmaroxylon racemosum

Licania buxiflora

Marish ^- rnacrophylla

L. densiflora

L. micrantha

Nargusta Terminalia amazonia

Pakuri Platonia insignis

Pine, Caribbean 2 Pinus caribaea

Résolu ^ Chimarrhis cymosa

Saman Pithecellobium saman

Tatabu Diplotropis purpurea

Tauroniro Humiria balsamifera

Teak Tectona grandis

Wacapou Vouacapoua americana

IEperua falcata

E. grandiflora

E.jenmanü

E. schomburgkiana

,,7. (Swartzia leiocalycina

Wamara 1^ benthamiana

1 Rfiiting based on reputation or resistance of closely

related species.

PERMEABILITY

The preservative treatment of wood, especially

that used in the ground or in damp or exposed

locations, often lengthens the life of the wood

as much as five times. However, the treatment

value depends primarily on the kind of preservatives used, the depth to which it penetrates into

the wood, and the amount of the preservative

retained in the wood after treatment.

Trade name Scientific name

MODERATELY RESISTANT TO TERMITES

Angelin Andira inermis

Angélique Dicorynia guianensis

(Clathrotropis brachypetala

Aromata -^Q rnacrocarpa

Broadleaf ^ Terminalia latifolia

Bullhoof Drypetes brownii

Determa Ocotea rubra

{Qualea rosea

Q. coerula

Q. albiflora

,. ., , ,,. (Octotea wachenheimii

Kereti silverballi 1^ puberula

__ . (Vochysia guianensis

Kwarie |y tomentosa

Mahogany, Hon- Swietenia rnacrophylla

duras.

Magnolia ^ Talauma dodecapetala

Manni Symphonia globulifera

IHyeronima laxiflora

H. alchorneoides

H. caribaea

H. clusioides

Yokewood Catalpa longissima

VERY SUSCEPTIBLE TO TERMITES

Baboen Virola surinamensis

Balsa Ochroma pyramidale

Banak Virola koschnyi

_, „. (Catostemma commune

Baromalli \C. fragrans

Dukali 1 Parahancornia amapa

Encens ^ Protium attenuatum

Gommier Dacryodes excelsa

Gumbo-limbo Bursera simaruba

Hura Hura crepitans

Kopie Goupia glabra

(Protium crenatum

Kurokai- P. decandrum

p gfigQiianum

P. schomburgkianum

Manniballi Inga alba

^ , , (Tabebuia heterophylla

Roble \T. rosea

^ ^ . (Calovhyllum brasiliense

Santa-maria [^ lucidum

c,. , (Simarouba amara

Simarouba [s. glauca

ÍSterculia pruriens

S. caribaea

S. rugosa

rp , , . ... (Tabebuia insignis

Tabebuia, white 1^ stenocalyx

Yemeri Vochysia hondurensis

var. monophylla

2 Resistance dependent on resin content in wood.

Thus, the resistance of a wood to impregnation

by preservatives is of primary importance. Unfortunately, this property cannot be determined

from the superficial appearance of the timber, but

must be gotten by carefully controlled tests in the

laboratory.

Little. IS known concerning the resistance of

the different Caribbean timbers to the penetration

of preservatives. Available information on this

subject is included in the timber descriptions
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN

TABLE 8.—Classification of Garibhean timbers as to their resistance to marine hovers

19

Trade name Scientific name

Kauta_

KautaballiHIGH RESISTANCE

Licania laxiflora

L. mollis

L. persaudii

Licania venosa

\L. majuscula

T. ^ '4. fGuaiacum officinale Lignumvitae 1^ ^^^^¿^^ -^

M«nhflrklflk ¡Eschweilera longipes Manbarklak j^ suhglandulosa

¡Licania huxifolia

L: IZXrf"

L. micrantha

Suradan Hyeronima laxiflora

Wacapou Vouacapoua americana

MODERATE RESISTANCE

AngeUn °\

{A. Í'"!t't^T mermis

Angélique Dicorynia guianensis

T> (Bagassa guianensis ßagasse <^ß i^i^d^ßi^Q^

Bois gris * Licania ternatensis

T} . • 1 (Dipholis salicifolia

li). spp.

Crabwood ^ Carapa guianensis

Determa Ocotea rubra

Greenheart, Ocotea rodiaei

Demerara.2

Snakewood Piratinera guianensis

Suradan Hyeronima clusioides

LOW RESISTANCE

Baboen Virola surinamensis

Balata Manilkara bidentata

Balsa Ochroma pyramidale

Banak Virola koschnyi

Bethabara Tabebuia serratifolia

Broadleaf ^ Terminalia latifolia

r<«^„« n +^„1 iCedrela mexicana

[C. guianensis

Courbaril {Ä'^r'^'""''""'

1 Rating based on published reputation or rating of

closely related species rather than research results.

under Permeability. Wherever possible, reference is made to the ease with which a timber

absorbs preservatives under both open-tank (nonpressure) and pressure treatments. The absence

of a section on permeability in the timber descriptions indicates that reliable information is not

available.

Heartwood ordinarily resists preservative treatment more than sapwood, although the sapwood

of some timbers is also extremely resistant to preservatives. And when a sapwood resists preservatives, the wood is virtually eliminated from

use where decay is a problem, for sapwood is

always more susceptible to decay than heartwood.

On the other hand, posts and poles with wide easily impregnated sapwood can give good service

Trade name Scientific name

Dukali ^ Parahancornia amapa

Encens ^ Protium attenuatum

Gommier Dacryodes excelsa

ÍQualea rosea

Q. coerula

Q. albiflora

Hura 1 Hura crepitans

Kereti silverballi... .(2'^'""", wcwhenheimii {O. puberula

Kopie Goupia glabra

Kwarie 1 __ _ ¡Vochysia guianensis

\V. tomentosa

Mahogany, Hon- Swietenia macrophylla

duras.

Mahogany, West Swietenia mahagoni

Indies.

Manni ^ Symphonia globulifera

Manniballi ^ Inga alba

Marblewood Marmaroxylon racemosum

»«- ¡Mora excelsa iviora 1^ gonggrijpii

Nargusta ^ Terminalia amazonia

Pine, Caribbean Pinus caribaea

iPeltogyne pubescens

P. porphyrocardia

P. venosa var. densiflora

Roble Tabebuia heterophylla

c, , . (Calovhyllum brasiliense Santa-maria _.|ç ^/^J„^

cj. u (Simarouba amara

Simarouba [s. glauca

Sterculia pruriens

Sterculia S. caribaea

S. rugosa

rp u„u „•„ „ri,;+^ j Tabebuia stenocalyx Tabebuia, white 1^ insignis var. monophylla

Tatabu Diplotropis purpurea

Tauroniro Humiria balsamifera

Teak Tectona grandis

IEperua falcata

E. grandiflora

E. jenmann

E. schomburgkiana

„r (Swartzia leiocalycina

Wamara j^ benthamiana

Yemeri Vochysia hondurensis

2 Resistance varies according to location. Recent tests

indicate this timber is not highly resistant in many areas.

after thorough treatment, even though the heartwood may be only moderately resistant to decayPreservatives are applied by either pressure

or nonpressure methods. The various nonpressure processes include the followmg: (1) Superficial application of preservatives to the wood

with brushes or a spray nozzle or by a briet dipping;; (2) soaking in preservative oils or steeping

in water solutions; (3) diffusion process using

waterborne preservatives; (4) various adaptations

of the hot-and-cold-bath process; (5) vacuum

treatment; and (6) a number of other miscellaneous nonpressure processes. The superficial application of presei-vatives with brushes or by momentary dips is used to some extent in the Caribbean

area and, with an oilborne preservative, may add
20 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

from 1 to 3 years to the life of wood placed

in the ground. However, exposure to the weather

or contact with soil or water will quickly leach

out a waterborne preservative applied by brush.

Such superficial treatments are most successful

in those timbers that have little resistance to

impregnation.

Other nonpressure methods are used with considerable success, depending on the preservative,

the permeability of the timber, and the use of the

treated material. Wood can be impregnated as

successfully with the hot-and-cold-bath processes,

cold soaking and steeping, or some of the other

nonpressure methods, as with the pressure processes, if the wood has a low resistance to treatment. The value of preservative treatment depends on the retention and penetration achieved

and not on the process used. But, if the wood

resists treatment, one of the pressure processes

will give better results for they have the advantage of giving more uniform and dependable

treatment.

Many preservatives are used with good results.

Coal-tar creosote, the most important and most

extensively used, is considered the best preservative for general outdoor use in structural timbers

and for marine use, but it is not adapted for material that will be painted or where its odor is

objectionable. Where creosote is unsuitable,

pentachlorophenol and copper napthenate in

petroleum oil solutions are substituted extensivelyPentachlorophenol in mineral spirits or other

volatile light-colored solvents is generally used

for window sash, millwork, interior trim, and

other material requiring clean, paintable surfaces.

Copper napthenate and pentachlorophenol in

various grades of petroleum oil are also used extensively for the commençai treatment of lumber,

posts, and poles. Both preservatives provide a

high degree of protection against decay and termites, but are less effective than creosote against

marine borers.

Paintability of wood is affected by the type of

petroleum oil used in the treating solutions;

usually, the heavier oils of low volatility give the

best preservative service but are most likely to

interfere with painting. The use of "bloom" preservatives, such as ester gum, is required when

pentachlorophenol solutions are used with volatile

solvents; bloom preservatives prevent the formation of crystals on the surface of the wood after

treatment.

In the United States, several water-repellent

preservatives are sold under various trade names

for the treatment of millwork and other interior

work. Containing either pentachlorophenol or

copper napthenate, they are valued for retarding

moisture changes in wood and for protection

against decay and insects.

Wood preservatives used in water solution are

also effective against insects and decay, but are

acceptable only where the wood will not come m

contact with the ground or water. Preservatives

of this type include zinc chloride, chromated zmc

chloride, Tanalith (Wolman Salts), acid copper

chromate (Celcure), and chromated zinc arsenate

(Greensalt or Erdalith). These preservatives

leave the surfaces clean, paintable, and free from

any objectionable odor, but, in general, they are

more subject to leaching when exposed to the elements than the oilborne preservatives. However,

they are generally more acceptable for inside use

than creosote and other preservatives in heavy

petroleum oils, and give long service when not

exposed to the elements.

WOOD USES

The most common uses for each timber in the

countries of origin and in the importing countries

when applicable are included in the timber descriptions. The recommended uses for each timber are also discussed in the descriptions and summarized in table 9. These recommendations are

made on the basis of the timber's combined physical, mechanical, and machining properties. Only

those timbers most suited for each use are cited,

although other Caribbean species could be utilized

for the same purposes with some success.

The use made of timbers in the countries of their

origin is generally a good indication of their usefulness and qualities, but often includes uses for

which they are not suited and may omit others

for which they are most suited. Timbers are often

utilized for many purposes simply because they

are readily available in good quantity at moderate

prices. Despite the many species growing in most

areas of the Caribbean, relatively few are produced

in commercial quantities. As a result, some woods

are used for certain purposes only, because other

timbers better qualified for those uses are not

readily available. Nevertheless, the local acceptance of a timber for any specific use over a long

period indicates reasonably good service given for

that purpose.

SUPPLY

The paragraph on supply in each timber description is based largely on information furnished by

interested governments in the Caribbean area.

This in no way implies that the timbers are not

available from other Central and South American

countries. Countries or areas having exportable

quantities of the different timbers are listed in

this section. Moderate quantities of some timbers

many become available from certain other Caribbean islands and countries as the export demand

develops, but these are not listed as exportable at

this time.
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 21

TABLE 9.—Present and potential uses for Garihhean timbers based on their physical and mechanical

properties and accepted uses

AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS

Angélique Gronfoeloe Purpleheart Tatabu

Balata Kopie Roble Tonka

Bethabara Kurokai Santa-maria Tauroniro

Bullhoof Mora Sara Wamara

Bustic Parakusan Suradan Yokewood

Courbaril Pine, Caribbean Tabebuia, white

BENT PARTS OR ITEMS

Balata

Courbaril

Determa

Kopie

Manni

Nargusta

Tatabu

Tonka

BOAT AND SHIP CONSTRUCTION

Keel and Underwater Structural Parts

Angélique Greenheart, Demerara i Pine, Caribbean Wacapou

Aromata Kauta Purpleheart Yokewood

Bagasse Kautaballi Santa-maria

Balata Kopie Suradan

Bethabara Lignumvitae Tabebuia, white

Bois griig Manbarklak ^ Tatabu

CourJbaril Marish Teak

Determa Mora Tonka

Frames and Timbers

Angelin Determa Pine, Caribbean Tauroniro

Angélique Greenheart, Demerara Purpleheart Teak

Aromata Mahoe Roble Tonka

Bagasse Manni Santa-maria Wamara

Balata Mora Suradan Yokewood

Bethabara Nargusta Tabebuia, white

Courbaril Pakuri Tatabu

Planking

Angélique

Bagasse

Cedar, Central American

Courbaril

Determa

Mahogany, Honduras

Nargusta

Pine, Caribbean

Roble

Saman

Santa-maria

Tabebuia, white

Teak

Decking

Angélique

Bagasse

Courbaril

Nargusta

Purpleheart

Roble

Tabebuia, white

Teak

Wacapou

Finish and Trim

Cedar, Central American

Courbaril

Crabwood

Mahogany, Honduras

Mahogany, West Indies

Purpleheart

Rosewood

Santa-maria

BOXES AND CRATES

Baboen

Banak

Baromalli

Crabwood

Dukali

Encens

Gommier

Gumbo-Hmbo

Haiari

Hura

Inyak

Kereti silverballi

Kwarie

Manni

Manniballi

Pakuri

Pine, Caribbean

Podocarp

Roble

Simarouba

Sterculia

Yemeri

See footnote at end of table.
22 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

FRAME CONSTRUCTION

Framing Members for WallSj Floors, Roofs, etc.

Angelin Determa

Angélique Dukali

Aromata Gommier

Bagasse Gronfoeloe

Baromalli Gumbo-limbo

Bois gris Haiari

Broadleaf Kereti silverballi

BuUetwood [Bustic] Kopie

BuUhoof Kurokai

Cedar, C. A. Kwarie

Courbaril Mahoe

Crabwood Manni

Manniballi Simarouba

Marish Sterculia

Mora Suradaû

Nargusta Tabebuia, white

Fine, Caribbean Tatabu

Podocarp Tauroniro

Purpleheart Teak

Résolu Wacapou

Roble Wallaba

Saman Wamara

Santa-maria Yokewood

Sara

Exterior Siding, Sheathing, and Other Exposed Uses

Angélique Gumbo-limbo

Aromata Haiari

Baromalli Inyak

Broadleaf Kereti silverballi

Cedar, C. A. Kwarie

Crabwood Manni

Determa Manniballi

Dukali Mora

Gommier Nargusta

Pine, Caribbean

Podocarp

Purpleheart

Résolu

Roble

Saman

Santa-maria

Simarouba

Sterculia

Inside Sheathing

COOPERAGE, SLACK

Suradan

Tabebuia, white

Tatabu

Tauroniro

Teak

Wallaba

Yemen

Yokewood

Baboen Dukali Kopie Santa-maria

Banak Gommier Kurokai Simarouba

Baromalli Gumbo-limbo Manni Sterculia

Broadleaf Haiari Manniballi Suradan

Cedar, C. A. Hura Nargusta Tabebuia, white

Crabwood Inyak Pine, Caribbean Yemeri

Determa Kereti silverballi Résolu

HEAVY CONSTRUCTION (general)

Angelin Courbaril Manbarklak Tatabu

Angélique Crabwood Manni Tauroniro

Aromata Dakama Marish Teak

Bagasse Determa Mora Tonka

Balata Greenheart, Demerara Pakuri Wacapou

Bethabara Gronfoeloe Pine, Caribbean Wallaba

Bois gris Kauta Roble Wamara

BuUhoof Kautaballi Santa-maria Yokewood

Bustic Kopie * Suradan

Baboen

COOPERAGE, TIGHT

Angélique

Baromalli

Broadleaf

Determa

Manni

Pakuri

Tauroniro

Wallaba
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 23

FURNITURE AND CABINETWORK

First Grade

Angelin Crabwood Mahoe Saman

Angélique Determa Mahogany, Honduras Santa-maria

Baboen Encens Mahogany, W. I. Tabebuia, white

Bagasse Gommier Manni Tatabu

Balata Gronfoeloe Marblewood Tauroniro

Banak Hura Nargusta Teak

Bethabara Kopie Purpleheart Wacapou

Cedar, C. A. Kurokai Roble Wamara

Courbaril Magnolia Rosewood, Honduras Yokewood

Utility Grade

Baromalli

Dukali

Kereti silverballi

Kwarie

Manniballi

Podocarp

Simarouba

Yemen

FLOORING

Angélique Gronfoeloe Mora Tabebuia, white

Aromata Hura Nargusta Tatabu

Balata Kopie Pine, Caribbean Teak

Bethabara Magnolia Purpleheart Tonka

Broadleaf Ma loe Résolu Wacapou

Courbaril Manni Roble Yokewood

Crabwood Manniballi Santa-maria

Greenheart, Demerara Marblewood Sara

INTERIOR TRIM AND FINISH

Angélique Determa Kurokai Purpleheart

Baboen Encens Magnolia Roble

Banak Gommier Mahoe Rosewood, Honduras

Baromalli Gronfoeloe Mahogany, Honduras Saman

Broadleaf Gumbo-limbo Mahogany, W. I. Santa-maria

Cedar, C. A. Haiari Manni Simarouba

Courbaril Hura Manniballi Tabebuia, white

Crabwood Kereti silverballi Marblewood Teak

Yokewood

INSTRUMENTS

Bethabara

Nargusta

Podocarp

Purpleheart

Rosewood, Honduras

Simarouba

Wamara

MARINE PILING AND CONSTRUCTION (UNDERWATER)

Teredo Infested Waters ^

Angélique

Bois gris

Rustic

Determa

Greenheart, Demerara

Kauta

Kautaballi

Manbarklak

Marish

Pine, Caribbean (with

treatment)

Suradan

Wacapou

Nonteredo Waters

Angelin

Angélique 2

Aromata

Bagasse 2

Balata

Bethabara

Bois gris 2

Bullhoof

Bustic

Courbaril

Determa ^

Greenheart, Demerara ^

Gronfoeloe

Kauta 2

Kautaballi 2

Kopie

Manbarklak 2

Manni

Marish

Mora

Pakuri

Pine, Caribbean

Santa-maria

Suradan 2

Tatabu

Tauroniro

Teak

Tonka

Wacapou 2

Wallaba

Wamara

Yokewood

See footnotes at end of table.
24 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

MARINE AND BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION (ABOVE WATER)

Angélique Courbaril Manni Tauroniro

Aromata Crabwood Mora Teak

Bagasse Dakama Nargusta Tonka

Balata Determa Pine, Caribbean Wacapou

Wallaba Bethabara Greenheart, Demerara Purpleheart

Bois gris

Bustle

Gronfoeloe Santa-maria Wamara

Kopie Suradan Yokewood

Manbarklak Tatabu

MILLWORK

Angélique DukaU Magnolia Roble

Baboen Encens Mahoe Saman

Banak Gommier Mahogany, Honduras Santa-maria

Baromalli Gronfoeloe Mahogany, W.I. Simarouba

Broadleaf Haiari Manni Sterculia

Cedar, C.A. Hura Manniballi Tabebuia, white

Gourbaril Inyak Pine, Caribbean Teak

Crabwood Kereti silverballi Podocarp

Determa Kurokai Purpleheart

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

Balata Mahogany, Honduras Rosewood, Honduras Wamara

Cedar, C. A. Mahogany, W.I. Simarouba

Courbaril Purpleheart Snakewood

PATTERNMAKING

Cedar, C.A. Mahogany, Honduras Podocarp Simarouba

Gumbo-limbo Mahogany, W.I. Saman

POSTS AND SHORT POLES

Angelin Courbaril Manni Suradan

Angélique Determa Mora Tatabu

Bagasse Greenheart, Demerara Nargusta Teak

Balata Haiari Pine, Caribbean Tonka

Bethabara Kopie Résolu Wacapou

Bois gris Mahoe Roble Wallaba

Bustic Mahogany, Honduras Sam^-n Wamara

Cedar, C.A. Manbarklak Santa-maria

SHINGLES

Broadleaf Gommier Santa-maria Yokewood

Cedar, C.A. Mahoe Simarouba

Crabwood Roble Wallaba

SPORTING AND ATHLETIC ITEMS

Bagasse Bethabara Parakusan Snakewood

Balata Courbaril Purpleheart Tabebuia, white

Balsa Greenheart, Demerara Roble Tonka

Baromalli Lignumvitae Rosewood, Honduras

TOOL HANDLES

Balata Courbaril Roble Tatabu

Baromalli Parakusan Rosewood, Honduras Tonka

Bethabara Purpleheart Tabebuia, white Wamara
Balata

Bethabara

COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN

TURNING

UTILITY POLES

Bulletwood [Bustic]

Manbarklak

Pine, Caribbean

Suradan

25

Angelin Greenheart, Demerara Pakuri Tatabu Balata Lignumvitae Parakusan Tonka Bethabara Mahogany, Honduras Purpleheart Wamara Bullhoof Mahogany, W.I. Roble

Courbaril Marblewood Rosewood, Honduras

Crabwood Nargusta Snakewood

Wallaba

VENEER AND PLYWOOD

Decorative

Utility Grade

Angelin Gommier Nargusta Tabebuia, white

Baboen Gumbo-limbo Purpleheart Tauroniro

Banak Hura Roble Tonka

Cedar, C.A. Kurokai Rosewood, Honduras Wacapou

Courbaril Mahogany, Honduras Saman

Crabwood Mahogany, W.I. Santa-maria

Determa Manni Suradan

Baromalli

Bullhoof

Dukali

Gronfoeloe

Haiari

Inyak

Kereti silverballi

Kopie

Kwarie

Manniballi

Pakuri

Pine, Caribbean

Podocarp

Simarouba

Yemeri

Core Stock

Baboen

Banak

Cedar, C.A.

Crabwood

Gumbo-limbo

Haiari

Hura

Inyak

Kereti silverballi

Kwarie

Podocarp

Simarouba

Yemeri

^ Timbers with known resistance to marine borers. Other timbers require preservative treatment for optimum use.

2 Also suitable for use in teredo infested waters because of varying degrees of resistance to marine borers.
TIMBER DESCRIPTIONS

ANGELIN

Andira inermis, Andira spp.

Nomenclature.—Angelin is the preferred trade

name for the timber from several species of Andira

growing in the American tropics of which A. inermis (W. Wright) H. B. K. {A. jamaicensis (W.

Wright) Urban) is the best known and most

widely distributed. Other species sold as angelin

are principally A, coriácea Pulle, A. racemosa

LiSim., A. surinamemis (Bondt) Splitg. (A.retusa

H. B. K.), and A. loachenheimii R. Ben. Angelin

is a close relative of the rosewoods, paduks, and

tonka. (Legume family, Leguminosae.-)

The timber is usually known as angelin in the

West Indies islands of Guadeloupe, Dominica,

Martinique, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Grenada,

Trinidad, and other islands in the Lesser Antilles.

It is commonly called koraro or batseed in British

Guiana, rode kabbes in Surinam, moca in Puerto

Rico, yaba in Cuba, and St. Martin in French

Guiana. This wood has been imported into the

United States under the trade names of cabbage

angelin, partridge wood, and cabbage bark. In

England it is known as angelin and also incorrectly as partridgewood, a name used also for

Vouacapoua and more correctly applied to species

of Oaesalpinia. Other common names used in the

Caribbean area include pheasant wood, corn wood,

almendro, chapemo, cuja, quira, quinillo, macaya,

and almendro colorado.

Distribution and habitat.—Angelin occurs

throughout the West Indies and on the continent

from southern Mexico through Central America

to northern South America and Brazil. The genus

is also represented in West Africa. Andira inermis is the principal species in the West Indies, although the closely related A, racemosa grows in

Martinique and Guadeloupe and possibly other

areas. In the Guianas the principal timber species

are A. coriácea^ A. inermis^ and A. surinamensis

{18,60,231).

Angelin is not exacting as to rainfall or soil

conditions in most locations. It is a very common

tree on many sites in Cuba, Trinidad, and other

West Indies islands, but in the Guianas it generally occurs only in swamp and marsh forests.

In Trindad it is a rare to occasional tree on a

variety of sites from the dry acurel-moussara

forests to the inundated crappo-roseau type {207,

166,82,231),

The tree.—The trees are evergreen, unbuttressed with flat rounded crowns, and often adventitious shoots. The trunk presents a ragged

appearance due to its loose, black-colored, malodorous bark. In British Guiana under good conditions, Andira surinamensis and A. inermis

frequently attain a diameter of 60 inches. Diameters of 20 to 28 inches, heights of 90 to 120 feet,

and clear boles 60 to 70 feet long are not uncommon. However, the trees are usually somewhat

shorter and of only moderately good form {82).

In Trinidad, angelin grows to a diameter of 40

inches but seldom has good form {166).

The wood.—Varying somewhat between species

and localities, the wood is generally hard, heavy,

coarse textured, with straight to slightly irregular

grain. The narrow sapwood is pale brown to

grayish yellow and usually clearly demarcated

from the yellowish-brown to dark reddish-brown

heartwood. The heartwood resembles somewhat

the color of the darker type of Honduras mahogany. Dark wavy belts of growth, crossed by

very definite, fine, and strong medullary rays are

visible on the cross-sectional surfaces. The pores

are large and fairly evenly distributed, sometimes

containing gummy deposits.

A distinct feature of the wood is the soft tissue

that appears on the end grain as wavy bands

linking the large pores. On the flat surface of a

plainsawed board, these lighter wavy bands alternate between darker fiber bands giving a palmlike

appearance similar to partridge wood. This feature gives the wood its high figure and very decorative appearance. The wood generally has rather

low luster due to the abundant parenchyma; it is

also somewhat fissile {190, IJfS, 231). Seasoned

wood has no noticeable odor or taste.

Weight.—Air-dry wood is reported to weigh 59

pounds per cubic foot in Surinam {231) and 45 to

60 pounds in British Guiana {82). Wood from

Puerto Rico weighs 47 pounds per cubic foot

when air-dry and 74 pounds when green. Specific

gravity based on green volume and ovendry weight

averages 0.63 in Puerto Rico.

Seasoning.—^Angelin air-seasons at a moderate

rate and under normal care develops only slight

degrade during the seasoning period {163, 11).

However, during the early stages of drying, the

sapwood is very susceptible to discoloration by

sap-stain fungi.

Shrinkage.—Shrinkage from green to ovendry

is commensurate with the wood's density, amounting to 3.6 percent radially, 7.1 percent tangen27
28 TJ.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

tially, and 10.6 percent in volume. Shrinkage

from green to air-dry would amount to half these

values. In comparison with white mora and

dukaliballi, which are similar in weight, angelin

has roughly twice their radial movement in response to atmospheric changes, about equal tangential movement, a somewhat lower longitudinal

movement, and an overall volumetric change about

25 percent greater than either species {176^ 231).

On this basis, angelin is a somewhat unstable wood

when used where the relative humidity varies

considerably.

Mechanical properties.—Pfeiffer's calculations

of the allowable stresses for Surinam timbers

{176) shows Andira coriácea comparing very

favorably with wallaba, mora, kopie, and other

woods of similar density. It can be assumed that

the other species of Andira also have good

strength properties.

Working properties.—^Angelin saws and works

fairly well except that it is difficult to plane to a

smooth surface because of the alternating bands

of hard and soft tissue. Even using sharp cutting

edges, a fine ridgy appearance commonly results.

This surface, called raised grain, is usually eliminated in the final sanding. The wood works well

in the lathe, takes nails and screws well, and glues

satisfactorily. But the surface lacks luster after

planing and sanding because of the large amount

of soft tissue. This soft tissue also absorbs polish

more readily than, the hard fiber tissue and may

cause some difficulty in French polishing. However, the wood is generally reported to finish

smoothly (135,231,153).

Durability.—^The heartwood of Andira surinamensis is rated about as resistant to the dry-wood

termite as West Indies mahogany, while A. im,-

ermis rates somewhat below Honduras mahogany

in this respect (263). However, the sapwood is

often attacked by pinhole borers and is not resistant to termites. It is considered highly durable in water and resistantto decay in contact with

the soil. Field tests in Surinam indicate A,

coriácea posts will last 15 years in contact with

moist soil and exposed to all influences in the temperate zone and at least 5 years under unfavorable

conditions in the low countries of the tropics (175,

231). A, inermis, the moca of Puerto Rico, was

found to be moderately resistant to marine borers

in Hawaiian waters (76).

Data on silica content, which is often closely

associated with marine borer resistance, are not

available for these species. However, the closely

related species Andira sunnamensis from British

Guiana, which contains only 0.03 percent silica by

weight, is considered a nonsiliceous timber (l^).

Uses.—^Angelin is used locally for heavy construction, bridge timbers, house framing, and

sheathing. Because of its high figure and attractive coloration, it is best suited for turned items,

furniture, billiard cue butts, and cabinetwork.

The wood has no resonance, making it particularly

suitable for radio and television cabinets and other

similar uses. Small amounts have been imported

into England for many years where it is used for

umbrella handles, walking sticks, police truncheons, and other turned products. It is suitable

for piling in nonteredo waters and has been recommended for plywood and veneer because of its

attractive and unusual appearance.

Supply.—Commercial supplies of this timber

are available in the Guianas and Cuba, and possibly in limited quantities from other West Indies

islands.

ANGELIQUE

Diccyyynia guianensis

Angélique is not only in plentiful supply, but

also possesses more than the usual number oi valuable mechanical properties in addition to its attractive appearance, good working qualities, and

resistance to decay, insects, and marine borers.

Consequently, the timber is suitable for a wide

range of uses; it has been used extensively to replace greenheart and manbarklak in the underwater parts of the Panama Canal.

Nomenclature.—Dicorynia guianensis Amsh.

has also been known as D. paraensis Benth. Two

distinct types of angelique wood are recognized,

angelique rouge and angelique gris. Angelique

rouge is darker in color than angelique gris but

has the same physical and mechanical properties.

(Legume family, Leguminosae.)

The wood is commonly known as basralocus or

basra locus in Surinam and angelique or ébène

rouge in French Guiana. A frequent substitute

for teak, the timber is also called teck de la

Guyane.

Distribution and habitat.—Angelique is one of

the most common trees within its range in French

Guiana and Surinam, but it does not extend into

other parts of the GuianEis and lower Amazon

Basin. It is particularly abundant in eastern

Surinam and western French Guiana, where it

comprises up to 10 percent of the forest stands.

The tree thrives best in deep, loamy, well-drained

soils of the lowland plains but is also found in

wetter areas. In Surinam it is most plentiful

in the transition zone between the rain and savanna

forests {231 ). Angelique rouge is more abundant

than angelique gris, which is a comparatively rare

tree within its range and of minor commercial

importance.

The tree.—Angelique is a large, well-formed,

heavy buttressed tree, reaching a maximum height

of 150 feet and a diameter up to 5 feet on the best

sites. Piling 40 to 60 feet long and timbers 1 to

2 feet square and 30 feet in length are commonly

available {71).

The wood.—The sapwood of angelique rouge

has a reddish cast and is sharply demarcated from

the heartwood. The heartwood is a russet color
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 29

when first cut, turning on exposure to a lustrous

brown, often with a distinct reddish cast (i^).

A pattern resembling walnut is often visible on

flat-sawed or side-grain surfaces due to the

prominence of vessels. Growth layers are indistinct, texture is medium, and the grain usually

straight. No distinctive odor or taste is present

in seasoned wood. The surface luster is very low,

but an unusual golden subsurface luster is evident

{190).

Weight.—^Wood from Surinam showed a specific gravity of 0.60, based on green volume and

ovendry weight, in tests at Yale University {71),

The specific gravity of air-dry timber averaged

about 0.72 in the Yale tests. On this basis, air-dry

wood averages about 45 pounds per cubic foot and

67 pounds when green at 79 percent moisture content.

Seasoning.—The timber is considered moderately difficult to season but seasons rapidly {118).

It has some tendency to split and check and to

warp slightly during seasoning. Thick stock

develops severe casehardening. Close piling in

air-drying and the use of low temperature kiln

schedules are recommended as possible means of

correcting this difficulty.

Shrinkage.—^Angélique undergoes about the

same shrinkage as red oak and hard maple and

about twice the rate of teak, which it so closely

resembles in mechanical properties. It has a volumetric shrinkage of 14.0 percent from green to

ovendry, which is intermediate to that of maple

and red oak ; its radial and tangential shrinkages

of 4.6 percent and 8.2 percent, respectively, are also

comparable to those of red oak and hard maple.

Shrinkage from green to air-dry amounts to about

half these values. The wood is relatively stable

when in use, as changes in moisture content are

accompanied by moderate rates of swelling or

shrinkage. The heartwood is quite resistant to

absorption of moisture and is comparable in this

respect to white oak.

Mechanical properties.—In the green condition, angelique is similar to teak in most strength

properties and clearly superior to white oak. Itis

about equal to the average for timbers of similar

density in bending strength, elastic resilience,

hardness, compression across the grain, shear, and

toughness. It is above average in stiffness and in

work to maximum load, slightly above average in

crushing strength, but falls slightly below the

average in tension across the grain and cleavage

resistance.

Tests at Yale University report the following

results for green angelique from Surinam {71) :

"Comparison of the data shows a distinct margin

of superiority over oak in bending properties except for work to maximum load in which the two

species are nearly identical. Angelique is almost

50 percent stiffer than oak. Crushing strength is

also notably higher than for oak, but smaller and

sometimes insignificant differences exist for the

remaining properties. The comparison with teak

is quite consistent throughout, indicative of the

similarity of the two woods from a mechanical

standpoint."

In the air-dry condition, angelique is superior to

teak in all mechanical properties except tension

perpendicular to the grain. Itis superior to white

oak in static-bending properties, compression

parallel to the grain, and end hardness; comparable in shock resistance, side hardness, and

compression across the grain ; and inferior to white

oak m shear, tension across the grain, and cleavage

resistance.

Working properties.—The working qualities

vary according to the density and silica content

but are generally rated as satisfactory. The wood

finishes smoothly, splits easily, glues moderately

well, and holds its place well under changes in atmospheric conditions.

Durability.—The wood was rated durable to

very durable in resistance to a white-rot fungus,

and durable to a brown-rot fungus in pure culture

tests at Yale University {2Jf9). This is in agreement with other reports thatthe timber is resistant

to very resistant to decay {231). Generally, it is

considered highly resistant to all insects but not

as resistant to marine borers as angelique gris.

However, Wolcott {263) rates the wood only moderately resistant to the West Indies dry-wood

termite.

The wood called angelique but probably angelique gris has been used extensively to replace Deinerara greenheart in the lock gates in the Panama

Canal, where it is reported to be considerably

more resistant to marine borers infesting brackish

water than Demerara greenheart or teak {188^

2Ji7)^ but not as resistant as manbarklak. Timbers exposed for 15 years in the heavily infested

waters at Balboa in the Canal Zone have undergone only insignificant teredo attack.

Kesults of recent published tests at the U.S.

Forest Products Laboratory in Madison, Wis.,

showed angelique gris to contain 1.31 percent silica

as compared to 0.61 percent in angelique rouge

and 0.77 percent in angelique blanc, a form of

angelique rouge.

Uses.—High resistance to decay and moderate

resistance to damage by marine borers as well as

its very good strength properties make angelique

highly acceptable in marine construction for piling, poles, posts, and other similar uses where

teredo are not a major factor. The wood is commonly used for construction purposes, bridge flooring, boat framing, carriage work, and crossties.

To a limited extent, it is also used for furniture,

barrel staves, and parquet strips and blocks. Because of small radial shrinkage, quartersawed

material is considered suitable for flooring and

for boat decks, frames, planking and miUwork,

general building construction, and agricultural

596544 0-62—3
30 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

implements. For many years, small quantities

have been exported to Europe, England, and the

United States.

Supply.—The timber is in good supply. With

the exception of wallaba, it is the most plentiful

timber in Surinam. In French Guiana, angelique

composes about 10 percent of the stand in the

western part of the colony {91). The supply is

sufficient to fill all export requirements of the near

future.

AROMATA

Clathrotropis macrocarpa, Clathrotropis hrachypetala

Nomenclature.—The aromata timber of British Guiana is supplied by two relatively littleknown species, Clathrotropis macrocarva Ducke

and G. Irachypétala (Tul.) Kleinh. Ö, hrachypetala is also known as blackheart or mayaro

poui in Trinidad and G, macrocarva as cabary,

cabari, cabory, timbó pau, and timbo rana in Brazil. Both species have, at times, been included in

the genus Diplotropis {190). (Legume family,

Leguminosae.)

Distribution and habitat.—Both trees are native to British Guiana {82) with Glathrotropis

hrachypetala extending into Trinidad {165)^ Grenada {18), Surinam, and Venezuela, and G. niacrocarpa having extensive distribution in Brazil and

reaching Colombia. Another species, G. nítida

(Benth.) Harms, commonly called acapû, occurs

in Brazil {190) and Venezuela and might also

grow in British Guiana and other areas.

Aromata is generally distributed throughout

British Guiana as an occasional tree in the rain

and mora forests {82). Glathrotropis hrachypetala is an abundant tree in the mora forests of

Trinidad, often exceeded only by Mora excelsa

Benth. in numbers of large trees. The trees

stand inundation in swampy areas and thrive on

hillsides having a high rainfall, but do not occur

in dry sites or m areas of low precipitation {165),

The tree.—The trees are unbuttressed but basally swollen, and usually 16 to 20 inches in diameter and 90 to 100 feet tall in British Guiana.

The main stem is usually clear for 40 to 50 feet

and often somewhat flattened {82). Glathrotropis hrachypetala is a very large tree in Trinidad, often attaining a diameter of 4 to 5 feet

but generally not more than 80 to 90 feet in

height. The grayish-brown bark is not fissured,

and is fairly smooth and corky textured, with

a whitish underbark that rapidly darkens on exposure {165).

The wood.—The sapwood is thick, sharply defined, and yellowish to brownish white. The

heartwood is pinkish brown to dark brown with

lighter streaks due to ih^ prominent vessel lines.

It is straight grained, nonlustrous, and coarse

textured with a harsh feel but a waxy appearance.

The wood is odorless and tasteless when seasoned.

It is hard, heavy, tough, and strong but is not

very attractive in comparison to many other tropical American woods {U2, 179, 190, 82). ^ Weight.—Aromata from British Guiana weighs

from 62 to 75 pounds per cubic foot air-dry

with a specific gravity of 1.00 to 1.20 based on

air-dry volume and weight {50). Glathrotropis

hrachypetala from Trinidad is reported to average 62 pounds per cubic foot air-dry {165).

Seasoning and shrinkage.—Information is

lacking on seasoning and shrinkage of aromata.

However, its high density indicates it may be

somewhat difficult to season, although the generally straight grain is a favorable factor.

Mechanical properties.—^Detailed strength

tests for aromata are lacking, but it is generally

reported to be a very hard, tough strong wood

and, according to Marshall, is difficult to split

under vertical compression {190,82,165,179, U2).

Working properties.—The wood is considered

only moderately difficult to work, finishes

smoothly, and takes a high polish.

Durability.—The timber is moderately resistant

to decay in contact with the ground and moderately resistant to subterranean termites {39) and

probably has moderate to low resistance to marine

borers. The silica content, which is often associated with high resistance to attack by marine

borers {lli), is reported at only 0.01 percent.

Uses.—In Trinidad the wood is preferred for

oil-derrick substructures because of its high density, hardness, and resistance to splitting. ^ It

should be well suited for heavy construction,

piling in nonteredo areas, boatbuilding, bridge

timbers, and other uses requiring a heavy, hard,

strong wood where high resistance to decay or

insects is not important.

Supply.—British Guiana and Trinidad can supply aromata for export.

BABOEN and BANAK

Viróla surinamensis. Viróla \oschnyi

Nomenclature.—^Both banak and baboen lumber and plywood are the product of two very

closely related species of Virola. Banak plywood

and lumber have been exported from Central

America and the Guianas to the United States for

at least 30 years. More recently, a new plywood

industry in Surinam has produced the baboen

plywood of widespread use in the Caribbean and

the United States {50, 226). (Nutmeg family,

Myristicaceae.)

The principal difference between the well-known

banak plywood and lumber and the newer baboen

plywood appears to be not a matter of quality

but of species. Banak plywood and lumber has

principally been the product of Virola leoschnyi

Warb., formerly known as V. merendonis Pittier.

The new baboen plywood industry in Surinam
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 31

uses largely F. survnamensis (Eol.) Warb, combined With small quantities of F. koschnyi and

bearing the local Surinam name of baboen for

the principal species. Banak may often contain

varying amounts of baboen (F. surinamensis),

Small quantities of F. sebifera Aubl., locally

known in Surinam as Hoogland balDoen or

pientrie and F. melinonii (R. Ben.) A. C. Smith,

also known as Hoogland baboen, may also be

used. Both species are reported to be very closely

related to baboen but less preferred in the plywood industry {231).

Virola surinamensis is known by the following

names: dalli in British Guiana; guinguamadou,

yamamadou in French Guiana; baboen, banak,

moonba in Surinam ; cajuca, wild nutmeg in Trinidad; cuajo, camaticaro in Venezuela; becuiba,

ucuuba in Brazil; muscadier à grive and nutlet in

French West Indies.

Distribution and habitat.—Banak {Virola

koschnyi) ranges from British Honduras and

Guatemala to Panama. Baboen (F. surinamensis) grows in some of the southern West Indies

from Guadeloupe to Grenada and Trinidad and

Tobago, and on the continent in the Guianas, Venezuela, and the Amazon region of northern Brazil.

Other closely related species of limited commercial

value in the Caribbean area include the following :

F. guatemalensis (Hemsl.) Warb., growing m

extreme southern Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras,

Costa Eica, and Panama ; and F. sebifera^ which

ranges from Nicaragua through northern South

America as far as Peru, Bolivia, and southern

Brazil (PP,iPÖ).

Both baboen and banak are . moisture-loving

trees. Baboen is very common in the swamp and

marsh forests of Surinam, though somewhat less

abundant in the latter {231). It is a frequent

to locally common tree throughout British Guiana

in the riparian, mora, and marsh forests {82)^

and is extremely abundant in the low inundable

islands of the Amazon estuary of Brazil, where it

represents the majority of the larger trees {2^8),

Baboen occurs in Trinidad as a rare to occasional

tree in all forest types except the swampy areas,

where it sometimes approaches being "locally

frequent" (i(^5).

Banak is reported to grow on all types of soils

in Guatemala {191). According to Lamb {150)^

it is a frequent tree on sandy soils in the Karst

country and in the eastern valleys of the Central

Mountains of British Honduras, and attains a

concentration of 5 (trees) per acre with % over

6 feet in girth in the best cohune forest in the

Stann Creek district.

The tree.—Baboen and banak are heavily buttressed, flat-crowned trees of the upper canopy.

They are medium to large trees, attaining under

favorable conditions heights up to 140 feet and

diameters of 5 feet, but usually they are much

shorter and only 2 to 3 feet in diameter {165.^ 2Jiß^

191). The boles are generally cylindrical and,

according to Fanshawe {82)^ clear of limbs for

60 to 80 feet in British Guiana. In British Honduras, banak is reported to have clear cylindrical

boles for more than two-thirds of the total height,

often some 70 feet or more {150).

The seeds of all species of Virola are rich in an

oil used for making candles and soap. Large

quantities of the oil are used by industries in the

Para district of Brazil, and considerable amounts

are exported for similar uses in other countries.

Cut or wounded trees exude a blood-red watery

latex which is similar to the kino of commerce

but apparently has not become an export item.

The wood.—The woods of banak and baboen

are very similar in appearance and physical

properties. Both woods resemble some of the

light-colored mahoganies for which they are being

substituted in ever-increasing amounts. The

freshly cut heartwood and sapwood are indistinguishable ; both have the same cream to tan color.

The heartwood darkens on exposure and drying,

becoming a pinkish, golden brown, or deep reddish

brown, and can be distinguished from the lighter

colored sapwood. The wood has straight grain,

medium to coarse texture, and low luster. Growth

rings are not distinguishable. Seasoned wood has

no characteristic odor or taste.

Weight.—The specific gravity based on green

volume and ovendry weight is reported by Yale

University {24S) to be 0.42 for baboen and 0.44 for

banak. The specific gravity of air-dry wood (12

percent moisture content), based on volume and

weight in that condition, averages about 0.51 for

baboen and 0.53 for banak. On this basis, baboen

weights about 32 and banak 33 pounds per cubic

foot when air-dry. The weight of green wood

of both species is about 51 pounds per cubic foot

{15,265,2Jfl).

Seasoning.—Care is required to prevent fungal

growth and severe staining during seasoning,

which requires early piling for air-seasoning or

kiln-drying after conversion. Studies at Yale

University {21^8) found the wood was easy^ to

season with only slight warping and casehardening

occurring during rapid drying. Other reports

{150, 265, 222) describe the timber as having a

strong tendency to cup and for material over 2

inches thick to retain its moisture despite rapid

surface drying. This condition, plus a high

shrinkage ratio and a strong tendency to split

radially, is said to necessitate careful handling

during seasoning to avoid excessive distortion,

deep checking, and splitting. Kiln Schedule 4 of

the Forest Products Kesearch Laboratory m

England is recommended {222).

Shrinkage.—Both baboen and banak undergo

unusually high shrinkage during seasoning—including an exceedingly large tangential shrinkage. Baboen shrinkage values from green to ovendry of 5.3 percent radially, 12.4 tangentially, and

17.6 volumetrically {248) are considerably above

corresponding values of 4.0, 7.1, and 12.3, respec-
32 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

tively, for American whitewood and 3.5, 4.8, and

7.7 percent, respectively, for Honduras mahogany

{ISO), Banak has very comparable shrinkage

values of 3.0 percent radially and 9.0 percent

tangentially from green to air-dry (12 percent

moisture content) {222)^ which would amount to

approximately 4.8 and 13.4 percent, respectively,

when converted to a green to ovendry basis. The

abnormally high ratio of tangential to radial

shrinkage of both woods is a major factor in the

tendency for distortion during seasoning.

Mechanical properties.—Mechanical tests have

been conducted on baboen {Virola sminamensis)

from Brazil at Yale University {2JiS) and on

banak {Virola koschnyi) from Central America

by the Forest Products Research Laboratory in

London {15), On the basis of these independent

tests, banak is slightly stronger than baboen. The

very slight superiority of banak is more or less

in proportion to the difference in weight, although

baboen is considerably stiffer and slightly superior

to banak in static bending and work to maximum

load (shock).

In the air-dry condition, both banak and baboen

are somewhat superior to yellow-poplar or American whitewood [Liriodenäron tulipífera) in bending strength and gradually applied loads but

somewhat inferior to that species in shock loads

and crushing strength. Both woods are superior

to Honduras mahogany {Swietenia macrophylla)

in stiffness and shock resistance, but except for

banak's superiority in shear, they are below mahogany in the other strength properties tested.

However, both woods are strong enough to use as

substitutes for mahogany plywood.

Working properties.—Banak and baboen work

easily and very satisfactorily. The Forest Products Research Laboratory in London summarized

the working qualities of the lumber as follows:

"It cuts easily with hand and power saws and a

good surfa/ie is obtained with jack and smoothing

planes, both along and across the grain. Good

clear holes are readily obtained with brad, awl,

gimlet, center bit, and twist drill, without tendency to split. Nails and screws can be driven

into the woods easily without splitting it and hold

fairly well. It cuts with facility in a mortising

machine and works easily with gouge and chisel.

The wood turns satisfactorily, though the fibers

tear slightly, and a good finish is obtainable. It

absorbs glue well, can be stained without difficulty

to resemble mahogany fairly well and gives satisfactory results in polishing and varnishing. It

holds its place when manufactured, does not warp

or check, and is free from many knots and other

defects" {HI),

Recent tests at the U.S. Forest Products Laboratory, using %-inch clear lumber of Virola spp.,

showed the wood to have very good planing and

sanding properties but generally below the average of 14 other tropical hardwoods tested in other

machining properties {68), However, most of the

exported material is used as plywood, which nearly

200 furniture and millwork plants are using^ in

Puerto Rico without any noticeable machining

difficulties. The wood is reported to give some

difficulty in veneer and plywood production, but

this seems to have been overcome, judging from

the quality of plywood received in the export

markets.

Durability.—Both baboen and banak are not

resistant to decay, are very susceptible to attack

lÈ)y termites and other insects, and have little resistance to marine borers {82), Wolcott {263)

rates the resistance of baboen to termite attack

at 31, compared to 33 for balsa. Graveyard tests

in England {206)^ and durability tests at Yale

University {2JfS) and the Forest Products Laboratory in Madison {199) found the timber to be

nondurable. The tests at Madison were both with

posts set in soil and with pure laboratory cultures

of white-rot and brown-rot fungi; those at Yale

were of the latter only. These results verify many

other similar reports based on experience and observation. Graveyard tests in Trinidad showed

baboen to be very susceptible to both subterranean

termites and decay {89),

Logs are subject to severe damage by pinhole

borers (ambrosia), which can be controlled to some

extent by rapid extraction and conversion or by

storage of logs under water. Damage by sapstain and wood-destroying fungi may also be serious during shipment of logs. Two insecticides,

Tensol and OBD, have recently given almost complete protection for 6 weeks when sprayed on logs

immediately after felling {35), Seasoned lumber

is reported to be subject to attack by powder-post

beetles.

Preservation.—The timbers are easily impregnated with preservatives by either the open-tank

or pressure systems. Most of the insect, decay,

and sap-stain difficulties are presently being controlled in baboen by the use of chemicals in the

open-tank method at the time of manufacture.

Several waterborne preservatives have been successfuUv used for this purpose in British Guiana

{50),

Uses.—Baboen and banak are used mostly for

plywood, but are suitable in lumber form for many

uses requiring a light, easily worked, nondurable

timber. In some areas of the Caribbean, these

woods are rapidly replacing mahogany plywood

in the manufacture of furniture, millwork, cabinet

work, and for paneling and other decorative uses.

Plywood is exported to the United States, Central

America, northern South America, and throughout the West Indies.

The timbers are also used in Surinam for the

manufacture of boxes, crates, cigarboxes, coffins,

matches, and matchboxes. Baboen is used for

heavy-duty battery separators but is not suitable

for car batteries because of the mechanical failure of the thin sheets. The timbers have good

lasting qualities below water level and are ac-
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 33

cordingly used in Surinam far foundation boarding below water level. In British Guiana, the

timber is used for matchboxes, coffins, and inside

boarding. Other uses for which the timbers are

considered suitable in British Guiana are general

carpentry, concrete forms, slack cooperage, and

core stock in veneer.

Banak was imported into the United States in

the early "thirties" under the name of bastard

mahogany as a substitute for cedar in the manufacture of cigarboxes (226). The same species

was also imported from Guatemala and British

Honduras for use in veneer as early as 1926, and

possibly earlier (191). Baboen was found unsuitable for shingles in Trinidad because of the wooliness that occurred during cutting {201^).

Supply.—Baboen or banak plywood and lumber

are available from British Honduras, Surinam,

British Guiana, and possibly French Guiana.

BAGASSE

Bagassa guianensis, Bagcissa tiliaefólia

Nomenclature.—Bagassa guianensis Aubl. and

5. tiliaefolia (Desv.) E. Ben. are sold under the

trade name bagasse in the Guianas and as tatajuba

in Brazil. B, guianensis appears to be the best

known of the two species and provides most of

the information presented in this report. (Mulberry family, Moraceae.)

The wood is also known locally as cow-wood

in British Guiana, bagasse blanc and bagasse

jaune in French Guiana, and gele bagasse in

Surinam. Other well-known members of the family Moraceae are the iroko of West Africa, the

fig trees of the tropics, mulberry and Osageorange of the United States, and satine, fustic,

and letterwood of Central and South America

Distribution and habitat.—Bagassa guianensis

occurs infrequently in the Guianas and Brazilian

Amazon region, while B, tiliaefolia is reported to

occur only m British and French Guiana as scattered trees in the low upland forests. In British

Guiana, B, tiliaefolia is fairly numerous in the

near interior and Rupunumi district, but rare in

the rain and seasonal forest {82).

The tree.—Bagasse is a large, well-formed, unbuttressed canopy tree with a flat, unbrella-shaped

crown. The trees are generally 20 to 24 inches in

diameter, reaching 36 inches on occasion, and 90

to 100 feet in height. The bole is cylindrical and

60 to 70 feet high. The bark is fibrous and when

cut yields large quantities of a sweet, sticky latex.

The tree produces edible fruits about the size of an

orange, which are astringent but possess a pleasing

flavor {82).

The wood.—The heartwood is yellow when first

cut, often with darker streaks, becoming a lustrous

golden brown to russet after seasoning and exposure. The sapwood is narrow, sharply demarcated from the heartwood, and pale yellow to

yellowish white. The grain is medium to

moderately coarse and usually interlocked, presenting^ a rather broad striped figure on the radial

surface. Growth layers are indistinct. Odor

and taste are not evident in seasoned wood (71,82,

Weight.—Bagasse is a hard, heavy wood. The

specific gravity of air-dry wood at 12 percent

moisture content generally averages about 0.80.

The specific gravity based on green volume and

ovendry weight averages about 0.68 (0.62 to 0.71).

Weight per cubic foot averages 67 pounds in the

green condition and 50 pounds when air-dry (12

percent mosture content) (7i, 82).

Seasoning.—Bagasse seasons at a moderate rate

with only moderate checking and very little

tendency to warp. It is sometimes classed as

moderately difficult to season because of slowness

in drying. This seems to be an unjust criticism

of a timber which seasons slowly but with very

little degrade.

Shrinkage.—Bagasse undergoes exceptionally

low shrinkage for a wood of its density. Its

volumetric shrinkage of 10.2 percent from green

to ovendry is only two-thirds of the rate for white

oak and only slightly more than that for black

locust, which is noted for its dimensional stability.

The shrinkage rates of 5.2 percent radially and 6.6

percent tangentially are usually close, indicating

that bagasse should Season with a minimum of

warping and cupping. A low longitudinal

shrinkage of 0.09 percent may also be considered a

desirable factor that often accompanies favorable

seasoning Qualities. Shrinkage from green to airdry wouM pe about half the above values.

Mechanical properties.—The strength properties of bagasse in the green condition exceed those

of any well-known timber in the United States. '

Tests of Bagassa guianensis at Yale University

{HI, 2^) show that although only slightly heavier

than hickory, bagasse exceeds that species in all

properties for which comparable data are available, except work to maximum load in static bending. The margin of difference is particularly

prominent in elastic resilience, stiffness, and crushing strength. Bagasse is superior to white oak in

the greeti condition in all strength properties except tension across the grain and cleavage ; it also

exceeds teak in most strength properties {160,105)

by a considerable margin.

In the air-dry condition, bagasse compares

favorably with shagbark hickory in all staticbending properties except work to maximum load.

In this property, which is a measure of shock

resistance, hickory is nearly twice as strong.

Bagasse also exceeds oak in the air-dry condition

in all properties except work to maximum load

(shock resistance), shear tension across the gram,

and cleavage resistance.

Working properties.—Bagasse is easy to saw ;

difficult to split radially; it takes a high lustrous
34 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

finish and holds its place well after manufacture.

It lends itself well to natural bends for boat and

ship members. However, the wood is similar to

hickory in hardness and requires more energy to

machine than less dense woods {189).

Durability.—-The heartwood is reported to be

very durable in resistance to both white-rot and

brown-rot fungi and is slightly resistantto damage

by marine borers. Tests with small specimens of

bagasse submerged in the ocean at Harbor Island,

N.C., showed no evidence of attack by marine

borers during the first 10 months, but fairly heavy

attack after 15 months. All test specimens were

riddled at the end of 23 months and removed from

the test (55,249). Weathering characteristics are

considered poor ; numerous checks appear when

the wood is exposed without a surface covering

lises.—The wood is used locally for general

building purposes, heavy construction, carpentry,

furniture, and marine and boat construction. Itis

Srobably suitable for insulator pins, planking,

ecking and framing in boatbuilding, and for

furniture and cabinetwork. Because of its high

resilience, it may also be suitable for some types of

sporting equipment.

Supply.—The supply of bagasse is not large,

but French Guiana and British Guiana should be

able to fill a reasonably large export demand.

BALATA

ManilXara hidentata

Nomenclature.—Balata is presently known botanically as Manilkara hidentata (A. DC.) Chev.

but has at different times been classified as

Manilkara halata auth., M, darienensis (Pittier)

Standl., and M. nitida (Sesse & Moc.) Dubard,

and as Mimusops hidentata A. DC, M. halata

auth., M. halata var. cruegeri Pierre, Ü/. glohosa

Gaertn. f.. M, riedeleana Pierre, and M, nitida

(Sesse & Moc.) Urban. (Sapodilla family,

Sapotaceae.)

The timber is known by the names of bulletwood and bajata in British Guiana ; balata ; balata

rouge, and abeille in French Guiana; in Surinam

as balata, boUetrie, and paardevleeschout; and in

Brazil as massaranduba and maparajuba. It is

called purgo in Venezuela, quinilla and pamashto

in Peru, níspero in Panama, and ausubo in Puerto

Rico.

Several other closely related species of

Manilkara that occur in Central America and

northern South America and in the West Indies

are often confused with M, hidentata. According

to Record and Hess (190)., at least five other

species grow in the lower Amazon region of

Brazil, all large or very large trees known as massaranduba or maparajuba. The best of these for

durable construction is M, huheri (Ducke)

Standl., one of the species known as cow-tree or

milk-tree. Another species, M, jaimiqui (C.

Wright) Dubard {Mimusops emarginata (L.)

Britton, Aâhras emarginata (L.) Little), called

wild-dilly and wild sapodilla, occurs in Cuba,

Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, the Bahamas, and the

Florida Keys. The tree is seldom more than 12

inches in diameter and has no commercial importance.

Distribution and habitat.—Balata is native to

the West Indies, Central America, and northern

South America. It is widely distributed through

the Guianas and the West Indies, Trinidad,

Guadeloupe, Martinique, St. Vincent, Dominican

Republic, Puerto Rico, Grenada, St. Lucia, Dominica, and other smaller islands in the Caribbean.

The tree is also common in northern Brazil, Peru,

Venezuela, and Panama {18).

The tree occurs in many forest types but is best

adapted in the rain forests. It is not an exacting

species as to soil or topography, though it is more

common on the hills and seldom plentiful on cure

sands. It occurs on most geological formations

on soils varying from clays to sands, including

rocky soils, providing there is sufficient soil moisture {231., 165), In Trinidad, it occasionally

occurs in pure stands but is more often an occasional to locally common tree in the rain, marsh,

and seasonal forests {16Ji).

The tree.—Balata is commonly a large, wellformed tree reaching heights of 100 to 150 feet and

diameters of 2 to 4 feet and occasionally up to

6 feet or more. Buttresses are usually lacking

butthe tree is often basally swollen {82).

The wood.—Balata wood is extremely heavy

and hard. The heartwood is light red to rose red

when freshly cut, becoming light to dark reddish

brown upon seasoning. The sapwood is whitish or

pale brown ; it is distinct but not sharply demarcated from the heartwood. The wood has a fine

uniform texture without pronounced figure. The

grain is usually straight but sometimes interlocked.

Growth layers (not necessarily annual rings) are

not distinct. The wood sometimes has a characteristic odor when green, but neither odor nor

taste after seasoning (77, 82^ 231,1^3).

Weight.—The specific gravity of balata in the

air-dry condition averaged 0.89 in unpublished

tests at the Tropical Research Center m Puerto

Rico. According to tests at Yale University

(7i), the specific gravity based on green volume

and ovendry weight averages about 0.85 (0.77 to

0.91 ). Weight per cubic foot averages 76 pounds

in the green condition and around 64 pounds when

air-dry {82, 231,50,175).

Seasoning.—Balata is generally reported to be

a difficult wood to season, tending to develop

severe checking, warp, and casehardening {231,

163). However, when it is piled in a manner to

assure a slow^ rate of seasoning, degrade is kept
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 35

to a minimum. Still, 1-inch lumber air-seasoned

to 19 percent moisture content in 4 months under

cover m Puerto Rico ; a small amount of degrade

occurred in the form of very slight cup, twist and

crook, and slight bow, without apparent surface

checking.

Shrinkage.—Shrinkage rates for balata from

green to ovendry are slightly above the average

for other tropical American woods of similar density, but are only slij^htly greater than those for

white oak of the United States. Balata undergoes a shrinkage of 16.9 percent in volume, 6.3

percent on the radial plane, and 9.4 percent tangentially, compared to 15.8, 5.3, and 9.0 percent,

respectively, for white oak. Longitudinal shrinkage of 0.23 percent compares favorable with the

rate for other dense woods {71). Shrinkage rates

from green to air-dry (15 percent moisture content) would amount to approximately half these

values.

The wood reaches a moisture content of 11.1

percent in a relative humidity of 40 percent, 15.1

percent in a relative humidity of 70 percent, and

27.3 percent in a relative humidity of 100 percent.

Balata reacts more slowly to atmospheric changes

than many other timbers of similar and even lower

density, because it is extremely impermeable to

moisture. However, as it gains or loses moisture

it undergoes comparatively large dimensional

changes (5Ö,^P^).

Mechanical properties.—Balata is a very hard,

strong, tough wood. Tests of material from

Puerto Eico, British Honduras, and Surinam at

Yale University showed that balata is generally

comparable to greenheart in mechanical properties in both the green and air-dry condition. It

is equal or superior to greenheart in bending

strength, shock resistance, hardness, shear, and

in across-the-grain properties of compression and

tension. Balata is slightly weaker than greenheart in compression parallel to the grain (crushing strength) and in elastic resilience in bending,

and quite inferior in stiffness. The wood is decidedly superior to white oak in all mechanical

properties tested except cleavage resistance in

which is it roughly two-thirds as strong as white

oak {71\,

Working properties.—Balata is a moderately

easy wood to work despite its high density. It

machines and finishes to a very smooth surface

and, similar to white oak, it is rated as excellent

in steam bending properties. Gluing balata requires special care to acquire a good bond because

of its resistance to the absorption of moisture

{240^ 57^ 71). It is reported to work more easily

Avhen green than when dry {163). The wood takes

a fine polish and has the appearance of walnut

when finished.

Durability.—The wood has the reputation of

being very resistant to decay and insects. Independent tests of durability of Manilkera iidentata

in contact with the ground, conducted in Trinidad

{39), British Guiana {50, 8ß), St. Lucia {163),

and Surinam {176), showed the wood to be very

resistant to decay. In pure culture tests at Yale

University, the wood was found to be durable to

very durable in resistance to a white-rot fungus

and very durable to a brown-rot fungus. Wolcott

{263) rates the wood on the basis of tests as only

moderately resistant to dry-wood termites, comparable to Honduras mahogany. Other observers

rate it as highly resistant to subterranean termites {39).

The timber has very low resistance to attack

by marine borers on the basis of tests in the

United States and Hawaii {76), Specimens of

Manilkara hidentata from British Guiana were

heavily attacked by Bankia within 6 months at

Kure Beach, N.C. {71). The timber weathers

very severely, developing severe surface checking

when not protected by paint {66).

Uses.—The many good characteristics of balata

fit it admirably for a sizeable number of special

uses. Its excellent steam-bending properties

make it suitable for boat frames and other bent

work. Its fine texture, density, and very good

finishing properties suit it for use as shuttles,

loom harnesses, and certain other textile items.

However, practical tests indicate the wood has

insufficient resilience to replace sugar maple

{Acer saccharum) for drop-forge hammer bars or

as a substitute for hickory {Garya) picker sticks

in textile looms.

Balata is used extensively for billiard cues,

violin bows, turnings of all types, and furniture.

Its strength, high wear resistance, and excellent

durability adapt the timber for use as sheathing,

boat frames, mill rollers, and keel shoes. ^ The

wood has given good service as beaters, agitator

bars, and Jordan and bed plate filling in paper

mills. In two tests under normal working conditions, balata showed no appreciable wear as beater

filling, where oak {Quercus) had failed completely.

The wood is used for many additional purposes

including utility poles, fence posts, heavy construction, ax and tool handles, railway ties, heavy

beams, marine and bridge construction, flooring,

foundations and, to a great extent, for all types

of carpentry and joinery {60, 71, ISIf., 61).

Manilkara hidentata and other woods of the

genus have been shipped into the United States

for many years, but were not considered of particular interest until 1936 when massaranduba

became available as a result of clearing for the

Ford Eubber plantations in Brazil. It is reported

to give good service as flooring in industrial

plants and machine shops and in bench tops, stair

treads, and truck bodies. . .

Supply.—The timber is available from British

Guiana, Surinam, French Guiana, and Trinidad

and possibly other Caribbean islands.
36 TT.S. DEPT. OF AGEICULTUBE HANDBOOK NO. 207

BALSA

Ochroma pyramidale

Balsa is the lightest commercial wood in use

today. In addition to being light and soft, balsa

possesses an unusually high degree of buoyancy

and is very efficient insulation against heat and

sound; where these properties are essential, the

wood is adaptable to a great number of special

uses.

Nomenclature.—For all practical purposes,

balsa may be considered as composed of variations

or forms of a single species, Ochroma pyramidale

(Cav.) Urban. A synonym, 0. lagopus Sw., is in

frequent use. Several specific names have been

applied according to country of origin. The wood

is known the world over as balsa, or balsa wood,

and occasionally as corkwood in the lumber trade.

The name balsa, meaning "raft" in Spanish, developed when the early Spanish colonists first observed Indians using the wood in the construction

of rafts.

Balsa is called guano in Puerto Eico and Honduras, lanero in Cuba ; doun-tree and dun in Jamaica; bois flot in Haiti, Jamaica, St. Vincent,

and Trinidad; polak in British Honduras and

Nicaragua ; patte de lièvre in Martinique ; balsa,

lano, and palo de lana in Venezuela ; enea, piú, and

pung in Costa Rica; lana and puero in Panama;

topa in Peru ; tami in Bolivia ; and various other

names through its range. (Bombax family, Bombacaceae.)

Distribution and habitat.—The balsa tree is

widely distributed in tropical America. Its natural range extends throughout the West Indies

from Cuba to Trinidad and on the continent from

southern Mexico through Central America into

Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, and Venezuela. In

Central America, the tree grows in British Honduras, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa

Rica, and Panama. Occasional trees are planted

as far north as southern Florida. According to

World Timbers (118), "It is, however, estimated

that 90 percent of the world's supply of balsa is

grown in Ecuador, where the rich soil and high

temperature and rainfall form ideal conditions."

The tree does not occur uniformly throughout

its extensive range, particularly in the higher altitudes or where the soil is excessively wet or dry.

It is usually found at lower elevations from sea

level to 3,200 feet, especially on bottom-land soil

along streams. Although found as scattered trees

in the tropical forests, balsa generally occurs as

a second-growth tree in natural openings or after

the original forest has been removed by fire or

floods, or in clearings resulting from cultivation.

The tree.—Balsa is a rapid-growing, short-lived

tree, often attaining a height of 70 feet and a diameter of 1 1/^ to 2 feet in 7 years; on the best

sites, it may reach 80 feet and a diameter of 21/^

feet in 5 years. After 8 years of life, some trees

develop a pink heartwood that is much inferior to

the sapwood. In 12 to 15 years when the trees

reach maturity, they are 21/2 to 4 feet m diameter

and 60 to 90 feet high. After this age they deteriorate rapidly, growth slows, the heartwood becomes waterlogged and doty, and the new growth

is hard and heavy.

At maturity, on the average tropical American

site, balsa trees usually measure 40 to 60 feet in

height and from 1 to 3 feet in diameter. The

largest trees occur in open places within the forests

after clearings or in abandoned fields along water

courses where the soil, light, and drainage are

ideal. Balsa makes its best growth in loamy soils

in perfectly drained areas. The quality—in balsa

the lightness of the wood—is almost entirely dependent on the rapidity of growth, which is best

on fertile, well-drained, open sites. Pure stands

often occur on burned-over areas (190^ ^, ^SS^

118). Trees growing on other less favorable sites

produce wood of greater density and of little commercial value. Large balsa plantations have been

successfully established in Costa Rica and with

variable results in other tropical areas; plantations in India have not been entirely successful,

while those in Java have made tremendous growth

{Jiß, 233,167).

Logging.—Felled trees are cut into 10- to 18-

foot lengths with good trees yielding an average of

two logs after the branchy parts are eliminated.

The logs are then hauled by oxen to the river and

submerged to prevent severe stain, decay, and excessive splitting from over-rapid drying. They

are later formed into rafts and floated downriver

to the sawmill.

Weight.—Balsa varies greatly in weight. The

specific gravity may vary from as low as 0.05 to

0.41 based on ovendry weight and air-dry volume.

Second-growth balsa in an air-dry condition (12

percent moisture content) has been found to vary

m the same stem from 7i^ pounds per cubic foot

at the center of the log to 211/^ pounds per cubic

foot near the outer edge. However, wood cut by

the mills for export generally ranges from 0.12

to 0.20 in specific gravity based on air-dry weight

and volume. Weight per cubic foot varies from 8

to 14 pounds with an average of 10 pounds in the

trade. The extremely light weight and buoyancy

of balsa is due to its thin cell walls and relatively

large cell cavities, which vary inversely with its

weight. Balsa wood of slow growth may weigh

up to 25 pounds per cubic foot air-dry compared

to 15 pounds for cork and 25 pounds for eastern

white pine of the United States (^, 266,241).

Seasoning.—The wood is reported to be so extremely difficult to air-season from the green condition that kiln-drying is recommended as the

best method of seasoning. Even in kiln-drying

there is danger of splitting, warping, casehardening, and a tendency to "toast" the wood {265).

Balsa is somewhat variable in its seasoning characteristics, largely because of differences in density
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 37

and moisture content. The Forest Products Research Laboratory in England indicates different

schedules might be desirable for timber of different densities but, except for timber of the heavy

weight class, their Kiln Schedule 7 should prove

suitable (»).

Balsa is often end-racked for air-seasoning.

Stock 41^ inches thick has been air-seasoned hj this

method in Ecuador to below 20 percent moisture

content in 14 to 21 days (45). According to other

reports, this rapid seasoning may have been accompanied by excessive degrade.

One-inch lumber has been air-seasoned under

cover in Puerto Rico to 17 percent moisture content in 41/^ months drying time in stickered piles.

Moderately heavy degrade occurred in the form

of slight to moderate cupping, slight bow and

twist, and very slight surface checking and crook.

Shrinkage.—The timber is reported by most

sources to shrink considerably during seasoning.

Average shrinkage values for balsa from Puerto

Rico weighing 17 pounds per cubic foot air-dry

amounted to 1.3 percent radially, 4.7 percent tangentially, and 0.11 percent longitudinally from

green to 15 percent moisture content. Volumetric

shrinkage averaged 6.1 percent. Shrinkage from

green to ovendry averaged 3.0 percent radially,

7.6 percent tangentially, 0.47 percent longitudinally, and 10.8 percent in volume.

Balsa is a stable wood in use ; changes in atmospheric conditions cause only minor shrinkage or

swelling. Wood in equilibrium with a 60-percent

relative humidity will increase 1.7 percent tangentially and 0.5 percent radially when brought into

equilibrium with a relative humidity of 90 percent. This amounts to a movement (swelling)

of i%4 and Yiß inch per foot, respectively. The

wood comes to an equilibrium moisture content

of 20 percent in a 90-percent relative humidity

and 11.5 percent in a 60-percent relative hmnidity

Green, freshly cut balsa generally contains from

200 to 400 percent moisture. Soaked specimens

have been recorded at 792 percent moisture (156).

To overcome this tendency to soak up water, balsa

is often given water proofing treatments with

paraflSn, commercial water repellents, water-repellent preservatives, varnish, or glossy paint.

Mechanical properties.—The strength of balsa

varies directly with its density or dry weight.

Tests at the Forest Products Laboratory (^51)

show that the modulus of rupture (maximum

bending strength) at 12 percent moisture content varies from 1,100 pounds per square inch for

wood weighing about 5i/^ pounds per cubic foot

to 4,300 pounds per square inch for wood weighing 17 pounds per cubic foot. The maximum

crushing strength parallel to the grain varies

from 500 to 2,800 pounds per square inch for the

same range in moisture content and weight. In

comparison, spruce weighing 25 pounds per cubic

foot has a modulus of rupture in bending of 10,000

pounds per square inch and a maximum crushing strength of 5,700 pounds per square inch at

12 percent moisture content.

In comparison with Scotch pine or Baltic

redwood {Pinus syUestris)^ balsa has about half

the strength in bending and stiffness and about

70 percent the strength in compression parallel

to the grain {266). It is reported to be 40 percent weaker in bending and 20 percent less stiff

than obeche {Triplochiton scleroxylon) {105).

According to the Forest Products Research Laboratory in London, the heartwood of balsa has

only half the strength of the sapwood.

Working properties.—Balsa is very easy to

work with sharp, thin-edged power or hand tools

and has practically no dulling effect on cutting

edges. Dull or thick-edged tools tend to cause

the wood to crumble and to give a woolly finish

in planing. It takes nails and screws readily

but is too soft to hold them well. Fortunately,

the wood glues satisfactorily ; gluing is the most

efficient method for fastening or holding the wood

in use {266,106). The timfer can be stained and

polished fairly well but absorbs much of the material used in the processes. Saw type E of thin

gage is recommended by the Forest Products

Research Laboratory in London {106^ 237).

Durability.—Balsa has very little resistance to

decay ; 2- by 2-inch timbers decayed in 2i/^ years

in the ground at Princes Risborough, England

{206). The wood is very susceptible to termite

attack according to tests by Wolcott in Puerto

Rico {268)^ and obviously is susceptible to severe

marine borer attack. Logs and green lumber are

readily attacked by pinhole borers, and if conversion is delayed the logs may become very

heavily damaged.

Preservation.—The heartwood is resistant to

preservative treatment, but a limited amount of

preservative can be injected into the vessels quite

easily by either pressure or nonpressure methods.

However, the cell walls are difficult to impregnate

and pressure treatment often causes them to collapse. Treatment of sapwood is reported to be

feasible with either pressure or nonpressure

methods {106).

Uses.—Balsa is used for many specific purposes

related to its weight, resilience, buoyancy, and

high insulating properties against heat and sound.

Some of the more important are listed below {118^

^)'

Heat insulation—Packing cases for perishable

foods, cold storage rooms, aircraft cabins, roof

insulation, railway storage cars, refrigerators,

water coolers, lining of pith helments, packing

for armor plate in battleships.

Buoyancy—Rafts, lifebelts, floats for fishing

nets and mines, water sports equipment, bouys,

hydroplane floats.

Sound and vibration insulation—Lining for

telephone booths, broadcast studios, aircraft,

phonograph booths, subflooring; pads for heavy
38 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

machinery and other equipment with moving

parts.

Lightness—Aircraft streamlining, model airplanes and other toys, display models, surgical

splints, theatrical and film sets and accessories.

Resilience—Protective packing for glass,

ceramics, delicate instruments, furniture.

The silky floss or doun brone with the seeds

is used for the same purposes as kapok from the

related ceiba tree {Ceiba pentandra (L.)

Gaertn.) and is preferred to kapok in some

areas {150),

Supply.—British Honduras, Trinidad, and possibly some of the West Indies islands are m a

position to supply balsa to the trade in the Caribbean area. The Ecuadorian supply has diminished but still provides the bulk of the commercial-grade balsa in international trade.

BAROMALLI

Catostemma corriYnune, Catostemma fragrans

Baromalli is the preferred trade name of the

wood from two and possibly other species of

Catostemma, The wood, although similar to oak

{Quercus) and of good quality, is seldom sawed

locally and is virtually unknown to the export

market.

Nomenclature.—The principal species marketed as baromalli are Catostemma com^m/u/ne

Sandw. and C, fragrans Benth., formerly identified as Guenetia macrosperma Sagot. Two other

species, C. alstonii Sandw. from British Guiana

and C. sclerophyllum Ducke of Brazil, appear U)

be less common but may occasionally be marketed

under the trade name of baromalli. This report

is restricted to the first two species but may apply

to other members of the small genus. (Éombax

family, Bombacaceae.)

The wood is locally known as baromalli,

baramanni, or baramalli in British Guiana and as

flambeau rouge in French Guiana.

Distribution and habitat.—In British Guiana

both Catostemma fragrans and C. comm/ane are

of frequent to common occurrence in the rain,

seasonal, and wallaba forests, with C. commune becoming common to locally abundant in the heavy

forests. C, fragrans is found in both British and

French Guiana, while C, comrrmne apparently is

confined to British Guiana {8%).

The tree.—The trees are commonly unbuttressed with a long, slender cylindrical trunk of

very low taper and excellent form. Catostemma

fragrans grows to 48 inches in diameter and 150

feet in height on the best sites, but is generally

24 to 36 inches in diameter with clear boles 70 to

90 feet long. C. conumune is the smaller of the

two trees, reaching a maximum of 40 inches in

diameter and 100 feet in height on the best sites.

However, the usual merchantable tree is about 24

inches in diameter and 60 to 70 feet in height {82).

The wood.—Baromalli is a soft, light to medium-weight wood of plain appearance. Ihe

heartwood, a dull yellowish-brown to pmkishbrown color, is distinct but not sharply demarcated

from the lighter yellowish-brown sapwood, which

is often discolored by sap-stain fun^. The heartwood is sometimes described as having an oatmeal

color. The grain is straight and the texture

coarse. Growth rings are not distinct. Eays are

visible as heavy white lines on the cross section,

as diamond-shaped spots on tangential surfaces,

and conspicuous and large on the radial surface,

being darker than the background.

