o* ** '

Protection^

of \,

RAIL SHIPMENTS

of \

FRUITS

and A

VEGETABLES

^^^^.^ .

AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO 195 "^

MARKET QUALITY RESEARCH DIVISION

AGRICULTURAL MARKETING SERVICE

US. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
Protection

of

RAIL SHIPMENTS

of

FRUITS

and

VEGETABLES

By W. H. Redit and A. A. Hamer

July 1961

Agriculture Handbook No. 195

Market Quality Research Division

Agricultural Marketing Service

U. S. Department of Agriculture

Vi

fTTTI

1\

%ö;E!ISS^

Growth Tlifougii Agricultural Progress

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office

Washington 2.5, D. C. — Price 55 cents
PREFACE

The purpose of this handbook is to help

shippers of fresh fruits and vegetables to select

the most desirable rail protective services available, based on commodity characteristics,

seasonal needs, geographical location, and cost.

Preparation of the handbook has been requested by the Transportation Research Advisory Committee to the Department of

Agriculture as well as by railroads, carlines,

shippers, receivers, and various freight loss and

damage prevention agencies.

Much information on the desired commodity

environment during transit and the way it can

be achieved by proper use of equipment and

protective services has been developed by the

Department of Agriculture in transportation

studies over the past 50 years. Tliis information has been made available to the industry in

numerous Government and scientific publications, many of which are now out of print.

Compilation of these data into a handbook

makes these findings available to all who handle

perishable agricultural products.

Most of the recommendations contained in

this handbook are based on tlie results of transportation studies conducted by the Department.

However, a number of commercially important

crops and producing areas were not included in

the observations. For these crops and areas,

several commercially used protective services

have been considered and tentative recommendations made. All of the recommendations in

this handbook are based on provisions of the

Perishable Protective Tarings published by the

National Perishable Freight Committee and the

REA Express. Because containers and loading

methods appear to be amply covered in the various Freight Container Tariff's, no reference to

them is made in the handbook except where

they definitely influence the efi'ectiveness of the

protective service prescribed.

This first edition of the handbook is tentative. Necessary revisions will be made as additional information is developed. Possibly the

present scope of coverage and presentation is

inadequate ; therefore, suggestions for improvement are invited. Some of the factors that may

alter presently recommended protective services include new types and sizes of containers,

heavier loading, faster train schedules, improved rail equipment, wider use of precooling,

and the adoption of new and more effective

fungicidal treatments.

USDA Field Offices

For further information relative to specific

crops in the various growing areas, or market

diseases or other disorders, readers may contact the appropi-iate Agricultural Marketing

Service office listed below :

California: U.S. Horticultural Field Laboratory (AMS), 2021 South Peach Avenue, Fresno

2; U.S. Horticultural Field Laboratory (AMS),

P.O. Box 700, Pomona.

Florida: U.S. Horticultural Field Laboratory (AMS), 2120 Camden Road, Orlando;

U.S. Horticultural Sub-Field Laboratory, 13601

Cutler Road, Miami 56.

Illinois: U.S. Market Pathology Laboratory

(AMS), 536 South Clark Street, Chicago.

Maine: Maine Potato Research Center

(AMS), Box 532, Presque Isle.

Minnesota: Red River Valley Potato Research Center (AMS), P.O. Box 113, East

Grand Forks.

North Carolina : U.S. Horticultural Field

Laboratory (AMS), Kilgore Hall, N.C. Agricultural Experiment Station, Raleigh.

New York: U.S. Market PathologA- Laboratory (AMS), 611 Washington Street, New

York.

Texas : U.S. Horticultural Field Laboratory

(AMS), P.O. Box 1425, Harlingen.

Washington: U.S. Horticultural Field Laboratory (AMS), P.O. Box 99. Wenatchee.

Acknowledgments

In the preparation of this handbook, many of

the data were supplied by members of the Market Quality Research Division.

