. 03 foot when the overflow siphon goes into action. A clear view of the
metal pan and air vent pipe is shown in Photograph No. 2.

Photograph No, 2

Photograph No. 3

23

The water surface is normally
carried 0.2 foot above the over-
flow siphon crest. Both the top
of the pan and the bottom of the
air vent pipe are set at normal
water surface elevation. As
shown in Photograph No. 3, the
pan can be adjusted if necessary.
Thus, a small amount of water
Spills over the overflow crest

at all times but the siphon does
not go into action until the pan
fills and seals off the air vent
pipe. As soon as the water sur-
face is lowered to the top of the
pan, the pan is sucked dry and
the siphon action is broken.

The pan used in this case is
actually an old tractor wheel.
Photograph No. 4 on the next
page, shows the metal pan on
the bottom of 10-inch air vent
pipe. The water surface is


HOUR METERS ON SUMP PUMPS
(Suggestion R2-67S-25)

A suggestion by Mr, Gerald W. Jensen, of the Central Valley Project,
Folsom Field Division, Folsom, California, has recommended that hour
meters be installed on all sump pumps at Folsom Dam. The installation
of such meters is to determine the amount of leakage at the dam. These
hour meters with the pump controls are shown in the photograph below.
The meters are located on top of the circuit breaker boxes.

P485-D-62109

The hour meters are wired so that they operate only when the pumps are
running, recording the minutes and hours of operation, and by knowing
the capacity of the pumps in gallons per minute the amount of leakage at
the dam can be determined.

For the past several years hour meters have been installed as standard
equipment on Bureau pump installations. Not only are they a good indi-
cator of the water pumped but are almost essential in determining the
hours of operation for maintenance purposes, and the meters are inex-
pensive and simple to install.

ed

14


And, finally, remember that high-speed driving is hard on both studs and
tires, particularly if the pavement is bare. You can greatly prolong their
life by holding down to moderate speeds as much as possible.

mK Ok

SEAT BELT FACTS

1, Two-thirds of the drivers involved in fatal accidents live within
25 miles of the crash. Even a short trip to the grocery store can
be dangerous. Wear seat belts whenever and wherever you go.

2. Actual crash condition tests prove your chances of being killed are
five times greater if you are thrown out of your car,

3. "The seat belt, properly used, pulls down and back across the pelvis
and hips, not across the abdomen, Even a woman in the last months
of pregnancy may safely wear them."

(American Medical Association Journal).

4, A seat belt meeting acceptable standards can be purchased for as little
as $4.95....,about the cost of a steak dinner. What is your life worth?

5. If your car catches fire or goes under water in an accident, a seat
belt will hold you in place and lessen your chances of being knocked
unconscious. The seat belt can be released in a second with the flip

of a finger.

6. Seat belts should be worn for comfort as well as for safety. They
help you maintain good posture and reduce fatigue. They keep you
behind the wheel when emergencies occur and help to prevent accidents.

7. A seat belt restrains you. It lessens the impact of the blow. BUT,
itis never a substitute for careful driving,

8, Smart drivers do everthing they can to keep themselves and their pas-
sengers alive and comfortable. How's your seat belt I.Q. ?

Reclamation Safety News
Second Quarter 1967

ae ae ok Ok

19


WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW ABOUT STUDDED TIRES
by Harris E. Dark1/

Studded tires are here to stay for the foreseeable future, at least in
the snow states.

A studded tire is a regular highway or snow tire that has had several
dozen metal shafts imbedded in its tread. The studs when new are about
half an inch long and have heads approximately the size and shape of
athumbtack. They are all-metal, having a head and jacket of stainless
steel or aluminum and a core (like the lead in a pencil) of tungsten
carbide, an extremely hard metal that can scratch a diamond,

Typically, about six dozen studs are installed in a tire, though this

will vary somewhat according to tire size and tread design. Holes a
small fraction of an inch in diameter are first drilled in the tire's
tread rubber--less than a half inch deep, not enough to penetrate to

the cloth carcass. (Most tires have molded-in holes, made at the time
the tread is formed.) The studs are installed by means of a special gun
that "shoots" them headfirst into the holes where they are firmly held
by their flanged heads.

The cost of studs is about 10 cents each, installed; the average studded
tire costs $7 to $9 more than the same tire without studs.

