United States Department of Agriculture / Forest Service

Rocky Mountain Research Station

General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-314

October 2013

A Simple Protocol Using Underwater 

Epoxy to Install Annual Temperature 

Monitoring Sites in Rivers and Streams

Daniel J. Isaak

Dona L. Horan

Sherry P. Wollrab
Isaak, Daniel J.; Horan, Dona L.; and Wollrab, Sherry P. 2013. A simple protocol using underwater epoxy to install annual temperature monitoring sites in rivers and streams. Gen. Tech. 

Rep. RMRS-GTR-314. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky 

Mountain Research Station. 21 p.

Abstract

Thermal regimes in rivers and streams are fundamental determinants of biological processes and 

are often monitored for regulatory compliance. Here, we describe a simple technique for establishing 

annual monitoring sites that uses underwater epoxy to attach miniature sensors to large rocks and 

cement bridge supports, which then serve as protective anchors. More than 500 new monitoring 

sites were established using the technique from 2010 to 2012 in rivers and streams across the Rocky 

Mountains. Revisits to 179 sites indicate good sensor retention rates, with 88 - 100% of sensors 

retained after 1 year in low-gradient streams (<3%) and 70 - 78% retained in high-gradient streams 

(>3%). Establishing annual monitoring sites with underwater epoxy is inexpensive, can be done in 

a wide range of water temperatures, and improves data collection efficiency because few site visits 

are required and measurements are recorded throughout the year.

Keywords: stream temperature, monitoring, underwater epoxy, climate change, thermal regime, 

TMDL, water quality standard, temperature sensor

Authors_____________________________

Daniel J. Isaak is a Research Fisheries Scientist with the U.S. 

Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Aquatic 

Sciences Laboratory in Boise, Idaho. He holds a B.S. degree 

from South Dakota State University, a M.S. degree from the 

University of Idaho, and a Ph.D. from the University of Wyoming. 

His research focuses on understanding the effects of climate 

change and natural disturbance on stream habitats and fish 

populations, monitoring and modeling of stream temperature 

and fish populations, development and application of spatial 

statistical models for stream networks, and use of digital and 

social media to connect people, information, and landscapes.

Dona L. Horan is a Fisheries Biologist with the Rocky Mountain 

Research Station Boise Aquatic Sciences Laboratory in Boise, 

Idaho. She holds a B.S. degree from the University of California, Berkeley, and a M.S. degree from Utah State University.

Sherry P. Wollrab is a Fisheries Biologist with the Rocky 

Mountain Research Station Boise Aquatic Sciences Laboratory 

in Boise, Idaho. She holds a B.S. degree from the University 

of New Hampshire, and a M.S. degree from the University 

of Idaho.

Acknowledgments____________________

Support for this project was provided by the Rocky Mountain Research Station and Washington Office of Research and 

Development in the U.S. Forest Service. The final draft of this 

report was improved by comments from Andrew Todd, Bruce 

Rieman, Don Essig, Frank McCormick, and Jen Stamp. We 

thank Art Butts and Andy Hill for their suggestions to use PVC 

canisters as solar shields. We also thank the PIBO stream 

monitoring program and many other biologists and hydrologists who have established temperature monitoring sites 

using the epoxy technique and provided valuable feedback 

concerning its efficacy. A discussion with Brett Roper during 

a turkey hunting trip about previous uses of epoxy to anchor 

steel cables into boulders for fish screw-traps inspired us to 

think about applications for temperature monitoring.

Cover: Dona Horan provided the images used on the cover. The stream photograph is of Johnson Creek in central Idaho.

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Contents

Introduction.............................................................................................................. 1

Materials and Methods............................................................................................ 2

Preparation for the Field............................................................................... 3

Sensor Installation........................................................................................ 4

Data Retrieval and Site Maintenance........................................................... 9

Results From Previous Sensor Installations ........................................................ 9

Discussion ............................................................................................................. 12

Conclusion.................................................................................................. 14

References ............................................................................................................. 15

Appendix A. Materials Needed to Install an Annual Stream Temperature 

Monitoring Site Using Underwater Epoxy.............................................. 18

Appendix B. Sample Datasheet With Information to Record During 

Establishment of an Annual Temperature Monitoring Site................... 19

Appendix C. Field Reference Guide: 9 Steps for Installing a 

Temperature Sensor with Epoxy............................................................. 20

Appendix D. Downloading a TidbiT v2 Temperature Sensor Using a 

Data Shuttle............................................................................................... 21