An unusual feature of this wood is the presence

of "galls" of included bast appearing as resin

streaks of varying lengths on the longitudinal surfaces and as concentric arcs on the end-grain.

Quartersawed surfaces generally show a distinctive "silver-grain" figure suggesting silky oak but

lacking the luster of that timber. The wood has

no distinctive odor or taste {183^ 14^).

Weight.—Baromalli weighs about 70 pounds

per cubic foot in the green condition and ranges

from 35 to 40 pounds per cubic foot (averaging

about 37) when air-dry (12 percent moisture content) {15). Specific gravity based on air-dry

weight and volume averages about 0.60. Specific

gravity based on green volume and ovendry

weight is reported at 0.45 by Kynoch and Norton

for Catostemma fragrans and at 0.60 by Yale

University, based on tests on one log of Catostemma sp. from British Guiana {^50),

Seasoning.—Baromalli seasons rather slowly,

without excessive degrade. Some end splitting,

surface checking, and opening up of previous defects may occur during seasoning, but degrade

from these causes or by distortion is not serious.

Although the timber has a rather high shrinkage

rate, the proportion of tangential to radial shrinkage is within allowable limits and should not

cause excessive warping or cupping. Kiln

Schedule 4, developed by the Forest Products Research Laboratory, is recommended {22ß),

Shrinkage.—Baromalli undergoes relatively

heavy shrinkage during seasoning compared to

other timbers of similar density. The values reported in two independent tests give comparable

shrinkage values for the timbers. Kynoch and

Norton {IJ^) report shrinkage values of 5.4 percent radially, 11.7 percent tangentially, and 17.1

percent volumetrically from green to ovendry for

Catostemma fragrans. Wangaard, {250) reporting on similar tests of wood from one log of

Catostemma sp. from British Guiana, lists shrinkage values of 5.2 percent radially, 11.1 percent

tangentially, and 17.5 percent volumetrically from

green to ovendry. The corresponding movement

of the wood from atmospheric changes is also

excessive.

The wood reaches an equilibrium moisture content of 23.5 percent in 90-percent humidity and 13

percent moisture content m 60-percent humidity.
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 39

A tangential movement (swelling or shrinking)

of 4.0 percent or 14 inch per foot and a radial

change of 2.5 percent or %6 inch per foot take

place between these equilibrium moisture contents, based on the dimensions at 60-percent humidity {108), This places baromalli among the

timbers with large movement values, and eliminates its use where good stability is required.

Mechanical properties.—Tests of Gatosteranroa

fragrans in the green condition by Kynoch and

Norton {1JÍ9) showed that the wood compares

favorably with black ash {Fraxinus nigra) of

similar density from the United States. Baromalli exceeded the latter species in all properties

tested except compression perpendicular to the

grain (crushing strength) and work to maximum

load (shock bending), and fell only slightly below black ash in end hardness, shear, and

cleavage. The high moisture content of the green

baromalli when tested (154.5 percent) may be

a factor in these deficiencies. Black ash is not one

of the strongest woods of the United States but is

above average strength for its weight. On the

basis of this comparison, baromalli can be considered to have average strength characteristics

in the green condition.

Results of tests by the Forest Products Research

Laboratory in London {15), using air-dry wood of

Oatostemma commune from British Guiana,

showed it to be inferior to black ash in shear,

cleavage, hardness, and nodules of elasticity (stiffness) . It was somewhat superior to black ash in

modulus of rupture (bending strength) and work

to maximum load (shock bending). The ashes

are noted for their ability to withstand suddenly

applied loads as in the handles of striking tools.

From this comparison, baromalli should be considered a rather good wood for similar use.

Working properties.—Baromalli works easily

with machine or hand tools. The timber has only

a moderate blunting effect, although the numerous

bands of resin in the wood ducts may cause chipping of the planing and moulding knives. Compared to maho {Sterculia pruriens)^ baromalli

cuts somewhat less easily and gives a more fibrous

finish. This tendency for the finish to be fibrous

or fuzzy can usually be overcome with sharp cutting edges. Machine-finished surfaces lack luster

and are harsh to the touch. The wood requires a

considerable amount of filler but can be stained

and polished satisfactorily, although not to a high

luster. It takes glue well and can be nailed without splitting {118).

Durability.—The heartwood is not durable in

contact with the ground, according to service tests

in British Guiana {3£) and laboratory tests in

England {107). Wolcott {263) rates the heartwood as very susceptible to attack by the dry-wood

termite of the West Indies. Other sources list

dry sapwood as susceptible to attack by Lyctios

(powder-post) beetles.

Preservation.—Baromalli is reported as easily

impregnated with preservatives by either pressure

or open-tank processes.

Uses.—Baromalli is reported suitable for both

dry and wet cooperage, interior work, box shock,

paper pulp, utility plywood, and light construction. Good quality molasses barrels were made

of baromalli at Barbados for a short period when

imported barrels were not available. The results

of mechanical tests indicate this wood may be

suitable for tool handles and certaioi sports equipment. It is also considered a prospective timber

for inexpensive furniture.

Supply.—Baromalli is one of the most plentiful

trees in British Guiana, occurring at the rate of

from 186 to a maximum of 722 trees, 16 inches

and over, per 1,000 acres in the seven districts

surveyed in that country. It is available in sufficient supply to merit large scale exploitation for

domestic and export markets. Its volume and

availability in French Guiana are not known.

BETHABARA

Tdbehuia serratifolia

Bethabara is a member of the lapacho group

of the genus Tahebuia. The timbers in this group

are noted for their great strength and durability

and are characterized by the presence of an abundance of a yellowish powder (lapachol compound)

in the vessels. This powder has the appearance

of sulfur but turns deep red in alkaline solutions

Nomenclature.—Taieiida serratifolia (Vahl)

Nicholson {Tecoma serratifolia G. Don) is also

known in the export- trade as tabebuia, arcwood,

noibwood, and sometimes erroneously as Surinam

greenheart and bastard lignumvitae, names commonly and more properly used for other woods.

It is called yellow poui in Trinidad and St. Vincent; hakia and iromvood in British Guiana;

groenhart and wassiba in Surinam ; ébène verte in

French Guiana; pau d'arco, ipe, and ipe tabaco m

Brazil. The name ipe tabaco originates from the

peculiar irritating effects of the dust when mhaled

during sawing or planing operations {132),

(Trumpet-creeper family, Bignoniaceae.)

Distribution and habitat.—Bethabara grows m

Trinidad, Grenada, and St. Vincent of the Lesser

Antilles {SO), and on the continent from Mexico

through Central America and into South America

to southern Brazil, including Colombia, Bolivia,

Peru, Paraguay, Venezuela, and the Guianas.

The tree occurs on a variety of sites from the

tops and sides of ridges to river banks and low

ridges in the rain forests but avoids low inundated

areas. It occurs as an occasional tree m the ram

and marsh forests of Surinam and as a rare to

occasional tree in the rain, wallaba, and seasonal

forests of British Guiana {231, 82). In Trinidad

the tree is found on several sites but seldom occurs
40 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

on flats or in valleys {165). On some areas, it is

reported to grow in pure stands.

The tree,—Bethabara is a canopy tree, either

unbuttressed or with low buttresses, frequently

attaining a height of 100 to 125 feet and a diameter of 2 to 3 feet. In some parts of its range, trees

may grow to 6 feet in diameter and 140 to 150 feet

tall. Clear cylindrical boles 50 to 60 feet long are

common {82), The tree is of medium height in

many areas, but becomes one of the tallest trees

in the upland forests of the Amazon. According

to one report {2JiS)^ trees with trunks that will

square 30 inches ojf heartwood are available. Bethabara is deciduous during the dry season at which

time it is covered with masses of bright yellow

flowers, making it a magnificent sight. The bark

is thin and smooth on young trees, becoming fissured on very large trees -{165),

The wood.—The heartwood is yellowish green

when first cut, but upon drying turns to a light

to dark olive brown with lighter or darker streaks.

The olive-brown color is apparently the result of

the presence of the yellow powder in the pores.

The sapwood is distinct, li/^ to 3i/^ inches wide,

and cream colored when fresh but becoming white

or grayish white when dry {2JtS), The texture

is fine ; the grain is straight to occasionally irregular; and the luster is low to medium {14^). The

wood is cold to the touch and often appears oily ;

very fine ripple marks show on the tangential surface of the wood. Pores in the heartwood, which

appear as fine yellow dots, are filled with a yellowish powder (lapachol). On longitudinal surfaces,

these pores appear as yellow lines. The fibers

are interlaced and in tiers much like those in persimmon and true mahogany. Narrow darker

zones of fibers where the pores are less numerous

designate distinct but not sharply defined growth

layers.

Weight.—Bethabara is classed as an extremely

heavy wood. In tests at Yale University, it had

a specific gravity of 0.92 (0.86-0.96) based on

green volume and ovendry weight and 1.10 based

on air-dry weight and volume. The weight per

cubic foot averaged 75 pounds when green and 69

pounds when air-dry at 12 percent moisture content {2JÍ8). Tests of Tabebuia sp. (lapacho) at

the Forest Products Eesearch Laboratory in

England showed an average air-dry weight of

58 pounds per cubic foot at 12 percent moisture

content and 67 pounds per cubic foot when green

at 32 percent moisture content. However, the

material tested may have included the closely

associated Tabebuia ipe (Mart.) Standl. of Brazil

and Argentina, along with the T. serratifolia.

The specific gravity of air-dry wood averaged

0.93, based on air-dry weight and volume, in the

English tests. Other sources report weights of

60 to 80 pounds per cubic foot air-dry.

Seasoning.—Bethabara is considered an easy

timber to season. Despite its relatively high

density, it dries rapidly with slight warping, cupping, twisting, end checking, and surface checking

occuring, as well as some casehardening (248).

Some surface checking and extension of original

shakes, as well as slight cupping, may occur during

normal kiln-drying operations, but very little degrade will occur if the wood is kiln-dried slowly

from the green state. Horn {132) also reports

the ipe tabaco of Brazil is apt to check and split

badly in the form of large timbers, while boards

warp considerably unless dried very slowly. Kiln

Schedule 5 of the Forest Products Eesearch Laboratory, Princes Eisborough, is recommended

Shrinkage.—Bethabara undergoes moderately

low shrinkage in relation to its high density, being

better than white oak and Demerara greenheart

in this characteristic. Shrinkage from green to

•ovendry amounts to 6.6 percent radially, 8.0 percent tangentially, and 13.2 percent volumetrically

{248). Shrinkage from green to air-dry (12 percent moisture content) would be approximately

half these values. The very low ratio of tangential to radial shrinkage indicates this wood should

normally dry with only minor distortion.

The wood is very stable in response to atmospheric changes for a wood of its high density.

The change or movement from equilibrium in a

90-percent relative humidity to equilibrium in a

60-percent relative humidity amounts to %6.iiic^l^

per foottangentially and Vg inch per foot radially,

or about 1.5 and 1.0 percent, respectively {108).

Mechanical properties.—This wood is exceptionally tough, strong, and hard. When green,

it is considerably stronger than Demerara greenheartin static bending, elastic resistance, hardness,

bearing strength, and shear, and at least comparable to greenheart in all other respects except

stiffness {248). The wood also compares very

favorably with the American hickories because of

its unusual properties of high strength, stiffness,

hardness, and shock resistance. Upon air-drying,

the wood increases slightly in most strength properties but not comparable to that commonly found

in hardwoods of the temperate zone; j^et it still

compares most favorably in this state with greenheart and hickory.

Working properties.—Bethabara is moderately

difficult to work, especially with handtools, and

has a blunting effect on cutting edges. Eipsaws

are subject to some heating when cutting thick

material; fine dust escaping from the gullets packs

between the saw blade and cut surfaces. This

difficulty is partially overcome by using a fairly

wide tooth-pitch and increased rate of feed if

practicable, or as an alternative a reduced spindle

speed. Using swage-set saws somewhat thicker

than the standard gage is also advisable. The

teeth of crosscut saws tend to vibrate or chatter,

and charring may occur during boring.

Flat-sawed material planes to a good finish but

reduction of the cutting angle to atleast 15 degrees

is recommended to eliminate chipping of quarter-
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 41

sawed stock. The wood finishes satisfactorily in

other operations except for some difficulty encountered when interlocked grain is present. The

fine yellow dust rising during most operations is

a nuisance and at times is reported to cause mild

dermatitis. The timber stains and polishes well

and requires little grain-filler. Preboring is required before nailing to prevent splitting and the

bending of nails.

Durability.—The timber is very resistant to decay in contact with the ground (Í75, 218^ 82) and

is considered one of the two most durable woods

in Trinidad {S9), Pure culture tests at Yale

University {2l8) showed Bethabara as very resistant to both a brown-rot and white-rot fungus.

Similar tests at the U.S. Forest Products Laboratory {199)^ using "Guayacan" {Tabebuia sp.)

also indicated the wood was very resistant to both

a white-rot and brown-rot fungus. However, soil

tests of "Guayacan" in the northern (Madison,

Wis.) and southern (Saucier, Miss.) sections of

the United States indicated the wood's resistance

to decay varies from resistant to very resistant.

Tabebuia woods are reported by Horn (ISS) to

last 10 to 12 years in poorly drained soil in Brazil,

while those placed in well-drained soil lasted 18

to 20 years.

The timber is rated very resistant to subterranean termites by Brooks {S9) and as resistant

to the dry-wood termite of the West Indies by

Wolcott {26S)^ who rates bethabara at 72 in resistance as compared to 59 for Honduras mahogany. According to Edmondson, bethabara was

found to have low resistance to marine borers in

Hawaiian waters, despite its hardness and density

(76). In similar tests at Wrightsville, N.C. (58),

this species was heavily attacked by marine borers

in a 12-month period. The results in this test

agree with those by Edmondson in Hawaii. The

silica content has been reported at 0.01 percent by

Amos {14) •

Preservation.—The wood is extremely resistant

to impregnation with preservatives by either pressure or nonpressure methods.

Uses.—Bethabara is particularly well adapted

for uses which take advantage of its strength,

toughness, resilience, and very high resistance to

insects and decay. It is suitable for use as railway sleepers, bridge construction, turnery, vehicles, cabinetwork, and carpentry, while some of

its highest specialty uses are for tool handles,

walking sticks, fishing rods, and archery bows.

Figured logs have been cut into veneer in both

England and the United States (135).

Locally, the wood is also used extensively for

fence posts, house poles, and building framing.

It is also a good timber for naval construction

and dock work above water and for general sporting goods items. In Brazil it finds wide use as

factory flooring, machinery parts, mill rollers in

sugar mills, and parts for vehicles and carts.

Supply.—The timber is present in exportable

quantities in the three Guianas, Trinidad, St. Vincent, and possibly other Caribbean areas.

BOIS GRIS

Licania tervuxtensis

Nomenclature.—Many species of Licania

grow in the American tropics but only Licania

tematensis Hook, f. is of commercial importance

in the West Indies. Both the tree and timber are

known as bois de masse in St. Lucia, bois gris in

Grenada, Martinique, and Guadeloupe, and bois

gris casse or casse in Trinidad. Other local

names for the wood in the Caribbean area include

bois diable, bois de fer, résolu, and breaknail.

Several additional species are discussed under

kauta. (Rose family, Rosaceae.)

Distribution and habitat.—Bois gris is rather

widely distributed in the southern West Indies.

It is recorded from Guadeloupe, Dominica, Martinique, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Grenada, and

Trinidad. The tree is very common in the rain

forests of St. Lucia but of limited distribution

in Trinidad {18, 165, 50).

The tree.—Bois gris is a fairly large evergreen

tree reaching a height of 100 feet and a diameter

of 2 to 3 feet. It has a characteristic long, clean

straight stem, free of buttresses but sometimes

fluted. The thin bark is light colored, smooth,

and has numerous grayish-white lenticular warts

{154).

The wood.—The heartwood of bois gris is dark

reddish brown,/ fairly close grained, and extremely hard and tough. The sapwood is white and

equally hard and tough. All species of Licania

tested have been found to have a high silica content {14) and presumably bois gris is no exception, although no specific information is available

for this species.

Weight.—The timber is reported to weigh from

65 to 75 pounds per cubic foot with a specific

gravitv of 1.04 to 1.20, based on air-dry volume

and weight {165, 218, 50). This weight range is

comparable to other species of Licania, all reported to be hard, heavy woods.

Seasoning.—Specific information concerning

the seasoning characteristic of bois gris is lacking, but other species of Licania tested at Yale

varied from easy to moderately difficult to airseason. In these tests, seasoning took place at a

fast to moderate rate according to species, with

some warping, checking, and casehardening.

(See section on Ma,rish, Kauta, and Kautaballi.)

On the basis of this information for other closely

related species of Licania, bois gris is probably

moderately difficult to air-season.

Shrinkage.—Shrinkage values for other species

of Licania are relatively high, approximating

greenheart in this characteristic but falling below

some hardwoods of much lower density from the
42 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

United States. In general, the species tested at

Yale University {2^) were comparable to white

oak in tangential and volumetric shrinkage but

somewhat lower in radial shrinkage. Bois gris

may have similar shrinkage values.

Mechanical properties.—There are no published results of strength tests on bois gris, but

information is available from the tests at Yale

University {2Jf8) on three closely related species:

Licania huxifolia Sandw. of British Guiana, Z.

macrophylla Benth. of Brazil and Surinam, and

Licania sp. of Surinam. These species were, in

general, all very comparable to greenheart in

most strength properties. They were found to be

decidedly superior to shagbark hickory {Oarya

ovata) and white oak (^uercus alba) of the

United States in all strength properties except

shock resistance, compression parallel to the

grain, and shear in comparison with hickory ; and

shock resistance, shear, and cleavage in comparison with oak. Species of Licania^ like many very

hard, heavy, close-grained woods, are notably deficient in shear, tension across the grain, and cleavage resistance, but in all other respects they are

very strong woods.

Working properties.—^Machining characteristics of bois gris are poor because of the wood's

great density and high silica content. Bois gris

IS extremely difficult to saw and quickly dulls cutting edges. The government of St. Lucia reports

on its use as follows : "Given a trial on the machines a few times after which it was decided not

to use this wood as it was too hard for economical

handling on the saws. Probably a good wood for

turnery" {153),

Durability.—The woods of this genus are said

to be low in resistance to decay {190^ 18Ji.^ 175),

However, the three species tested at Yale University ranged from very resistant to moderately resistant to both a white-rot and brown-rot fungus

{2JiS). Members of the genus Licania are noted

for their high silica content and resistance to

marine borers {H), A closely related species,

Licania densiftora^ the marishballi of British

Guiana, showed considerable resistance to marine

borer attack in Hawaiian waters {76), L, huœifolia^ another closely related species, also showed

extremely high resistance to teredo attack in tests

at Wrightsville, N.C. {58). On the basis of these

tests and other similar reports {13Jf)^ bois gris

should be rated as having considerable resistance

to marine borer attack. Wolcott {263) rates the

wood of marishballi, L, densißora,^ as resistant to

the dry-wood termite of the West Indies. Bois

gris may be comparable to that wood in this

resistance.

Uses.—The probable but unproved high marine

borer resistance of untreated bois gris timbers

suggests it should serve its highest use for piling

and other marine construction. Other species of

the genus are used for house framing and paving

blocks {82, 227), It is used in St. Lucia for interior posts and beams and as a charcoal wood

{15Ji) ; in Martinique and Guadeloupe for manne

and river work {218, 50), i .-j. i

Supply.—Bois gris is reported as very plentiful

in the forests of St. Lucia {163, 15h) and may

occur in sizable volumes on other West Indies islands. St. Lucia could probably supply the timber in piling sizes.

BROADLEAF

Terminalia latifolia

Nomenclature.—Broadleaf, Terminalia latifolia Sw., is second to Central American cedar,

Cedrela odorata, the most importanttimber species

of Jamaica. In addition to broadleaf, the timber

is widely known as amandier and amandier bois.

Several other species of Terminalia grow in the

Caribbean region, of which T, amazonia (J. F.

Gmel.) Exell is the most widely distributed and

of greatest commercial importance. This timber,

commonly called nargusta, is described later under that name. (Combretum family, Combretaceae.)

Distribution and habitat.—Broadleaf is a very

common tree on the damp glade sites of the limestone districts in Jamaica. It is most frequent

at elevations of 1,000 to 2,000 feet where rainfall

is 60 inches or more; it is seldom found at lower

elevations {229, 230), The tree is also reported

from Guadeloupe {50),

The tree.—^A tall tree, broadleaf grows up to

100 feet in height and 3 feet or more in diameter.

The trunk is straight, well formed, and usually

clear of branches for about 50 feet {190),

The wood.—The wood is light buff to gray, soft,

straight grained, medium hard, and splits rather

easily.

Weight.—Stehle {218) gives the specific gravity of air-dry wood at 0.65. On this basis, airdry wood weighs 41 pounds per cubic foot as

compared to 44 pounds for red oak of the United

States.

Seasoning.—No data available. See section on

narfi^sta, Terminalia amazonia.

Shrinkage.—No data available. See section on

nargusta, Terminalia amazonia.

Mechanical properties.—No information is

available on the general strength properties of

broadleaf except that the wood is moderately

heavy, stringy, rather hard, and splits easily

{218, 229),

Working properties.—The wood is reported to

work easily and as a result is in great demand

in Jamaica.

Durability.—Broadleaf is not very durable in

contact with the ground but is durable when used

above the ground or in interior work {50, 229,

230), No specific information is available regard-
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 43

ing the timber's resistance to termites and marine

borers. However, other species of Terminalia

vary from resistant to very susceptible to attack

by dry-wood termites, and are generally not considered resistant to marine borers (263).

Uses.—The most important uses for broadleaf

in Jamaica are in building boards, shingles, and

barrel staves. It is also used for flooring, rafters,

lath, window frames, and doors. The bark is

used, in Jamaican tanneries but has a relatively

low tannin content {230, 4S, 50),

Supply.—Broadleaf is one of the most plentiful

timbers in Jamaica but is not available for export,

for present supplies hardly equal the local

demand.

BULLHOOF

Tyrypetes hrownii

Nomenclature.—Bullhoof and male buUhoof or

buUhoof macho are the most common names for

the wood of Drypetes hrownii Standl., of the

spurge family (Euphorbiaceae.) Two other

species, Geltis schippii Standl. and Ampelocera

hottlei Standl., known as female bullhoof and belonging to the elm family (Ulmaceae), are at

times sold in mixture with bullhoof. The justification for the combination is not clear since A,

hottlei is reported to contain an abundance of calcium carbonate and, consequently, is valued principally for round or axed beams, while G, schippii

is a moderately soft, light, nonsiliceous or slightly

siliceous wood recommended for boxmaking, utility plywood, and tool handles {150).

The genus Drypetes contains more than ten

species in the American tropics and numerous

others in the Old World. D, glauca Vahl is called

bois café in French West Indies and varital in

Puerto Rico {218), D, variabilis Uitt. in British

Guiana is known as shibadan {82), The following

discussion is restricted to bullhoof or male bullhoof

{D, hrownii) unless otherwise indicated.

Distribution and habitat.—Drypetes hrownii

is recorded from the Yucatan area of southern

Mexico to southern British Honduras and Guatemala. In British Honduras, bullhoof trees

{Drypetes, Oeltis, and Ampelocera) are reported

as rather frequent and widespread, with up to

30 trees per acre on limestone soil in the rolling

country of the northwest district {150),

The tree.—Bullhoof is a medium-sized canopy

tree of the high forest, attaining a height of 120

feet and a diameter of 30 inches. The boles are

straight, cylindrical, and generally clear of

branches for 50 to 60 feet above the low buttresses. The bark is thin, smooth to finely fissured,

and greenish gray in color.

The wood.—Freshly cut heartwood is a pale

yellowish brown, turning a light reddish brown on

exposure. A dark brown core up to 10 inches in

diameter is often present in the heart of old trees.

Growth rings are marked by darker colored tissue,

which show as brown streaks on the longitudinal

surfaces. The grain is usually straight, and the

texture is fine and uniform. Pores are barely visible to the naked eye. The rays are fine and barely

visible on the cross section, inconspicuous on the

radial plane, and invisible on the tangential surfaces. Parenchyma is abundant, forming a fine,

close reticulation with the rays; but they are visible only under magnification.

Weight.—Air-dry wood has an average specific

gravity of about 0.74 and weighs in the neighborhood of 46 pounds per cubic foot.

Seasoning.—The wood seasons without excessive splitting, checking, or distortion. Itis classed

as only moderately difficult to season.

Shrinkage.—Shrinkage values for bullhoof are

not recorded, but the wood is reported to have a

moderate rate of shrinkage.

Mechanical properties.—Detailed strength

tests have not been conducted on bullhoof. Lamb

{150) reports the timber is strong and tough and

has strength properties in keeping with its weight,

which are probably about the same as those of

English oak. It is considered to be a moderately

hard wood, perhaps 10 percent harder than English oak, and to have a moderately high resistance

to splitting. Kecord and Hess {190) describe the

timbers of the genus Drypetes as hard, heavy,

tough, and strong.

Working properties.—Bullhoof is only moderately difficult to work with hand and machine

tools, resembling English oak. Bullhoof saws

cleanly but with some difficulty because of its

hardness. A smooth finish is obtained in planing

without any tendency to roughened grain. It can

be drilled and recessed easily with clean unchipped holes and turns readily to a smooth finish

with about the same resistance to working as English oak. Nailing necessitates preboring nail holes

to prevent splitting and bending of the nails.

Durability.—The timber is considered moderately resistant to decay in contact with the ground

and moderately resistant to insect attack. No

information is available on its resistance to marine

borers.

Uses.—In British Honduras, bullhoof is widely

used in the round form for rafters, as axed squares

for beams and sills in the construction of native

houses, and for shafts in agricultural instruments.

Except for some splitting and checking, bullhoof

has given good service as railway ties m the government railway in the Stann Creek area of that

country {86), The wood seems suitable for many

uses where a strong, tough, heavy wood is required as in both light and heavy construction.

Because of its light color, close texture, and good

turning qualities, the wood may be suitable for

utility grade plywood (^^^,^5^).

Supply.—British Honduras can supply bullhoof for the export market.
44 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

BUSTIC

Dipholis salicifolia, Uipholis spp.

Nomenclature.—Several species of Dipholis

provide the bustic or bulletwoods of general use

in Jamaica and other areas in the Caribbean. In

Jamaica the following species are recognized:

mountain bully, Dipholis montana (Sw.) Griseb.;

red or cherry bullet, D. nigi^a (Sw.) Griseb.;

white bully or black bullet, D. salicifolia (L.) A.

DC. ; and Z>. pollens Pierre & Urban and D. octosepala Urban {220). The first two species are

apparently the most common in Jamaica {230)^

while Z>. salicifolia is the best known species

throughout the range of the genus {190). (Sapodilla family, Sapotaceae.)

The timber is commonly known as bustic, willow bustic, or cassada in Florida and the British

West Indies, and as almendro, Carolina, cuya, jubilla, jubilla colorada, and sangre de doncella in

Cuba. In British Honduras and Mexico, it is

called cháchiga, mijico, txitxya, or sac-chum

{217). Wood of Dipholis spp. is known as caya

colorada, caya rubia, and caya de loma in Dominican Republic ; acomat rouge, bois d'Inde, sapotiller marron in Haiti; sanguinaria, almendrón, tabloncillo, and varital in Puerto Rico ; and as níspero

amarillo and tempisque in Costa Rica. Another

Cuban species, D, pihilla Ekman, is known locally

as cuaba, jucuma colorada, juba, and jubilla {207).

D, stevensonii Standl. is a large tree of the Mopan

region of British Honduras, where it is called

faisán or zapote faisán. Another British Honduran species, D, durifolia Standl., is a small tree

of the higher elevations.

Distribution and habitat.—The several species

of Dipholis have a combined range including

southern Florida, West Indies, southern Mexico,

and Central America. The best known species,

D, salicifolia^ is native nearly throughout this

range. The trees occur on a variety of sites from

sea level to the higher elevations. The five species growing in Jamaica are reported to be distributed throughout the country in areas of moderate

to heavy rainfall below 3,500 feet elevation {229).

However, D, salicifolia is found in dry locations

on the southern coast of Puerto Rico and on the

nearby arid islands of Mona and Guanica.

The tree.—The trees vary in size according to

geographic location, site, and species. Dipholis

salicifolia is a slender tree usually less than 50

feet tall and about 20 inches in diameter, while

D. stevensonii is reported to reach large dimensions in British Honduras {190). One of the

characteristics of the genus is the presence in the

bark of a latex, called chicle faisan. It is used

in some countries as chicle in chewing gum.

The wood.—The heartwood of Dipholis spp. is

brownish to reddish brown, with gradual transition to the sapwood. It is of medium luster and

has no distinctive odor but a somewhat bitter

taste. The texture is medium fine and the grain

fairly straight. It is a very hard and heavy

wood {190,184).

Weight.—The specific gravity of air-dry timber

ranges from 0.90 to 1.00, based on air-dry volume

and weight. The specific gravity based on green

volume and ovendry weight averages about 0.86.

Air-dry wood weighs from 56 to 62 pounds per

cubic foot {18If,,^ 218) and green wood about 77

pounds per cubic foot {160).

Seasoning.—No information available.

Shrinkage.—Detailed information concerning

shrinkage is lacking. However, the timber is not

recommended for cabinetwork in the Dominican

Republic as it "cracks badly." This may be an

indication that the wood undergoes high or uneven shrinkage, and is somewhat unstable in response to changes in atmospheric conditions

{200).

Mechanical properties.—Bustic is considered a

hard, strong, tough wood in Jamaica, where it

is the standard heavy construction timber. Mechanical tests made on Dipholis salicifolia, the

bustic of southern Florida, verify these observations. The Florida timber was found to be

superior to white oak {Quercus alba) in all

strength properties tested except work to proportional limit and shock in impact bending. It

was clearly superior to white oak in static bending, compression parallel to the grain, and compression perpendicular to the grain. Shear and

cleavage were nottested.

Working properties.—Bustic is not difficult to

work and finishes smoothl}^ {190, 184) -

Durability.—The timber is generally considered

fair to good in durability when in contact with

the ground {184, ^^^, SO). Dipholis salicifolia

is reported to be unsurpassed in the Dominican

Republic for shore work, where it resists inclemency of salt water very well {200). This would

indicate the timber may have considerable resistance to attack by marine borers, although the

wood does not contain silica. On the basis of

long-term observations, the Government of Jamaica reports red and white buUetwood are durable in contact with the ground {229).

Uses.—BuUetwood or bustic is used extensively

in Jamaica and elsewhere in the Caribbean for

heavy construction and other jobs including house

framing bridge runners, telephone poles, flooring, railway ties, and similar uses. It is also

used in Jamaica for fence posts and for carts and

wagon parts. Under some conditions, the timber

may be suitable for cabinet or furniture work,

particularly where a heavy, hard, strong, durable

wood is required. However, the user should consider the report from the Dominican Republic

concerning its tendency to develop cracks after

seasoning.

Supply.—Limited supplies may become available in Jamaica and other islands of the West

Indies and possibly in Central America.
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 45

CENTRAL AMERICAN CEDAR

Cedrela mexicana, Cedrela odorata, Cedrela guianensis

Central American cedar is one of the most

important timbers for domestic use in tropical

America. At one time it was an important export timber to the United States and Europe.

The wood is suitable for almost every purpose

where lumber is needed in the tropics. But it

has been utilized principally in the United States

for cigarboxes, a use which has now declined to

a fraction of the former volume. Cedar has almost all the desirable properties required of a

first-class wood and virtually none of the troublesome or detracting characteristics plaguing many

other woods; the one exception is the tendency

for some material to exude a gum that discolors

the wood surface.

Nomenclature.—Three species of Cedrela ^ are

of primary commercial importance in the Caribbean : Cedrela mexicana M. J. Roem., C, odorata

L., and C, guianensis A. Juss. The species are

not easily distinguished ; there is no fundamental

difference in the woods of the three species. Various other species occur in tropical America.

Record and Hess {190) offer the following: "So

far as the woods of Cedrela are concerned, they

might well be of a single species, for although they

exhibit considerable range in their properties, the

differences observed could all be attributed to the

age and condition of growth of individual trees."

(Mahogany family, Meliaceae).

Because of their fragrance, Cedrela trees are

generally known as cedar or Spanish cedar in the

English speaking countries, and as cedro to most

Latin Americans. In some Caribbean countries,

the name of Central American cedar is preferred

to separate these three species from others growing in South America and also from the species

of the genus Toona of Asia and Australia, which

are so similar that some botanists merge them

with Cedrela, The timber is also known as cigarbox cedar, Honduras cedar, or Mexican cedar in

the trade (195). In South America, it is also

commonly known as South American cedar.

West Indian cedar is another trade name.

The timber is commonly called cedar in British

Honduras and Jamaica; cedro hembra and cedro

español in Puerto Rico; acajou rouge in Guadeloupe and Martinique; acajou in Dominica and

Trinidad; red cedar in St. Lucia, St. Vincent,

Grenada, and British Guiana ; cedar in Surinam ;

acajou cèdre in French Guiana; cedro amarillo

and cedro amargo in Venezuela; cedro amargo,

cedro dulce, and cedro colorado in Costa Rica and

Panama ; cedro hembra and cedro macho in Cuba ;

and cèdre or cèdre espagnol in Haiti. It has

^C. Earle Smith, Jr. (A Revision of Cedrela

(Meliaceae). Fieldiana : Botany 29: 295-341, iUus. 1960)

has combined Cedrela mexicana and C. guianensis as

synonyms of C. odorata.

many other local names throughout its extensive

range.

Distribution and habitat.—Central American

cedar grows throughout the West Indies and on

the continent from Mexico through Central

America and into northern South America, including Brazil, Peru, and Venezuela. This timber, or one of several other cedars growing

in South America, occurs in every country south

of the United States except Chile. Cedrela

mexicana^ native from Mexico to Brazil, does not

occur naturally in the West Indies except in Trinidad, but has been widely planted and naturalized,

especially in Cuba and Puerto Rico. C, guianensis

is presumably confined to the Guianas, while C,

odorata is native apparently through the West

Indies and has been planted widely in tropical

America.

In some areas there may be two forms of

a single species; one form is located along

streams or on sheltered moist sites and j)rovides

light-colored wood of relatively low density; the

other form occurs on well-drained hillside forests

or on drier sites and produces denser, more deeply

colored wood (i^5, i^7, 2),

The trees generally make their best growth on

rich, well-drained humid sites, but under certain

circumstances compete favorably on drier hillside

sites. However, the trees are ordinarily somewhat exacting as to site requirements and are especially intolerant of water-logged locations (S^)-

Cedar is often planted as an ornamental and shade

tree throughout the American tropics {280),

The tree.—Under favorable conditions. Central

American cedar grows to a height of 90 to 130

feet and a diameter of 2 to 4 feet. Trees commonly

have clear boles 50 to 80 feet above the buttresses,

which often extend 4 to 12 feet up the tree.

Larger trees are often found, ranging up to 6 or

even 10 feet or more in diameter. The bark is

thin, smooth and grayish in color on young trees

and often fairly thick and unevenly fissured on

older trees. This bark has a characteristic aroma

and astringent taste on trees of all sizes (5^, i^^,

5i, 71, 30),

The wood.—The wood of young trees, especially

those of very rapid growth in the open, is less

fragrant, lighter in color, softer, but somewhat

tougher than that of older trees or more slowly

grown forest trees. The more slowly grown,

dense, pungent-odored timber is preferred and

commands a greater price in the local market.

The heartwood is pinkish to reddish brown when

freshly cut, becoming red or dark reddish brown,

occasionally with a purplish tinge, after exposure.

The darker wood, as mentioned above, comes from

the drier exposures. The sapwood is whitish grey

or pinkish in color. In general. Central American cedar resembles the lighter grades of Honduras mahogany {195).

The texture is generally medium but the darker

colored woods may have a coarser texture than

596544 0-62—4
46 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

the lighter woods. The grain is usually straight

but on occasions is interlocked and sometimes

highly figured in buttresses and butts. The wood,

which may be slightly to decidedly ring porous,

has a characteristic growth-ring pattern visible on

the tangential surface (^^). Some wood shows

gum streaks. The luster is medium to high but

generally least apparent in the lighter colored

timbers. Most wood has an odor similar to that of

several species of coniferous "cedar" growing in

the United States. Some specimens also have a

distinctive bitter taste.

These two distinct types of wood are recognized

in some areas of British Guiana as : (1) The darker

variety, more straight-grained, with a coarser texture and more volatile oil; and (2) the lighter

variety, not so straight-grained as the darker,

with a finer texture and less volatile oil {127^ Hl^

30,143,^65).

Weight.—Timber weight varies considerably,

depending on the location, site, age of tree, and

rapidity of growth. Specific gravity, based on

ovendry weight and green volume, is reported

from 0.34 to 0.45, averaging about 0.40. Specific

gravity, based on air-dry volume and weight,

ranges from a low-of 0.42 to a high of 0.64, averaging about 0.48 at 12 percent moisture content.

Green wood weighs about 44 pounds per cubic

foot and air-dry wood about 30 pounds per cubic

foot at 12 to 15 percent moisture content {^31,

82,lJtß,135,30).

Seasoning.—Central American cedar is generally an easy wood to season, either by air-drying

or in the kiln. The timber seasons at a rapid rate

with only very minor warping and only slight

surface checking and end splitting, but it has a

tendency under some conditions for knots to split

rather badly {30, IJfß, 241), The wood is sometimes compared to white pine {Pinus stroius) in

seasoning behavior {71), One-inch boards are reported to air-dry in 3 to 6 months in Trinidad

{166), 3 to 4 months in Dominica {50), and 4

months in Puerto Rico.

In kiln-drying, some individual pieces may at

times distort or collapse quite appreciably but may

be controlled by lower kiln temperatures {222).

Kiln Schedule 6 of the Forest Products Research

Laboratory in England is recommended {222),

The U.S. Forest Products Laboratory schedule

that appears most appropriate for 4/4 cedar stock

is numbered T8-C3 {238, 145), The Indonesian

Forest Research Institute has also developed a

satisfactory kiln schedule for Oedrela mexicana

grown in Indonesia {172).

Shrinkage.—During seasoning, the wood undergoes relatively low and remarkably uniform

shrinkage. Tests made at Yale University with

Cedrela huberi Ducke from Brazil showed average

shrinkage values from green to ovendry of 3.9

percent radially, 5.9 percent tangentially, 0.16 percent longitudinally, and 8.9 percent volumetrically

(7i), as compared to 4.1, 4.9, and 8.9 percent, respectively, for Cedrela sp. from Nicaragua {125).

Slightly higher values have been obtained for C,

odorata from Puerto Rico.

These values are for shrinkage from green to

ovendry, expressed as a percent of the original

green volume. Shrinkage from green to air-dry

would be approximately half these values.

Studies of Cedrela spp. by the Forest Products

Research Laboratory in England gave shrinkage

values of 3.0 percent radially and 4.0 percent tangentially from green to air-dry. The tests in

England and the United States are quite comparable when the latter are converted to a green

to air-dry basis {60). The very low ratio of radial

to tangential shrinkage and the normal rate of

longitudinal shrinkage are indicative of the good

seasoning characteristics of the wood and largely

explain why the timber seasons without appreciable warping, checking, or other defect.

The timber is relatively stable to changes in

relative humidity, placing it in the class of timbers

having small movement values. It reaches a

moisture content of 14.5 percent in equilibrium

with a relative humidity of 60 percent and a moisture content of 21.5 percent in a relative humidity

of 90 percent. It moves (swells or shrinks) 1.0

percent in the radial plane, and 1.5 percent in the

tangential plane from the lower to higher moisture content, or vice versa {IDS).

Mechanical properties.—Mechanical properties are available from several sources for either

Cedrela s^. (species unknown) or for other species

than those discussed in this report. However,

because of similarity of the wood of all species of

Cedrela, the data can be safely applied to the

species covered here.

Central American cedar is comparable, or only

slightly below, Honduras mahogany in all strength

properties in both the green and the air-dry condition except hardness, resistance to shear, and compression and tension across the grain {102, 249,

127). Some difference is noted in strength properties between species and different tests; this can

be attributed to the density and other properties

of the test specimens that very according to site,

location, age, and growth rate as described in the

section on the wood and its properties.

Working characteristics.—The wood is easy to

work, both with hand and machine tools, and

dulls cutting edges very little. It planes to a

smooth surface and normally finishes cleanly in

all other operations. There is a slight tendency

for "woolliness" to develop during machining, but

this can be overcome by keeping all knives and

saws sharp. The darker wood is said to work

more easily than the lighter. Saw type D is

recommended by the Forest Products Eesearch

Laboratory in England {105).

The presence of gum in some logs gives a little

trouble in planing and polishing but, in general,

the wood stains and polishes beautifully after

suitable filling. It has good nail-holding and
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 47

screw-holding properties. Tests at Yale University showed one species, Cedrela tondmii C. DC,

to have fair bending qualities {57), Cedar is

very popular in the veneer and plywood industry,

for it peels cold, dries exceptionally well, and has

good gluing properties {197, 1%, 229, SO, 102,

2kO),

Durability.—Central American cedar logs are

liable to become stained if conversion does not

take place soon after felling or if a protective endcoating is not applied. The wood of Cedrela

odorata is rated moderately durable to durable to

decay in "gravevard" tests in British Guiana {60)

and Surinam (l7S). Other species of Cedrela

showed a considerable variability in durability in

pure culture tests at Yale University but, in general, were moderately durable to durable to both a

white-rot and brown-rot fungi {2Iß).

The timber is resistant to both subterranean and

dry-wood termites but has little resistance to marine borers {76) and is occasionally subject to

infestation by pinhole borers. Wolcott {263)

rates this cedar slightly better than Honduras

mahogany in resistance to dry-wood termites in

Puerto Rico. The timber has excellent weathering properties without the protection of paint

Uses,—The wood is eminently suited for uses

requiring a soft, lightweight, but strong, straightgrained, easily worked, relatively durable wood

of above average beauty. Because of its many

good qualities, as well as its beauty, cedar is particularly suitable for such items as patterns, drawing

boards, Venetian blinds, decking and planking for

small boats, musical instruments, wooden novelties, cigarboxes, and doors. It is also preferred

for both sliced and rotary-cut veneer, being used

both as a face and core veneer for decorative and

utility grades of plywood {197,11^5).

World Timbers, v. 1 {118), describes the use of

wood in England as follows: "The main uses in

this country are for furniture, interior fittings

and boat building. In the latter case it is used

both for planking of high-class pleasure boats

and also for interior cabin work both in the solid

and as a core for veneering. It is also used for

panels in railway coaches, especially such as are

grooved, as the wood will bend easily without

breaking. It still remains the best timber for

cigarboxes as it harmonizes with the scent of the

tobacco and prevents the working of an insect

which attacks tobacco. It is also stated that

Cedar keeps the tobacco in the best condition as

it permits excess moisture from tobacco to be

evaporated and also admits moisture from without when the cigars become too dry. When used

as an interior for wardrobes it is an excellent

precaution against clothes moth."

The timber is also commonly used in the tropics

for furniture, interior construction, panelling,

cabinetwork, millwork, light boat parts, canoes,

shingles, clothing chests, flooring, and general

building material for house construction. The

heavier grades are suitable for the same uses as

Honduras mahogany.

Supply.—Logs and sawed lumber are available

in export quantities from the Guianas, British

Honduras, and possibly from a number of the

islands in the West Indies. Present quantities are

not large but should meet a limited demand. The

timber is normally exported to England in the

form of both square and round logs up to 40 feet

long and 40 inches in diameter. Some sawed

lumber is also exported.

COURBARIL

Hymenaea courharil, Hymenaea davisii

Nomenclature.—The timbers of Hymenaea

courharil L. and H. davisii Sandw. are most commonly known in the Caribbean trade as courharil,

locust, locus, locuat, or West Indian locust. The

British know the timber as West Indian or South

American locust and courharil, while the Spanish-speaking countries often use the names algarrobo or guapinol. Brazilian names are principally jutaby and jatoba. It is called locust in

British Guiana^ Trinidad, and St. Vincent; locus

or rode locus m Surinam; courharil in French

Guiana, Guadeloupe, Dominica, Martinique, and

St. Lucia ; and algarrobo in Puerto Rico. In Jamaica it is called stinking toe or West Indies

locust, caguairan, courbaril, and algarroba de las

Antilles. The usual Mexican names are cuapinol,

coapinol, and guapinol. Other names include jatay, jetay, jataiba, Brazilian gum-copal tree, and

courbaril plum. (Legume family, Leguminosae.)

Distribution and habitat.—The best known

species, Hymenaea couriaril, is found from southem Mexico, throughout Central America and the

West Indies, and into northern South America to

northern Brazil, Bolivia, and Peru.

Hymenaea davisii grows only in British Guiana, where it is confined to the country's northcentral and northeast districts. It occurs as an

occasional tree on sandy or loamy soils within the

rain or seasonal forests {33,82).

Hymenaea courharil is a tree that prefers open

sites, not too humid. It is best adapted on sandy,

well-drained soils, making its best development

on ridges or slopes and high river banks and generally not present on flat wet areas. In Surinam

the tree is rare in the rain forest, but locally frequent on high ridges and river banks in the coastal

region. In British Guiana, courbaril is an occasional to locally frequent tree on clay loams or

silty clays in the mora and marsh forests; on

sandy soils near rivers or streams in the seasonal

forests; and on lateritic soils in the rain forests

in hilly country. In Jamaica the tree is common

on the Liguanea and St. Elizabeth plains {229),

It does best on ridges in Trinidad and also grows

on slopes, but rarely on flats or in the mora forest.
48 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

The tree.—Courbaril is a large, nearly evergreen tree growing to 130 feet high and 5 feet in

diameter; but normally it is less than 100 feet high

and 2 to 4 feet in diameter. The trunk is usually

free of branches for 40 to 80 feet, well formed and

basally swollen or buttressed in large trees. Hymenaea davisii is the taller of the two trees; both

have massive spreading branches and heavy umbrella-shaped crowns and are usually dominant or

codominant in the stand.

The bark contains an abundance of a pale yellow or reddish translucent gum, known in the

trade as South American copal. This gum often

accumulates in the ground at the base of the tree

and may be found in the soil (fossil gum) in

large quantities long after the tree has disappeared. The resin is used for certain cements and

varnishes, and is also wrapped in corn husks and

sold in cake form as incense for burning in

churches. At one time, the bark was stripped

from large trees and used for native canoes, capable of holding 25 to 30 men {71, 33,118).

The wood.—Green courbaril heartwood is

salmon red to orange brown, becoming russet to

reddish brown when seasoned. The sapwood is

usually wide, sharply demarcated from tne heartwood, and white, gray, or pinkish. The heartwood frequently is marked with dark streaks and

may at times show a golden luster.

Grain is usually interlocked, but is occasionally

straight; the texture is medium to coarse. Seasoned wood has no distinctive odor or taste. The

wood is particularly attractive, resembling sugar

maple on the radial surface and having a high

lustrous sheen marked with scattered lines of vessels on the tangential surface. Quartersawed

wood is particularly attractive due to the exposure of the radial surface on the top surface of the

boards.

Weight.—The specific gravity based on ovendry

weight and green volume averages 0.70 (0.62 to

0.80) for Hymenaea courbaril from Puerto Rico,

Honduras, and Surinam, and 0.67 (0.60 to 0.75)

for H, davisii. The specific gravity, based on airdry volume and weight for both species, is reported by different sources from 0.75 to 1.05,

averaging about 0.84. Weight of green wood of

both species averages about 70 pounds per cubic

foot when green and about 52 pounds air-dry,

which is comparable to black locust (Roiinia

pseudoacacia L.) in the seasoned condition {71,

33, Uli).

Seasoning.—Hymenaea couriaril is considered

slightly difficult to air-dry. It seasons at a fast to

moderate rate with slight checking, warp, and casehardening. H, davisii is somewhat more difficult

to season, drying at a moderate rate with moderate

surface checking and slight checking and warp

{2JfJ9) ; but seasoning must be slow if checking is

to be kept to a minimum. Some sources compare

H, courbaril to black walnut {Juglans nigra L.)

in seasoning characteristics, and H. davisii to

white oak {Quercu^s alba L.), which is a difficult

timber to season. Kiln Schedule 3 of the Forest

Products Research Laboratory in England is recommended for kiln-drying and Schedule T3--D1

of the Forest Products Laboratory in the United

States also appears suitable for 4/4 stock {222,

1U,^S8,33).

Shrinkage.—Hymenaea courbaril undergoes

moderate shrinkage for a wood of its density,

comparing favorgibly with black locust of the

United States, which is noted for its low shrinkage in relation to its density. Courbaril shrinks

4.5 percent radially, 8.5 percent tangentially, and

12.7 percent volumetrically from green to ovendry, compared to 4.4, 6.9, and 9.8 percent, respectively, for black locust. It is also considerably better in this respect than either white oak

or shagbark hickory {Carya ovata (Mill.) K.

Koch.), although hickory is not highly regarded

for its drying characteristics. Courbaril's longitudinal shrinkage rate of 0.27 percent is normal

for timbers with interlocked grain.

Hymenaea davisii undergoes shrinkage rates of

4.1 percent radially, 7.6 percent tangentially, 0.51

percent longitudinally, and 14.8 percent volumetrically from ^reen to ovendrjr. The relationship between radial and tangential shrinkage of

both species is fairly high, indicating that considerable warp and twist could occur as a result

of stresses that occur during seasoning. The 0.51

percent longitudinal shrinkage of H, davisii is

also relatively high for wood with interlocked

grain. Shrinkage from green to air-dry (12 percent moisture content) would amount to about

half the above values {71, lU, ^SS),

The wood of both species is relatively permeable and absorbs and loses moisture readily. According to Pfeiffer {176), Hymenaea courbaril

does not swell or shrink excessively in response

to changes in relative humidity. He found that

ovendry wood of this species reached a moisture

content of 10.4 percent when placed in heated

rooms having a 40-percent relative humidity, 14.0

percent at 70-percent relative humidity (air-dry),

and 23.0 percent at 100-percent (maximum) relative humidity. Swelling from ovendry to equilibrium in the 40-, 70-, and 100-percent relative

humidity conditions amounted to 6.73, 8.82, and

11.3 percent respectively. These rates are acceptable for wood of courbaril's density.

Mechanical properties.—Courbaril is a very

strong, hard, tough wood. In the green condition

it is about equal or somewhat below black locust

in most properties, but is slightly to considerably

superior to that timber in hardness and perpendicular-to-the-grain properties. In comparison

with woods of similar density, Hymenae courbaril

is below average in bending and crushing strength

and stiffness, and above average in shock resistance, hardness, compression, cleavage, and tension.
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 49

Hymenaea davisii in the green condition is generally higher in strength properties than teak,

but falls slightly below teak in elastic resilience,

shock resistance, and maximum crushing strength.

It is also a somewhat heavier wood than teak.

Both species are generally superior to white

oak in the green condition, and retain their superiority in the air-dry condition in all properties

except compression perpendicular to the grain in

which Hymenaea davisii is slightly inferior to

white oak (249,71).

Working properties.—Courbaril is moderately

difficult to work, due largely to its hi^h density.

It nails badly but has good screw-holdmg power,

takes glue well and turns satisfactorily. The wood

finishes smoothly but does not take a high polish.

It is comparable to white oak in steam-bending

properties and splits rather easily (57, ^^, IßS,

66).

Durability.—Courbaril is generally not considered durable in contact with the ground. However, the high proportion of sapwood in secondgrowth trees may account for the timber's poor

reputation for durability, as sapwood of all species is always lower in decay resistance than heartwood. Recent laboratory tests indicated that the

heartwood of Hymenaea courbaril was very resistant to a white-rot fungus and very resistant to

resistant to a brown-rot fungus, although somewhat variable. Graveyard tests by Pfeiffer indicated that the wood is durable in the ground

(Í7J).

The wood has little resistance to marine borers

as evidenced by tests in Hawaiian and Atlantic

waters (76,2Ii9), The silica content of the wood,

often associated with high resistance to marine

borers, amounts to only 0.02 percent {H), Hymenaea Gouriaril is very resistant to termites, rating considerably above both West Indies mahogany and Honduras mahogany in this respect

{268). The wood checks badly upon exposure to

the weather without the protection of paint {66)

and, consequently, rates relatively low in weathering properties.

Uses.—Courbaril's high shock resistance fits it

admirably for use in sporting goods and for tool

handles in place of ash. It is also suitable for

steam-bent boat parts for which oak is generally

used. As flooring and stair treads, it provides a

very wear-resistant surface, which takes a fairly

good polish. The timber has been recommended

for veneer, because the characteristic wide sapwood layer in second-growth timber works well

into natural and blond-finish furniture.

Both the sapwood and heartwood are suitable

for furniture, cabinetwork, interior trim, and

turnery. European manufacturers have recently

shown interest in the timber as a piano wood.

Other purposes for which courbaril is used include ship planking, tree-nails, gear cogs, wheel

rims, general building construction, looms, naves

and felloes of wheels, and as wooden parts in

sugar mills and other mill machinerv. It is also

used to some extent for lock gates m areas free

from marine borers.

Supply.—Courbaril should be available in quantity from the Guianas and possibly British Honduras and in limited amounts from Trinidad and

other West Indies islands.

CRABWOOD

Carapa guianensis

Crabwood is a member of the mahogany family

(Meliaceae) and resembles the true mahoganies,

sometimes being substituted for them. Crabwood

has been sold locally and overseas for many years,

often with unfavorable results due to poor conversion and drying practices. However, during

the last few years, with better milling and seasoning practices and an increased knowledge of its

properties, the timber has gained an international

reputation as a wood of high quality and many

uses {126).

Nomenclature.—Crabwood is the preferred

trade name for the timber of Carafa guianensis

Aubl. It is also known as cedro macho in some

parts of the West Indies and in the United States,

and principally as andiroba in Brazil {186). A

few other species of Cara^pa gxoy^mg in Central

and South America are frequently mistaken for

G. guianensis but lack some of the good qualities

of crabwood. Among these are G. surinamensis

Miq. of Surinam, G. nicaraguensis C. DC. {G.

slateri Standl.) from Costa Eica to western Ecuador. Several other species of this genus are found

in tropical Africa, the principal one being G. procera DC.

Other common names of this timber are bastard

mahogany in British Honduras, krappa in Dutch

Guiana, carapa rouge in French Guiana, empire

andiroba in British Guiana, crappo in Trinidad,

nazasi in Cuba, and varape or carapote in Guadeloupe. The timber also has been called British

Guiana mahogany, karaba, karaba-yek, karapa,

caraba, para mahogany, Demerara mahogany,

robe mahogany, and Brazilian mahogany. Names

referring to mahogany are misleading and should

not be used.

Distribution and habitat.—Crabwood occurs in

the West Indies from Cuba to Trinidad and on the

continent from Honduras south through Central

America, the Guianas and into Brazil, Colombia,

Peru and the overflow delta lands of the Orinoco

in Venezuela {196). The tree is very abundant

in the Amazon flood plains in the States of Para

and Amazonas, and in the Guianas {73). It occasionally grows in nearly pure stands, often as

reefs of 100 or more trees or occasionally up to

200 trees.
50 U.S. DEPT. OF AGHICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

Crabwood is a tree of the lowlands, preferring

marshy land or land that is periodically inundated,

although it tolerates a rather wide range of growing conditions over its extensive range. The tree

occurs as a dominant climax species on old sand

reefs and sandbanks in marsh and riparian forests

of British Guiana. It is a frequent tree throughout British Guiana, but is most abundant in the

mora forest on alluvial flats which are periodically

inundated. It is also scattered along watercourses

on sandy or alluvial soils and occasionally in the

climax rain or seasonal forest on well-drained

st^ep hillsides (82).

Trees growing in the mangrove swamps along

the coast of British Guiana and on frequently

inundated river or creek flats are comparatively

small and of low quality ; likewise, trees growing

along steep hillsides are also of infe,rior quality

to those growing on streambanks of sufficient

height that they are only occasionally inundated.

It is the trees growing on these slightly higher

areas that provide the best timber. These conditions are likely effective in other areas, particularly in the Guianas and Amazon regions.

Crabwood is also abundant in the marsh

forests in the western half of Surinam but occurs

in small numbers in the swamp forests and rain

forests of that country {231).

In Trindad, where crabwood is considered one

of the best native species, the tree is generally

not exacting as to soil and site as long as conditions are not too dry (i^^, 161), The tree is

fairly common at high altitudes in Guadeloupe,

where it prefers valley beds along rivers. It is

confined to the southern part of British Honduras in the Temash-Moho region, where trees

in the cohune forest are small, and those growing

on the broken ridges or swamps are somewhat

larger {150),

The tree.—The trees are evergreen, straight, of

good form, and commonly 2 to 3 feet in diameter

and 80 to 100 feet in height. Under good growing conditions, they sometimes attain diameters

up to 6 feet and heights of 170 feet {118), The

trunks are usually buttressed or basally swollen

for 2 to 3 feet above the ground. Boles are clear

of branches for 30 to 90 feet, depending on the

site, with the shortest trees occurring in the marsh

and hillside forests. Trees are smallest in the

marshes, somewhat taller on the hillsides, and

tallest on the alluvial flats and along watercourses where the species reaches its best development and is most abundant. Nearly pure stands

of crabwood occur on these better sites. The

trees grow rapidly, and reach felling size in 20

to 25 years in the marsh forests of British Guiana,

around 30 to 35 years in the mora forests, and

perhaps 40 to 60 years in the hill forests.

The bark has a bitter taste due to an alkaloid

called carapina, which is used medicinally foir

dysentery, diarrhea, rheumatism, eczema, and ulcers. The bark also contains from 1 to 10 percent

tannin, which is used occasionally in tanning. A

cream-colored, intensely bitter oil of high acidity

and very unpleasant smell, called carapa oil, is

also derived from the seeds and used by the Indians for many uses. Foremost is its use as an

anointment for the skin and hair as a repellent

for ticks, sandflies, eyeflies, and other insects. It

is also used as an illuminant by the Indians. The

oil is used industrially in the manufacture of

soap, candles, insecticidal washes, and medicinally

for skin diseases, and as a wound dressing for

livestock.

The wood.—Crabwood resembles a plain mahogany {Swietenia) and some grades of cedar

{Cedrela) in color, general appearance, and technical properties, but it lacks the high luster and

attractive figure present in the better grades of

mahogany {265), The heartwood is a light salmon or pale pink to reddish brown when freshly

cut, becoming reddish brown to brown when dry.

The general color is somewhat darker than mahogany because of the accumulated dark-colored

gum in the vessels. Wood, above average in density, is notably darker, while coarse-textured wood

appears lighter and somewhat mealy on the radial

surface. The sapwood is pinkish when freshly

cut, turning a pale brown or grayish color, often

with brown or black flecks, when dry. It is generally 1 to 2 inches thick and not sharply demarcated from the heartwood.

The wood varies from coarse to fine but is mostly medium in texture. The luster is generally

medium but often low on the tangential surface,

although luster may be high in the more dense

material and often very low in coarse-textured

wood. The grain is usually straight, but interlocked grain and occasional fiddleback mottle occurs in larger logs. Kipple marks occur sporadically in the denser tissue. The wood is generally

appreciably denser and harder than mahogany,

comparing quite favorably with black walnut

{Juglans nigra), Harrar {123) rates crabwood

102 in hardness as compared to 100 for black walnut at 6.4 percent moisture content. Odor and

taste are absent in seasoned wood (i^, llß).

Irregular growth rings due to bands of marginal parenchyma are visible on the cross section.

The pores are open and visible to the naked eye.

Eays occasionally are faintly visible on the tangential surface and distinct on the radial surface.

In British Guiana some of the wood from hillsides is darker, heavier, denser, and has interlocked grain, similar to brown silverballi or bullforehead greenheart. Wood from swamplands is

softer, lighter in color, more coarse, often woolly,

and floats high out of the water (lighter m

weight). Wood from the same site and even the

same tree may vary in color.

Weight.—The specific gravity, based on ovendry weight and green volume, averages about 0.56.

Air-dry wood has a specific gravity of about 0.64.

Air-dry wood weighs about 40 pounds per cubic
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 51

foot and green wood about 56 pounds per cubic

foot.

Seasoning.—The Forest Products Research

Laboratory in England reports that the timber

air-seasons and kihi-dries rather slowly with a

tendency to split, check, and collapse during the

early stages of drying, but without serious bowing

or cupping {';3J'2). They recommend cleating the

end of boards after sawing and the use of thin

stickers. However, recent tests at Yale University {24^) indicated that crabwood is only moderately difficult to air-season with only moderate

checking and slight warping. In Georgetown,

British Guiana, 1-inch lumber dries from 48 to

19 percent moisture content in ^5 days and to 14

percent in 62 days under open-sided sheds (^5).

At the Forest Station, Mazaruni, British Guiana,

1-inch lumber dried from 60 to 15 percent moisture content in 6 months.

A low temperature and high humidity during

the early stages of kiln-di-ying is essential to reduce degrade. Kiln Schedule 3 of the Forest

Products Research Laboratory in England is recommended (222). Fanshawe (80) reports that

the timber is liable to reabsorb moisture rapidly

during rainy weather accompanied by a retarded

rate of seasoning. This moisture is lost again

more slowly.

Logs check badly in the woods and during shipment abroad and should be converted into lumber as soon as possible after felling. Green lumber

is reported to degrade up to 40 percent or more

during overseas shipment, but this may be prevented by seasoning before shipment.

Shrinkage.—Crabwood varies considerably in

its rate of shrinkage, but compares very well with

other species of comparable density. Its shrinkage rates of 3.1 percent radially, 7.6 percent tangentially, and 10.4 percent volumetrically from

green to ovendry are comparable to that of other

woods of like density. The wood's ratio of tangential to radial shrinkage is relatively high, indicating nonuniform shrinkage in these two directions. However, its longitudinal shrinkage of

0.10 percent is somewhat below the average for

other similar woods (127).

The stability of crabwood in response to changes

in atmospheric conditions is very good in comparison to most other tropical species of similar

density.

The Forest Products Kesearch Laboratory in

England {108)^ studying the movement of wood

(dimensional changes), found that this species

reached an equilibrium moisture content of 20

percent in 90-percent relative humidity and 14

percent in 60-percent relative humidity. The corresponding movement between these two moisture

contents was 1.5 percent tangentially and 1.3 percent radially compared to 1.3 and 1.0 percent,

respectively, for Honduras mahogany. This

amounts to %6 inch per foot in the tangential

plane and %2 inch per foot in the radial plane,

rating crabwood as relatively stable in response to

atmospheric changes.

Mechanical properties.—The mechanical properties of crabwood vary according to the density

of the \A'ood and to some extent with the source

of material because timber from different sources

often varies in density. Tests at the Forest Products Reseach Laboratory in England {106)

showed air-dry wood to be about 30 percent

stronger in bending and in resistance to suddenly

applied loads, about 40 percent more resistant to

splitting, 50 percent stiffer, and about 60 percent

harder on the side grain than Honduras mahogany. It was considered equal in strength to black

walnut and black cherry.

Tests at Yale University {127, 2Jfi) showed

considerable variability in strength according to

sources. Their results were summarized as follows: "Compared with wood of similar density,

andiroba is average in stiffness as measured in

compression parallel to the grain, hardness, shear,

and cleavage; slightly above average in resistance

to crushing, toughness, and tension across the

grain; and definitely superior in compression

across the grain, stress at proportional limit in

compression along the grain, and all static-bending properties." The Yale tests rated crabwood

superior to mahogany {Sioietenia macrophylla)

in all properties other than work to maximum

load and shear, and superior to yellow birch

{Betula aUegJmmensis) m all properties except

work to maximum load.

Working properties.—Crabwood is more difficult to machine than mahogany but can be worked

quite easily with machines and hand tools and is

superior to Honduras mahogany in some respects.

Machining tests at the U.S. Forest Products Laboratory {68) with Ca rapa nicaragiœnsis show that

the wood has good machining properties in planing, molding, shaping, turning, mortising, sanding,

and boring. Straight-grained material machines

smoothly but quartersawed material is apt to pluck

when wavy grain is present. Wlien this occurs,

considerable sanding is required to obtain a smooth

finish.

The Forest Products Research Laboratory m

England {105) rates crabwood as 25 percent

harder to cut than Honduras mahogany and

equally more wearing on cutting edges. They

recommend a 15-degree knife angle for planing.

The wood holds nails well but has a slight tendency to split when nailed. It rates above Honduras mahogany in screw holding, Harrar {123)

rating it about equal with black cherry and white

oak in this respect. It also glues well and takes

all finishing treatments very well but requires the

use of a filler on the softer variety. The wood

assumes a walnut rather than mahogany appearance when treated with oil. Crabwood is not

suitable for steam bending but peels well tor

veneer, although end splitting of the logs* causes

a certain amount of loss.
52 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

Durability.—Crabwood logs are susceptible to

pinhole borer damage, and the green lumber is

attacked by powder-post {Lyctus) beetles {168^

ISJf, 132), Wolcott {263) found the wood very

susceptible to damage by dry-wood termites,

rating 39 as compared to 59 for Honduras mahogany. The timber is variously reported to be

resistant or poorly resistant to decay in the ground.

Tests in different locations show varying results,

indicating density may be a factor m the durability of this wood.

Soil tests in England {206) rated the wood

durable in contact with the ground where it lasted

10 to 15 years. Scheffer and Duncan {199) report

that Carapa nicaraguensis from Panama and Central America was moderately resistant in both soil

and pure culture tests. Wangaard and Muschler

{2Jt9) found C. guianensis very durable to both a

white-rot and brown-rot fungus, while soil tests

in British Guiana {60) showed the timber only

slightly resistant. Because of these conflicting

reports, crabwood should not normally be used

in contact with the ground or where decay is a

problem. The wood is comparable to teak in fire

resistance and comparable to mahogany in

weathering properties; it rates very good in both

respects.

Uses.—Crabwood is used in Central and

South America for furniture, turnery, shingles,

millwork, interior trim, boxes, crates, flooring,

masts, and as studding, rafters, sheathing, and

other items in house construction {51), It is one

of the most preferred substitutes for mahogany in

furniture and other uses in the areas where it

grows. Crabwood has been recommended as a

substitute for black walnut and black cherry in

the manufacture of furniture, interior finish, and

other similar uses. The Forest Products Research

Laboratory recommends the timber for furniture,

carcassing, chair and table legs, instrument cases,

drawer linings, and for general joinery such as

shop fittings, display cabinets, cupboards, and

moldings. It is generally considered very suitable for interior work in boatbuilding, veneer, and

plywood.

Crabwood has been used successfully in Holland as a substitute for oak in veneer manufacture.

If prices are held down, this wood is considered

an eventual competitor of yellow birch and sugar

maple in the United States market. According

to M. N. Gallant, Food and Agriculture Organization forestry expert, crabwood is the principal

species used in British Guiana for siding in the

better class of wooden housing. It has also been

designated as one of the eight local woods acceptable for louvres, weather strips, sash frames,

and Demerara shutters in the British Guiana

Government's housing program.

Crabwood logs 24 to 50 inches in diameter Were

purchased in large quantities over a considerable

period of time by German airplane manufacturers, and were presumably cut into veneer for airplane plywood. The volume of logs and the period of time indicates that the material was acceptable for whatever use it was employed {96),

Crabwood is also a preferred wood in the manufacture of shoe heels {7Jt). For pulping, in conibination with 14 other species from Surinam, it

makes a fairly good quality wrapping paper.

Species were used in the proportion of their occurrence in the forest {137).

Supply.—British Honduras, Trinidad, and the

three Guianas have crabwood in exportable quantities {50), Considerable quantities of logs are

rafted from British Guiana to Surinam for conversion.

The timber is plentiful in the Guianas and

British Honduras. In British Guiana, crabwood

occurs at a density of from 5 trees 16 inches and

over per 1,000 acres in the Demerara-Mahaicony

area to 543 trees per 1,000 acres in the CuyuniMazaruni area. These averages are based on a i^

to 2 percent sampling of a 3,000 scjuare mile area

in the near interior. This timber is also available

from Costa Eica where large supplies of lumber

and logs are available for export.

DAKAMA

Dimorphandra conjúgala

Nomenclature.—Dakama, Dimorphandra conjugata (Splitg.) Sandw., is one of about 25 species

of Dimorphandra growing in Brazil, the Guianas

and Amazonian Venezuela. Mora^ the similar

genus, which is sometimes merged with Dimorphandra^ is described separately in this reference.

The tree and timber oi D, conjugata are commonly called dakama by the Arawak Indians and

anjama by the Bush Negroes of Surinam. The

general trade name is dakama. (Legume family,

Leguminosae.)

Distribution and habitat.—Dakama is found in

the northeast and north-central districts of British Guiana, in Surinam, and possibly in French

Guiana. In British Guiana and Surinam the tree

is locally abundant and dominant on white sandy

soils on or near watersheds {82),

The tree.—Dakama occurs most often as a small

coppice tree or scrub in the open, but in some locations it develops into a large well-formed tree.

These trees are commonly 16 to 24 inches in diameter, 90 to 120 feet high, and clear of branches

for 60 to 80 feet. Trees up to 40 inches in diameter are found. The tree is unbuttressed and

coppices freely {231^ 82)-

The wood.—The heartwood is dark reddish

brown, sometimes with paler streaks showing, and

has an oily feel and appearance. The texture is

coarse and the grain varies from straight to irregular, but is generally very irregular. Wood parenchyma is abundant and distinct, appearing as

diagonal bands on the transverse surface.
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 53

Weight.—The specific gravity of air-dry wood

(12.0 percent moisture content) averages about

1.06, based on air-dry volume and weight. Airdry wood weighs about 66 pounds per cubic foot.

Shrinkage and seasoning.—No information is

available on shrinkage or seasoning.

Mechanical properties.—There are no available data on the strength properties of dakama.

It is generally known as a very hard, heavy, tough

wood.

Working properties.—Dakama is reported to

be rather difficult to w^ork as could be expected of

a wood of its high density, irregular gram, coarse

texture, and oily nature, but is reported to finish

smoothly.

Durability.—The timber is considered moderately resistant to decay.

Uses.—It is presently recommended as a general construction timber. Many other uses may

be developed when more is known about the mechanical and physical properties.

Supplies.—The total supplies of dakama are

not large, but the timber is available in relatively

large quantities in the districts where it occurs.

In British Guiana it is concentrated largely in the

Essequibo-Demerara and Demerara-Makaicony

areas.

DETERMA

Ocotea rubra

Nomenclature.—Ocotea rubra Mez botanically

is related to Demerara greenheart, Ocotea rodiaei

(R. Schomb.) Mez, although the woods are quite

different. The laurel family, Lauraceae, contains

also many other related species in tropical

America.

The timber is commonly marketed as determa,

wana, or teteruma in British Guiana ; wana, baaka, bewana, wane, and teteroma in Surinam ; grignon franc, grignon rouge, and grignon in French

Guiana ; lo'uro vermelho in Brazil; and laurier or

laurier canelle in Trinidad. Red louro is the

standard timber name recommended by British

Standards Institution {36).

Distribution and habitat.—Determa grows in

the Guianas, Trinidad, and the lower Amazon region of Brazil. In British Guiana, the tree is of

occasional to frequent occurrence on sandy or

loamy soils within the rain and seasonal forest

(,82). In Surinam it occurs as an occasional tree

in the rain and marsh forest, becoming more plentiful on the Saramacca District on brown sandy

soils, and disappearing west of the Wayombo

River {^Sl). It is apparently found principally

on the lowlands within the lower Amazon region

in Brazil {71).

The tree.—The trees are evergreen, unbuttressed but generally basally swollen. They have

erect-spreading, heavy-branched and rounded,

compact crowns. Trees grow to 5 feet in diameter

and 130 feet high, but are usually 2 to 3 feet in

diameter and 90 to 100 feet high. Their cylindrical boles are clear of branches for 40 to 80 feet.

Taper is often heavy, especially in trees under 2

feet in diameter {82). Timbers are available 40

feet long and squaring 30 inches of heartwood,

and spars up to 70 to 80 feet long and 14 inches

in diameter at the small end {190).

The wood.—The wood does not resemble any of

the other Lauraceae. The well-defined sapwood

is creamy, gray, or creamy brown and about 1 to

2 inches thick. The heartwood is a deep salmon

red when freshly cut, becoming a light reddish

brown with a golden sheen resembling Honduras

mahogany when seasoned. The color is rather

uniform with pink or yellow streaks occurring

occasionally {186.^ 71).

The texture is coarse, uniform, and with numerous tyloses showing as shiny deposits in the

vessels. The grain is either straight or roey,

which occasionally shows as ribbonlike bands on

the quartersawed surface. Consequently, quartersawed lumber is sometimes attractively figured

because of the roey grain and the fine but distinct

rays. Straight-grained material is characterized

by the closely spaced, coarse vessel lines. Green

Avood has a pungent odor, but dry wood is without

distinctive odor or taste. The wood is unusually

free of knots and other defects {213).

Weight.—Determa is a moderately hard and

heavy wood, similar in weight to yellow birch of

the United States. The specific gravity of wood

from Surinam and British Guiana averaged 0.52

in tests at Yale University {2^9), based on green

volume and ovendry weight. The specific gravity

of air-dry wood averages about 0.62, based on

weiglit and volume in that condition. Green

wood weighs about 59 pounds and air-dry wood

about 39 pounds per cubic foot.

Seasoning.—The wood is moderately difficult

to air-season and kiln-dry, largely due to the slow

diffusion rate of free moisture through the wood

and the development of collapse, if the drying

rate is greatly accelerated. Thick stock tends to

remain moist in the center for a considerable time,

thereby causing slight casehardening. In general, the wood air-dries at a moderate rate with

slight checking and casehardening and moderate

warping. In Georgetown, British Guiana, green

1-inch lumber can be air-seasoned to 21 percent

moisture content in 41/2 months. Yale University

{70) reports a 6-month drying period at New

Haven, Conn., for 1-inch stock piled during the

early part of the year.

The wood kiln-dries at a moderate rate but with

a definite tendency to check and develop

end splits, although it is successfully kilnseasoned if a mild kiln schedule is used during the

first part of the run {222). . Stock above 90 percent moisture content requires about 6 to 7 weeks

to kiln-dry under a mild schedule. Kiln Schedule 5 of the Forest Products Kesearch Laboratory

is recommended (222). A successful kiln sched-
54 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

ule Avas also developed at Yale University and

is presented in their Technical Report 5 (70).

Shrinkage.—Wood from Surinam and British

Guiana undergoes an average shrinkage from

green to ovendry of 3.7 percent radially, 7.6 percent tangentially, and 10.4 percent volumetrically

{24p) • The overall shrinkage is moderate, but the

ratio of tangential to radial shrinkage is indicative of a tendency for moderate warp to occur during seasoning. However, the timber has lower

shrinkage values than most of the better quality

hardwoods of the United States, including sugar

maple, shagbark hickory, white ash, white oak,

and yellow birch. The longitudinal shrinkage

value of 0.26 percent in determa is not out of

proportion for woods with interlocked grain.

Shrinkage from green to air-dry would amount

to approximately half the above values.

Mechanical properties.—Mechanical tests at

Yale University {249) indicated that the wood is

somewhat below average in strength properties

for tropical woods of similar density. It about

equals white oak in resistance to bending and compression parallel to the grain, but is inferior to

oak in other mechanical properties. It compares

well with oak under gradually applied loads but

fails earlier under suddenly applied bending loads.

In comparison to black walnut, it is stronger,

stiffer, not as tough, and weaker in cleavage resistance. The timber is softer on the end grain

than on the side and has greater tangential than

radial resistance to splitting.

Working properties.—Determa works easily

and well with both hand and machine tools, being

similar to a dense grade of Honduras mahogany

in this respect. Saw type D is recommended by

the Forest Products Kesearch Laboratory (124-) • However, the use of dull cutting edges should be

avoided as thev tend to raise the grain. This wood

glues easily (240) and polishes fairly well, although its coarse texture requires the use of fillers

(136). Weathering characteristics of the wood

are very good; unpainted wood can be exposed

to the elements with virtually no checking or warp

and only a moderate loss of surface smoothness

(55). The heartwood is unusually resistant to the

absorption of moisture, surpassing teak in this respect (198\.

Durability.—The heartwood is rated durable to

very durable to a white-rot fungus, and though

variable it averages durable to a brown-rot fungus (24^). In graveyard tests in British Guiana,

the wood was highly resistant to decay in contact

with the ground; 2- by 2-inch square test pieces

lasted 8 to 9 years in the ground (50).

The timber is rated about as resistant to drywood termites as Honduras mahogany (Swietenia

macrophylla) but is considerably less so than

teak (263). It also has some resistance to marineborer attack as evidenced by tests at Harbor Island, N.C., where heartwood showed only slight

attack after 10 months' exposure and moderate

attack by teredo and pholads after 15 months'

exposure (J5, 2JtJ9). However, after 23 months

the test panels were riddled and removed from

the tests (58). A similar test in Hawaiian waters

showed either no infestation or only light attack

by teredo over a 13-month period (76).

On the basis of these tests, determa is similar

to teak but below Demerara greenheart in resistance to marine borers in salt water. The ash

of this timber was determined at only 0.19 percent in tests at the Institute of Paper Chemistry

(261). No silica is detectable microscopically, indicating that the resistance to marine organisms

was not associated with a high silica content.