The purpose of studs is to give the tire greater traction on ice and hard-
packed snow, the places where driving is the most dangerous. On ice

and packed snow, studs have proved to be tremendously effective. Though
they can't provide as much ice-gripping traction as tire chains, studs
have several important advantages over chains:

1. They are less expensive, per tire, than top-quality reinforced
chains,

2, They last many times longer.
3, They can be driven at much higher speeds with safety.

4, They don't have to be put on and taken off; they can be used for
the entire winter season,

5. They are vibration-free and virtually noiseless.

6. They can be installed on the car's front as well as rear wheels,
while chains should be put on the rear wheels only. Thus, studs
provide much more assistance in steering than chains, which help
mainly with starting, stopping and tailwag.

I/Reprinted from an article appearing in the December 1967 issue of
TRAFFIC SAFETY, by special permission of the editor.

16


ANCHORING TOE ROCK FOR ROCK RIPRAP
(Suggestion R1-66S-47)

An improved method of anchoring toe rock for rock riprap, was devised
by Woodrow W. Bryars, of the Minidoka Project Office, Burley, Idaho.
This idea was proven very successful on the right abutment to the stilling
basin at Palisades Dam, which was constantly sloughing away.

Mr. Bryars suggests using 1-1/4-inch galvanized cable to make a chain of
rock so that one could not move unless the whole chain of rocks moved.
This was accomplished by drilling the toe rocks after they were placed,
and inserting anchor bars, These anchor bars are threaded, to securely
hold a 6-inch cast steel eye. Through these eyes a cable is passed and
anchored on both ends, as shown in the photograph below. For added
stability, every few feet along this chain of rocks, a cable anchors the
lateral cable and to a large dead man deep in the rockfill.

P17-D-62104

For additional information write the Project Superintendent, Minidoka
Project, Bureau of Reclamation, Box 549, Burley, Idaho 83318,

HK OK

15


And unstudded snow tires, while helpful in mud and snow, are actually
worse on ice than regular highway tires.

Although studded tires are only second-best to chains in stopping ability,
the fact that you can keep them on your car throughout the snow season
means they're more likely to be there when you need them. Chains can-
not be driven long on bare pavement (only about 100 miles), so they must
be repeatedly put on and taken off. Studded tires, once installed, give
constant protection--even against the unexpected patches of ice and frost
you're likely to encounter between the periods of snowy driving.

In addition to greatly improving the stopping ability of tires, studs provide
a dramatic increase in the glare-ice traction of the car's powered wheels.
The committee's tests indicate that snow tires with studs are 121 per cent
better at gripping the ice and preventing wheelspin, compared to the same
tires without studs. This not only means that studded tires can help keep
you from getting stuck, but they can also prevent a deadly side skid that
might otherwise throw you into the path of another car if you stepped on
the gas too hard.

Improved cornering ability on ice is another plus feature of studs. Their
grip on the ice greatly enhances your car's steering dependability and at
the same time reduces the danger of wheel lockup when you apply the
brakes. Wheels must roll in order to steer; the instant they lock and skid,
your car is out of control.

In its latest report on test results, the winter tests committee has con-
cluded that the average effective life of tire studs is about equal to the
life of the tires themselves. Since bare pavement is harder on studs than
driving on ice and snow, you can greatly prolong the life of your studded
tires by removing them each spring. In fact, because of highway damage
potential, you are required to make the switch in most states. Check
your local regulations on this point.

When you buy studded tires, be sure they have at least 72 studs, if they
are average-size 14-inch tires. This will give the tire's footprint six or
more studs. The committee feels that at lease six studs per tire should
be in contact with the ice at all times to provide adequate protection. Gyp
dealers in many areas have been selling tires with as few as 40 studs in-
stalled in their treads. Such tires would be almost totally ineffective as
ice grippers.

When you first use a set of brand-new studded tires, you'll notice the
rather loud buzzing sound made by the studs as they strike the pavement.
The sound diminishes somewhat, however, as the sharp edges of the pro-
truding tips of the studs are worn. At the same time, just during the first
500 miles or so, there's a slight loss of ice-gripping ability for the same
reason. It's a good idea to keep this in mind--if you test brand-new stud-
ded tires on ice, remember that some of their effectiveness will have van-
ished by the next time you need them onice. This initially fast wear rate
diminishes quickly and remains stable throughout the remaining life of the
studs.