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-314. 2013 1

Introduction

Thermal regimes are fundamentally important to aquatic biotas (McCullough and 

others 2009; Neuheimer and Taggart 2007; Portner and Peck 2010) and the advent of 

inexpensive, miniature digital sensors has resulted in widespread temperature monitoring efforts in recent decades (fig. 1a; Hrachowitz and others 2010; Isaak and others 

2011; Johnson and others 2005; Webb and others 2008). Monitoring will continue to 

increase given mandates associated with water quality standards (Birkeland 2001; Poole 

and others 2004; Todd and others 2008) and concerns over stream and river temperature warming from climate change (Isaak and Rieman 2013; Isaak and others 2012), 

watershed disturbances (Dunham and others 2007), and urbanization (Kaushal and 

others 2010). Many protocols exist to guide temperature monitoring and standardize 

techniques (Adams 2013; Dunham and others 2005; Mauger 2008; USEPA In Press; 

Ward 2011; Zimmerman and Finn 2012), but none has adequately solved the vexing 

problem of reliably establishing annual monitoring sites in the dynamic, disturbanceprone environments that rivers and streams provide. Most protocols describe techniques 

suitable for seasonal monitoring during low-flow periods, so the majority of existing 

temperature data consist only of one or two short sampling periods at a site (fig. 1b; 

Figure 1—Characteristics of temperature sensor deployments in Idaho and western Montana streams from 

1993-2011. Number of sites sampled each year from 1993-2011 (a) and length of sampling effort for 4,603 unique 

sites (b). In the bottom graph, a “Year” usually consists of 2-3 months of measurements during a summer season. 

Data are from the NorWeST stream temperature database and are a composite across state, federal, tribal, and 

private organizations (Isaak and others 2011).
2 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-314. 2013

Isaak and others 2011; Moore 2006; Moore and others 2013). As a result, it is often 

difficult (or impossible) to describe long-term (i.e., multiple decades) trends in stream 

temperatures or the full array of characteristics that constitute thermal regimes (e.g., 

seasonal means and variance, date of spring and winter onset, total annual degree days; 

Olden and Naiman 2010). 

Existing protocols have several additional limitations. First, they are expensive to 

implement—not with regards to materials, but with regards to the number of site visits 

that are required for site maintenance. Because existing protocols are usually for seasonal monitoring, two site visits are required each year (one for sensor deployment and 

one for retrieval) and data are collected for a subset of the annual cycle (typically 2 to 3 

months). Modern temperature sensors have memory and battery capacities sufficient for 

continuous measurements over prolonged periods (i.e., 1 to 10 years), so it is inefficient 

not to use this capacity. Second, existing protocols are obtrusive—often requiring metal 

bars or other artificial anchor points and steel cables be left in the stream. Third, sensors 

are often positioned on the streambed, where they are more prone to abrasion or burial 

by substrates during floods, which results either in sensor loss or biased measurements 

from interactions with thermally distinct hyporheic waters (Arrigoni and others 2008). 

In this report, we describe a simple protocol that uses underwater epoxy to attach 

sensors to the downstream sides of large rocks and cement bridge supports, which then 

serve as protective anchors. Earlier research indicated that attachment to these features 

does not bias temperature measurements and that epoxy installations could withstand 

large floods (Isaak and Horan 2011). Here, we provide a detailed protocol description 

that has been refined through hundreds of additional sensor installations. Estimates of 

sensor retention rates at 1- and 2-year intervals are also provided to facilitate comparisons with other techniques and to provide users with estimates of the amount of data 

that a monitoring network will yield.

Materials and Methods

The following materials are required to establish an annual temperature monitoring 

site (see Appendix A for part numbers and vendors): (a) underwater epoxy, (b) PVC 

canister, (c) miniature temperature sensor, (d) 4-inch cable tie (military grade for outdoor 

use), (e) plumber’s tape, (f) rubber gloves, (g) plastic viewing box, (h) wire brush, and 

(i) metal forestry tag (fig. 2). A GPS, datasheet, and digital camera are also useful for 

geo-referencing and photo-archiving sites to aid in future relocation efforts and data 

retrievals.