Uses.—Determa is recognized as a wood of good

quality in British Guiana and accordingly commands relatively high prices. It is used within

its range for furniture of all types: greenhouse

sash framing, sugar boxes, interior and exterior

construction, boat planking, punt masts, packing

boxes, cart and truck bodies, turned articles, cabinetwork, drawing boards, dowel rods, and other

uses. Dugout canoes are also made from it because of its large size and resistance to splitting.

The government of British Guiana selected determa as one of 18 local timbers acceptable for

interior partitions and battens in the housing

program.

The wood's natural resistance to moisture absorption should promote its use for boat parts,

tanks, vats, tight cooperage, and other similar

items. Its resistance to teredo, termites, and decay should also fit the timber for use in heavy

durable construction, piling and marine construction, and for uses in contact with the ground

where durability is essential. The timber has

also been recommended for plywood and veneer.

Having good bending qualities, the wood is recommended for bent parts in furniture, boats, and

other items (136).

Supply.—The supply of determa is not large,

but sizable quantities are available for export in

the three Guianas.

DUKALI

Parahancornia amapa

Dukali is one of the few tropical American

hardwoods suitable to some extent as a substitute

for the white pine imported from the United

States. The tree also furnishes a bitter latex

used in medicines and is a limited source of a

gutta percha. It also provides an edible fruit.

Nomenclature.—The wood of Parahancornia

amapa (Huber) Duke is called dukali in British

Guiana ; amaapa, mampa, and mappa in Surinam ;

amapa in Brazil; and naranja podrida in Peru.

This genus has about six species, mostly in Brazil. (Dogbane family, Apocynaceae.)
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 55

Distribution and habitat.—Dukali occurs infrequently throughout most of the Amazon Basin,

including the Guianas. In British Guiana it

occurs in small reefs on light soils in seasonal

forests, and as a rare tree in the rain forest

throughout the near interior.

The wood.—The heartwood is dull white to pale

cream or pinkish. It has a moderatly fine texture,

straight grain, and is fairly lustrous. The timber

is moderately hard and firm and without distinctive odor or taste {190^ 82).

Weight.—^Air-dry wood is reported to have a

specific gravity of 0.60 and to weigh 37 pounds

per cubic foot {82), The timber is somewhat

heavier than white pine (27 pounds) and lighter

than pitch pine (44 pounds) {160^ 50).

Shrinkage and seasoning.—No information is

available on shrinkage and seasoning.

Mechanical properties.—Information on

strength properties of dukali is not available, but

its uses would suggest that the timber possesses

strength properties commensurate with its density, which is between those of white pine and

yellow pine of the united States.

Working properties.—The wood is easy to

work and finishes smoothly.

Durability.—It is not resistant to decay and is

also very susceptible to blue stain and pocket rot.

The timber is not likely to have any appreciable

resistance to termites or marine borers.

Uses.—In British Guiana, the Forest Department recommends dukali as a substitute for white

pine. In that country it is used for general carpentry, interior work, furniture, door and window stock, concrete forms, and matchboxes. It is

also recommended for box manufacture and plywood (82). Directors of the official housing program in British Guiana have selected dukali as

one of eight local timbers acceptable for louvers,

weatherstrips, sash frames, and Demerara shutters; and as one of 18 species acceptable for interior partitions and battens.

Supply.—British Guiana is the principal

source of the timber, although it may be available

in Surinam and French Guiana when an export

market develops.

ENCENS

Protium attenuatum

Nomenclature.—Protium attenuatum (Kose)

Urban is known as encens, gommier, and bois encens, with encens the preferred trade name.

(Bursera family, Burseraceae.)

Distribution and habitat.—The tree is apparently restricted to the southern part of the Lesser

Antilles in Guadeloupe, Dominica, Martinique,

St. Lucia, and St. Vincent {18). It is common in

St. Lucia, less frequent in Dominica, and uncommon in St. Vincent. The tree is not reported from

Grenada.

The tree.—Encens is a straight, nearly unbuttressed evergreen tree generally distributed

throughout the rain forests on many different

soils and sites. It reaches a maximum height of

80 to 90 feet and a diameter of about 2 feet or

more on favorable sites in St. Lucia {16Jf).

The wood.—The timber resembles mahogany in

superficial appearance due to the relatively soft,

fine-textured, pink-colored heartwood. The sapwood is white ; the grain is uniform and fine.

Weight.—^Air-dry wood is reported to have a

specific gravity of 0.52 and to weigh 32 pounds

per cubic foot.

Seasoning.—The wood air-seasons to between

17 and 18 percent moisture content in 5 months on

St. Lucia without any apparent degrade, and is

stable after manufacture {SO),

Shrinkage.—No information available.

Mechanical properties.—Detailed strength

tests are lacking for encens, but limited tests indicate that the wood is fairly elastic though quite

fissile {218),

Working properties.—Encens works easily and

well with all power and hand tools. It planes to a

smooth lustrous surface, saws easily across the

grain but leaves a rough edge, drills easily, and

takes nails without splitting. The wood polishes

well and is very attractive when finished, resembling mahogany when well finished {16%,^ 153).

Durability.—Encens succumbs very quickly to

insects or decay and is generally rated low in resistance to both {218,15Jf, 50,153).

Uses.—Because of its easy working properties,

light weight, and attractive appearance, encens is

used in St. Lucia and other West Indies islands

for furniture, cabinetmaking, interior paneling

and trim, and other uses where a durable timber is

not required. It is also used for boxes and crates.

Gum derived from the bark is sometimes used for

incense.

Supply.—Encens is available on St. Lucia and

possibly other nearby islands in the Lesser Antilles Im).

GOMMIER

Dacryodes excelsa

Nomenclature.—Dacryodes excelsa Vahl {D.

hexandra (Hamilt.) Griseb.) is one of the best

formed and most extensively used timbers of

Puerto Eico, Dominica, St. Lucia, and other West

Indies islands. It is best known as gommier

throughout its range except in Puerto Rico, where

the name is tabonuco. Names in Guadeloupe and

Martinique are gommier blanc and gommier montagne. The tree and wood are also known as

gommier blanc in Dominica and mountain gommier in Grenada. (Bursera family, Burseraceae.)

Distribution and habitat.—Gommier is confined to Puerto Kico and the Lesser Antilles, gen-
56 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

erally occurring in small groups along ridgetops

and upper slopes in the rain forests. It is recorded from Puerto Rico, St. Kitts, Montserrat,

Guadeloupe, Dominica, Martinique, St. Lucia, St.

Vincent, and Grenada {18^ 37).

The tree.—Gommier is a large to very large

evergreen tree, reaching its best development m

Puerto Rico, where it grows to 120 feet high and

a diameter of 3 to 5 feet. Mature trees are more

commonly 60 to 80 feet tall and 20 to 30 inches

in diameter. The trees are deep rooted, unbuttressed, and able to withstand the numerous hurricanes of the Caribbean area. The bark is

smooth, light gray to nearly white, and often

scarred at the base of the tree from gashes made

to secure a fragrant resin used for candles and

torches, and for incense and medicinal purposes.

Because of its abundance, size, and straight, wellformed clear bole, gommier was one of the most

valuable lumber trees of the original mountain

forests in Puerto Rico {170).

The wood.—Gommier is variously reported to

resemble birch (Betula), mahogany, and sometimes yellow-poplar (Liriodendron tuUpifera L.)

in superficial appearance. The heartwood is a

uniform pale brown with a purplish cast when

first cut; it turns to a pinkish brown when seasoned and a lustrous brown on exposure. The

narrow sapwood, an unattractive grayish color, is

not clearly demarcated from the heartwood. The

texture is fine to medium and uniform. The wood

is generally somewhat finer textured than mahogany, which it resembles superficially. Silica is

abundant in the wood, particularly in the ray

cells (1^0^ 252^ 60). The grain is more or less

roey and sometimes interlocked, creating an attractive ribbon stripe. The luster is high and

sometimes satiny in appearance. Growth rings

are not distinct, and seasoned wood lacks any distinctive odor or taste.

Weight.—The wood is moderately heavy. The

specific gravity of air-dry wood, based on weight

and volume in the air-dry condition, averages 0.64.

Air-dry wood weighs about 40 pounds per cubic

foot and green wood, 52 pounds. • It is similar to

sugar maple and yellow birch in this respect.

Seasoning.—Gommier seasons easily with no

appreciable distortion or other defects. It is reported to air-season in the island of Dominica as

well as the average softwood (conifer) in 3 to 4

months and in St. Lucia in 5 months with very

little degrade {50). Experience in Puerto Rico

agrees with the report from Dominica.

Shrinkage.—Gommier undergoes a volumetric

shrinkage of 10.5 percent, radial shrinkage of 4.1

percent, and tangential shrinkage of 6.4 percent

from green to ovendry. It exceeds both West

Indies and Honduras mahogany in volumetric

shrinkage, which is a disadvantage if the wood

is used where wide variations in atmospheric humidity are likely to occur. However, when used

within the tropics, this shrinkage is not a limiting

idiQtoY {262,149,160).

The ratio of radial to tangential shrinkage is

relatively low, indicating the wood should season

with a minimum of checking and distortion. In

this respect, gommier is superior to African mahogany {Khaya ivorensis) and Honduras mahogany {Swietenia macrofhylla) and about equal to

yellow birch and West Indies mahog:any.

Mechanical properties.—Mechanical tests of

tabonuco from Puerto Rico {262) rate the wood

as moderately hard, tough, and strong. In general, its strength properties are the same as those

of Honduras mahogany, and equal or superior to

those of yellow birch except in stiffness and resilience. It also compares very favorably with African mahogany and West Indies mahogany in all

strength properties.

Working properties.—The timber is easy to

work with some tendency to dull saws and other

cutting edges, because of the accumulated silica

in the wood. When sharp cutting edges are maintained, the wood finishes smoothly and takes glue

and all finishes effectively. It is a good wood for

turning and holding nails {163, 60).

Durability.—Gommier is generally considered

in Puerto Rico and elsewhere as only slightly resistant to decay {190,170). This is substantiated

by graveyard tests in St. Lucia {60), where the

wood was destroyed after 3 years in both wet and

dry locations. Wolcott {263) rates the timber as

very susceptible to attack by the dry-wood termite

of the West Indies. Gommier has failed quicklv

in Puerto Rico when used in waters infested with

marine borers.

Preservation.—The timber is reported as difficult to impregnate with preservatives under both

pressure and nonpressure methods {19^, 252).

Uses.—Gommier is used in Puerto Rico principally for furniture and cabinetmaking in the

urban areas and for general construction and carpentry in the rural areas {262). In St. Lucia and

Dominica it is used for crates, shingles, small boat

building and furniture {154) • The wood has sufficient strength and attractiveness to merit its

use in place of yellow birch, mahogany, and other

cabinet woods. In Puerto Rico it is often stained

a dark mahogany color and sold as "mahogany."

Rails and posts of "mahogany" beds are frequently

made of gommier, stained dark to hide its identity.

This is the result of gommier's reputation of being

very susceptible to termite attack in comparison

to mahogany's known resistance to termites {231,

263). The wood is considered by Wellwood {252)

and others as suitable for veneer.

Supply.—The timber is only of local importance ; no exportable volumes are available at present. St. Lucia and other islands may have surpluses at some future date for the tree reproduces

well and is fairly immune to disease, insect attack,

and hurricane damage.
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 57

DEMERARA GREENHEART

Ocotea rodiaei

Demerara greenheart is an excellent timber for

many uses, but is most highly regarded for marine

construction because of its high resistance to marine borers and very high resistance to fungi and

termites. The timber's resistance to destructive

agencies is further supported by exceptionally

high strength properties, qualifying it for numerous uses where durability, strength, and good

wearing qualities are essential. Other woods are

occasionally called greenheart and used as substitutes, but none have proved as satisfactory as

true Demerara greenheart. Nearly all the commercial supply comes from British Guiana, where

it is one of the most plentiful timbers (241),

Nomenclature.—The timber of Ocotea rodiaei

(K. Schomb.) Mez (Nectandra rodiaei E.

Schomb.) is generally known throughout the

American tropics, Europe, and the United States

as Demerara greenheart, or more often as just

greenheart. The name Demerara greenheart is

preferred to distinguish it from other woods sold

on the market as greenheart.

The principal vernacular names used in British

Guiana are bibiru and sipiri, rora, kwatuk sipu,

and bibiju. In Surinam and the Netherlands,

it is called beeberoe, sipiroe, and groenhartbloom;

and in Germany, gruenholz, gruenherzbaum, and

bibirubaum. In the trade, the wood is often separated into black, brown, yellow, and white greenheart, although wood of different colors is reported

to have the same physical and mechanical properties. (Laurel family, Lauraceae.)

Distribution and habitat.—Demerara gi::eenheart occurs principally in British Guiana ^nd

in lesser amounts in Surinam on the upper Maratakka Eiyer and in Venezuela on the upper

Cuyuni Eiver. It has also been reported from

the Maroni Eegion of western French Guiana and

from northern Brazil m^ 26).

The distribution of the tree is very limited in

Surinam and Venezuela. In British Guiana it

ranges widely over 20,000 square miles of the near

interior from the Corentyne Eiver to thé Waini

Eiver, with isolated patches farther west. Commercial distribution in northern British Guiana

is within the area drained by the Pomeroom,

Cuyuni, Mazaruni, Essequibo, Demerara, and Berbice Eivers, exclusive of the coastlands (^).

The best remaining stands are in the Bartica Triangle, the Kartabo Triangle, the Cuyuni-Supenaam-Pomeroon area, and the Upper Demerara

Eiver {26), This area of 2,360 square miles is

estimated to contain more than 300,000,000 cubic

feet of sound, merchantable timber.

Greenheart avoids the drier sites, but will grow

under conditions of physiological drought as in

the mora and wallaba forests. The tree is found

frequently on all types of soil and reaches its

best development on light, sandy soils in a mesophytic habitat, but seldom occurs at elevations

greater than 500 feet above sea level. It grows

mostly on slopes leading down to streams and in

damp sites near streams. It also grows in true

swamps between streams, where the tree size,

quality, and volume per acre are not quite as good

as on the slopes {26^ U^ 190).

The tree.—The tree is evergreen, usually dominant or co-dominant; it grows to a maximum of

40 inches in diameter and 130 feet in height, but

normally only 16 to 24 inches in diameter and

about 100 feet in height. Boles are generally

cylindrical, straight, and 50 to 75 feet long.

Taper is moderate, amounting to about 1 inch in

16 feet. Crowns are conical or oval or sometimes

irregularly open, small, heavy, and a dark glossy

green in color. The bark is flaky and cream

colored. Trees are generally basally swollen or

have low buttresses.

Many of the standing mature trees are defective. There is more defectiveness on rocky sites

where the tree is not as well adapted as on the

moist sites. On the average, 80 to 85 percent of

all trees have some defect, particularly m the butt

portion {26),

The wood.—The pale yellow or greenish sapwood of Demerara greenheart is 1 to 2 inches

thick in small trees and about 3 inches thick in

mature trees. The sapwood is not easily defined

from the heartwood, which varies in color from

yellowish green, greenish yellow, or light olive

through golden yellow, dark olive, or yellowish

brown to very dark brown, blackish, or black.

Figured (bull-forehead) wood has a curly

grain and golden or black bands running across

the width of the boards. The wood of logs with

rotten or defective hearts has a distinctive yellow

color. The wood is straight grained to roey, fine

in texture, uniform, lustrous, and cold to the

touch. Freshly cut wood is strongly aromatic

but becomes odorless and tasteless when dry.

The wood is usually free of knots and other defects {190,143,135,105),

Weight.—The timber is exceedingly heavy,

weighing about 75 to 80 pounds per cubic foot

in the green condition (50 percent moisture content) and about 65 pounds when air-dry (12 percent moisture content). The specific gravity of

air-dry wood averages about 1.04, based on airdry volume and weight, and about 0.88, based on

green volume and ovendry weight {26, 190, 105,

IJß).

Seasoning.—The timber is moderately difficult

to air-season and somewhat more difficult to kilndry in comparison to other timbers. With mild

drying conditions under cover in England, the

timber air-dries very slowly with a marked tendency to check and with some end splitting. However, warping is not serious, and the total amount

of degrade is not excessive.
58 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

One-inch boards are reported to air-season to

18 percent moisture content in 1 year in England,

with 2-inch boards requiring 2 years to reach the

same moisture content. According to the British

Guiana Forest Department, 1-inch boards season

to 17 percent moisture content in 3 months and to

15 percent moisture content in 5 months at the

Mazaruni Station in that country. One-inch

boards are reported to season to 15 percent moisture content at Georgetown, British Guiana, in

3 months.

Kiln-seasoning is extremely slow with considerable degrade, particularly m the thicker sizes.

Distortion is not excessive, but checking and splitting tend to be severe during kiln-seasoning. In

general, timber over 1-inch thickness should be

air-seasoned prior to kiln-drying. Kiln Schedule

2 of Forest Products Kesearch Laboratory is

recommended {105,222,26,118,237).

Shrinkage.—Shrinkage rates for Demerara

greenheart are relatively low for a wood of its

great density. The Forest Products Research

Laboratory reports {222, 105) shrinkage values

from green to air-dry (12 percent moisture content) of 3.0 percent in the radial plane and 4.5

percent in the tangential plane, or % and %6

inch per foot, respectively. This compares

favorably with results at Duke University {123)

showing 3.4 percent radial and 4.2 percent tangential shrinkage from green to the air-dry condition.

Shrinkage from green to ovendry, which generally averages about twice that from green to airdry, was reported by Kynoch and Norton {IJ^B)

at 8.2 percent radially, 9.6 percent tangentially,

and 16.8 percent volumetrically. This compares

favorably with shrinkage rates for yellow birch

of 7.2, 9.2, and 16.7 percent, respectively. Volumetric shrinkage is equal to that of yellow birch,

which is of much lower density. The low and

very favorable ratio of tangential to radial

shrinkage may account for the absence during

seasoning of any appreciable amount of cup, bow,

or twist.

The timber does not react readily to changes in

atmospheric conditions but in time undergoes a

moderate rate of movement when subjected to

changed atmospheric conditions. It will reach an

equilibrium moisture content of 11 percent in a

relative humidity of 60 percent, and a moisture

content of 16 percent in a 90-percent relative

humidity. This change is accompanied by a movement (swelling or shrinkage) of 2.0 percent tangentially and 1.6 percent radially, or i/4 ^i^d %6

inch per foot, respectively {108).

Mechanical properties.—The strength properties of Demerara greenheart are exceptionally

high, even for a wood of its great density; it is

considered one of the strongest" woods in the

American tropics. In general, the timber is exceptionally hard, heavy, tough, strong, and elastic

but inclined to splinter when fractured. It is

only 40 to 50 percent heavier than English oak

but 100 percent harder, 140 percent stronger in

bending and compression along the grain, and

120 percent stiffer in bending under gradually

applied loads. Greenheart is 25 percent stiflFer

than black locust {Robinia psevdoacacia L.), the

strongest and stiffest commercial hardwood of

Ncirth America. Demerara greenheart is twice as

strong in resistance to shock as oak, but somewhat

inferior to hickory in this respect. Its cleavage

strength is about the same as that of oak radially

and 70 percent better tangentially than that of oak,

which is not particularly outstanding beca,use of its

cleavable character. Greenheart is one of the best

timbers for resisting tensile and compressive

strains. The wood is flexible in narrow strips and

has a high coeiBcient of friction that gives it a

nonslip tractive property when wet or even when

coated with a film of oil or grease {16, H9, 2L

26,105, 265,135).

Working properties.—The wood is moderately

difficult to work with either hand or machine tools

because of its exceedingly high density and hardness. It resists cutting about like a tough grade

of English oak. The timber dulls cutting edges

rather quickly but finishes to a fine smooth lustrous

sur:{ace. If cutting edges become dull, there is a

tendency for surfaces to become slightly

roughened. Because of the low cleavage resistance of the wood, cross-grained or end-grain

material must be machined carefully to avoid the

breaking-off of chips and splinters at the exit of

the tool. The timber turns easily and takes a high

finish with wax, oil, or French polish without the

need of a filler. Gluing gives fairly good results.

It is a moderately good bending wood but does

not take nails well, requiring prebored holes to

avoid splitting and nail bending.

Tests at Duke University {123) on the screwholding capacity of greenheart show that it is

intermediate to courbaril {Hymenaea courbaril)

and purpleheart {Peltogyne pubescens) in the

force required to extract No. 6 and No. 10 screws,

giving the wood a rating of "good" in screwholding capacity.

Bandsaws with four teeth per inch and circular

saws with the following specifications are recommended for ripping Demerara greenheart: Diameter, 26 inches with rim speed of 10,000 feet

per minute; pitch 0.048 X diameter; hook of 15°

for green wood and 10° for seasoned material;

depth of gullet 0.4 X pitch; width of tooth 0.3 X

pitch. A pig-type tooth is recommended for

crosscutting {26), The timber is reported to be

somewhat troublesome when sawed on band mills

in the Guianas, as it dulls saws rapidly and logs

tend to spring during sawing. These difficulties

are not as prevalent in circular mills or frame

saws, and are largely overcome in an efficient

handsaw operation.

The acid content of the wood is very low, calculated at 0.48 percent of acetic acid in air-dry
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 59

wood, which represents a very low corrosive effect

on nails, spikes, and metal fastenings.

Durability.—The sapwood of greenheart, as in

all other timbers, is not durable to insects, fungi,

or marine borers. The heartwood is very resistant

to all types of wood-destroying fungi. The timber was given a rating of "very highly resistant"

in graveyard tests in British Guiana {50^ 206).

Similar tests in England gave comparable results.

The heartwood of Demerara greeiiheart has been

subjected to the action of 24 different wood-destroying fungi at the Forest Products Research

Laboratory, and was found to be highly resistant

to all of them and, in most tests, practically immune to damage. The high resistance was attributed to the presence of tyloses in the pores and

certain alkaloids in the wood {ôl).

The timber is reported by many sources as

highly resistant to marine organisms in temperate

salt or brackish waters and in tropical salt waters,

but not in tropical fresh or brackish waters (7^,

26). The high resistance to marine organisms is

not in this timber the result of a high silica content (considered by some as the principal component present in woods resistant to teredine borers), for the wood has only 0.01 percent or less

silica as compared to as much as 2.43 in some

samples of manbarklak.

Demerara greenheart's resistance to marine

borer attack is generally attributed to the presence of toxic alkaloid, biberine, or nectandrine

(i^). Recent tests of greenheart and 36 other

timbers at Wrightville, N.C. (5<§), indicate 11 of

the 37 timbers tested were superior to greenheart

in resistance to marine borers under the conditions prevailing at this location. These timbers

listed m their order of resistance are as follows :

Rating in

order of

resistance Species Hiame

1 Licania macrophylla marish

2 Parinari rodolphii parinary

3 Parinari campestris burada

4 Eschweilera suhglandulesa manbarklak

5 Vouacapoua americana wacapou

6 Licania huœifolia marisb

7 Eschweilera odora manbarklak

8 Leoythis paraensis sapucaia

9 HymenoloMum excelsum angelim

10 Lecythis usitata

11 Eschweilera Hanchetiana

12 Ocotea rodiaei greenheart

Greenheart and other timbers vary in their resistance to marine borers from one locality to another, largely because of the presence of different

wood-destroying organisms and other local conditions (i^).

The wood is almost immune to attacks by drywood termites, pinhole borers, and other wooddestroying insects. Wolcott {263) rates the wood

very resistant to dry-wood termites—91 in termite

resistance in comparison to 80 for West Indies

mahogany and 59 for Honduras mahogany. It

has very good weathering characteristics and excellent wearability under heavy use. And because

of its high fire resistance (very slow burning),

Lloyds rate the wood A-1 for ship construction,

second only to teak. The American Bureau of

Shipping has also approved greenheart for use in

shipbuilding because of its fire resistance.

Preservation.—This wood is nearly impermeable to preservatives by either open-tank or pressure methods, but fortunately has enough natural

durability to nearly eliminate the need for preservative treatment. Only slight end penetration

and virtually no lateral penetration is achieved

with either open-tank or pressure treatment (265,

105).

Uses.—Demerara greenheart is obtainable in

square, hewn logs or timbers from 70 to 85 feet

long and 24 to 30 inches square, even though specifications normally call for a minimum square of

from 11 to 18 inches and lengths of 30 to 50 feet.

These sizes represent timber free from sapwood.

Round piling is also available in lengths up to 80

feet, although the average is 40 to 60 feet with a

12- to 18-inch butt diameter and 6- to 12-inch top

diameter.

Taper in hewn logs does not normally exceed 1

inch in a 40-foot log or 2 inches in 60 feet. Logs

squared to maximum dimensions seldom vary

more than 1 to li/^ inches on adjacent faces. Figured logs, those with a crenated form called "bullforehead" greenheart, are fairly common but are

generally not logged because they are difficult to

square. Then too, even though the figure usually

occurs only in the outer part of the log, it may at

times be continuous throughout (26).

The most important use for Demerara greenheart is in marine and sliip construction. In marine construction, it is used for revetments, docks,

locks, fenders, braces, decking, groins, gates, piers,

piling, jetties, and wharves ; and in ship construction, for keelsons, beams, engine bearers, planking,

gangways, fenders, stern posts, and sheathing for

whaling ships.

The timber has been used in the Panama Canal

since its initial construction for gates, dredges, and

dry docks. It has long been a favorite material

for lock gates, piling, and other marine construction in Europe, particularly in England and Holland. It has also been used for these purposes

for many years in Mexico, India, South America,

and the United States. Greenheart enjoys an almost exclusive position for round or hewn piling

owing to the long lengths that can be supplied.

The only serious Caribbean competitor is angelique. Hewn angelique piling is considered by

some people to be superior to greenheart piling.

Greenheart is particularly well fitted for use

where a heavy, hard, straight-grained, very

strong, and durable wood is required, as in heavy

construction, bridges, trestles, flooring, shipping

platforms, and other uses where resistance to

wear is required. Because of its great strength

and stiffness, the wood has been in demand for
60 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

many years in the manufacture of fishing rods in

the United States. It is also used for walking

sticks, billiard cue butts, belaying pins, mortars,

and in textile mills for picker sticks.

In British Guiana the timber is employed in

many more uses where a strong durable wood is

required, including crossarms, paving blocks,

boardwalks, axles, wheel spokes, mining timbers,

box culverts, fence posts, and for many uses in

general building construction. The Forest Products Research Laboratory in England recommends the timber as excellent for all heavy types

of factory and warehouse flooring because of its

smooth, long-wearing qualities {109).

Supply.—Most of the commercial supply is obtained from British Guiana, where the Government control of cutting and the extent of the forests will assure a steady supply of the timber for

many years ahead. The current government policy of managing stands of this species on a sustained yield basis will permit recutting every 80

to 100 years.

The volume of commercial timber in the accessible forest area in British Guiana is estimated at

1,600,000,000 cubic feet—about 12 billion board

feet or more of sawed lumber {109). (See section

on Distribution and Habitat.) In 1954 about

1,427,000 cubic feet of the round, hewn, and sawed

timber of all dimensions was shipped from that

country, principally to the United Kingdom, British West Indies, Europe, and the United States.

GRONFOELOE

ilualea rosea, Huaica cœrula, ilualea alhiflara

Nomenclature.—Three species of the genus

Qualea^ namely Q. rosea Aubl., Q, coerula Aubl.,

and Q, albißora Warm. {Q, glaberrima Ducke),

are often marketed individually or in mixture in

Surinam and French Guiana under the trade name

of gronfoeloe. In Surinam the timb^ is also

called meniridan, menirislin, woto-kwarie, berg

gronfoeloe, and jakopi. Other names in French

Guiana are cèdre gris, grignon fou, and grignon

indien {50, 231, 176). In Brazil the timber of

Qualea is known as mandioquiera and at times

as quaruba, although the latter name is usually applied to species of the genus Vochysia. The name

manio was derived from mandioquiera and accepted in 1946 as the standard name on the British market {36). The German trade know the

timber as Brazilian okume or aburaq. The principal Venezuelan name for Qualea timber is

florecillo. Other common trade names used in

the Guianas are wiswishvalie and wassie-wassie

kwarie {190), Q. rosea is commonly known as

berg kwarie or mountain gronfoeloe in Surinam

and laba-laba in Brazil. (Vochysia family,

Vochysiaceae).

The three species providing gronfoeloe occur

in the Guianas and in the states of Para, Maranhao, and Amazonas in Brazil, where they are of

rather common occurrence in the primeval forests

on the higher, noninundated sites. Qualea coerula

is a frequent tree in the marsh forests of Surinam,

especially in the eastern part of the country,

while Q. rosea and Q. albiflora are rare to locally

frequent in the rain forests. Q. rosea is a common

tree in French Guiana constituting one-eighth of

the trees in some parts of the country {231, 118,

190). Q. albiflora is found also in British Guiana.

The tree.—The trees are generally tall, sometimes attaining a height of 200 feet, with long

clear boles and often of very large diameter. In

French Guiana, Qualea rosea is a well-formed

tree up to 150 feet tall, averaging 2 feet in diameter, and free of branches for 60 to 70 feet

{23). There is a lack of information in the literature concerning the dimensions and growth habits

in the rest of the tree's range.

The wood.—The cream-colored sapwood of

gronfoeloe is 1^/4 to 21/4 inches thick, and except

for Qualea rosea is rather clearly separated from

the heartwood. Freshly cut heartwood is a pinkish brown; upon drying it turns a light reddish

brown with a definite coppery or golden look.

Superficially, the wood resembles Spanish cedar

{Cedrela) and quaruba or yemeri {Vochysia),

Growth rings are not distinct, but show as concentric bands made visible by differences in color

density of the groundmass that show up on the

tangential surface as conspicuous parabolic figures. The luster is high but without the characteristic subluster so well developed in many highgrade cabinet woods. The texture is medium to

coarse and the grain straight to sometimes interlocked. When interlocked grain is present, a

mild wavy figure is apparent on the tangential

surface. No distinctive odor or taste is evident

in seasoned wood {127,231),

Weight.—Gronfoeloe is a moderately heavy

wood, with little difference in the density of the

three species covered in this report. The specific

gravity, based on ovendry weight and green volume, is reported at 0.49 for Qualea albiflora and

0.53 for Q. rosea. Specific gravity, based on the

weight and volume of air-dry wood at 12 percent

moisture content, is reported at 0.59 for Q, albißora, 0.58 for Q, coerula, and 0.62 for Q, rosea.

Air-dry wood weighs 37, 36, and 39 pounds respectively for the species in the order listed.

Green wood averages from 60 to 79 pounds per

cubic foot {231, 2Jf9, 127, 250).

On the basis of these various gravity determinations, gronfoeloe averages about 0.50 in specific gravity based on green volume and ovendry

weight, and 0.60 based on air-dry volume and

weight (with wood averaging about 37 pounds

per cubic foot when air-dry and 70 pounds when

green).

Seasoning.—The wood is moderately difficultto

air-season and kiln-dry. It seasons rapidly but

with some warping in the form of crook and twist
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAIST 61

and slight end and surface checking. Qualea rosea

is somewhat more difficult to season than the other

species while Qualea albißora dries without any

appreciable degrade. Slight stain may develop

during the early stages of air-drying, but is easily

controlled if the green lumber is submerged or

sprayed with a fungicide prior to piling. Kiln

Schedule 4 has been suggested by the Forest

Products Research Laboratory in England for

kiln-drying gronfoeloe {10J^, 127, 118, 231),

Shrinkage.—Gronfoeloe undergoes moderate

shrinkage during seasoning with a somewhat

high ratio of tangential to radial shrinkage and a

volumetric shrinkage that is moderate for a wood

of its density. The timber is similar to yellow

birch in tangential shrinkage and much lower in

both radial and volumetric shrinkage, but lacks

the favorable ratio of tangential to radial shrinkage shown by yellow birch. Summarized below is

the shrinkage from green to ovendry, expressed

as a percent of the green volume, of gronfoeloe

and yellow birch. Normal shrinkage from green

to air-dry would be approximately half these

values.

Green to ovendry

Radial Tangen- Longi- VoluGronfoeloe: ^'^^^ tudinal metric

Qualea albiflora (percent) (percent) (percent) (percent)

(127) 4.0 7.7 0.14 12.7

Qualea coerula

(231) 3.7 7.9

Qualea rosea

(260) 4.4 8.4 .08 11.4

Yellow birch:

Betula

alleghaniensis.-. 7.2 9.2 16.7

Movement, swelling or shrinkage, of gronfoeloe

in response to changes in atmospheric conditions

is moderate for a wood of its density. Qualea albiflora, most representative of the timber, swells

6.12 percent from ovendry to equilibrium in a 40-

percent relative humidity, 9.25 percent in a 70-

percent relative humidity, and 15.15 percent in a

lOO-percent relative humidity (based on the original ovendry volume). It reaches a moisture

content of 10.5, 15.6, and 28.7 percent, respectively, at these three humidity conditions, which is

considered normal for a wood of gronfoeloe's density {175,60).

Mechanical properties.—Tests at Yale University {2Jf9, 250) of Qualea albißora and Qualea

rosea in the green condition showed that gronfoeloe is similar to or exceeds yellow birch {Betula

alleghaniensis) in all mechanical properties except

work to maximum load, although yellow birch

is an appreciably heavier wood. In the green

condition, gronfoeloe is noticeably above average

for woods of similar density in stiffness, elastic

resilience, crushing strength, and tension and

compression across the grain. It is average for

a wood of its weight in static bending, strength,

shock (resistance, hardness, shear, and cleavage.

596544 0-62—5

Gronfoeloe increases in most strength properties upon air-drying, but decreases in cleavage resistance and tensile strength across the grain.

After seasoning, gronfoeloe loses most of its superiority over yellow birch, in which condition

it has half the shock resistance of yellow birch

and is generally somewhat inferior to that species

in most other strength properties. It is superior

to white ash in static-bending properties and in

compression parallel to the gram^ but inferior to

that wood in hardness, compression, and tension

perpendicular to the grain, shear, and cleavage.

These strength determinations of gronfoeloe at

Yale University are substantiated in tests by

Pfeiffer {175), the Agricultural University of

Wageningen in Holland {231), and the Forest

Products Research Laboratory in England {15).

Working properties.—Gronfoeloe has moderately good working properties, saws and planes

well, glues satisfactorily, but requires care in polishing. However, it dulls saws and cutting edges

rather quickly because of the accumulation of

silica in the parenchyma and ray cells. Chipped

or torn grain is likely to occur when roey grain is

present, and fuzzy surfaces and tearing are apt to

occur in boring.

Durability.—The wood is somewhat variable in

decay resistance but in general is moderately durable. Qualea albiflora was rated durable in its

resistance to a white-rot fungus but only moderately durable to nondurable to a brown-rot

fungus in pure culture tests at Yale University

{127). Q. rosea was found very durable to a

white-rot organism and durable to moderately

durable to a 1)rown-rot fungus. It is reported as

moderately resistant to resistant to decay in Surinam (175). Observations in England at the

Forest Products Research Laboratory indicated

that the timber is not suited for general use in

continuously damp conditions.

Qualea albiflora is moderately resistant to damage by the dry-wood termite of the West Indies

{218), rating 42 as compared to 80 for West Indies mahogany and 59 for Honduras mahogany.

The resistance of the timber to damage by marine

borers is not clear. However, its extensive use m

Holland for piling, specifically in nonteredo

areas, would indicate that the timber has little resistance to marine borers despite the considerable

accumulation of silica in the parenchyma and ray

cells. However, specific tests of this timber may

show it as considerably resistant to damage by

marine organisms.

The weathering characteristics are rated as only

fair; severe surface checking develops when unpainted wood is exposed to the weather.

Uses.—Gronfoeloe is used locally for such purposes as joinery, ñooring, interior trim, furniture,

and millwork. In Holland it is used as a substitute for oak in marine piling and sheeting m teredo-free areas. If it can be successfully peeled or

sliced, it should be very suitable for veneer and
62 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

plywood^ for use in furniture, paneling, or general utility. It has been used in Germany for

veneer, indicating that the wood can be veneered.

Logs of either gronfoeloe or related species from

Brazil have been used in superstructures of

bridges. The wood has also been found suitable

for packing cases, outside and inside sheathing,

rafters, and implements. Generally, it is found

suitable for outside construction.

Supply.—Surinam and French Guiana can supply gronfoeloe in export volumes.

GUMBO^LIMBO

Bursera simaruha

Gumbo-limbo is the most widespread and commercially important of the several species of Bursera growing in the Caribbean area. Many others

are distributed in tropical America. Several are

prized principally for the high percentage of fragrant oil in the wood and fruit and to some extent

tor their resins. Record and Hess (190) indicate

that the following species are of commercial importance in Mexico in addition to Bursera simaruba (L.) Sarg., which is discussed here: B, tecomaca (DC.) Standl., B. glabrifolia (H. B. K.)

Engl., B. penicillata (Sesse & Moc.) Engl., B.

Gopallifera (Sesse & Moc.) Bullock, and B. jorullensis (H. B. K.) Engl. (Bursera family, Burseraceae.)

Nomenclature.—The timber of Bwrsera simaruha is commonly marketed under the trade

name of West Indian birch. Other local names

used in the Caribbean area for the tree or timber

are as follows : Red gombo, red gombolimbo, limbo, and chaca in British Honduras; mastic, incense tree, turpentine tree, red birch in Jamaica;

naked Indian, peeling bark, gommier in Trinidad ;

almacigo in Puerto Rico ; gumbo-limbo in Florida ;

almacigo, aceitero in Cuba ; gommier in Haiti; almacigo, almacigo blanco in Dominican Republic ;

archipen, gommier, chibou in French West Indies ;

chaca in Mexico.

Distribution and habitat.—The tree occurs

commonly in southern Florida, throughout the

West Indies, and on the continent from southern

Mexico, Central America, and into northern South

America. It is reported from all the larger islands in the Greater and Lesser Antilles, and it

probably occurs on most of the smaller islands

The tree is not exacting as to site and moisture

conditions, growing on a variety of sites from

xerophytic to mesophytic forests but reaching its

best development in lowland forests. It occurs in

some sites as pure or nearly pure forests, and in

others as an occasional to very frequent tree. . It

grows well in the dry coastal plains and foothills

in Jamaica and in rocky, barren limestone soils in

other parts of the island. In British Honduras,

where it is rather common, up to 23 trees per acre

are found along broken ridges on the northern

plain.

The tree.—Size varies according to site and geographic location. In general, it is a slender unbuttressed tree of short to medium height. It can

be readilly recognized by its characteristic smooth,

shiny, copper-colored bark, which peels off in thin

shreds like some of the birches (Betula) though

the trees are not related. The smooth, green inner

bark exudes a reddish aromatic resin that hardens

upon exposure. Forest grown trees are usually

tall and slender with a fairly straight bole; in the

open the trees are generally short and often

crooked.

In British Honduras, trees attain heights of

80 to 90 feet and diameters of 30 inches; but they

are more commonly 60 feet in height and 14 to 18

inches in diameter {8£). In Jamaica, trees are

commonly 50 feet in height and uj) to 3 feet in

diameter (£29). On some of the drier sites, particularly on the dry slopes in the West Indies,

short crooked trees are most common {165^ 162),

The wood.—Heartwood is white, yellowish, or

light brown, soft and light in weight, but firm

and tough. Sapwood is not differentiated from

the heartwood. The texture is fine to medium

and the grain fairly straight. The wood, without

distinctive taste or odor, is of moderate luster.

Both the heartwood and sapwood are often discolored to a gray by sap-stain fungi. The inner

parts of the growth rings are whitish and the

other parts are pale brown, giving a ribbon stripe

figure on longitudinal surfaces similar to that on

white pine or spruce {82^ US).

Weight.—Tests of gumbo-limbo wood from

Florida at the Forest Products Laboratory in

Madison {160) showed a specific gravity of 0.34,

based on air-dry weight and volume (12 percent

moisture content), and a weight of 21 poujids per

cubic foot air-dry and 38 pounds per cubic foot

when green. The specific gravity based on green

volume and ovendry weight averaged 0.30. Timber from British Honduras is reported to range

from 0.30 to 0.40 in specific gravitar, based on airdry weight and volume, and to weigh from 19 to

30 pounds per cubic foot when air-dry {231),

Seasoning.—The timber seasons very well with

only slight checking or warping, but will become

discolored from sap-stain fungi and sometimes

decay unless the wet, green boards are allowed

to dry immediately after conversion. This can

be most economically and effectively controlled by

dipping or spraying with a fungicide or by kilndrymg imediately after sawing. Also, logs are

very susceptible to sap-stain fungi, which may

penetrate as far as a foot from both ends of the

log in a one-week period; when it does, a heavy

hyphal growth shows on both exposed surfaces.

The high moisture content is principally responsible for this condition. However, it can also be

controlled by spraying the logs with a fungicide

immediately after felling {82,197, 65),
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 63

Shrinkage.—Shrinkage of Bursera simaruba

from green to ovendry is very modera/te, amounting to 2.3 percent radially, 3.6 percent tangentially, and 8.6 percent volumetrically. The low

ratio of tangential to radial shrinkage indicates

the inherent capacity of thistimber to dry without

appreciable checking or warping. Shrinkage

from green to air-dry is roughly half the above

figures. Compared to the heavier yellow birch

and paper birch of the United States, gumbolimbo has one-third as much radial shrinkage, twofifths the tangential shrinkage, and about one-half

the volumetric shrinkage of these species {160).

Mechanical properties.—The tests at the Forest Products Laboratory {160) showed gumbolimbo rated considerably below the pines, spruces,

and firs in all mechanical properties tested except

in resistance to splitting (cleavage), in which

gumbo-limbo compared favorably to the others.

However, the tests were conducted on five logs

from southern Florida, and these may not be

representative of timber from other sources.

Working properties.—The timber works easily

with all types of tools and machines. It saws

cleanly, planes to a smooth finish, drills cleanly

with some tearing at the exit side, and turns

readily on the lathe. The wood takes all stains

and polishes well and holds nails firmly without

splitting {191,82).

Gumbo-limbo logs peel well on the rotary lathe

without preliminary heating or bark removal, although some logs produce wooly-surfaced veneers.

The yield of acceptable face veneers is estimated

at 30 to 40 percent by a large producer in Mexico.

The veneer usually has numerous pin knots and

some mineral streaks, although veneer cut from

some logs has a bird's-eye figure similar to that

of sugar maple. The veneer resembles Canadian

paper birch {Betula papyrifera Marsh.) in color

and design; when made into plywood it has the

sanie appearance as yellow birch {B. alleghœniensis

Britton). One difficulty in using B, simaruba is

the frequent crookedness of the logs and their

susceptibility to sap-stain discoloration {197).

Durability.—The wood is not durable in contact with the ground, and when green, is susceptible to pinhole borer attack. Seasoned lumber

is attacked by Lyctus beetles and is very susceptible to termite damage {263.) Generally, without preservative treatment, gumbo-limbo is not a

suitable wood for outside or exposed use in the

tropics.

Uses.—Gumbo-limbo is suitable, in general, for

the same uses as pine or otheir light-weight conifers; but it lacks the strength of these woods and,

consequently, should not be used where strength

is needed. The timber is used for matchsticks,

boxes, crates, flooring, house construction, and

general carpentry- The wood appears to have

suitable characteristics for use as a pattern wood,

although it seems irather soft for its present uses

as flooring. In Mexico, it has been used successfully for white plywood under the trade name

"Mexican white birch" and is well regarded there

for plywood core material as a substitute for

cedar. Parts of small trees and limbs of large

trees are used extensively for live posts, and

when set in the soil take root and eventually develop a green crown {192).

The aromatic red resin is used to mend crockery, as a crude varnish, and as an insect repellent.

A decoction of the bark and leaves is used at

times as a tonic.

Supply.—The timber is presently available in

quantities for export in British Honduras and

possibly Trinidad, Jamaica, Haiti, and Cuba.

HAIARI

Alexa imperatricis, Alexa leiopetala

Two species of Alexa are marketed in British

Guiana as haiari or haiariballi. The wood is used

locally and, although the Forest Department of

British Guiana considers haiari available in

sufficient volume and of suitable quality for export, it is nearly unknown in the export trade.

Nomenclature.—Species marketed in British

Guiana under the trade name haiari and haiariballi are Alexa imperatricis (Schomb.) Baill. and

A. leiopetala Sandw. The former occurs also in

Venezuela and Surinam. Another species, A,

wachenheimii E. Ben., is found from British to

French Guiana but is not utilized at present. A.

bauMniaeflora Ducke, a small tree or shrub

growing in Brazil, is also of no commercial

importance. (Legume family, Leguminosae.)

Distribution and habitat.—According to D. B.

Fanshawe {82), Alexa leiopetala is frequent in

the wallaba and heavy forest on white or light

sands in the north-central and northeast districts

of British Guiana, while A. imperatricis is often

dominant in the heavy forests on light-colored

sands of the northwest and upper Mozaruni

district and the Pakaraima Mountains. A.

wachenheimii, which may be marketed with the

above species at some future date, is found in the

upper Essequibo district of British Guiana and

in parts of French Guiana.

The tree.—The trees are unbuttressed, cylmdrical, well formed with small oval crowns. .They

grow to 36 inches in diameter and 100 feet high m

favorable sites, but are normally 20 to 24 mdies

in diameter and less than 100 feet high. The

main stem or bole is often 70 to 80 feet long, allowing the extraction of logs of almost any desired

length. -, . . . 1

The wood.—The heartwood of haiari is nearly

colorless to brownish yellow but occasionally

somewhat darker. The thick sapwood of dingy

white color is not readily separated from the

heartwood. The luster is medium to low. i he

wood is generally straight grained, rather coarse

textured and odorless and tasteless when dry.
64 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

Weight,—Haiari is intermediate in densit^^ to

western white pine and Douglas-fir of the United

States. Air-dry lumber cut in British jGruiana

averages 0.48 in specific gravity and weighs 30

pounds per cubic foot.

Seasoning.—The logs are reported to split

easily after felling, and the lumber is said to have

a marked tendency to collapse during seasoning.

Close piling for air-seasoning and the use of high

humidities and low temperatures during the eaply

stages of kiln-drying are recommended as a means

of overcoming the seasoning problems.

Shrinkage.—Information is lacking on shrinkage during seasoning. But studies of the shrinkage and swelling of haiari in response to atmospheric changes show the wood to have large

movement values. This wood reaches a moisture

content of 20.5 percent in a 90-percent relative

humidity, and 12.5 percent in a 60-percent relative

humidity, undergoing a movement of 1.8 percent

radially and 3.0 percent tangentially, or i%4 and

2%4 inch per foot, respectively, between equilibrium in the two conditions. These high movement values are about double those of Honduras

mahogany of %4 and i%4 inch per foot, respectively.

Mechanical properties.—Tests have not been

made to determine the mechanical properties of

haiari, but its medium density would almost certainly exclude it from the group of tropical woods

having superior stren^h properties.

Working properties.—Detailed information

concerning the workability of this wood is not

available except that it is considered to work easily

and finish satisfactorily.

Durability.—According to the British Guiana

Forest Department report, haiari timber is highly

resistant to decay, but the freshly cut logs are

very susceptible to damage by pinhole borers (8^).

Uses.—Haiari is suitable for interior construction, boxes, crating, general construction, plywood, and other uses requiring a light, easily

worked wood of moderate strength. In a region

where heavy, hard, strong woods predominate, a

wood such as haiari should be readily accepted

for many uses to which these other woods are not

suited. In many places, it could replace the imported pines and Douglas-fir.

Supplies.—British Guiana is the only country

now prepared to export haiari. The timber there

is found over rather extensive areas and, although

not available in such abundance as greenheart,

wallaba, and some other woods, it is in sufficient

supply to fill a relatively large export market.

HURA

Hura crepitans

Nomenclature.—Hura is the preferred trade

name for the wood of Hura crepitans L. It is

also widely known as possumwood and as hurawood or rakudar in the United States. The timber is known as bois du diable in Martinique;

sandbox or sandbox tree in Trinidad, Montserrat,

and British Guiana; possentrie in Surinam; sablier in French Guiana; and very commonly as

jabillo or javillo in the Spanish-speaking islands

of the Caribbean. Another name in Puerto Eico

is molinillo. The timber is usualy known as assacú in Brazil. British importers generally refer

to the wood as hura, hura wood, or possumtree.

(Spurge family, Euphorbiaceae.),

The wood of a second species, Hura polyandra

Baill., may be included in commercial lots. The

latter extends from southern Mexico southward

through Central America to Costa Rica, where

its range overlaps that of the more important

species. It is very similar in every way to H,

crepitans^ the two woods being indistin^ishable

on the basis of superficial characteristics {118^

190),

Distribution and habitat.—Hura occurs naturally in moist to wet sites through the West Indies

and from Central America to northern Brazil and

Bolivia {182^ 66). The tree reaches its best development along the low narrow reefs of the

coastal plain near Paramaribo, Surinam, where

nearly pure stands average more than 25,000

board feet per acre over an area of 20,000 acres.

The tree is also very common in Trinidad, where

it tends to form pure stands in moist sandy loam

soil with upward of 50 trees or more per acre

{166). It is also present in commercial quantities

in British Guiana and French Guiana {286)^ and

is frequently cultivated for shade and decorative

purposes throughout the tropics of both hemispheres.

The tree.—Hura is commonly a large, straight,

well-formed tree. In favorable locations it commonly attains diameters of 3 to 5 feet and at times

even 6 to 9 feet. Trees in the closed forests commonly reach heights of 90 to 130 feet with clear

boles from 40 to 75 feet long. Trees up to 200 feet

with 100-foot clear boles are reported along the

Surinam coast. In open forests the tree may be

relatively short with a thick trunk.

The trees are often basally swollen or have

small buttresses. The smoothish bark is usually

covered with many conical spines. Contained in

the bark is a thin, milky latex that is exceptionally irritating to the eyes ; it is used by the natives

to stupefy fish and as a remedy for elephantiasis

and leprosy. The fruits resemble little pumpkins

and explode on drying, expelling small waferlike

seeds containing an oil used at times to poison

animals (Í^5,^Í7).

The wood.—Hura superficially resembles simarouba but lacks the bitter taste. The wood is

light, has a warm soft feel, but is sometimes

woolly on the surface (i^, 92), Freshly sawed

heartwood is cream to light buff, turning pale yellowish brown, pale olive gray, or dark brown

upon drying, or sometimes remaining its original
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 65

cream color. The innermost heartwood of large

logs is often darker than the exterior portions;

sapwood is yellowish white, often indistinct from

the heartwood but at times sharply demarcated.

The grain is straight to interlocked but more often

interlocked. The luster is high, the texture fine,

and odor and taste are lacking. Indistinct purplish or greenish streaks and a slight ribbon stripe

on the radial surface often give the wood an

attractive figure.

Weight,—Moderately light in weight, hura has

an average specific gravity of 0.38 (0.31 to 0.51),

based on ovendry weight and green volume. The

specific gravity based on air-dry volume and

weight averages about 0.46 {î£7). Air-dry wood

weighs about 28 pounds per cubic foot and green

wood about 40 pounds per cubic foot.

Seasoning.—The wood is considered moderately

difficult to air-season. It will air-dry rather rapidly, which tends to prevent the development of

mold and sap-stain fungi but results in variable

degrees of warping, sometimes severe. Slight

checking also occurs. If the sawed boards were

dipped m'a fungicide solution and air-dried at

a moderate rate, much of this difficulty could be

eliminated. Kiln Schedule 5, a low temperaturehigh humidity schedule used for slow, careful

seasoning, is recommended by the Forest Products

Eesearch Laboratory in England (222).

Shrinkage.—Volumetric shrinkage of hura or

possumwood is low, amounting to 7.3 percent

from green to ovendry, which is similar to mahogany's 7.7 percent. The ratio of radial shrinkage (2.7 percent) to tangential shrinkage (4.5

percent) is moderate, indicating rather uniform

movement in these directions. Longitudinal

shrinkage of 0.48 percent does not exceed the

limit of variation expected of wood with interlocked grain (127). The wood is relatively stable,

undergoing only moderate dimensional movement

in response to atmospheric changes {176),

Mechanical properties.—Tests at Yale University {127^ 249) showed hura to be above average

in all static-bending properties except stiffness,

when compared with species of like density in

the green condition. It is average in resistance

to crushing and stiffness as determined by compression along the grain, and in hardness and

toughness; above average in compression and tension across the grain, and in shear and cleavage;

and below average in stress at proportional limit

in compression along the grain.

Upon air-drying, hura increases moderately in

all properties except cleavage and tension across

the grain, but improvement is generally below

that normally found for hardwoods in the United

States. The greatest proportional increase occurs in compression parallel to the grain, followed

by end hardness, compression across the grain,

elastic resilience, shear, side hardness, and stiffness. A strength loss of 20 percent occurs in

tension across the grain during seasoning. The

wood is similar in density to yellow-poplar

{Liriodendron tulipifera L.) of the United

States but slightly superior in all mechanical

properties, except stiffness as determined by

bending.

Working properties.—Green wood is somewhat

difficult to work because of extreme fuzziness of

the cut surface, but it can be readily machined

when air-dry. Chipped and torn grain are fregeuntly encountered with wood that has extreme

interlocked grain. The wood takes stain well,

nails satisfactorily, and glues easily {231^ 2Ifi^

127),

Durability.—In pure culture tests at Yale University (^4^), durability was extremely variable

but the wood averaged moderately durable to

both brown-rot and white-rot fungi. Graveyard

tests in Trinidad {39) also showed this species

to be fairly resistant to decay. But it is very

susceptible to damage hy the dry-wood termite

{263) and probably readily damaged by marine

borers. Its excellent weathering characteristics

are comparable to those of Honduras mahogany.

The wood stays free of surface checks and warp

and undergoes only slight loss of surface smoothness when exposed unpainted to the weather {55).

It is reported inferior to Honduras mahogany

in resistance to water absorption {17),

Preservation.—The wood has a low resistance

to impregnation with preservatives, absorbing up

to 20 pounds per cubic foot in a hot and cold

bath treatment {20J¡),

Uses.—Hura or possumwood is used locally for

general carpentry, interior construction, boxes,

crates, veneers and plywood, and furniture and

joinery. In Mexico it is sometimes used as telegraph poles. The wood is recommended for use

as core stock, both utility and face veneer, millwork, and for general use in furniture and joinery where a lightweight, easily worked wood is

required {138). The wood does not wear well

and should be avoided where continuous wear will

be a problem. The oil from the seed pods is considered suitable for linoleum manufacture and

in soapmaking when mixed with other oils {266).

Supply.—The Guianas, Trinidad, and possibly

Honduras have sufficient volumes for export.

INYAK

Antonia ovcLta

Nomenclature.—Antonia ovata Pohlis the only

known species of its genus. The timber is commonly known as inyak or inacú in British Guiana

and as hariroroe, thoeraroe, licahout, and other

vernacular names in Surinam {190., 82^ 180).

(Logania family, Loganiaceae.) .

Distribution and habitat.—Inyak grows m the

Guianas and Brazil. It is one of the dominant

species in the Kanaku Mountains of British Guiana and occurs as a rare to locally frequent tree
66 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

in the seasonal forest of the Noirtheast and Eupununi Districts of that country.

The tree.—Antonia ovata is a medium-sized

tree, conmionly 16 to 20 inches and occasionally

up to 24 inches in diameter and 120 feet in height.

The boles are of moderately good form and generally clear of branches for 60 to 70 feet above

the low buttresses.

The wood.—The heartwood and sapwood are a

uniform off white or greyish cream throughout

and of medium texture and luster. The grain is

irregular and roey. Distinctive odor or taste are

not detectable in seasoned wood {82^ 190).

Weight.—Inyak is medium weight, ranging

from 0.48 to 0.56 in specific gravity, based on airdry weight and volume. Air-dry Avood averages

between 30 and 35 pounds per cubic foot {82)-^

which is similar to the weight of Douglas-fir

{Pseudotsuga memiesii) of the United States

Seasoning.—No data are available.

Shrinkage.—No data are available.

Mechanical properties.—No data are available.

Working properties.—Inyak is reported to

work fairly easily and to finish smoothly.

Durability.—The Forest Department of British Guiana rates inyak as moderately resistant to

decay {50, 82).

Uses.—Inyak has been recommended for interior work, boxes and crates, and as a possible

timber for utility plywood and core stock (56^, 82).

It would appear to be suitable for inside sheathing, partitions and battens, millwork, and for temporary forms and protected outside sheathing.

Supply.—British Guiana has inyak in export

quantities.

KAUTA, KAUTABALLI, MARISH

Licania spp.

At least nine, probably more, species of the

large genus Licania are marketed in the Guianas

and Brazil under various trade names. The timbers are all similar: They are very hard, heavy,

and strong; they are very difficult to work; their

high silica content makes them teredo resistant.

Because of a natural resistance of Licania to marine borers, the woods of this genus are of more

than passing interest to the export trade.

Nomenclature.—Marish and kautaballi are in

more plentiful supply than kauta in the three

Guianas. Marish is often composed of any one

or a combination of Licania huxifolia Sandw., Z.

densiflora Kleinh., L. macrophylla Benth., and

L. niicrantha Miq. It is commonly known as

marishballi in British Guiana ; anaura in Brazil ;

anaura, sponsoehoedoe, and kauston in Surinam ;

and gris-gris, gris-gris coumate, and gris-gris

rouge in French Guiana.

Kautaballi, which is usually made up of

Licania venosa Kusby and Z. majuscula Sagot^ is

also known as counterballi and farsha in British

Guiana, and gri-gri and bois galuette in French

Guiana. Kauta is composed of three species:

Z. laxiflora Fritsch, Z. mollis Benth., and Z. persaudii Fanshawe & Maguire. In British Honduras, another species, Z. platypus (Hemsl.)

Fritsch, is marketed under the name of monkey

apple, but is of no commercial importance because

pine and mahogany are locally available. (Rose

family, Rosaceae.)

Distribution and habitat.—The several species

of Licania included in this report are all from the

area of the Guianas and Brazil. One or more of

the species making up marish timber occur

throughout the Guianas and the lower Amazon

region of Brazil; kautaballi is reported from both

French and British Guiana and may occur in

other areas, while kauta is reported only from

British Guiana but may also have more extensive

distribution.

Fanshawe states in his Forest Products of

British Guiana {82) that kauta is frequent to

locally common in the rain forest, especially on

lateritic soils, and of general distribution except

in the northwest district; that kautaballi is dominant in the rain and seasonal forest on sandy soils

and is of general distribution; while marish is

frequent in the rain forest, of occasional occurrence in the marsh and mora forests, and is of

general distribution.

Licania macrophylla is reported to occur frequently in the overflow woodlands of the Amazon

and in the upland forests of the lower Amazon

region {23^ 2^8). Kautaballi is one of the most

common commençai species of British Guiana,

exceeded in number of trees only by mora, black

kakaralli, baromalli, wallaba, yaruru morabukea,

and possibly crabwood. Marish is fairly plentiful, while kauta is relatively scarce.

The tree.—The species providing the timbers

described in this report are heavy crowned, unbuttressed canopy trees, generally 16 to 24 inches

in diameter and 80 to 110 feet high. The boles

are ordinarily cylindrical and 50 to 60 feet long.

Although not buttressed, kautaballi is often

basally swollen and occasionally has adventitious

shoots. Marish, the largest tree of the group, is

sometimes found up to 36 inches in diameter (52,

50,2JtS).

The wood.—The wood is very dense, hard,

heavy, and strong. The heartwood is generally

a yellowish brown to brown or dark brown, sometimes with a reddish tinge ; the sapwood is usually

distinct and tan in color. The wood is straight

grained, with fine, close texture, and without

characteristic odor or taste. Growth layers are

not evident. Most species contain an abundance

of silica (see section on Durability) {82^ 2J,B^ 231,

60).
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 67

Weight.—Marish weighs from 71 to 75 pounds

per cubic foot in the green condition and from

58 to 68 pounds ^Yhen air-dry, according to studies

at Yale University {2I{B) of Licama iuxifolia and

L. macTOfhylla from British Guiana, Surinam,

and Brazil. The specific gravity of air-dry wood

in this study ranged from 0.93 to 1.09. Specific

gravity based on green volume and ovendry

weight ranged from 0.76 to 0.88. L. iuxifolia is

the heavier of the two species and is represented

by the larger number under each condition. The

British Guiana Forest Department lists an airdry weight of 61 pounds per cubic foot and air-dry

specific gravity of 0.98 for the species providing

the marish timber of that country {60).

Both kautaballi and kauta are heavier than

marish, which is itself a very heavy wood. Kautaballi is reported to have an average specific

gravity of 1.08 to 1.22 (air-dry) and to weigh

from 67 to 76 pounds per cubic foot air-dry.

Kauta is still somewhat heavier, weighing 70 to

80 pounds per cubic foot air-dry, with a specific

gravity of 1.12 to 1.29 in that condition.

Seasoning.—Marish, kauta, and kautaballi are

rated easy to moderately difficult to air-season,

depending on the species and geographic location.

One of the principal species of marish, Licama

iuxifolia^ is considered moderately difficult to airseason, drying at a moderate rate with slight

warping and checking and very slight casehardening. L. macrophylla from Surinam is rated easy

to air-season, drying at a fast rate with slight

warping and checking and slight casehardening.

However, material of the same species from Brazil

dries at a slower rate with slightly more warping

in the form of crook and twist (;2JfS).

Shrinkage.—^Shrinkage values of marish are

relatively high compared to those of other tropical

hardwoods of similar density. Shrinkage values

for kauta and kautaballi are not available, but

presumably they are similar to those for marish.

Licania iuxifolia from British Guiana exceeds

greenheart in tangential and volumetric shrinkage but has a slightly lower radial shrinkage. L.

macrophylla from Surinam undergoes greater tangential shrinkage than greenheart, but shrinks less

than that species radially and volumetrically.

Both species shrink slightly more in all directions

than white oak {^4,8).

Mechanical properties.—^Mechanical tests have

been conducted on Licania huxifolia and Z. macrophylla^ which contribute most of the volume of

marish timber (^^). The results can also be

safely applied, in general, to both kauta and

kautaballi, which are somewhat heavier and likely

somewhat stronger in some properties. However,

the tests at Yale indicate there is considerable variation in strength properties between the different species of Li-cania and, consequently, all statements concerning strength properties must be of

a general nature.

Both species were found to be somewhat below

the average in strengtli for (jfreen wood of tropical

species of similar density. In tlie £>Teen condition

they are generally inferior to greenheart but superior to white oak and hickory in all properties

except in shear, cleavage, and shock resistance.

Seasoned wood of Licania huxifolia is comparable or superior to greenheart in most strength

properties except in shock resistance and tension

perpendicular to the grain, while L. rnacrophylla

is generally inferior to greenlieart in all strength

properties tested. Both species are superior to

white oak and hickory in bending properties but

somewhat below them in tensions across the grain,

cleavage, and shear.

Working properties.—^Wood of Licania is difficult to work owing to high silica content and

hardness. The combination of these factors

causes a rapid dulling of cutting edges. When

sharp cutting edges are maintained, the wood can

be machined to a smooth surface in planing, boring, sawing, and other operations.

Durability.—The wood of the genus Licania is

generally considered to be low in resistance to decay {82, 190, 13Jf, 175). However, in recent pure

culture tests, marish (Z. macrophylla) {231, 24-8)

showed a resistance to decay varying from durable

to moderately durable when exposed to both a

white-rot fungus and brown-rot fungus. Kauta

is reported nonresistant to decay and kautaballi

slightly resistant by the British Guiana Forest

Department {82). L. densißora of the marish

group is rated as resistant to attack by the drywood termite of the West Indies. Wolcott {268)

rates this species at 62 in termite resistance, as

compared to 80 for West Indies mahogany and 59

for Honduras mahogany. Kauta and kautaballi

are likely similar in resistance to termites.

The Licania woods are widely known for their

resistance to marine borers, presumably because

of their high silica content. Three of the four

species sold as marish have been tested for teredo

resistance. L. densißora from British Guiana was

rated as having "considerable resistance" by Edmonson {76) on the basis of tests in Hawaiian

waters; no infestation or but very slight attack

by teredos took place in a 12-month period. L.

huxifolia from British Guiana was rated as the

sixth most resistant wood to damage by marme

borers of 37 tropical hardwoods used in exposure

tests at Wrightsville, N.C. {58). These results

earned a rating of extremely high resistance for

this species {248).

In the Wrightsville tests, Licania tnacrophytta

rated as the most highly resistant species of the

37 timbers tested, surpassing greenheart, manbarklak, angelique, and other woods generally

considered highly resistant to marme borers {58,

248). These results agree with earlier reports on

this species {134) -
68 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

All species of Licania apparently accumulate

silica. The silica content of several species has

been determined by Amos {H) as follows : Z. densiflora^ 1.64 percent; Z. macropliylla, 1.8 percent;

Z. mollis^ 1.01 percent; Z. persaudii^ 2.53 percent;

and Z. majuscula, 2.82 percent. Similar tests on

Z. hiMxifolia and Z. macrophylla by Yale University showed silica contents of 0.43 and 1.52 percent, respectively. On the basis of silica content,

Z. persaudii and Z. majuscula should be even more

resistant to marine borer damage than the species

tested in Hawaii and in the Atlantic.

Uses.—The high marine borer resistance of

marish, kauta, and kautaballi indicates that the

highest use for these timbers is for piling and marine construction in waters infested with marine

borers. The difficulty in working these timbers

except with an ax or adz, as well as their high

density and only moderate resistance to decay,

suggests that their most suitable secondary use

would be in heavy construction above ground.

Kauta is used in British Guiana for light-gage

railway sleepers, roof shingles, mine timbers, and

fuel and charcoal. Marish is used in that comitry

for house framing and paving blocks, and in Surinam for fuel, charcoal, posts, riverbank structures,

and substructures of bridges where teredo attacks

may occur. In British Guiana, kautaballi is used

for house framing, mine logging, shingles, fuel,

and charcoal.

Supply.—Kauta, kautaballi, and marish are reported to be available for export from British

Guiana and kautaballi from French Guiana. Surinam may also export them if demand develops.

KERETI SILVERBALLI

Ocotea wachenheimii, Ocotea puherula

Nomenclature.—Both Ocotea toachenheimii R.

Ben. and O. puherula Nees are combined in British Guiana under the common trade name of kereti

silverballi or sometimes as silverballi. Shipment

under the latter name may contain one to several

species of the somewhat inferior woods of the

white silverballi group, particularly Ocotea oblonga (Meissn.) Mez, which is a cheap, soft grade of

timber (S2). Vernacular names applied to this

timber in British Guiana include maipaima, mapwirtan, siduabari, and atomahoko; in French Guiana the name cèdre gris is used. The timber is

known in the trade as zwart and witte pisie in

Surinam and as pisie when sold in combination

with other similar species of Ocotea and Nectandra, (Laurel family, Lauraceae.)

Distribution and hahitsit.—Ocotea loachenheimii is reported from the Guianas and Trinidad.

0. puherula is reported from British Guiana and

other areas, but little is shipped as kereti silverballi {SJf.), Unless otherwise specified, the balance of this report is based on 0, loachenheimii.

In British Guiana the tree occurs in the rain

and seasonal forests on both light and heavy soils.

It is generally distributed throughout the near

interior, especially in the north and central districts. One small area along the left bank of the

Courantyne River contains up to 70 cubic feet per

acre (500 to 550 board feet) {82). In Surinam,

Ocotea wachenheimii and other species known as

pisie are among the most numerous trees in the

rain forests and are also fairly well represented

in the marsh forests {231).

The tree.—Kereti silverballi is a large evergreen

of the upper canopy. It is often basally swollen

or occasionally has low buttresses. On good sites

trees may attain a diameter of 3 feet and heights

of 110 feet, but are normally 16 to 20 inches in diameter and 80 to 90 feet high. Clear cylindrical

boles 60 to 70 feet long are common in mature

trees. The trees have moderately heavy, rounded

crowns and erect spreading, light branching.

The bark is flaky, cream colored, and faintly aromatic {82, 3Jf).

The wood.—The heartwood is pale yellow

brown to creamy yellow or pinkish yellow when

seasoned and not easily differentiated from the

grayish sapwood. The texture is medium, and the

gram straight to interwoven or roey and often

ribbon-grained at an oblique angle. The wood is

soft but firm with a satiny luster. It is without

any distinctive taste but is fragrant like Central

American cedar ( Gedrela spp. ) {82., 231., 3JÍ, 50).

Weight.—The wood is comparable in weight to

Douglas-fir and slightly lighter than shortleaf

pine and pitch pine of the United States. The

specific gravity of air-dry wood from British

Guiana and Surinam rang-es from 0.48 to 0.56,

based on the volume and weight in that condition.

Air-dry wood weighs from 30 to 35 pounds per

mhiQ,ioot{82,231,50.^3Jf,2Jt2).

Seasoning.—Kereti silverballi seasons well under cover with little distortion {82, 231).

Shrinkage.—The timber has a moderately high

but fairly uniform rate of shrinkage for a wood

of its density. Shrinkage of Ocotea wachenheimii from green to oven-dry amounts to 3.6 percent radially and 7.2 percent tangentially as compared to 5.0 and 7.8 percent respectively, for

Douglas-fir. Shrinkage from green to air-dry

(15 percent moisture content) is reported at 1.3

percent radially and 3.6 percent tangentially as

compared to 1.8 and 3.6 percent, respectively, for

Douglas-fir {231, 24^). Data for 0. puierula are

not available.

Mechanical properties.—Tests of the mechanical properties of wood from Surinam at the

Agricultural University of Wageningen, Holland, {231) show normal strength properties for

wood of its density. It is somewhat inferior to

white silverballi {Ocotea canaliculata (Rich.)

Mez) and yellow silverballi {Aniha ovalifolia

Mez) in bending strength and is reported to fail

suddenly under tension. Fanshawe, in his Forest
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 69

Products of British Guiana (5^), refers to kereti

silverballi as "the good kind of Kereti" and 0. oblonga as "the poor kind of Kereti." However,

despite their differences, both species are commonlj^ known and marketed as kereti silverballi

in the trade {Sip, 50),

Working properties.—The timber works easily

with both hand and power tools and finishes

smoothly in all operations. It also glues and

takes paint well.

Durability.—Kereti silverballi was rated moderately durable in graveyard tests in Surinam

[175^ "231) and British Guiana (36) ; the tests in

British Gruiana lasted 5 to 6 years. Wolcott

{26S) found the heartwood only moderately resistant to attack by the dry-wood termite of the

West Indies, rating kereti silverballi at 48 as compared to 55 for the heartwood of Douglas-fir and

59 for Honduras mahogany. Edmondson (76)

found little resistance to marine borers in Hawaiian waters.

Preservation.—Specific information is not

available regarding the timber's resistance to

impregnation with preservatives. However, kereti {Ocotea sp.) of British Guiana has been successfully treated by nonpressure methods using

several proprietary preservatives mixed with water ; all have proved effective to date (SO). Shelltox in an oil carrier has also been effective in

preventing fungal stain in dressed lumber used in

the British Guiana housing program.

Uses.—Kereti silverballi is used extensively in

its range for interior work, ceilings, partitions,

paneling, and other applications in building construction and in general carpentry. It is also

used im low cost furniture and cabinetwork, turnery, inlay work, and for planking in small

boatbuilding.

In British Guiana it has been used for fruit

boxes, ladders, coffins, and walking sticks, and

is considered suitable for utility grade plywood.

The government of British Guiana has designated

kereti silverballi as one of the acceptable timbers

for interior partitions, battens, sash frames,

louvres, weatherstripping, and Demerara shutters

in the government housing program. The timber is well suited for uses now occupied by the

imported pines and Douglas-fir, principally

where duraoility is not of primary importance.

Supply.—This timber is not too abundant in

British Guiana but is available in moderate quantities for export. It may also be available from

Surinam and French Guiana.

KOPIE

Goupia glabra

Nomenclature.—Kopie is the usual trade name

for timber of Goupia glabra Aubl., formerly

identified as G, paraensis Huber. Itis also known

locally as kabukalli, goupi, and stinkwood in British Guiana ; kopie or copie in Surinam ; goupie in

French Guiana ; sapino in Colombia ; and cupiuba

or tento in Brazil. (Bittersweet family, Celastraceae.)

Distribution and habitat.—The natural range

of kopie includes the Guianas, the hinterlands of

Colombia, and the lower Amazon region of Brazil. Found throughout British Guiana, it becomes dominant in the seasonal forest on light

sandy soils in flat terrain and is an occasional tree

on sandy or loam soils in the rain and lower montane forest (32). In Surinam it is widely distributed in the rain and marsh forests, becoming locally frequent on sandy soils {231 ). It is a common tree in the uplands of the lower Amazon and

in the hinterlands of Colombia, where it is often

a dominant tree on sandy soils in the seasonal and

rain forests {24B).

The tree.—Goupia glabra is a large buttressed,

semideciduous, canopy tree. It grows to 130 feet

in height and 36 inches in diameter, but usually to

only 20 to 24 inches. Clear cylindrical to somewhat flattened boles 40 to 80 feet long are common. Short logs squaring 30 inches and logs 60

feet long squaring 12 to 16 inches are fairly common. Freshly cut slash and stumps exude a gelatinous substance with a characteristic fetid odor

{82,32,181),

The wood.—Freshly cut heartwood is orange

tan to dark russet brown, often with fine blackish

streaks. The sapwood is a light pink, brown, or

yellowish color, sometimes with yellow dots about

2 inches wide, and distinct from the heartwood.

Unseasoned wood has a fetid odor and disagreeable taste that dissipates during drying but is still

apparent in seasoned wood. The wood is moderately lustrous; the texture is medium to coarse

and uniform; the grain may be straight but is

more commonly interlocked and somewhat harsh

(Íi5, 2i8), The British Guiana Forest Department {32) differentiates two distinct varieties as

(1) "white" variety and (2) "brown" variety as

follows :

White variety—Light brown, luster lower,

texture coarser, harsher, pores more

open, grain more roey, lighter m weight.

Brown variety—Pinkish brown, luster higher, texture finer, smoother, pores smaller,

grain straighter, heavier in weight.

Weight.—Kopie is hard and moderately heavy,

with a specific gravity of 0.70 (0.62 to 0.75) based

on green volume and ovendry weight. The specific gravity of air-dry wood averages about O.oá,

comparing closely with courbaril {Hymerutea

Gourbaril) {24B), Green wood weighs about 7á

pounds per cubic foot and air-dry around 52

pounds per cubic foot. , vic u f^

Seasoning.—Kopie rates moderately difficult to

air-season. The timber dries at a moderate rate

with only slight degrade in the form of warp,

checking, and casehardening {248, 231, 3J).
70 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

Shrinkage.—The timber undergoes moderate

shrinkage during seasoning for a wood of its

density. Shrinkage from green to oven-dry averages 4.5 percent radially, 8.0 percent tangentially, and 12.6 percent volumetrically. These

values are considerably less than those for white

oak, although kopie is of greater density. The

wood undergoes a normal longitudinal shrinkage

of 0.18 percent from green to ovendry. Shrinkage from green to air-dry would amount to about

half these values.

For a wood of its density, kopie is relatively

stable in response to changes in atmosphere conditions. According to Pfeiffer (Í7J), ovendry timber increases 6.86 percent in volume when brought

into equilibrium with a 40-percent relative humidity, 9.37 percent in a 70-percent relative humidity^ and 13.5 percent in a 100-percent relative

humidity. It attains a moisture content of 11.5,

15.9, and 28.1 percent, respectively, in the three

conditions of relative humidity.

Mechanical properties.—Kopie is a hard,

strong, tough wood. Compared to green woods of

like density, it is above average in elastic resilience and tension across the grain; average in

stiffness, crushing strength, end hardness, shear,

and cleavage; below average in modulus of rupture, side hardness, and bearing strength ; and particularly low in shock resistance. It exceeds white

oak in the green condition in all properties tested

except toughness and shock resistance.

Kopie improves moderately in most strength

properties during air-drying, but in every property in far less proportions than domestic United

States hardwoods. In general, it is below the average expected for wood of its density in every

property, the greatest deficiency being in shock resistance. In comparison with air-dry white oak,

kopie is inferior m shock resistance, shear, bearing strength, and cleavage resistance {248).

Working properties.—The wood is moderately

difficult to work. Smooth surfaces are obtained

in sawing, boring, and turning, but it is difficult

to plane, especially cross-grained material. Tom

and chipped surfaces are common in planing because oí the interlocked grain, and later require

considerable sanding to smooth. The wood takes

nails well and polishes smoothly, but the coarser

material requires a filler to obtarn a smooth finish.

Although kopie can be sliced for veneer, it is not

attractive in this form {266,32,248).

Durability.—Kopie appears to vary in decay

resistance, but is generally reported very resistant

to decay below ground {S2). The heartwood of

this species was rated durable to very durable

when exposed to a pure culture of a white-rot

fungus and very durable to moderately durable

to a brown-rot fungus {248). However, it was

rated only moderately resistant to decay in graveyard tests in British Guiana {60), and Horn

{ISS) reports that kopie crossties had to be removed after 13 months in the dry zone of Johannesburg, South Africa.

Heartwood of kopie resists dry-wood termites,

rating only very slightly below West Indies

mahogany and considerably above Honduras

mahogany {263). The wood has little resistance

to teredo damage in salt water. In tests in Hawaiian waters {76), kopie was severely damaged

in 6 to 9 months. In the Atlantic at Wrightsville, ISr.C. {68)^ damage was severe within one

year. This may be attributed in part to the

wood's low silica content averaging 0.046 percent.

Woods with a high degree of resistance to marine

borers usually have 0.5 percent or more silica content {248), though there are exceptions.