18


PAINTING TO BEAT THE HEAT1/

Painting to change the movement of heat to or from machinery often
comes to mind when heating problems occur.

The three ways heat is moved are: convection - the transfer of heat by
movement of gases or liquids; conduction - the transfer of heat by actual
contact or through a material; and radiation - the transfer of heat by
waves through the atmosphere from the hot body to the cooler body.

In actual practice it is very difficult to change convection and conduction
by painting, but something can be done about radiation.

Outdoor Instrument and Circuit Breaker Cabinets

Outdoor cabinets containing instruments and equipment which generate
little internal heat (such as circuit breakers) are often painted for pro-
tection from the heat of the sun. The photograph below shows a typical
small pumping plant. Note the outdoor cabinets in the background con-
taining the instruments and equipment.

PS86-D-62110

I/From Power O, and M. Bulletin No. 14, Painting of Transformers and

Circuit Breakers, '' Division of Power Operations, Office of Chief Engineer,
Revised May 1967.

10


c. Sand, gravel, and silt mixed in the membrane caused by exces-
sive spray bar pressures or use of the spray bar too close to the
subgrade, or both.

d. Accumulation of excessive silt, sand and gravel on the membrane
before the second pass of spray application was completed, result-
ing in two thin membranes seperated by a layer of soil.

Other conditions causing a poor membrane were:

a. Water entrapped in the membrane interior, producing a "lifeless"
condition.
b, Physical damage to the membrane after loss of protective cover.

The investigation indicated that thickness is one of the more important
factors contributing to the life of asphalt membrane. A minimum of
0.20 inch (0.51 cm.) is required before long-time service can be
expected,

Changes in physical properties of the membrane, as measured by the
aging index, show that approximately 90 percent of asphalt aging occurs
during the first 6 years of service, After 6 years the rate of change is
much slower,

For a majority of the membranes evaluated, the change in physical prop-
erties did not materially affect the ability to provide a flexible, water-
tight lining.

The aging index was calculated for both the ''as received'' and for the
melted membrane, Original material has an aging index of 100. In gen-
eral, an aging index of 60 and above for the "as received’ material and 50
and above for the melted indicated a fair to good membrane. Membranes
with indexes below these numbers were generally classified as fair to
poor.

Test results indicate some correlation between the laboratory 14-day
aging at 140° F (60° C) test and field aging. Material with a higher 14-day
aging index may have greater resistance to field aging. However, a num-
ber of unknown factors such as climatic conditions, type of soil, and loca-
tion in canal influence field aging.

If hot-applied asphalt membrane is installed in accordance with current
Bureau specifications, and the cover properly maintained, adequate seep-
age control should be provided for many years beyond the 14-year service
age studied in this investigation.

The watertightness of a properly installed asphalt membrane lining is evidenced
by a field-performed seepage test (ponding method) in an 11-year-old canal
where the seepage rate was only 0, 80 cubic ft. per square ft. per day, Pond-
ing tests prior to installation of the asphalt membrane lining indicated a
seepage rate of 9.96 cubic ft. per square ft. per day.


REPORT--BURIED ASPHALT MEMBRANE CANAL LINING1/

A water resources technical publication, Buried Asphalt Membrane Canal
Lining, is now available. This report, documents 20 years of laboratory
and field experience in the Bureau of Reclamation's use of buried hot-
applied asphaltic membrane lining for control of water seepage from canals
and shallow reservoirs. The first lining of this kind was installed in 1947
on the Klamath Project in California, Since then, more than 8 million
square yards (6.7 million square meters) of buried asphalt membrane
lining have been placed at more than 100 sites in the western United States.
A specially processed catalytically-blown-type asphalt is used.