Isaak and Horan (2011) assessed many underwater epoxies in laboratory and field 

trials to identify one with the best properties for use in this protocol. The FX-764 

Hydro-Ester® Splash Zone Epoxy manufactured by Fox Industries (Baltimore, MD, 

http://www.foxind.com/) was chosen in these trials because its adhesive strength was 

far superior to other epoxies, and it had a putty-like consistency that made it easy to use 

in the field. A variety of miniature temperature sensors are available that could be used 

with this protocol (Dunham and others 2005; USEPA In Press). Our preferred sensor 

is the TidbiT® v2 manufactured by Onset Computer Corporation (Bourne, MA, http://

www.onsetcomp.com/) because of its small size, accuracy (+0.2 ̊C), low annual drift 

rate (0.1 ̊C/year), large memory and long battery life (5+ years), waterproof casing, and 

ease of data retrieval with a portable data shuttle or field computer. 
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-314. 2013 3

Preparation for the Field

Sensor accuracy should be assessed across a range of temperatures and compared 

to temperature measurements from a more accurate instrument (e.g., a NIST (National 

Institute of Standards and Technology) certified thermometer) before field deployment. 

A simple accuracy check can be done by placing multiple sensors in a container, moving the container in and out of a refrigerator for several days, and then examining the 

data for anomalies. Other protocols provide more details regarding these assessments 

(Adams 2013; Dunham and others 2005; USEPA In Press). This step will also identify 

sensors that malfunction during the launch/download sequence or have battery failures. 

Malfunctioning sensors can be returned to the manufacturer for replacement. 

During field deployments, temperature sensors must be shaded from sunlight to avoid 

biased measurements caused by sunlight striking the sensor (fig. 3; Isaak and Horan 

2011). A variety of materials can be used to construct a solar shield, but PVC canisters 

are good choices because of their low cost and the protective housing they provide. The 

best type of canister has two parts; a threaded bushing that forms a base and a screw cap 

(fig. 2). The specific model described in Appendix A provides a good fit for small sensors like the TidbiT and costs about $2. Regardless of the canister chosen, the base must 

have a wide lip for the epoxy to mold around because it will not adhere directly to PVC. 

Figure 2—Equipment needed to install annual stream temperature monitoring sites includes: (a) two-part FX-764 

epoxy from Fox Industries, (b) PVC canister solar shield, (c) temperature sensors, (d) cable tie, (e) plumber’s tape, 

(f) rubber gloves, (g) plastic viewing box, (h) wire brush, and (i) metal forestry tag. 
4 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-314. 2013

To prepare the PVC canister for use as a solar shield, drill several 3/8-inch holes 

through the sides of the cap to facilitate water circulation. The holes should be placed 

high on the sides of the cap to avoid overlap with the bushing threads after the cap is 

screwed to the base. Also drill one hole on the face of the cap near a side hole to provide a location where the sensor can be secured with a cable tie (fig. 4). Plumber’s tape 

should be wrapped around the threads of the base to ensure easy removal of the cap 

after extended deployment. If sensors will be placed in streams where human traffic is 

common, the PVC canister can be painted a neutral color to reduce its visibility. 

Sensor Installation

Where sensors are deployed as part of broad-scale sampling designs is beyond the 

scope of this report, but is covered elsewhere (Dunham and others 2007; Isaak and 

others 2009; Isaak 2011b; Stevens and Olsen 1999; Zimmerman 2006). Here, we focus 

only on sensor installations at individual sites. The installation process has nine steps 

and should be done during low flow periods. 

Step 1. Search for a large rock or cement bridge support that has a flat downstream 

surface that is shielded during floods from moving substrates and debris (fig. 5). Identifying a good attachment site is the most important part of successfully establishing an 

annual monitoring site, so choose sites carefully. If using a rock as the attachment site, 

select one that protrudes a foot or more above the low flow water surface to ensure that 

other rocks will not slide over it and dislodge the sensor during a flood. Do not move 

rocks into the stream to serve as attachment sites. If you are able to move a rock, it is 

too small and the next flood will cause the loss of the sensor.

Examine the downstream side of the potential attachment site for pockets of relatively calm water. The best sites usually have small substrates like gravels or pebbles 

that settled out of the main flow as the flood receded. If large rocks and cobbles are 

on the downstream side of the attachment site, similarly large substrates are likely to 

Figure 3—Stream temperature measurements from four sensors at the same site during 8 days in July 2010. 

All sensors had solar shields during the first 4 days. The solar shield was removed from one sensor on day 5 

(black arrow) and temperature spikes became apparent during times when sunlight struck the sensor (reproduced from Isaak and Horan 2011). 
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-314. 2013 5

Figure 4—Temperature sensor strapped into the lid of a PVC canister solar shield (a), solar shield assembly with epoxy molded 

around the base and ready for installation (b), assembly installed on a rock (c), and top removed after installation (d). Holes are 

drilled through the sides of the shield to make it neutrally buoyant and to facilitate water circulation. Plumber’s tape is wrapped 

around the threads of the base to ensure easy removal of the cap after extended deployment. 

move there again during the next flood and could dislodge the sensor. The site should 

be sheltered from the main flow path but have well-mixed flows and eddy currents. 