Uses.—Kopie is considered a good wood in the

Guianas for durable heavy building constniction,

marine construction in areas not contaminated

with teredo, land communications materials, agricultural and industrial uses, and joinery and

furniture. In building construction it becomes

foundations, sills, joists, framing, flooring, siding, posts, steps, paneling, parquet flooring, and

rustic building material. In marine construction

it is used in piling, decking, groins, revetments,

and sluice gates. This wood is employed in land

communications for railway ties, paving blocks,

crossarms, sign posts, bridge runners, bridge

decking, freight wagons, and truck bodies. In

the afirricultural and industrial fields, it is made

into fences, gates, mining timbers, mill foundations, and beds {32, 143, 82,136).

Kopie is the principal utility timber of Surinam, where it is valued for boat knees and common furniture, in addition to the uses cited above

(231). It has been designated as acceptable for

flooring, sidins:, interior partitions, and battens in

the British Guiana Government's housing program. Natives in the savannas of that country

prefer kopie above all other wood for dugout

canoes because of its resistance to splitting in the

sun {63).

Supply.—Kopie is available in exportable

quantities in Surinam, British Guiana, and

French Guiana. In 1951 the merchantable volume in British Guiana was estimated at 2,190,000

tons or 109,500,000 cubic feet. It is also one of

the most common treesin Surinam.

KUROKAI

Protium crenatum, Vrotium decandrum, Protium

sagotianum, Protium sdiomhurgt^num

Nomenclature.—The genus Protium, containing some 90 species, is of pantropical distribution

but is most abundant in the Amazon Basin and

British Guiana. Kurokai is the preferred trade

name in British Guiana for the timber of three

species, P. crenatum Sandw., P. decandrum

March., and P. saçotianum March., of which the
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 71

first named is the most abundant (82). Because

of the close similarity of the woods, timber of the

three species is marketed separately or in combination as kurokai, and occasionally as porokai without distinction between species. Another common name in many areas is "incense-tree." A

fourth species, P. schorriburgkianum Engl., also

called kurokai, is sometimes included with the

other species bvit is of very limited importance.

(Bursera family, Burseraceae. )

The wood is known as copal or incienso in

Cuba and elimi in Brazil. Several species of

Protium are often combined with Trattinickia

spp. and marketed under the name tingimonie in

Surinam, although the Protmm woods appear to

be the better of the two genera {231 ).

Distribution and habitat.—Kurokai occurs

frequently in the marsh forests and most types of

rain forest throughout British Guiana, where it is

one of the more abundant trees {82). It is also

indigenous to other tropical American areas but

not m volumes equal to those in British Guiana.

The tree.—All four species are fairly tall trees,

growing to 90 feet high and 28 inches in diameter.

On the average site, trees are usually 16 to 20

inches in diameter. The boles are slender, sometimes fluted, often 60 feet long, and generally

have short buttresses 3 feet or less in height. The

tree crowns are heavy and round. The l3ark contains large quantities of a whitish or yellowish

fragrant oleoresin used in native medicine and as

incense in churches.

The wood.—Kurokai is a moderately strong,

hard, heavy wood resembling yellow birch {Betula alleghaniensis) in superficial appearance.

The pale buff-colored sapwood is sharply demarcated from the pinkish-brown heartwood, characterized by irregularly spaced darker brown lines.

The texture is uniform and fairly coarse; the

grain is straight to interlocked and irregular; and

the luster is rather high. The pores are large

enough to be easily seen on all sections because

of the surrounding light-colored soft tissues,

which sometime extend as short lines joining several vessels together. Kays are fine and numerous but not visible to the eye. Growth rings are

not easily seen though they may be differentiated

by narrow zones of denser tissue. These zones or

lines are somewhat irregularly distributed and

mark the cessation of growth in various seasons

{162,9,198).

Weight.—The wood is comparable in weight to

Honduras and West Indian mahogany. Air-dry

wood of Protium decandrum averages 0.53 in specific gravity, and weighs about 40 pounds per

cubic foot. Green wood weighs about 56 pounds

per cubic foot {Iß). P. schorriburgkianum is

somewhat lighter, air-dry wood averaging 0.53 in

specific gravity and weighing 33 pounds air-dry

and 56 pounds green {H9).

Seasoning.—Seasoning defects develop unless

care is taken to prevent too rapid initial drying,

indicating that kurokai is moderately difficult to

air-dry.

Shrinkage.—Shrinkage values are not available for the three principal species of kurokai.

However, shrinkage values from green to ovendry

based on the original green dimensions for Protium schombu)rgkia/numi are as follows: Eadial,

4.2 percent; tangential, 6.8 percent; and volumetric, lO.Y percent (IW)- These values are all

within the limits for successful seasoning without

serious degrade ; they compare favorably with the

values of 3.8, 5.1, and 8.6 percent, respectively, for

Honduras mahogany and are considerably below

shrinkage rates for other hardwoods of similar

density. The low ratio of tangential to radial

shrinkage indicates uniformity in drying, which

contradicts the general impression that the timber

is subject to considerable degrade during seasoning.

Mechanical properties.—Tests of mechanical

properties have been made on Protiu/m schomhurgkianum from British Guiana by Kynoch and

Norton {149). Green wood is somewhat superior

to Honduras mahogany in bending properties except in total work in bending in which mahogany

is appreciably stronger. The wood is also inferior

to mahogany in compression perpendicular to the

grain, side hardness, cleavage, and tension perEendicular to the grain, but is about equal to maogany in other strength properties.

Working properties.—Conversion of logs is

rather difficult; resin accumulates and clogs the

saw teeth. This could be partially overcome by

debarking logs prior to conversion, for the bark

is the principal source of resin. Dry lumber saws

and planes to a smooth surface except for the

tendency of raised grain to occur around the pores

when inclined grain is present. When this occurs,

considerable sanding is required for a first-class

finish. Tlie grain needs careful filling before polishing, but when finished is difficult to separate

from the white type of crabwood {Carapa guianensis) {9,152,82).

Durability.—Kurokai varies from moderately

resistant to nonresistant to decay in contact with

the ground {60), and is very susceptible to termite

damage. The Government of Jamaica reports

kurokai is durable only for interior use, according

to local experience over a long period of time

{60). Wolcott {263) rates Protium deccmdrum

at 32 in resistance to dry-wood termites as compared to 59 for Honduras mahogany.

The timber has no appreciable resistance to

marine borers. However, the wood of Protium

crenatum contains a fairly large amount of silica

within its fibers and P. sagotianum has silica m

both the fibers and ray$. Silica is absent from

both P. schomburgkianum and P. decandrum.

On the basis of silica content, the first two species
72 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

may have some iresistance to damage by marine

borers.

Uses.—Kurokai is preferred over crabwood for

furniture by some people in British Guiana.

The Forest Department of that country recommends the timber for masts, spars, house framing, and plywood. It has also been designated

as an acceptable wood for interior partitions and

battens in the housing program of that country.

In Surinam the wood is considered suitable for

interior paneling, millwork, carriage bodies, and

furniture.

The reasonable good strength properties, moderato shrinkage values, and attractive color and

grain suggest the use of the wood in decorative

plywood and veneer for paneling, furniture, and

general cabinetwork, and use of the lumber in

furniture and other interior work. Kurokai's

low resistance to insects and decay suggests the

timber would be most suitable where it will not

be exposed to the weather or in contact with the

ground.

Supply.—British Guiana is reported to have

kurokai available for export.

KWARIE

Vochysia guianensis, Vochysia tomentosa

Nomenclature.—Two species of the genus

Vochysia, namely V. guianensis Aubl. and V.

tomentosa DC, are konwn in the trade as kwarie.

In Surinam the timber is also known locally as

rode kwari, wiswis kwari, or wane kwari. It is

known in French Guiana as grignon fou and in

British Guiana as iteballi. Another closely related species, F. hondurensis Sprague of southern

Mexico and Central America, is described later

under its usual trade name of yemeri. Two other

species of Vochysia commonly associated with

kwarie are V. densiflora Spruce, the appel kwarie

of Surinam, and V. tetraphylla (G. F. W. Mey.)

DC, known as wane kwarie in Surinam and iteballi in British Guiana. Kwarie timber is generally used for the same purposes as that of the

related genus Qualea, with which it is often confused. Qualea is described in this reference

under the name gronfoeloe. (Vochysia family,

Vochysiaceae.)

Distribution and habitat.—Kwarie is found in

the Guianas and lower Amazon on silt soils adjacent to waterways and on sandy soils. The tree

makes its best growth along the coastal plain. It

also comes in on abandoned farmland on the

poorer soils but rarely occurs on very swampy

sites or on limestone or marl areas {127), In

Surinam it is a frequent tree in the rain forest

on well-drained soils.

The tree.—The trees are unbuttressed, medium

to fairly large in size and range from good to

poor in form. The usual mature tree in British

Guiana is about 24 inches in diameter, 100 to 110

feet high and clear of limbs for 70 feet, although

trees up to 36 inches in diameter are reported

{82),

The wood.—The wood is reported to be verv

similar to yemeri {Vochysia hondurensis), which

is described in detail in the discussion of that

timber.

Weight.—Kwarie is generally reported to be

somewhat heavier than yemeri but varies in

weight by location and conditions of growth. Specific gravity of air-dry wood of Vochysia guianensis is reported at 0.62 by the Surinam Forest Service {231), 0.56 by the French Tropical Research

Center (ôO), and 0.45 by Yale University {127).

The air-dry specific gravity of V, tomentosa is

reported at 0.43 by the Surinam Forest Service.

On the basis of these data, the wood of Vochysia

guianensis averages about 34 pounds per cubic

foot when air-dry, and that of V, tomentosa about

27 pounds per cubic foot. Green wood of both

species weighs about 67 pounds per cubic foot (m).

Seasoning.—Kwarie lumber is rated moderately difficult to air-season and kiln-dry. The

timber dries at a moderate to slow rate with slight

surface checking, casehardening, and warp. Further information on seasoning will be found in the

section on yemeri.

Shrinkage.—Vochysia guianensis undergoes

considerable shrinkage during seasoning, quite a

bit more than yemeri. V. tomentosa also has high

shrinkage values for a wood of its density.

Shrinkage values for F. guianensis from green to

ovendry are reported by Yale University at 4.8

percent radially, 8.2 percent tangentially, 0.07

percent longitudinally, and 15.4 percent volumetrically. These results are comparable to the

shrinkage values determined by Pfeiffer {281) of

3.9 percent radially and 10.8 percent tangentially.

Shrinkage values for V. tomentosa from green to

ovendry of 2.5 percent radially and 8.8 percent

tangentially are lower than those for V, guianensis, partially so because of difference in density.

Shrinkage from green to air-dry generally

amounts to about half the green to ovendry values.

The high ratio of tangential to radial shrinkage

for both species, but particularly of Vochysia tomentosa, may cause most of the seasoning distortion. The low radial shrinkage indicates the possible advantage in using quartersawed material

when stability is required.

Mechanical properties.—Mechanical properties of Vochysia guianensis are good to very good

for a wood of its density. It is very similar in

most strength properties to yemeri (see yemeri

for description). The wood of F. guianensis is, in

general, very comparable to Scotch pine or Baltic

red deal {Pinu^ sylvestris) and yellow-poplar

{Liriodendron tulipifera) but is generally inferior to white oak {Quercus alba). Wood of the

less dense F. tomentosa was reported somewhat

inferior to F. guianensis in all mechanical proper-
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 73

ties tested at the Agricultural University of Wageniiigen in Holland {231,127,2Jt9).

Working properties.—Kwarie works readily

but possesses rather poor machining properties.

Consult the section on yemeri for a more complete

summary of these properties.

Durability.—Other species of Vochysia are

known for their variability in decay resistance,

and kwarie appears to be similar in this respect.

The heartwood has little resistance to decay in

contact with the soil according to studies of Surinam timber {175, 231), However, pure culture

tests indicate the wood is very durable to a whiterot fungus, although somewhat variable in this

respect, and moderately durable to a brown-rot

fungus {2W) ' Other species of Vochysia that are

without silica are resistant to susceptible to damage by the dry-wood termite of the West Indies

{263) and have little resistance to marine borers

in Hawaiian waters {76).

Preservation.—The wood offers little resistance

to preservative treatment, being similar to yemeri

in this characteristic {231).

Uses.—Kwarie is used and recommended for

the same purposes as yemeri. It is recommended

for boxes and crates, general carpentry, inexpensive furniture, interior trim, and plywood.

Supply.—Export supplies are available from

British Guiana, French Guiana, and Surinam.

LIGNUMVITAE

Guaiacum officinale, Guaiacum sanctum

Lignumvitae is not only one of the hardest and

heaviest woods known to commerce, but is also

unique for its self-lubricating properties due to

the unusual resin content of the wood. These

properties of strength and self-lubrication make

this wood particularly well adapted for underwater bearings. In this use it has three to four

times the service life of brass and babbit-metal

bearings. The wood has been exported for nearly

450 yeafs. First, its resin, called "guaiac" or

"guaiaci resin," was used as a curative in Europe.

Later, the wood was used principally to make

self-lubricating bearings or bushing blocks to line

the stern tubes of propeller shafts on steamships.

For centuries, it has remained in great demand

despite its relative scarcity, small size, and accompanying high prices.

Nomenclature.—The woods of Guaiacuni officinale L. and G. sancUmi L. are principally

known in commerce as lignumvitae, but are also

called guayacán in Spanish, bois de gaïac in

French, and wayaca and pokhout in Dutch. These

woods are also known as guaiacum-wood in England, gaïac in French West Indies, guayacán in

Puerto Eico, guayacán negro, palo santo, guayacán

in Cuba ; ironwood in Florida, United States; vera,

bera, gaïac, gaïac franc, gaïac mâle in Haiti; lignumvitae in Jamaica ; guayacán in Dominican Kepublic; and palo santo, guayacán in Venezuela.

The wood of G, sanctum is often identified separately from G. officinale by calling it "bastard" lignumvitae, vera, bera, guayacán blanco, gaïac femelle, or guayacancillo, and referring to the latter

as "genuine" lignumvitae. However, dealers more

commonly identify the wood as to its country of

origin. (Caltrop family, Zygophyllaceae.)

Distribution and habitat.—The combined

range of the two species of lignumvitae covered

here is from southern Florida and the Bahama

Islands through Jamaica, Cuba, Hispaniola,

Puerto Rico, and the Lesser Antilles to Martinique, and on the continent from Mexico southward through Central America to Colombia and

Venezuela on the north coast of South America.

Both species have been planted elsewhere, but it

is doubtful if either is indigenous to Trinidad and

the nearby Gulf islands {165).

The tree is largely confined to dry, exposed

sites where it is often the predominant species in

areas of low rainfall, and where the soil is very dry

at least part of the year. It does well on shallow

soils, particularly in limestone areas, but also

thrives in well-drained low areas, low foothills

subject to hot dry winds and in rocky limestone

regions (Cuba, Dominican Republic, Nicaragua)

at altitudes of 1,500 to 2,000 feet {U, 229).

The tree.—Lignumvitae is a small, slow-growing evergreen tree, normally 20 to 30 feet high

and about 12 inches in diameter, although some

trees grow to 30 inches. Clear boles in excess of

10 to 12 feet are uncommon. Bolts or logs 2 to 10

feet long and from 3 inches to 18 or 20 inches in

diameter are marketed. Larger logs were once

fairly common in Cuba, Jamaica, and Hispaniola

but are no longer available there in quantity {105,

230, 190). The largest logs are probably available now in Central America. Logs of Guaiacum

officinale are reported to be somewhat larger and

to have a greater proportion of heartwood than

those of G. sanctum. Logs of different species

are readily identified by their bark; the bark of

Guaiacum oßcinale is thin, smooth, with irregular-shaped glossy flakes of varying size and depth

similar to sycamore {Platanus), while the bark of

G. sanctum is rough {US). . K n

One other species, Guaiacum coulteri A. Gray,

occurs in Mexico as a shrub or small tree, growing to 25 or 35 feet tall and 16 to 28 mches m

diameter. G. guatemalense Planch, of Nicaragua

is synonymous with G. sanctum, although occasionally reported as a separate species.

The wood.—Lignumvitae is an extremely hard

and heavy wood. The heartwood is a dark greenish brown to almost Wack and readily distinguished from the narrow pale yellow or cream-colored sapwood. Heartwood becomes even darker

after exposure. The wood is very fine and uniform in texture with a heavily interlocked gram.

It has a characteristic oily feel due to the resm

(guaiac content) that constitutes about one-
74 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

fourth of the air-dry weight. Heating the wood

to a temperature of 100° centigrade causes the

resin to ooze out with an accompanying lessening

of the period of its self-lubricating properties. A

slight scent is evident when the wood is warmed

or rubbed. It is occasionally figured by color

changes or a fine ripple marking from the interlocked, irregular grain (265,230,229).

The heartwood of Guaiacwn sanctum contains

less resin than G. offiGindle, although the amount

of resin in both species varies considerably between different localities. Wood from trees growing in the hotter, drier locations is thought to be

more resinous than that from more humid, cooler

sites.

Weight.—Lignumvitae is one of the heaviest

woods in the trade. The specific gravity of airdry wood ranges from 1.20 to 1.36, averaging

about 1.28 at 15 percent moisture content {106,

50). The weight of air-dry wood varies from 75

to 85 pounds per cubic foot and averages about 80

pounds at 15 percent moisture content.

Seasoning.—Lignumvitae is difficult to season

because of its refractory tendencies, and considerable care is required to avoid shakes and splitting

during seasoning {222, 265). Logs left exposed

to the tropical sun are also very liable to develop

checks and ring shakes at the ends {105). End

coating logs at the time of logging with an asphalt, bituminous, or plastic roof coating would

probably eliminate most of this difficulty. End

coating the sawed material and piling it so that

it will air-dry slowly would also help to reduce

defect during drying. Kiln Schedule 2 of the

Forest Products Kesearch Laboratory in England

{222) is suggested for kiln-drying the wood.

Shrinkage.—Shrinkage data are lacking for

lignumvitae. However, its refractory nature indicates a considerable difference between radial

and tangential shrinkage. The very interlocked

grain would also indicate a comparatively high

rate of longitudinal shrinkage.

Mechanical properties.—Limited tests of seasoned timber at the Forest Products Eesearch

Laboratory in England indicated lignumvitae is

3 to 4 times as hard as English oak. Record states

that Guaiacum sanctum ranked first in hardness

over 405 woods tested and was far above any of

the common woods of the united States in this

property {188). According to the Forest Products Research Laboratory m England, straightgrained wood has a resistance to splitting in a

radial plane about double that of English oak, but

splits very easily on the tangential plane at loads

of about 30 to 40 percent of those for English oak

{105). However, most material is not straightgrained but severely interlocked and irregular,

and to split it would require much greater loads

than those needed for straight-grained material.

Working properties.—Lignumvitae is a very

difficult wood to work with hand tools {237, 2Ji).

It is also difficult to saw and machine with power

tools, tending to ride over the cutters in planing.

A cutting angle of 15 degrees or less is recommended in planing to prevent raised or chipped

grain on quartersawed surfaces when interlocked

grain is present. Increased pressure is also required on pressure bars and shoes to hold material

firmly durmg the planing. The dulling effect on

cutting edges is not unduly severe because of the

oily nature of the wood. In sawing, a narrow

tooth-pitch and limited hook are necessary to prevent severe vibration. SaAv type F is recommended by the Forest Products Research Laboratory {105). In most other operations a good

finish is possible; the wood turns and shapes very

well. It takes a high polish {237), but on account

of its oily nature requires special surface treatment for satisfactory gluing {2Jfi)'

Durability.—The heartwood is very resistant

to decay and is one of the few woods exceptionally resistant to termite and teredo attack; it also

resists acid {265). Wolcott {263) considers the

heartwood of lignumvitae more resistant to termites than West Indies mahogany, rating it at

100 as compared to 80 for that wood. The sapwood is moderately resistant to termites, rating

equal to the sapwood of West Indies mahogany

and the heartwood of Honduras mahogany.

However, damage to green logs by longhorn beetles has been recorded on several occasions, although no record is available as to whether sapwood or heartwood was damaged.

Lignumvitae is generally reported to be highly

resistant to marine borers in Caribbean waters.

Calvert {JjB) reports of observing a post of lignumvitae in the West Indies that had been submerged for several hundred years. Lignumvitae

has also proved resistant to marine borers in tests

at Aukland, New Zealand, in which untreated

wood of this species was undamaged after 7 years'

exposure {122).

Uses.—The principal use for lignumvitae is in

bearings and bushing blocks for propeller shafts

of ships, pulley sheaves, dead eyes, and as a replacement for metal bearings in roller mills in

steel and tube works. It is reported to last 3 to

7 years as unlubricated bearings in ships and from

50 to 70 years as pulley sheaves.

The extreme hardness and interwoven grain of

lignumvitae withstands the tremendous pressures

applied by the screw-shafts of the largest vessels

with the resin content serving as a lubricant.

Brush {J^l) reports that bearings for large steamships are made of a series of strips built up of lignumvitae blocks. The strips are assembled in a

way that the shaft bears on the end grain of each

block. Bearings for smaller vessels are sometimes

bored from one solid piece of wood.

Because of its hardness, wearing qualities, and

self-lubrication, the wood is useful for handsaw

guides and awning rollers, furniture casters, and

similar uses. It is also used for mallet heads because of its hardness and resistance to splitting;
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 75

then too it is made into parts that come in contact

with acid or alkaline solutions that would soon

destroy most metals. In steel and tube mills lignumvitae is used to replace brass and babbit metal

for bearings; the initial cost of the lignumvitae

bearings is less than for metal, and the useful life

several times longer with no lubrication required.

It is particularly useful where bearings are submerged or in constant contact with water as in

turbines and papermill machinery.

The wood is also used to a limited extent for

gunstock stencils and chisel blocks, masthead

trucks, bowling balls, cable dressers, brush backs,

rulers, batons, pestles, and packing between saws

in machine saw-frames, and for various turned

novelties. "Gum guaiac" for the drug trade is

extracted from the wood or sawdust, or collected

in the form of exudations from the living trees.

The resin is obtained by heating the pieces of wood

and collecting the resin as it emerges, by heating

sawdust and chips in water, or by extracting the

gum with alcohol or ether. Most of the "gum

guaiac" is used in proprietary preparations {266^

lJi3,12).

Supply.—Haiti, Cuba, Jamaica, British Honduras, and the Dominican Republic are the principal sources of lignumvitae. As recently as 1951,

Haiti exported fairly large quantities of the wood.

There may be other sources in the West Indies,

Central America, and northern South America

where sizable quantities might be obtained for

export.

MAGNOLIA

Talauma dodecapetala

Of the several species of Talauma in tropical

Ahierica, 2\ dodecapetala (Lam.) Urban {T.

plumierii (Sw.) DC.) is the only one in the Lesser

Antilles. The tree serves a dual purpose in some

islands where its majestic appearance, white flowers, and excellent form make it an attractive ornamental and an equally important source of timber

{190,19S). Stehle {220) considers the wood superior to that of all other timbers of the Caribbean Archipelago.

Nomenclature.—The tree is known locally as

magnolia, for its leaves, flowers, and wood closely

resemble those of the related genus Magnolia. It

is also called pin, bois pin, pomme pin, and bois pin

marron in the various islands of the Caribbean,

including the British Islands of Dominica and St.

Lucia. These names result from the resemblance

of the fruit to that of the pine trees. In Guadeloupe and Martinique it is also known as cachimán

de montagne and bois cachimán {93). (Magnolia

family, Magnoliaceae.)

Distribution and habitat.—Magnolia is endemic to the hydrophytic forests of five of the

largest islands of the Lesser Antilles, namely

Guadeloupe, Dominica, Martinique, St. Lucia,

and St. Vincent. Two related species, laurel sabino {Magnolia splendens Urban) and jagiiilla

{M. portoricensis Bello) are confined to Puerto

Rico, where laurel sabino is considered one of the

most valuable trees.

Magnolia is not an exacting species as to soil

and is generally one of the most common and generally distributed species in the humid, manystoried forests between 1,400 and 2,500 feet elevation {220). The tree develops best in deep rich

soils in valleys and on level sites at middle elevations in hot, humid climates. It is never found on

ridges or slopes or as a dominant species. It is

reported to be in plentiful supply in St. Lucia

{163).

The tree.—The tree is straight, erect, and well

formed, with a large round, well-developed crown

in dominant trees. Long buttresses are common.

On favorable locations the tree may attain a

height of 130 feet or more and diameters to 36

inches. Clear boles 40 to 60 feet long are common.

Magnificent specimens are said to be present in

almost all valleys in the central forests of the islands where it occurs.- The bark of old trees is

rough and uniformly white with shallow longitudmal fissures. The magnolialike flowers are

large, white, and sweet scented {220.^ 93).

The wood.—The wood resembles yellow-poplar

{Liriodendron tulipifera) in structure but not in

color. The sapwood is white to light yellow and

sharply differentiated from the dull dark brown

or black heartwood, which is often streaked with

shades of brown. The wood vessels are very thin

and grouped in concentric arches. Wood rays are

irregular and long, giving rise to medullary spots

or pith flecks. Growth rings marked by fine

bands of marginal parenchyma are difficult to distinguish. The wood is without distinctive odor or

taste ; its grain is fine textured and straight {50,

Weight.—The specific gravity of air-dry wood

averages about 0.64 based on air-dry volume and

weight. Air-dry wood weighs about 40 pounds

per cubic foot for magnolia as compared to 48

pounds for white oak.

Seasoning.—Magnolia seasons without serious

degrade; 1-inch boards air-dry in 6 months on St.

Lucia.

Shrinkage.—The wood is reported by Stehle

{220) to bo resistant to swelling, shrinkage, and

expansion because of its homogeneity.

Mechanical properties.—There are no published data on the strength properties of magnolia. However, the wood is reported to be hard^,

tougli, and strong. The timber is also reported

to be resistant to shock, stress, compression, and

tension, and is difficult to split or twist. Its elasticity is also reported as fairly good.

Working properties.—Magnolia is regarded as

"probably tlie local wood which turns out easiest

and best on the machines" {163) in the government-owned woodworking shop m St. Lucia.
76 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

This is in agreement with other reports that the

wood works easily but does not take nails or

screws well.

Durability.—Some confusion exists as to the

resistance of magnolia to decay and insect attack.

Stehle {220) .reports that the heartwood is never

attacked by insects, while Lang {153) states that

magnolia is susceptible to termite and fungus attack on St. Lucia. The latter rating is more

comparable to the experience with the closely related laurel sabino of Puerto Rico.

Uses.—Magnolia is a highly cherished wood

and commands a high price. It is prized for

flooring because of its stability and the variety

of colors present in the heartwood, and is also

used extensively in small boat construction and

in the hulls of fishing canoes. Other uses include

marquetry, interior finish, gunstocks, and furniture. Its principal uses on St. Lucia are in truck

bodies and for interior work {93).

Supply.—Limited supplies of magnolia may

become available for export from Dominica, St.

Lucia, Martinique, and Guadeloupe when adequate logging and milling facilities are established on these islands.

MAHOE

tiihiscus elatus

Nomenclature.—HiMscus elatus Sw. is commonly known as mahoe, blue mahoe, or mountain

mahoe in Jamaica. In Cuba it is known as majagua, majugua, emajagua, and majagua azul {232).

Other common names are bois flot or seaside

mahoe {50). Some authors have considered this

species to be the upland variety of H. tiliaceus

L., sea hibiscus, a closely related but small shrubby

tree common on shores throughout the tropics.

(Mallow family, Malvaceae.)

Distribution and habitat.—^Mahoe is reported

from Jamaica {229) and Cuba {207) and may occur in other areas in the Greater Antilles. The

tree has been widely planted and naturalized from

southern Florida and Cuba to Trinidad and Tobago, and on the continent from Mexico to Peru

and Brazil. It has been planted quite extensively

in St. Lucia from seed imported from Jamaica.

Mahoe occurs throughout Cuba and Jamaica

under a wide range of elevations and soil conditions from sea level to 4,000 feet, but is not well

suited to rocky, exposed, or degraded ridges, or

to areas with a rainfall of less than 60 inches

{230). Heavy cutting in the past has seriously

reduced the volume of merchantable timber.

The tree.—Mahoe commonly grows to a height

of 60 to 70 feet and a diameter of 12 to 18 inches,

although on favorable sites trees occasionally attain diameters of 36 inches. The boles are

straight and of fairly good length {190.^ 230).

The bark is clear in color, rather soft in texture,

and consists of many layers that can be separated

after beating. The inner bark is used for making

rope and cord, which is reported to be very^ durable in salt and brackish water {171). HiMscus

tiliaceus of the lowlands seldom grows to commercial size.

The wood.—The sapwood is narrow and nearly

white. Tlie heartwood is basically a greyish

brown or olive, but is often richly variegated with

streaks of purple, metallic blue, and olive, or separated by plain olive patches. The grain is fairly

straight and of medium texture. Freshly polished wood has the appearance of marble but

lacks luster and unless well finished rapidly assumes a very dull color. No distinctive odor or

taste is present in seasoned wood. Mahoe is considered one of the most valuable woods of Jamaica

and Cuba {171,llfß).

Weight.—Mahoe is a moderately heavy wood

reported to weigh 47 pounds per cubic foot when

air-dry {50). On this basis, the specific gravity

of air-dry wood would be 0.75. It is somewhat

heavier, darker in color, and more durable than

that of Hibiscus tiliaceus.

Seasoning.—No information available.

Shrinkage.—No information available.

Mechanical properties.—Mechanical tests are

not available for mahoe but it is considered a

hard, tough, elastic wood of overall good quality

{4B).

Working properties.—The timber works easily

but needs particular care to attain a good polish.

Durability.—Mahoe, based on casual observations, is generally reported to be durable to very

durable {50, 229, 207, 230), but no authentic durability tests have been completed to verify these

observations.

Uses.—The timber is most highly prized in

Jamaica and Cuba for high-grade furniture, cabinetmaking, inlay work, and interior trim. It is

also used for footings, sills, framing, flooring,

shingles, and window and door frames in house

and building construction. Other uses include

railway sleepers, shipbuilding, as well as naves,

spokes, and fellows in wheelwright work, and

shafts and bodies of carts and wagons. But the

timber is scarce and costly, and most of the available supply is consumed in the higher grade uses.

Supply.—The very limited supply of mahoe is

not equal to the local demand and is not available

for export. It should be readily marketed when

sufRcient volumes are available.

HONDURAS MAHOGANY

Swietenia macrophylla

Nomenclature.—Honduras mahogany is probably the most common trade name for Sioietenia.

macrophylla King, which is also commonly

known as South American mahogany, baywood,

Central American mahogany, and broadleaf mahogany. According to the country of origin, the
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 77

timber is also known as Mexican, Tabasco, British

Honduras, Guatemalan, Nicaraguan, Costa Rica,

Panama, Brazilian, Peruvian, and Colombian

mahogany {195). Caoba and caoba hondurena

are the most commonly used names in Spanishspeaking areas. In Mexico the names zopilote

and gateado have been used, and in Peru aguano

(^^). The French name far mahogany is acajou.

The local British Honduras names are bastard

lime, red cedar, and sisam {190). (Mahogany

family, Meliaceae.)

Distribution and habitat.—Honduras mahogany occurs from southern Mexico southward

along the Atlantic slope of Central America from

British Honduras to Panama, and in Colombia,

Venezuela, and parts of the upper reaches of

the Amazon and its tributaries in Peru, Bolivia,

and Brazil {105,190,191). The tree is not native

to the West Indies islands, where it is replaced

by West Indies mahogany {Swi-etenia mahagoni)

on some islands {165). However, plantationgrown mahogany is found throughout Central

America and the West Indies as well as in other

tropical regions of the world {2^1).

The tree makes its best development both in

plantations and in the forest on deep, fertile, welldrained soils, but it does fairly well on many sites

from sea level to 3,000 feet in altitude.

A closely related species, Sioietenia humUis

Zuce. {S. cirrhata Blake), occurs in dry locations

along the Pacific coast from western Mexico to

Costa Rica {190). The wood is indistinguishable

from that of S. macrvphylla. Other names from

South America—S. candollei Pittier, S. tessmannii Harms, and S. krukovii Gleason & Panshin—

are usually regarded as synonyms of S. macrophylla. A form in British Honduras is named S.

helizensis Lundell.

The tree.—Forest-grown mahogany trees are

often very large, sometimes 150 feet in height and

6 feet or more in diameter above the heavy buttresses {73, 178). However, the principal source

of Honduras mahogany lumber in the area covered by this report will be from plantation-grown

trees in the West Indies and in some parts of

Central America. Plantation-grown trees often

make very rapid growth, frequently reaching

small saw-log size in 20 years on good sites, and

under average conditions 12- to 14-inch saw logs

(d.i.b.) are grown in about 40 years.

The wood.—The wood of plantation-grown mahogany from Honduras is described in Tropical

Woods {71) as follows:

Heartwood pinkish or salmon colored when freshly cut

in the unseasoned condition, later becoming light reddish

brown with a golden luster. Sapwood generally one to

two inches wide, sharply demarcated, yellow to white.

Grain commonly interlocked, producing a wide attractive

striped figure on radial surfaces. Texture rather fine to

medium, uniform ; growth layers indistinct. Heartwood

without characteristic taste or odor when seasoned.

Occasionally mottled, fiddleback, raindrop, roe,

or curly figures are present in the wood {^2).

Deposits of dark-colored gum in the vessels are

common and white deposits are sometimes present.

The presence of ripple marks on the tangential

longitudinal surface is usually apparent to the

naked eye {195).

Saks {197), reporting on the veneering qualities

of forest-grown Swietenia macrophylla, described

the wood figure as follows :

True Mexican mahogany produces broken stripe, roe

and mottle figures in addition to the common figure and

occasionally some other exceptionally rare designs. One

of these is the fine curly figure with rain-drop marks in

which the curls are ^ inch in length and clearly designed,

resembling hair waves. The rarest figure in Mexican

mahogany is bird's-eye figure, similar to the bird's-eye in

hard maple. Fiddleback is comparatively rare but if it

occurs gives an excellent lustre. Plum pudding figure is

produced by the seashell veined or male mahogany.

Quartersavm mahogany usually shows a delicate stripe

without the rigid regularity characteristic of the African

mahogany. The well-known leaf or shell figure, narrow

heart, wide heart and wild heart can be achieved in mahogany by plain slicing. However, the real beauty of the

Mexican mahogany is largely in quarter sliced veneer.

Rotary cut mahogany often completely loses its fine

characteristics. Hardness and strength are as variable

as the color in mahogany, v^^hich includes yellowish-white,

tea-color, salmon-pink, and golden-brown variations. Mahogany changes to reddish-brown color with an overall

golden hue after extended exposure to sunlight and air.

Weight.—Plantation-grown wood appears to

be somewhat less dense than forest-grown wood.

The specific gravity of forest-grown wood averages about 0.45, based on green volume and ovendry weight and 0.53 based on air-dry weight and

volume. Green wood weighs about 44 pounds per

cubic foot and air-dry wood about 33 pounds per

cubic foot {249,2Jt,S, H9,125).

Plantation-grown wood averages about 0.42 m

specific gravity, based on green volume and ovendry weight, and 0.50 based on air-dry weight and

volume. Green wood weighs 40 pounds per cubic

foot and air-dry wood 31 pounds per cubic foot.

There appears to be no appreciable difference in

the density and technical properties of wood from

different countries or geological areas. This was

substantiated by studies at Yale University {2J,B)

using forest-grown timber from several sources m

Central and South America.

Seasoning.—Honduras mahogany, one ot the

nonrefractory woods, can be air seasoned and kiln

dried rapidly and easily without appreciable

warping or checking {105). Plantation-grown

stock was seasoned in tests at Yale University

{2i8) without degrade except for slight crook

and bow- However, a high rate of longitudinal

shrinkage usually accompanies the presence of

tension wood and gelatinous fibers. This condition is not uncommon in Honduras mahogany and

generally results in an increased amount of warping ( 77^). Kiln Schedule 5 of the Forest Products

Research Laboratory in England is recommended

for kiln-drying {222).

Shrinkage.—Mahogany is well known tor its

unusually low shrinkage and stability, it has

596544 0-62—6
78 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

lower shrinkage values than any of the commonly

used woods in the United States {Jß). In the

Yale tests {71) plantation-grown wood was found

to have average shrinkage values from green to

ovendry of 2.4 percent radially, 4.2 percent tangentially, 0.42 percent longitudinally, and 6.6

percent volumetrically. The relative high longitudinal shrinkage is probably the result of the

characteristic interlocked grain in the wood and

the presence of tension wood in some specimens.

Shrinkage tests of forest-grown material from

Central and South America by Heck (/^5), Kynoch and Norton (i^^), and at Yale University

{2JtS) showed similar results. The averaged results of the three studies give shrinkage values of

8.1 percent radially, 4.2 percent tangentially, and

7.6 percent volumetrically.

Studies of the movement of forest-grown Honduras mahogany at the Forest Products Research

Laboratory in England {108) substantiated this

wood's reputation of being very stable in use.

A movement of 1.0 percent radially and 1.3 percent tangentially were measured between equilibrium in 60- and 90-percent relative humidities.

This amounts to a movement of % and %2 inch

per foot, respectively. The wood attained a moisture content of 12.5 percent in the lower humidity

arid 19.0 percent in the higher humidity.

Mechanical properties.—The strength properties of Honduras mahogany are extremely good

for a timber of its weight; for this reason it was

once used almost exclusively for airplane propellers. Plantation-grown timber is slightly below

forest-grown wood in bending strength and work

to maximum load in static bending in proportion

to its slightly lower density. But plantationgrown timber is generally superior in hardness,

compression across the grain, and shear. In the

air-dry condition, the plantation-grown material

is very much lower in modulus of elasticity, although the two types of wood are about equal in

shock resistance. Air-dry, forest-grown wood is

also apparently slightly superior to forest-grown

wood in tension across the grain and cleavage resistance {71, U9,2k8,15,125, IJß).

Working properties.—Mahogany is one of the

easiest and most satisfactory of all woods to work

with either machine or hand tools and has very

little dulling effect on cutting edges. In fact, mahogany is often a "standard of perfection" for

rating the machining qualities of other woods.

The frequent presence of tension wood gives rise

to fuzzy surfaces in machining, which necessitates

an unusual heavy sanding. However, excellent

finishes are obtained in most operations with

"wooliness" encountered in some material, where

the use of sharp tools is essential. The wood is

easy to glue {2JiO), takes nails and screws well,

and will take an excellent polish by any of the

accepted methods {105, Iß, 265).

Honduras mahogany is one of the easier woods

to slice or rotary cut into veneer, although flitches

will frequently develop cracks when not properly

boiled. This is prevented by a 60-hour boiling

process that starts with a cold soaking followed

by a gradual increase of temperature up to 170°

F. {197),

Durability.—Honduras mahogany is generally

considered resistant to decay. Field tests of forest-grown wood from British Honduras showed

heartwood to be resistant but not highly resistant

to decay. In these tests sample specimens lasted

10.5 and 11.0 years in contact with the soil {206).

Pure-culture tests {71) rate plantation-grown

mahogany very durable to durable in resistance

to a white-rot fungus and very durable to a brownrot fungus. The wood has shown little resistance

to marine borer attack in either Hawaiian {76) or

Atlantic {58) waters. It is rated moderately resistant to termites by Wolcott {263), who rates

the wood at 59 as compared to 80 for West Indies

mahogany. This critical rating of Honduras mahogany does not appear wholly justified in lieu

of its extensive use in termite-infested areas of

the Caribbean without any appreciable number of

complaints of termite damage. The sapwood is

quite susceptible to insect attack. I^gs that are

not properly sprayed with insecticides and end

coated against sun cracks are vulnerable to pinhole borers and the subsequent brown discoloration {197),

Both plantation-grown and forest-grown mahogany have excellent weathering properties with

only minor surface checking and warping occurring when exposed to the weather without the

protection of paint {55),

Preservation.—Honduras mahogany is extremely resistant to impregnation with preservatives. Even under pressure treatments, onljr a

small quantity of preservative is absorbed with

only very light penetration along the end grain.

Uses.—Honduras mahogany is one of the most

cherished cabinet woods in the world. Its uses

are generally confined to the more expensive types

of furniture and cabinetmaking, interior trim,

paneling, and other uses where a high-grade, attractive wood is required. It is also used extensively in shipbuilding for paneling and interior

work in both large passenger vessels and small

boats. Because of its durability, stability in use,

and good weathering properties, the timber is

used for planking on yachts and small boats and

also for the shells of racing or speed boats {118),

It is employed also for several types of musical

instruments, particularly pianos.

In some countries mahogany is the preferred

wood for burial caskets because of its attractive

appearance. The characteristic low shrinkage,

stability, and ease of working make mahogany

particularly adaptable for use in molds, dies, and

pattern making. A large portion of all mahogany is used in the form of veneer and plywood,

often with cedar {Cedrela) or other less valuable

wood used as a core or backing.
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 79

Supply.—Plantation-grown mahogany from

the Caribbean region may become available in limited quantity from Trinidad and possibly other

areas within a few years. Present export supplies of forest-grown timber are largely confined

to Mexico, British Honduras, Honduras, and

South America.

WEST INDIES MAHOGANY

Stvietenia mahagoni

West Indies mahogany, Stoietenia iiiahagoni

Jacq., is probably the best known and most cherished cabinet wood in the world. It has been exported from the West Indies for nearly four

hundred years, first to Europe and later to the

United States and throughout the world. The

timber was once in bountiful supply on many of

the Caribbean islands and as late as 1919, H. O.

Neville included the following comments in his

Hardwoods of Cuba {171) :

For domestic purposes, the Mahogany is used in such

freedom that it seems sacrilege to the newcomer from

the North, who has known this wood only in its finished

and very expensive forms. Many hundreds of cords of

this timber, ranging from 12 inches in diameter down,

are annually burned under the boilers of our sugar mills

and locomotives ; hundreds of trees of the proper sizes

are annually cut down and rough-hewed into railroad

ties ; and for posts, corralled fences, and the myriad other

uses of the plantation. Mahogany is utilized. There will

come a day not very far distant when the waste of this

valuable timber will be regretted.

The "day" Nfeville forecast has arrived and

West Indies mahogany is now of more historical

than commercial significance. By 1946 the annual cut declined to 2 million board feet in Cuba

{207). Haiti, Cuba, and Dominican Republic

have banned the export of all mahogany logs and

lumber, and the other Caribbean sources can only

supply small quantities at intermittent intervals.

Fortunately, another true mahogany, Swietenia

macrophylla King, and a number of other "socalled" mahoganies, although inferior in some respects to West Indies mahogany, have filled the

position formerly occupied by this wood.

An indication of the esteem in which the true

mahoganies, Swietenia spp., are held in the woodworking field throughout the world is evident by

the numerous timbers that are called "mahogany."

Some of these woods are superficially similar to

mahogany; others bear virtually no resemblance

to the true mahoganies. Nevertheless, the adopted

trade name "mahogany" helped to sell them;

otherwise, the timbers would have carried their

local names.

Nomenclature.—The tree and timber of Swietenia mahagoni are known on the export market

as mahogany, true mahogany, Spanish mahogany,

West Indies mahogany, Cuban mahogany, Dominican mahogany, Jamaica mahogany, and other

names related to the source. The French word for

mahogany is acajou, and the Spanish know it as

caoba and caoba dominicana. In the Bahamas the

tree is called madeira or redwood. It is sometimes

known as bay mahogany or caobilla in Cuba and

as mahogany petites feuilles in Guadeloupe. Foresters in the Caribbean area often refer to this

species as small-leaf mahogany to distinguish it

from S. macrophylla^ referred to as broadleaf

mahogany. (Mahogany family, Meliaceae.)

Distribution and habitat.—West Indies mahogany is native to southern Florida, the Bahamas, Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica, and the Dominican

Republic. It has been introduced and naturalized

in Puerto Rico and most of the Lesser Antilles,

including St. Lucia, Grenada, St. Vincent, Martinique, Guadeloupe, the Grenadines, and the Leeward Islands. The tree also groAvs in Trinidad,

Tobago, and the American Virgin Islands, but is

not considered indigenous to those locations {60^

18).

Mahogany has been planted in many parts of

the world, including east and west tropical Africa,

the Philippine Islands, Java, India, and Ceylon.

Commercial timber has been produced in India

and Java. It is extensively planted nowadays

throughout the West Indies, largely on the drier

sites where it competes more favorably with the

native species {18, 229, Ißö),

The tree.—Mahogany trees are seldom found in

abundance, but are generally scattered thoughout

the forest, one or two trees per acre or even less.

The tree thrives in rich, moist soil but because of

heavy exploitation it is now generally confined to

dry, stony, arid areas. The trees vary in size and

in quality of wood according to site ; trees growing on dry, rocky sites are generally of smaller

diametjer than those in the more moist, fertile

areas. The wood of the dry areas is, however,

proportionately better in that it is finer textured,

heavier, darker, and more highly figured than that

of the faster growing lowland tree.

The History of Jamaica ^ carries the following

description of mahogany :

The tree grows tall and straight, rising often sixty feet

from the spur to the limbs; the foliage is a beautiful

deep green ; and the appearance, made by the whole tree,

so elegant, that none would be more ornamental for an

avenue or decorative planting. It generally bears a great

number of capsules in the season. The flowers are of a

reddish or safron color; and the fruit of an oval form

about the size of a turkey's ^K^. It is easily propagated

from seeds and grows rapidly- Some of them have

reached to a monstrous size, exceeding one-hundred feet

in height and proportionately bulky.

The tree is planted extensively on the drier sites

on many of the West Indies islands. In some

arid, rocky areas pure stands of mahogany have

developed from the original plantings. Wadsworth {2Í5) describes the establishment of mahogany on an adversely dry ridgetop site on the

^ Long, Edward. The History of Jamaica. 3 v. London.

1774.
80 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

island of St. Croix in the American Virgin islands

in which some of the trees contain 2 to 2l^ straight

logs 16 feet long. Dense thickets of straight saplings and poles of various ages had come in naturally on all sides of this nucleus of older trees.

A sample plot in the densest part of the stand

showed a volume of over 14,000 board feet per

acre and a basal area of 210 square feet per acre.

However, the average stocking per acre for the entire stand at the time of measurement was less

than 3,000 board feet. West Indies mahogany,

acknowledged to be a better wood, generally grows

at a slower rate in plantations than Swietenia

macrophylla. It is also considered more disease

resistant {165).

The wood.—In color, the heartwood varies

from a deep, rich red to a pinkish and occasionally

a yellowish color, but deepens to a rich red or

brown with age and exposure. The surface of

freshly sawed boards quickly turns a dark red

upon exposure to the sun. Tlie sapwood is yellow

to white and clearly differentiated from the heartwood. The texture, grain, color, and figure vary

according to site, but, in general, the texture is

fine and the grain straight to roey, wavy or curly,

often with an exceptionally attractive figure.

Interlocked grain was present in 10 percent of

the samples studied in one test at the U.S. Forest

Products Laboratory {68). Occasionally a mottled, fiddleback, raindrop, and roe figure are present. The stumps, crotches, and distorted parts

of the trees often yield some of the most attractively figured wood, such as blister figure and burl.

The luster is high, silky, and golden. Od.or and

taste are absent or not distinctive. Wet sawdust

and shavings transmit a red stain to concrete and

wooden surfaces and have been used for this purpose {143,229,50, Í2,2jl).

Weight.—The specific gravity of Swietenia

mahagoni from the Dominican Eepublic is reported at 0.56, based on green volume and ovendry

weight {lJi9), The specific gravity of air-dry

wood ranges from 0.70 to 0.85, averaging around

0.77. Air-dry wood weighs about 48 pounds per

cubic foot and green wood about 68 pounds per

' cubic foot (56>,^6'5).

Seasoning.—West Indies mahogany, being a

nonrefractory wood, is easily air-seasoned or kilndried without warping or checking. Kiln Schedule 5 of the Forest Products Eesearch Laboratory

in England {222) is recommended for kilnseasoning.

Shrinkage.—This species is noted for its low

and uniform shrinkage. Shrinkage values from

green to ovendry of 4.6 percent radially, 5.4 percent tangentially, and 6.9 percent volumetrically

{160) show both a low rate of shrinkage and very

good uniformity between the radial and tangential directions. These factors are responsible for

mahogany's ability to hold its shape and stay in

place much better than most other timbers of similar density. Shrinkage from green to air-dry

amount to about half these values.

Mechanical properties.—A ccording to

strength tests conducted at the Forest Products

Laboratory in Madison {125) and the University

of Michigan {1^9), the wood has good strength

properties, particularly in bending and compressive strength factors in which it is somewhat

superior to English oak. The wood is strong

enough for the uses to which it is ordinarily applied except for the tendency to be somewhat

fissile, which can be a disadvantage where splitting may occur {118).

Working properties.—The wood works well

with both hand and power tools and finishes to an

exceptionally smooth lustrous surface. It also

makes excellent veneer, glues and bends well, and

is a superior wood for turnery. Because it takes

a fine polish, the wood is particularly well suited

for French polishing but is perhaps most attractive when finished with only a colorless wax. The

worldwide custom of staining mahogany a dark

red brown before polishing actually conceals most

of the true beauty of the wood {265, Jß, ll^S, 196),

Durability.—The heartwood of West Indies

mahogany is highly resistant to decay and insect

attack. Wolcott {263) rates the wood at 80 in

resistance to dry-wood termites compared to 59

for Honduras mahogany. Recent laboratory

tests {169) of the decay resistance of West Indies

mahogany, Honduras mahogany, and several of

the false mahoganies {Khaya spp. and Shorea

spp.) from Africa and the Philippines showed

that the true mahoganies were superior in decay

resistance to the other species. Only West Indies

mahogany showed absolutely no decay damage

during the test. Honduras mahogany was next

in decay resistance, followed by Khaya spp. and

Shorea spp. These species are also inferior to

both of the true mahoganies in insect resistance.

But West Indies mahogany showed no appreciable resistance to marine borers in tests conducted

in Hawaiian waters {76).

Uses.—The wood is principally used for lumber and veneer in the more expensive types of

furniture and cabinetwork. In Europe, the major

use of the lumber from the limited number of

small logs available is in turned rails and rungs

of chairs. It is also used for high-class joinery

work, woodwork in yachts and pleasure ships,

turnery, carvings, and for other comparable jobs.

The wood is especially well adapted for pattern

work because of its stability and ease of working,

but it has been largely replaced by Honduras mahogany. However, its main local use is for turned

products for the Caribbean tourist trade. Because of its resistance to termites {228), its natural

beauty and ease of working, the wood is also used

locally for window frames, doors, sills, interior

woodwork, and inlay work.
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 81

Supply.—Limited quantities of logs or lumber

may be available at intermittent intervals from

Jamaica, Guadeloupe, Trinidad, Martinique, St.

Vincent, and Grenada. Haiti, Cuba, and the Dominican Republic have banned the export of logs

so that more timber can be used locally. In 1955,

a small circular sawmill was established in St.

Croix of the American Virgin Islands to convert

West Indies mahogany growing on that island.

MANBARKLAK

Eschweilera longipeSy Eschweilera suhglandulosa

Nomenclature.—The timber from Eschweilera

longipes (Poit.) Miers and E, suhglandulosa

(Steud.) Miers enters the export trade from

Surinam as manbarklak {175). E. longipes is also

called black kakaralli in British Guiana and mahoe

noir in French Guiana. E, suhglandulosa is known

as black kakaralli, barklak, kakaralli, and toledo

wood, and in Trinidad as guatecare. (Brazilnut

family, Lecythidaceae.)

Distribution and habitat.—Surinam is the

main source of manbarkalak from Eschweilera

longipes and E. suhglandulosa. These species are

two of about 80 species of Eschweilera distributed

from eastern Brazil through the Amazon Basin

to the Guianas, Trinidad, and Costa Rica. Fifteen

or more species of Eschweilera that grow in British

Guiana are known as kakaralli, but at least 75 percent of the trees are the more valuable black kakaralli, E. sagotiana Miers, which closely resembles

the manbarklak of Surinam (P5,190). E, odora

(Poepp.) Miers of the Amazon Basin and the

Guianas is another very closely related species

known as manbarklak in Surinam and mata-mata

in other areas {71 ).

Manbarklak grows in dense stands along the

estuaries in Surinam; it becomes less important

along the rivers {231), It is found throughout

British Guiana where it becomes frequent to abundant in the rain and seasonal forests {82),

The tree.—The trees vary from small to very

large in size with heavy oval crowns and black to

brown, mottled bark. They are normally 90 to 120

feet in height, 16 to 20 and occasionally up to 40

inches in diameter, and have moderately wellformed boles 40 to 60 feet long. The trees are

often somewhat fluted or slightly buttressed {82).

The wood.—Manbarklak is an extremely heavy,

hard, strong wood. The heartwood when first cut

is greenish yellow to olive brown, turning a brownish buff upon drying. Black streaks are occasionally present in the heartwood. The sapwood is

1^ to 4^ inches wide, creamy tan and not well

differentiated from the heartwood when green but

becoming more apparent when seasoned {21^,8).

The wood is typically straight gained and uniformly fine textured. Both species contain a high

percentage of silica. Samples of Eschweilera suhglandulosa show up to 1.31 percent and E. longipes

up to 2.43 percent silica, based on ovendry weight

of the wood {H).

Weight.—The specific gravity of manbarklak,

Eschioeilera suhglandulosa,^ averages about 0.87,

based on green volume and ovendry weight, and

1.08 based on air-dry volume and weight. Airdry wood weighs about 67 pounds per cubic foot

and green wood around 78 pounds per cubic foot

{2.lf.8^ 231). Both species discussed in this report

are very similar in density.

Seasoning.—The wood is fairly difficult to airdry, seasoning at a moderate rate with sligjht crook

and twist, slight end and surface checking, and

slight casehardening {248).

Shrinkage.—Manbarklak is considerably

heavier than white oak but undergoes about the

same shrinkage in drying. Shrinkage values of

5.0 percent radially, 10.3 percent tangentially, and

15.9 percent volumetrically for Eschweilera suhglandulosa are only slightly higher than the corresponding values of 5.3, 9.0, and 15.8 for white

oak {248). The ratio of tangential to radial

shrinkage is favorable for uniform drying.

Shrinkage values for E. longipes are not available.

Mechanical properties.—^The wood is extremely hard, dense, tough and strong but, except

for shock resistance in which manbarklak is outstandingly high, the unseasoned (green) wood

is average or below average in strength for a wood

of its density. Bearing strength across the grain

is particularly low. In the green condition it is

slightly inferior to greenheart in all mechanical

properties, except shock resistance; in this manbarklak surpasses greenheart. However, the

strength properties of manbarklak are generally

much better than those of any domestic wood

of the United States {190, 95).

Unlike most tropical hardwoods, manbarklak

improves substantially in strength during seasoning. It equals the proportionate increase shown

by temperate-zone hardwoods during seasoning

in bending strength and compression perpendicular to the grain (bearing strength), and exceeds

the average in side hardness and work to maximum load (shock resistance). The air-dry wood

compares very well with greenheart in static bending, elastic resilience, and shear, but is inferior

to greenheart in stiffness and tension across the

grain (bearing strength). Wlien green and airdry, manbarklak exceeds white oak in all properties except cleavage (splitting) in which it is

equal to oak when green and slightly more than

half as strong as oak when air-dry {248).

Working properties.—The wood is difficult to

work because of the high silica content. It is

also difficult to glue but takes a good finish. Cutting edges are quickly dulled by the silica and

the wood's inherent hardness, but when knives

are kept sharp a slate-smooth surface is obtained.

Kammer caps are required when driving manbarklak piling, because of the ease m which it

splits {82, 231, 248, 95),
82 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

Durability.—^Untreated manbarklak, Eschweilera subglandidosa^ is resistant to very resistant

to decay, according to graveyard tests in British

Guiana {50) and Trinidad {39)^ and pure culture tests at Yale University [21^8). Other tests

of untreated heartwood in Surinam showed a life

expectancy of 15 to 30 years in permanent contact with the soil, or 40 to 50 years when exposed

to the elements.

Manbarklak is noted for its high resistance to

marine borers, which some authors attribute to

the high silica content of the wood. It is particularly resistant in brackish waters where greenheart {Ocotea rodiaei) has been severly damaged

{188,190, 76). The timber has withstood marine

borer attack for 17 years in one test in Surinam,

and had the best record of a large number of resistant species in 15 years of exposure to marineborer attack in the ocean waters at Balboa, Canal

Zone {71), One record is available of manbarklak

piling "at least 50 years old being perfectly sound

and as hard as nail and quite untouched by

teredo."

Manbarklak, Eschioeilera subglandulosa, ranked

fourth in resistance to marine borers of 37 tropical

American hardwoods under test at Wrightsville,

N.C. {68). In this test one manbarklak panel was

lost to teredo and 3 others suffered only slight

damage over a 36-month period. Licania rwacrophylla Benth., Parinari rodolpkii Huber, and P.

campestris Aubl. ranked slightly above manbarklak in the order listed. Greenheart ranked well

below manbarklak in twelfth place.

Wolcott {263) rates black kakaralli, ^5í?A^ü6^76r'(Z

sagotiœna, a closely related species, slightly above

West Indies mahogany in resistance to dry-wood

termites. This very resistant rating agrees with

tests in Trinidad, where manbarklak also resisted

subterranean termites.

Uses.—Because it has very good resistance to

marine borers, manbarklak is especially suited for

use in both temperate zone and tropics in marine

construction, especially for marine piling {231,

248), Good strength properties and high resistance to wear or abrasion make the timber well

suited for ice sheathing for boats, factory flooring,

shoe keels for landing boats and beaters and bed

plates in pulpmill equipment {116), It is also

used locally for house framing, mine lagging, railway ties, and posts. The timber is especially useful where good decay and termite resistance is

essential.

Supply.—-Manbarklak is available in commercial quantities from the Guianas.

MANNI

Symphonia glohulifera

Nomenclature.—Symphonia glohulifera L. f.

is found in both tropical west Africa and the

American tropics, and is the only species of the

genus Symphonia occurring outside of Madagascar. In addition to the common trade name of

manni, the timber is commonly known as chewstick in the English trade. Other local and trade

names are as follows : matakkie, masagrie in Surinam ; manil, bois cochon in French Guiana ; waika

chewstick, corban in British Honduras; leche amarilla in Honduras; yellow mangue in Trinidad;

mangle blanc in Dominica; hog plum, doctor's

wood, boarwood in Jamaica; palétuvier jaune in

French We^t Indies; vanani in Brazil; cerillo,

boncillo in Costa Rica; permán in Venezuela;

barillo in Panama ; brea-caspi in Peru ; boarwood,

doctor gum in British West Indies; barillo, leche

amarillo in Honduras; manniballi, brick-wax

tree in British Guiana. (Mangosteen family,

Guttiferae.)

Distribution and habitat.—^Manni occurs in

the West Indies in Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola,

Guadeloupe, Dominica, St. Lucia, and Trinidad,

and on the continent from Mexico southward

through Central America to northern South

America. Its distribution in South America includes Colombia, Venezuela, the Guianas, Brazil,

Peru, and Ecuador. The species occurs in Africa

through the Ivory Coast and Gabon south to the

Belgian Congo and Angola.

It is a rather common tree in the mixed-hardwood and palm forests of low, humid locations and

at times is the dominant species in limited areas

{190), In British Honduras the tree is most common and attains its best development in swamps

along the southern rivers from Moho to Temash.

It also occurs at the rate of 1.5 trees per acre

along part of the coastal plain but is absent from

the limestone regions {150), In Surinam the tree

is locally abundant in swamp forests and marsh

forests outside the young coastal plain and is

occasionally found in the rain forest {231). It is

found throughout British Guiana where it occurs

as a dominant to occasional tree in the marsh forests and riparian forests {82),

In Trinidad manni grows principally in

swampy areas, where it is often locally gibundant,

especially in the palm swamps. It also occurs in

most other Trinidad forest types that receive 50

inches or more rainfall, but in most places of the

territory it is only an occasional tree {165), In

Jamaica the tree is found principally in damp

mountain woods {229), In French Gruiana it is

scattered throughout the forest, except in the

marshy regions where it sometimes forms almost

pure stands {69), Elsewhere in the West Indies,

it is also generally confined to the more moist

humid areas.

The tree.—On favorable sites the trees often

grow to 100 feet in height and have long, straight,

slightly buttressed boles that average 20 to 30

inches in diameter and 70 to 80 feet long. However, trees up to 36 inches and 130 feet high are

found in British Guiana and British Honduras

{150,82), Trees are commonly supported by stilt-
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 83

like roots, and sometimes have elbow buttresses

up to 4 feet in height. In swampy areas the tree

develops pneumatophores. The crowns are small

with the long, whippy, drooping, irregularly

whorled branches resembling those of spruce. The

bark is rather thick, smooth, red brown and exudes

a sticky yellow latex when cut. This latex becomes black and pitchy upon exposure in which

condition itis used for calking boats.

The wood.—The sapwood is distinct, a near

white that contrasts sharply with the varied

colored heartwood. This latter may be yellowish,

grayish, or greenish brown; several shades of

these colors may occur as stripes on the face of

a single board. A distinct but unattractive silver

grain figure is visible on planed quartersawed

boards. The luster is medium to high ; the texture

is rather coarse with a feeling somewhat harsh.

The grain varies from straight to irregular. Soft

parenchyma tissue is abundant and readily visible

on a clean-cut end surface as wavy broken or continuous lines crossing the fine, invisible rays.

Growth rings are absent or poorly defined.

Freshly cut wood has a "tarry" odor, but dry wood

has neither a distinctive odor nor taste {5^231 ^HS).

Weight.—The specific gravity of manni based

on ovendry weight and green volume averaged

0.544 (0.470 to 0.593) in tests at the Forest Products Laboratory in Madison {68)^ 0.58 in tests at

Yale University with material from Surinam and

British Guiana {260), and 0.59 in tests with wood

from British Honduras by the Forest Products

Research Laboratory in England {15). The specific gravity of air-dry wood based on volume and

weight in that condition is generally reported at

from 0.65 to 0.78, averaging about 0.72. Weight

of air-dry wood averages 44 pounds per cubic foot.

Green wood weighs about 67 pounds per cubic

foot at 85.4 percent moisture content. These averages are very similar to those of white oak {QuerGus aXba).

Seasoning.—British Honduras, Surinam, and

Dominica* report manni as seasoning well with

very little checking or distortion. However, the

Forest Products Exarch Laboratory in England

states that though the wood seasons fairly rapidly,

it is inclined to check and split during seasoning

and should not be exposed to direct sunlight, and,

if possible, some protection should be given to the

ends of boards to retard drying. Wangaard

{250), reporting on tests at Yale University, states

that wood seasons rapidly with moderate surface

checking, slight to moderate end checking, and

casehardening and warp in the form of crook and

twist. Mold was observed on some material. It is

generally concluded that a slower rate of drying

would reduce seasoning degrade.

Shrinkage.—Manni undergoes moderate

shrinkage during seasoning and is fairly stable in

use. Wood from French Guiana of 0.775 and

0.728 specific gravity (air-dry) underwent a volumetric shrinkage of 12.7 and 11.3 percent, respectively, from the green condition to ovendry. Material of similar density from Surinam and British

Guiana, tested at Yale, averaged 5.7 percent radially, 9.7 percent tangentially, 0.15 percent longitudinally, and 15.6 percent volumetrically from

green to ovendry. White oak of similar density

undergoes a shrinkage of 5.3 percent radially, 9.0

percent tangentially, and 15.8 percent volumetrically {160). Shrinkage from green to air-dry

would be about half these values.

Mechanical properties.—Mechanical tests

have been conducted on wood from British Honduras by Yale University {90., 250) and the Forest Products Research Laboratory in England

{15) and by Pfeiiïer with material from Surinam

(175). Pfeiffer derived values somewhat lower

than those obtained at Yale and in England. The

difference has been attributed to the consistently

higher moisture content and the somewhat lower

specific gravity of the air-seasoned material used

in Pfeiffer's tests.

Test averages in England and at Yale University showed manni superior to white oak in staticbending properties and in maximum crushing

strength parallel to the grain. Manni is slightly

inferior to oak in shear parallel to the grain, cleavage, and side hardness but is slightly superior in

end hardness. In general, the wood compares

very favorably with white oak in all mechanical

properties tested and in density, rating it as a

wood that is strong for its weight. In toughness

manni proved quite inferior to yellow birch, sugar

maple, and some oaks {160).

Working properties.—Manni is a very easy

wood to work. It hardly dulls cutting edges, although it is somewhat harsh and splintery. Because manni has an abundance of soft parenchyma

tissue, the surface tends to roughen in planing and

shaping, particularly on irregular grain. However, in general it may be sawed, planed, turned,

shaped, and bored without difficulty {82, 231).

Machining tests at the Forest Products Laboratory in Madison {68) indicate the wood turns,

bores, sands, and mortises very satisfactorily

under rather severe machining conditions, but

raised and chipped grain may occur in planing

and shaping. However, for 15 tropical American

species tested, the wood was above average except

in shaping and turning, which exceptions were

only slightly below average. Splitting may occur durmg nailing because of the wood's somewhat fissile nature {5) but, in general, it holds

nails and screws well. Manni also polishes easily

and affords a satisfactory surface for the application and retention of glue, paint, and varnish

{90,191,178). ^ ^

Durability.—The wood is durable m contact

with the ground and has very good durability m

water. Presumably it is not resistant to marine

borers. Graveyard tests in British Guiana {50)

and England {206) showed that the wood will

last 5 to 6 years and 12 years, respectively, m con-
84 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

tact with the ground. It is also rated resistant

to decay in graveyard tests conducted in Trinidad

(39), Pure culture tests conducted in England

rated manni very resistant to both white-rot and

brown-rot fungi (Si), Recent tests at Yale (250)

were less favorable. They show the heartwood

varied in decay resistance from very durable to

moderately durable, averaging durable in resistance to a white-rot fimgus and very durable to

durable to a brown-rot organism. Subject to termite damuge, manni rated by tests in Puerto Rico

and Trinidad as only moderately resistant to drywood and subterranean termites {263). Logs are

reported by Fanshawe to be subject to damage by

pinhole borers.

Preservation,—Heartwood is highly resistant

to impregnation with preservatives. Absorption

in the sapwood is limited to the vessels, for the

fibers do nottake the preservative {150).

Uses.—^The timber of SympTwrda glohulifera

is used locally throughout most of its range for a

variety of purposes and has occasionally been exported in small lots from tropical America to the

United States and Europe for veneer and plywood

{191, 178), Saks {197) reports that the wood

should be suitable for rotary-cut veneer after

thorough tests have been completed.

In the West Indies and Central America, manni

is used in general construction work, flooring,

piling in nonteredo areas, carpentry, railway ties,

shingles, boxes and crates, cooperage, boat keels,

and bridge timbers. Because of its good machining and nnishing qualities, it is looked upon with

favor for furniture, cabinetwork, and interior and

exterior finish. The yellow variety is particularly

recommended for exteriors; it has a more attractive color and takes a higher finish.

In British Honduras the wood was used for

crossties; it was reported as fairly durable and

held well in the track. However, the heartwood

became brittle with age and broke under pressure

of the rolling stock without sufficient ballast under

the rails (^^, 208). According to Horn, railway

crossties of this species have been exported from

the Lower Amazon region of Brazil {133).

Manni has been used for cooperage in British

Guiana as a substitute for gum staves in the manufacture of molasses barrels. Demougeot {69)

states it is particularly well suited for use in

barrels of small dimensions for it has a finer grain,

is less permeable, and makes a more solid barrel

than oak. Barrels made of manni are reported

to be more rigid than those of oak and to last

longer when filled. The staves of empty barrels

are also less apt to shrink and break. The Forest

Products Research Laboratory in England suggests that the timber may be a satisfactory substitute for oak in construction work.

Manni has been selected in the government

housing program of British Guiana as one of the

10 woods acceptable for siding and flooring; one

of 18 woods acceptable for interior partitions and

battens; and one of 8 timbers acceptable for structural timbers, scantlings, and other similar items.

The papermaking characteristics of manni from

Trinidad have been studied by the Imperial Institute in England {116)^ where tests indicated the

wood produces "a well digested pulp which furnishes a soft, opaque, bulky, brown paper, of fairly

good strength. The pulp bleached fairly readily,

and then furnished a pale cream-colored paper of

similar character and strength to that from the

unbleached pulp." The wood is suitable for

making acceptable book and printing paper.

The resin is used for medicinal purposes in

tropical America under the local names of doctor

gum in West Indies, mani in French Guiana, and

danani in Brazil. The resin serves specifically in

the medicinal field as a vulnerary and diuretic, as

a gout plaster, and as a substitute for copaiba. It

is also reported to be used as a tonic and an efficacious balm in the healing of ulcers and absesses

{90), The resin, which darkens on exposure, is

reported by Le Cointe {156) to serve as a ship

pitch and tar, called cerol in Brazil, where it is

used for caulking boats, for fitting arrowheads to

spears, as a substitute for shoemaker's pitch, and

to impregnate cord for use as torches, for it burns

without smoke or odor.

Supply.—Exportable supplies are available in

the Guianas, British Honduras, Trinidad, Guadeloupe, and Dominica.

MANNIBALLI

Inza alba

Nomenclature.—Inga alia Willd. is one of the

many species of the genus Inga distributed

throughout tropical America. Many species are

cultivated for decorative purposes but their principal use is for shade trees in coffee and cacao plantations. The timber is marketed as manniballi and

maporokon in British Guiana, prokonie in

Surinam, and bois pagoda or bois sucre in French

Guiana. A synonym is /. praœinea Willd.

(Legume family, Leguminosae.)

Distribution and habitat.—Manniballi grows

in the Guianas and the Rio Negro area of Brazil

In Surinam the tree occurs in the rain, marsh,

and high savanna forests {231), In British

Guiana it is an occasional to frequent tree of general distribution throughout the primary and

secondary forests {82),

The tree.—Manniballi is a medium-sized, unbuttressed tree with a heavy rounded crown. In

British Guiana trees may attain heights of 110

feet and diameters up to 30 inches in the most

favorable sites, but it is usually 16 to 20 inches

in diameter and less than 100 feet in height. The

boles are often fluted, varying from poor to

moderately good in form and up to 50 feet in

length {82),
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 85

The wood.—^Whitish sapwood of manniballi is

indistinct from the pale reddish-brown to reddishwhite heartwood that is occasionally streaked with

darker colors. The wood is coarse textured, lustrous, and with a straight to roey grain. Distinctive taste or odor is lacking in seasoned wood.

Growth rings are generally rather distinct (231,

50,22),

Weight.—^Manniballi is a moderately heavy

wood. The specific gravity of air-dry wood is

reported by the Surmam Forest Service {231)

and Benoist {22) at 0.57, based on air-dry volume

and weight at 15 percent moisture content. Airdry wood weighs about 36 pounds per cubic foot,

about the same as Douglas-fir of the United States.

Seasoning.—No data are available on the seasoning properties of manniballi. However, experience in Puerto Eico with guaba {Inga vera

Willd.) and guama (/. laurina (Sw.) Willd.),

both closely related species, indicates these species

dry rapidly with a moderate amount of degrade

from cup, twist, and crook. On this basis, manniballi can be classed as moderately difficult to airseason. Logs and freshly cut lumber are susceptible to discloration by sap-stain fungi.

Shrinkage.—The wood undergoes moderate

shrinkage during seasoning. A radial shrinkage

of 1.1 percent and tangential shrinkage of 3.1

percent from green to air-dry (15 percent moisture content) is reported in recent tests {231),

as compared to 3.1 and 7.2 percent, respectively,

from green to ovendry. The ratio of tangential

to radial shrinkage is slightly above normal, indicating the possibility of considerable distortion

during seasoning unless the material is carefully

stacked.

Mechanical properties.—Eecent mechanical

tests of manniballi by the Argicultural University of Wageningen, Holland, show it to be average or better in toughness, cleavage, shear,

compression parallel to the grain and in all staticbending properties. It is considered to be

moderately hard and strong in comparison to

woods of similar density {82, 231),

Working properties.—^According to numerous

reports, the wood is easy to work and finishes to

a smooth surface.

Durability.—^Manniballi, as well as the other

species of Inga, is reported to have little resistance

to insects or decay. Wolcott {263) found guaba

(/. vera) of Puerto Rico very susceptible to damage by the dry-wood termite of the West Indies.

Pfeiffer {175) rated Inga spp. as "little durable"

in contact with the ground and easily attacked by

subterranean termites. Presumably, manniballi

is also very susceptible to damage by marine

borers.

Uses.—The timber has been recommended for

utility plywood, flooring, sheathing, gejieral construction, carpentry, interior woodwork, furniture, boxes and crates, and light cabinetmaking.

It can give good service for many uses where resistance to decay and insects is not a factor.

Manniballi has been selected in the government

housing program of British Guiana as one of the

12 timbers acceptable for use as structural timber,

scantlings, and similar uses; it is one of 10 timbers acceptable for siding and flooring, and one

of 18 timbers acceptable for interior partitions

and battens. The relatively low radial shrinkage

as compared to tangential shrinkage suggests the

use of quartersawed material in flooring and other

uses where stability is required.

Supply,—British Guiana and possibly Surinam

and French Guiana can supply manniballi for the

export trade.

MARBLEWOOD

^arynaroxylon racemosum

Nomenclature.—Marmaroxylon racemosum

(Ducke) Killip is the only species of the genus

Marmaroxylon, meaning marblewood, so named

from the appearance of the lumber {185). However, this species is known also as Pithecellobium

racemosu/in Ducke {P. racemißorwm Ducke).

(Legume family, Leguminosae.)

The wood is often called snakewood in the English trade and in British Guiana, because it resembles the color and markings of the skin of

certain snakes. It is commonly known as bois

serpent, bois zebra, and bois macaque in French

Guiana. In Surinam the local names are bousi

tamarin, puta locus, slang houdou, and snecki housou. Timber cut in Brazil is known generally

as angelim rajado (streaked angelim)^ and occasionally as inga caetitú or urubuzeiro.

Distribution and habitat.—Marblewood grows

in the lower Amazon region and the Guianas.

It is reported to be fairly common in parts of

Brazil where it has been known in the trade for

many years. In the Guianas the tree occurs infrequently on the drier sites in the upland rain

forests and seasonal forests. It was first authentically discovered in British Guiana in 1937, when

a large 100-foot tree was found growing in the

rain forest on high land in the Essec[uibo River

basin.

The tree.—It is, in general, a medium-sized

unbuttressed but basally swollen tree. Trees are

commonly 16 to 20 inches in diameter and 90 to

100 feet m height with clear boles up to 50 or 60

feet long. Marblewood probably makes its best

growth m French Guiana, where the tree is rare

but large. Trees with clear boles 60 to 80 feetlong

and diameters of 18 to 24 inches above the basal

swelling are not uncommon in this area {185, 82).

The wood.—Marblewood, though not abundant, is an attractive wood and highly valued m

some areas. The sapwood is yellowish and not

clearly demarcated from the light yellow to

orange-brown heartwood, which is overlaid with
86 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

characteristic large, irregular purplish-brown and

occasionally black streaks and patches. These

markings, being darker than the yellowish background, give the wood a distinctive and unique

beauty. The wood also exhibits a fine pencilstriping of light-colored lines. It is very hard,

strong, medium to coarse textured, and rather

harsh to the touch. The grain is straight to irregular; luster is low to medium; and no distinctive odor or taste are evident in seasoned wood

{82,ip,190),

Weight.—Specific gravity of air-dry wood falls

within a range of 1.05 to 1.25, based on air-dry

volume and weight. Air-dry wood weighs from

65 to 78 pounds per cubic foot.

Seasoning.—There is no information available

concerning either air-seasoning or kiln-seasoning

of the wood.

Shrinkage.—^Marblewood shrinks 14.3 percent

in volume from equilibrium in 100-percent humidity (green and thoroughly saturated) to ovendry,

based on the original green volume. Shrinkage

from green to air-dry would amount to about half

this amount, or roughly 7 percent. This is a

moderately high rate of shrinkage but is not unusual for woods of high density. It is equal or

below similar values for some woods of much

lower density {60), Other shrinkage values are

not available.

Mechanical properties.—In tests of mechanical properties at the French Centre Technique

Forestier Tropical (5Ö), marblewood exhibited

lower strength than many other woods of similar

high density. Generally the wood is hard and

stiff, but falls below other woods of similar density

in bending strength, resistance to splitting, compression strength, and resistance to impact bending. It compares fairly well in most strength

properties with West Indies mahogany {Swietenia

mahagoni), which is, however, of much lower

density. On the basis of its greater density,

marblewood should be the much stronger of the

two and is, consequently, not particularly fitted

for uses where strength is important.

Working properties.—^Working marblewood

with either hand or machine tools is difficult because of its high density. But it is reported to

finish smoothly and to take an exceptionally fine

polish.

Durability.—^The wood is generally considered

resistant to decay, but no graveyard or laboratory

tests are found in the literature (82), Wolcott

(263) lists marblewood as resistant to termites,

rating it slightly above Honduras mahogany

(Swietenia macrophylla) in this respect. He

rates the resistance of Honduras mahogany at

59 and marblewood at 64, based on laboratory tests

with captive members of Cryptoiermes hrevis

Walker known as the West Indies dry-wood termite or "polilla." Tests in Hawaiian waters indicate that the wood has little resistance to marine

borers (76).