Beginning in 1962, samples from linings in service from 1 to 14 years

from canal and lateral installations on 9 Bureau projects, have been eval-
uated in the Bureau's Denver laboratories for comparison of ductility,
consistency, and temperature susceptibility with the original material.
Included in the report are laboratory test results obtained from the samples,
field observations which support laboratory findings, on-the-job photographs
of typical installations, description of laboratory testing apparatus, and an
aging index of tested asphalt membrane. The index is used to measure the
relative change in the physical properties of the membrane due to field or
laboratory aging,

This report also describes briefly the construction methods and techniques
for lining canals, and gives specification requirements for the asphalt
material,

Report Summary

Analyses of test results and visual observations on membrane samples

after 14 years of service did not reveal serious deficiencies in the asphalt
membrane canal lining. Of the 112 field samples evaluated from 20 canal
installations, more than 80 percent demonstrated satisfactory membrane
resistance to field aging. In most cases, phosphorus pentoxide catalytically-
blown asphalt cement had greater resistance to aging when used as a buried
membrane than other types of asphalt.

The membranes in poor condition were a consequence of accelerated aging,
caused primarily by these faulty construction practices:

a. Nonuniform thickness in membrane.
b, Large rocks or clods in the membrane, indicating improper sub-
grade preparation.

1/This report published as Research Report No, 12, ''Buried Asphalt
Membrane Canal Lining"' is for sale by the Superintendent of Documents,
U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402, or the Chief
Engineer, Bureau of Reclamation, Attention: 841, Denver Federal Center,
Denver, Colorado 80225, at 35 cents a copy.

20


Success in Europe

Studded tires were first used extensively in the Scandinavian countries
six years ago. They were an immediate success and quickly spread to
the other European snow countries. By the winter of 1963-64 they had
been introduced into Canada and the United States.

Along with the growing popularity of studs in the United States, however,
a bitter debate arose regarding their potential for damaging pavement.
Just how injurious they are is yet to be determined, In the meantime--
often over the objections of state highway departments--the use of studs
finally has been permitted in all snow states, except Virginia. In many
cases, this is a wait-and-see action pending further assessment of high-
way damage,

Right now, the public's primary interest is whether studs are worth the
money. Are they an adequate substitute for chains and will you need
them enough to warrant the investment in them? On the first point--
the ability of studs to provide grip on ice surfaces--little question. In
repeated tests conducted by the National Safety Council's Committee on
Winter Driving Hazards, cars equipped with four studded tires had a
31 per cent better braking ability on glare ice than cars with regular tires,
When brakes were slammed on at 20 m.p.h., cars without studs would
skid an average of 149 feet before coming to a halt on the ice. But the
same car with
four studded tires
| could be stopped

in only 103 feet.
BRAKING DISTANCES Obviously, dman
ON DRY ei FROM 20 MPH emergency situa-
PAVEMENT 7 : :
tion this could
make the differ-
REGULAR TIRES / J i/_~\149 et. ence between a
serious accident
CONVENTIONAL SNOW TIRES (rear) ‘// J ] 151 FT. and no collision
at all.
STUDDED / SNOW _ TIRES (Rear-useo)/ 129 FT.

ON 7 Z| How does thiscom-
GLARE 4 | STUDDED SNOW TIRES (nean-new) / | 120 FT. pare with the glare-
AT25F 7 ice performance

STUDDED /TIRES (rnonr & REAR-USED) // ] 123 FT. of snow tires?
Studded snow tires,
STUDDED TIRES (raonr« nean-new) |103 FT| | rear wheels only?
T Chains on the rear
REINFORCED TIRE/eHAINS (acon 75 FT. | tires only? A set
| | of reinforced chains
___| ___| a ee ees A
25 50° 75 100 125 150° on just the rear
wheels of a car
(Braking distances shown above do not include reaction time which will shorten the
normally adds another 22 ft. to the braking distances) glare-ice stopping
| distance by a full
Test results from the 1967 report of the National Safety Council's Committee on Winter Driving Hazards | 50 per cent, while

studded snow tires

make an improve-
ment of 19 per cent.

17


Self-cooled transformers exposed to the sun should be painted light
colors only where operating temperatures are critical. Other colors
are preferable from an appearance standpoint and should fit into a
color scheme.

Conduction

In a transformer the heat passes from the electrical conductors and core
iron through the insulation, oil, the steel case, and the paint coating.
The thickness of the paint will usually add only an infinitesimal amount
to either the length of the heat path or the combined thermal resistivity
of the material through which the heat must pass. Paint (of any type or
color) will therefore have a negligible effect on heat loss by conduction,
when the paint is thinly coated.