Water depth must also be sufficient to submerge the sensor during the lowest flows of 

the year and during extreme drought years.

Step 2. Find a convenient working location near the attachment site to arrange and 

prepare the materials needed for an installation. If your sensor has an indicator light, 

check that it is blinking and the sensor is ready to collect data. Record the serial number 

of the sensor and the metal forestry tag number on the datasheet. Fasten the sensor into 

the cap of the PVC canister using a cable tie and screw the cap onto the base (fig. 4). 
6 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-314. 2013

Step 3. Put on rubber gloves and use the wire brush to scrub the attachment surface 

down to bare rock or cement. Clean an area larger than the PVC canister to provide a 

variety of microsite locations to choose from when making the final installation. Choose a 

location that is below the low flow water surface, but several inches above the streambed 

to minimize the possibility that the sensor will be buried by substrate during subsequent 

floods. If the sensor does become buried, the temperature recordings may be biased 

by interactions with hyporheic flows that are thermally distinct from temperatures in 

the free-flowing stream. We recommend discarding data from sensors that have been 

entirely buried to avoid this potential bias. 

Step 4. Place a flat cobble within easy reach of the attachment site so that it can be 

leaned against the face of the solar shield canister after installation.

Step 5. Wet gloved fingers in the stream and scoop out equal amounts of white and 

black epoxy from each container (balls about the diameter of a quarter). Mix epoxy 

components together until a uniform gray color is achieved (requires at least 1 minute; 

Figure 5—Examples of large rocks (a and b) and cement bridge pilings (c and d) that provide good sensor attachment sites. 

Each site has a flat downstream attachment surface that is shielded during floods from bedload movement and debris. Arrows 

point to the solar shield containing a sensor; circles highlight metal forestry tags used to monument the site. 
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-314. 2013 7

fig. 6). If the epoxy becomes sticky while mixing, re-wet fingers and continue mixing. 

The final mass of epoxy should be about the size of a golf ball. Roll the epoxy between 

your hands into a tube shape and apply around the base of the PVC canister. Mold the 

epoxy over the lip, but also leave plenty of epoxy on the bottom for adhesion to the attachment surface (figs. 4 and 7). Be careful that epoxy does not cover the threads where 

it could cement the cap to the base. Set aside a small amount of extra epoxy to attach 

the metal forestry tag in Step 8.

Step 6. Hold the PVC canister with epoxy under water so that air is forced out of 

the assembly. Study the cleaned attachment site to choose the best microsite, then push 

and slowly twist the assembly onto the attachment site. The assembly may (or may not) 

hold itself to the attachment surface at this point, so gently lean the cobble from Step 4 

against the face of the solar shield to hold it in place as the epoxy sets during the first 

24 hours (Figure 7). Important: lean cobble against assembly even if it initially holds 

itself or it may fall off before the epoxy sets. The cobble should lean directly into the 

PVC canister to provide a steady pressure that does not cause torque. Do not attempt to 

support the solar shield from below with cobbles or it may break the seal at the contact 

point between the epoxy and the attachment surface.

Figure 6—Preparing the Fox epoxy for use involves mixing equal amounts of the two components together for approximately 1 minute until the color is uniform throughout. Fingers should be wetted before and during mixing to minimize epoxy 

sticking to gloves. 
8 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-314. 2013

Step 7. Use the plastic viewing box to inspect the contact point between the epoxy 

and the attachment surface (fig. 7). There should be a solid seal and no gaps. If there 

is a gap, gently push and twist the solar shield onto the surface again and adjust the 

cobble leaning against it. Use your fingers to mold any excess epoxy onto the attachment surface to widen the contact area. If necessary, mix and apply additional epoxy 

around the existing epoxy. 

Step 8. Use a small amount of epoxy to affix a metal forestry tag above the PVC 

canister and the water surface (fig. 5). The tag makes it easier to relocate the sensor 

during subsequent site visits and the number on the tag provides a unique site identifier. 

This identifier is especially useful for database organization because different sensors 

may be used at a site over time.

Step 9. Geo-reference the site location using a GPS and take several digital photos 

of the attachment site and immediate surroundings to aid future relocation efforts. Fill 

out the datasheet (an example is provided in Appendix B) and describe additional atFigure 7—Inspecting a temperature sensor with a plastic viewing box after initial installation (a). The inspection should reveal 

no gap in the contact point between the epoxy and the rock surface (b). A flat cobble is leaned against the solar shield to hold it 

in place as the epoxy sets during the first 24 hours (c and d). Rocks should not be set to support the solar shield from below or it 

may break the seal with the attachment surface. 
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-314. 2013 9

tributes about the location (e.g., “sensor attached to rectangular rock 1m in diameter 

along left side of the channel”). Once back in the office, create and maintain a digital 

archive of the site photos. 