Uses.—Although the wood possesses .good

strength, it appears that its highest use is for

furniture, cabinetmaking, turning, joinery, marquetry, flooring, and decorative panels, as these

uses can best capitalize on the wood's imique attractiveness. Itis also used for heavy and durable

construction and for wheelwright work in French

Guiana and Brazil, despite the timber's moderate

strength properties and high value. The wood

also seems suitable for cutlery handles, novelties,

and for other special uses requiring a hard, heavy

wood of unusual appearance.

Supply.—French Guiana is the only area in the

Caribbean reported to have marblewood available

for export. Small quantities may be available on

special order from Surinam and British Guiana.

MORA

Mara excelsa, Mora gonggrijpii

Mora * timber is supplied by two very similar

species, Mora excelsa Benlh. and M. gonggrijpii

(Kleinh.) Sandw. It is one of the most plentiful high-quality heavy timbers in the Caribbean

area. The two species grow on totally different

sites and are not similar in appearance or growth

habits, yet their wood can scarcely be separated.

As a result, the timber of both species is sold

separately or in combination.

Nomenclature.—The timbers are generally

marketed together under the trade name mora or

on occasion as morabukea when Mora gonggrijpii

is predominant. Local names for M, excelsa are

prakue, waspisiana, and torore in British Guiana;

peto, roode, witte mora, perakaua, and mora-yek

in Surinam; muru in Trinidad; peto and mora de

Guayana in Venezuela; mahot rouge in French

Guiana; and belarbre in Martinique.

Mora gonggrijpii is principally known as morabukea throughout its range, although other local

names may have restricted usage. Some authors

include Mora within the genus Dimorphandra.

Synonyms of M, excelsa include M. guianensis

Schomb., Dimorphandra excelsa (Benth.)^ Bail!.,

D. mora Benth. & Hook, f., and D. guianensis

(Schomb.) Baill. D. gonggrijpii Kleinh. is a

synonym of M, gonggrijpii, (Legume family,

Leguminosae.)

Distribution and habitat.—Mora excelsa is

widely distributed in the Guianas but much less

so in Trinidad and the Orinoco Delta of Venezuela. It makes its best development on low-lying, moist sites but not those constantly inimdated.

In British Guiana it is strongly dominant on river

levees and flood plains on alluvial clay or silt

soils, occurring in dense stands along stream

courses on the heavier soils. It is also of frequent

occurrence in the rain and seasonal forests on

*Marish is listed under Kauta, out of alphabetical

order.
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 87

hillsides and in low-lying sandy areas and is of

occasional occurrence in the marsh forests. Individual stands of from 10,000 to 15,000 board

feet per acre in merchantable trees are not uncommon. Although the tree occurs in pure stands,

it is normally a gregarious species and often the

dominant species in the stand {£9, 20^ 121).

Mora gonggrijpii is not as widely distributed

or as abundant as M. excelsa^ being restricted

to British Guiana and Surinam {190). It is the

dominant species in the morabukea forests of British Guiana where it covers large areas in the interior, but it is rare in the northwest district and

along the coast. The tree is best adapted to hillsides on heavy clay soils even though it occurs

occasionally in other types of rain forest. The

tree is also widely distributed in Surinam.

The tree.—Mora excelsa is an outstanding tree

in appearance. The huge buttresses and flanges

at the base of the large trees spread out 15 feet

from all sides of the trunks and at times extend

for 50 feet up the tree {121). Normally the tree

is 100 to 120 feet high and 2 to 3 feet in diameter

with clear boles for 50 or 60 feet above the buttresses that extend horizontally to 8 feet and from

5 to 15 feet up the trunk. Trees 160 to 200 feet

high and 4 feet in diameter are reported. Their

boles are straight and have fairly good form but

are sometimes flattened. Logs are commonly 30

to 40 feet long and li/^ to 21/^ feet in diameter at

the butt; but some run to 60 feet long and 5 feet

through at the butt. Large trees are often hollow

butted, yet they still contain much sound timber

Mora gonggrijpii is smaller on the average than

M. excelsa.^ although occasional specimens are as

tall as the largest moras. Its plank buttresses

seldom extend more than 6 to 10 feet high. The

tree is commonly 16 to 20 inches in diameter and

100 to 120 feet in height, with long crylindrical

boles 60 to 80 feet in length. Occasional trees are

found up to 24 inches in diameter and 150 feet

tall {82).

The wood.—The wood of both species is almost

identical in appearance, weight, structure, and

strength. The sapwood of the mora tree is yellowish to pale brown, 2 to 6 inches wide, and distinct

from the dark brown, reddish brown, or dark

red heartwood, which is streaked with white or

brown lines. The wood is mealy in appearance

and rather harsh to the feel. The grain is straight

to commonly interlocked, very variable and often

has attractive bird's-eye, wavy, or sometimes ribbon-grain figures {H2). Growth rings bounded

by terminal parenchyma are present. The

luster is high, and the texture varies from medium

to coarse, usually the latter. It has a distinct

astringent taste and a slightly sour odor. Two

timber varieties are recognized : black and white.

Black mora has more heartwood and is heavier

áñd more durable than the white mora.

The wood of morabukea is similar to that of

mora, being very hard, heavy, tough, and strong

with the same general physical properties. Morabukea is sometimes slightly harder and, to some

extent, ñner in texture than mora (74,5, 266).

Weight.—The wood of both mora and morabukea ranges from 0.90 to 1.10 in specific gravity,

averaging about 1.00 based on air-dry weight and

volume. The specific gravity based on green

volume and ovendry weight is reported at 0.78

by Kynoch and Norton (Z^^), Yale University,

and the Forest Products Research Laboratory in

England. The weight per cubic foot averages

about 77 pounds for green wood and 62 pounds

for air-dry wood {16,2S1,82,29).

Seasoning.—^There are conflicting reports as to

the seasoning characteristics of the timber. The

Forest Products Eesearch Laboratory in England

{222) reports mora seasons slowly in the kiln with

appreciable degrade. The timber was reported to

have a tendency for shakes to extend during seasoning, surface checks to develop rapidly, and a

good possibility that cupping and twisting will

prove serious. Kiln Schedule 2 of the Forest

Products Research Laboratory in England is

recommended.

Mora was rated difficult to season in tests at

Yale University {2S0). Stock dried at a moderate

rate with moderate crook and slight checking.

Only slight casehardening was noted in this test.

In British Guiana, the wood of the mora tree is reported to air-season and kiln-dry well with very

little checking if properly stacked and carefully

handled {29).

On the basis of these reports, mora should be

classed as moderately difficult to season. A slow

rate of drying and careful stacking are recommended to keep warp and other degrade to a

minimum.

Shrinkage.—Mora undergoes a high rate of

shrinkage during seasoning. Mora excelsa is reported by the Forest Products Research Laboratory in England to have a radial shrinkage from

green to air-dry (12 percent moisture content) of

5.0 percent and tangential shrinkage of 7.5 percent, compared to 4.0 and 7.0 percent, respectively,

for M. gonggrijpii {15). Wangaard, Stern, and

Goodrich (2Ó0) report that M. excelsa from Surinam and British Guiana undergoes an average

shrinkage from green to ovendry of 6.9 percent

radially, 9.8 percent tangentially, 0.36 percent

longitudinally, and 18.8 percent volumetrically.

These values are somewhat greater than corresponding values for white oak of 5.3, 9.0, and

15.8 percent for radial, tangential, and volumetric

shrinkage, respectively {24^). Mora's ratio of

tangential to radial shrinkage is within the range

considered favorable for reasonably uniform drying in respect to stresses that occur during

seasoning.

Both mora and morabukea are relatively unstable in use; as timbers they have large move-
88 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

ments. Both species move 3.5 percent tangentially

from equilibrium in a 60-percent relative humidity to equilibrium in a 90-percent relative humidity. Mora also undergoes a radial movement of

2.3 percent, and morabukea 2.0 percent imder the

same conditions {108).

Mechanical properties.—Mora (mora and morabukea) is a very strong, stiff, hard, tough wood.

When green, mora is considerably denser and

stronger than any domestic wood of the United

States. However, when compared to other tropical woods of similar density, mora falls below

the average in most strength properties, except

in shock resistance and stiffness, which are average. It greatly exceeds green white oak in all

properties except tensile strength across the grain

and cleavage resistance. In the air-dry condition

mora is superior to white oak in bending and

crushing, stiffness, and hardness, and it is more

shock resistant. However, mora is inferior to

the lighter white oak in compression and tension

across the grain, cleavage, and shearing strength.

In general, its strength characteristics average

about 30 percent greater than those of white oak

{149,15,29,250).

Working properties.—The wood is moderately

difficult to work but machines well. It is fairly

hard to saw, and springs in sawing with a dulling

effect similar to that of teak. It planes to a

smooth surface unless interlocked grain is present,

in which case there is considerable "pick up" and

chipped grain. This can be reduced by using a

cutting angle of 10 degrees on knives. Saws having teeth with a 10-degree hook spaced at a medium wide interval are recommended. The wood

turns easily, seldom splintering, and requires

little sanding. It finishes smoothly and is easily

polished. The wood holds nails and tie spikes

extremely well, and is very difficult to split. Morabukea is considered a little more difficult to

work than mora.

Durability.—The durability of Mora excelsa

appears to differ between locations and sources,

but it generally resists decay in contact with the

ground. The timber is reported to last 15 years

or longer in contact with the ground in England

{206). Even better results are realized in British

Guiana, where mora is considered variable in resistance to decay but lasts up to 20 years in the

ground. However, Brooks reported it to last only

2 to 3 years in the soil in Trinidad, where it is

considered susceptible to decay {89,29).

Findlay {8Ii) reports that, on the basis of pure

culture tests, material from British Guiana rated

resistant to decay, but wood from Trinidad rated

moderately resistant to nonresistant. These results are in general agreement with the post tests

in British Guiana and Trinidad. Pure culture

tests at Yale University {250), using wood from

Surinam and British Guiana, rated mora durable

to a brown-rot organism and very durable to a

white-rot fungus. No difference was noted in the

durability of the material from Surinam or British Guiana.

Mora is readily susceptible to damage by marine

borers (76) but very resistant to dry-wood termites and other insects. A low silica content

(0.02 percent) may be a factor in its poor resistance to marine borers.

Morabukea is considered more resistantto decay

than mora, averaging very resistant as compared

to resistant for mora {50). Morabukea is rated

slightly higher than West Indies mahogany

{Swietenia mahagoni) in termite resistance {263) ;

it is very susceptible to damage by marine borers.

The sapwood of both species is susceptible to pinhole borers, powder-post beetles, and longhom

beetles, and is not durable in the ground.

Preservative treatment.—The sapwood responds readily to preservatives, but the heartwood

of mora resists impregnation. Under prolonged

pressure treatment, sapwood absorbs only 4 pounds

per cubic foot, compared to the 10 to 15 pounds

required. In heartwood, penetration is fairly uniform but extends only about % inch deep.

Uses.—Being hard, heavy, tough, and strong,

mora timber has many uses. Because of its fire

resistance, it is rated by Lloyds as an A-1 material for stem posts, ribs, knees, and framing in

ship building {118). Because of its instability

and lack of cabinetwood beauty, the wood is not

well fitted for furniture, interior flooring, turnery,

and similar uses. But it is well qualified for

bridge timber, house framing, bridge decking and

planking, marine construction, and piling in

teredo-free areas. The timber is also successfully

used for mining timbers, mill beds, heavy-duty

industrial flooring, and heavy construction of all

types.

Mora has been used successfully in Holland for

piling in teredo-free areas. Danks {67) reports

its use in England for warehouse flooring, where

its ability to withstand hard wear is an appreciated quality. Hohenkerk {128) reports that

untreated mora ties were decayed only at the rail

grooves, but otherwise were sound after 8 years'

service on a poorly ballasted roadbed in a hot,

humid section of British Guiana.

Pulped by the soda process, the wood yields a

good quality pulp suitable for strong paper {113).

It also is highly rated as a charcoal wood, having

a caloric value of 13,800 B.t.u. {51).

Supply.—Mora timber is available in relatively

large quantities from British Guiana and Surinam, and in lesser amounts from French Guiana

and Trinidad.

NARGUSTA

Terminalia amazonia

Nomenclature.—A number of species of the

genus Tenninalia grow in the American tropics

of which T. amazonia (J. F. Gmel.) Exell is the

most widely distributed. Several other species
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 89

occurring in the Caribbean area have similar wood,

but too little is known about them to assume that

they have the same properties as nargusta. Included in this group are T. latifolia Sw. of

Jamaica, discussed separately as broadleaf, and

T, chicharronia (Griseb.) Wright (T. intermedia

(A, Rich.) Urban) of Cuba. T. catappa L.,

Indian-almond, is a widespread exotic planted and

naturalized in tropical America. T. ohovata (R.

& P.) Steud. is a synonym of T, amazonia, (Combretum family, Combretaceae.)

In addition to the preferred trade name of nargusta, this species and its various forms are known

by the following vernacular names: fukadi,

Sookadi, coffee mortar in British Guiana ; almenro, buUj^wood in British Honduras; guaba,

almendro in Honduras; cochun in Mexico; amarillo in Panama; white oliver in Trinidad;

guayabo león in Colombia; pau-mulato brancho

in Brazil; roble in Ecuador; amarillon in Costa

Rica; pardillo negro and chicharro in Venezuela;

volador, guayabo, naranjo in Guatemala.

Distribution and habitat.—Nargusta is common on the moist slopes and flat lands within

the rain forests of southern Mexico southward

through Central America and into northern South

America to Brazil and Peru and on the island

of Trinidad (iPÖ,ri).

It is widely distributed in the rain forests of

Trinidad, where it is most abundant on poor sands

and gravel. It also thrives on clay soils within

this colony but is absent from the driersites {165).

In British Guiana the tree is common throughout

the seasonal and wallaba forests. It is one of the

commonest trees in British Honduras except on

the deeper limestone soils of the northern plain

area. Concentrations of 4 to 5 trees per acre are

not unusual in British Honduras, especially in the

lirfiter canopy forests.

The tree.—Nargusta is a large, virtually evergreen tree with a long, clear symmetrical bole

above the large buttresses {€). It attains heights

of 70 to 140 feet and reaches up to 4 or 5 feet in

diameter, depending on the site and location.

However, trees with diameters larger than 20 or

25 inches are often hollow (7i, 105), Boles are

commonly 60 to 70 feet long on the better sites

{82). In British Honduras the tree is noted for

its ability to coppice and for fallen trees to send

up new shoots that develop into large trees astride the fallen parent. The bark is a dull brown,

rather thin with shallow longitudinal fissures

{150, 166),

The wood.—The sapwood, a yellowish color, is

not readily separated from the heartwood for the

wood usually darkens gradually from the sapwood

to the heart or pith of the tree. The heartwood is

varied ; it may be a brownish yellow, light yellowish brown, or yellowish olive. In some trees the

wood has distinct and prominent reddish streaks

and stripes at widely spaced intervals. The luster

is medium to rather high. The wood is of medium

texture and usually shows marked irregularity in

the grain, which is normally interlocked showing

a fairly distinct "stripe" or "roe" figure on quartersawed boards. Growth rings are usually not

clearly defined, and no distinctive odor or taste

are evident in seasoned material {IJß, 6, 2^6).

Weight.—Nargusta is a rather heavy wood,

with an average specific gravity of 0.66 (0.53 to

0.77) based on ovendry weight and green volume

{71), The specific gravity of air-dry wood generally averages about 0.80. Air-dry wood averages about 50 pounds per cubic foot and greenwood about 71 pounds per cubic foot {150, 105,

82,165),^

Seasoning.—Nargusta is a moderately difficult

wood to air-season and kiln-dry. Depending on

the timber source, it also exhibits considerable

variability in seasoning characteristics. In one

test in the United States, wood from British Honduras air-seasoned at a fast rate with no checking

and only slight warping, but wood from British

Guiana seasoned more slowly with very pronounced end and surface checking, particularly

in thick stock {71,249). In a similar test in England, wood from British Honduras air-seasoned

rather slowly with a tendency to split and check

although piled under cover in the most favorable

conditions. In this test very little warping occurred and knots generally remained sound (l05).

The wood kiln-seasons slowly WíÜL little

warping but with a marked tendency to split and

checK and for existing shakes to become more extended. It is also difficult to remove moisture

from the center of quarter-cut material over 2

inches thick. Kiln Schedule 3 of the Forest Products Research Laboratory in England is recommended {222).

Shrinkage.—Nargusta undergoes moderate

shrinkage for its density. Shrinkage from green

to ovendry averages about 4.8 percent radially,

7.9 percent tangentially, 0.18 longitudinally, and

12.7 percent volumetrically. These values are

somewhat lower than shrinkage of sugar maple

and white oak and very similar to those for white

ash, although all three species are considerably

lower in density than nargusta {21^2, 2^9),

Shrinkage from green to air-dry (12 percent

moisture content) is reported to be 2.5 percent in

the radial direction and 5.0 percent in the tangential direction, or %6 ii^^h and % inch per foot,

respectively {222), The ratio of tangential to

radial shrinkage indicates moderately uniform

shrinkage characteristics, which may account for

the absence of severe warping during seasoning.

Nargusta timber responds to atmospheric

changes with only moderate movement. It undergoes a radial movement of 1.7 percent and a tangential movement of 2.7 percent, or i%4 and 2%4

inch, respectively, between equilibrium in a relative humidity of 60 percent and equilibrium in a

relative humidity of 90 percent {108). Heartwood

of nargusta is moderately resistant to moisture
90 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

absorption, being intermediate to mahogany and

white oak in this characteristic {198).

Mechanical properties.—Nargusta varies

somewhat in strength according to its source and

density. Tests at Yale University {71, 249) indicate the wood's strength properties are related directly to its density. Seasoned wood from Trinidad is reported to be 20 to 30 percent superior to

the wood of the same species from British Honduras {IOS). Similarly, wood from Panama is

inferior to that of British Guiana and British

Honduras in compression strength across the

grain.

The timber from all sources is heavy, hard,

and strong. Tests of wood from Trindad and

British Honduras by the Forest Products Eesearch Laboratory in England {105) and of wood

from British Guiana, British Honduras, and

Panama by Yale University (7i, 249\ are in reasonably good agreement. Nargusta in both the

green and air-dry condition was found to be definitely superior to white oak {Queren^ alba) in all

static bending and compression parallel to the

grain properties. In the green condition it is

also superior to white oak in compression and

tension perpendicular to the grain and shear, but

after air-drying it becomes slightly inferior to

oak in these same properties. It is definitely inferior to oak in cleavage in both the green and airdry condition, but is about 70 percent harder than

that species.

Seasoned nargusta from Trinidad is about 70

percent harder than oak, 40 to 60 percent stiffer,

tougher, stronger in bending and in compression

along the grain, and 30 percent stronger in shear,

but is about 40 percent less resistant to splitting.

Working properties.—The timber is somewhat

difficult to work with hand and machine tools.

It is comparable to beech {Fagios) in its resistance to cutting and sawing and other machining

operations. Straight-grained wood planes, molds,

bores, mortises, and saws cleanly but with a slight

tendency to char in crosscutting, drilling, and

mortising. Raised grain may occur when planing

quartersawed boards with interlocked grain, and

a much greater amount of tearing may occur when

fiddleback ripple is present. A little tearing of

knots may also take place in planing. Nargusta

turns to a very smooth finish. It is easy to glue

and stains and polishes easily to a high luster.

In nailing, nail holes must be prebored to prevent

splitting {150, m, 178,191,6).

Saws having 54 teeth with 15-degree hook

are recommended. A knife angle of 10 degrees

is best for planing interlocked or fiddleback grain

material {105). Nargusta is a fair to poor wood

for steam bending, but Woods {£65) reports that

it bends well without steaming.

Durability.—^The resistance of nargusta to decay appears to be variable. Graveyard tests in

England {£06), using wood from Trinidad and

British Guiana, showed the wood to be very durable in the ground, lasting about 12 years. In

similar tests the wood was rated only slightly

resistant in British Guiana {50) and fairly resistant in Trinidad {S9),

Nargusta was found to be very durable to both

brown-rot and white-rot fungi in one series of

pure culture tests at Yale University {2P).

Similar tests at the U.S. Forest Products Laboratory {199) rated nargusta as only resistant (durable). This rating was substantiated in graveyard tests at two locations in the United States.

On the basis of the available data, nargusta seems

to be durable to very durable witn the possibility

of considerable variability.

The wood is resistant to the dry-wood termite

of the West Indies, ranking intermediate to Honduras mahogany and West Indies mahogany in

this characteristic {263). However, graveyard

tests in Trinidad indicate only fair resistance to

subterranean termites. Logs left in the woods for

any length of time are subject to attack by ambrosia beetles. Pinhole borers are also reported

to attack the wood. It is not reported to be resistant to marine borers. Unpainted wood exposed

to the weather checks some and loses its surface

smoothness, classifying nargusta as only fair in

resistance to weathering {55).

Preservation.—This species is extremely resistant to impregnation with creosote, which even

under high pressure does not penetrate laterally

except in a few isolated vessels. The sapwood

is also relatively difficult to treat with only the

vessels being penetrated {105).

Uses.—The characteristics of this wood make

it suitable for many uses; it has hardness, durability, high strength properties, moderate shrinkage and movement values, and attractiveness. It

can be substituted for oak in many places, including flooring, railway ties, cartwrights' work,

cabinetwork, and furniture. The timber appears

to be well suited as framing, planking, and decking in boatbuilding, and for turned articles. It

has been recommended for use in plywood and instruments. Because of the wood's durability,

nargusta is well suited for general construction,

bridgework, outside construction, and railway

ties. The bark is used for tanning in British

Honduras and other areas. It has been selected

as one of the 18 local species in British Guiana

suitable for use in interior partitions and battens

in the government housing program.

Supply.—British Honduras, British Guiana,

and Trinidad are the principal sources for export

supplies of the timber.

PAKURI

Platonia insignis

Nomenclature.—The wood of Platonia insignis

Mart., from British Guiana is imported into the

United States under the English trade name of
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 91

pakuri. Other local British Guiana names for the

wood are wild mammee apple, pakouri, and pakoorie. In Surinam it is called pakoelie, geelhart,

papoelie, and bakoerie. The French Guiana

names are parcourie, parcouru, manilparcouri,

and paracouril. It is commonly known as

bacoropary, bacury, and pacuru in Brazil, matozama in Ecuador, and bacury-guazu in Paraguay

{S8). (Mangosteen family Guttiferae. )

This species is similar to Èymphonia glohulifera

L. f., the manni timber of British Guiana and

manil of French Guiana. The woods of manni

and pakuri are also similar in structure. The most

apparent difference between the wood is the color;

pakuri tends to be darker than manni and, according to Demougeot {69)^ gradually turns black

Ujpon exposure to the air. The natives of French

Gruiana often confuse standing trees and their

vernacular names.

Distribution and habitat.—Pakuri occurs

from British Guiana, Surinam, and French

Guiana to Brazil, Paraguay, Ecuador, and Colombia. The tree gro^vs scatteringly throughout

French Guiana, especially in marshy regions and,

with manil, comprises about 5 percent of the total

timber stand of the colony. It is of rare occurrence in the marsh forests of Surinam, and in

British Guiana is rare to locally frequent in the

wallaba, rain, and seasonal forests of the near

interior {82, 2S1, 69).

The tree.—Pakuri is an unbuttressed, heavy

crowned, canopy tree of medium to large size.

They are commonly 90 to 100 feet tall and 24 to

36 inches in diameter. The boles are cylindrical,

well formed, and clear of branches for 60 or 70

feet. The bark is white, exfoliating, fibrous, and

is valued both for cordage and for its black viscous resin used for caulking boats.

The wood.—Heartwood of pakuri is dark yellowish brown or orange brown with conspicuous

grayish parenchyma markings, often in the form

of streaks or striping. The sapwood is yellowish

white and clearly demarcated from the heartwood,

which is reported to gradually turn black on exposure. A moderately hard and heavy wood, it

has a low luster and no distinctive odor or taste.

The texture is medium; the grain is generally

straight but at times irregular (7^, 69).

According to a review in Tropical Woods (20 :

37), the wood of Platonia insignis from Surinam

upon extraction with benzene was found to have a

residue of 1.5 percent of a substance that appeared

to be euxanthone, melting point 239° C, which

was identified by comparison with an authentic

specimen of euxanthone prepared from Indianyellow. The substance Indian-yellow is a magnesium salt to euxanthin acid, which is obtained

m Bengal from the urine of cows fed mainly on

the leaves of the mango tree {Mangifera indica

L.). So far as is known, euxantone has never

been found in a free state in the vegetable

kingdom.

Weight.—The specific gravity, based on air-dry

weight and volume, ranges between 0.70 and 0.85,

averaging about 0.80. Air-dry wood weighs between 44 and 53 pounds per cubic foot, averaging

about 50 pounds {60).

Seasoning.—No information is available on

seasoning characteristics. However, lack of such

information sometimes means lack of difficulty in

seasoning.

Shrinkage.—Pakuri undergoes a relatively

high rate of volumetric shrinkage during seasoning. Tests in France showed a shrinkage of 16.7

percent from green to ovendry based on the ovendry volume {50). This would amount to 17.3 percent, based on the original green volume. These

results compare closely with Pfeiffer's determination of 17.1 percent swelling (movement) between

ovendry and equilibrium in 100 percent humidity,

and 10.2 percent swelling from ovendry to the

air-dry condition in 70-percent relative humidity

{175). Thus, pakuri's movements as a result of

atmospheric changes are quite large.

Mechanical properties.—Mechanical properties of pakuri were included in "Allowable Stresses

for Surinam Timbers" by Pfeiffer in Volume II

of Surinam Timbers {175) and by the Centre

Technique Forestier Tropical, Nogent sur Mame,

France {50). Both studies showed pakuri to be

a moderately strong wood but still weaker than

other tropical American hardwoods of similar

density. It was found to be inferior to white oak

of the United States and purpleheart of British

Guiana and Surinam in practically all strength

properties. The wood's best feature is probably

its elasticity.

Working properties.—The wood works fairly

well with both hand and power tools, and though

it takes nails poorly, it polishes very well {82,

281). Pakuri's uses indicate that it is no more

difficult to work than most other woods of comparable density, and possibly with less difficulty

than some characteristically cross-grained timbers.

Durability.—Pakuri is rated durable in respect

to decay {82, 2S1) and resistant to dry-wood termites, rating 76 as compared to 80 for West Indies mahogany {Sioietenia mahagoni) {263) in

resistance to the drywood termite of the West

Indies. No information is available as to the timber's resistance to marine borers.

Uses.—Pakuri is used in the Guianas for piling, boatbuilding, furniture, turnery, carriage

building, and general carpentry and construction.

In French Guiana it is also used for rum (aguardiente) barrels, packing cases, and crates. It

has been recommended for plywood, house framing, flooring, and paneling. However, the relatively high rate of shrinkage and movement would

exclude the wood from use in such flooring, paneling, and other places where this characteristic
92 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

is undesirable. Perhaps the highest uses for the

wood is in tight cooperage, boatbuilding, and utility plywood.

Supply.—French Guiana, Surinam, and British Guiana have exportable supplies of this timber, with French Guiana probably having the

largest accessible volumes.

PARAKUSAN

Swartxia jenmanii, Swartzia polyphyllay Swartzia

schoYnhurg\ii

Nomenclature.—Parakusan is the common

name applied in British Guiana to the wood of

Swartzia jenmanii Sandw., S. polyphylla DC,

and S. schomhurgkii Benth. Other species of

Swartzia are described under Wamara. (Legume

family, Leguminosae. )

The species furnishing parakusan timber are

of frequent to locally common occurrence in the

rain forests of British Guiana, especially in the

poor type of rain forest from the northwest district to the Demerara River.

The tree.—These three species of Sioartzia are

unbuttressed canopy trees with deeply fluted and

twisted trunks without a central core. The trees

are commonly 24 to 36 inches in diameter and 90

to 110 feet high. The boles are clear of branches

for 60 to 70 feet but, because of the deeply fluted

and twisted nature of the bole, only short, thin

billets are obtainable.

The wood.—The wood is a lustrous pale creamy

yellow. The grain is straight and the texture

fine. The wood is hard, tough, and resilient.

Weight.—The specific gravity of air-dry wood

is reported at 0.75 to 0.80, based on weight and

volume when air-dry. Air-dry wood weighs from

47 to 50 pounds per cubic foot (82).

Seasoning.—No data available.

Shrinkage.—'No data available.

Mechanical properties.—Results of mechanical tests on this timber are not available. Tests

on other more dense species of Swartzia indicate

that this timber may possess high strength properties, particularly in resilience (50).

Working properties.—Parakusan is reported

to be an easy wood to work and to finish very

smoothly (8ß),

Durability.—The timber is said to be moderately resistant to decay but subject to sap-stain

fungi in the log and during seasoning of the

lumoer.

Uses.—Parakusan is used in British Guiana for

paddles and is recommended for tool handles by

the Forest Department of that country. The timber will likely have many additional uses when

more is known concerning its properties.

Supply.—Parakusan is one of the most plentiful timbers in British Guiana and is available for

export in large quantities.

CARIBBEAN PINE

Pinus carihaea

Nomenclature.—PinitrS carihaea Morelet is the

principal coniferous species of the Caribbean region. Until recently it was considered the same

as slash pine of southeastern United States, but

the discovery of minor morphological differences

between the trees of the Caribbean area and southeastern United States required a separation of the

species. There are also small but important differences in the wood of the two species. Inasmuch

as the original description and nomenclature of

P, carihaea were made from material obtained on

the Isle of Pines, that name was retained for the

Caribbean species and P. elliottii Engelm. assigned to the United States species slash pine. A

synonym of P. carihaea is P. hondurensis Loock.

Other species of Pimis are native in Hispaniola,

Cuba, and Central America. (Pine family,

Pinaceae.)

The timber is known in British Honduras as

British Honduras pitch pine, pitch pine, white

pine or huhub ; in Honduras as ocote, pino ocote,

and pino veta. It is called pino, Gautemala pitch

pine, Nicaraguan pitch pine, and Caribbean pine

in Guatemala; and pino macho and Cuban j)ine

in Cuba. In Nicaragua this pine is called pino,

auau, or ocote, but Pinus oocarpa Schiede is called

ocote also. The timber from the Caribbean area

and P. elliottii of the United States are commonly sold in the United States in combination

with and under the name of longleaf pine. P.

palustris Mill (^^, 250).

Distribution and habitat,—Pinus carihaea

grows in the Bahama Islands, western Cuba and

the Isle of Pines, and in Central America from

British Honduras to eastern Guatemala, northern

Honduras, and northeastern Nicaragua {158),

This species does not occur in Bermuda {US).

Extensive pine forests are found on the dry

sandy soils of the interior Mountain Pine Eidge

in British Honduras at an average elevation of

2,000 feet. The well-demarcated pine zones are

separated by belts of rain forest on the deeper and

richer soils. The pine occurs principally in pure

stands with stunted hardwoods, coarse grass, and

other low plants beneath {223). These stands are

presently the principal source of lumber in British

Honduras, and exceed all other forest products

combined in sale value {35).

In Honduras, the species grows in the northern

pine belt about 50 miles inland from the coast in

open, parklike stands on the slopes of the hills

and mountains and on the ridges and plateaus.

Stands vary from 2,000 to 10,000 board feet per

acre, but are not consistent in volume over any

large area. It grows largely on a red subsoil or

laterite soil located on the exposed ridges and

slopeSj growing larger and taller on the higher

elevations than on the lower slopes. Hardwoods
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 93

are often associated with the pine but never become the predominant species. Patches of hardwoods also often occupy the more fertile gully

bottoms, stream beds, and heads of draws up to

1,500 feet, becoming less common at higher elevations and more or less disappearing above 2,500

feet.

Caribbean pine is found only at low elevations

in Guatemala, sometimes extending to cliffs at

the edge of the ocean but never occurring far

above sea level. Standley (216) reports this species has much the same scenic appearance in Guatemala as the pine of the Florida everglades.

The optimum development of Caribbean pine

occurs in northeastern Nicaragua between Rio

Grande and Rio Prinzapolca. The best stands

occur along a strip about 30 miles wide at the

coast and extending inland for 55 miles, where it

narrows to about a 15-mile width at the western

end. Over most of this commercial range, the

pine grows on scattered ridges of several thousand

acres, separated by savannas or "brush" land along

the creeks and rivers. The stands are usually

light, averaging about 3,000 board feet per acre

{79).

The tree.—The Forest Products Research Laboratory in England {100) describes Pinus caribaea

of British Honduras as follows :

The tree attains a height of about 100 feet with a corresponding diameter of about 3 feet, and is often free

from branches for 50-70 feet. Its habit of growth when

young is similar to that of the Loblolly Pine, Pinus taeda,

but with increasing age it develops heavy horizontal

branches and a rounded crown approaching more closely

in appearance to the Longleaf Pine, Pinus palustris, or

to old Scots Pine.

In Nicaragua the tree grows to 100 feet in

height and 30 to 40 inches in diameter, occasionally

exceeding these dimensions. The boles are often

clear of branches for 70 feet with a moderate taper

of 1 inch per 16 feet in height. According to

Fahnestock and Garratt {79), timbers up to 50

feet long are occasionally cut and pieces 40 to 45

feet long are common in Nicaragua.

Trees in the pine stands in Honduras vary in

size according to location. They are usuall}^ 14

to 18 inches in diameter on the lower elevations

and one or two 16-foot logs high, while on the

higher elevations the diameters increase to 30 to

34 inches or more and trees may have three or

more 16-foot logs (75).

The wood.—Pinus caribaea of British Honduras is described by the Forest Products Research

Laboratory {100) as follows:

The wood is moderately heavy . . . somewhat coarse

in texture, generally with a more or less pronounced

resinous odor, but possessing no distinctive taste. The

grain is typically straight. The heartwood, constituting

42 percent by volume of the eight logs selected from the

consignment for examination, is reddish brown, the depth

of color varying with the amount of resin present. The

pale yellowish brown sapwood forms a zone 2-3 inches

in width. Growth zones are clearly defined by bands

of dense tissue and are conspicuous on all surfaces. As

in the wood of Pines of temperate regions a relatively

wide band of late wood appears to terminate the annual

growth, but in addition from one to several lines of dense

wood forming secondary rings are commonly present and

the late wood also very frequently shows stratification.

The transition from the light-colored early wood tissue

to late wood is abrupt. The average number of primary

rings per inch varies from 5 in the first few inches from

the pith to about 16 near the bark, 7-10 inches from the

pith.

The difference in color between the early wood

and late wood produces a prominent stripe on

longitudinal surfaces. The wood shows a medium

Ulster and is greasy to the touch, because of the

heavy resin deposits in the wood.

Weight.—^Wood from British Honduras and

Nicaragua averages 48 pounds per cubic foot at

12 percent moisture content. On this basis, the

specific gravity averages 0.77 based on air-dry

volume and weight {250, 100, 15), The specific

gravity based on green volume and ovendry

weight averages 0.66. Green wood weighs about

57 pounds per cubic foot at 66 percent moisture

content.

Seasoning.—The timber air-seasons rather

slowly with a tendency for end splitting in the

thicker stock and for the sapwood of green lumber

to be attacked by sap-stain fungi unless it is dried

without undue delay {8). Protection of the ends

of ñitches and the use of narrow stickers are recommended. Thinner stock air-seasons fairly well

provided drying is not too rapid, although considerable lengthwise bowing may occur in 1-inch

stock if a wide sticker spacing is used. However,

the distortion in other directions and forms is not

serious. The timber also kiln-seasons rather

slowly. Considerable care is required for checking, and splitting may be severe in the early stages

of kiln-seasoning, along with a marked tendency

for distortion to occur. Kiln Schedule 6 of the

Forest Products Research Laboratory in England

is recommended {105, 222).

Shrinkage.—Caribbean pine shrinks moderately in drying. Shrinkage rates for wood from

British Honduras of 6.3 percent radially, 7.8 percent tangentially, and 12.9 percent volumetrically

from green to ovendry compare favorably with

values of 5.5, 7.8, and 12.2 percent, respectively,

for slash pine of the United States. Shrinkage

from green to air-dry would amount to about

half these values.

The timber is reasonably stable in respect to atmospheric changes {8, 250, 2J^),

Mechanical properties.—Fmi/^ caribaea is a

hard, dense, resinous timber of high strength properties, resembling longleaf pine, the densest grade

of American pitch pine. In the green condition,

Caribbean pme is heavier and considerably

stronger in most properties than slash pine (/".

ellwitn) of the United States. However, thatwo

species are nearly equal in compression ^i"?ss tne

grain and cleavage, and slash pine is dehnitely

596544 0-62—7
94 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

superior in tension perpendicular to the grain.

In comparison to other woods of similar density,

unseasoned Caribbean pine is above average in

stiffness and average in shock resistance, but is

somewhat below average in all other strength

properties.

After air-drying Caribbean pine exceeds the

average for woods of similar density in stiffness,

shear strength and toughness, and equals the average in cleavage, modulus of rupture, work to

maximum load, and maximum crushing strength.

It falls below the average in hardness, bearing

strength, and tension across the grain.

Seasoned wood of this species is very similar to

Pinm eUioftli except in shock resistance where

Caribbean pine is definitely inferior. It is also

slightly superior in bending strength stiffness,

cleavage resistance, shear, stiffness, and hardness

but slightly inferior to P. eUiottli in tension across

the grain, elastic resilience, and maximum crushing strength. According to the Forest Products

Research Laboratory in England, the best grades

of Caribbean pine have a distinct resemblance to

longleaf pine; but, at its best, it is not quite equal

to prime longleaf pine, although it can be safely

substituted for that species in many uses (8, 118,

250, 100, 112),

Working properties.—The timber is easy to

work with either machine or hand tools, comparing closely with longleaf pine in resistance to cutting and cleanness of finish. Its dulling effect on

cutting edges is usually not severe unless prolonged runs are made with cutters or teeth clogged

with resin. Resin also adheres to tool edges, machine tables, and fences causing difficulty in ease

and steadiness of feeding if the resin is not occasionally removed. Incompletely or partially

seasoned timber is particularly troublesome.

There is a slight tendency for pickup in planing

and molding near knots; this can be minimized

by careful setting and jointing of knives to assure

that each knife shares equally in the cutting. But

in most operations a clean finish is obtained.

Caribbean pine takes nails and screws satisfactorily and is successfully stained and varnished,

although pitch blisters sometimes cause trouble

in painting. The wood bends moderately well,

but some trouble is encountered with resin exudations during the steaming process {105,100).

Durability.—The heartwood is moderately resistant to resistant to decay but apparently varies

between the highly resinous and less resinous wood,

as well as with the individual fungus attacking the

wood. Timber from British Honduras is durable

for 10 to 15 years on the basis of graveyard tests

in England {206). However, heartwood of Pinus

caribaea was rated as only moderately resistant

to fungal attack on the basis of pure culture tests

by the Forest Products Researcli Laboratory in

England {100). Similar tests at Yale University

{250) found the wood very durable to a white-rot

fungus but nondurable to a brown-rot fungus. On

this basis, preservation is required when the wood

is used under conditions favorable to decay.

Logs are occasionally attacked by pinhole borers,

which usually cause no damage beyond the sapwood. The timber's resistance to termites is

largely governed by the resin content of the wood.

Very resinous heartwood is very resistant to

termites; the resistance decreases along with the

resin content {2^2). In termite resistance, Caribbean pine is similar to West Indies pine {Pinus

oGcidentalis Sw.) of the Dominican Republic,

which is rated resistant, compared to the rating

of moderately resistant for longleaf pine of the

United States (^5). The timber has little resistance to marine borers.

Preservation.—The heartwood is moderately

resistant to presei-vatives but can be thoroughly

impregnated by pressure treatment. Retention of

preservative material varies considerably with

differences in resin content of the wood. The sapwood absorbs preservatives readily by either the

open-tank or pressure processes.

The U.S. Forest Products Laboratory {2^2)

recommends a retention of 20 pounds of coal-tar

creosote per cubic foot for all species of southern

yellow pine piling, lumber, and structural timbers

used in coastal waters ; 8 pounds per cubic foot for

railway ties and poles; 12 pounds for piling used

on land or in fresh water; 6 pounds for posts,

lumber, and elevated structural timbers; and 10

pounds for lumber and structural timbers used in

fresh water, in contact with the ground, or for

important structural members not in contact with

the ground or water.

Uses.—Caribbean pine is suitable mainly for

the same purposes for which the other pitch pines

are used. Its uses are too numerous and well

known to be covered in detail here. It is a good

structural timber and quite suitable for heavy

joinery flooring and all types of light construction, with adequate preservative treatment. The

timber has many other uses, including posts, poles,

marine piling and structures, railway ties, bridgework, and mining timbers. In* the Caribbean

area the principal use is for general construction

and carpentry.

Supply.—Caribbean pine is presently the major timber harvested in British Honduras. More

pine was cut there in 1954 than all other species

combined—1,016,000 cubic feet, of which 40 percent was used locally and the balance exported,

principally to the West Indies. Only 5.2 percent

of the export volume was sold outside of the West

Indies {35),

The extent of the supply of Caribbean pine in

Central America and the Antilles is not accurately

known. Present supplies are good, but there are

indications that some type of cutting control and

forest management will be required to prevent

depletion of merchantable stands {118).
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 95

PODOCARP

Podocarpus coriaceus, Podocarpus guatemalensis

Podocarpus is one of the few genera of conifers

native to tropical America. Various species are

scattered in mountains from the West Indies and

southern Mexico south to southern Chile (190^ ^7,

19), (Yew family, Taxaceac; or podocarpus

family, Podocarpaceae.)

Nomenclature.—In the West Indies the most

widely distributed species is Podocarjnis coriaceus

L. C. Rich., which ranges from Puerto Eico to

Trinidad. Formerly, it was also referred to as

P, salidfoUiis Kl. & Karst., an uncertain name

now rejected {50). The tree and wood are known

in Guadeloupe and Martinique as laurier rose, and

in Puerto Rico as caobilla. Names in Trinidad

and Tobago are podocarp and Avild pine. P.

trinitensis Buchh. & Gray is another species of

Trinidad. A few more species occur in mountains

of Cuba, Jamaica, and Hispaniola.

Podocarpus oleifolius D. Don and P. guatemalensis Standl. have the greatest ranges of the

few Central American species. The common

name in Guatemala and Honduras is ciprés. In

British Honduras P. guaiemalensis is marketed as

British Honduras yellow wood and is often called

cypress.

Distribution and habitat.—The common species Podocarpus coriaceus is native in Puerto Rico,

St. Kitts, Montserrat, Guadeloupe, Dominica,

Martinique, St. Lucia, Tobago, and Trinidad. P.

oleifolius ranges from southern Mexico to Venezuela and Peru; P. guatemalensis from British

Honduras and Guatemala to Panama (190, 216,

178,223,18),

Podocarpus coriaceus, a tree of the uplands, occurs rarely to occasionally on poor sandy or semiswampy soils in the higher elevations of Trinidad

and Tobago and seldom occurs belov/ 2,000 feet

elevation in Guadeloupe {165), P, guatemalensis

grows on well-drained sites on hills of metamorphic rocks in British Honduras, reaching a

concentration of seven trees per acre in the Manatee area. This species is also found in the TemashMoho River sw^amp forests in association with

santa-maria {150), but is reported to make its best

development above 2,000 feet elevation {223),

The tree.—Podocarp {Podocarpus coriaceus)

is a dominant evergreen tree in Trinidad, reaching

80 to 100 feet in height and 24 inches or more in

diameter {165), Cypress or yellow wood {P,

guatemalemk) is a canopy tree in British Honduras, reaching 80 to 90 feet in height and 24

inches to occasionally 30 inches in diameter on

good sites. In mature trees the bole is generally

clear of branches for 40 feet and often somewhat

fluted but without buttresses {150), Although

conifei-s, some species have leaves resembling those

of willows {Salix),

The wood.—The wood is soft, light in weight,

and of good quality, superficially resembling

white pnie {Pinus strohus.) Sapwood and heartwood are not separable except in old trees, which

have a recldisli-brown core up to 6 inches wide.

The wood is a uniform pale yellowish brown, with

straight grain and a ñn^, uniform texture.

Growth rings are faintly marked by bands of

slightly darker and more dense tissue. Gum ducts

are absent but resin cells are present, giving the

wood a finely stippled appearance resembling

white pine. Exeedingly fine ripple marks are

visible on the tangential surface. No odor or

taste is evident in seasoned wood {178, 265, 135,

150),

The description of podocarp by Stehle {218)

diiïers from the aboAe as follows : ''pink sapwood,

heartwood brown, yellowish, reddish, or dark,

heavily streaked with purplish hues, fairly soft,

cross-grain.'' It would appear that his specimens

included the dark center core of old trees.

Weight.—The specific gravity averages about

0.51, based on air-dry volume and weight. Airdry wood weighs about 32 pounds per cubic foot

and green wood 42 pounds at 50 percent moisture

content {15,150,165, 265), The timber is slightly

heavier than the white pines of northern and westem United States, but considerably lighter than

the yellow pines of the southeastern United States

and the Caribbean area.

Seasoning.—The British Honduras Forest Department reports that the wood air-seasons rapidly Avith little distortion or splitting {150), It is

reported to kiln-dry at a moderate rate with some

tendency to split and check but with little tendency to warp. Kiln Schedule 6 of the Forest

Products Research Laboratory in England is reccommended {222),

Shrinkage.—The timber undergoes little

shrinkage in seasoning and is very stable in use.

It is intermediate to Central American cedar and

Honduras mahogany in shrinkage and comparable to both timbers in stability. A radial shrinkage of 2.0 percent and tangential shrinkage of

3.5 percent from green to air-dry (12 percent

moisture content), or 14 iii<^l^ ^.nd %6 ^^^^ P®^

foot, respectively, are indicative of uniform seasoning {222), It is a timber with small movement

values in response to atmospheric changes. It

increases 0.9 percent radially and 1.7 percent tangentially or %4 inch and i%4 inch per foot, respectively, from equilibrium in a 60-percent to a

90-percent relative humidity {108),

Mechanical properties.—Determinations of

the air-dry strength properties of Podocarpus

coriaceus from British Honduras were made by

the Forest Products Research Laboratory in England {15), This timber was found equal or superior to Scotch J)ine {Pinu^ sylvestris) or Baltic

redwood in all properties tested except stiffness
96 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

in bending in which Scotch pine was slightly superior to podocarp.

Working properties.—The timber works easily

with all hand and power tools with about the

same resistance to cutting as American basswood

or American whitewood {Tilia americana) or

Scotch pine. It nails easily without splitting and

takes stain, varnish, and paint satisfactorily {162,

165).

Durability.—Graveyard tests in England using

wood from British Honduras indicate that the

heartwood is durable in contact witli the ground

and can be expected to last 10 to 15 years under

average conditions in that country {206), In

British Honduras, it is considered moderately

durable in contact with the ground and durable when used above ground in exposed locations {ISO). Stehle {218) rates podocarp very

resistant to decay in the Lesser Antilles.

Preservation.—Podocarp is reported to have a

fairly low resistance to impregnation with preservatives. Good penetration and retention result

from pressure treatments, but some difficulty is

encountered in open-tank processes {150).

Uses.—The timber has proved suitable for the

better class of joinery work, low-cost furniture,

and for general utility, where high strength is

not required. It should also be suitable for boxes,

crates, interior work, concrete forms, and many

other purposes for which pine is imported. The

wood gives satisfactory service as sills and beams

in British Honduras.

Because of its low shrinkage, stability, close

straight grain, and good machining characteristics, podocarp should be very suitable for patternmaking. A similar species, Podocarpus gracilior Pilger, from East Africa is acceptable for

utility plywood; podocarp may be suitable for

the same use but lacks the attractive figure or

grain required for decorative veneer.

Supply.—Podocarp is presently available from

British Honduras and possibly other areas in

Central America, and in the future may become

available from Guadeloupe and Martinique.

PURPLEHEART

Peltogyne puhescens, Peltogyne porphyrocardia, Peltogyne venosa var. densiflora

Nomenclature.—Purpleheart is the usual trade

name for several species of the genus Peltogyne.

About 20 species of Peltogyne are reported from

tropical America but only three species are of

economic importance in the Caribbean area

covered by this report. These are Peltogyne

2)uhescens Benth., P. porphyrocardia Griseb., and

P. venosa ( Vahl) Benth. var. densiflora (Spruce)

Amsh. {P. densiflora Spruce). P. venosa^ growing in the Guianas and Amazonas, Brazil, is of

general economic importance in the Amazon region. (Legume family, Leguminosae.)

The wood is often know as amaranth, saka, or

violet wood in the English trade. Local or vernacular names used in different areas are koroboreli, saka, amaranth, and sakavalli in British

Guiana; purperhart, lastan, dastan, malako, and

kuruburelli in Surinam; amarante, bois pourpre,

bois violet, and violet in French Guiana ; sapater

or zapatero in Trinidad ; pau roxo, barabú, ellongrypho, pao violeta, guarabii rajado in Brazil;

and morado in Venezuela.

Distribution and habitat.—The several commercial species of purpleheart are distributed

widely throughout tropical America. Their combined range extends from Mexico through Central

America and into South America to southern

Brazil.

Peltogyne piihescens occurs from Mexico

through Central America to Colombia, Venezuela, the Guianas, and to Para, Amazonas,

and Rio Branco in Brazil. P. porphyrocardia is

reported only from Trinidad and British Guiana,

and P. venosa var. densiflora from British Guiana

to Brazil and Colombia {IW).

There appears to be little need for anxiety over

the botanical identity of the several species, for

all the timbers have about the same general appearance and structure regardless of their source.

Logs emanating from different sources are usually

sold in the trade as purpleheart, violet wood, or

amaranth without further distinction. Lack of

preference among the users for wood of different

origins or species would indicate that there is

little variation between species and that they can

be safely treated as one timber {166).

The trees grow in the moist soils along the rivers

and in the fertile valleys in the Guianas and along

the Amazon River. All three species covered here

are of general distribution throughout the near

interior of British Guiana, with Peltogyne porphyrocardia occurring most frequently in the far

interior {28). P. puhescens is found as an occasional to frequent tree on white sands in the

wallaba forest and on river ñood plains in the

mora forest of British Guiana {82). In Surinam this species occurs as an occasional tree on

sandy soils in the rain-and-high savanna forest

{281). P. venosa var. densiflora is an occasional

tree in the rain and evergreen seasonal forest in

British Guiana.

In Trinidad, Peltogyne porphyrocardia occurs

principally on hard, red clay soils in an isolated

area of possibly 1,000 acres in the southern watershed reserve. The tree also grows on dry sites,

but seems to do best on hard, dry clays receiving

a rainfall of 60 to 70 inches annually {166). It

grows in British Guiana on the same sites occupied by the other two species. Some of the finest

stands of this species in British Guiana are found

along the Unabaruka, a branch of the Supenaam

River, and the Kaburi River, a branch of the

Mazaruni River.
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 97

The tree.—Purpleheart of the Guianas is a semideciduous, predominant tree with small planktype

buttresses 2 to 3 feet high in Peltogyne puhescens^

and 6 to 12 feet high and sometimes spread out

over a 15-foot diameter in P, venosa var. densi-

•ßora. The trees, moderately large, grow to 4 feet

in diameter and 170 feet high, but are usually 11/2

to 3 feet in diameter and 90 to 120 feet high.

Boles are clear for 60 to 90 feet, straight, cylindrical above the buttresses and with considerable

taper.

The heavy crown is umbrella shaped with flat,

spreading branches and flexible branchlets. The

bark is flaky, thin, and reddish brown to blackish

brown. Logs are usually 40 to 60 feet long and

2 to 3 feet in diameter at the butt, but are available up to 75 feet long and 4 feet in diameter.

The wood.—One of the most distinctive woods

of tropical America, purpleheart is very hard, extremely heavy, strong, tough, and durable, but it

is most often recognized for its unusual coloring,

which at times is actually purple {166). The

sapwood, distinct from the heartwood, is 2 to

4 inches thick and creamy white to light pinkish

cinnamon streaked with light brown. The heartwood is a grayish purple when freshly cut, later

becoming a violet purple to deep purple through

an oxidation process. Sapwood and heartwood

are clearly demarked.

In due time, the purplish color is lost and the

wood turns a permanent attractive dark brown.

However, the exterior brown color is only at the

surface and by removing a thin layer the original

coloring can be restored. Unfortunately, the

oxidation process will again prevail, turning the

wood first to purple and later to a walnut brown

and finally to a black-brown color with age (1^82).

However, Wangaard reports that some specimens

in the Yale University Wood Collection are still

bright purple after many years, while others have

turned a brownish-purple or brown color. The

color is not always uniform throughout; sometimes it shows alternating streaks of dark violet

with faint orange or yellow lines, which give the

wood a peculiar variegated or mottle effect.

The uniform texture of purpleheart varies from

fine to medium. The grain is usually straight

and seldom interlocked but is sufficiently irregular, along with variation in luster and color, to

give the wood a pleasing stripe figure on the

quarter-cut surface. Bands of darker colored

elements give the appearance of growth rings

{2S0). The wood is of medium luster, somewhat

greasy in appearance, and cold to the touch. No

distinctive odor or taste is present in seasoned

wood (100),

Weight.—Peltogyne puhescens and P. venosa

var. densißora from British Guiana and Brazil,

respectively, are reported to weigh 54 pounds per

cubic foot air-dry and 75 to 77 pounds green.

Both species have an air-dry specific gravity of

0.87 ; specific gravity of P. puhescens averages 0.74,

based on green volume and ovendry weight; P.

venosa var. densifiora averages 0.75 on the same

basis {H9^ 15). One report that wood of P. puhescens from British Guiana weighs 68 pounds airdry indicates some fluctuation in density may

occur {H9). Density information is not available

for P. porphyrocardia.

Seasoning.—Purpleheart is moderately difficult

to season in the open air and in the kiln. It

air-seasons slowly with light to moderate degrade. Wangaard reports moderate crook and

slight twist occurring during air-seasoning tests

at Yale University, along with slight end and

surface checking and slight casehardening {ß60).

The Forest Products Research Laboratory in

England reports that purpleheart air-seasons

rather slowly with some warp and a pronounced

tendency to split {110). Thin lumber kiln-dries

readily with only very minor degrade, but planks

and other thick material require special attention

to overcome the difficulty of removing moisture

from the center of the heavy pieces. Kiln Schedule 5 of the Forest Products Research Laboratory

is recommended {%Î9,, 118).

Shrinkage.—Purpleheart shrinks at a moderate

rate for a timber of its density. Shrinkage values

of 5.8 percent radially, 8.4 percent tangentially,

and 13.2 percent volumetrically from the green

condition to ovendry were reported by the University of Michigan {1^9) for Peltogyne puhescens from British Guiana. The Forest Products

Research Laboratory in England (222) reports

wood of this species from British Guiana shrinks

2.0 percent radially and 4.5 percent tangentially

from green to air-dry (12 percent Moisture Content) . These reports are in general agreement as

shrinkage from green to air-dry is generally

about half the value from green to ovendry.

In the Yale studies, the closely related Peltogyne venosa shrank 3.2 percent radially, 6.1 percent tangentially, and 9.9 percent volumetrically

from green to ovendry. That these values are

somewhat below those for P. puhescens can be attributed to the difference in density of the two

species.

The wood has average or slightly better stability in reference to changes in atmospheric conditions. Coarse-grained wood (lighter) is reported to have greater stability and less total

movement (shrinkage and swelling) than finegrained (heavier) material. ^ . Mechanical properties.—Purpleheart is inter

mediate between white oak (Quercus alha) and

greenheart {Ocotea rodiaei) in strength properties. Compared to white oak, seasoned wood is

roughly 100 percent harder, 50 percent stronger

in bending and compression along the grain, 70

percent stiffer and more resistant to shock loads,

and 40 percent stronger in shear and m resistance

to splitting {lJt9,250).

In the green condition, purpleheart surpasses

white oak in every property and is generally equal
98 U.S.- DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

or superior in strength to most otlier species of

comparable high density. It is also superior to

black walnut {Juglans nigra) in bending, compression, stiffness, elasticity, toughness, and hardness, but is inferior in resistance to splitting.

However, purpleheart is about 50 percent heavier

than walnut, which accounts for some of its

superior strength qualities. Pui-pleheart is particularly outstanding in its ability to withstand

suddenly applied loads and difficult strains [28^

15),

Working properties.—Working purpleheart

with either hand or machine tools is moderately

difficult for the wood resists cutting and dulls

cutting edges. It also exudes a gummy resin

when heated by dull tools; this resin clings to

cutter teeth and other tool parts and complicates

the machining operations. Straight-grained material saws and planes well if sharp tools are used,

but some care is required on irregular-grained

material to prevent "pick-up," especially on the

radial surface.

The Forest Products Research Laboratory recommends saw type D or E for machining purpleheart (28). Material is best run slowly through

machines equipped wdth high speed steel knives

(60). A 15-degree cutting angle is required to

properly machine wood with interlocked grain

{106,265).

The wood turns smoothly and requires but little

sanding to bring out a good finish {237). It is

easily fastened by gluing and takes stain and

either wax or French polish w^ell, but its purple

color is dissipated by spirit polishes. A lacquer

finish is reported to hold this purple coloring.

Purpleheart splits when nailed and requires preboring. It can be veneered with a hot glue.

Purpleheart is knife-cut into ^/^ g-inch veneer

or more generally sawed to ^^Q- and ^/^4-inch veneer

without a preparatory steaming. It is inadvisable to steam the wood as the coloring matter,

known as "phonicoin," is partially soluble under

prolonged steaming {166).

Durability.—The wood of purpleheart is generally regarded to be highly durable in the American

tropics. Graveyard tests in England {206) and

British Guiana found British Guiana purpleheart

durable to very durable in contact with the

ground. Similar tests in Surinam also gave the

wood a durable rating {50). In the English test,

2- by 2-inch stakes w^ere found to have a life of

10 to 15 years. Peltogyne porphyrocardia in

Trinidad was found to be highly resistant to both

brown-rot and white-rot fungi in pure culture

tests {SJf). Similar tests at Yale University wûth

P. venosa from Brazil showed this species to be

durable to a white-rot fungus and very durable to

a brow^n-rot fungus.

Peltogyne puhesee7hs proved to be very resistant

to dry-wood termites in Peurto Rico, rating 92 as

compared to 80 for West Indies mahogany

{Sioietenia mahagoni) and 91 for greenheart

{Ocotea rodiaei) {263). However, in some areas

purpleheart is considered only moderately resistant to termites, although this may only be based

on casual observations rather than controlled tests

as in Puerto Hico.

The wood is considered to have little resistance

to marine borers in accordance w^ith tests in

Hawaiian waters {76). The w^ood of Peltogyne

cenosa var. denslfiora is reported by Amos to co^-

tain only 0.02 percent silica {14). Most woods

that resist marine borers contain a much higher

silica content, generally 1 percent or more. Purpleheart bums slowly and is considered very resistant to fire.

Preservation.—The heartw^ood is extremely resistant to impregnation with creosote. Even

under high pressure, penetration occurs only along

a few isolated vessels {105). The sapwood is

permeable.

Uses.—Purpleheart is a relatively expensive,

high-quality wood and should, in general, be put

into one of two uses: (1) Those requiring wood

of great strength, particularly the ability to withstand strain and sudden shocks; and (2) those

requiring wood of unusual beauty or coloring.

Purpleheart, because of unique shades and

peculiar variegated or mottle color effect, is particularly well adapted for use in turnery, marquetry, cabinets, ornamental furniture, counters, office

desks, counter tops, carving, inlaying, billiard

cue butts, swagger sticks, paneling, decorative

handles, veneer parquet flooring, handles, billiard

tables, and other similar uses {138^ 2^^ 12).

The good mechanical characteristics of the wood

fits it for such specialized uses as gymnasium apparatus, diving boards, skis, mill rollers, shafts,

and tool handles. Purpleheart is considered

Brazil's best timber for spokes in cart wheels. Because the wood has dimensional stability, it is used

in the tropics for window frames and sliding

shades. Though expensive, its high strength,

hardness, and resistance to decay qualify it for

structural purposes, house framing, bridging,

fresh water piling, and for many other parts of

house construction from millwork to flooring and

siding.

The wood at one time was very popular in Paris

for boatbuilding and furniture. It is used nowadays in British Guiana for knees, transoms, deadwoods, stems, interior work, corrals, woodskin

canoes, and other uses in boat and shipbuilding.

It is one of 12 woods accepted in the Britisli

Guiana housing program for structural timbers

and scantlings, and one of 10 native woods

accepted for siding and flooring.

The bark of mature trees is used by the natives

for canoes. In Brazil an aromatic resin is extracted from the wood and used in medicine, as a

substitute for turpentine, and to produce a red

dye for dying textile fabrics {128,174).

Supply.—There is not an unlimited supply of

this wood, but the remaining merchantable stands
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 99

are not being fully exploited. British Guiana is

estimated to have 91,000,000 cubic feet of sound

merchantable purpleheart in accessible forest

areas (28). Surinam and Frencli Gniana also

have sizable quantities for export.

RESOLU

Chimarrhis cymosa

Nomenclature.—The ^enus Gh'nnarrhis is represented by several species in tropical America

{190). One of these, Chimarrliis cyuwm Jacq.,

is fairly common and of general economic importance in the West Indies. The tree is called résolu

or bois rivière in the Ix^sser Antilles except in St.

Vincent where it is known as waterwood {162).

In Cuba the tree is called penda {207). (Madder

family, Rubiaceae.)

Distribution and habitat.—Résolu is recorded

from Cuba, Jamaica, Guadaloupe, Dominica,

Martinique, St. Lucia, Trinidad, Colombia, Venezuela, and British Guiana {'207^ 218, 50).

The tree grows best in wet lowlands and borders

of streams in Guadeloupe but occurs in limited

Quantities at the hig'her elevations in St. Lucia

{l6Jt). In Trinidad its optimum habitat appears

to be in the northern range with an annual rainfall of 100 inches or more. It grows here as an

occasional to locally frequent tree in the crappodebasse forests, but it is rare in other forest tvpes

{165).

The tree.—Résolu is a medium-size, evergreen

tree reaching a diameter of 5 to 6 feet and up to

80 feet or more in height. The trunk is straight

with shallow buttresses. The outer bark is light

colored, smooth and papery in appearance {165.,

15JÍ).

The wood.—The wood is orange colored, moderately coarse textured, and medium hard.

Weight.—Résolu is reported by Stehle {218) to

range from 0.65 to 0.85 in specific gravity. Airdry wood on this basis weighs from 41 to 53

pounds per cubic foot, about the same as white

oak.

Seasoning.—The timber is reported to airseason in Dominica in 4 to 5 months but to split

readily during drying.

Shrinkage.—Shrinkage is reported to be moderate.

Mechanical properties.—Published results of

detailed mechanical tests are not available for

résolu; however, according to limited data reported by Stehle, it is medium hard, fairly elastic,

and semifissile {160, 218). The wood is reported

to be brittle by the Government of Dominica {50).

Working properties.—Résolu works without

difficulty but is said to split when nailed unless

prebored.

Durability.—The heartwood is reported as

"probably durable'' by Record and Hess {100)

and as durable by Stehle {218). The Government

of Dominica reports it is not liable to termite

attack {50).

Uses.—Résolu is used principally in construction for sheathing, flooring^ and framing, but may

be suitable for many other uses where a strong,

durable wood is required.

Supply.—The timber is not plentiful, but small

quantities may come on the market when adequate

logging and conversion facilities become available

on several of the larger islands in the Lesser

Antilles.

ROBLE

Tahehuia rosea, Tahébuia heterophylla

Roble, the Spanish name for oak {Qiiercus)^ is

applied to several groups of trees in tropical

America, including a few species of Tahehuia.

The wood of these trees is superficially like

oak but lacks the characteristic rays of the

oak group {190., 193). On the Continent the

common species is T. rosea (Bertol.) DC,

while in parts of the West Indies T. heterophylla (DC.) Britton is more frequent. (Trumpet-creeper family, Bignoniaceae.)

Nomenclature.—Tahehuia rosea formerly was

known as T. pentaphylla., a name now rejected.

The wood is commonly exported as roble^ apamate,

or amapa, and also occasionally from British Honduras as mayflower {126). Other common names

are mano de león in Guatemala, cortés in Honduras, roble de savana in Panama, ocobo in Columbia, apamate in Venezuela, and pink poui in

Trinidad.

Tahehuia heterophylla^ a variable species of the

West Indies, was included by some authors under

T. pcntaqyhylla also. Synonyms, considered by

some as varieties, are T. pallida (Lindl.) Miers

and T. dominirensi.s Urban. Common names are

roble and roble blanco in Puerto Rico, poirier

rouge and poirier blanc in Guadeloupe and Martinique, poirier in Dominica and St. Lucia, and

apamate or pink poui in Grenada. The name

white-cedar is used in the Virgin Islands, Dominica, St. Lucia, and Grenada.

Distribution and habitat.—The natural range

of Tahehuia rosea extends from Mexico through

Central America to Colombia and Venezuela. It

is found on various sites from wet lowlands to dry

uplands, and may occur in essentially pure stands,

as isolated trees, or in a mixed forest.

Tahehii-ia heterophylla is native from Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, and Virgin Islands through

the Lesser Antilles to Grenada and Barbados. In

Puerto Rico, roble grows from sea level to 3,000

feet in elevation and is widely distributed (^if).

The tree.—Tahehi¿ia rosea' is a medium-size

tree 40 to 60 feet high, but occasionally reaching

a hei.o-ht of 90 feet. Its diameter is commonly 18

n)escribed under Tahehuia poitaphylla in Nos. 95 and

98 of Tropical W^oods and in numerous other reports on

this wood from Central and South America.
100 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

to 24 inches, yet at times it reaches 36 inches in

diameter. Boles grow clear for 20 to 35 feet and

occasionally 50 feet above the buttresses, which

often extend 7 to 10 feet above the ground {lJt7).

The trunk, frequently fluted or irregular, is sometimes squarish in cross section. It is one of the

best known and most useful trees of Central

America; when in blossom it has few rivals in

beauty. For this reason, it is often planted as a

shade and ornamental tree throughout its range.

The West Indian species generally is a smaller

tree than that of the mainland {U7, 65, 71,177).

The wood.—Wood of both species is very similar in appearance and properties. The sapwood

is narrow, white to yellowish when first cut, turning light brown after drying and exposure; generally it is not clearly distinct from the heartwood.

The heartwood is light brown with a grayish

or, more commonly, a golden hue. Fine brown

lines of parenchyma give the wood a distinctive

figure on the quartersawed surface and an attractive feather pattern on the tangential or

flat-sawed surface. The grain is straight to interlocked, showing a ribbon-stripe on the quartersawed surface when interlocked. The texture is

medium to somewhat coarse. The luster is medium. No distinctive taste or odor is present in

dry wood. Some consider the wood to resemble

white ash {Fraxinus americana) more than white

oak {U7, 71,249,26Ô, 190).

Weight.—The wood is comparatively heavy.

Tabehuia rosea from Panama {71) weighs 37

pounds per cubic foot air-dry and 55 pounds green.

Wood from Venezuela {H9) is reported to weigh

35 pounds air-dry and 58 pounds green. The

specific gravity of air-dry wood averages 0.58

(0.56 to 0.60), being similar to white ash but

somewhat lighter than Caribbean pine {Pinus

caribaea). The wood of T. heterophylla from

Puerto Rico is somewhat lighter, averaging 59

pounds per cubic foot when green and 42 pounds

air-dry. Specific gravity for this species averaged 0.58 based on green volume and ovendry

weight, and 0.67 when air-dry.

Seasoning.—Roble air-seasons at a fast rate

with a nominal amount of surface checking and

slight warping (71). One-inch lumber has been

seasoned in Puerto Rico in 4 months and in

Dominica in 3 to 4 months without any appreciable

degrade. No checking occurred durmg airseasoning tests in Puerto Rico and only very slight

warping in the form of twist and bow. The wood

also kiln-dries with little degrade. Forest Product Research Laboratory's {222) Kiln Schedule 4

and Schedule T4-D2 of the Forest Products Laboratory in Madison {H7) have been recommended

for roble.

Shrinkage.—This species had a moderate rate

of shrinkage, being intermediate to mahogany

and black walnut in this respect {2JtS). Wood of

Tabebuia rosea from Panama, British Honduras,

and Honduras has an average volumetric shrinkage from green to ovendry of 9.5 percent, a radial

shrinkage of 3.6 percent, and tangential shrinkage

of 6.1 percent in tests at Yale University {71),

Similar tests conducted on T. heterophylla from

Puerto Rico gave shrinkage values of 9.7 percent

volumetrically, 4.1 percent radially, and 5.5 percent tangentially. Shrinkage from green to airdry would be about half these values. The low

ratio of tangential to radial shrinkage is usually

indicative of very favorable seasoning characteristics.

Mechanical properties.—Roble is tough and

strong for its weight. Mechanical tests on

Tabehuia rosea at Yale University {71, 249)

found the unseasoned wood was superior to most

species of comparable density in all static-bending

properties except stiffness. It is also superior in

cleavage, tension across the grain, and toughness,

and is average for a wood of its density in compression parallel to and perpendicular to the

grain, in hardness, and in shear.

Roble is noticeably better in several strength

properties than white ash and white oak of the

United States, even though it is slightly less dense

than either of these species. It is appreciably

better in bending strength, elastic resilience, crushing strength and tension across the grain than

eitner species, both of whicji are valued for these

same characteristics. It is intermediate to these

species in stiffness, hardness, shear, and cleavage,

and about equal to oak in compression across the

grain and shock resistance. In the air-dry condition, roble is only slightly below oak and ash in

modulus of elasticity and is nearly comparable to

whit« oak in shock resistance. Roble is similar

or superior to black walnut {Juglans nigra) in

many of its mechanical properties {IJfl).

Working properties.—Except in planing, roble

has excellent working properties. It can be

sawed, shaped, bored, and turned with excellent

results, and stays in place after manufacture {89,

265). Some care is required in planing to prevent

torn and chipped grain. However, the wood can

be planed to a glossy smoothness; it machines

cleanly with clean smooth edges but has a tendency to split when nails or screws are driven without adequate size lead holes. It takes mahogany

and oak stains well and can also be finished

naturally with excellent results. It takes a high

polish under all types of finishing {150) and is

considered easy to glue {240). The wood's steam

bending properties vary from good to poor {57).

This species has excellent workability as flat-cut

sliced veneer but requires a careful boiling before

slicing. Quarter-cut material gives a mottle

figure that one large Mexican producer considers

superior to all other species. However, slicing

must be precisely done to avoid torn and rough

grain. The veneers dry evenly to a smooth flat

appearance, are easy to joint in splicers, and possess good gluing properties {197).
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 101

Durability.—The heartwood of Tabehuia rosea

rated as moderately durable to a white-rot fungus

and very durable to a brown-rot fungus in pure

culture tests at Yale University {2If9), Pure

culture tests at the U.S. Forest Products Laboratory rated Tabehuia sp. as very durable (199).

It was also found to be very durable in graveyard

tests in British Guiana. The wood has little resistance to marine borers (76). Amos (14) reports roble (T. rosea) as having only 0.01 percent

silica compared to the 1.0 percent or more present

in most woods showing good resistance to marine

organisms. The wood of this species is rated only

fair in weathering characteristics; when exposed

to weather, unpainted material remains free from

warp but loses its smooth surface and develops

considerable checking (55), Wolcott (263) rates

roble {T. heterophylJ^) very susceptible to termite

damage on the basis of tests with the West Indies

dry-wood termite in Puerto Rico.

Uses.—Roble's appearance and technical properties resemble those of ash and oak species, which

it replaces for many uses. It is particularly

suitable for handles of all types, sporting goods,

and agricultural implements. Because of its

stability, ease of working, pleasing appearance,

and good strength, the wood is also especially

suited for flooring, boat decking and other boat

parts, millwork, furniture, cabinetwork, and general construction. It is used extensively for furniture and interior trim throughout its tropical

range (65). It is also used and recommended in

the Caribbean area for paddles, shingles, and

carts. Lower grades are often made into packing

boxes and crates. In Mexico it is becoming a

highly prized species for face veneer, probably its

highest use.

Supply.—Honduras, British Honduras, and the

islands of Guadeloupe, Martinique, and Grenada

have roble in exportable quantities. It grows in

many other Caribbean locations and should be

available in sizable quantities (178).

HONDURAS ROSEWOOD

Dalhergia stevenscynii

Honduras rosewood, Dalhergia stevensonii

Standl., is one of a group of about 15 rosewood

timbers known throughout the world to the

cabinetmaker and others for their good technical

qualities, richness of color and grain, and usually

pleasant fragrance. The rosewoods are among

the most important trees of Central America; at

least seven species, and probably more, are of

economic importance in tropical America. One

of these, Honduras rosewood, has been known in

the trade for at least 100 years, but this fine wood

has never been exploited to anywhere near its

potential {190).

Nomenclature.—Honduras rosewood was classified as a species of Dalhergia for many years.

Not until December 1027, however, was its present

identity established by Paul C. Standley, who

named it in honor of Neil S. Stevenson. (Legume

family, Leguminosae.)

The tree and timber are known simply as rosewood in British Honduras. In the trade it is

generally known as Honduras rosewood and in

the United States also as nogaed or nogaed wood

{193). Another closely rehited species, Dalhergia

nigra Fr. Allem., is of considerable importance

in Brazil where it is known as Jacaranda. Unfortunately, several other species representing

several genera in the family Leguminosae are

also known as Jacaranda in that area. Several

of them belong to the genus Machaeriurti and resemble Honduras rosewood but are lighter in

color and not so highly figured.

Two other related species of common occurrence in Central America are Dalhergia retusa

Hemsl., the cocobolo of the west coast of Central

America, and D. tucurensis Donn. Smith {D.

cuhilquitzensis (Donn. Smith) Pittier), the rosewood of Guatemala and Honduras and also British Honduras and southern Mexico. Other species of good quality are found in Mexico and

Central America but not in sufficient volume for

export {190,132).

Distribution and habitat.—Honduras rosewood is confined entirely to British Honduras

Avhere it is one of the best known timbers. Neil

S. Stevenson, collector of the herbarimn material

leading to identification of the species, describes

its habitat as follows {'223) :

It grows in damp Broken Ridge of the riverain type

from the Sarstoon River northward to the Monkey River

in the Toledo District of British Honduras. Between

Deep River and the Temash it appears in fairly large

patches, concentrated for the most part along the rivers

though occurring also in their interriverain and drier

areas.

The tree.—The tree attains a height of 50 to 100

feet and is commonly forked at about 20 or 25

feet from the ground. The trunk is fluted. The

rough papery bark is about one-fourth inch thick,

the scaly outer part varying in color from a pale

brownish gray to a dingy yellow-brownish gray.

Wlien freshly cut the bark has a distinctive odor,

suggesting stored apples, and a slightly bitter

taste. The dri-ed bark separates readily into a

thin solid outer layer and an unusual mottled

inner portion {225). Trees grow to 3 feet m

diameter {110).

The wood.—The wood is very hard and heavy.

The sapwood is generally 1 to 2 inches thick and

sharply delineated from the heartwood. It is a

white color, marked with yellow vessel lines when

first cut but turning yellow rather quickly afterwards {105). The heartwood is pinkish brown to

purple with irregular black markings or zones,

which are independent of the growth rings. These

alternate dark and light bands give the wood an

unusual and very attractively fig-ured appearance.
102 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

The texture is medium and the grain straight to

slightly roey. Luster is low to medium. The

wood has no distinctive taste, but fresh heartwood has a roselike odor which generally dissipates with age. It is this vanishing roselike odor

that is responsible for the name rosewood, not the

presence of rosçlike flowers as is commonly

supposed.

Weight.—The speeiñc gravity of air-dry wood

based on weight and volume in that condition varies from 0.92 to 1.08, averaging about 1.00 {143).

Air-dry wood weighs from 58 to 68 pounds per

cubic foot, averaging about 62 pounds.

Seasoning.—The wood is reported to season

slowly with a tendency to check and split. Kiln

Schedule 3 of the Forest Products Research Laboratory is recommended (222).

Shrinkage.—Though shrinkage values have not

been determined for this species, it is reputed to

hold its place well after manufacture, indicating

a low rate of shrinkage during drying. Harrar

reports that cocobolo [Dothergia retusa Hemsl.),

a closely related species from Central America,

shrinks 2.65 percent radially, 4.26 percent tangentially, 0.21 percent longitudinally, and 7.20

percent volumetrically from green to ovendry

{12S). Wangaard [230) reports shrinkage values

of 2.9 percent radially, 4.6 percent tangentially,

0.34 percent longitudinally, and 8.5 percent volumetrically for material from one log of Dalbergia

sp. from Brazil. Shrinkage from green to airdry would be about half these values. Honduras

rosewood has similar shrinkage values and thus

is comparable to Honduras mahogany, a wood

noted for its unusually low and uniform shrinkage.

Mechanical properties.—Honduras rosewood

has not been subjected to mechanical tests, perhaps because it has been used for specialized

purposes where strength is not of prime importance. Tests conducted on Indian rosewood Dalbergia latifolia Roxb.) from southern India ( 250),

which may be quite similar wood, showed it to

possess high strength properties for its density.

In the air-dry condition it was 2^/2 times as hard

as oak, and 20 percent harder than greenheart,.

It was 25 percent stronger than oak in bending

and in compression along the grain, 20 percent

more resistant to suddenly applied loads, and

about 20 percent stiffer. Honduras rosewood is

also noted for its high qualities in these properties, making it exceptionally suitable for the uses

to which it is put in the United States. It is

somewhat harder and heavier than Brazilian rosewood {Dalbergia nigra Fr. Allem.).