The effect of film thickness in a recent test by a leading paint manufac-
turer was determined by applying multiple coats of metallic lead-suboxide
black and non-metallic white to a test specimen. It was discovered that
film thickness has an appreciable effect on heat transfer for both types of
paint, with a marked decrease in rate when the film is 10 mils or more
in thickness.

Convection

Heat loss by convection depends on the shape and size of the transformer
and the temperature and rate of movement of the cooling medium. Con-
vection is not affected by painting the exterior.

Transformers Indoors

As there is no reflection of the sun's rays to be considered with trans-
formers located indoors, the type and color of paint will affect only the
heat loss by radiation, A transformer painted a light color would be
expected to operate at a higher temperature than one painted black or
any other color due to the low emissivity factor of light paint.

Considering temperature alone, the best color for indoor self-cooled
transformers is dull black. However, gray, green, or almost any other
color will increase the temperature such a small amount that the paint
can be selected on the basis of appearance or the color scheme in the
plant.

Electric Motors

Heat from motors is mostly dissipated by convection so little is gained
in painting them a specific different color.

In direct sunlight absorption of heat from the,sun may increase motor
temperature somewhat. The comments concerning color of paint for
transformers would also apply to motors.

Hk kk

13


about 0.2 foot below its normal
elevation.

At this location, this device is
successful in holding the water
surface to a maximum varia-
tion of .03-foot during peaking
periods.

If additional information is
desired regarding this device,
please write to the Project
Superintendent, Minidoka
Project, Bureau of Reclama-
tion, P.O, Box 549, Burley,
Idaho 83318,

P17-D-62107

Photograph No. 4

3K ok ok ok
HOW TO HELP IN CASE OF HEART ATTACK
Call the doctor at once.
Help the patient take the position that is most comfortable for him.
(This will probably be halfway between lying and sitting. He usually
cannot breathe comfortably if he lies flat. )
Do not attempt to carry or lift the patient without the doctor's supervision.

Loosen tight clothing such as belts and collars,

See that the patient does not become chilled, but do not induce sweating
with too many blankets.

Do not give the patient anything to drink without the doctor's advice.

--American Heart Association
44 E, 23rd St., New York City

eK ok Ok

24


HEAVY-DUTY TOW BAR & FAIR LEAD1/
The Senior Park Manager at Cherry Creek Recreation Area, near Denver,

Colorado, has come up with an idea for a heavy-duty tow bar and fair lead
for use on his patrol boat or work barge, see sketches below:

Bolted to transom

il
—

on \)

Boat stern \

Mr. Ed Fahey's suggestion consists of a
clevis or shackle welded to the end of a
flat bar 2" x 14" x 1/2" which is bolted
to the transom of the boat high enough

to keep away from the boat cables. To
use as a tow bar, just drop the rope over
the bar. To use as a fair lead, take out

MA" of ¥"" Clevis

Welded to bar
the pin and you're ready to go.
Material for the bar need not be heavier

n°) than specified with no fear of bending.
The clevis can be any size to serve your
needs,
Flot bor
2x 14x Wt

OK RR

\e P

N

Four }X"" holes to bolt to transom of boot

i/Reprinted by permission of GRIST, July/August 1968, a publication

printed by the National Conference on State Parks, Washington, D.C.

26 GPO 846-831


the colors that give the best radiation of transformer heat will permit
the highest absorption of heat from the direct rays of the sun.

Heat loss from a body by radiation can be computed by formula which
indicates that a light colored transformer will dissipate less heat than
a black one. In the formula the coefficient for aluminum paint is 0.55;
for mat black paint 0.95; and for practically any other paint 0.90 to
0.95. An aluminum painted transformer will therefore dissipate by
radiation approximately one-third less heat than a transformer painted
some other color,

It has been found that when transformers are exposed to the sun a light
colored transformer will usually operate one to two degrees Centigrade
(3° F) cooler than one painted black.

The amount of heat absorbed by transformers will depend on these coef-
ficients but will also depend on other conditions such as shape, size,
area exposed to the direct rays of the sun, and the time of such exposure.
As these conditions vary widely, the best indication of the effects of paint
on transformers located in the sun can be obtained from field tests.

Tests made by a power company at Dallas, Texas, on identical trans-
formers with equal loads and located in the sun showed a maximum oil
temperature of 40° C for black painted transformers and 39° C for the
aluminum painted ones,

Similar tests by a power company in California showed a maximum oil
temperature of 29.5° C for black and 27.0° C for light gray.