If you are installing sensors with epoxy for the first time, consider doing several practice installations under controlled conditions in the laboratory or office. It may also be 

useful to revisit the first few field installations soon after the initial installation (i.e., the 

next day or week) to gain confidence in the technique. The epoxy takes approximately 

24 hours to set and a firm bond to the attachment surface should make it difficult to 

remove the PVC canister assembly at that time. If the assembly is not firmly attached or 

has fallen off the surface, simply recover the sensor and repeat steps 1 – 9 using a new 

PVC canister. Appendix C is a one-page summary of these nine steps and is useful as a 

field reference guide. To watch a training video of an epoxy sensor installation, see this 

YouTube video http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vaYaycwfmXs&feature=youtu.be.

Data Retrieval and Site Maintenance

Monitoring sites should be visited periodically to maintain the sensor installation and 

retrieve temperature data. We attempt to revisit each site the year after establishment 

to confirm that the installation survived the annual flood and the sensor is functioning 

properly. Once a site is successfully established, future visits could occur annually or 

less frequently, depending on user preferences and the sensor’s deployment capacity 

(i.e., battery life and data storage). To retrieve data, simply remove the sensor from the 

PVC canister by unscrewing the cap, cut the cable tie holding the sensor in the cap, and 

transfer data to a data shuttle or field computer (Appendix D describes how to download a TidbiT v2 using a data shuttle). At this time, it is also useful to measure stream 

temperature with a NIST certified thermometer to serve as a calibration point to assess 

potential long-term drift in sensor measurements. To reinitiate data collection efforts, 

simply strap the sensor back into the cap of the PVC canister and screw it to the base. 

If the sensor is at the end of its service life, replace it with a new one in the same solar 

shield canister. 

If the site was not established successfully and the sensor was lost, attempt to determine the cause. Was the site vandalized, did a large flood significantly alter the channel 

bed, or did the sensor detach from the attachment surface due to a poor installation? 

Answers to those questions can inform how, or whether, another sensor installation is 

attempted at the site. 

Results From Previous Sensor Installations

Working collaboratively with the U.S. Forest Service PIBO (PacFish/Infish Biological 

Opinion) stream monitoring program, we used the epoxy protocol to establish 563 annual 

temperature monitoring sites on rivers and streams across the Rocky Mountain region 

from 2010 – 2012 (fig. 8; Isaak 2012). Installations occurred in diverse environments 

that ranged from small, steep streams to larger systems like the Salmon, Snake, Green, 

and Yellowstone rivers. Sensors were installed successfully in a wide range of stream 

temperatures (2 – 20 °C), but the epoxy became noticeably less viscous and more friable toward the upper end of this temperature range. In especially warm streams, users 

should consider doing installations during cooler morning or evening hours to ensure 

the epoxy begins setting properly. Once experience was gained with the protocol, it 

required approximately 20 minutes to install a temperature sensor after locating a suitable attachment site. 
10 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-314. 2013

Figure 8—Annual temperature monitoring sites established on rivers and streams across the Rocky Mountain region 

using the epoxy protocol by RMRS and PIBO personnel from 2010 – 2012. Details about these sites and others where 

annual monitoring is occurring can be viewed online using a dynamic GoogleMap tool (website: www.fs.fed.us/rm/

boise/AWAE/projects/stream_temperature.shtml).

In 2012, we revisited 49 sites established with PVC canisters one year earlier to 

document retention rates. In low-gradient streams (<3%), 100% of sensors (13 of 13) 

were successfully retained; whereas 78% of sensors (28 of 36) were retained in steeper 

streams (fig. 9). We also revisited a larger set of sites established in 2010 using the first 

version of this protocol (Isaak and Horan 2011) that epoxied sensors directly to rocks 

without using PVC canisters. One year retention success at 130 of these sites after an 

unusually large snowmelt flood in 2011 was 88% in low-gradient streams and 70% in 

steeper streams (fig. 10a). Thirty-nine of these sites were revisited in 2012 to determine 

second year retention rates, which were slightly higher at 90% and 84%, respectively 

(fig. 10b). These increases were probably due to a smaller snowmelt flood in 2012 

and the likelihood that a successful installation in year one remained so in year two. 