Recent tests at Yale University using material

from one log of Dalbergia sp., possibly Z>. nigra.,

from Brazil showed the wood to be considerably

superior to white oak in all strength properties

except in tension perpendicular to the grain and

cleavage, in which oak was superior.

Working properties.—Hardness makes this

timber somewhat difficult to work. It is moderately difficult to saw and machine ; it dulls cutting

edges more readily than many other woods. It

planes well but must be held securely during planing to prevent vibration. A cutting angle of 20

degrees on planer knives is recommended, particularly for wood having interlocked or wavy grain.

It makes excellent turnings and finishes well, except for some trouble with very oily specimens, but

does not take a high natural polish {266). Saw

type F, as described in Appendix C of Empire

Timbers {105)^ is recommended.

Durability.—The heartwood is highly durable

in contact with the ground. One record shows a

house post in Punta Gorda, British Honduras,

remaining completely sound after 37 years, except

for the sapwood Avhich had disappeared much

earlier {187^ 1S2). Information is not available

on the wood's resistance to termites or marine

borers.

Uses.—Because of its unusual beauty and excellent technical properties, Honduras rosewood is

highly regarded for a number of specialized uses.

Manufacturers of musical instruments use the

wood for finger boards for banjos, mandolins, and

guitars, and for percussion bars in xylophones

and other similar instruments. Well-figured wood

is used also in guitar bodies, mandolin ribs, harp

bodies, piano legs, piano pilasters, veneered piano

cases, and organ stops. Some of the best figured

wood is made into veneer for furniture, cabinets,

carpet sweepers, billiard and pool tables, and bank

and store fixtures. Darker and more highly figured wood is often used in brush backs, jewelry

trays, and jewelry cases.

Rosewood is employed in the manufacture of

high-grade carpenter tools, and in other items

like canes, moldings, picture frames, and novelties, and is used to some extent for molding, trim,

and other interior work in boats and shipbuilding.

The rosewood from Brazil is used extensively for

the handles of knives and small tools. Honduras

rosewood should be equally suitable for this use.

Supply.—Honduras rosewood is available only

in British Honduras, where large volumes await

utilization.

SAMAN

Pithecellóbium saman

Saman resembles black walnut {Jtvglans nigra)

in technical properties, structure, and general appearance and is at times substituted for that wood.

Nomenclature.—Saman is currently designated

by some authors as PitheceUobium saman (Jacq.)

Benth. and by others as Samanea saman (Jacq.)

Merrill. (Legume family, Leguminosae.)

The timber is known as saman in Puerto Rico,

Colombia, Venezuela, Trinidad, St. Vincent, and

parts of Central America. In Mexico it is called

algarrobo, guango, saman, or rain-tree, and gouannegowl in Haiti. In various other parts of its

range, it is also known as campano, sanaguare,
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 103

urero, algarrobo del pais, aguango, cenizero, carreto, and zora, in addition to the name saman in

many localities. The tree is commonly called the

rain-tree (English) or the Spanish equivalent,

arbol de la lluvia, perhaps because the leaflets

close up in cloudy and rainy weather and at night.

Monkeypod is the common name in Hawaii.

Distribution and habitat.—Saman is native in

southern Mexico, Central America, and northern

South America, south to Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil.

The tree has been widely planted and naturalized

from Mexico southward, throughout the West Indies, and in the tropical regions of the Old World.

It is commonly planted as a street tree in many

areas and is also used for cattle and crop shade.

Its enormous widespreading crown makes it ideal

for shade in parks, pastures, and barnyards. It is

said to be one of the most beautiful of all neotropical trees. The tree is completely naturalized

in Mexico and Cuba where the pods are highly

valued for stock feed. The tree was introduced

in the Philippines about 1860 and subsequently in

many other areas of the Eastern Hemisphere {85^

193).

Saman appears to thrive on almost all sites, but

makes its best growth on well-drained fertile soil

as in Mexico, where it does best on rich alluvial

flood plains {^£9). In Colombia the largest trees

are also found in rich soils along streams.

The tree.—Saman attains heights of 100 to 125

feet and diameters of 3 to 4 feet in the forest, but

when grown in the open develops massive widespreading crow^ns and short, thick trunks (9^).

It is reported to be a small tree in northeastern

Peru (255); a large tree in Colombia (^5) ; a

large, low spreading tree with the main trunk

rarely over 10 to 15 feet high but having girths up

to 20 feet in Mexico; and a short-boled tree with

an enormous crown in Trinidad {165).

The wood.—The sapwood is generally narrow

and white to yellow or light cinnamon. It is

clearly differentiated from the dark walnut to

dark chocolate-brown heartwood, which turns a

light brown when seasoned. The wood is often

marked with darker streaks resembling Circassian

walnut or butternut in this respect. It may be

either straight grained or cross grained and of

medium texture and luster. Young trees are reported to grow rapidly and produce lighter,

softer, and more easily worked wood. Later

growth is slower, and the wood is comparatively

heavy, tough, rather refractory and of a darker

color, sometimes almost black {190). Seasoned

wood is without distinctive odor or taste.

Weight.—The specific gravity of air-dry saman

averages about 0.56, based on the weight and

volume of wood in that condition. Air-dry wood

weighs about e35 pounds per cubic foot, and green

wood about 51 pounds per cubic foot at 71 percent

moisture content. Density calculations at Yale

University on two logs of saman from Venezuela

showed a specific gravity of 0.48 (0.37 to 0.56),

based on volume when green and weight when

ovendi^, which compares favorably with the

density quoted for air-dry wood (P^, 65., 256).

Seasoning.—In the Philippines this wood was

found to shrink and warp considerably and to

require very careful drying {94). However, airdry plank material received at Yale University

appeared to be free from any excessive checking

or warping {2^9). One-inch lumber developed

considerable degrade during seasoning under

cover in Puerto Rico. Moderate to severe bow

and crook developed along with a small amount of

cup and twist. Surface checking was not evident.

Shrinkage.—Saman undergoes an exceptionally

low^ shrinkage for a wood of its density. Shrinkage tests at Yale University {2Jt8), U.S. Forest

Products Laboratory {68)^ and Tropical Forest

Research Center, Puerto Rico, produced values

similar to Honduras mahogany. These results

are listed below (based on shrinkage from green

to ovendry, expressed as a percent of the original

green dimensions) :

Tangen- Longitu- VolSaman : Radial tial dinal urne

Yale University 2. 0 3. 4 0.13 6. 0

U.S. Forest Products

Laboratory 4.2 5. S 8.5

Tropical Research

Center 2.4 4.2 .40 6.9

Average 2. 9 4. 4 .26 7.1

Honduras mahogany 3. 1 4. 2 7. 6

Though these results are not in full agreement,

they show a low rate of shrinkage comparable to

mahogany, noted for its low and uniform shrinkage. The Yale tests gave values below those for

mahogany, while the Forest Products Laboratory

tests produced higher values in each direction.

Mechanical properties.—Mechanical tests conducted at Yale University {21^.8) showed unseasoned saman to have about average strength

for a wood of its density. Work values in static

bending were above average, tensile strength

across the grain and cleavage were below average,

and modulus of elasticity (stiffness) was very

low. Upon air-drying, the wood nnproves

slightly in most strength properties but not as

much as hardwoods of the United States. Work

to maximum load (shock resistance) decreased

considerably upon drying, while both tensile

strength across the grain and cleavage resistance

were reduced slightly.

Saman when green is intermediate to butternut

{Juglans cinérea) and Honduras mahogany

{SvnefeniamacrophylJa) in most strength properties. In general, green saman equals or exceeds

green mahogany in all properties but stiffness.

Tension across the grain, and cleavage resistance,

in which it more closely equals the weaker butterAir-dried saman is below average on the 4>asis

of its density in all streng-th properties except

hardness. In this condition it is again inter-
104 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

mediate to butternut and mahogany, but it more

closely resembles the weaker butternut and is

about equal to mahogany in hardness. It is particularly deficient in modulus of rupture and

modulus (stiffness) of elasticity. Thus it rates

as a wood of medium hardness and strength.

Working properties.—Saman is an easy wood

to work, due partially to its moderate density.

Straight-grained material works easily and well.

Material with irregular grain works to a fairly

smooth finish in planing, but some care is required

to obtain clean cuts in boring and mortising. The

wood takes a beautiful finish.

Durability.—Saman is usually considered a

durable wood in the American tropics. In pure

culture tests at Yale, it was found durable to a

white-rot fungus and very durable to a brownrot fungus. It resists attack by dry-wood termites,

rating 76 as compared to 80 for West Indies

mahogany and 59 for Honduras mahogany in

tests conducted in Puerto Rico (£63). No information is available regarding use of the wood in

teredo-infested waters.

Uses.—Saman is seldom recognized as a valuable commercial timber and is often not utilized

in many areas even where it is planted (135). In

many locations the trees are more valuable for

shade than for lumber, or they are too large to be

transported to the sawmill. However, selected

lumber has an attractive grain and is used in Trinidad and Mexico for first-class furniture, and in

Costa Rica for medium-quality furniture and cabinetwork. In some areas the wood is used for

dugout canoes, split posts, and construction timber

and at times cross sections of the massive trunks

are used for cart wheels.

This wood, because of its low shrinkage rates,

workability, resistance to termites and decay, plus

some attractiveness, should be best fitted for furniture, frame construction, cabinetmaking, turning, millwork, and face veneer. It should be

particulartly useful for patternmaking because

of its medium density and low shrinkage values.

In the Philippines, stumps and crotches are used

for fibred veneer. Saman is definitely a wood

deserving consideration for the export trade.

Supply.—Trinidad seems to be the only place

in the area covered by this report currently having an exportable supply.

SANTA-MARIA

Calophyllum hrasiliense, Calophyllum lucidum

Santa-maria is a well-known and highly respected timber in the American tropics, but until

recently has been of little interest to the export

trade.

Nomenclature.—Two species constitute the

principal source of santa-maria timber in the

Caribbean area: Oalophyllum hrasiliense Camb.,

including var. antillanuW' (Britton) Standl. {0.

antillanum Britton) and var. rehoi (Standl.)

Standl., and C. liccidum Benth. The timber of

both species is similar in appearance and technical

properties and is marketed under one trade name

without separation. This similarity extends

through all the American species of Oalophyllv/m.

One author, after examining the wood of the tropical American species and finding them all very

similar in every respect, suggested the use of a

single trade name for all species {120), (Mangosteen family, Guttiferae.)

The status of the above species and several

others in the American tropics is still unsettled

and further changes in nomenclature may be expected {214), Although santa-maria is the most

widely used trade name, the timber is also exported as maria and at times as birmah, laurac,

degame, and chijole.

The timber is also known by many vernacular

names: palo de maria in Puerto Rico; galba in

French and British West Indies; kurahara, edaballi, wild calabash in British Guiana; birma in

British Honduras; ocuje in Cuba; baria, santa

maria in Dominican Republic; dalemarie in

Haiti; koerahara, koerli or lorahara in Surinam ;

jacareuba in Brazil; palo maria in Colombia ; leche

de maria, palo maria, cedro cimarrón in Mexico;

barillo, mario, vario in El Salvador; maria in

Honduras; krassa in Nicaragua; calaba in Panama ; and mario in Guatemala.

Distribution and habitat.—Santamaría grows

throughout the West Indies from Cuba and Jamaica to Trinidad, and on the continent from

southern Mexico southward through Central

America and into northern South America. It is

found on all types of soils, often in association

with mahogany and Spanish cedar. The trees

seem to do best in wet, humid sites but grow exceedingly well on pure sand and on rocky sandstone soils. In the mixed rain forests of British

Honduras, it is one of the commonest large trees

(224). In other countries the trees are common

on very dry sites, where they are usually one of

the few good quality timbers present {^8). Calophyllum hrasiliense var. antillanum was found

suitable for reforestation in Puerto Rico on the

poorest of eroded shallow, acid soils in several

difficult environments {129). In Trinidad this

species does well both on wet sites subject to prolonged flooding and on very dry sites, often on

extremely acid soils incapable of supporting any

type of permanent agriculture {63),

The tree,—Santa-maria trees attain a height of

100 to 150 feet and diameters of 3 to 6 feet, with

long, straight, clean boles up to 50 to 70 feet and

occasionally to 90 feet long. They are generally

unbuttressed, straight, well-formed canopy trees

with a dense rounded crown. The trees grow

rapidly when young and are fairly tolerant of

shade. The bark varies in color, becoming yellowish green on the older trees, with distinctive

diamond-shaped fissures that become more pro-
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 105

nounced or corrugated with age. Crushed or cut

bark produces a yellow gum-resin that has

medicinal value (98^ 150,165).

The wood.—Heartwood of santa-maria varies

in color from pink or yellowish pink to brick red

or rich reddish brown, marked with fine darker

red striping formed by thin bands of parenchyma.

Sapwood is li/^ to 21/2 inches wide, lighter in color

and distinct but not always clearly differentiated

from the heartwood. The texture is medium and

fairly uniform, while the grain is generally interlocked but sometimes is straight. Luster is

medium, and odor and taste are not distinctive.

The wood is very attractive, usually has a ribbon

figure on the q^uartersawed surface. The timber

is sometimes mistaken for mahogany, being somewhat similar in color and often showing good

figure, but it is heavier, stronger, and more durable

in some uses {190,143,120).

Weight.—The specific gravity of Calophyllum

irasiliense and its varieties ranges from 0.54 to

0.70, averaging about 0.61, based on air-dry weight

and volume. The specific gravity based on green

volume and ovendry weight is reported at 0.52

(0.42 to 0.59) by Wangaard {250). The weight

of air-dry wood ranges from 34 to 44 pounds per

cubic foot, averaging about 38 pounds. Green

wood weighs about 51 pounds per cubic foot at

50 percent-moisture content {50, 150, 16^ 120).

On the basis of fragmentary reports, C. lucidmn

may be somewhat heavier than C. hrasUiense.

One report {82) lists it at 50 pounds per cubic

foot.

Seasoning.—The wood is moderately difficult to

air-season. It seasons slowly with considerable

warping and splitting and a tendency for knots to

split. Moisture is somewhat difficult to remove

from the center of planks. However, when logs

are quartersawed and the material carefully

seasoned, preferably by kiln-drying, the material

is of first-class quality. A low temperature-high

humidity kiln schedule, such as Schedule 1 of the

Forest Products Eesearch Laboratory in England

is recommended {222, 53, 265, 102).

Shrinkage.—Santa-maria {Calophyllum hrasiliense var. rekoi) exhibits a low rate of shrinkage

for a wood of its density. Shrinkage values from

green to ovendry of 4.8 percent radially, 7.1 percent tangentially, and 12.3 percent volumetrically

compare with values of 5.2, 7.1, and 11.3 percent,

respectively, for black walnut {Juglans nigra).

Similar values for C. hrasUiense from Puerto Kico

amounted to 6.2, 8.4, and 14.3 percent, respectively. Longitudinal shrinkage was 0.30 percent.

Shrinkage from green to air-dry would amount to

about half the alfove values {250).

The timber is moderately stable in use, comparable to Douglas-fir, English oak, and Scotch

pine. Wood in equilibrium with a 60-percent

relative humidity, increases 1.7 percent radially

and 2.8 percent tangentially, or i%4 and 2%^ inch

per foot, respectively, when brought into equilibrium with a 90-percent relative humidity {108).

In comparison, Honduras mahogany undergoes a

change of 1.0 percent radially and 1.3 percent

tangentially.

Mechanical properties.—Mechanical tests have

been made on CalophyUum sp. and 0. hrasiliense

var. rekoi by Greene {120), on G. hrasiliense var.

antillanum at the Forest Products Research Laboratory in England {15) and on C. hrasiliense var.

rekoi at Yale University {250).

According to the tests at the Forest Products

Research Laboratory, air-dry santa-maria is one

of the better woods in the 40 pounds per cubic

foot and under class. It falls oelow such dense

woods as greenheart, purpleheart, mora, and

wallaba in general strength properties, but has

average or better strength for woods of its density

class and exceeds Honduras mahogany in all properties tested. In the air-dry condition, santamaria compares favorably with white oak of the

United States, exceeding it in stiffness (modulus

of elasticity), crushing strength (maximum

crushing strength parallel to gram), and in both

end and side hardness. It is slightly inferior to

white oak in bending strength (modulus of rupture), shock resistance (work to maximum load),

shear, and cleavage.

The values obtained by Edward C. Greene, Jr.

and at Yale University are somewhat below the

Forest Products Research Laboratory values, but

show santa-maria comparing favorably with

white oak in both the green and air-dry condition.

Working properties.—Santa-maria is moderately easy to work, but the thin, soft-tissue parenchyma layers may pick up badly, when flat-sawed

(tangential) surfaces are planed and when there

is interlocked grain {118). This trouble can be

alleviated by using a cutting angle of 20 degrees,

thereby reducing the amount of sanding required

to remove the machining defects. A little extra

care is also needed to prevent tearing at the exit

of the tool in drilling and mortising. When

brown gum streaks are present, they cause rapid

dulling of the cutting edges; otherwise, the wood

is compared to English oak in its resistance to

cutting {98). Saw type D of the Forest Products Research Laboratory is recommended. The

wood is reported to hold nails and screws firmly

and to glue satisfactorily ; it takes stain and pamt

very well and polishes satisfactorily.

In exploratory machining tests at the U.S. Forest Products Laboratory, santa-maria was rated

above the average of 2*5 domestic hardwoods m

shaping, sanding, and mortising, and below aver^

a^e in boring, planing, and turning. About halt

the test specimens were found to have mterlockecl

grain {68). .

In a special test for furniture production, santamaria was reported to work easily and with no

greater tendency to pick up than Benin mahogany

and with working costs similar to birch, maple,

Benin mahogany, or pitch pine. Because this
106 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 2 07

wood lacks good figure, the manufacturer considered the wood suitable for "low" grade furniture, as a substitute for maple, birch, pitch pine,

and African mahogany. A small test of santamaría for motor bodywork showed the timber to

lack the toughness and elasticity to compare favorable with ash and beech for this purpose {150).

Attempts to use santa-maria for veneer have

not been entirely unsuccessful in Mexico. It is

reported to require a 72-hour boiling period to

be peeled or sliced, develops cracks very readily

during peeling, and is not uniform in color or

grain. Interlocked grain also gives trouble in

rotary cutting, and gum streaks cause splitting

when the sheets are dried. The wood is too rough

for core stock but produces an attractive rotary

cut face stock. Quarter-sliced veneer sometimes

has an attractive greenish stripe and metallic

luster {197),

Durability.—Santa-maria is rated as nondurable in contact with the ground in Trinidad {S9)^

but in other areas is considered very durable to

moderately durable. The timber was found to

be very durable in graveyard tests in England,

where 2- by 2-inch square stakes were still sound

after 13 years in the ground {206). Considered

one of the best timbers for giving long service,

particularly in dugout canoes or dories, it can

stand weathering well when used for exposed

outdoor uses.

Pure culture tests at Yale University rated the

heartwood of Calophyllum hrasiliense var. rehoi

durable with respect to both white-rot and brownrot fungi. Findlay {SIf,) also rated this species

resistant to decay in similar tests {171,, 136).

Wolcott {263) rates the wood very susceptible to

dry-wood termites in Puerto Rico. It has no

appreciable resistance to marine borers {39).

Preservation.—The heartwood is very resistant

to impregnation with preservatives by both opentank and pressure treatments up to 140 pounds

per square inch. Under the hot-and-cold system,

absorption is only 4 pounds per cubic foot with

a penetration of not over one-fourth inch {63).

As is often proved, the sapwood is not difficult to

impregnate {ISO).

Uses.^—Santa-maria, one of the most used woods

in the American tropics, goes into general construction, bridgework, railway ties, general wheelwright's work, dugouts, heavy carts, canoes,

general shipbuilding, shingles, flooring, interior

construction, and furniture. It is a good general

utility wood where, a fairly strong and moderately

durable timber is required. The wood produces

a fair quality face veneer but is not used extensively for this purpose because of the mechanical

problems in veneer-cutting operations.

Supply.—British Honduras, British Guiana,

Trinidad, and possibly some of the smaller islands

of the West Indies have santa-maria in exportable

quantities.

SARA

Vouacapoua macropetala

Nomenclature. — Vouacapoua macropetala

Sandw. from British Guiana was first described

in 1937. The wood is commonly known as sara

or by the Arawak name of sarebebeballi. A

closely related species, V. americana Aubl., the

wacapou of the (xuianas and Brazil, is also

covered in this work. (Legume family, Leguminosae. )

Distribution and habitat.—Sara is locally common on rocky hillsides within the rain forest of

British Guiana, where it is reported to occur on

sandy clay soils in the hilly country of the lower

Mazaruni, Essequibo, and Demerara Rivers {190,¡

82). The species has not been reported from outside British Guiana.

The tree.—Of moderate size, generally 16 to 20

inches in diameter, the tree grows occasionally up

to 24 inches in diameter and 80 to 90 feet high.

The poorly formed boles are normally 50 to 60

feet long. The trees were buttressed to a height

of 6 feet and often have adventitious shoots.

The wood.—The wood is dark yellowish brown

with moderately coarse texture and fairly straight

grain. It is reported to be very hard, tough, and

strong.

Weight.—Sara resembles purpleheart and angelin in density. The specific gravity of air-dry

wood ranges from 0.87 to 1.00, based on the weight

and volume in that condition. Weight per cubic

foot of air-dry wood on this basis ranges from 54

to 62 pounds.

Seasoning.—Sara is reported to require care in

seasoning like the very similar wacapou, which

seasons at a moderate rate with moderate warping

and twisting and with some end and surface

checking and casehardening.

Shrinkage.—Although shrinkage data are not

available for this species, it presumably undergoes shrinkage similar to the closely related

species, Vouacapoua am^ericana^ discussed in detail under the name of wacapou.

Mechanical properties.—There are no reports

of mechanical tests of this species. However, it

probably is similar to wacapou, Vouacapoua

americana,, in strength properties, which would

place it in a class above white oak but below greenheart in most properties {2JfS).

Working properties.—Sara is not difficult to

work, finishes smoothly, and takes a high polish.

Durability.—The wood is reported moderately

resistant to decay. Wacapou, which is similar,

is resistant to termite attack and also to marine

borers.

Uses.—The British Guiana Forest Department

recommends sara for flooring, house framing,

posts, sleepers, wheelwright work, and cabinetmaking. The timber lacks sufficient durability to

make first-class posts or sleepers. However, if

the wood possesses the same resistance to teredo as
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 107

Vouacapoua americana^ it would be very useful

for marine work in teredo-infested waters.

Supply.—British Guiana is prepared to export

sara in reasonably large quantities.

SIMAROUBA

Simarouha amara, Simarouha glauca

Nomenclature.—About six species of the genus

Simarouha are reported to occur in tropical

America. The principal species furnishing timber are Simarouha amara Aubl. and S. glauca

DC., although S, versicolor A. St. Hil., the pau

parahyba of the coastal forests of eastern Brazil,

is also used for making boxes and for general

carpentry in that country. ^S'. tulae Urban grows

in Puerto Rico, where it is known as aceitillo

cimarrón. It is at times confused with the West

Indies satinwood, Zanthoxylum favum Vahl,

which is also known as aceitillo in Puerto Rico

{190). (Ailanthus family, Simaroubaceae.)

Simarouha wood is known most widely by its

generic name simarouha, although the tree is often

called paradise-tree. Other local names are simarupa in British Guiana ; soemaroepa in Surinam ;

acajou blanc in French Guiana, Martinique, and

Guadeloupe ; marupa, pau parahyba, malacacheta,

caixeta in Brazil; marouba in Trinidad; bois

blanc in St. Lucia and Dominica; maruba in

Grenada; boarwood, maruba in St. Vincent; jocote in Guatemala ; bitter damson in Jamaica ; bois

blanc, frêne in Haiti; daguillo in Dominican Republic; gavilán in Cuba; bitterwood in Florida;

gall tree in Barbados; olivo in Costa Rica; and

pasa-ak in Mexico. The names aceituno or aceituna and negrito are also used in Central America

and in some of the West Indies. Simarouha

glauca and sometimes S. amara are also often

known as negrito in parts of Central and South

America {50, U6,85,36).

Distribution and habitat.—Simarouha amura

is found in northern South America from Venezuela and the Guianas to Brazil and in Trinidad

and Tobago. S. glauca occurs in Cuba, Jamaica,

Dominican Republic, and southern Florida, as

well as in Mexico and Central America. This

species is generally of lesser commercial importance because of its small size and scattered distribution (^5^, ^5^,/5^).

Simarovha amara prefers sandy soils, occurring

as a rare to occasional tree in the rain and high

savanna forest in Surinam; in British Guiana it

is of frequent occurrence in the seasonal forests

and as an occasional tree in the rain forests. It is

generally found on well-drained upland sites in

the West Indies. S. glauca grows on similar sites

in most of its range {19S, 231,136).

The tree.—Simarouha amara is a large, unbuttressed, evergreen tree of the upper story, attaining heights of 140 feet and diameters of 20 to 24

inches, occasionally 36 inches. The trees have

straight, cylindrical, strongly tapered boles frequently 70 to 90 feet long. Tlie bark is fairly

smooth and whitish brown to grayish brown on

young trees, becoming irregularly fissured in

places on older trees. Cut bark has a slightly

bitter smell. S. glauca generally occurs as an

understory tree, seldom reaching more than 80 or

90 feet high and 24 inches in diameter. Clear

boles are normally less than 30 feet long {150,165,

177, 121, 73).

The wood.—Freshly cut heartwood of simarouha is whitish or cream colored with occastionally a yellow or greenish cast. When dry it

becomes a uniform cream color with occasional

oily streaks. There is no distinction betAveen the

heartwood and sapwood. The wood is almost

entirely without figure except for a few, widely

spaced narrow vessel lines. The luster is light;

the texture is uniform and medium ; the grain is

straight; and growth layers are indistinct. Although the wood has no characteristic odor, it has

a bitter quininelike taste {llß, 127,190,135),

Weight.—Simarouha {Simarouha amara and

S, glauca) is a moderately light wood with an

average specific gravity of 0.38 (0.34 to 0.41)

based on ovendry weight and green volume determinations at Yale University {W). The specific

gravity of air-dry wood, based on air-dry weight

and volume, is reported by the British Guiana

Forest Department at 0.40 (<^^), by the Surinam

Forest Service at 0.44 {231), in Pfeiffer's Surinam

Timbers at 0.45 to 0.53 (775), and by Kribs {IhS)

at 0.40 to 0.50. Averaging these reports gives an

air-dry specific gravity of 0.44, which is in agreement with the Yale results. On this basis, air-dry

wood weighs 27 pounds per cubic foot and green

wood about 40 pounds per cubic foot.

Seasoning.—According to reports from Dominica {50), St. Lucia {153), and British Honduras {150), the wood has a tendency to split during seasoning. However, recent investigations at

Yale {12>7) found simarouha easy to air-season.

Boards dried at a rapid rate with only slight end

checking, but precautions were necessary to avoid

staining of the sapwood during the air-seasoning

process. Other sources also report the timber is

very susceptible to sap-stain fungi. Simarouha

is said to air-dry in 2 months in British Guiana

and in 3 months on the island of Dominica {50).

Shrinkage.—Simarouha exhibits low shrinkage

values but is somewhat unstable in response to atmospheric changes. Simurouia amara undergoes

a radial shrinkage of 2.3 percent, tangential

shrinkage of 5.0 percent, and volumetric shnnkage

of 8.0 percent from green to air-dry, comparmg

favorably with similar values for Honduras

mahogany of 3.5, 4.8, and 7.7 percent, respectively

( 127). It should i)e noted, however, that the ratio

of radial to tangential shrinkage is not as favorable as that of mahogany. Shrinkage from green

to air-diy would be about half the above values.
108 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

The wood readily responds to atmospheric

changes, but not excessively. Swelling (movement) is reported by Pfeiffer {175) to amount to

2.56 percent in volume from ovendry to equilibrium in a 40-percent relative humidity (heated

room), 5.65 percent to equilibrium in a 70-percent

himiidity (air-dry), and 10.40 percent to equilibrium in a 100-percent humidity (maximum moisture content). These values are far below those

for woods of greater density than simarouba and

somewhat below certain other woods of similar

density.

Mechanical properties.—Simarouba is not a

strong wood, but its strength properties are normal for a wood of its density. It is somewhat

brittle and has a tendency to split along the grain,

but it is superior in some properties to other woods

of similar weight. In the air-dry condition, it is

similar in most strength properties to yellowpoplar of the United States except for being

slightly inferior in bending strength and in tension and cleavage resistance across the grain. It

is superior to yellow-poplar in proportional limit

stresses in static bending and compression parallel

to the grain, hardness and shear. Both woods are

very similar in side hardness and compression

across the grain {^49).

Working properties.—The wood works easily

and can be machined to a smooth clean surface.

Working qualities are similar to those of white

pine and basswood. It is reported to saw, plane,

drill, and turn easily and satisfactorily and to take

and hold nails easily without splitting (ISO).

Sharp tools and fairly high speeds are essential in

turning. It is easy to paint, stain, or varnish.

It glues well, but special care is required to maintain the full strength of the wood. Simarouba

is somewhat prone to split and to be brittle during working because of its relatively low density

and moderate strength {265). Simarouba amara

has suitable machining properties for matchmaking in Jamaica {230)^ but S. amara has been reported too brittle and splintery for this use in

British Guiana.

Durability.—Graveyard tests in British Guiana

{82) and Surinam {175) found simarouba low in

resistance to decay. Similar tests on the island

of St. Lucia also indicate Simarouba is susceptible

to decay {153). However, recent pure culture

tests at Yale University {21^9) indicated simarouiba heartwood was extremely variable in decay

resistance but averaged moderately durable to a

white-rot fungus and durable to a brown-rot

fungus.

The wood has generally been considered relatively insect resistant because of the characteristic

bitter taste of the bark and wood. But Wolcott

{263) found it one of the most susceptible of

woods to the dry-wood termites of the West

Ihdies, and it is also considered very susceptible

to damage by marine borers. Simarouba is rated

only fair in resistance to w^eathering and, in general, unsuitable for prolonged outside use. TJnpainted boards do not warp or lose their surface

smoothness when exposed to the weather but do

sustain severe surface and end checking. To prevent blue stain, lumber should also be protected

from the weather during shipment and while in

use.

Preservation.—Simarouba absorbs preservatives very readily and is thereby rated low in resistance to impregnation.

Uses.—The moderate density, ease of working,

and relative softness make simarouba a popular

wood for house sheathing, boxes, crates, and all

types of interior construction. It is also used for

shelving, drawer lining, cheap furniture, and shoe

heels with considerable success. The very similar

structure of Simarouba avwra and S. glauca indicates the contradictory results experienced in

matchmaking in British Guiana and Jamaica resulted from the varying techniques used and cannot be attributed to differences in the two woods.

Simarouba has been used in the United States

for organ pipes, piano keys, and patterns, principally because of the wood's low shrinkage and

workability.

Suggested uses for simarouba include veneer

and plywood, cores for furniture, slack cooperage,

paper pulp, baskets, musical instruments, toys,

and many types of household utility articles. In

general, it is an acceptable wood for many uses

presently filled by white pine, basswood, yellowpoplar, and black gum. It can also replace, and

sometimes surpass, in usefulness the yellow pines

of the United States and the American tropics.

Simarouba is presently being used for interior

partitions and battens in the government-sponsored housing program in British Guiana. However, the timber's low resistance to insects and

decay and relatively poor weathering characteristics limit it to uses above ground and in unexposed locations.

Supply.—British Guiana, Surinam, and French

Guiana have sufficient volumes of simarouba to

meet the expected export demand. It may also

be available from some of the islands of the

Lesser Antilles in limited quantities.

SNAKEWOOD

Piratinera guianensis

Nomenclature.—Snakewood has been exported

from the Guianas since the time of their European

settlement and is well known in the American

and European market. The principal species supplying commercial snakewood is Piratinera guianensis Aubl., known also as Brosirmim guianensis

(Aubl.) Huber and B. aubletii Poepp. & Endl.

{190). However, several other closely related

species are also marketed as snakewood, since the
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 109

trade has little interest in the botanical origin

of the logs as long as they are sound and possess

the proper figure. P. panamensis Pittier grows

from Panama as far north as southern Mexico.

P, lancifera Ducke and P. parriensis (Huber)

Ducke are reported from the Guianas. (Mulberry family, Moraceae.)

The wood is known in the European market as

letterwood, in the American trade as snakewood,

and in the French market as bois de lettres. The

name snakewood is preferred and has been

adopted as the British standard name for wood

of this species (36), It is also called leopard

wood in the trade. All these trade names refer

to the wood's peculiar markings or irregular dark

spots, which resemble the letters of the alphabet,

the spots of a leopard, or the skins of highly

colored snakes.

Other local names for the wood include bourra

courra and tibokushi in British Guiana; letterhout, basri letri, letterhoot, koelero in Surinam;

amourette, bois de lettre gris, lettre moucheté,

satine gris, satine rouge, and piratiner in French

Guiana; casique care or guaimaro in Panama;

palo de oro in Venezuela; and gatia in Trinidad.

Distribution and habitat.—The several species

of Piratinera occur throughout the Amazon region of Brazil and extend northward through the

Guianas, Venezuela, Colombia, Panama, and into

southern Mexico and the West Indies {189). The

principal species, P. guianensis^ grows in British

Guiana, Surinam, French Guiana, Brazil, Bolivia, and Trinidad, and possibly other West Indies islands {165). P, panamensis ranges from

southern Mexico to Panama. It is likely that

other species in the Caribbean area are also

marketed as letterwood without distinction as

to species.

Snakewood is not found in abundance at any

point within its extensive range. The tree is

found occasionally in the rain and marsh forest

of Surinam and occurs as a rare to locally occasional tree in British Guiana throughout the

rain and seasonal forest.

The tree.—Snakewood, a tree of small dimensions, seldom grows more than 80 feet high and

1 to 2 feet in diameter. It is a small-crowned

canopy tree without buttresses but usually swollen

at the base. The bole is cylindrical and clear of

branches for 40 to 50 feet {8^). The smooth bark

contains a thick, sticky, white latex.

The log.—The tree is slow in forming heartwood, which is the only part used commercially.

A tree of 15-inch diameter may, on occasions, have

only 1 to 4 inches of heartwood, while a 20-inch

tree will ordinarily have not more than 7 inches

{167), The amount of heartwood is reported to

vary according to location. Certain areas produce timber with considerable heartwood, while

in other areas even large trees may not be worth

felling.

596544 0-62—8

The timber is exported with all the sapwood

removed in the form of small logs or sticks

measuring 4 to 10 inches in diameter and generally

about 7 feet long or slightly more. The last remnants of sapwood are removed just prior to

shipment to reduce freight costs and to allow

inspection of the figure on arrival at destination.

At one time most wood was shipped to the United

States on consignment because of the difficulty

of establishing a definite price until the buyer

could determine the quality of the logs. The logs

are sold by weight and are reputed to be one of

the most expensive woods in the trade.

The wood.—The sapwood, which the trade

rarely sees, is light yellow to nearly white, very

thick, and often not clearly demarcated from the

heartwood. The heartwood is a dark red to reddish brown with conspicuous irregular black radial markings (speckles), or with black vertical

stripes sometimes found with the speckles. The

distmctiveness of markings is reduced as the color

of the backgrounds is darkened by exposure. The

wood is extremely hard and heavy, fine textured,

with straight grain and medium luster. It has

no distinctive odor or taste.

The black markings for which this wood is

named are apparently found in all species of

Piratinera but vary in their occurrence and appearance. They extend out from the center of the

tree, varying considerably in size and number

between trees, logs, and even in the same piece.

In tracing the markings along a radius, they are

branched and anastomosed so that the figure

changes as each successive layer of wood is removed. Dark areas are the result of variations in

the color of the gummy deposits that fill all the

cell cavities, the darkest parts being at the margins

rather than in the center of the patches. Some

trees have only black vertical bands that may also

occur at times at irregular intervals in otherwise

speckled wood. Woods workers cannot tell if

a standing tree has figured or plain (bastard)

wood, since these differences are related to individual trees and apparently have no relationship

to species, variety, or external appearance {190^

12),

Weight.—The wood is extremely heavy. The

specific gravity of air-dry wood ranges from 1.01

to 1.35, based on volume and weight in that condition. Air-dry wood weighs from 63 to 84

pounds per cubic foot (60, H3).

Seasoning.—No information available.

Shrinkage.—There are no published data on

shrinkage. However, one specimen of snakewood

(letterwood) soaked at Yale University for 9

months underwent practically no change in specific gravity but increased in size about 19.6 percent and absorbed sufficient water to attain a

moisture content of 29.7 percent of the ovendry

weight. This would indicate that the wood has

relatively large shrinkage values.
no U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

Mechanical properties.—Snakewood is a very

strong, hard wood, but it splits rather easily and

is inclined to be splintery (£31), Although it is

also difficult to bend without buckling, it possesses

a certain degree of elasticity. In view of the

mechanical properties, the early popularity of this

wood for walking sticks must have been based on

beauty rather than utility.

Working properties.—The wood is worked

with considerable difficulty. Because it is hard,

snakewood is difficult to cut and takes nails poorly

yet finishes smoothly and takes a beautiful polish

(266,237).

Durability.—Keported to be very resistant to

decay (82), the wood is rated considerably above

Dominican mahogany (Swietenia mahogoni) in

resistance to the dry-wood termite of the West

Indies; Wolcott {263) rates the wood only slightly

less than repellent to termites. Immersion of the

wood in salt water around Hawaii indicated that

the heartwood is moderately resistant to marine

borers [76). But this fact is of more academic

interest than practical use because of the size and

value of the trees and the small proportion of

heartwood. The sapwood, like that of all trees,

is not durable to insects or decay.

Uses.—Snakewood was once considered very desirable for walking sticks in the United States,

but its use has declined because of uncertainty of

supplies, variable quality of the logs, and relatively high prices. Some snakewood is still made

into canes, but most is used for such items as inlay

work, turnery, fancy handles for cutlery and umbrellas, drum sticks, fishing rod butts, violin bows,

and archers' bows. Larger pieces are occasionally

sawed into thin veneers for cabinetwork {82, 60).

The wood was once well regarded in England

and the United States for making the butts of

fishing rods, but was too heavy to be used in the

tips. Small logs are presently exported from

Cuba to Puerto Rico for this use. It is one

of the principal woods used for bows by the

Indians in the Guianas, although archers do not

nowadays consider the wood particularly suitable

for this use. Snakewood bows admittedly afford a

good cast but are too stiff for the average man.

The bows also tend to break under severe strain

and to tire out in a relatively short time. They

also snap back with such a sudden kick that archers are unable to use them for any extended period

of time, more or less eliminating their use in tournaments or contests.

Because of limited supply, small size, and high

cost, snakewood is best suited for specialty items

that capitalize on its unusual beauty, hardness,

and density. Its tendency to split as well as its

brashness also excludes it from many specialized

uses where great strength is required.

Supply.—Snakewood is available in limited

quantities on special order from British Guiana,

Surinam, and possibly French Guiana and other

Caribbean areas.

STERCULIA

Sterculia pruriens, Sterculia carihaea, Sterculia rugosa

Nomenclature.—The genus StercuUa comprises

about 60 species of trees and shrubs distributed

throughout tropical and subtropical regions m

both hemispheres. S. pruriens (Aubl.) K.

Schum., S. caribaea K. Br., and S. rugosa E. Br.

are the principal species of commercial importance

in the Carribbean area covered by this report.

Other species growing in the American tropics

include/S'. apétala (Jacq.) Karst {S. carthaginensis Cav.), a widely distributed tree of common occurrence in the American tropics from southern

Mexico to Peru and Brazil; S. cubensis Urban

reported from Cuba ; S. recordiana Standl. from

Panama ; and S. mexicana K. Br. from Mexico and

British Honduras to Costa Rica. (Chocolate

family, Sterculiaceae.)

The timber of the three Caribbean species

covered here is similar in physical and mechanical properties and is generally superior to some

of the other species. They are, therefore, frequently marketed under the usual trade name

maho without distinction between species or

sources of supply. The name sterculia is more

appropriate to distinguish this wood from Hibiscus elatus, the mahoe of Jamaica.

Other names used locally and in the trade for

wood of the numerous species of Sterculia are as

follows: mahoe in Trinidad; camagiiey, guana in

Cuba; anacagüita in Puerto Rico; mahot-cochon

in French West Indies; mahot cochon, mapou

baril, mapou puant in West Indies in general;

yahu in British Guiana; karst, castaño m Honduras; kola in French Guiana; karst in Panama;

bastard mahogany in Jamaica ; castaño in Central

America in general; and bofrohoedoe, kobehe, and

kroekroe-amète in Surinam. Other common

names used in Central and South America are

guarataro and mano de danta, camojuru, camoruco

and piñón.

Distribution and habitat.—Sterculia caribaea

occurs in the West Indies from Jamaica, Guadeloupe, Dominica, Martinique, St. Lucia, and

Trinidad to Venezuela and British Guiana {166).

S. pruriens is said to occur in the Guianas and

northern Brazil {190,18). S. rugosa is reported

as a timber of importance in British Guiana and

may occur elsewhere {82).

The species marketed as maho (sterculia) are

generally not exacting as to site conditions. The

trees grow on most all sites, are tolerant to poor

drainage, and thrive on poor sandy soils. According to Marshall {163), Sterculia caribaea is

one of the most plentiful species in Trinidad,

being widely distributed throughout the colony

wherever the annual rainfall exceeds 60 inches.
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 111

It is a very common dominant and understory tree

in the Crappo-guatecare and the galba-palm forests {165^ 116) and is present but not plentiful in

other forest types.

Sterculia prurient and S. rugosa are of occasional to frequent occurrence in the heavy forest

in British Guiana, where they are generally distributed throughout the near interior and Rupununi district, becoming more scattered in the

eastern district {S2). Other species of sterculia

growing in Central and South America are generally recorded as well distributed on the lowlands

and hills in the somewhat drier regions but seldom

occurring on barren ridçetops.

The tree.—Sterculia is a large unbuttressed tree

with a heavy, rounded crown. The trees are commonly 100 feet or more in height and around 24

inches in diameter at maturity, although on the

best sites trees sometimes reach 130 feet in height

and 36 inches in diameter. The boles are cylindrical, 60 to 70 feet long, and have very low taper.

The outer bark is smoothish and a whitish-gray

color; the inner bark is reddish (82^ 166^ 61).

The wood.—Sterculia is best described as a

lightweight hardwood of plain appearance. It is

a wood of fairly good quality, somewhat lighter in

color, heavier, harder, finer textured and of better

quality than the widespread Sterculia apétala of

other regions in the American tropics (190^ 82^

50). The heartwood is soft, light, and whitish or

grayish with numerous brown ray necks imparting an overall brownish effect.

The sapwood, which is not distinct from the

heartwood, is reported to be about 2 inches wide

and subject to discoloration by sap-staining fungi

{106). The grain is usually straight and medium

to coarse in texture. The wood is not especially

fibrous as compared to some other members of the

genus and is fairly lustrous. The rays are readily

visible and are very prominent on a radial surface,

where they appear as brown flecks up to oneeighth of an inch wide and covering up to onethird of the surface. The growth rings are obscure and have no effect on the appearance of a

plain surface (7).

Weight.—The specific gravity of air-dry wood

of Sterculia pruriens from British Guiana, based

on weight and volume in that condition, is reported at 0.59 by Kynoch and Norton {H9)

and the Forest Products Research Laboratory in

England {15). Air-dry wood averages about 37

pounds per cubic foot, and green wood about 53

pounds per cubic foot at 90 percent moisture content. Sterculia in the air-dry condition is slightly

heavier than Douglas-fir (34 pounds), and much

lighter than Caribbean pine (44 pounds) from

Honduras.

Seasoning.—Sterculia is a moderately difficult

wood to season. It air-seasons fairly rapidly but

tends to warp and twist. The timber has been

seasoned in 4 months on the island of Dominica

{50). The method of piling for air-seasoning or

the schedule used in kiln-seasoning should be arranged to retard the drying rate, for degrade

should not be severe under moderate drying conditions {106). Kiln Schedule 1 is recommended

by the Forest Products Research Laboratory in

England {222).

Shrinkage.—The wood is subject to a relatively

high rate of shrinkage in comparison to woods of

similar density. Shrinkage values for Sterculia

pruriens from green to ovendry amounts to 5.7

percent radially, 9.2 percent tangentially, and 13.6

percent in volume {llß). Shrinkage from green

to air-dry (12 percent moisture content) is reported by Stevens and Pratt {222) at 3.0 percent

radially and 7.5 percent tangentially, or i%6 and

% inch, respectively. These values, determined in

separate studies, do not agree on tangential

shrinkage but agree well in the radial direction, on

the basis that shrinkage from green to air-dry at

12 to 15 percent moisture content is generally

about half the value of ovendry. The ratio of

tangential to radial shrinkage is moderate, although both values are relatively large and may

account for the difficulties in drying. Shrinkage

values are not available for the other species in the

group.

Sterculia, as might be expected, is also a timber

with large movement values in response to changes

in atmospheric conditions. Air-dry wood brought

into equilibrium in a 90-percent relative humidity

and then conditioned to equilibrium in a 70-percent

relative humidity imdergoes a change of 1.5 percent radially and 3.5 percent tangentially, or s/ie

and %6 inch per foot, respectively. The wood

reaches a moisture content of 23 percent in the 90-

percent humidity, which was equalled or exceeded

by only 4 of the 136 species tested at the Forest

Products Research Laboratory {108). Timbers

in which the sum of the percentage of radial and

tangential movement is more than 4.5 percent are

considered by the Forest Products Research Laboratory to have large movement values. Consequently, sterculia's total movement of 5.0 is well

into i\\^ large movement class.

Mechanical properties.—Tests of mechanical

properties have been made on Sterculia pruriem

from British Guiana at the University of MicMgan {IJß) and the Forest Products Research Laboratory in London {15) \ results varied by properties but were generally comparable. Both tests

indicate sterculia possesses normal strength properties in both the green and air-dry condition for

a wood of its density. It is somewhat weaker m

cleavage (splitting), but somewhat harder than

the average for other woods of sniular density.

In general, sterculia is not a timber of great

strength and should not be used where exceptional

strength is required.

Working properties.—The wood works easily

with both hand and machine tools and does not
112 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

blunt cutting edges readily {153,190,166). Although the finish tends to be somewhat fibrous,

good results are usually obtained with reasonably

sharp cutting edges. Compared to baromalli

{Catostemma conumAine), this wood is slightly

easier to cut and finishes to a less fibrous surface.

Saws of the medium hardwood type are recommended. Spring-set circular ripsaws should have

54 teeth with 20- to 25-degree pitch as described

under Type E in table 2 in A Handbook of Woodcutting, by the Forest Products Research Laboratory in England {12Jt). Sterculia is a very poor

timber for solid bent work. Nails are held firmly

and cause no splitting. A good finish can be obtained with stains and polishes if a fair amount

of grain filler is used {106).

Durability.—Sterculia is generally considered

nonresistant to decay when in contact with the

ground {106, 153, 82). Graveyard tests in British Guiana {50) and Trinidad {39) support these

general observations; the timber w^ found very

susceptible to decay in the ground in both locations. Tests in Puerto Rico {263) and Trinidad

{39) indicate that the timber is also very susceptible to attack by dry-wood and subterranean termites. It is also considered to have little resistance to damage by marine borers.

Pinhole borers, which sometimes penetrate well

into the heartwood, are a hazard in both logs and

lumber. Blue stain may also occur if there is a

delay in extraction or conversion of logs, or during the early stages of seasoning, or if lumber is

close-piled immediately after conversion without

treatment with a sap-stain preventative.

Uses.—This timber has no outstanding qualities

and is subject to relatively large shrinkage and

movement in use. Consequently, it is most suitable for light construction work, interior joinery,

concrete forms, boxes and crates, and inside or

otherwise protected wall boarding. Cheap cofBns

are sometimes made from the wood.

It appears that sterculia would be as satisfactoiy as the imported pine {Pinus) for many uses

and is somewhat easier to work. Many millions

of board feet of pine lumber are imported annually from the United States into the Caribbean

area. If this wood could be obtained at prices

below those of the lower grades of pine, it would

make an acceptable substitute; but it lacks the

quality to compete with the better grade hardwoods for furniture and heavy construction.

Sterculia (maho) was one of the group of seven

most abundant timbers in Trinidad tested for

papermaking atthe Imperial Institute in London ;

it produced the best pulp yield and the best grade

of paper. The average fiber length for each of

the seven species tested was greater than that of

aspen, which is the most commonly used hardwood

in the manufacture of soda pulp {116).

Supply.—Sterculia is available in exportable

quantities from the Guianas, Trinidad, St. Lucia,

and possibly other islands of the West Indies.

SURADAN

HyeronirYia laxiflora, Hyeronima alchorneoides,

HyeroniYna carihaea^ Hyeronima clusioides

Nomenclature.—Though about 25 species of

Hyeronima grow in tropical America, H, laxiflora

(Tul.) Muell.-Arg. and H. alchorneoides Fr. Allem, are the only species of widespread importance. Two other species^ H, carihaea Urban and

H, clusioides (Tul.) Griseb., are of limited importance in certain parts of the West Indies. A

few others including H, cubana Muell.-Arg. and

H, nipensis Urban grow in Cuba {207). H,

jamaicensis Urban is found in Jamaica. The

generic name is spelled Hieronyma also. ( Spurge

family, Euphorbiaceae.)

The timbers of these and other species are best

known as suradan, pilón, and tápana. Other

common names are surdina, suradanni in British

Guiana; anoniwana, okotjo, piento-bolletrie, sorodon in Surinam; curtidor in Honduras; zapatero

in Colombia; margoncalo, maragonçalo, urucurana in Brazil; bidley tree, palo-chanco, Scotch

ebo, zapatero in Panama; nancito in Nicaragua;

cajuela, sagua, rosita in Cuba; cedro macho in

Puerto Rico; chac-te-cook in British Honduras;

nancito in Costa Rica; aguacatillo, trompillo,

torito, catatú, coral in Venezuela; tapanare in

Trinidad and Grenada; horseñesh mahogany in

St. Vincent; and bois d'amande in St. Lucia.

Distribution and habitat.—Numerous species

of Hyeronima occur throughout the West Indies

and on the continent from southern Mexico to

southern Brazil including the Guianas, Peru, and

Colombia. H, laxißora is reported from the

Guianas, Peru, Colombia, and other parts of the

Amazon Basin. H. alchorneoides is known from

British Honduras through Central America to the

Guianas and Brazil. H, carihaea is reported from

the Islands of Dominica, St. Lucia, St. Vincent,

Grenada, and Trinidad, and H, clusioides from

Puerto Rico {121, 78,199, 62, 203, 213),

Hyeronima alchorneoides is of frequent occurrence in wet sites and seasonal marshes in Nicaragua. H. laxiflora is an occasional to locally frequent tree in the secondary forests and a relic in

old forests on heavy soils throughout British

Guiana. H. carihaea is widely distributed in the

rain forests of Trinidad, but nowhere is it abundant. Absent from the semideciduous forest of

this colony, this species thrives on a varietjr of

soils, including even poor sands when sufficient

moisture is available, but it does not tolerate poor

drainage. On St. Lucia the tree is fairly common

in areas of heavy rainfall and is reported to be

increasing in numbers {15í, 165).

The tree.—The species covered in this report are

large, straight evergreen trees with spreading,

rounded buttresses. The trees may reach 130 feet

in height and attain diameters of 3 feet or more,

but are more commonly 100 feet in height and 20

to 24 inches in diameter. Clear stems may be up
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 113

to 70 feet long. The bark is light brown, fairly

smooth, hard and brittle, averaging about onefourth of an inch thick on large trees. The underbark is a deep red (Sß).

The wood.—Wood of the four species covered

are similar in appearance and technical properties

and are hereafter discussed as a group unless

otherwise stated. The heartwood is a reddish

brown to chocolate brown or a dark red, being

somewhat similar to black walnut in appearance.

The sapwood is pink and about li/^ inches thick.

The grain in interlocked, giving a striped or ribbon-grain appearance to the wood. Growth rings

are marked by changes in color at the margins of

each season's growth, resulting in the appearance

of a series of parabolic markings on the tangential surface. The wood is moderately coarse in

texture, low in luster, and both odorless and tasteless when dry. Fanshawe (82) states the wood

contains stones of calcium oxalate.

Weight,—Although the four species in the suradan group are reported to be very similar in

weight, detailed information is available only for

Hyeronima laxiflora. The specific gravity of this

species, based on ovendry weight and green

volume, averages about 0.65 (0.59 to 0.74), which

is comparable to pignut hickory of the United

States. The specific gravity of air-dry wood

averages about 0.79. Air-dry wood weighs about

49 pounds per cubic foot and green wood about

74 pounds per cubic foot {165,162,153, 250).

Seasoning.—Suradan is rated moderately difficult to air-season, according to tests at Yale

University {250) and on St. Lucia {153). In the

Yale tests, Hyeronima laxiflora seasoned rapidly

with a moderate amount of defect occurring in

the form of crook and surface checking. Slight

casehardening and end checking also occurred, indicating the need for slower drying. Tests on St.

Lucia with Hyeronima caribaea indicated care

must be taken to prevent warping, but no other

serious defects were reported. In these tests, 1-

inch lumber air-seasoned to a moisture content

of 22.3 percent in a well ventilated building, while

pitch pine seasoned to 15.5 percent moisture content and white pine to 16.8 percent moisture content during the same period.

Shrinkage.—Hyeronima laxiflora, which is representative of the other species, undergoes moderately high shrinkage in comparison to many

other tropical woods of similar density, but it is

comparable to white oak in directional and volumetric shrinkage. The wood shrinks 5.3 percent

radially, 9.4 percent tangentially, and 14.4 percent

volumetrically from green to ovendry. In comparison, similar values of 5.3, 9.0, and 15.8, respectively, are reported for white oak. Shrinkage

from green to air-dry would amount to about

half these values {250, 160).

Mechanical properties.—Suradan possesses

normal strength properties in both the green and

air-dry condition for a wood of its density except

for marked deficiencies in work to maximum load

(shock resistance), compression and tension across

the grain (crushing strength and hardness), and

cleavage (splitting). It is a moderately good

bending wood except in shock resistance, comparing favorably in this with sweet birch {Betula

lenta) of the United States {250).

Working properties.—Suradan is reported

good in all working properties except planing.

The U.S. Forest Products Laboratory {68) rates

Hyeronima alclwrneoides as having excellent

sanding, boring, and mortising properties; very

good turning properties ; good shaping properties ;

and fairly poor planing properties. Except in

planing, the wood machined better than the average for 25 domestic hardwoods of the United

States.

Tests at Yale University rated Hyeronima laxiflora moderately difficult to work on the basis of

its poor planing properties. The irregular occurrence of shallow chipped ^ain during planing results from the characteristic roey grain. Fanshawe {82) reports that H. laxiflora of British

Guiana must be scraped well to acquire a smooth

finish. Lang {153) reports that H. caribaea saws

and finishes well in the government shop on St.

Lucia. The wood glues well and finishes smoothly

but, because of its rather large pores, requires a

fair amount of filler to secure a perfect finish

{132).

Durability.—The species discussed in this report vary from moderately durable to very durable in contact with the ground. Hyeronima

laxiflora was found to be very durable when exposed to pure cultures of white-rot and brown-rot

fungi {250\. Fanshawe {50) also reports this

species as highly durable. Durability tests of H.

alcJwmeoides in soil at Barro Colorado Island,

Canal Zone, and Turrialba, Costa Kica, rated this

species as moderately resistant to resistant to decay in contact with the ground {199).

In Brazil, however, railway ties of this species

are considered very resistant to decay. Substantiating this is a test by ih^ Netherlands Kailway

in Holland where untreated ties from Brazil were

more durable than treated white oak ties from

the United States {133). Hyeronima caribaea

has been reported as moderately durable in soil

tests in Trinidad {39) and in St. Lucia {50).

On the basis of these reports, a rating of resistant

or durable appears to be appropriate for the combined species. H. caribaea is rated resistant to

attack of subterranean termites by Brooks {39)

and both H. clusioides and 5^. laxiflora are rated

moderately resistant to the dry-wood or aerial

termites by Wolcott(^(?^). . ^ .

According to Edmonson {76), Hyeromma laxiflora is one of the most resistant woods to manne

borers in Hawaiian waters, showing only slight

penetration after 13 months' exposure. This resistance cannot be attributed to silica content tor

Amos {H) reports finding only 0.01 percent silica
114 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

in the wood. In the Hawaiian tests, H, clusioides

from Puerto Eico showed only moderate resistance to marine borers, indicating that different

species of Hyeronima vary in their resistance to

marine organisms.

Uses.—Because of its resistance to decay and

marine borers, good strength, pleasing appearance,

and fairly good working properties, suradan is

well suited for use in marine piling and construction, railway ties, furniture, cabinetwork, decorative veneer, and both light and heavy construction.

It is extensively used for boat construction in

British Guiana, where it is considered suitable for

most of the above uses. The timber is employed

in Trinidad for framework, rafters, and sheathing

in building construction. Suradan is considered

an excellent wood for furniture in St. Lucia, where

it is also used for posts and heavy timbers and is

recommended for paneling and high-quality interior work. The government of British Guiana

has recently specified suradan as acceptable for

interior partitions and battens in the government

housing program.

Supply.—Suradan is available in the Guianas

and possibly from some of the Lesser Antilles,

particularly St. Lucia and St. Vincent, and from

Trinidad. British Guiana should be able to supply reasonably large quantities of the timber.

WHITE TABEBUIA

Tdbehuia insignis var. monophylla, Tahehuia steno"

calyx

Within the genus Tabehuia, the so-called white

cedars are considered similar enough to be marketed as a group under a common trade name.

The woods of these and other species are likely

called white cedar, because of the resemblance of

the bark to that of Oedrela spp. White cedar in

no way resembles the wood of Cedrela growing in

the tropics or the cedars of the United States

{19S), Other species of Tabebuia are discussed

under roble and bethabara.

Nomenclature.—The species marketed as white

cedar are Tabebuia insignis (Miq.) Sandw. var.

monophylla Sandw. {T. longipes Baker), and

T. stenocalyx Sprague & Stapf. The whitewood

of Jamaica, T. riparia (Kaf.) Sandw., formerly

was known as T, leucoxylon (L.) Mart., a name

now rejected as a homonym.

Tabebuia insignis var. monophylla is locally

known as zwamp panta, panda, panda hoedoe,

waroekoelie, alasoalx), johoto, courali, mattoe, and

warokorie in Surinam; white cedar, warikuri,

woraccori, and warakuri in British Guiana; and

bois blanchet or cèdre blanc in French Guiana.

T, stenocalyx is locally known as white cedar in

British Guiana and wild calabash in Trinidad.

T. heterophylla (DC.) Britton, described under

roble, is known also as white cedar in the Virgin

Islands, Dominica, St. Lucia, and Grenada.

(Trumpet-creeper family, Bignoniaceae.)

Distribution and habitat.—Possibly because of

confusion in identification, only fragmentary information is available concerning the species comprising the white-cedar trade group. Tabebuia

insignis var. monophylla occurs in the three

Guianas and Venezuela ; T, stenocalyx is reported

from British Guiana, Trinidad, and French

Guiana {50),

Tabebuia insignis var. monophylla is dominant

in some types of marsh forest and is frequent on

other sites in British Guiana. In Surinam it occurs as a rare to occasional tree in the marsh

forest, becoming locally frequent in the swamp

forests. Information is lacking on the habitat

and occurrence of the other species {82^ 231),

The tree.—Tabebuia insignis var. nvonophylla

is a moderately tall, slim tree in British Guiana.

The trunks have moderately poor form and heavy

taper above the fluted buttresses, which range up

to 12 feet in height. Trees are commonly 90 feet

high and about 12 inches in diameter but occasionally grow to 16 inches. The trunks are often

free of branches for 40 to 50 feet {82). T,

stenocalyx is a larger tree, growing up to 150 feet

tall with a low buttressed trunk nearly 3 feet in

diameter.

The wood.—Heartwood of Tabebuia stenocalyx

and T, insignis var. monophylla is variously described as creamy, yellowish, or grayish brown or

sometimes brownish, often with dark flecks showing on the surface. Sapwood is lighter in color

and not clearly differentiated from the heartwood.

The texture is medium, the grain fairly straight,

and the luster moderately high. It is a moderately hard, firm wood without distinctive odor

or taste and without the yellow powder (lapachon) found in T, serratifolia (Vahl) Nicholson

and other species in the lapachon group of

Tabebuia {82,231,190).

Weight.—The wood is of medium weight with a

specific gravity based on air-dry volimie and

weight averaging about 0.68 (0.64 to 0.74). The

specific gravity based on green volume and ovendry weight is rej)orted at 0.55 by Kynoch and

Norton (i^^). Air-dry wood averages around 42

pounds and green wood about 65 pounds per cubic

ioot {190,82,281),

Seasoning.—No information is available on the

seasoning characteristics of the white-cedar group.

However, their similarity to roble or apamate

{Tabebuia rosea (Bertol.) DC.) suggests that the

timber seasons easily with only slight degrade

{71), On this basis, white cedar should kiln-dry

easily without any appreciable degrade using Kiln

Schedule 4 of the Forest Products Research Laboratory in England {222) or Kiln Schedule TD42 of the Forest Products Laboratory in Madison
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 115

{H7), One-inch lumber of roble {T. heterophylla (DC.) Britton) has been air-seasoned in

Puerto Eico in 3 months with only slight degrade.

Shrinkage.—Tdbebuia insignis var. monophylla

undergoes a shrinkage of 5.8 percent radially, 7.7

percent tangentially, and 13.7 percent in volume

from green to ovendry. This rate is relatively

high but compares favorably with rates for white

oak of 5.3, 7.3, and 11.5 percent, respectively.

The ratio of tangential to radial shrinkage is very

favorable, indicating that relatively little stress

develops during drying. This tends to reduce

warping, checking, and splitting. Shrinkage

from green to air-dry would be roughly half the

amount from green to ovendry {21^8, 50^ l^O).

Mechanical properties.—Z'ö^&ööma insignis

var. monophylla^ which\is representative of the

white-cedar group, is a hard, strong, resilient

wood resembling roble or apamate {T. rosea) in

strength characteristics, although somewhat superior in some respects. White cedar is superior

to white oak {Quercus alba) in the green condition

in all properties tested except compression perpendicular to the grain, tension, and shear. Upon

air-drying, white cedar becomes stronger but not

in proportion to white oak and other American

hardwoods of the temperate zone. In this condition, white cedar is somewhat inferior to white

oak in most strength properties, but still possesses

good strength properties for a wood of its density (i^).

Working properties.—White-cedar logs are reported to spring badly during conversion. Dry

lumber saws, planes, shapes, bores, mortices, and

sands easily with smooth clean edges in all operations. It finishes and polishes very smoothly with

a glossy finish, resembling yellow birch (Betula

alleghaniensis Britton) in some respects (190. 82^

231).

Durability.—Graveyard tests in British Guiana

{50) showed the wood to be only slightly resistant

to decay. Although definite information is lacking, it is reasonable to assume that white cedar

is readily damaged by both termites and marine

borers, as is roble or apamate (Tdbebuia rósea).

Uses.—White cedar is well suited for use in tool

handles and for boat decking and boat parts,

where high resistance to decay is not essential.

It is used extensively for furniture, flooring, interior house trim, building construction, and general carpentry. In the areas where it grows it

is also used for paddles and packing cases. On

the basis of its qualities, this timber could be

substituted for ash in sporting goods, agricultural

implements, and possibly for decorative veneer.

Supply.—White cedar is available for export

from British Guiana, and possibly French Guiana

and Surinam. Other Caribbean areas covered in

this report do not have the timber in suiScient

volume for export.

TATABU

Diplotropis purpurea

Tatabu is one of the strongest and most beautiful woods growing in the tropical forests of the

Western Hemisphere. It is superior in many

strength properties to the best woods of the

United States, and, despite being somewhat difficult to work, may eventually become one of the

more popular export timbers.

Nomenclature.—Presently, tatabu is known as

Diplotropis purpurea (Rich.) Amsh., formerly

having been designated both as D. guianensis

(Tul.) Benth.íind as Boiodichiaguianemis (Tul.)

Ducke. A variety is I). 2mrpurea var. brasiliensis

(Tul.) Amsh. (D. brasiliensis (Tul.) Benth.).

Some botanists regard Diplotropis as a synonym

of Boiodichia. However, Record and Hess (IW)

from a study of a limited number of wood specimens concluded that these two genera with only

a few species are distinct. (Legume family,

Leguminosae.)

The timber is marketed under the name tatabu

in British Guiana, coeur dehors in French Guiana,

zwarte kabbes in Surinam, and supupira or sucupira in Brazil (193^ 50).

Distribution and habitat.—Tatabu occurs in

the upland areas of the rain and seasonal forests

in the Guianas and in eastern and northern Brazil.

It is an occasional tree in British Guiana, rare in

Surinam, but fairly common in French Guiana

and some areas in Brazil.

The tree.—Tatabu is commonly 90 to 100 feet in

height and 16 to 24 inches in diameter, but trees

up to 40 inches are occasionally found. The trunk

is usually straight, cylindrical, mibuttressed, and

up to 60 to 70 feet in length {82). However, long

logs are uncommon because of the tree's crooked

form {136, 151).

The wood.—Tatabu is a very hard, heavy,

tough, and strong wood. Freshly cut heartwood

is generally chocolate brown turning to a lighter

brown when dry and may occasionally be grayish

brown or brown, often with dark gold-colored

stripes or narrow stripes of a lighter brown. The

sapwood is narrow, clearly demarcated from the

heartwood and grayish or pinkish gray.

Short rows of pores are often visible without

a lens, being made conspicuous by the surrounding layers of light-colored parenchyma. The

pores are generally open but some contain a white

or yellow substance making them appear as colored lines on the longitudinal surfaces. Rays are

very fine and inconspicuous on all surfaces.

Growth rings are usually not visible but on occasion show very faintly. The grain is straight

to slightly interlocked or sometimes slightly wavy ;

the texture is coarse to very coarse. The luster

is high and golden in the proper light, often with
116 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

a waxy appearance. No distinctive odor or taste

is present \l36, 151, US).

Weight.—The specific gravity based on green

volume and weight when ovendry averages about

0.78 (0.70 to 0.97). The specific gravity of airdry wood, based on weight and volume in that condition, averages about 0.93. Green wood weighs

about 78 pounds per cubic foot and dry wood

about 58 pounds per cubic foot (^^<^, 50,11^9).

Seasoning.—Tatabu dries rapidly but is generally considered rather difficult to season. Under

the usual air-dry procedures some checking, cupping, twist, crook, and end splitting are likely to

occur. Considerable checking and cupping also

occur in kiln-drying unless a slow drying schedule

is used. In air-drying it should be piled with

relatively small spacing between boards and with

thin stickers to reduce the initial drying rate

Shrinkage.—Tatabu shrinks but little during

seasoning. Shrinkage values from green to ovendry of 4.6 percent radially, 7.0 percent tangentially, and 11.8 percent volumetricallv are not

excessive for wood of tatabu's density (2If.8, lJj9).

It compares closely with black walnut in shrinkage and is considerably better than white oak or

greenheart in this characteristic. Shrinkage

from green to air-dry would be about half these

values. The wood is fairly stable in use, responding only moderately to atmospheric changes {108).

Mechanical properties.—In the green condition, tatabu is superior in most strength properties

to all woods indigenous to the United States. In

the unseasoned condition, it also exceeds most

tropical species of similar high density {%S1)^

Green tatabu is superior to green hickory and

white oak in all mechanical properties, except

shock resistance in which hickory is superior, and

except tension across the grain and cleavage in

which oak is superior.

In the air-dry condition, tatabu is equal or

superior to hickory in all properties except shock

resistance as measured by work to maximum load,

compression across the grain, and shear. It is

superior to air-dried white oak in all properties

except compression and tension across the grain

and cleavage resistance {11^.9, 2Jf8, 175), On this

basis tatabu would not serve as well as hickory for

handles in striking tools.

Working properties.—The wood is moderately

difficult to work. It saws rather easily, but is

somewhat difficult to plane because of its frequently roey grain, which when present requires

considerable sanding. The wood turns well, has

high screw-holding power, and takes wax or polish

satisfactorily if a filler is first applied {231,123).

Durability.—Fanshawe {82) and Pfeiffer {175)

in British Guiana and Surinam, respectively, rate

tatabu as moderately resistant to decay. However,

tests at Yale University {2jlfß) indicate the wood

is very durable in resistance to both white-rot and

brown-rot fungus. Sucupira {Diplotropis sp.)

railway ties are reported to outlast creosoted oak

ties on the Netherlands Eailway at Delft, Holland.

Ties of this species were all sound after 17 years,

while the oak ties were severely split {13S). However, this is not entirely a test of durability

against rot, as the splitting may have been a

mechanical failure of the oak rather than the result of decay. Wolcott {263) rates this species

nearly equal to West Indies mahogany, considerably above Honduras mahogany, and somewhat

below greenheart in resistance to dry-wood termites.

Exposure tests of the timber in Hawaiian waters

showed tatabu to have little resistance to marine

borers {76), It was also quickly damaged by

marine borers in a similar test in the Atlantic

Ocean at Wrightsville, N.C., where it ranked 30th

in resistance to marine borers of 37 species tested

{58), Amos {14) reports the silica content of the

wood as negligible.

Uses.—Hughes, in Forest Resources of British

Guiana {136), refers to tatabu as follows :

The qualities and properties of this wood have not been

fully appreciated in the past. Extra work spent on its

manufacture is amply repaid by the results achieved.

This wood will definitely find a niche among our more

beautiful woods in the future when it may be possible to

exploit the forests to a greater extent than in the past.

The timber is used in British Guiana for heavy

construction, boatbuilding, house framing, flooring, furniture, and turnery. Tatabu's high durability in the ground makes it well ñtted for uses

where a durable strong wood is required. Ducke

{73) reports the wood is used extensively for civil

and naval construction and crossties in Brazil.

The timber's recognized beauty should promote its

extensive use for furniture, cabinetwork, marine

construction in nonteredo waters, and other similar uses in the countries of origin and on the

export market {132). Its very good strength

properties also suggest its use for tool handles and

agricultural tools and vehicles. Tatabu has been

selected as one of the species suitable for timbers,

scantlings, and other structural members, as well

as for flooring and siding in the government-sponsored housing program in British Guiana.

Supply.—The wood is in sufficient supply in the

Guianas to nil export markets as they develop.

TAURONIRO

Humiria halsamifera

Nomenclature.—Humiria halsamifera (Aubl.)

J. St. Hil. is the best known of four or more

species of Humiria occurring in the American

tropics. Other species of importance are H. floribunda Mart, including var. suhsessilis Urban and

H. cassiquiari Suesseng & Bergdolt. In British

Guiana the timber of H, halsamifera is known as

tauroniro and tabaniro, or by the English names

of bastard bully and bastard bullet tree because of

its similarity to buUetwood {Manilkara sp.).
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 117

Vernacular names applied to one or more species

in different localities are as follows: basra-bolletrie, bastard bolletrie, meri, blackaberie and tawanango in Surinam; bois rouge, bois à flambeau,

bois d'encens, triane, boume houmirí, cäramura,

homiry, omiry in French Guiana; turamira, couranira in Brazil; niña in Venezuela; and oloroso

in Colombia. (Humiria family, Humiriaceae.)

Distribution and hahiisiL—Humiria lalsamifera occurs in the Guianas, Colombia, Venezuela,

and the Brazilian Amazon. In British Guiana it

is a principal dominant species in the marsh forest

and of occasional to frequent occurrence in the

seasonal and wallaba (dry evergreen) forests of

the near interior and the Eupununi district [82).

It generally does best on light sandy soils. On

other sites and soils the tree is often shrubby and

of little commercial value. In Surinam the tree

occurs on the low or savanna forest on either clay

or sandy soils at elevations of about 70 feet (250,

231, 190).

The tree.—On favorable sites in British Guiana,

tauroniro becomes a heavy, round-crowned canopy

tree without buttresses. It is commonly 20 to 28

inches, and occasionally up to 48 inches in diameter and 90 to 120 feet tall with a long, cylindrical

bole clear of branches for 60 to 70 feet.

The wood.—The wood has the general appearance and properties of balata {Manilkara sp.) but

is coarser in texture and considered inferior to that

species. The sapwood is about li^ to 2 inches

wide, light brown, and poorly demarcated from a

light brown to reddish-brown heartwood. The

grain varies from straight to interlocked, the

latter producing a light striping on the tangential

surface. Growth rings are indistinct. The wood

is of medium luster and texture and when seasoned

is without odor or taste.

Weight.—The specific gravity of tauroniro is

reported at 0.66 based on ovendry weight and

green volume. Specific gravity of air-dry wood

averages about 0.80, based on the weight and

volume of wood in that condition. The wood

averages 50 pounds per cubic foot when air-dry

and 67 pounds when green according to tests at

Yale university {250), This is somewhat below

bulletwood's average air-dry weight of 64 pounds.

Fanshawe {82) reports somewhat higher average

weight of 53 to 57 pounds per cubic foot for airdry tauroniro from British Guiana.

Seasoning.—The timber, which is moderately

difficult to season, will air-dry at a rapid rate, accompanied by slight surface and end checking,

some warping, moderate crook, and slight twist.

Some casehardening also occurs in rapid drying

but, along with other defects, can be reduced if the

timber is seasoned at a moderate rate.

Shrinkage.—Tauroniro undergoes greater

shrinkage than many tropical American hardwoods but compares favoraibly with equally dense

United States hardwoods. Its radial shrinkage is

considerably above the average for both tropical

and temperate zone hardwoods of similar density.

Shrinkage amounts to 7.2 percent radially, 9.7

percent tangentially, and 15.7 percent volumetrically from green to ovendry as compared to 5.3,

9.0, and 15.8 percent, respectively, for white oak

{2Jf2, 250), Shrinkage from green to air-dry

would amount to about half these values. The

ratio of tangential to radial shrinkage is very

favorable ; under mild drying conditions the wood

should season without developing internal and

surface stresses.

Mechanical properties.—Unseasoned timber is

about as strong as other woods of comparable

density, except that it falls slightly below the

average in crushing strength, cleavage, and toughness. In this condition it is clearly superior to

white oak in static bending except in work to

maximum load (shock resistance). It is also superior to oak in stiffness, hardness, shear, and

crushing strength. It falls below oak in cleavage

resistance and shock resistance and is about equal

to that species in bearing strength.

In the air-dry condition, tauroniro is only

slightly superior to oak in resistance to shear but

is 20 to 40 percent stronger in all other properties

except bearing strength in which it is only threequarters as strong as that species {250).

Working properties.—The wood is moderately

difficult to work. Straight-grained material saws

and planes smoothly, but wood with interlocked

grain is susceptible to considerable chipped grain

in planing. Inclined to be splintery, the wood

does not turn well but can be bored satisfactorily.

Durability.—Tauroniro and other species of

Humiria have the reputation of being highly durable in the American tropics. Pure culture tests

at Yale University rated the wood very durable

to a white-rot fungus and durable to moderately

durable to a brown-rot fungus. Tauroniro from

British Guiana was found to have little resistance

to teredo in Hawaiian waters {76). Wolcott

{263) found the wood resistant to damage by the

dry-wood termite of the West Indies, rating

slightly above Honduras mahogany in this

respect.

Uses.—The timber is used for heavy construction in place of balata {Manilkara hidentata) in

British Guiana and is considered suitable for fresh

water piling, bridge timbers, house framing, and

heavy joinery in that country. The rich color of

the wood and its modest but attractive figure

suggest its use for face veneer and furniture. It

is considered superior to Demerara greenheart for

wheel spokes and has been recommended for sugar

barrels, agricultural implements and vehicles, and

flooring. It is one of ten woods acceptable for

siding and flooring and structural timbers in the

government housing program of British Guiana.

In general, it is useful wherever a wood of high

strength properties is required
118 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

Supply.—British Guiana and possibly French

Guiana and Surinam can supply tauroniro in exportable quantities.

TEAK

Tectona grandis

Teak is one of the world's best known and most

highly valued timbers. It is native to southeastern Asia and Malaya and is planted extensively in many other tropical regions, including the Philippines, West Africa, continental

tropical America, and the West Indies. Commercial supplies of the timber come largely from the

tropical forests of Burma; small amounts also

originate from India and Java. Teak is also indigenous to Indo-China but is seldom exported

from there. Timber from the different sources

is usually sold as Moulmein teak, Rangoon teak,

and so forth, according to its port of export or

place of origin. Though not indigenous to Java,

teak was originally planted near temples and

shrines and now forms pure forests over extensive

areas. This is in contrast to its usual occurrence

in mixed forests in its native habitat {IIS^ 135^

287, 106),

Nomenclature.—Teak, Tectona grandis L. f.,

harvested from plantation-grown trees in the

Caribbean area, has been marketed in relatively

small volumes as plantation-grown teak or simply

as teak. The timber is somewhat unique in not

having numerous other common names as do most

other tropical timbers. However, other timbers

are often erroneously called teak. The Spanish

name is teca, and the French is teck. (Verbena

family, Verbenaceae. )

Distribution and habitat.—Teak is planted extensively in British Guiana, Puerto Rico, Cuba,

Haiti, Jamaica, and other West Indies islands

and countries in the Caribbean region but is best

known from Trinidad, Honduras, and British

Honduras. It has been grown most successfully

in Trinidad and other areas on deep, well-drained

soils with a rainfall of 50 to 120 inches, but it also

does well on a variety of soils and geographical

formations provided that there is good subsoil

drainage. Plantations are thriving in Trinidad

on areas formerly occupied by semideciduous forests and rain forests.