At Pittsfield, Massachusetts, similar tests were run over a 24-hour
period, During the day the maximum oil temperatures were 52° C for
black, 49° C for aluminum, and 48° C for white. At night the maximum
temperatures were 41° C for aluminum and 39° C for black and white.

In all the test reports available, the light colored transformers ran
cooler than black transformers when exposed to the sun. The difference
in temperature was small, averaging between one and two degrees. In
cases where transformers are operating near the limit of their safe
temperature during exposure to the sun, this slight decrease in temper-
ature might be important. The daytime temperature decrease would

be, to acertain extent, counteracted by an increase in temperature at
night.

In general, the total effect of the type and color of the paint is too small
to justify any repainting for its effect on temperature alone. When paint-
ing is necessary it should be done on the basis of the appearance and
durability.

12


Dark colors absorb the most heat from sun radiation and white absorbs
the least. Contrary to a widespread impression, aluminum paint absorbs
more heat than white. A table of coefficients of absorption of solar radia-
tion is as follows:

White 0,25
Aluminum 0.35
Gray 0.75
Black 0.97

Therefore, for minimum absorption of heat from the sun an outdoor
cabinet should be painted white or possibly some other light color.

Indoor cabinets can be painted any color.

Transformers
Like cabinets installed outdoors, transformers can also absorb heat from
the sun, In addition, transformers themselves generate and transmit

heat by convection, conduction, and radiation. The photograph below is
of a typical substation showing the transformers in the foreground.

P285-D-61979

Radiation

When transformers are located in the sun, both the absorption of solar heat
and radiation of the transformer heat must be considered. Unfortunately,

11


A SIMPLE SOLUTION FOR REDUCING FLUCTUATIONS
OF AUTOMATIC OVERFLOW SIPHONS

An inexpensive method has been found for controlling excessive fluctua-
tions in canal water surface levels when automatic overflow siphons go
into operation. This ingenious idea was originally conceived by Mr.
Clifford Sutton, Pump Station Foreman, of the Burley Irrigation District,
Burley, Idaho, to overcome a regulating problem at the ''F'' Wasteway
structure in the District's Main Canal upstream from its First Lift Pump
Station.

Siphons have been installed on a number of projects at wasteway structures
to dispose of excess flows, particularly at locations where heavy storm
runoff or where pumping plant outages occur. Once started in operation,
an automatic overflow siphon frequently lowers the water surface elevation
as much as a foot before the siphon breaks suction and stops operating.
This situation has made it undesirable to use these siphons for operating
regulation, because extreme variations cause undue fluctuations in down-
stream deliveries.

To solve this problem Mr, Sutton, installed a round metal pan on the siphon
breaker vent pipe. Photograph No. 1 below, shows how the pan was installed
at the Tunnel No. 2 wasteway of the Black Canyon Main Canal, near Emmett,
Idaho. Note siphon overflow section with 10-inch pipe air vent.

P17-D-62108 fall v3 z Beit
Photograph No, 1
Previous to installation of this pan the intermittent operation of the over-

flow siphon caused serious variation in downstream water surface eleva-
tion. Since its installation water surface elevations have not varied over

22


FORKLIFT ATTACHMENT FOR FRONT END LOADER

(Reprinted by permission of GRIST, May/June 1968 issue, a publication
by the National Conference on State Parks, Washington, D.C.)

When there were 100 pre-fab concrete tables to assemble at Joshua Tree
National Monument, Maintenanceman James B. Johnson thought they needed
some mechanical help for the heavy job.

For a $36.80 outlay in material and labor, Jim designed and constructed

the forklift (shown in the sketch) for a front end loader, It can be inter-
changed with the bucket in about 30 minutes.

2 Pieces 3" Channel iron 30" long

8 Pieces 3"x 4" x '/2"

Heavy concrete table tops, end sections, and seats were handled and as-
sembled by two men more safely than by hand, using four men. Table
assembly time was cut by about 30 percent.

Although the specific job for which the attachment was designed is not one
likely to occur frequently on an irrigation project, there are times when
such a device could materially reduce manual labor and probably save
considerable time.

ORK

25