Although direct attachment of sensors without protective PVC canisters is possible, we 

no longer recommend this method because sensors are often damaged and field data 

retrieval efforts are more difficult. 

Stream temperature data retrieved during site revisits showed the expected annual 

cycle of thermal conditions (fig. 11).
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-314. 2013 11

Figure 9—One-year retention rates of sensors installed with 

PVC canisters using underwater epoxy. The numbers in the 

columns are the number of sensor sites revisited. 

Figure 10—One-year (a) and 2-year (b) retention rates of 

sensors epoxied directly onto large rocks. The numbers in 

the columns are the number of sensor sites revisited.
12 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-314. 2013

Figure 11—Examples of annual stream temperature profiles from two Idaho streams that were collected using the 

epoxy technique. The profile represented by the black line is from a high elevation stream where air temperatures 

were below zero for several months during the winter.

Discussion

The epoxy protocol described here provides a convenient and reliable means of establishing annual temperature sites on many streams and rivers. Although the protocol 

was originally developed for use in steep mountain streams where large rocks provide 

abundant attachment sites, we also find many suitable attachment sites in lower gradient 

streams where large rocks are used to stabilize road beds and stream banks or cement 

structures exist as parts of bridges and water diversion structures (fig. 12). Some sensors 

are inevitably lost in dynamic environments like streams, but we believe these losses are 

acceptably small with this protocol. Moreover, the benefits of annual monitoring often 

exceed costs for seasonal monitoring because fewer site visits are required and more 

data are collected. The epoxy protocol also enables development of long-term monitoring records (i.e., multiple decades) because the PVC canister provides a convenient 

housing for replacement sensors when old sensors expire and sites are easily relocated 

from the large objects used for sensor attachment. Although we focus here on temperature monitoring, the protocol might also be extended to facilitate monitoring of other 

water quality parameters (e.g., pH, turbidity, conductivity, nitrates, dissolved oxygen) if 

miniature sensors are developed for these attributes (e.g., Bhamjee and Lindsay 2011; 

Porter and others 2009).
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-314. 2013 13

Figure 12—Sites where underwater epoxy was used to establish annual temperature monitoring sites in low 

gradient streams and rivers where large rocks are less common. Attachment surfaces include large rocks used 

to stabilize eroding banks and roadbeds (a), stone culvert bases (b), wing-wall(s) along bridge(s) (c), and cement bridge support(s) (d).

Stream temperature monitoring arrays are deployed for a growing number of purposes (Isaak 2011a; Johnson and others 2005; Trumbo and others 2010; Webb and others 

2008) but often only with short-term, study-specific objectives in mind. There is a need 

to implement durable and extensive monitoring arrays across streams, river networks, 

and larger geographic areas for general monitoring purposes (e.g., Isaak 2012). These 

arrays would be analogous to those long established for air temperatures (Lawrimore 

and others 2011; Menne and others 2009), snow accumulation (Mote and others 2005), 

or stream discharge (Falcone and others 2010; Hrachowitz and others 2010) and could 

benefit from statistical design criteria to optimize efficiency (Stevens and Olsen 1999). 

Of particular relevance in designing stream arrays are new spatial statistical models for 

stream networks (Peterson and Ver Hoef 2010; Ver Hoef and others 2006; Ver Hoef and 

others In Press) that describe distances over which measurements are correlated and 

partially redundant. In one application of these models (Appendix G in Isaak and others 

2010), it was shown that temperature measurements were correlated at distances from 

5 km to 50 km. Estimates of correlation distances, combined with the spatial structure 

of temperature patterns across networks, could be used to design monitoring arrays that 

were optimized for specific objectives and provided maximum information at the lowest 

cost (Courbois and others 2008; Zimmerman 2006). 
14 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-314. 2013

Another design consideration is the length of time that monitoring occurs at individual sites. Given the rarity of long-term temperature records for streams and rivers 

(Isaak and others 2012; Kaushal and others 2010), significant efforts need to be directed 

towards establishing and maintaining some sites more or less indefinitely. Where protracted monitoring is not possible, however, other factors can inform decisions about 

the monitoring period. For example, in the absence of data, most information about a 

site’s thermal conditions will be obtained during the first year and patterns thereafter 

become increasingly redundant. A minimum monitoring period, therefore, might be 2 

or 3 years, which ensures that a full seasonal cycle is recorded, as well as some of the 

inter-annual variation related to climatic variability driven by differences in air temperatures and stream discharge. Temperature records of this length facilitate short-term 

sensitivity analyses useful for understanding spatial variation in temperature changes 

and can serve as proxies for longer term trends associated with climate change (Kelleher 

and others 2012; Mohseni and others 1999; Trumbo and others 2010). These records 

also provide adequate calibration periods for models run at short time-steps (i.e., daily 

or weekly periods) that are useful for studies about fish growth, stream metabolism, or 

exceedance of water quality standards (Mohseni and others 1998; van Vliet and others 