Teak is also apparently well established on lands

carrying second-growth brush, on former cocoa

estate lands, and on other areas of heavy clay soil

with good drainage {165, 162, 38). However,

Castens' (52) experience in Burma indicates teak

should only be planted in the alluvial valley soil

and on areas of deep loamy sand and loam on the

lower ridges. He further concludes that teak

planted on clay soils in Buraia is not expected to

do well, and that trees planted on narrow ridges

and moderate to steep slopes will almost surely

die some time after reaching 25 years of age.

The tree.—Teak is a very large deciduous tree in

its native habitat. The bark is up to three-fourths

of an inch thick, grayish brown, flaky, and somewhat shallowly fissured. Trees growing 100 feet

high and 3 feet in diameter are not unusual, and

occasional trees reach a height of 150 feet and a

diameter of 5 feet or more. Trees of this size are

usually 100 to 200 years old {135, k-ß, 165), In

favorable locations teak has a clean cylindrical

bole, which is sometimes fluted at the base or often

buttressed in old trees {165). The tree varies

greatly in size according to climatic and soil conditions with much shorter and more fluted stems

and greater branching in the drier and hotter

regions. Trees cut for the export market are

usually 2 to 2% feet in diameter and clear of

branches for 30 to 35 feet above the stumps.

In dry forests the growth rate is slow; 5 to 8

years are required to grow 1 inch in diameter.

In moist forests and cultivated plantations under

very favorable conditions, teak may grow as

much as 1 inch or more in 2 years, and the trees

may attain diameters of 30 inches or more in 60

years {^6). Saw-log-size trees have been produced in Honduras in 20 years under extremely

favorable conditions. Plantations in other tropical areas have shown similar results {71), but in

general, plantation-grown trees require up to

twice this period to reach economic maturity.

In Burma and Siam the trees are always girdled

in the forest to allow the timber to dry out before

felling. Logs from green trees will not float, but

those from trees girdled 2 to 3 years prior to cutting can be rafted or floated down rivers. This

is important as virtually all Burma teak is extracted by water.

The wood.—Teak is a moderately hard, oily

timber of medium weight. The heartwood of

plantation-grown teak is olive green when freshly

cut, becoming golden brown and eventually almost black upon exposure and seasoning. The

1- to 2-inch wide yellowish to white-colored sapwood is sharply demarcated from the heartwood.

Growth rings are distinct and, except for occasional false rings, are of annual occurrence.

Teak is considered a typically ring porous wood

in India but shows much variation in the width

of the pore zone. Terminal growth varies from

a band of 2 or 3 layers of large pores to a few

scattered large pores touching the initial parenchyma layer but not forming a definite band. The

growth layers are distinguished on side-grain surfaces by narrow brown lines darker than the rest

of the heartwood. Plantation grown teak is

usually straight grained and of uniform fine texture. The wood has an oily feel and a strong

fragrant odor when freshly cut. Seasoned wood

retains its oily feel but possesses only a faint fragrance and has no detectable taste {71, Iß, IJfß,

135, 56).

Weight.—Plantation-grown teak from Honduras is reported by Dickinson {71) to be some-
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 119

what lower in density than Burma-grown teak,

with an average specific gravity of 0.56 (0.52 to

0.62) based on ovendry weight and green volume.

The specific gravity of air-dry wood averaged

0.64, based on weight and volume in that condition. Air-dry wood weighed 40 pounds per cubic

foot and green wood 60 pounds per cubic foot.

A comparison of forest-grown Burma and Indonesian teak with plantation-grown teak from

Trinidad by the Central Secretariat of the Caribbean Commission {50)^ using data by Smathers

{205) and Pfeiffer (Í75), gave Trinidad-grown

teak an air-dry specific gravity value of 0.695 as

compared to 0.679 for the forest-grown teak.

Weight of air-dry (12 percent moisture content)

wood from Trinidad was listed at 43.4 pounds per

cubic foot as compared to 42.3 pounds for wood

from Burma. These studies and others have dispelled the belief that plantation-grown teak is

always lower in density than forest-grown wood.

Teak is similar in weight to sugar maple of the

United States (44 pounds air-dry) and is somewhat lighter than white oak (48 pounds air-dry)

{160).

Seasoning.—Teak is easily air-seasoned or kilndried with a minimum of degrade. In tests at

Yale University, plantation-grown stock from

Honduras air-seasoned rapidly with no appreciable defect. The Forest Products Kesearch Laboratory in England reports that teak air-seasons or

kiln-seasons well but slowly with little tendency to

check, split, or warp, and that lumber from

girdled trees dries with the same results as other

material. However, material from green logs reç[uires more initial protection against rapid drying than that from girdled trees. There is liable

to be considerable variation in the drying rate of

individual boards, because differences between the

initial and final moisture contents are occasionally

great.

The timber is very liable to change color during

kiln-seasoning, but the uniform coloring is restored within a reasonable time after drying

{106). Kiln Schedule 6 of the Forest Products

Research Laboratory {222) has been recommended, although more severe kiln schedules have

been tried with good results {HO).

Shrinkage.—Teak is well known for its exceptionally low shrinkage and excellent stability in

use {2^1)^ being quite similar to mahogany and

white pine in these characteristics. Forest-grown

Burma teak shrinks 2.3 percent radially, 4.2 percent tangentially, and 6.8 percent volumetrically

from green to ovendry {236). Plantation-grown

teak from Honduras has comparable shrinkage

rates, according to studies at Yale University

(7i), in which the teak shrank 2.1 percent radially, 4.6 percent tangentially, and 5.1 percent volumetrically from green to ovendry. Shrinkage

from gTeen to air-dry would amount to about half

these values.

Teak is highly regarded for its stability in response to atmospheric changes, undergoing a

radial movement of 0.8 percent and tangential

movement of 1.3 percent from equilibrium in a

60-percent relative humidity to equilibrium in a

90-percent humidity. This amounts to a movement (swelling) of %2 and %2 ii^ch per foot, respectively {108). Plantation-grown teak is comparable to forest-grown wood in its high resistance

to water absorption {71, 236, 198).

Mechanical properties.—Teak has good

strength properties. Green wood is reported by

the Forest Products Eesearch Laboratory {105)

to equal white oak in hardness and resistance to

impact loads, and to exceed that wood by 30 to

40 percent in stiffness and bending strength.

When air-dry, teak becomes 10 to 20 percent inferior to oak in hardness and resistance to impact

loads, but becomes only 10 to 20 percent stronger

in bending and stiffness. Under heavy use it has

a tendency to break down by short brittle splintering on edge-grain surfaces and for the surface of

flat-sawed material to disintegrate rapidly.

Tests of the mechanical properties of air-dry

plantation-grown teak from Trinidad showed it

equal or superior to forest-grown Burma teak in

static bending, compression parallel to the grain,

tension parallel to the grain, and hardness and

toughness properties. Li similar tests of air-dry

Honduras-grown teak, it was slightly superior to

Burma-grown teak in compression across the

grain, shear, cleavage, and toughness; slightly

lower in stiffness, crushing strength, and tension

across the grain ; and similar in the other properties. Studies by the Indian Forest Kesearch Institute at Dehra Dun, India, also showed no

essential difference in strength properties between

planation-grown and forest-grown material {202,

205,175,71,21^9).

Working properties.—Plantation-grown teak

is easily worked with both hand and machine tools

{71, 46). Its dulling effect on cutting edges can

be overcome by using special carbide or other

high-quality steel. Reduced spindle speeds are

recommended when using ordinary, good-quality,

high-speed steel knives or cutters. A very smooth

finish is obtained when tools are kept sharp, but

some care is required to prevent roughness on end

grain due to the brittle nature of the wood.

Teak takes nails and screws fairly ^yell {123)

and glues moderately well despite its oily nature

{2i0). Its bending properties vary from poor to

good. In general, it is a moderately good bending wood but is liable to buckle on the concave

face if bent to small radii of curvatures. It can

be varnished and polished with good results.

Durability.—Teak is recognized throughout the

world as a timber of excellent durability to decay,

termites, and marine borers {237, 71,12, ^6, 2Jfl)-

But controlled tests of untreated, 10-year-old,

plantation-grown t«ak in Trinidad indicated that

the wood is only moderately durable to fungus
120 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

attack (rot) and definitely susceptible to attack

by subterranean termites (39). However, pure

culture tests with 20-year-old, plantation-grown

teak from Honduras showed the wood to be somewhat variable but generally very durable to damage by both a white-rot and brown-rot fungus

(71). The sapwood is not durable.

Wolcott (263) rates the heartwood of East

Indian teak resistant to damage by the dry-wood

termite of the West Indies, the same as West

Indies mahogany, but found the sapwood had

little resistance to termite damage. The sapwood

is also susceptible to attack by powder-post beetles

and other insects (105). The heartwood is

generally considered to be highly resistant but

not immune to marine borer attack. Amos' report

thatteak contains up to 1.4 percent silica by weight

would indicate a considerable resistance to manne

organisms {14)- Yet, teak was found to have no

appreciable resistance to marine borers in recent

exposure tests at Wrightsville, N.C., where the

timber was rated 23d in resistance to marine borers

of 37 woods tested (68).

Plantation-grown teak possesses excellent

weathering characteristics. Unpainted wood is

almost entirely free from warp and checking when

exposed to the weather {S5).

Preservation.—Teak is considered very difficult

to impregnate with preservatives ; only the vessels

absorb preservative in pressure treatments. Although the heartwood is extremely resistant to

preservatives, it is a common practice in Trinidad

to treat plantation-grown teak posts by the opentank process. This treatment is reported to add

considerable life to the thick sapwood in small

posts.

Uses.—Plantation-grown teak is suitable for the

same uses as forest-grown material, including shipbuilding (particularly decking^, flooring, highclass joinery, interior trim, durable outdoor structural work, door and window frames, carvings,

furniture, doors, interior paneling, and fancy

turned items. Figured wood is cut into both

laminated and solid veneer. The timber's low

shrinkage, as well as its stability and durability,

make teak well adapted for use in tanks and vats.

It is used in laboratories and chemical plants for

benches and other fixtures because of its high

resistance to acids. Because of its resistance to

moisture, teak is frequently used for kitchens and

bathroom fittings.

One of the principal uses for imported wood

is in decking for ships and in general boatbuilding

of all kinds. Many other woods have been tried,

but no substitute has been found for teak decking

on naval vessels.

Thinnings from plantation-grown teak in Trinidad are split and used in wire fencing, squared and

sold for house framing, or sawed into lumber for

furniture, boats, and other uses. Considerable

plantation material is also used, both treated and

untreated, for posts and small poles.

Supply.—The supply of plantation-grown teak

is not large—only Trinidad is in a position to offer

even a small volume for export. Other areas may

soon have exportable surpluses when plantations

reach merchantable size.

TONKA

Dipteryx odorata

About four species of the tonka-bean tree in

the genus Dipteryx (formerly Goumaroima) supply the scented tonka beans of commerce, which

are valued for coumarin, a fragrant chemical.

Coumarin is used principally for flavoring snuff

and in manufacture of perfume and, to some extent, in confectionary. For many years, the export of tonka beans has been an important industry

in Brazil and Venezuela.

Nomenclature.—Tonka is the preferred trade

name for wood of the common species, Dipteryuc

odorata (Aubl.) Willd. {G^umarouna odorata

Aubl.). The name tonka wood is also frequently

used in the trade. It is locally known as tonka or

koemaroe in Surinam; tonka, tonka bean, or

kumaru in British Guiana; tonka in Trinidad;

gaïac de cayenne in French Guiana; cumary or

cumarú in Brazil; and sarrapia and cumaru in

Venezuela and Colombia. The name tonquin is

also sometimes used in Spanish-speaking countries. (Legume family, Leguminosae.)

Distribution and habitat.—The tonka tree

grows in the Guianas, Venezuela, Colombia, and

the Amazon region of Brazil. It is also cultivated

for its fruit (tonka beans) in Trinidad. The tree

is of frequent occurrence in Brazil, Venezuela, and

French Guiana {73) ; rare in the rain and high

savanna forests of Surinam {231) ; rare in tne

rain and seasonal forest areas of British Guiana,

though of general distribution {S^), The tree

thrives on many types of soil but reaches its best

development on well-drained gravelljr or sandy

sites. Heavy waterlogged soil and impervious

clay are unsuitable for its growth. It will stand

a certain amount of drought but is reported to require a minimum annual rainfall of 50 to 60

inches {117).

The tree.—This species is a rather large, unbuttressed overstory tree with a small rounded crown.

The ti:ees are most frequently 18 to 30 inches in

diameter and 80 to 120 feet in height, although

on the best sites they sometimes reach 40-inch

diameters and 160-foot heights. Their clean cylindrical boles are generally 60 to 80 feet long. Under cultivation and in second-growth forests, the

tree is generally small to medium in size (7^, 82).

The wood.—Tonka is an exceptionally attractive timber. The fresh heartwood is a reddishbrown or purplish-brown color with attractive

light yellowish-brown or purplish streaks. It

seasons to a variegated reddish and yellowish

brown but after exposure to light gradually be-
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 121

comes a uniform yellowish brown or light brown.

The sapwood is distinct from the heartwood,

brownish yellow or yellowish brown and about

1 to 2 inches thick. The wood is characterized by

rather prominent vessel lines and by a consistent

narrow stripe on radial surfaces caused by the

closely interlocked grain. A waxy or oily feel is

also a characteristic of this Avood. The texture is

fine, luster medium, and grain irregular to often

interlocked. The wood has no distinctive taste

but a faint vanillalike or rancid odor. It is an

extremely hard and heavy wood, similar to lignumvitae in this respect {127, lis, 82, 231).

Weight.—The specific gravity of tonka averages

0.89 (0.79 to 0.97), based on green volume and

ovendry weight. The specific gravity of air-dry

wood averages about 1.08. Weight per cubic foot

averages about 81 pounds green and 67 pounds

air-dry {231,127),

Seasoning.—The wood is relatively easy to season considering its density. Material has been

air-dried under cover at Yale University in less

than 120 days with some surface checking occurring; seasoning at a moderate to slow rate would

likely reduce the occurrence of this defect.

Shrinkage.—The shrinkage rates of tonka are

unusually low for a wood of its high density.

It compares favorably in this respect with woods

of much lower density. A radial shrinkage of

5.0 percent, tangential shrinkage of 7.6 percent,

and volumetric shrinkage of 12.0 percent are below those of white oak. Tonka's longitudinal

shrinkage of 0.13 percent is also very moderate

{127). Because of the high density of tonka, this

wood undergoes relatively large movement in response to changes in atmospheric conditions and

is thereby relatively unstable in use. However,

it resists water absorption and does not react

quickly to changes in the atmosphere, being in

this respect superior to teak but somewhat inferior to lignumvitae.

Mechanical properties.—Tonka is a very

strong, tough wood. Green wood closely resembles ßemerara greenheart in all mechanical properties, but it is slightly inferior to that species

in all properties except tension across the grain

and side hardness. It is much more dense than

white oak, but it is also much stronger, except in

cleavage and work to maximum load (shock resistance) {127), in which white oak is nearly its

equal.

Air-dry tonka is much stronger than green wood

in nearly all properties except for an appreciable

reduction in cleavage resistance and tensile

strength across the grain. However, in this condition it is clearly superior to white oak in all

properties but cleavage resistance.

Working properties.—Tonka is difficult to

work because of its high density and hardness. It

is hard to saw and bore, but if sawed or bored

clean edges and holes result. When severely interlocked grain is not present, the wood planes and

finishes to a smooth surface {231 ). It glues poorly

{2^0), as do many other woods of very high density, but takes a high polish {82).

Durability.—This species is very resistant to

decay in contact with the ground {132, 82, 231).

Untreated railway ties are reported to last 10 to 22

years in well-drained sites in Belem, Brazil, where

they were considered superior to ties of creosoted

oak {133). The high density of the wood may

provide considerable resistance to damage by termites and marine borers, but no specific information is available on this. When unpainted wood is

exposed to the elements {65), tonka weathers well

as to surface smoothness and freedom from warp

and checking.

Uses.—Tonka is used extensively for cogs and

shafts, heavy construction, turnery, fishing rods,

paving blocks, barge and clock fenders, and flooring. The wood is particularly well adapted for use

in tool handles, agricultural implements, sporting

goods, and other uses utilizing its high bending

strength and good shock resistance qualities. The

somewhat oily nature of the wood and its hardness allow its use for bearings, cogs, shafts, and

other uses in place of lignumvitae, where friction

wear is a problem. It makes excellent wood for

railway crossties and posts, for it is durable and

does not split when exposed to the elements.

This wood should also do exceptionally well as

boat keels and frames, ice sheathing, industrial

flooring, and specialty items requiring a strong

durable wood. Small quantities have been shipped

into the United States for high-grade face veneer

{132).

Supply.—Tonka is available from British and

French Guiana, Surinam, and possibly Trinidad.

WACAPOU

Vouacapoua americana

Nomenclature.—Timber of Vouacapoua americana Aubl. is generally known as wacapou, épi de

bleu, and bois angelin in French Guiana, bruinhart or wakapoe in Surinam, and acapú and sometimes wacapou in Brazil. It is also known in the

trade by the English names of brownheart and

partridgewood and has been exported to Europe

under the name of acapii or Amazon wood.

(Legume family, Leguminosae.)

Distribution and habitat.—Wacapou is common in French Guiana and Surinam. It is a very

important commercial timber tree in its Brazilian

range (7^^), attaining its best development m the

State of Para, Brazil, but apparently does not

extend westward into the State of Amazonas

{190). According to Bertin {23) this species produces the best timber of French Guiana but is of

infrequent occurrence. In Surinam the tree occurs

often in the rain forests and tends to grow in

groups. According to the Surinam Forest Service

{231), large-size trees are becoming somewhat
122 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

scarce in the presently accessible forests of that

country. In general, the trees grow only in the upland rain forests where they occupy the higher

lands close to the rivers.

Two other closely related species are known.

Vouacapoua pallidior Ducke occurs in Brazil,

where it is also called acapú. The other species,

V. macropetala Sandw., known as sara in British

Guiana, is covered separately in this work. The

wood of both species is similar except in color,

that of V. pallidior being dull chestnut brown with

some narrow streaks of dark brown and fine pencilstriping of light-colored vessel lines.

The tree.—The trees are tall, slender, and unbuttressed, with a clear bole 50 to 75 feet long, and

usually not more than 24 inches in diameter but

at times reaching 36 inches.

The wood.—^Wacapou is a hard, heavy dense

wood. The heartwood is dark olive to dark

chocolate and is clearly demarcated from the %-

to ll^-inch-wide, cream-colored sapwood (^48).

Numerous fine lines of parenchyma, which are

initially lighter brown in color but which eventually turn nearly black, make the wood unusually

attractive. Pfeiffer (175) refers to this wood as

one of the finest growing in Surinam. The grain

is straight to slightly roey; texture is uniformly

coarse; the luster is low. No distinctive odor or

taste is present in seasoned wood {14^^ 73).

Weight.—The specific gravity of air-dry wood

based on the weight and volume of wood in that

condition is listed from 0.87 to 1.07 in reports from

Surinam, French Guiana, and Brazil. On the

basis of these reports, wacapou apparently

averages about 0.95 in specific gravity, based on

air-dry volume and weight, and weighs about 59

pounds per cubic foot air-dry and 75 pounds per

cubic foot when green. Surinam wood averaged

0.79 (0.73 to 0.85) in specific gravity based on

ovendry weight and green volume in tests at Yale

University {24S),

Seasoning.—The wood is considered moderately difficult to air-season, which it does at a

moderate rate with slight warping in the form of

cup and twist. Slight end and surface checking

and casehardening are also liable to occur.

Shrinkage.—The dimensional and volumetric

shrinkages exhibited by wacapou are low in comparison to the high density of the wood. Its

shrinkage values from green to ovendry of 4.9

percent radially, 6.9 percent tangentially, and 13.0

percent in volume are less than comparable values

for white oak, and about the same as those for

black locust except in volumetric shrinkage, where

black locust is considerably below wacapou.

Shrinkage from green to air-dry would be about

half the above values. Wacapou is a relatively

stable wood undergoing only moderate changes in

volume in response to atmospheric changes.

Mechanical properties.—Tests of mechanical

properties have been made on wacapou from

Surinam by Yale University (248) and Pfeiffer

(175) and on wood from French Guiana by the

Centre Technique Forestier Tropical in France

{SO),

In the most recent tests at Yale, green wacapou

was found to be equal or superior to other tropical

woods of similar high density in all mechanical

properties except hardness, shear, cleavage resistance, and tension across the grain. It is inferior

to greenheart, which is also considerably heavier,

in all mechanical properties except work to proportional limit and shock resistance.

When air-dry, the wood is about average for its

density in most static-bending and compression

parallel to the grain properties. It is above

average in elastic resilience but below average in

shock resistance, hardness, shear, and cleavage resistance, and particularly low in compression and

tension across the grain. It is also generally inferior to the heavier greenheart when air-dry,

except in elastic resilience and shearing strength

in which both woods are about equal.

Wacapou is much superior to white oak

{Quercus ö:Z&(2)in bending and compression parallel to the grain, shock resistance, and side hardnei>s.

It is surpassed by oak in compression and tension

across the grain, in cleavage resistance, and very

slightly in shearing strength.

Working properties.—The wood is considered,

despite its high density, only moderately difficult

to work and is generally said to have good working

qualities. Smooth surfaces are obtained in sawing and planing, but the coarse grain causes some

rough and torn grain in boring and mortising

{231).

Durability.—^Wacapou is reputed to be highly

resistant to decay and insect attack. It was found

to be very durable upon exposure to both a whiterot and a brown-rot fungus in pure culture tests

{2Jf8). Untreated wacapou ties have remained

sound for 6 to 8 years in poorly drained soil in

Brazil, and for 18 to 20 years in well-drained soils.

In South Africa untreated ties were good for 8

to 9 years in wet locations and 18 years in dry

locations {133),

Heartwood of wacapou is rated by Wolcott

{263) as resistant to the dry-wood termite of the

West Indies. It is comparable in this respect to

West Indies mahogany {Sioietenia mahagoni) and

greatly superior to Honduras mahogany {S,

macrophylla).

According to Edmondson {76)^ wacapou has

little resistance to marine borer attack in

Hawaiian waters. However, two series of tests

at Wrightsville, N.C., showed the wood to have

a high resistance to teredo. In the first test there

was no evidence of attack in 16 months, whereas

greenheart was moderately damaged in the same

period; and greenheart was destroyed in 30

montlis, while wacapou showed only moderate

damage in 33 months. In the second test, only

slight marine borer activity was noted on wacapou

after a year of exposure {68).
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 123

Wacapou is currently rated the fifth most teredoresistant wood of 37 tested at Wrightsville, with

Licania maxirophylla^ Parinari rodolphii. P. campestris^ and Esclnoeilera suhglaridulosa bettering

wacapou in the order listed {68), Silica content

of w^acapou is 0.002 percent and ash content 0.51,

eliminating the possibility that silica content is

an important factor in the wood's teredo resistance {U7).

Uses.—^Wacapou, one of the most highly regarded woods of Brazil, Surinam, and French

Guiana, has been exported only in small quantities

to the United States. It is used in the Guianas

for furniture, cabinetmaking, ñooring, wheelwright's work, beams, general construction, railway crossties, and posts. Horn (132) states that

it is used in the Amazon Valley for flooring,

cabinetwork, interior trim, piling, rising and gunwales of boats, crossties, and general construction.

The timber's natural resistance to marine borer

attack and termite damage and its relatively high

price make it best adapted for all types of marine

and civil construction, as well as for high-class

furniture, interior trim, and parquet flooring and

cabinetwork.

Supply,—^Wacapou is available in limited quantities but can be secured for export from French

Guiana and Surinam in the Caribbean area.

WALLABA

Eperua falcata, Epcrua grandiflora, Eperua jenmanii,

Eperua schomhurgl^iana

Wallaba is one of the most abundant goodquality timbers in the Guianas, where it is used

extensively for many purposes. Despite its high

resin content, which causes some difficulty in

machining, the wood may soon become an established timber on the world market. Wallaba

utility poles and heavy timbers are presently

gaining in popularity on the export market.

Nomenclature.—Species commonly marketed

under the trade name wallaba are Eperua fdlcata

Aubl., E. grandiflora (Aubl.) Benth., E. jenmanii

Oliver, and E. schomburgkiana Benth. Legume

family, Leguminosae. )

Eperua faZcata is commonly known as soft

wallaba, water wallaba, yoboko and ituri wallaba

in British Guiana, generally walaba ituri walaba,

or bijlhout in Surinam, and wapa or ituri wallaba

in French Guiana. The other species are most

commonly known as ituri wallaba in the Guianas.

The timber is called palo machete or uapa tabaco

in Venezuela and aipe or apa in Brazil. Other

common names by countries are as follows : bie-iehoehoe, bili-hoedoe (biri hoedoe), hariraro walaba, pallewie (parrewe), roode walaba, tamoene,

toto amate (waapa), and wouapa in Surinam;

awapa, bois de sabre, eperu, wapa blanc, wapa

gris, and wapa huileaux in French Guiana.

Distribution and habitat.—The species discussed in this report are centered in the Guianas

but extend into Venezuela and the Amazon region

of northern Brazil. The wallabas generally occur

in pure stands or as dominants in the wallaba

type, an edaphic climax on acid, white sandy soils,

and locally are frequent in rain forests. The wallaba type covers large areas of country, mostly

flat plateaus and flat tops of ridges and hills,

sometimes extending for many miles {81), The

wallabas also occur as riparian or swamp trees

in other areas and in the mora forests of the far

interior of British Guiana. They are also found

on one of the driest soils in that country and may

be present in almost any forest type. The white

sandy soils have no agricultural value but are

capable of supporting wallaba stands averaging

600 cubic feet of merchantable trees per acre.

Under good conditions, a wallaba forest can be

reçut 30 years after the initial harvest, indicating

that these otherwise poor sites afford good growing conditions for the wallabas. Caribbean pine

or pitch pine {Pinus carihaea) is presently planted

with some success on the white wallaba sands in

Surinam and British Guiana.

The tree.—The four species marketed as wallaba are very similar in appearance and wood

structure. Fanshawe {81) describes the trees of

Eperua falcata and E. grandifora as follows :

Semideciduous canopy trees reach 32 inches diameter

breast height and 100 feet high, usually 16 to 24 inches

diameter breast height and 80 to 90 feet high, bole 40

to 60 feet, basally swollen or with low buttresses ; stem

form good, cylindrical with little taper; branches erect,

slender ; crown light, rounded or oval.

The trees make rather rapid growth but develop

heart rots at a fairly early age. Many trees are

defective, resulting in an average cull of 15 to 20

percent in merchantable stands. Round logs 16

to 28 inches in diameter and 20 to 25 feet long

are obtainable. Transmission poles are available

up to 60 feet long with butt diameters of 8 to 12

inches after being fashioned.

The wood.—Typical logs have 1 to 2 inches of

dirty white or gray colored, resin-streaked sapwood that is sharply defined from the full red or

reddish-purple heartwood. The surface of the

wood is streaked in concentric rings with gummy

exudations. Concentric zones of denser wood

marked by gummy exudations also occur in the

heartwood at irregular intervals. Growth rings

are distinct, marked by parenchyma. Pores are

distinct to the naked eye, evenly distributed, and

occasionally contain gum. Rays are very distinctive on the radial surface. Intercellular

canals are filled with gum associated with the terminal parenchyma.

The wood has uniformly straight grain and

medium to coarse texture. It is hard, heavy, stiff,

and strong but not difficult to cut. The wood is

not lustrous, but quartersawed lumber shows a

pleasing fleck as a result of resinous deposits {27).
124 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

It is tasteless and is either odorless or has a slight

odor described as rancid, sour, or like creosote by

different observers {llt^S),

Weight.—The four species in this group are considered to have very similar density. However,

detailed information is available only for Eperua

falcata. Specific gravity, based on green volume

and ovendry weight, is reported at 0.78 for this

species. Air-dry wood averages 0.93 in specific

gravity and weighs 58 pounds per cubic foot.

Green wood weighs 76 pounds per cubic foot

Seasoning.—^Wallaba dries slowly with a

marked tendency to warp and split. An initial

period of air-seasoning prior to kiln-drying is required to avoid heavy degrade. Otherwise severe

distortion, checking, and honeycombing will occur. Kiln Schedule 3 of the Forest Products Kesearch Laboratory in England has been used successfully (222).

Shrinkage.—The following tabulation lists

shrinkage values determined by three independent tests. It illustrates that wallaba, although

heavier than white oak, shrinks much less in radial, tangential, and volumetric proportions.

Shrinkage {green to ovendry)

Tangen- Longi- VoluRadial Hal tudinal metric

Species and source {percent) {percent) {percent) {percent)

Wallaba {Eperua

falcata) :

French Guiana

{50) 9.10

British Guiana

{175) 3.0 6.0 0.17 .35

French Guiana

{149) 4.3 7.8 11.70

Average

White oak {Quercus

alba), United

States {160)

3.6

5.3

6.9

9.0

. 17 10.0

15.8

Mechanical properties.—The wood's hardness,

bending strength, and stiffness under gradually

applied loads and its compressive strength along

the grain are in proportion to its density. However, its resistance to shock loads and splitting

are somewhat below the average for tropical hardwoods of similar density. According to tests in

the United States (7^9) and in England (75,

IOS), wallaba in comparison to white oak in the

green state is 40 ¡percent heavier, 40 percent

harder, and 75 percent stronger and stiffer in bending under gradually applied loads. Air-dried

wallaba is clearly superior to white oak in all

properties except tension perpendicular to the

grain and shear. It is superior to pitch pine from

Honduras in all properties except impact bending

and toughness but is considerably below that wood

in toughness and slightly lower in impact bending.

Working properties.—Wallaba is hard but

works easily with machine and hand tools except

that gum collects on the cutting edges of the tools.

During conversion of logs the saw teeth are also

often clogged with gum. This has been satisfactorily overcome by using saws with 3i/^-inch pitch

and generous gullet space, or by applying a mixture of kerosene and water or a steady stream of

water to the blade during sawing. Eadial splits

and cup shakes may also occasionally occur during conversion.

k recent study of wallaba at the Forest Products Research Laboratory in England (77) illusstrated one system by which the timber can be

successfully worked to control the detrimental effects of the resinous exudations. Logs from

British Guiana were converted into lumber using

a saw with 3i/^-inch pitch and large gullet space,

plus the application of kerosene and water. After

an initial period of air-drying, the lumber was

kiln-dried. It was next planed on a Woods 501-

B four-cutter planer using high-speed steel cutters

with cutter angle of 25 degrees backed to 15 degrees. A feed speed of 75 feet per minute was

used. Machine finish was good without grain

pickup, and little gum was left on the cutters,

which stood up well to the run.

Immediately after planing the w^ood was treated

with filler and wax polish. This finish essentially

stopped all further exudation of resin and gave

the author reason to conclude that the high gum

content has little, if any, detrimental effect on the

appearance of the wood after polishing. No difficulty was experienced in crosscutting or end

grooving the wood, which gave a good clean and

accurate finish. Abrasion tests showed the wood

to be equal to hard maple, Rhodesian teak, and

East African olive.

The wood polishes reasonably well after filling,

stains readily with both oil and spirit stains, and

turns well. It usually splits straight and clean but

does not take nails satisfactorily.

Durability.—The heartwood of wallaba is generally considered resistant to insects and very

resistant to decay. The saçwood is not durable

and is heavily attacked by pinhole borers and termites soon after logging. The General Post Office

in British Guiana reports the average life of untreated transmission poles to be 20 years; some

poles are sound after 30 years. In British Guiana

untreated heartwood stakes of Eperua falcata, 1

by 4 inches by 2 feet driven 8 inches in the ground,

were highly resistant to decay, lasting 8 to 9 years

in the ground. Wolcott {2ßS) rates wallaba as

resistant to the dry-wood termites of the West

Indies, comparing wallaba with Honduras mahogany in this respect. Edmondsön (76) found E.

falcata to have low resistance to marine borers in

Hawaiian waters.

Uses.—^Wallaba is exceptionally well suited for

use as transmission poles, flagpoles, and posts. Its

good strength and durability qualify the timber

for railway ties, shoring, bridge timbers, and mine

timbers. In building construction it is used for

foundations, sills, joists, framing, roofing, siding,
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 125

and veranda posts. It is also used in British

Guiana for vat staves, shingles, and paling. The

high resin content of the wood makes it an excellent flooring material in chemical factories, mills,

and warehouses, and it is currently exported to

Martinique as sawed beams. The wood has a

relatively high caloric value as fuelwood or charcoal, ovendry heartwood having a caloric value

of 9,260 B.t.u. and sapwood 8,980 B.t.u. as compared to 12,000 B.t.u. for coal. Charcoal made

from Eperua falcata has a caloric value of 13,200

to 13,800 B.t.u. (7,300 calories) per pound {lU),

Rather extensive tests on the pulping characteristics of wallaba at the Imperial Institute in

London proved with certain reservations the practicability of making paper from this wood. Wallaba {Epema falcata) when treated by the soda

process gave a good yield of pulp, which was of

good quality but not easily bleached. It furnished

paper of satisfactory strength and character,

suitable for book or writing paper but not kraft

paper for it lacked strength for this class of paper

and the beating costs would be unusvially high.

The wood is not considered suitable for the sulphite process because of its high resin content

{83,115),

Samples of hardboard of good quality have been

made from semichemical pulps in conjunction with

the extraction of resin. A process patented by

Fleck and Schüler [26Jt) in England isolates

wallaba resin, which is reacted with aldehydes

in situ to form thermoplastic or thermosetting

resins, giving a cheap molding powder. This

promises the development of a wet-forming or dryforming process for making fiberboard from

wallaba.

In 1951 wallaba was second to greenheart in

exports from British Guiana. Wallaba transmission poles are being shipped in increasing

numbers to the West Indies islands and the United

Kingdom, and limited quantities are exported to

the United States.

Supply.—^AVallaba is one of the more common

and accessible woods in the Guianas. Large areas

of merchantable timber are located along navigable rivers and near docking and other shipping

facilities. Most information on available supplies

comes from British Guiana, where the volume of

merchantable timber in the accessible forests is

estimated at 17,000,000 tons or 850,000,000 cubic

feet.

In one 214,500-acre tract in British Guiana,

wallaba averages more than 1,800 board feet per

acre over an area of 10,345 acres. It is predominant on 81,500 acres of the total, averaging more

than 3,400 board feet per acre in sound trees 16

inches and over. Many stands contain 500 to 600

cubic feet of wallaba per acre in merchantable

trees. The wallaba forest type when cut for firewood down to 4 inches in dimeter averages from

a low of 1,000 to a high of 3,600 cubic feet per

acre {121),

WAMARA

Swartzia leiocalycina, Swartzia henthamiana

Nomenclature.—The genus Sioartzia contains

more than 90 species of shrubs and trees native

mostly to tropical America but also found in

tropical Africa. The timber of two very similar

species, SwartBia leiocalycina Benth. and S.

henthamiana Miq., of British Guiana and French

Guiana is marketed under the trade names of

wamara in British Guiana and montouchi in

French Guiana. The wood of S. henthamiana is

also known locally in British Guiana as itikiboroballi. Other species of Sioartzia are described

under Parakusan. (Legume family, Leguminosae.)

Distribution and habitat.—Both species grow

in British Guiana but only Sioartzia henthamiana

is reported in commercial quantities in French

Guiana, although the other may also grow there

in limited quantities. Both species may also occur

elsewhere in the American tropics.

Sioartzia henthamiana is found as an occasional

tree in the wallaba and rain forest of British

Guiana and is of general distribution in the near

interior. S. leiocalycina grows throughout the

country except in the northwest district. It occurs

as a frequent to dominant species in the seasonal

forest and as an occasional to frequent tree in the

rain forest.

The tree.—Both species providing wamara

timber are small-crowned canopy trees usually

with low buttresses. Mature trees are generally

16 to 20 inches, sometimes up to 28 inches, in

diameter and 90 to 110 feet high. Boles are clear

of branches for 50 to 70 feet above the low buttresses and may often be flat or somewhat flanged

in shape. In general, Sioartzia leiocalycina is

slightly larger than S. henthamiana-.

The wood.—The sapwood of wamara, according to Ducke {73), is very wide and only the largest trees contain heartwood. Nearly white in

color, it is reputed to be one of the most beautiful

woods of the Amazon Valley. The heartwood

varies from a chocolate brown to a pale reddish

purple or purplish brown, occasionally marked by

dark olive or purplish-brown colored stripes. The

texture is very fine and the grain is generally

straight but may be variable. It is extremely

heavy, hard, compact, and resilient, and usually

has good luster. The pores are small but are made

readily visible by the soft pale-colored parenchyma tissue surrounding them. Very fine ripple

marks are visible but not conspicuous on surfaced

slash-sawed boards. Odor or taste is not distuictive in dry wood {82,190,10).

Weight.—Wamara is a very dense, heavy wood.

Sioartzia leiocalycina is reported to have an airdry specific gravity of 1.06, based on volume and

weight in that condition, and to weigh 66 pounds

per cubic foot {16). Green wood weighs 75

pounds per cubic foot. S. henthamiana is some596544 0-62—9
126 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

what lighter, with a specific gravity of 0.80 to 0.96,

averaging 0.88, based on air-dry volume and

weight. It weighs 50 to 60 pounds per cubic foot

{82,10).

Seasoning.—Information on seasoning is lacking for tliis wood except for Horn's reference

{132) that Sioartzia tomentosa DC. of Brazil

(probably the same as S. ientliamiana) checks

considerably in drying. Bannia, S. bannia

Sandw., a somewhat heavier species of British

Guiana and Surinam is also moderately difficult to

air-dry {250). It is reasonable to assume that

wamara has similar seasoning characteristics.

Shrinkage.—Information on directional shrinkage is lacking for this timber. The French Tropical Forest Technical Center reports shrinkage of

Stoartzia henthamiana in volume from green to

ovendry (expressed as a percent of the green

volume) amounts to 13.3 percent {50). This is a

moderately high value, about double the shrinkage

that would occur from green to air-dry. Volumetric shrinkage of West Indies mahogany {Swietenia mahagoni) was determined in two different

tests by the same Center to be 7.8 and 9.0 from

green to ovendry. Shrinkage is equal to that for

white ash and below that for white oak.

Pfeiffer {176) found Sioartzia spp. from Surinam to have a high movement value in response

to changes in atmospheric conditions. Material

tested increased in volume between ovendry and

equilibrium with relative humidities of 40, 70, and

100 percent by 8.4, 11.3, and 20.2 percent, respectively, based on the original ovendry volume.

This is considerably above the average for most

woods tested but can be partially attributed to the

high density (1.25) of the wood used in the tests.

The extreme density of the wood used by Pfeiffer

suggests bannia {S. bannia) was tested.

Mechanical properties.—Mechanical tests of

Swartzia benthamiana by the French Tropical

Forest Center {50) indicate wamara possesses very

high strength properties. Compared to woods of

similar density, it is above average in stiffness and

maximum bending stresses but somewhat below

in resistance to splitting. As compared to kopie

{Goupia glabra) and purple heart {Peltogyne

venosa), it is intermediate in hardness on the

radial surface and resistance to impact bending.

It is superior to these species in maximum bending stress parallel to the grain and stiffness, but

inferior to both species in resistance to splitting.

However, its overall strength properties are very

high, fitting it for most uses where good strength

is needed.

Working properties.—Wamara is variously reported as very difficult to moderately difficult to

work with either hand or machine tools, for it is

a hard, higli-density wood. But there is general

agreement that the wood finishes smoothly, turns

very satisfactorily (as do many other very dense

woods), and polishes well. It takes nails badly

and needs preboring for the use of nails or screws

{10,132,1^2).

Durability.—The heartwood is generally reported to be very resistant to decay. For example,

in graveyard tests in British Guiana {50), the

heartwood of Swartzia leiocalycina lasted an average of 8 to 9 years in both wet and dry locations.

The sapwood, which makes up the bulk of the

lumber produced, is not durable. The wood is

rated resistant to damage by the dry-wood termite but less resistantthan West Indies mahogany

and slightly more resistant than Honduras mahogany {263). S. leiocalycina was found to have

little resistance to marine-borer damage in Hawaiian waters {76). The silica content of the

wood is reported as only 0.01 percent of the ovendry weight {lit)'

Uses.—Wamara heartwood is one of the most

attractive woods on the export market. The dark

heartwood is used for inlay, walking sticks, bagpipes, parquet flooring, and bows, and is recommended as a substitute for ebony for it polishes

to a high luster. The whitish sapwood is used in

some localities for implement frames and spokes

of wheels; the heartwood for posts, articles of

turnery, furniture, cabinetwork, and heavy and

durable construction. The sapwood has been recommended as a substitute for hickory {Garya)

for those purposes requiring very strong, tough,

and resilient material {193).

The wood is used for structural timber, scantlings, and so forth in the government housing

program in British Guiana. It should be well

fitted for many other uses requiring a heavy, hard

wood having high bending and compression

strength, abrasion resistance, and durability.

Supply.—British Guiana and French Guiana

have exportable quantities of wamara.

YEMERI

Vochysia hondurensis

Nomenclature.—Yemeri is the preferred trade

name in British Honduras for timber of Vochysia

hondurensis Sprague, a species of southern Mexico

and Central America. The timber is known also

as emeri, emory, and yemoke in British Honduras

and San Juan in Honduras, and as palo de chancho

in Costa Rica. South American species of Vochysia are treated under the trade name kwarie.

(Vochysia family, Vochysiaceae.)

Distribution and habitat.—Vochysia hondurensis is one of the few species of the genus occurring outside of South America. It is distributed in the tropical zone from southern

Mexico and British Honduras to Costa Rica(^/5,

^65, 150). V. guatemalensis Donn. Smith occurs

at higher elevations in the subtropical zone in

southern Mexico, Guatemala, and Honduras.

Yemeri is found throughout British Honduras

both on silt soils along river banks and on sandy
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 127

soils. It attains its best development on the coastal

plain where it grows in almost pure stands. It

occurs extensively in the "buamil," or second

growth, on abandoned farmlands on soils of the

poorer type but will not grow on very swampy

land and is rare on limestone and marl sites (^^¿).

In Honduras, it occurs in the intermediate forest

on medium- to well-drained clayey soil {223).

The tree.—Yemeri trees are medium to large

unbuttressed, canopy trees. Diameters of 2 to 3

feet and heights of 90 to 130 feet are common,

and trees are reported to occasionally grow to

6 feet in diameter and 190 feet high. The boles are

straight, clear, cylindrical, and usually 50 to 60

feet long. The outer bark is smooth, gray, and

rather papery in texture {127),

The wood.—Yemeri is similar in some respects

to Spanish cedar {Cedrela)., especially in color.

Freshly cut heartwood varies from a light brown

to pinkish yellow turning a dull uniform pink or

pinkish brown when dry, sometimes with a distinct golden cast. The heartwood is distinct but

not always sharply demarcated from the whitish

31/2" to 51^2-inch-wide band of gray or buff

sapwood.

Vertical traumatic gum ducts, filled with

orange-brown gum, may occur sporadically and

are sometmies large enough to be considered an

objectionable defect. The luster is medium to

high. It is a typically straight-grained wood,

but interlocked grain may occur in layers 1 to 2

inches thick. These layers of interlocked grain

produce an unpretentious stripe figure on quartersawed surfaces. Texture of the wood is coarse to

medium and of a rather fibrous nature. No distinctive odor or taste is present in seasoned wood

{21^1,150,103,217).

Weight.—The wood is reported to vary somewhat in density, apparently from local growing

conditions. The specific gravity averages about

0.37 (0.29 to 0.45) based on ovendry weight and

green volume. The specific gravity of air-dry

wood based on weight and volume in that condition ranges from around 0.42 to 0.47. Air-dry

wood weighs about 26 to 29 pounds per cubic

foot and green wood about 67 pounds per cubic

foot {127,103, 50).

Seasoning.—Yemeri is moderately difficult to

air-season and kiln-dry. It air-seasons at a rapid

rate with moderate twist and slight checking,

crook, bow, and cup. Collapse is also liable to

occur in stock I14 inches or more in thickness

{2Jt9). The wood can be kiln-seasoned fairly

rapidly with very little tendency to check or split

but with a marked tendency to distort, particularly

in the form of twist and cup. Some collapse may

occur in thicker stock. Keconditioning kilndistorted stock is only partially effective. In order

to minimize warping, a sticker spacing of not

more than 18 inches is recommended with all

stickers in vertical alinement and the top of the

pile weighted doAvn {llfS). Forest Products Research Laboratory Kiln Schedule 1 {222) and U.S.

Forest Products Kiln Schedule TD-42 {238) are

recommended, the latter for 4/4 stock.

Shrinkage.—Reported shrinkage values for

yemeri do not always agree. Hess {127) reports

shrinkage from green to ovendry at 2.0 percent

radially, 9.0 percent tangentially, and 9.8 percent

in volume. This compares well with a radial

shrinkage of 2.8 percent and tangential shrinkage

of 6.5 percent reported by U.S. Forest Products

Laboratory {68).

The Forest Products Research Laboratory in

England {222) reports the radial and tangential

shrinkage at 2.0 and 6.0 percent, respectively, from

green to air-dry (12 percent moisture content),

which is usually about half the shrinkage from

green to ovendry. This amounts to about y^ inch

per foot in the radial direction and % inch per

foot in the tangential direction.

British Honduras {150) reports shrinkage

values of i/g inch and %6 inch per foot in the radial

and tangential directions, respectively, from green

to air-dry (14 percent moisture content). This

would amount to about 1.0 percent in the radial

plane and about 4.7 percent in the tangential plane.

All these values indicate a moderate rate of

shrinkage but show a high ratio of tangential to

radial shrinkage, possibly the principal cause for

the distortion that occurs during seasoning. The

low radial shrinkage indicates the advantages of

using quartersawed stock where stability is

desirable.

Mechanical properties.—The average strength

properties of yemeri in both the green and air-dry

condition are equal to and, in several properties,

greater than those of most woods of similar low

density.

Green yemeri is considerably harder than most

woods of similar weight and is somewhat superior

in stiffness and toughness. It is quite similar to

yellow-poplar {Liriodendron tulipifera) m most

properties and decidely superior in hardness.

In general, it is inferior to white oak, which is

also of much higher density.

Upon seasoning, yemeri increases in most properties, retaining its close similarity to yellowpoplar and Scotch pine {Pinus sylvestris) in most

strength properties, but is 40 to 50 percent harder

than either species and 40 percent superior to

Scotch pine in resistance to splitting {150, 127,

103). . . Working properties.—Although it is easily

worked by either hand or machine tools, yemeri

has relatively poor machining qualities. The

timber is fibrous, coarse in texture, hard, and

fairly tough. It resembles a coarse grade of mahogany in machining properties but, unlike

mahogany, has a tendency to blunt cutting edges.

Sawing along the grain is done without diíRculty,

but wooly surfaces are common on end gram m

crosscutting. A fairly wide tooth-pitch is necessary for best results. Raised grain is a common
128 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 2 07

defect in planing, molding^ and similar operations

as well as rough end gram. Sharp cutters will

considerably alleviate the problem of raised grain,

and sanding will provide a satisfactory finish on

the roughened end grain.

The wood is not suited for turnery because of

its open texture; the finish is rough, and poor

detail results from tlie tendency for feather edges

to break off {241). The open texture also necessitates a considerable amount of filling before

polishing. Yemeri takes glue, paint, and nails

well and polishes to a good finish, although wood

with water stains should not be used as they cause

considerable grain raising. It is fair wood for

steam bending.

The U.S. Forest Products Laboratory found

yemeri to be considerably below the average for

15 tropical American species tested in planing,

boring, and turning, and slightly below the average in shaping, sanding, and mortising. However, it was found to be a better wood to shape,

sand, and mortise than the average of 25 hardwoods of the United States (^<^).

Durability.—The different species of Vochysia

are known to vary in their resistance to decay,

and yemeri is no exception. The heartwood is

rated durable to very durable to a white-rot fungus

and moderately durable to nondurable to a brownrot fungus. Two classes of timber are recognized

after felling in British Honduras: "white" and

"red." The "white" yemeri is considered to be

nondurable and the "red" yemeri to be slightly

less durable than santa-maria (moderate durability).

Six- by 7I/2- or 8-inch yemeri railway ties with

5 to 6 inches of heartwood were reported to last

31/^ to 4 years in the hinterland of British Honduras without treatment, and 4 to 5 years when

given a brush application of preservative. In

the less humid coastal area, they lasted 41/^ to 5

years untreated and 5 to 6 years when treated {86).

Graveyard tests in England found yemeri from

British Honduras to be variable in decay resistance; heartwood lasted 3.9, 11.0, and 12.0 years

on three different sites {206).

Specific tests have not been conducted with

yemeri, but other species of Vochysia are reported by Wolcott {263) to vary from resistant

to susceptible to attack by the dry-wood termite

of the West Indies and according to Edmondson

{76) have little resistance to marine-borer attack

in Hawaiian waters. Unpainted yemeri weathers

well, showing only moderate surface roughness

and slight surface checking upon exposure (^4^,

22JÍ).

Preservation.—Both the heartwood and sapwood are readily impregnated with preservatives ;

the vessels and not the fibers take up most of the

preservative {150).

Uses.—Yemeri is used for general carpentry,

exterior siding, interior construction, and dugout

canoes. It is occasionally used for house siding

in British Honduras and is reported to be superior

to imported second-growth pine from the United

States for this purpose. It is considered promising for use in boxes and crates, inexpensive furniture, and for numerous articles requiring a painted

finish. Because it resembles Spanish cedar {Cedrela spp.), yemeri may be suitable for general

utility plywood, core stock, and ix)ssibly highgrade face panels in furniture. However, the successful use of this timber will depend largely on

the care given in conversion and seasoning.

Supply.—Yemeri is available in quantity from

British Honduras.

YOKEWOOD

Catalpa longissima

Nomenclature.—Yokewood is one of the important timbers of Jamaica and Haiti. The tree

and timber of Catalpa longissimu (Jacq.) Sims

are known also as French oak, mast wood, Jamaica

oak, Haitian oak, chêne Haitien, bois chêne,

radegonide, chêne d' Amérique, chêne noir, and

pois doux marron. A synonym is Macrocatalpa

Longissima (Jacq.) Britton. (Trumpet-creeper

family, Bignoniaceae.)

The three small-leaved evergreen species of

Catalpa in the West Indies are placed by some

authors in the segregate genus Macrocatalpa.

Two other species, C. speciosa Warder and G.

hignonioides Walt., are native in southeastern

United States and are grown as ornamentals.

The first was widely cultivated in plantations at

one time.

Distribution and habitat.—Yokewood is common in Jamaica and Haiti and occurs also in

Dominican Republic and Cuba. It has been introduced also in Guadeloupe and Grenada of the

Lesser Antilles. In Jamaica the tree grows in the

dry coastal plains of the south and southeast sides

of the island and along sandy river banks but is

rarely found above 1,000 feet in elevation. Yokewood has also been planted with considerable

success in Jamaica on rocky and degraded sites at

low elevations (below 1,500 feet) in arid areas recei^àng less than 40 inches of rainfall. The tree

reproduces exceptionally well on the gravelly

detrital flood fans along the St. Thomas Eiver.

This natural regeneration is used to reforest other

areas and has a high degree of tolerance to unfavorable site conditions. Planted trees tend to

be bushy when young, but later a dominant leader

takes over, developing into long straight stems at

maturity {JfS, 229).

The tree.—Yokewood is a large tree growing to

80 feet in height and 3 feet in diameter.

The wood.—The heartwood is grayish to light

brown in color in contrast to the distinctly lighter
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 129

sapwood. The texture is medium to coarse, tlie

luster fairly high, and the grain generally

straight. Seasoned wood has an odor suggesting

kerosene but no distinctive taste {'2^9, 190).

Weight,—The weight of air-dry wood is given

at 37 to 50 pounds per cubic foot by Stehle {218)

and at 70 pounds (probably green wood) by

Swabey {229). The specific gravity of air-dry

wood will average from 0.60 to 0.80 on the basis of

the weight given by Stehle.

Seasoning.—No data are available.

Shrinkage.—No data are avaihible.

Mechanical properties.—Detailed tests of

strength properties liave not been made on yokewood. It is reported by Stehle {218) to be

medium hard, tightly knit, and elastic.

Working properties.—No other information is

available on the Avorking qualities of yokewood

other than it saws easily {229).

Durability.—The Forest Department of Jamaica reports that the timber is considered durable in contact with the weather but does not inchide the timber in the list of Avoods durable in

contact with the ground {229). Other sources

report tlie wood as durable or very durable (50,

218). Wolcott {202) rates yokewood only moderately resistant to the dry-wood termite of the

AVest Indies.

Uses.—Yokewood is one of the most useful native timbers in Jamaica for boatbuilding and in

general construction for sills, shingles, framing,

boarding, and flooring. It is also made into the

bodies of carts and wagons. In Haiti the timber

is used principally for furniture and house construction.

Supply.—The supply is presently limited in Jamaica and Haiti with only small volumes available for export.
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(56) Chowdhury, K., Ahmad.

1940. The formation of growth rings in Indian

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(57) Chudnoff, Martin, and Wangaard, Frederick F.

1950. The steam-bending characteristics of certain

tropical American woods, l^ale Univ.

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[Processed.]

(58) Clapp, William F.

1949^-55. Tropical wood marine borer tests, Harbor

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[Processed.]

(59) and Kenk, Roman.

1956. Marine borers, a preliminary bibliography.

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(60) Clark, H. S.

1931. Use of amaranth for interior trim and flooring. Tropical Woods 25: 1-3.

(61) Comber, Henry E.

1952. Pulping studies with colonial tropical hardwoods as papermaking materials. Chapter

4. Symposium [on] tropical woods and

agricultural residues as sources of pulp,

Appleton, Wis., 1951. FAO Forestry and

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(62) Cooper, Proctor.

1928. The forests of western Panama. Tropical

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(63) Corothie, Harry.

1948. Maderas de Venezuela. 320 pp. Caracas.

(64) Cummings, Lewis A.

1929. The forests of Venezuela. Tropical Woods

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(65) Curran, Hugh M.

1929. The lands of Loba, Colombia. Tropical

Woods 19: 11-38.

(66) Daniel, Hermano.

1947. Notes on the flora of Colombia. Caribbean

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(67) Danks, F. S., and Hughes, J. H.

1945. Notes on British Guiana timbers. U.S. Off.

Tech. Serv. Pub. Bd. Rpt. 68042: 1-28.

(68) Davis, B. M.

1949. Exploratory tests on machining and related

properties of fifteen tropical American

hardwoods. U.S. Forest Serv. Forest

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[Processed.]

(69) Demougeot, M.

1934. Les bois de la Guyane Française. Le manil

et parcouril. Revue Intematl. du Bois

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(70) Dickinson, Fred E.

1950. The seasoning properties of determa {Ocotea

rulra Mez). Yale Univ. School Forestry

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(71) Dickinson, Fred E., Hess, Robert W., and Wangaard, Frederick F.

1949. Properties and uses of tropical woods. I.

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(72) Ducke, Adolpho.

1940. Revision of the species of the genus Coumarouna Aubl. or Dipteryx Schreb. Tropical

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1943. The most important woods of the Amazon

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COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 133

(74) Dugand, A.G.

1932. Colombian "masábalo" wood {Carapa guianensis). Tropical Woods 31: 48.

(75) Durland, William D.

1927. The pine forest of Honduras. Tropical

Woods 10: 8-9.

(76) Edmondson, Charles Howard.

1949. Reaction of woods from South America

and Caribbean areas to marine borers in

Hawaiian waters. Caribbean Forester 10

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(77) EUerton, J. R.

1952. Tests on behavior of British Guiana wallaba.

Timber News and Mach. Woodworking 60

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(78) Espina, Ramon, and Giacometto, Juan.

1932. Trees of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Maria.

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(79) Fahnestock, G. R., and Garratt, George A.

1938. Nicaraguan pine {Pinus carihaea Mor.).

Tropical Woods 55: 1-16.

(80) Fanshawe, D. B.

1947. Studies of the trees of British Guiana. I.

Crabwood {Carapa guianensis). Tropical Woods 90: 30-40.

(81)

1948. Studies of the trees of British Guiana. III.

Wallaba {Eperua spi^.). Tropical Woods

93: 1-11.

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1954. Forest products of British Guiana. Part I.

Principal timbers. Ed. 2. Brit. Guiana

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(83) Farmer, R. H., and Campbell, W. G.

1952. Chemical utilization of tropical hardwoods.

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(84) Findlay, W. P. K.

1938. The natural resistance to decay of some

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(85) Fors, Alberto J.

1937. Las maderas Cubanas. Sec. Agr. y Trab.

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1926. Native woods used for railway crossties in

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(87) [French] Association Colonies—Sciences et Comité

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1929. Nos bois coloniaux (Guyane). Angélique

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1930. Nos bois coloniaux (Guyane). Manil {Symphonia glohulifera L.) et pacouri {Piatonia inßignis Mart. ). 4 pp. Paris.

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1926. "Amapa" for interior trim and flooring.

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1936. The wood of Symphonia gloMiUfera. Tropical Woods 45 :1-15.

(91) Gerry, Eloise.

1950. Angélique or basra locus {Dicorynia paraensis). U.S. Forest Serv. Forest Prod. Lab.

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1951. Hura wood or possumwood {Hura crepitans), U.S. Forest Serv. Forest Prod.

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1951. Yoloxochitl (heartflower), Talauma spp.

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1953. Campano, saman, the rain tree or monkey

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1954. Manbarklak {Eschiveilera longipes). U.S.

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11 pp. [Processed.]

1955. Banak {Virola spp.).

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[Processed.]

U.S. Forest Serv.

Rpt. 2018, 6 pp.

1955. Maria or santa maria {Calophyllum spp.).

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Gilly, Charles Louis.

1944. Virola guatemalensis (Hemsl.) Warb, in

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[Gt. Brit.] Department of Scientific and Industrial

Research.

1937. Properties of British Honduras pitch pine

(slash pine) Pinus caril)aea Mor. Forest

Prod. Res. Lab. Proj. 24, Invest. 8, Rec.

20, 9 pp.

1937. Properties of santa maria {Calophyllum

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British Honduras. Forest Prod. Res.

Lab. Proj. 24, Invest. 8, 2 pp.

1943. Notes on jacareuba {Calophyllum brasiliense) and cedro {Cedrela sp.). Forest

Prod. Res. Lab. Leaflet 27, 2 pp.

1943. Notes on freijo {Cordia goeldiana) and

quaruba {Vochysia spp.) Forest Prod.

Res. Lab. Leaflet 29, 2 pp.

1943. Notes on peroba rosa {Aspidosperma polyneuron) and mandioqueira {Qualea

spp.)- Forest Prod. Res. Lab. Leaflet

32, 2 pp.

1945. A handbook of Empire timbers. Rev. ed.

Forest Prod. Res. Lab., 142 pp.

1951. Maho {Sterculia pruriens). Forest Prod.

Res. Lab. Leaflet, 2 pp. (Not numbered.)

1951. Baromalli {Catostemma spp.). Forest

Prod. Res. Lab. Leaflet, 2 pp. (Not

numbered. )

1954. The movement of timbers. Forest Prod.

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1954. Hardwoods for industrial flooring. Forest

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1955. A handbook of hardwoods. Forest Prod. ^^

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1923. British Honduras timbers. Part I. I5ui.

21: 570-572. London.

1924. British Honduras timbers. Part II. Bui.

22: 1-14. London.
134 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

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1928. British Guiana woods for paper making.

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1930. Charcnal from British Guiana. Bui. 28:

138-146. London.

1931. Recent investigations of paper-making materials. Pt. I. Wallaba wood {Eperua

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411-418. London.

1932. Trinidad woods as paper-making material.

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1937. The tonka bean. Bui. 35 : 363-364. London.

[Gt. Brit.] Timber Development Association, Ltd.

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1932. Santa maria. A neotropical timber of the

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1928. The forests of British Guiana. Tropical

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Hamer, W. H.

1925. Report of tests on native and other timbers.

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Harrar, Elwood S.

1941^2. Some physical properties of modern

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III. Directional and volume shrinkage. Tropical Woods 71: 26-32.

Harris, P.

1946. A handbook of wood cutting. [Gt. Brit.]

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Heck, George E.

1937. Average strength and related properties of

five foreign woods tested at the Forest

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[Processed.]

Hess, Robert W., and Record, Mary E.

1950. Foreign wood imports. Tropical Woods

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Wangaard, Frederick F., and Dickinson,

Fred E.

1950. Properties and uses of tropical woods. II.

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Hohenkirk, L. S.

1917. A list of British Guiana woods. Timehri

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Holdridge, L. R.

1940. Calophyllum antillanum, a desirable tree

for diflScult planting sites. Caribbean

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1942. Trees of Puerto Rico. V. 1. U.S. Dept.

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Sta. Occas. Paper 1, 105 pp., illus. ; 2,

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1950. Los bosques de Guatemala. Guatemala

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Turrialba, Costa Rica.

Horn, Eugene F,

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1948. Durability of Brasilian crossties.

Woods 93: 30-35.

Tropical

1948. Teredo resistant timbers of the Amazon

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Howard, Alexander L.

1951. A manual of the timbers of the world. Ed.

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Hughes, J- Henry.

1947. Handbook of natural resources of British

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Guiana, 190 pp. Georgetown.

Ijfe, J. W.

1955. Experiments on the production of paper

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Royal Trop. Inst. Rpt. 41, 43 pp.

Amsterdam.

Jay, Alwyn, and Woods, R. P.

1948. New timbers and their uses. Timber

Devlpmt. Assoc. Rev. 2, 8 pp. London.

Johansen, H. A.

1925. A handbook of the principal trees and

shrubs of the Ancon and Balboa Districts,

Panama, Canal Zone. 97 pp., illus.

Knight, R. A. G., and Armstrong, F. H.

1938. Kiln-seasoning treatments of teak and their

effects on its wearing qualities as flooring. [Gt. Brit.] Dept. Sei. and Indus.

Res., Forest Prod. Res. Lab. Rec. 23, 14

pp., illus. London.

Koehler, Arthur.

1928. Tests on six Argentine woods. Tropical

Woods 14: 15-20.

Kribs, David A.

1928. The Persaud collection of British Guiana

woods. Tropical Woods 13 : 7-46.

1950. Commercial foreign woods on the American

market. 157 pp., illus. State College,

Pa.

Kryn, Jeanette N.

1953. Courbaril, guapinol, "locust" {Hymenaea

courtaril and Hymenaea davisii). U.S.

Forest Serv. Forest Prod. Lab. Rpt.

R1942, 12 pp. [Processed.]

1953. Spanish cedar, cedro {Cedrela spp.). U.S.

Forest Serv. Forest Prod. Lab. Rpt.

R1948, 12 pp. [Processed.]

1953. Simarouba, paradise-tree, marupa {Sim^-

rouha spp.). U.S. Forest Serv. Forest

Prod. Lab. Rpt. 1956, 10 pp. [Processed.]

1954. Roble blanco, amapa, mayflower ( Taleluia

pentaphylla). U.S. Forest Serv. Forest

Prod. Lab. Rpt. 1980, 10 pp. [Processed.]

1956. Yemeri {Vochysia hondurensis Sprague).

U.S. Forest Serv. Forest Prod. Lab. Rpt.

R1946 (Rev.), 8 pp. [Processed.]

Kynoch, William, and Norton, Newell A.

1938. Mechanical properties of certain tropical

woods, chiefly from South America.

Mich. Univ. School Forestry and Conserv. Bui. 7, 87 pp.

Lamb, A. F. A.

1946. Notes on forty-two secondary timbers of

British Honduras. Brit. Honduras Forestry Dept. Bui. 1, 116 pp., illus. Belize.

Lamb, George N.

1955. Sapupira (Diplotropis purpurea). Wood

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COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 135

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1954. Kurokai (Protium decandrum). Wood and

Wood Prod. 59 (8) : 46.

Lang, W. G.

1954. Forest utilization in Saint Lucia, British

West Indies. Caribbean Forester 15:

120-123.

1955. Forestry and timber trees of St. Lucia.

U. K. Forestry Comm., 21 pp. St. Lucia,

B.W.I.

Le Cointe, Paul.

1947. Amazonia brasileira III. Arvores e plantas

uteis (indigenas acclimados). Ed. 2.

Companhia Editora Nacional. 486 pp.,

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Limbach, John P., and Paul, Benson H.

1945. Variation in the specific gravity of balsa

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Tropical Woods 84: 1&-23.

Linke, Lilo.

1955. Treasures from the jungle. A fortune waits

in Ecuadorian forests. Americas 7 (8) :

15-18.

Little, Elbert L., Jr.

1953. Check list of native and naturalized trees

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U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Handb. 41, 472 pp.

Longwood, Franklin R.

1955. Industrial wood use in Puerto Rico. Caribbean Forester 16: 64-97.

Markwardt, L. J., and Wilson, T. R. C.

1935. Strength and related properties of woods

grown in the United States. U.S. Dept.

Agr. Tech Bui. 479, 99 pp., illus.

Marshall, R. C.

1930. Notes on the silviculture of the more important timber trees on Trinidad and

Tobago with information on the formation

of woods. Trinidad and Tobago Forestry

Dept, 50 pp., illus.

1931. Forest trees of Trinidad and Tobago with

special reference to their timbers. Trinidad and Tobago Forest Dept. Leaflet 4,

43 pp.

1932. Report on forestry in Grenada. Grenada

(B.W.I.) Council Paper 23, 17 pp., illus.

1934. The physiography and vegetation of Trinidad and Tobago. A study in plant ecology. Oxford Univ. Mem. 17, 56 pp., illus.

London.

1939. Silviculture of the trees of Trinidad and

Tobago, British West Indies. 247 pp.,

illus. London.

Men, C. D.

1928. Purpleheart as a veneer wood. Veneers

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1928. Snakewood or letterwood. Veneers 22 (4) :

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Merker, C. A., et al.

1943. The Forests of Costa Rica. U.S. Dept.

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Moses, C. S.

1955. Laboratory decay tests of some commercial

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Murphy, L. S.

1916. Forests of Puerto Rico. U.S. Dept. Agr.

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Neville, H. O.

1919. Hardwoods of Cuba. Cuba Rev. 18 (1) :

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Noerkmal, M. T.

1952. Droogproeven met cedrela mexicanaplanken

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Oliphant, J. N.

1926. Annual report of the forest trust for the

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Pereira, Husascar.

1922. The timber trees of the State of Sao Paulo,

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Works, 86 pp., illus.

Pfeiffer, J. Ph.

1926-27. De houtsoorten van Suriname. Afd.

Handelsmuseum 6, Kon. Ver. Kolonial

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Pillow, M. Y.

1950. Presence of tension wood in mahogany in

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Pittier, Henry F.

1926. Manual de las plantas usuales de Venezuela. 458 pp., illus. Caracas.

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1927. Trees of Honduras. Tropical Woods 10:

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1932. Notes on new species of Brazilian woods.

Tropical Woods 31: 22-29.

1938. American woods of the family Loganiaceae.

Tropical Woods 56: 9-13.

1938. American woods of the order Celastrales,

Olacales, and Santalales. Tropical

Woods 53: 11-38.

1938. The American woods of the family Euphorbiaceae. Tropical Woods 54: 7^0.

1939. American woods of the family Bombacaceae. Tropical Woods 59: 1-20.

1939. American woods of the family Sapotaceae.

Tropical Woods 59: 21-51.

1940. Some new names for tropical American

trees of the family Leguminosae. Tropical Woods 63: 1-6.

1941. American timbers of the mahogany family.

Tropical Woods 66: 7-33.

1942. American timbers of the genera Dallergia ^...-

and Machaerium. Tropical Woods 72:

1-11.

1944. Random observations on tropical American

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- and Hess, Robert W.

1940. American woods of the family Moraceae.

Tropical Woods 61: 11-54.

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1943. Timbers of the New World. 640 pp., illus.

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1926. Trees of the lower Rio Montague Valley,

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1930. Santa Mnrta Valley, Colombia. Tropical

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1924. Timbers'of tropical America. 610 pp., illus.

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136 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

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1942. Creosote penetration in tabonuco wood as

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(195) Rendle, B. J.

1938. Commercial mahoganies and allied timbers.

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Forest Prod. Res. Lab. Bui. 18, 45 pp.,

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(196) Saks, Edgar V.

1953. Tropical American Mahogany production.

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1954. Tropical hardwoods for veneer production

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119, illus.

Samborski, M. R., Tsoumis, G. T., and Wangaard,

Frederick F.

1953. Moisture absorption in certain tropical

American woods. Yale Univ. School

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SchefPer, Theodore C, and Duncan, Catherine G.

1947. The decay resistance of certain Central

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cal Woods 92: 1-24. ^

SchiflSno, José.

1944. Riqueza forestal Dominicana. Revista de

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1945-47. Riqueza forestal Dominicana. Ed. 3,

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Seaman, L. N.

1925. Second interim report on Project 1 . . .

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Shank, Paul.

1948. Notes on a timber survey in eastern Nicaragua. Tropical Woods 93: 4^-53.

Smeathers, R.

1943. The manufacture of shingles from local

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1951. A comparative study of some of the more

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Imp. Forestry Inst. Paper 27, 19 pp.

Smith, D. N.

1949. The natural durability of timber. [Gt.

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Smith, Earl E.

1954. The forests of Cuba. Maria Moors Cabot

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Smith, J. H. Nelson.

1041. Use of British Honduras woods for railway sleepers or cross ties. Caribbean

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Stahel, Gerold.

1945. Surinam timber. Surinam Forest Serv., 39

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Standley, Paul C.

1920-26. Trees and shrubs of Mexico. Contr. U.S.

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1929. Two new trees from Honduras and British

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1930. A second list of the trees of Honduras.

Tropical Woods 21: 9-41.

1932. Revision of some American species of

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1941. The forests of Guatemala. Tropical Woods

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1945. Notes on some Guatemalan trees. Tropical

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1936. The forests and flora of British Honduras.

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Stehle, Henri.

1945. Forest types of the Caribbean. Caribbean Forester 6: 27a-393.

1946. Les types forestiers des Iles Caraïbes. Caribbean Forester 7: 337-709, illus.

1947. The magnolia tree, Talauma dodecapetala,

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1947. Liste complémentaire des arbres et arbustes

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1952. Kiln operator's handbook. [Gt. Brit] /

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Stevenson, Duncan.

1928. Types of growth in British Honduras.

Tropical Woods 14: 20-25.

and Stevenson, Neil S.

1925. Some secondary timbers of British Honduras. Tropical Woods 4: 1^16.

Stevenson, Neil S.

1927. The Honduras rosewood. Tropical Woods y

12: 1-3.

1927. Poisonous trees of Central America,

cal Woods 9: 3-7.

Tropi-

(227)

(228)

(229)

(230)

(231)

(232)

1935. Supply, consumption and marketing of

timber in British Honduras. Statement

prepared for the British« Empire forestry

conference. South Africa, 1935. Brit.

Honduras Forestry Dept., 11 pp. Belize.

[Processed.]

Stone, H., and Freeman, W. G.

1914. The timbers of British Guiana. A report

upon the collection made by the Honorable A. G. Bell. 110 pp., illus. London.

Stovall, R. P.

1947. Mahogany of Santo Domingo. Agr. Americas 7: 107-108.

Swabey, Christopher.

1941. The principal timbers of Jamaica. Dept.

Sei. and Agr. Bui. (n.s.) 29, 37 pp., illus.

Kingston.

1945. Forestry in Jamaica. Jamaica Forest

Dept Bui. 1, 44 pp. Kingston.

Surinam Forest Service.

1955. Surinam timber. Ed. 2. Surinam Forest

Serv., 93 pp., illus. Paramaribo.

Tejada and Sainz, Juan de Dios.

1947. A glossary of Cuban woods. 82 pp.

Havana.
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 137

(233)

(234)

(235)

(236)

V (237)

. "(238)

(239)

^(240)

(241)

(242)

(243)

(244)

(245)

(246)

(247)

^248)

"^ (249)

Tenney, F. A.

1928. Costa Rica balsa. Unifruitco 4 (1) : 3-5.

Boston. [Abstract in Tropical Woods

15: 34-37.]

Thomas, A. V.

1940. Malayan timbers tested in a green condition. Malayan Forester 9: 151-157.

Kuala Lumpur.

Tihon, L.

1939. Le sablier élastique {Hura crepitans L.).

Bul. Agr. Congo Belge 30: 468-477, illus.

Brussels.

Tippo, Oswald, and Spockman, William, Jr.

1946. A case history of a shipment of iroko decking. Tropical Woods 87: 1-11, illus.

Titmus, F. H.

1949. A concise encyclopedia of world timbers.

156 pp. New York.

Torgeson, O. W.

1957. Schedules for the kiln drying of wood.

U.S. Forest Serv. Forest Prod. Lab. Rpt.

D1791, 9 pp. [Processed.]

Trinidad and Tobago Forest Department.

1951. Annual administrative report of the Forest

Department, 1951. 28 pp., illus.

Troop, Benjamin S., and Wangaard, Frederick F.

1950. The gluing characteristics of certain tropical Ajnerican woods. Yale Univ. School

Forestry Tech. Rpt. 4, 15 pp., illus.

[Processed.]

U.S. Forest Service Forest Products Laboratory.

1953. Foreign woods frequently imported in

the United States. Rpt. 1940, 19 pp.

[Processed.]

1955. Wood handbook. U.S. Dept. Agr. Handbook 72, 528 pp., illus.

Vogel, Frederick H.

1952. Forestry in Honduras. Div. Agr. and Nat.

Res. Inst. Inter-Am. Aff., 18 pp., illus.

Wash.

Wadsworth, Frank H.

1943. Roble, a valuable forest tree in Puerto

Rico. Caribbean Forester 4 (2) : 59-76,

illus.

1947. The development of Swietenia mahogani

Jacq. on St. Croix. Caribbean Forester

8: 161-162.

Wangaard, Frederick F.

1949. Tropical wood research for the furniture

industry. Furniture Mfr. 64: 56.

1953. Tropical American woods for durable

waterfront structures. Marine Borer

Conf. Rpt., pp. T1-T25. Univ. Miami

Marine Lab. [Processed.]

• Koehler, Arthur, and Muschler, Arthur F.

1954. Properties and uses of tropical woods. IV.

Tropical Woods 99: 1-187, illus.

- and Muschler, A. F.

(250)

(251)

(252)

(253)

(254)

(255)

(256)

(257)

(258)

(259)

(260)

(261)

(262)

(263)

- Stern, W. L., and Goodrich, S. L.

1955. Properties and uses of tropical woods V

Tropical Woods 103: 1-139, illus.

Weiping, C. A., and Doyle, D. V.

1944. Strength and related properties of balsa

and quipo woods. U.S. Forest Serv. Forest Prod. Lab. Rpt. 1511, 9 pp., illus.

[Processed.]

Wellwood, R. W.

1946. The physical-mechanical properties of certain West Indies timbers. I. Caribbean

Forester 7 (2) : 151-173, illus.

Williams, Llewelyn.

1931. The forests of northern Peru. Tropical

Woods 25: 5-12.

1932. Peruvian mahogany.

30-37.

Tropical Woods 31 :

1936. Woods of northeastern Peru. Field Mus.

Nat. Hist. (Chicago Nat. Hist. Mus.)

Bot. Ser. 15:1-587, illus.

1939. Maderas económicas de Venezuela. Min.

Agr. y Cria Bol. Tec. 2, 97 pp. Caracas.

1941. Forests of the Venezuela Guiana. Tropic

cal Woods 68: 13-40.

1942. Exploraciones botánicas en la Guayana

Venezolana. Serv. Bot. Min. Agr. y Cria.

468 pp., illus. Caracas.

1947. Forests of the upper Orinoco. Tropical

Woods 9 : 17-38, illus.

Wilson, T. R. C.

1932. Strength-moisture relations for wood. U.S.

Dept. Agr. Tech. Bui. 282, 88 pp., illus.

Wise, Louis E.

1950. Composition "of tropical woods. 1st and

2d reports to Dept. of Navy, OflSce of

Naval Research. Inst. Paper Chem. 65

pp. and 82 pp. Appleton, Wis. [Processed.]

Wolcott, George N.

1940. A list of woods arranged according to their

resistance to the attack of the "polilla",

the dry-wood termite of the West Indies

{Cryptotermes hrevis Walker). Caribbean Forester 1 (4) : 1-10, illus.

1952. Properties and uses of tropical woods. III.

Tropical Woods 98: 1-190, illus.

1950. An index to the termite-resistance of

woods. Univ. Puerto Rico Agj. Expt.

Sta. Bui. 85, 26 pp.

(264) Wood, B. R.

1928. Report of the British Guiana Forest Department for the year 1927. 13 pp. Georgetown.

(265) Woods, R. P.

1951. Timbers of South America. Ed. 2. Timber

Dev. Assoc, Ltd., 77 pp., illus. London.
APPENDIX
140 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

TABLE 10.—Strength properties of Caribbean

[Air-dry strength properties

Species

(1)

Source

(2)

Moisture

content

(3)

Weight

per

cubic

foot 1

(i)

Specific

gravity:

Green

volume

and

ovendry

weight

(5)

Static bending

Fiber

stress at

proportional

limit

(6)

Modulus

of

rupture

(7)

Modulus

of

elasticity

(8)

Angélique

Dicorynia guianensis 2»

Baboen

Virola surinamensis ^^.