2011). Longer monitoring periods are required for studies designed to describe past or 

future temperature trends (Kaushal and others 2010; Webb and Nobilis 2007). In these 

studies, a significant portion of the inter-annual thermal variability at a site should be 

sampled to ensure that the effects of air temperature and discharge on stream temperatures 

are accurately estimated (e.g., Markovic and others 2013; Moatar and Gailhard 2006). 

Erickson and others (1999) estimated that 15 years of temperature monitoring were 

required in this situation, which Isaak and others (2012) also found to be a useful record 

length for accurate reconstructions of historical trends in the northwest United States. 

Conclusion

It is a unique and exciting time for those interested in stream temperature monitoring 

and modeling. Climate change and other factors associated with human development and 

land management pose significant threats to the thermal integrity of many streams and 

rivers. Our ability to quantify those threats with accurate measurements of temperature 

dramatically increased in the early 1990s with the advent of inexpensive, miniature 

temperature sensors. The epoxy protocol described here facilitates expansion of monitoring efforts to all seasons of the year so that annual monitoring and long-term records 

become common in streams. Those data will enable better environmental assessments, 

a richer understanding of thermal regimes akin to that for hydrologic regimes (Olden 

and Naiman 2010; Poff and others 1997; Poole and others 2004), and new scientific 

inquiries regarding the thermal ecology of aquatic species (McCullough and others 

2009; Portner and Peck 2010). 

For more information about stream temperature monitoring, modeling, or to access 

temperature databases, please visit the U.S. Forest Service stream temperature website 

(http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/AWAE/projects/stream_temperature.shtml) or the NorWeST website (http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/AWAE/projects/NorWeST.html). 
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-314. 2013 15

References

Adams, M. 2013. Protocol for placement and retrieval of temperature data loggers in Idaho streams, version 2. Water Quality Monitoring Protocol—Report No. 10. Boise, ID: Idaho Department of Environmental Quality. 25 p.

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18 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-314. 2013

Appendix A. Materials Needed to Install an Annual Stream Temperature 

Monitoring Site Using Underwater Epoxy

Product Supplier Web Address Part number

 FOR INSTALLING SENSOR:

Temperature sensor Onset Computer Corporation http://www.onsetcomp.com UTBI-001 TidbiT v2

PVC solar shield canister, 

1-1/2” Screw top and base

Spears http://www.spears.com/

Call Spears for a local distributor

1-1/2” PVC Schedule 40 

Female Cap

1-1/2” x 3/4” PVC SCH 40 

M x F Bushing

Underwater epoxy Fox Industries http://www.foxind.com 

Call Fox to find a local distributor

FX-764 Splash Zone Epoxy

Jar: 60 ml (2 oz)

Jar: 125 ml (4 oz)

(optional, for epoxy)

Fisher Scientific Fisher Scientific

Or use jars from the Dollar Store

02891B 02891C

Underwater viewing box Hoffman Manufacturing http://www.hoffmanmfg.com CONT79C

Metal forestry tags

(with numbers)

Forestry Suppliers http://www.forestry-suppliers.com 79142

Rubber gloves

Plumber’s tape

Wire brush

Cable ties, 4”

 FOR DOWNLOADING SENSOR IN THE FIELD:

Underwater data shuttle Onset Computer Corporation http://www.onsetcomp.com U-DTW-1 Waterproof 

Shuttle

 GENERAL FIELD EQUIPMENT:

GPS

Camera

Datasheet
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-314. 2013 19

Appendix B. Sample Datasheet with Information to Record During 

Establishment of an Annual Temperature Monitoring Site
20 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-314. 2013

Appendix C. Field Reference Guide: 9 Steps for Installing a Temperature Sensor 

With Epoxy

1. Find a suitable attachment site that consists of either a large rock or cement bridge 

support. Suitable sites have flat downstream surfaces that are shielded during floods 

and have sufficient water depths to keep sensors submerged during low flows. Picking 

a good site is the most important part of a successful installation, so choose carefully! 

Do not move rocks into the stream to serve as attachment sites. If you are able to move 

a rock, it is too small!

2. Find a convenient working location near the attachment site and spread out the materials needed to perform the installation. Check sensor for blinking light to ensure that it is 

functioning. Record sensor serial number and metal forestry tag number on datasheet. 