Bagassa guianensis 2a__

Balata

Manilkara bidentata ^^..

Banak

Virola koschnyi ^

Baromalli

Catostemma fragrans *__

Catostemma sp.^c

Bethabara

Tábehuia serratifolia 2b_

Bustic

Dipholis salicifolia ^

Cedar, Central American

Cedrela sp.*

Courbaril

Hymenaea courbaril 2«. _

Hymenaea davisii 2«.

Crabwood

Carapa guianensis 2c_

Carapa guianensis ^ _ .

Determa

Ocotea rubra ^a

Ocotea rubra ^

Gommier

Dacryodes excelsa '

Greenheart, Demerara

Ocotea rodiaei ^

Ocotea rodiaei ^

Gronfoeloe

Qualea albiflora 2 a

Qualea rosea ^o

Gumbo-limbo

Bursera simaruba ^

Hura

Hura crepitans 2»

Kopie

Goupia glabra ^^

See footnotes at end of table.

Surinam.

Brazil

Brazil

(Surinam

British Guiana_

Puerto Rico

Central America.

British GuianaBritish Guiana.

fSurinam.

\Brazil. __

United States.

Nicaragua

l'Honduras

(Puerto Rico

I Surmam

[ Panama

British Guiana.

Brazil

British Guiana.

("Surinam

IBritish GuianaBrazil

Puerto Rico.

British Guiana.

British Guiana.

Surinam.

Surinam.

United States.

{Venezuela.

Panama

Surinam...

fBrazil...

\Surinam.

Percent

78.7

93.8

58.0

- 47.6

75.0

154.5

62. 6

3L2

44. 0

73.0'

60.8

64.8

72.4

58.0

83.2

4L 0

56-65

42.7

4L 0

150.9

82.5

99.0

67.2

65.7

Lbs.

67

51

67

78

48

70

61

75

77

37

71

70

60

51

61

*49

38

78

*76

79

60

38

40

73

0.60

.42

.68

.85

.44

.50

.60

.92

.86

.34

.71

.67

. 56

.52

.52

88

49

53

30

38

70

P.s.i.

7,650

3,580

10, 340

11, 120

5,200

6,860

14, 220

5,800

3,360

7,910

8,230

7,190

5,420

6,480

13, 250

5,660

6, 190

2,000

3,930

8,180

P.sA.

11,410

5,600

14, 510

17, 310

6,200

8,100

10, 670

22, 560

12, 400

5,220

12, 940

12, 440

11,110

9,900

7,820

8, 100

9,330

19, 550

19, 300

8,640

10, 510

3,300

6,310

11, 480

1,000

P.s.i.

1,840

1,640

2,300

2,700

1,470

1,610

2,300

2,920

1,860

870

1,840

2,080

1,560

1,960

1,460

1,420

1,200

2,970

2,970

1,630

2,030

560

1,040

1,810
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN

timbers in t/ie green condition

are given in table 11]

141

Static bending—

Continued

Vork to

proportional

limit

(9)

In.-lh.

per

cu. in.

1.78

.46

2.84

2.51

Compression parallel to grain

Work to

maximum

load

(10)

.94

1. 14

4.55

1.00

1.87

1.62

1.92

InAh.

per

cu. in.

12.0

4. 1

11.3

13. 6

5.3

6.7

7.3

27.6

17. 1

7.4

14.6

8.5

11.4

1.18

2.00

3.31

1.18

1.07

.45

.89

2.08

Fiber

stress at

proportional

limit

(11)

4.8

6. 1

10.9

13.4

35.3

6.8

9.3

3.5

5.9

7.6

P.s.i.

4, 810

1,740

6,060

7,030

Maximum

crushing

strength

(12)

2,710

3,330

8,890

3,750

4,260

4,260

3,980

3,040

3,260

7,580

3,640

3,800

930

1,960

4,880

Hardness

Modulus

of

elasticity

(13)

P.s.i.

5,590

2,390

7,900

8,690

3,050

3,840

4,280

10, 350

5,330

2,760

5,800

5,540

4,930

5, 120

3,760

4,560

4,530

10, 160

10, 500

4,840

5,200

1,510

2,790

6,170

1,000

P.s.i.

2, 180

1,900

2,510

3,060

1,800

2,680

3, 110

End

(14)

1,960

2,450

1, 170

1,740

1,700

3,580

1,950

2,300

1, 170

2,140

Lb.

1, 100

430

1,620

2, 160

590

570

590

2,630

Side

(15)

380

1,780

1,480

1,150

1,020

450

620

840

2,260

2, 160

600

• 1, 030

290

520

1,400

Lh.

1, 100

320

1,670

2,230

440

520

630

3,060

Compression perpendicular

to grain:

Stress at

proportional

limit

(16)

350

1,970

1,610

1,060

830

520

610

690

2,320

2,110

510

930

230

440

1,380

P.s.i.

1,000

200

1,200

2,480

280

360

2,300

1,700

310

1,640

1,120

960

Tension

perpendicular

to

grain

(17)

P.s.i.

700

260

650

990

550

730

2,040

630

560

290

420

1,050

610

210

1,340

Shear

(18)

1,220

890

500

620

1,070

590

480

380

430

980

P.s.i.

1,340

720

1,670

1,900

660

810

750

2, 120

Cleavage,

per inch

of width

(19)

Toughness,

per specimen

(20)

720

1,770

1,680

1,320

860

900

1,120

1,730

1,320

1,070

1,250

590

830

1,550

Lh.

340

180

370

480

245

260

180

620

540

410

350

320

280

275

270

610

500

300

320

170

220

430

In.-lh.

151.2

60.6

195.5

264.8

165.7

403.8

230.5

187.8

129.9

75.0

98.8

155.9

70.3

131.9

596544 0-62—10
142 tJ.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

TABLE 10.—Strength properties of Caribhea/n

[Air-dry strength properties

Species

(1)

Source

(2)

Moisture

content

(3)

Weight

per

cubic

foot 1

(4)

Specific

gravity:

Green

volume

and

ovendry

weight

(5)

Static bending

Fiber

stress at

proportional

limit

(6)

Modulus

of

rupture

(7)

Modulus

of

elasticity

(8)

Kurokai

Protium decandrum ^

Protium schomburgkiamim ^ _

Kwarie

Vochysia guianensis ^a

Vochysia guianensis ^a

Mahogany, Honduras

Forest-grown

Swietenia macrophylla *

Swietenia macrophylla *

Swietenia macrophylla *

Swietenia macrophylla ^

Swietenia macrophylla 2b__

Plantation-grown

Swietenia macrophylla 2a__

Mahogany, West Indies

Swietenia mahagoni ^

Swietenia mahagoni ®

Manbarklak

Eschweilera subglandulosa 2b_

Manni

Symphonia globulifera ^

Symphonia globulifera ^c

Marish

Licania buxifolia ^b

Licania macrophylla ^b

Mora

Mora excelsa ^c

Mora excelsa ^

Nargusta

Terminalia amazonia 2»

Terminalia amazonia ^

Terminalia amazonia ^

Pine, Caribbean

Pinus caribaea ^^

Pinus caribaea ^

Pinus caribaea ^c

Podocarp

Podocarpus coriaceus ^

Purpleheart

Peltogyne pubescens ^

Peltogyne pubescens *

Peltogyne venosa var. densiflora *_

See footnotes at end of table.

British GuianaBritish GuianaBrazil

Surinam

Mexico

Nicaragua

Peru

Central America,

Brazil

Honduras.

Dom. RepublicCuba

Surinam.

British Honduras

rSurinam

\British Guiana

British Guiana.

/Brazil

ISurinam

("British Guiana-

\Surinam

British Guiana.

(British Honduras

British Guiana

Panama

Trinidad

British Honduras

Nicaragua

British Honduras

British Honduras

British Honduras

British Guiana.

British GuianaBrazil

Percent

72.0

99.0

119. 4

230.4

92. 2

110. 3

106. 8

58.0

56.8

50.7

95. 2

48. 0

42. 9

97.0

85.4

37.3

49.8

60.0

59.0

67.3

51.0

67.0

41. 0

35.4

44. 0

62.0

42. 1

64. 3

Lbs.

50

56

59

74

54

59

58

44

44

40

68

59

78

*55

67

75

71

78

*71

67

66

*60

57

57

*41

75

81

77

0.53

.48

.43

.36

,45

45

,51

,45

,45

,42

56

57

87

.58

.88

.76

.78

, 64

,70

61

65

68

.74

,92

75

P.s.i.

5,800

600

820

5,000

5,200

5,800

6, 120

6,070

5,080

6,300

4,560

10, 010

7, 140

10, 570

9,560

9,040

7,710

5,080

'6,'Ö9Ö"

12, 700

11, 400

P.s.i.

10, 450

9,300

6,730

6,050

8,900

8,700

9,800

9,240

8,960

8,350

9,700

8,250

17, 110

11, 900

11, 180

17, 070

14,380

12, 630

12, 900

12, 130

14, 200

13, 000

8,550

9,000

11, 190

8,700

14, 400

21, 100

16, 200

1,000

P.s.i.

1,560

1,510

1,380

1,230

1,480

1,440

1,470

1,290

1,280

1,140

1,170

1,070

2,700

2,020

1,960

2,930

2,320

2,330

2,290

2,010

2,200

2,010

1,600

1,610

1,880

1,250

2,170

4,260

2,610
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS .OF THE CARIBBEAN

timbers in the green condition—Continued

are given in table 11]

143

Static bending—

Continued

Work to

proportional

limit

(9)

Work to

maximum

load

(10)

Compression parallel to grain

Fiber

stress at

proportional

limit

(11)

Maximum

crushing

strength

(12)

Modulus

of

elasticity

(13)

Hardness

End

(14)

Side

(15)

Compression perpendicular

to grain:

Stress at

proportional

limit

(16)

Tension

perpendicular

to

grain

(17)

Shear

(18)

Cleavage,

per inch

of width

(19)

Toughness,

per specimen

(20)

InAh.

'per

1.23

. 91

.68

99

05

36

70

14

19

2 14

1

o

60

0*7

2.23

2.04

1. 70

.92

2.27

2.67

InAh.

per

cu. in.

10. 6

9.2

5.2

5. 8

8.2

8.6

8.8

10. 2

9.0

7.3

10.6

8.6

17.4

12.3

11.2

13.4

10.2

13.5

10. 2

12. 2

14. 6

8.0

10. 8

10. 7

10.0

12.4

16. 4

17.0

P.s.i.

3,210

1,900

2,300

3, 300

3,200

3,830

3,830

2,730

3,750

5,350

4, 130

6, 190

5,580

4,800

4,440

3,230

3,560

9,250

7,070

P.s.i.

5,080

4,370

2,780

2,890

4,540

4,520

4,990

4, 540

4,340

3,500

4,810

4, 170

7,340

5,810

5, 160

7,580

6,720

6,400

6,900

5,530

7,330

6,430

4, 130

4,600

4,900

4, 320

7,890

10, 970

9,020

1,000

p.s.i.

'i,'74Ö'

1,650

1,490

1,610

1, 530

1, 580

1,370

1,040

1,250

2,710

2,320

3,230

2,460

2,660

2,230

2,230

3,790

2,790

Lh.

"sob

590

900

750

870

1, 130

750

770

1, 160

1,300

990

2, 120

1,290

900

2,050

1,720

1,340

1,610

1,360

1,610

1,430

700

670

840

800

2,040

3,000

2,040

Lh.

970

430

620

810

850

800

1, 120

650

790

1,090

1,310

980

2,280

1,210

940

2,250

1,720

1,450

1,690

1,320

1,580

1,350

780

720

980

650

2,060

3,290

2,090

P.s.i.

310

400

390

780

620

750

710

670

1,090

1,010

980

1,350

620

1,430

940

1,040

1,060

830

'70Ö

3,010

2, 120

P.s.i.

550

440

420

780

760

790

630

750

1,080

1,020

610

750

840

570

850

340

920

P.s.i.

1,340

1,070

750

770

1,070

1,080

1,280

1,310

1, 140

1,500

1,620

1,540

1,630

1,310

1, 140

1,620

1,320

1,400

1,610

1,440

1,750

1,600

Lb.

345

310

220

190

370

320

370

320

280

450

1, 180

1,170

1,080

1,910

1,830

1, 640

420

450

320

360

380

380

470

400

490

480

240

240

265

520

'525"

In.-lh.

121.6

95. 6

82.4

84. 3

365.9

157.0

213. 3

207.6

228.5

187. 1

250.7
144 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 2 07

TABLE 10.—Strength pro¡serties of Caribbean

[Air-dry strength properties

Species

(1)

Roble

Tahehuia rosea *

Tabebuia rosea 2»

Rosewood

Dalbergia sp.^"

Saman

Pithecellobium saman ^b

Santa-maria

Calophyllum brasiliense var. rekoi ^c.

Calophyllum spp.^^

Calophyllum brasiliense ^

Simarouba

Simarouba amara 2» ^

Sterculia

Sterculia pruriens ^ ^

Suradan

Hyeronima laxiflora ^c

Tabebuia, white

Tabebuia insignis var. monophylla *.

Tatabu

Diplotropis purpurea ^b

Tauroniro

Humiria balsamifera ^c

Teak

Plantation-grown

Tectona grandis ^a

Forest-grown

Tectona grandis 2»

Tectona grandis ^^e

Tonka

Dipteryx odorata ^a

Wacapou

Vouacapoua americana ^b

Wallaba

Eperua falcata *

Eperua spp. ^ Wamara

Swartzia leiocalycina ^

Yemeri

Vochysia hondurensis 2»

Vochysia hondurensis ^

See footnotes at end of table.

Source

(2)

Venezuela

Panama

British Honduras

Honduras

Brazil

Venezuela.

British Honduras.

fBritish Honduras.

\Panama

Central America..

Surinam

British Guiana.

Surinam

British Guiana.

/Surinam.

1 Brazil...

Surinam...

Honduras.

Burma.

Burma.

Brazil

Surinam.

British Guiana.

British Guiana.

British Guiana.

Moisture

content

(3)

Percent

107.8

> 68. 2

62.0

62.0

69.2

93.9

82. 6

89.8

61.2

62.7

72.3

Nicaragua

British Honduras._.

52.0

49. 2

47.9

57.2

58.0

38.0

226. 4

165. 0

Weight

per

cubic

foot 1

(4)

Lbs.

58

55

52

54

40

53

74

65

78

67

60

57

81

73

76

73

75

67

*36

Specific

gravity:

Green

volume

and

ovendry

weight

(5)

0.45

.52

.80

.48

.52

Static bending

.55

.38

. 44

. 65

.55

.78

. 66

,56

.57

, 60

,91

79

78

,87

33

Fiber

stress at

proportional

limit

(6)

P.s.i.

6,000

6,600

7,970

4,880

5,560

6, 310

Modulus

of

rupture

(7)

3,900

5,800

6,510

9,700

12, 380

7,820

6, 160

7,410

7,090

12, 530

12, 450

12, 500

3,500

P.s.i.

9,600

10, 770

14, 140

8, 100

10, 490

9,910

10, 500

6,310

9,000

10, 680

13, 700

17, 400

11,720

9,940

11,330

11,440

19, 290

15, 850

16, 000

14, 300

20, 380

5,580

6,000

Modulus

of

elasticity

(8)

1,000

P.s.i.

1,620

1,450

1,840

910

1,590

1,535

1,570

1, 140

1,890

1,880

2,300

2,680

2,060

1,350

1,480

1,670

2,690

2,620

2,550

2,330

2,650

1,040

1,070
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN

timbers in the green condition—Continued

are given in table 11]

145

Static bending—

Continued Compression parallel to grain Hardness Compression perpendicular

to grain:

Stress at

proportional

limit

Tension

perpendicular

to

grain

Shear

Cleavage,

per inch

of width

Work to

proportional

limit

Work to

maximum

load

Fiber

stress at

proportional

limit

Maximum

crushing

strength

Modulus

of

elasticity

End Side

Toughness,

per specimen

(9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20)

In.-lh.

. 'per

cu. in.

1.24

In.4b.

per

cu. in.

7.2

P.s.i.

4,410

P.s.i.

5,030

1,000

P.s.i.

1,650

Lb.

910

Lb.

670

P.s.i.

610

P.s.i.

670

P.s.i.

1,100

Lb.

320

In.-lb.

1. 66 11.7 4,040 4,910 1,510 1,030 910 790 790 1,250 380 147. 0

2.05 13. 2 3,490 5,510 1,980 2,210 2, 440 1,830 920 2,360 430 150.7

1.51 10. 4 2,720 3,760 1,000 800 750 600 470 1,100 260 99.4

1. 10 12.7 3,040 4,560 1,700 1,010 890 570 580 1,260 330 180.4

1.46 4,850 5, 160 1,507 990 860 640 560 1,060 320

10.0

4.5 2,340

5,290

2,970 1,240

1, 170

510

1,040

390

1,310

790

390

.76 380 560 230 65.8

1. 13 6.6 2,590 4,350 2, 120 600 640 370 440 860 230

1. 30 8.3 3,300 4,960 2,100 1,280 1,220 760 740 1,200 380 186. 6

2.34

3.30

12.0

13.0

5,870

5,860

6,200

8, 020

2,610

2,940

1,390

1,880

1 230 600 650 1, 160

1,980 1,290 700 1,800 420 201. 1

1.69 10.0 4,060 5,810 2,470 1,240 1,320 870 880 1,460 380 145. 9

1.59 10.9 3,960 4,780 1,350 1, 140 1,290 1,290 940 1,730 390 116. 2

2.08

1.70

10.7

9.3

'4, 160

4,080

5, 110

5,870

1,580

1,940

890

920

920

1,040

1,030

1,060

960 1,490

1, 110

420 84.4

3.27 12. 3 7,420 9,020 2,700 2,000 2,200 2,280 1, 160 1,990 480 265. 3

3.44 14.5 7,280 9, 170 2,750 1,580 1,610 1,860 860 1,510 380 202. 6

3. 39 14. 4

9.8

21.6

4.6

4.5

5,990

2,050

8,270

8,070

10, 140

2,610

3,090

2,860 1,770

1,590

1,980

1, 540

2, 560

410

540

1,520 950 1,550 330

365

555

230

280

2, 140

700

710 .67 1, 170 510

630

420 440 73.5

596544 0-62—11
146 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

TABLE 10.—Strength properties of Caribiean

[Air dry strength properties

Species

(1)

Source

(2)

Moisture

content

(3)

Weight

per

cubic

foot 1

(4)

Specific

gravity:

Green

volume

and

ovendry

weicht

(5)

Static bending

Fiber

stress at

proportional

limit

(6)

Modulus

of

rupture

(7)

Modulus

of

elasticity

(8)

SELECTED TIMBERS FOR

COMPARATIVE PURPOSES

Ash, white

Fraxinus americana ^

Beech, European

Fagus sylvatica ^

Hickory, shagbark

Carya ovata ^

Douglas-fir (coast type)

Pseudotsuga menziesii ^^

Oak

Quercus spp.^

Oak, white

Quercus alba ^

Pine, Scotch

Pinus sylvestris ^

Pine, slash

Pinus elliottii ^^

United

United

United

United

United

United

United

United

States

Kingdom

States

States

Kingdom

States

Kingdom

States

Percent

42. 0

88.0

60.0

36.0

89.0

68.0

79.0

66. 0

Lbs.

48

*52

64

39

*52

62

*41

58

0.55

P.s.i.

5, 100

64

45

5,900

4,500

60 4,700

, 56 5, 100

P.s.i,

9,600

8,900

11,000

7,600

8,100

8,300

6,000

8,900

1,000

P.s.i.

1,460

1,520

1,570

1,570

1,290

1,250

1,240

1,580

^ Weight per cubic foot at moisture content listed in

column 3 except where designated (*), in which case weight

is based on 50 percent moisture content.

2 Tropical Woods. Nos. 98 (2a), 99 (2b), 103 (2c).

3 Armstrong, F. H. The strength properties of timber.

[Gt. Brit.] Dept. Sei. and Ind. Res. Forest Prod. Res.

Bui. 28. 1953.

4 Kynoch, William, and Norton, Newell, A. Mechanical properties of certain tropical woods, chiefly from South

America. Mich. Univ. School Forestry and Conserv. Bui.

7. 1938.

5 Markwardt, L. J., and Wilson, T. R. C. Strength and

related properties of woods grown in the United States.

U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bui. 479. 1935.

« [Gt. Brit.] Department of Scientific and Industrial

Research. A handbook of Empire timbers. Rev. ed.

Forest Prod. Res. Lab. 1945.
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 147

timbers in the green condition—Continued

are given ]m table 11]

Static bending—

Continued Compression parallel to grain Hardness Compression perpendicular

to grain:

Stress at

proportional

limit

(16)

Tension

perpendicular

to

grain

(17)

Shear

(18)

Cleavage,

per inch

of width

(19)

Work to

proportional

limit

(9)

Work to

maximum

load

(10)

Fiber

stress at

proportional

limit

(11)

Maximum

crushing

strength

(12)

Modulus

of

elasticity

(13)

End

(14)

Side

(15)

Toughness,

per specimen

(20)

In.'lh.

per

cu. in.

1.04

In.-lb.

per

cu. in.

16.6

13.2

23.7

7.6

11. 1

11. 6

5.6

9.5

P.s.i.

3, 190

3,430

3, 130

3,090

3,040

P.s.i.

3,990

3, 860

4,580

3,860

3,850

3,560

3,020

4,340

1,000

P.s.i. Lb.

1,010

1,080

Lh.

960

960

P.s.i.

810

P.s.i.

590

P.s.i.

1,380

1,210

1,520

930

1, 170

1,250

750

1,000

Lb. In.-lb.

490

1.28

.75

1,040

570 440 300

1, 120

1,120

450

600

500

1,050

1,060

440

630

430

420

215

1.08 830 770 144.9

1.02 680 400

7 Wellwood, R. W. The physical-mechanical properties

of certain West Indies timbers. I. Caribbean Forester 7

(2): 151-173. 1946.

8 Armstrong, F. H. The strength properties of timber.

The 2-cm. standard for tests of small clear specimens.

[Gt. Brit.] Dept. Sei. and Ind. Res. Forest Prod. Res. Bui.

34. 1955.

» Heck, George E. Average strength and related properties of five foreign woods tested at the Forest Products

Laboratory. U.S. Forest Serv. Forest Prod. Lab. Rpt.

R1139, [Processed.] 1937.

io Fahnestock, G. R., and Garratt, George A. Nicaraguan pine {Pinus caribaea Mor.). Tropical Woods 55:

1-16. 1938.

11 Greene, Edward C, Jr. Santa Maria, a neotropical

timber of the genus Calophyllum. Tropical Woods 30:

9-16. 1932.

12 U.S. Forest Service Forest Products Laboratory.

Wood handbook. U.S. Dept. Agr. Handb. 72. 1955.
148 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

TABLE 11.—Strength properties of Caribbean

Species

(1)

Angélique

Dicorynia guianensis 2».

Baboen

Virola surinamensis ^^...

Bagassa guianensis ^^.

Balata

Manilkara bidentata ^^

Balsa

Ochroma spp.^

Heartwood

Sapwood

Banak

Virola koschnyi *

Baromalli

Catostemma commune *.

Catostemma sp.^o

Bethabara

Tabehuia serratifolia 2b_.

Bustic

Dipholis salicifolia *

Cedar, Central American

Cedrela sp.^

Courbaril

Hymenaea courbaril 2»_

Hymenaea davisii 2a_

Crabwood

Carapa guianensis ^a

Carapa guianensis *_

Determa

Ocotea rubra 2»

Ocotea rubra ^

Gommier

Dacryodes excelsa 7_ _

Gronfoeloe

Qualea albiflora ^c

Qualea rosea ^c

Greenheart, Démerara

Ocotea rodiaei ^

Ocotea rodiaei ^

Ocotea rodiaei ®

Gumbo-limbo

Bursera simaruba ^__.

Hura

Hura crepitans 2»

Kopie

Goupia glabra 2b_

Source

(2)

Surinam.

Brazil

Brazil

{Surinam

British Guiana.

Puerto Rico

Central America

Central AmericaBritish Guiana _

British Guiana.

(Surinam.

iBrazil. _.

United States.

Nicaragua

(Honduras

Puerto Rico

Surinam

Panama

British Guiana.

Brazil

British Guiana.

fSurinam

\British Guiana.

British Guiana.

Puerto Rico

Surinam.

Surinam.

British Guiana.

British Guiana.

British Guiana.

United States..

Venezuela.

Panama. _.

Surinam. __

ÍBrazil...

ISurinam.

Moisture

content

(3)

Percent

11.8

11.4

12.0

13. 2

12.0

12.0

12.0

12.0

9.5

12.3

12.0

12. 0

12. 6

12. 1

13. 5

12.0

12.8

12. 0

14. 1

14. 8

12.8

14.8

12.0

12.0

12.0

11.9

12.2

Weight

per cubic

foot

(4)

Lbs.

45

32

50

66

12

17

33

37

69

62

25

53

41

39

41

37

39

*66

62

62

21

28

52

Specific

gravity:

Ovendry volume and

weight

(5)

0.72

.51

.76

1.02

.51

.74

1.06

.38

.81

.79

.61

.58

.61

.56

.58

1.06

.32

41

.80

Static bending

Fiber

stress at

proportional

limit

(6)

P.s.i.

11,610

6,900

13, 900

15, 030

10, 750

16, 600

5,940

11, 900

10, 720

9,650

7,640

7,980

8,600

10, 090

9,720

16, 200

3,300

5,380

10, 380

Modulus

of rupture

(7)

P.s.i.

17, 390

10, 950

20, 050

27, 280

2,800

5,300

10,800

11, 200

15, 450

25, 360

7,860

19, 400

19, 290

15, 620

14, 600

10, 470

13, 070

13, 030

14, 020

14, 610

*25, 500

30, 500

26, 580

4,800

8,710

15, 300

Modulus

of elasticity

(8)

1,000

P.s.i.

2, 190

2,040

2,580

3,450

470

710

1,720

1,820

2,880

3,140

1,010

2,160

2,950

1,850

2,120

1,820

2,010

1,530

1,960

2,200

*3, 700

3,400

2,970

740

1,170

2,150

See footnotes at end of table.
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN

timbers in the air-dry condition^

149

static bending—

Continued

Work to

proportional

limit

(9)

Work to

maximum

load

(10)

Compression parallel to grain

Fiber

stress at

proportional

limit

(11)

Maximum

crushing

strength

(12)

Modulus

of elasticity

(13)

Hardness

End

(14)

Side

(15)

Compression perpendicular

to grain:

Stress at

proportional

limit

(16)

Tension

perpendicular

to grain

(17)

Shear

(18)

Cleavage, per

inch of

width

(19)

Toughness, per

specimen

InAh.

per cu.

in.

3.32

1. 40

4. 18

3. 76

2.27

4.98

InAh.

per cu.

in.

15.2

10.0

14.4

28.5

3.72

2.30

2.85

2.00

2.70

3.07

2.41

*4. 02

.85

1.34

2.80

8. 1

8.4

*22. 0

5.6

17. 6

19.3

13.4

P.s.i.

6,810

3,330

9,670

8,050

6,260

9,000

4,950

6.4

9.7

8.0

12.5

*22. 0

21. 6

3.0

6.7

9.5

6,500

6,430

5,810

4,420

4,890

7,050

5,940

*10, 000

1.720

3,300

5,200

P.s.i.

8,770

5, 140

11, 560

11,640

1,680

3,730

5,720

6,730

8,340

13,010

9,540

4,450

9,510

9,400

7,900

8,590

5,800

8,940

7, 150

8,670

7,570

*12, 920

14, 940

13, 350

3,080

4,800

8,350

1,000

P.s.i.

2, 490

2, 130

2,850

3,360

2,960

3,260

2,240

3, 170

2,030

1,810

2, 100

2,320

2,650

*4, 160

1,290

2,460

Lb.

1,700

560

2, 140

2,650

Lb.

1,290

510

1,730

3, 190

P.s.i.

1,280

270

1, 690

*2, 320

P.s.i.

*560

360

740

1, 100

P.s.i.

1,660

980

1,940

2,500

950

860

830

3, 180

640

710

830

3,680

510

2,300

280

*500

1,300

870

900

*2, 060

580

2,520

2,070

1,670

1,550

590

*550

1,350

1,430

1,370

*2, 140

370

790

1,740

500

2,350

1,760

1,220

1, 130

660

*610

900

900

1,050

*2, 630

2,650

2,400

270

550

1,700

710

1,880

1,230

*850

640

1,290

700

860

*1. 970

*960

*860

550

*440

*330

*430

*1, 020

560

630

1,210

360

*350

*570

2,470

2, 130

1,680

980

1,910

1,400

1,800

*1, 830

2,830

800

1,080

1,600

Lb.

360

200

*290

*330

245

240

180

*380

*470

*390

*280

440

*220

*215

390

*250

*250

485

200

320

*380
150 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

TABLE 11.—Strength projyerties of Caribhean

Species

(1)

Source

(2)

Moisture

content

(3;

Weight

per cubic

foot

(4)

Specific

gravity:

Ovendry volume and

weight

(5)

Static bending

Fiber

stress at

proportional

limit

(6)

Modulus

of rupture

(7)

Modulus

of elasticity

(8)

Kurokai

Protium decandrum ^

Protium schomhurgkianum ** Kwarie

Vochysia guianensis 2»

Vochysia guianensis 2»

Lignumvitae

Guaiacum officinale ^

Mahogany, Honduras

Forest-grown

Swietenia macrophylla ^

Swietenia macrophylla ^

Swietenia macrophylla »

Swietenia macrophylla ^^

Swietenia macrophylla *

Swietenia macrophylla 2»

Plantation-grown

Swietenia macrophylla 2»

Mahogany, West Indies

Swietenia mahagoni ^°

Manbarklak

Eschweilera suhglandulosa ^b

Manni

Symphonia glohulifera *

Symphonia glohulifera ^c

Symphonia glohulifera ** Marish

Licania huxifolia ^b

Licania macrophylla 2b

Mora

Mora gonggrijpii *

Mora excelsa ^c

Mora excelsa *

Nargusta

Terminalia amazonia 2»

Terminalia amazonia ^

Terminalia amazonia *

Pine, Caribbean

Pinus carihaea ^2

Pinus carihaea ^

Pinus carihaea ^^

Podocarp

Podocarpus coriaceus *

Purpleheart

Peltogyne puhescens ^

Peltogyne puhescens ^

Peltogyne venosa var. densiflora

Rosewood

Dalhergia sp.^c

See footnotes at end of table.

British Guiana_

British Guiana_

Brazil

Surinam

Central AmericaMexico

Nicaragua

Peru

Central America. _

British Honduras.

Brazil

Honduras.

Cuba

Surinam. _.

British Honduras..

fSurinam

\British Guiana

British Honduras..

British Guiana.

Brazil-Surinam.

British Guiana.

f British Guiana.

\Surinam

British Guiana.

'British Honduras

British Guiana

. Panama

Trinidad

British Honduras

Nicaragua

British Honduras

British Honduras

British Honduras

British Guiana_

British Guiana.

Brazil

Brazil.

Percent

12. 0

12. 2

15.0

10. 6

12.0

10. 5

10.7

12. 0

12.0

12.0

11.9

13.4

12. 0

12. 7

12. 0

12. 1

12.7

12. 5

11. 5

12. 0

11. 6

12.0

12. 9

12. 0

12. 0

12. 0

12. 0

13. 1

12.0

12. 0

13.9

13. 1

11.5

40

*33

76

*31

*33

37

32

31

33

31

41

67

43

44

44

68

58

64

62

62

54

49

49

48

51

31

54

*68

*54

0.50

.48

.42

. 50

. 50

. 58

. 50

.49

.46

. 61

1.04

. 68

. 66

1.07

.90

.97

.73

.78

1.05

.75

.88

P.s.i.

6,600

6,930

6,540

P.s.i.

15, 980

11,800

10, 330

9,050

*8, 600

*7, 700

7,600

8,810

8,360

7,620

7, 100

14, 000

10, 920

11,200

19, 440

13, 550

13, 040

11,310

9,450

"9,'85Ô"

16, 300

13, 300

11, 850

*12, 400

*12, 000

12, 400

11, 140

11, 500

11,590

10, 310

9, 600

26, 470

18, 000

16, 860

18, 450

27, 660

20, 650

25, 500

22, 100

23, 100

17, 750

18, 800

18, 200

15, 880

14, 700

16, 690

11,800

20, 200

25, 100

20, 100

18, 970

1,000

P.s.i:

1,870

*1, 650

1,570

1,440

*1, 560

*1, 510

1,540

1,430

1,370

1,420

1,150

1,200

3, 140

2,200

2,460

2,640

3,340

2,530

3, 180

2,960

2,970

2,300

2,470

2,270

2,130

1,950

2,240

1,380

2,580

3,640

2,550

Î, 880
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN

timbers in the air-dry condition ^—Continued

151

static bending—

Continued

Work to

proportional

limit

(9)

In.-lh.

per cu.

Work to

maximum

load

(10)

1.46

1.73

1.67

*2. 38

2.20

2. 13

2.77

2.52

3.72

In.-lh.

per cu.

in,

17. 6

*13. 1

7.3

*5. 2

2. 72

2.69

6.49

4.09

3.22

3. 16

2.35

"2." 43

4.07

3.97

4.24

Compression parallel to grain

Fiber

stress at

proportional

limit

(11)

P.s.i.

*9. 4

*9. 2

8.8

6.8

9.9

*7. 8

7.5

6.2

33. 3

16. 8

*16. 5

14. 1

14.2

15.4

24.7

18.5

21.4

16. 4

*5, 400

4,950

5,790

*4, 880

*5, 170

5, 170

Maximum

crushing

strength

(12)

5,170

4,210

6,000

17.8

12.0

15.0

17.3

9.3

16.6

24.9

18. 6

4, 840

7,850

10, 050

8, 160

6,320

6,950

5,980

4,960

9,970

8,790

6,370

P.s.i.

8,860

*6, 960

6,230

7, 160

11,400

*7, 180

*1, 350

7, 130

6,430

6, 170

6,470

5,680

6,240

11,210

9,280

8,820

10, 040

13, 390

11,010

13, 660

11, 840

12, 240

9,540

10, 600

9,990

8,390

7,830

8,540

Modulus

of elasticity

(13)

10, 960

13, 270

10, 770

9,600

1,000

P.s.i.

*1, 950

1,690

1,790

*1, 560

*1, 500

1,610

Hardness

End

(14)

Lb.

1, 500

1, 200

3, 150

2, 860

2, 490

3, 360

2, 680

3, 840

2, 520

'"3,"ÔÏO'

"Â"54Ó"

2 730

2 200

*1, 000

*500

*710

3,600

*1, 140

*1, 080

1, 180

880

980

960

*1, 000

1,350

2,750

1,650

1,280

1,680

Side

(15)

2,640

3, 170

2,210

2,610

1,990

2,550

2,220

1, 180

1, 140

1, 180

6,980 1,280

2,750

3,350

2,460

2,970

Lb.

1, 160

*720

740

*460

4,500

*770

*810

930

760

700

970

*980

1,330

3,480

1,290

1, 120

1,320

3,570

2,560

2,950

2,300

2,460

1,610

2, 100

1,740

1,230

1, 120

1,240

710

2,510

3,640

2, 140

2,720

Compression perpendicular

to grain:

Stress at

proportional

limit

(16)

P.s.i.

*630

620

530

*1, 000

*870

900

1,210

900

1,250

1, 170

2,480

Tension

perpendicular

to grain

(17)

800

1,530

2,230

1,590

1,280

1,230

P.s.i.

1,680

'Í,"2ÍO

2,370

1,780

1,900

*450

*360

*280

*700

*720

640

*610

*620

*540

*350

650

*250

*400

Shear

(18)

660

*670

470

880

670

*620

P.s.i.

2, 130

*1, 410

1,220

*680

*1, 290

*1, 270

1,300

1,050

1,630

1,250

1,510

1,480

2,070

1,590

1,420

1,770

1,750

1,850

2,650

1,900

2,560

1,950

2,280

2,090

1,750

1,830

2,090

1,690

2,420

2,070

2, 150

*2, 110

Cleavage, per

inch of

width

(19)

Toughness, per

specimen

Lb.

330

240

*140

450

*340

*370

340

315

*300

280

*260

390

*220

400

*220

*240

550

380

555

*270

260

310

315

340

250

590

350

*330
152 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

TABLE 11.—Strength projyerties of Caribbean

Species

(1)

Source

(2)

Mqisture

content

(3)

Weight

per cubic

foot

(4)

Specific

gravity:

Ovendry volume and

weight

(5)

Static bending

Fiber

stress at

proportional

limit

(6)

Modulus

of rupture

(7)

Modulus

of elasticity

(8)

Roble

Tábehuia rosea ^.

Tahebuia rosea 2a_

Saman

Pithecellobium saman 2b

Santa-maria

Calophyllum brasiliense var. rekoi ^°.

Calophyllum spp.^c

Venezuela

Panama

British HondurasHonduras

VenezuelaCalophyllum brasiliense *

Simarouba

Simarouba amara 2»

Sterculia

Sterculia pruriens ^

Sterculia pruriens *

Suradan

Hyeronima laxiflora ^°

Tabebuia, white

Tabehuia insignis var. monophylla ^.

Tatabu

Diplotropis purpurea 2b

Tauroniro

Humiria balsamifera 2c

Teak

Plantation-grown

Tectona grandis 2»

Tectona grandis ^^

Forest-grown

Tectona grandis 2»

Tectona grandis ^

Tonka

Dipteryx odorata 2*

Wacapou

Vouacapoua americana 2b

Wallaba

Eperua falcata ^

Eperua spp.*

Wamara

Swartzia leiocalycina *

Yemen

Vochysia hondurensis 2c

Vochysia hondurensis *

British Honduras.

("British Honduras.

\Panama

Central America. .

Surinam.

British Guiana.

British GuianaSurinam

British Guiana.

rSurinam,

\Brazil...

Surinam.

HondurasTrinidad..

BurmaBurma.

Brazil

Surinam.

British Guiana.

British Guiana.

British Guiana.

SELECTED TIMBERS FOR

COMPARATIVE PURPOSES

Ash, white

Fraxinus americana ^

Beech, European

Fagus sylvatica *

Hickory, shagbark

Carya ovata ^

Oak, European

Quercus spp.^

See footnotes at end of table.

Nicaragua

British Honduras

United States

United Kingdom

United States

United Kingdom

Percent

14.6

13.5

12.4

13. 1

12.0

12.0

12.2

13. 2

12.0

9.7

14.3

12. 0

14. 2

12. 6

12.0

10.4

12.0

12. 0

12. Y

13. 1

12. 0

12.0

11.9

12.0

12. 0

12. 0

12.0

12.0

Lbs.

*35

37

35

39

36

40

27

*37

33

49

*42

58

50

40

43

43

67

59

*58

56

66

28

29

42

43

50

43

0.50

.57

.51

.60

.55

P.s.i.

7, 300

9,480

6,080

9,000

8,740

40

50

6,280

*6, 100

.75

.63

.89

.78

.59

.62

.61

.64

1.04

.91

.88

11, 110

*10, 600

13, 660

11, 050

8,430

8, 160

19, 130

13, 720

*13, 700

.37 4,930

64 8,900

78 10, 700

P.s.i

12,* 500

13, 780

8,860

14, 640

12, 650

14, 900

8,930

*9, 700

11, 900

18, 200

*14, 900

20, 560

18, 770

13, 310

15, 860

13, 240

14, 300

27, 270

21, 640

*22, 000

19, 200

30, 960

7,900

9,600

15, 400

16, 200

20, 200

13, 300

1,000

P.s.i.

1, 750

1, 600

1,100

1,830

1,695

1,830

1,240

*1, 930

1,720

2,270

*2, 260

2,870

2,510

1,390

1,576

1,490

1,850

3,030

*2, 530

*2, 880

2,270

3,430

1,160

1,270

1,770

1,950

2,160

1,560
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN

timbers in the air-dry condition ^—Continued

153

Static bending—

Continued

Work to

proportional

limit

(9)

In.-lh.

per CÎ4.

in.

1.70

3. 18

1.97

2.50

2.20

Work to

maximum

load

(10)

1.78

1.09

In.-lh.

per cu.

in.

*9. 4

12. 5

7.8

16. 1

Compression parallel to grain

Fiber

stress at

proportional

limit

(11)

3. 14

*2. 77

3.66

2.66

2.92

2. 51

6.74

4.23

*3. 60

1.20

2.60

3,01

12.4

5.8

*8. 0

10.6

12.0

*11. 4

*14. 8

19.6

no. 3

14. 2

*9. 3

P.s.i.

*4, 630

5,890

3,920

4,860

5,060

Maximum

crushing

strength

(12)

3,690

*6, 230

26. 1

17.0

*20. 1

17.7

32.0

5.8

9. 5

17.6

17.4

25.8

9.4

4,510

*6, 670

9, 100

5,480

5,300

5,180

8,320

11,720

9,590

*7, 130

3,350

5,790

P.s.i.

*6, 010

7,340

5,070

6,910

6, 670

8,410

4,840

*8, 230

6,860

9,620

*8, 240

12, 140

8,950

6,770

8,600

6,710

Modulus

of elasticity

(13)

13, 720

11, 480

*10, 230

10, 800

15, 980

4, 140

4,860

7,410

7,870

9,210

7,210

1,000

p.s.i.

*2, 230

1,740

1, 110

2,010

1,619

Hardness

1,360

*3, 020

2,630

*2, 690

*2, 920

2,990

1,510

*1, 500

1,070

3, 190

*2, 740

*2, 870

End

(14)

*1, 160

Lh.

*1, 040

1,310

900

1,410

1,370

1,680

690

*910

1,020

2, 140

1,350

2,030

1,870

1, 140

339

950

1, 130

2,490

1,600

*1, 660

2.260

670

930

1,720

1,820

Side

(15)

Compression perpendicular

to grain:

Stress at

proportional

limit

(16)

Lh.

*700

*960

850

1, 150

870

1,250

440

*770

790

1,700

1, 160

2, 140

1,610

1, 110

347

1,080

1,460

3,540

1,730

*1, 760

2,040

4,260

400

700

1,320

1,440

1,230

P.s.i.

*1, 000

940

830

890

1,210

Tension

perpendicular

to grain

(17)

P.s.i.

600

*590

1, 160

*980

*1, 200

980

1,340

1, 190

2,740

*1, 220

*1, 240

450

1,410

2, 170

*560

*460

*520

330

*390

*450

Shear

(18)

*670

*520

*500

1,000

*770

980

1,350

*710

*550

*560

P.s.i.

810

1,450

1,280

*2, 080

1,480

1,900

1, 160

*1, 080

1,090

1,720

*1, 380

1,960

2, 140

Cleavage, per

inch of

width

(19)

Lb.

270

*240

330

340

410

250

*1, 600

*1, 380

*410

940

2, 100

1,890

*1, 590

Toughness, per

specimen

250

*280

*290

*300

600

470

*340

3,580

1,030

1, 120

1,950

2,030

2,430

1,760

*420

*335

440

950

*190

300

525

430
154 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

TABLE 11.—Strength properties of Caribbean

Source

(2)

Moisture

content

(3)

Weight

per

cubic

foot

(4)

Specific

gravity:

Ovendry

volume

and

weight

(5)

Static bending

Species

(1)

Fiber

stress at

proportional

limit

(6)

Modulus

of

rupture

(7)

Modulus

of

elasticity

(8)

SELECTED TIMBERS FOR

COMPARATIVE PURPOSES

Oak, white

Quercus alba ^_ United States

United States

United Kingdom

United States

Percent

12.0

12.0

12.0

12.0

Lbs.

48

34

32

43

0.71

P.8.1.

8,200

7,800

P.s.i.

15, 200

12, 200

12, 000

15, 900

1,000

p.s.i.

1,780

1,950

1,590

2,060

Douglas-fir

Pseudotsuga menziesii ^* __

Pine, Scotch

Pinus sylvestris *. _ _

Pine, slash

Pinus elliottii ^^ _ _ .61 9,800

1 All values determined or adjusted to 12 percent moisture content except where designated (*) where moisture

content in column 3 applies.

2 Tropical Woods. Nos. 98 (2a), 99 (2b), 103 (2c).

3 [Gt. Brit.] Department of Scientific and Industrial

Research. A handbook of Empire timbers. Rev. ed.

Forest Prod. Res. Lab. 1945.

^ Armstrong, F. H. The strength properties of timber.

[Gt. Brit.] Dept. Sei. and Ind. Res. Forest Prod. Res.

Bui. 28. 1953.

ß Markwardt, L. J., and Wilson, T. R. C. Strength and

related properties of woods grown in the United States.

U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bui. 479. 1935.

^ Hohenkirk, L. S. Report on tests of woods from British

Guiana by the Forest Products Laboratories of Canada.

Jour. Board Agr. Brit. Guiana. Georgetown. 1920.

7 Wellwood, R. W. The physical-mechanical properties

of certain West Indies timbers. I. Caribbean Forester 7

(2): 151-173. 1946.

8 Kynoch, WiUiam, and Norton, Newell A. Mechanical

properties of certain tropical woods, chiefly from South
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 155

timhers in the air-dry condition ^—Continued

Static bending—

Continued Compressîion parallel to grain Hardness Compression perpendicular

to grain:

Stress at

proportional

limit

Tension

perpendicular

to

grain

Shear

Cleavage,

per inch

of width

Work to

proportional

limit

Work to

maximum

load

Fiber

stress at

proportional

limit

Maximum

crushing

strength

Modulus

of

elasticity

End Side

Toughness,

per specimen

(9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20)

In.'lb. In.'lh.

per

cu. in.

2.27

per

cu. in.

14.8

P.s.i.

4,760

P.s.i.

7,440

1,000

p.s.i. Lb.

1, 520

Lb.

1,360

P.s.i.

1,320

P.s.i.

800

P.s.i.

2,000

Lb.

450

In.-lb.

1.77 9.8

11.2

12.6

5,850 7,430

6 640

900 710 870 340 1, 160

800 680 1,400 295

2.76 6,280 9, 100 1,080 1,010 1,390 570 1,730

America. Mich. Univ. School Forestry and Conserv.

Bui. 7. 1938.

9 Armstrong, F. H. The strength properties of timber.

The 2-cm. standard for tests of small clear specimens.

[Gt. Brit.] Dept. Sei. and Ind. Res. Forest Prod. Res.

Bui. 34. 1955.

10 Heck, George E. Average strength and related properties of five foreign woods tested at the Forest Products

Laboratory. U.S. Forest Serv., Forest Prod. Lab. Rpt.

R1139 [Processed]. 1937.

11 Garratt, George A. The wood of Symphonia globtilifera. Tropical Woods 45: 1-15. 1936.

12 Fahnestock, G. R., and Garratt, George A. Nicaraguan pine {Pinus caribaea Mor.). Tropical Woods 55:

1-16.

13 Smathers, R. A comparative study of some of the

more important mechanical properties of Trinidad and

Burma grown teak. [Gt. Brit.] Imp. Forestry Inst.

Paper 27. 1951.

14 U.S. Forest Service Forest Products Laboratory.

Wood handbook. U.S. Dept. Agr. Handb. 72. 1955.
156 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207

TABLE 12.—Maxinmm allowable stresses for

(For use in designing

Botanical name

(1)

Andira coriácea

Carapa guianensis

Cedrela odorata

Dicorynia paraevsis

Diplotropis purpurea

Dipteryx odorata

Eperua falcata

Eschweilera longipes

Goupia glabra

Hura crepitans

Hymenaea courharil

Manilkara hidentata

Mora excelsa

Mora excelsa

Ocotea rodiaei

Ocotea rubra

Ocotea spp

Peltogyne pubescens

Platonia insignis

Qualea rosea

Quercus spp

Simarouba amara

Swartzia spp

Symphonia globulifera

Tabebuia serratifolia

Tectona grandis

Vochysia and Qualea spp._

Vouacapoua americana

Trade name

(2)

Angelin

Crabwood

Cedar, Central Am

Angélique

Tatabu

Tonka

Wallaba

Manbarklak

Kopie

Hura

Courbaril

Balata

Mora—red variety

Mora—white variety..

Greenheart, Demerara

Determa

Kereti silverballi

Purpleheart

Pakuri

Gronfoeloe

Oak

Simarouba

Parakusan, Wamara__

Manni

Bethabara

Teak (Indonesian)

Kwarie & Yemeri

Wacapou

Minimum

allowable

specific

gravity

for airdried

timber

(3)

0.80

0.60

0.35

0. 65

0.75

1.00

0.80

1.00

0. 75

0.40

0.85

LOO

0.95

0.90

LOO

0. 55

0.47

0.70

0.70

0. 55

0. 60

0.37

L05

Ö. 60

LOO

0.60

0.50

0.85

Allowable compressive

stress parallel to grain

Special

constructions in

smallsized

timber

(4)

P.s.i.

2,300

2,000

1, 100

2,200

4,000

4,000

2,600

3,000

2,600

1,050

3,400

4,000

2,800

2,600

4,000

1,850

2,000

2,600

2, 100

2,000

1,500

1, 100

5, 100

2,400

4,400

1,850

1,550

3,400

Air-dry

constructions

inside

and

outside

buildings

(5)

P.s.i.

1,800

1,550

850

1,700

3, 100

3, 100

2,100

2,300

2,000

825

2,600

3, 100

2,200

2,000

3,100

1,400

1,550

2,000

1,650

1,550

1,150

850

4,000

1,900

3,400

1,400

1,200

2,600

For use

in hydraulics

and

foundations

(6)

P.s.i.

1,450

950

575

1,250

2,800

2.500

1,350

1,400

1,300

350

2, 100

2, 100

1,350

1,350

2,400

850

1, 100

1,300

1,300

1,000

700

575

2,800

1,050

2,800

1, 150

750

2,000

Allowable compressive

stress perpendicular to grain

Special

constructions in

smallsized

timber

(7)

P.s.i.

650

310

230

575

500

1,500

700

1,250

700

260

1, 150

1,200

850

700

1,000

300

310

925

575

400

400

230

1,550

360

1, 150

425

240

925

Air-dry

constructions

inside

and

outside

buildings

(8)

P.s.i.

475

230

170

425

375

1, 100

525

950

525

190

850

900

650

525

750

230

230

675

425

300

300

170

1, 150

260

850

320

180

675

For use

in hydraulics

and

foundations

(9)

P.s.i.

380

130

110

280

340

900

340

525

330

65

650

575

360

300

575

120

160

380

320

180

115

110

775

130

700

220

100

500

1 This table has bee^ taken from pages 192-193, v. 2, of

J. Ph. Pfeiffer's "De Houtsoorten van Suriname" (Surinam Timbers), published in Amsterdam, Holland, in 1927.

Certain botanical names have been changed to conform

with later corrections in the nomenclature of Surinam

Timbers. Conversion from kg/cm^ to p.s.i. was done by
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 157

tropical timbers under different circonstances

timber structures) *

Allowable bending stress Modulus of elasticity Allowable shearing stress

Allowable

tension

Special

constructions

in small-sized

timber

(10)

Air-dry

constructions inside

and outside

buildings

(11)

For use in

hydraulics

and foundations

(12)

Special

constructions and

air-dry constructions

inside and

outside

buildings

(13)

For use in

hydraulics

and foundations

(14)

Special

constructions„in

smallsized

timber

(15)

Air-dry

constructions inside and

outside

buildings

(16)

For use in

hydraulics

and foundations

(17)

stress

perpendicu ar to

grain

under all

circumstances

(18)

P.s.i.

3,500

2,500

1,650

3,100

4,000

4,300

2,000

3,300

3,500

1,650

5,200

4,500

3,300

3,000

3,800

2,200

2,000

3,700

2,500

2,500

2,000

1,150

6,300

2,500

4,700

2,400

1,900

3,700

P.s.i.

2,600

1,850

1,250

2,300

3,000

3,200

1,500

2,500

2,600

1,250

3,900

3,400

2,500

2,300

2,800

1,700

1,500

2,800

1,900

1,900

1,500

875

4,800

1,850

3,600

1,800

1,450

2,800

P.s.i.

2,200

1,150

850

1,800

2,800

2,700

1,000

1,500

1,700

500

3,100

2,300

1.500

1, 650

2,200

1,000

1,050

1,850

1,500

1,200

850

575

3,300

1,000

3,100

1,400

850

2,100

P.s.i.

1, 493, 000

1, 422. 000

711,000

1, 493, 000

2, 062, 000

2, 204, 000

1, 280, 000

2, 133, 000

1, 635, 000

640, 000

1, 706, 000

2, 062, 000

1, 706, 000

1, 777, 000

2, 275, 000

1, 138, 000

1, 067, 000

1, 351, 000

1, 564, 000

1, 138, 000

1, 209, 000

782, 000

2, 773, 000

1, 351, 000

2, 275, 000

1, 138, 000

853, 000

1, 706, 000

P.s.i.

1, 209, 000

1, 209, 000

569, 000

1, 209, 000

1, 706, 000

1, 849, 000

1, 067, 000

1, 777, 000

1, 351, 000

427, 000

1, 422, 000

1, 706, 000

1, 422, 000

1, 493, 000

1, 920, 000

1, 067, 000

853, 000

1, 138, 000

1, 280, 000

1, 067, 000

995, 000

640, 000

2, 275, 000

1, 138, 000

1, 920, 000

995, 000

711,000

1, 422, 000

P.s.i.

400

260

150

280

380

500

360

550

400

150

450

625

450

600

280

140

170

450

310

330

170

150

650

190

550

240

200

300

P.s.i.

340

210

110

240

330

450

300

475

340

110

390

525

380

500

230

130

140

370

260

280

140

110

525

160

450

200

170

240

P.s.i.

340

180

85

210

340

370

260

380

300

71

360

470

310

430

210

100

120

330

260

140

100

85

470

110

370

140

140

230

P.s.i.

7

20

17

16

20

33

11

23

16

18

11

26

33

33

10

20

24

26

9

26

33

17

11

9

17

14

21

20

the Secretariat, Caribbean Commission. After conversion, the latter figures were rounded off as follows:

0-100 rounded off to the unit; 100-400 rounded off to

10 units; 400-1,000 rounded off to 25 units; and above

1,000 rounded off to 100 units. Figures for elasticity

modulus (p.s.i.) were rounded off to the nearest thousand.
INDEX TO THE TIMBERS

The preferred trade names and scientific names of timbers discussed in detail in the text are indicated by

boldface type.

A

Page

abeille 34

aburaq 60

acajou 45, 77, 79

blaiic 107

cèdre . ^ 45

rouge 45

acapú 30, 121

aceitero. 62

aceitillo 107

cimarrón 107

aceituna 107

aceituno 107

Achras emarginata 34

acomât rouge ^ 44

aguacatillo . 112

aguango 103

aguano- 77

aipe . 123

alasoabo 114

Alexa

hauhiniaeflora 63

imperatricis 63

leiopetala 63

wachenheimii 63

algarroba de las Antilles 47

algarrobo 47, 102

del pais 103

almacigo 62

blanco 62

almendro 27, 44, 89

colorado 27

almendrón 44

almond, Indian 89

amaapa 54

amandier 42

bois 42

amapa 54, 99

amarante,. 96

amaranth 96

amarillo 89

amarillón 89

Amazon wood 121

amourette 109

Ampelocera hottlei 43

anacagiiita 110

anaura 66

Andira

coriácea 27

inermis 27

jamaicensis [syn.] 27

racemosa 27

retusa [syn.] 27

surinamensis 27

wachenheimii 27

andiroba 49

empire _. 49

angelim 59

rajado 85

streaked 85

angelin 27

cabbage 27

Page

angelique 28

blanc 29

gris 28

rouge 28

Aniha ovalifolia 68

anjama 52

anoniwana 112

Antonia ovata 65

apa 123

apamate 99

arbol de la lluvia 103

archipén 62

arcwood 39

aromata 30

assacú 64

atomahoko 68

auau 92

ausubo 34

awapa 123

B

baaka 53

babeen 30

Hoogland 31

bacoropary 91

bacury 91

bacury-guazú 91

bagasse 33

blanc 33

jaune 33

Bagassa

g uianensis 33

tiliaefolia 33

bakoerie 91

balata 34

rouge 34

balsa 36

wood 36

banak 30

bannia 126

barabú , ^6

baramalli 38

baramanni 38

baria ^^ 104

barillo 82, 104

barklak ^\

baromalli ^7

basra-boUetrie ^ l¿

basra locus ^^

basralocus ^°

basriletri 1^^

batseed ;:^

baywood ^^

becuiba ^i

beeberoe - - Si

belarbre ^^

bera QQ

bethabara ^3

bewana gy

bibiju--- K<7

bibiru

159
160 COMMERCIAL TIMßERS OF THE CARIBBEAN

Page

bibirubaum., 57

bie-ie-hoehoe 123

bijlhout. 123

bili-hoedoe 123

birch

red 62

West Indian . 62

biri-hoedoe^ 123

birma-_, 104

birmah 104

bitter damson 107

bitterwood 107

blackaberi 117

blackheart, 30

boarwood._^ 82, 107

bofrohoedoe 110

boisà flambeau 117

angelin 121

blanc_-_. 107

blanchet 114

cachimán 75

café 43

chêne 128

cochon 82

d'amande 112

d'encens 117

d'Inde 44

de fer 41

de gaïac 73

de lettre gris 109

de lettres 109

de masse 41

de sabre 123

diable 41

du diable 64

encens 53

flot 36,76

gaulette 66

gris 41

gris casse._1 41

macaque 85

pagoda 84

pin 75

pin marron 75

pourpre 96

rivière 99

rouge 117

serpent 85

sucre 84

violet 96

zebra 85

bolletrie 34

bastard 117

boncillo 82

boume houmiri 117

bourra courra 109

bousi tamarin 85

Bowdichia guianensis [syn.] 115

brea-caspi 82

breaknail 41

brick-wax tree 82

broadleaf 42

Brosimum

aubletii [syn.] 108

guißnensis [syn.] 108

brownheart 121

bruinhart 121

bullet

bastard 116

black 44

cherry 44

red 44

bulletwood 34

buUey tree 112

Page

bullhoof. 43

female^ 43

macho-^L_ , 43

male. 43

bully

bastard 116

mountain 44

white 44

bullywood 89

burada 59

Bursera

copallifera 62

glahrifolia 62

jorullensis 62

penicillata 62

simaruba 62

tecomaca 62

bustic ,..'--- 44

willow 44 c

cabari 3Ö

cabary 30

cabbage bark 27

cabory_ 30

cachimán de montagne 75

Caesalpinia 27

caguairan 47

caixeta 107

cajuca 31

cajuela 112

calaba 104

calabash, wild 104, 114

Calophyllum

antillanum [syn.] 104

brasiliense 104

hrasiliense var. antillanum 104

brasiliense var. rekoi 104

lucidum 104

camagüey 110

camaticaro 31

camojuru 110

campano 102

camoruco 110

caoba 77, 79

dominicana 79

hondurena 77

caobilla 79, 95

caraba 49

caramura 117

Carapa g uianensis 49

nicaraguensis 49

procera 49

rouge 49

slateri 49

surinamensis 49

carapote 49

Carolina 44

carreto. 103

casique care__^_ 109

cassadaL 44

casse 41

castaño 110

Catalpa

bignonioides 128

longissima 128

speciosa 128

catatÚ 112

Catostemma

alstonii 38

commune 38

fragrans 38

sclerophyllum 38
INDEX TO THE TIMBERS 161

Page

caya

colorado 44

de loma 44

rubia 44

cedar 45

Central American 45

cigarbox 45

Honduras 45

Mexican 45

red 45,77

South American 45

Spanish 45

West Indian 45

white 114

cèdre 45

blanc 114

espagnol 45

gris 60, 68

Cedrela g uianensis 45

huheri 46

mexicana 45

odorata 45

tonduzii 47

cedro 45

amargo 45

amarillo 45

cimarrón 104

colorado 45

dulce 45

español 45

hembra 45

macho 45, 49, 112

Celtis schippii 43

cenizero 103

cerillo 82

chaca 62

cháchiga 44

chac-te-cook 112

chaperno 27

chêne

d'Amérique 128

Haïtien- 128

noir 128

chewstick 82

waika 82

chibou 62

chicharro 89

chijole 104

Chimarrhis cymosa 99

ciprés 95

Clathrotropis

brachypetala 30

macrocarpa 30

nítida 30

coapinol 47

cochun 89

cocobolo 101

coeur dehors 115

coffee mortar 89

copal 71

copie 69

coral 112

corbán 82

corkwood 36

corn wood • 27

cortés 99

Coumarouna odorata [syn.] 120

counterballi 66

courali 114

couranira . — 117

courbaril 47

courbaril plum 47

cow-tree 34

cow-wood 33

crabwood 49

crappo 49

Page

cuaba 44

cuajo 31

cuapinol 47

cuja 27

cumarú 120

cumary 120

cupiuba 69

curtidor 112

cuya 44

cypress 95 D

Dacryodes excelsa 55

hexandra [syn.] 55

daguillo 107\

dakama 52\

Dalbergia\

cuhilquitzensis 101

nigra 101

retusa 101

stevensonii 101

tucurensis 101

dalemarie 104

dalli 31

dastan 96

degame 104

determa 53

Dicorynia g uianensis 28

paraensis [syn.] 28

Dimorphandra

conjugata 52

excelsea [Syn.] 86

gonggrijpii [syn.] 86

guianensis [syn.] 86

mora [syn.] 86

Dipholis

durifolia 44

juhilla 44

montana 44

nigra 44

octosepala 44

pallens 44

salicifolia 44

stevensonii 44

Diplotropsis

brasitiensis [syn.] 115

guianensis [syn.] 115

purpurea.S 115

purpurea var. hrasiliensis 116

Dipteryx odorata 120

doctor gum 82

doctor's wood 82

doun-tree 36

Drypetes

brownii 43

glauca 43

variahilis 4á

dukali 54

dukaliballi 28

dun 36 E

ébène ^c

rouge ^°

verte .^^

ebo, Scotch ZTT^

edaballi ^"j

elimi Qg

ellongrypho «g

emajagua ^26

emeri ^26

emory 55

encens «ß

enea
162 COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN

Page

eperu 123

Eperua

falcata 123

grandiñora 123

jenmanii 123

schomburgkiana 123

épi de bleu. 121

Eschweilera

blanchetiana 59

longipes 81

odora 81

sagotiana 81

aubglandulosa 81 F

faisán 44 farsha 66

feuilles, petites 79

flambeau rouge 38

ñorecillo 60

frêne 107

fukadi 89

fustic 33 G

gaïac 73

de cayenne 120

femelle 73

franc 73

male 73

galba 104

gall tree 107

gateado 77

gatia 109

gavilán 107

geelhart 91

gelé bagasse 33

gombo, red 62

gombolimbo, red 62

gommier 55, 62

blanc 55

montagne 55

mountain 55

gouannegowl 102

goupi 69

Goupia

glabra 69

paraensis [syn.] 69

goupie 69

greenheart

black 57

brown 57

bull-forehead 57

Demerara 57

Surinam 57

white 57

yellow 57

grignon 53

fou 60,72

franc 53

indien 60

rouge 53

gri-gri..._ 66

gris-gris 00

coumate 66

rouge 66

groenhart 39

groenhartbloom 57

¿ronfoeloe 60

berg 60

mountain... oO

gruenherzbaum 57

gruenholz 57

guaba 89

Page

Guaiacum

coulteri 73

guatemalense [syn.] 73

officinale 73

sanctum 73

guaiacum-wood 73

guaimaro 109

guama 85

guana HO

guango 102

guano 36

guapinol 47

guarabú rajado 96

guarataro HO

guatecare 81

guayabo 89

guayacán 73

blanco- 73

negro 73

guayacancillo 73

guayabo léon 89

Guenetia macrosperma [syn.] 38

guinguamadou 31

gum-copal, Brazilian 47

gumbo-limbo 62 H

haiari 63

haiariballi 63

hakia 39

hariroroe 65

Hibiscus

elatus 76

sea 76

tilidceus 76

Hieronyma 112

hog plum 82

homiry 117

huhub 92

Humiria

balsamifera 116

cassiquiari 116

floribunda 116

floribunda var. subsessilis 116

hura 64

Hura

crepitans 64

polyandra 64

hura wood 64

hurawood 64

Hyeronima

alchorneoides 112

caribaea 112

clusioides 112

cubana 112

jamaicensis 112

laxiñora 112

nipensis 112

Hymenaea

courbaril 47

davisii 47

Hymenolobium excelsum 59 I

inacu 65

incense tree 62

incense-tree 71

incienso 71

Inga alba 84

inga caetitú 85

Inga laurina 85

praxinea [syn.]. 84

vera 85

inyak 65

ipé 39
INDEX TO THE TIMBERS 163

Page

ipê tabaco 39

ironwood""'"_""_ 39 73

iteballiI-"_"~~~"~_~~ ' 72

itikiboroballi~_~"~ 125

J

jabillo 64

Jacaranda lOi

jacareuba] 104

jagiiilla"l.l. 75

jakopi 60

jataiba 47

jatay~_ 47

jatoba 47

javillo 64

jetay" 47

jocote 107 johoto 114

juba 44

jubilla 44

colorada 44

jucuma colorada 44

jutaby 47 K

kabukalli 81

kakaralli 81

black 81

karaba 49

karaba-yek 49

karapa 49

karst 110

kauston_- 66

kauta 66

kautaballi'_ 66

kereti silverballi 68

kobehe 110

koelero 109

koemaroe 120

koerahara 104

koerli 104

kola 110

kopie 69

koraro 27

koroboreli 96

krappa 49

krassa 104

kroekroe-amète 110

kumaru 120

kurahara 104

kurokai 70

kuruburelli 96

kwari

rode 72

wane• 72

wiswis 72

kwarie 72

appel 72

berg 60

wane 72

wassie-wassie 60

kwatuk sipu 57 L

laba-laba 60

lana 36

lanero 36

laño 36

lapacho 39

lastan 96

laurac 104

laurel sabino 75

laurier 53

canelle 53

rose 95

Page

leche

amarilla g2

amarillo~"_'~ 82

de maria-"///._ 104

Lecythis

paraensis 59

usitata 59

leopard wood"..__ 109

letterhoot....__. 109

letterhout'_[ IQQ

letterwood""'33, 109

lettre moucheté"~__ ' 109

licahouty_ 65

Licania

buxifolia 66

densiñora'_'_ 66

laxifíora'_" 66

macrophylla 66

majuacula 66

micrantha 66

mollis 66

persaudii 66

platypus 66

ternatenais 41

venosa 66

lignumvitae 73

bastard39, 73

genuine 73

limbo 62

lime, bastard 77

locuat' 47

locus 47

locust 47

South American 47

West Indian 47

West Indies 47

lorahara 104

louro, red 53

louro vermelho 53 M

mac aya 27

Machaerium 101

Macrocatalpa longissima [syn.] 128

madeira 79

magnolia 75

Magnolia

portoricensis 75

splendens 75

maho 110

mahoe 76

blue 76

mountain 76

noir 81

seaside 76

mahogany 79

bay 79

bastard49, 110

Benin 105

Brazilian49, 77

British Honduras 77

British Guiana 49

broadleaf76, 79

Central American J^^

Colombian 77

Costa Rica 77

Cuban 79

Demerara ^9

Dominican 7^

Guatemalan 77

Honduras jo

horseflesh ^¡L^

Jamaican ¡^

Mexican 77

Nicaraguan ¡.Í.

Panama *'
164 COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN

Page

mahogany—continued

para 49

Peruvian,-- 77

robe. 49

small-leaf . . 79

South American^ 76

Spanish 79

Tabasco 77

true 79

West Indies.-- 79

mahot-cochon 110

mahot rouge 86

maipaima_ 68

majagua 76

azul 76

majugua 76

malacacheta 107

malako... 96

mammee apple, wild 91

mampa 54

manbarklak. 81

mandioquiera 60

Mangifera indica 91

mangle blanc 82

mango 91

mangue, yellow 82

manil 82

Manilkara

balota [syn.] 34

bidentata 34

darienensis [syn.] 34

huberi 34

jaimiqui 34

nitida [syn.] 34

manilparcouri 91

manio 60

manni 82

manniballi 84,82

mano de danta 110

mano de léon 99

maparajuba 34

maporokon 84

mapou

baril 110

puant 110

mappa 54

mapwirtan 68

marágoncalo 112

marblewood _: 85

margoncalo 112

maria 104

mario 1Ó4

marish 66

marishballi 66

Marmaroxylon racemosum 85

marouba 107

maruba 107

marupa 107

masagrie 82

massaranduba 34

mast wood 128

mastic -^ 62

matákkie._ 82

mata-mata,,-.,: 81

matozaína 91

mattoe 114

mayaro poui 30

mayflower^ 99

meniridan 60

menirislin 60

meri 117

mijico 44

milk-tree 34

Mimusops

balata [syn.] 34

balata vsLT. cruegeri [syn.] 34

bidentata [syn.] 34

Page

emarginaia [syn.] 34

globosa [syn.] 34

nitida [syn.] 34

riedeleana [syn.]_ 34

moca 27

molinillo 64

monkey apple 66

monkeypod 103

montouchi- 125

moonba 31

mora 86

black 87

white 87

Mora

excelsa 86

gonggrijpii 86

guianensis [syn.] 86

mora de Guayana 86

mora-yek 86

morabukea 86 yaruru 66

morado 96

muru 86

muscadierà grive 31 N

naked Indian 62

nancito 112

naranja podrida 54

naranjo 89

nargusta 88

nazasi 49

Nectandra rodiaei [syn.] 57

negrito 107

niña 117

níspero 34

amarillo 44

nogaed 101

wood 101

noibwood 39

nutlet 31

nutmeg, wild 31 o

oak

French 128

Haitian 128

Jamaica 128

Ochroma

lagopus [syn.] 36

pyramidale 36

ocobo 99

ocote 92

Ocotea

canaliculata 68

oblonga 68

puberula 68

rodiaei 57

rubra 53

waúhenheimii 68

ocuje 104

okotjo 112

okume, Brazilian 60

Oliver, white___^ 89

olivo--- 107

Oloroso 117

omiry 117 P

paardevleeschout 34

pacuru 91

pakoelie1 91

pakoorie 91

pakouri 91
INDEX TO THE TIMBERS 165

Page

pakuri 90

palétuvier gaune 82

pallewie 123

palo

de chancho 126

de lana 36

de maria 104

de oro 109

machete 123

maria 104

santo 73

palo-chanco 112

pamashto 34

panda 114

hoedoe 114

pao violeta 96

papoelie 91

paracouril 91

paradise-tree 107

Parahancornia amapa 54

Parakusan 92

parcourie 91

parcouril 91

pardillo negro 89

rarinari

campestris 59

rodolphii 59

parinary 59

parrewe 123

partridge wood 27

partridgewood27, 121

pasa-ak 107

patte de lièvre 36

pau d'arco 39

pau-mulato brancho 89

pau parahyba 107

pau roxo 96

peeling bark 62

Peltogyne

densiflora [syn.] 96

porphyrocardia 96

pubescería 96

venosa 96

venosa var densiflora 96

penda 96

perakaua 86

permán 82

peto 86

pheasant wood 27

piento-boUetrie 112

pientrie 31

pilón 112

pin 75

pine

British Honduras pitch 92

Caribbean 92

Cuban 92

Guatemala pitch 92

longleaf 92

Nicaraguan pitch 92

pitch 92

West Indies 94

white 92

wild 95

pino 92

macho 92

ocote 92

veta 92

piñón 110

Pinus

caribaea 92

hondurensis [syn.] 92

occidentalis 94

oocarpa 92

piratiner 109

Page

Piratinera g uianensis io8

lancifera IQQ

panamensis 109

paraensis 109

pisie" 68

Pithecellobium

racemiflorum [syn.] 35

racemosum [syn.] 85

saman_ 102

piû 36

Platonia insignis 90

podocarp 95

Podocarpus

coriaceus 95 g uatemalensis 95

oleifolius 95

salicifolius [syn.] 95

trinitensis 95

poirier 99

blanc 99

rouge 99

pois doux marron 128

pokhout 73

polak 36

pomme pin 75

pookadi 89

porokai. 71

possentrie 64

possumtree 64

possumwood 64

poui

pink 99

yellow 39

prakue 86 ?rokonie 84

*rotiuin

attenuatum 55

crenatum 70

decandrum 70

sagotianum 70

schomburgkianum 70

puero 36

pung 36

purgo '^4

purperheart 96

purpleheart 96

puta locus 85 Q

Qualea

albiflora^

coerula oO

glaherrima [syn.] 60

rosea ^0

quaruba 60

quinilla 34

quinillof

quira' ^'

R

radegonide ^^^

rakudar .^î

rain-tree )ji

blanco gg

de savanna

rode 27

kabbes AJ

locus gß

roode
166 COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN

Page

rora 57

rosewood 101

Honduras 101

rosita 112 S

sablier 64

sac-chum 44

sagua 112

saka 96

sakavalli 96

saman 102

Samanea saman [syn.] 102

sanaguare 102

sandbox 64

sandbox tree 64

sangre de doncella 44

sanguinaria 44

santa-maría 104, 95

sapater 96

sapino 69

sapodilla, wild 34'

sapotiller marron 44

sapucaia 59

sara 106

sarebebeballi 106

sarrapia 120

satine 33

gris 109

rouge 109

satinwood, West Indies 107

Scotch ebo 112

shibadan 43

siduabari 68

silverballi 68

kereti 68

white 68

yellow 68

simarouba 107

Simarouha

amara 107

glauca 107

tulae 107

versicolor 107

simarupa 107

sipiri 57

sipiroe 57

sisam 77

slang houdou 85

snakewood 108, 85

snecki housou 85

soemaroepa 107

sorodon 112

sponsoehoedoe 66

sterculia 110

Sterculia

apétala 110

carihaea 110

carthaginensis [syn.] 110

cuhensis. 110

mexicana 110

pruriens 110

recordiana 110

rugosa 110

stinking toe 47

Stinkwood, 69

sucupira 115

supupira 115

suradan 112

suradanni 112

surdina 112

Swartzia

hannia 126

henthamiana 125

jenmanii 92

Page

leiocalycina 125

polyphylla 92

schomburgkii 92

tomentosa 126

Swietenia

helizensis 77

candollei [syn.] 77

cirrhata [syn.] 77

humilis 77

krukovii [syn.] 77

macrophylla 76

mahagoni 79

tessmanii [syn.] 77

Symphonia globulifera 82 T

tabaniro 116

tabebuia 39

tabebuia, white 114

Tabebuia

dominicensis [syn.] 99

heterophylla 99

insignis var. monophylla 114

ipe 40

leucoxylon [syn.] 114

longipes [syn.] 114

paluda [syn.] 99

pentaphylla [syn.] 99

riparia 114

rosea 99

serratifolia 39

stenocalyx 114

tabloncillo 44

tabonuco 55

Talauma

dodecapetala 75

plumierii [syn.] 75

tami 36

tamoene 123

tápana 112

tapanare 112

tatabu 115

tatajuba 33

tauroniro 116

tawanango 117

teak 118

Moulmein 118

Rangoon 118

teca 118

teck 118

teck de la Guyane 28

Tecoma serratifolia [syn.] 39

Tectona grandis 118

tempisque 44

tentó 69

Terminalia

amazonia 88

catappa 89

chicharronia 89

intermedia 89

latifolia 42

obovata [syn.] 89

teteroma 53

teteruma 53

thoeraroe 65

tibokushi 109

timbo

timbó

pau 30

rana 30

tingimonie 71

toledo wood 81

tonka 120

tonka bean 120

tonquin 120
INDEX TO THE TIMBERS 167

Page

topa 36

torito 112

torore 86

toto amate 123

Trattinickia 71

triane 117

trompillo 112

turamira 117

turpentine tree 62

txitxya 44

u

uapa tabaco 123

ucuúba 31

urero 103

urubuzeiro 85

urucurana 112

V

vanani 82

varape 49

vario 104

varital 43, 44

vera 73

violet 96

violet wood 96

Virola

guatemalensis 31

koschnyi 30

melinonii 31

merendonis [syn.] 30

sebifera 31

aurinamensis 30

Vochysia

densiflora 72

guatemalensis 126

guianensia 72

hondurensia 126,72

tetraphylla 72

tomentosa 72

volador 89

Vouacapoua

americana 121,106

macropetala 106

pallidior 122

w

waapa 123

wacapo u 121

wakapoe 121

walaba

hariraro 123

ituri walaba 123

roode 123

Paye

wallaba 123

ituri 123

soft 123

water 123

wamara 125

wana " 53

wane 53

kwari 72

wapa 123

blanc 123

gris 123

huileaux 123

warakuri 114

warikuri 114

waroekoelie 114

warokorie 114

waspisiana 86

wassiba 39

wassie-wassie kwarie 60

waterwood 99

wayaca 73

white-cedar 99

whitewood 114

wild-dilly 34

wiswis kwari 72

wiswishvalie 60

witte

mora 86

pisie 68

woraccori 114

woto-kwarie 60

wouapa 123

Y

yaba 27

yahu 110

yamamadou 31

yaruru morabukea 66

yellow wood, British Honduras 95

yemeri 126

yemoke 126

yoboko 123

yokewood 128

Z

Zanthoxylum flavum 107

zapatero 96, 112

zapote faisán 44

zopilote 77

zora 103

zwamp panta 114

zwart 68

zwarte kabbes 115

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1962 O—S96S44

\FoT sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Ofläce

Washington 25, D.C. - Price $1