Fasten the sensor into the cap of the solar shield canister and screw the cap onto the base.

3. Put on rubber gloves and use wire brush to clean the attachment site surface. Clean a 

large area to provide a variety of microsite choices when making the final installation. 

Clean an area that is below the low flow water surface, but several inches above the 

streambed to minimize the possibility that the sensor will be buried during subsequent 

floods.

4. Place a flat cobble within easy reach of the attachment site so that it can be leaned 

against the face of the PVC canister after installation.

5. Wet gloved fingers in the stream, scoop out equal amounts of white and black epoxy 

from each container (balls about the diameter of a quarter), then mix together until a 

uniform gray color is achieved (requires at least 1 minute). The final mass of epoxy 

should be about the size of a golf ball. Apply epoxy to the base of the PVC canister—

molding it over the lip, but also leaving plenty of epoxy on the bottom for adhesion to 

the attachment surface.

6. Hold the PVC canister with attached epoxy under water so that air is forced out of 

the assembly. Study the cleaned attachment site to choose the best microsite, then push 

and slowly twist the assembly onto the attachment site. Gently lean the cobble from 

Step 4 against the face of the canister to hold it in place while the epoxy sets. Do this 

even if the PVC canister is initially holding itself or it may fall off!

7. Use the plastic viewing box to inspect the contact point between the epoxy and attachment surface. There should be a solid seal and no gaps. If there is a gap, gently push and 

twist the solar shield canister onto the surface again and adjust the cobble leaning against 

it. Use your fingers to mold any excess epoxy onto the attachment surface to widen the 

contact area. If necessary, mix and apply additional epoxy around the existing epoxy.

8. Attach forestry tag with a small amount of epoxy above the water surface on the 

downstream side of the attachment surface.

9. Record the site location on a GPS and record the coordinates on the data sheet. Take 

several photos of site and record any additional pertinent information on the datasheet.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-314. 2013 21

Figure D1—An Onset data shuttle can be used with the TidbiT v2 to download temperature data from a 

sensor in the field. The data shuttle shows an amber light during data transfer (a), a green light after the 

download is completed successfully (b), and a red light if the data download fails (c). The data shuttle 

can store data from 63 TidbiT v2 sensors before the memory capacity is exceeded. 

Appendix D. Downloading a TidbiT v2 Temperature Sensor Using a Data Shuttle

TidbiT v2s are easily downloaded in the field using a portable data shuttle that is also 

manufactured by Onset (Appendix A). The shuttle is waterproof, compact in size, and 

can store data from 63 TidbiT sensors before the memory capacity is exceeded. Important 

tip, do not change the data shuttle batteries in the field because this stops the shuttle’s 

internal clock and will prevent downloading of data. To download a sensor using the 

shuttle, follow these steps.

Step 1. Remove the TidbiT sensor from the PVC canister. Study the indicator light to 

ensure that it is blinking and the sensor has been functioning properly. Next, inspect the 

front to check that both LED bulbs are intact. TidbiTs with a broken LED bulb continue 

to function correctly and collect data, but the sensor cannot be downloaded in the field. 

Instead, the TidbiT must be returned to Onset for data retrieval, which costs ~$30 and 

requires destroying the sensor to extract the memory chip. 

Step 2. If both LED bulbs are intact, press the TidbiT firmly into the adapter on the end 

of the data shuttle and squeeze the black lever to initiate the download (Figure D1). The 

amber light will begin blinking if the download is occurring properly (Figure D1a). If the 

download is not occurring, the red light will begin blinking (Figure D1c). Remove the 

shuttle, clean the surface of the TidbiT and check to ensure that debris did not interfere 

with shuttle engagement. Squeeze the lever to stop the blinking red light. Reinsert the 

TidBiT to the adapter on the data shuttle and reinitiate the download sequence again by 

squeezing the black lever.

Step 3. When a download completes successfully (~1 minute depending on the amount 

of data stored), the shuttle will re-launch the TidbiT with a blank memory and the green 

light will begin blinking (Figure D1b). Squeeze the black lever on the data shuttle to 

stop the green light from blinking and remove the TidbiT from the shuttle. Confirm 

that the indicator light on the front of the TidbiT is blinking and that the sensor is again 

collecting data. The sensor is now ready for redeployment. 

Once all downloads to the shuttle are complete, it can be linked to a computer and data 

transferred using the Hoboware software available from Onset. For additional details, 

users should consult the manual that accompanies the data shuttle and practice using it 

with the TidbiT v2 in the office. 


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