Appreciation is expressed for the assistance

given by Fruit Growers Express Company,

Western Fruit Express Company, and Burlington Refrigerator Express Company; Edd

Moore, Idaho Grower Shippers' Association,

Inc. ; A. L. Hoist, Pacific Fruit Express ; W. T.

Jamison, Chairman, National Perishable

Freight Committee ; and many others.

Acknowledgment is given for the use of some

of the figures as follows: Fruit Growers Express Company for figure 5; National Freight

Container Bureau, Association of American

Railroads for figures 10, 11, 12, 13 and 27; and

Preco Inc. for figures 2, 4, 6, and 8.
CONTENTS

Page

Introduction X

Rail transit equipment 1

Tlie refrigerator car 1

^Mechanical refrigerator cars 5

Thermostatically controlled fan cars_- 7

Car heaters 7

Icing and precooling facilities 9

"PiggA'back" service 10

Containers and loading 10

Protective services available:

General definition of Perishable Protective Service rules 13

Perishable Protective Tariff 18:

Refrigeration service 13

"\'entilation service 17

Protective service against cold

(heater service) 17

Explanation of heating sei-vice

terms 19

REA Express Perishable Protective

Tariff 27 19

Factors affecting postharvest life of

fresh fruits and vegetables 20

Temperature 20

Moisture 20

Diseases 21

Mechanical damage 22

Commodity requirements 22

Fresh fruits :

Apples 23

Apricots 25

Avocados 26

Bananas (green) 26

Cherries (sweet) 27

Citrus :

Grapefruit 27

Lemons 27

Limes 28

Oranges 29

Tangerines 30

Cranberries 30

Dates 31

Figs (fresh) 31

Grapes (Vinifera) 31

Peaches (and nectarines) 32

Pears 33

Page

Pineapples 34

Plums (including fresh prunes) __ 35

Strawberries 35

Fresh vegetables :

Asparagus 36

Beans (snap) 37

Beets (bunched) 37

Broccoli 37

Cabbage 37

Carrots 37

Cauliflower 38

Celery 38

Corn (sweet) 38

Cucumbers 39

Endive and escarole 39

Lettuce 39

Melons : -

Cantaloups 40

Honeydew 40

Onions (dry) 41

Peas (green) 41

Peppers (sweet) 41

Potatoes 41

Radishes 43

Spinach 44

Sweetpotatoes 44

Tomatoes (mature-green) 45

Tomatoes (pink) 46

Frozen fruits and vegetables 46

Methods of controlling transit environment 47

Refrigeration principles :

Definition 47

Sources of refrigeration 47

The heat load 43

Heat transfer 49

Sample refrigeration load calculations 49

Precooling methods 51

Transit refrigeration 57

Ventilation 5g

Protective service against cold 59

Operating car fans at destination ___ 62

Recommended protective services 62

Literature cited jQg

Protection of Rail Shipments of

Fruits and Vegetables

By W. H. REDIT, mechanical engineer, and A. A. HAMER, engineering aid,

Market Quality Research Division, Agricultural Marketing Service

INTRODUCTION

Preserving the harvest-fresli quality of perishable agricultural commodities is of great

importance in this era of ever-increasing costs

of production, distribution, and marketing. To

hold present markets and to develop new outlets, only high-quality commodities can compete

for the consumer's dollar. Losses from deterioration during distribution must be kept to a

minimum. Rail transportation is a vital link

in the chain of distribution. Time in transit

may represent the largest portion of the postharvest life of some of the more perishable

commodities such as cherries, strawberries,

broccoli, and spinach, so that environment during this period will largely determine the salability of the produce when it reaches the

consumer.

The part that rail transportation has played

in the development of our present-day agriculture is well kno-\\ni. The Department of Agriculture has conducted research for many years

on the transit requirements of perishable commodities. In addition much effort has been

devoted to developing and testing the performance of improved types of railroad refrigerator cars. This has been done in cooperation

with railroads, carlines, shippers, receivers.

State experiment stations, equipment builders,

and others in the industry. As a result, greatly

improved transit conditions for fruits and vegetables as well as considerable savings to the

shippers have been made possible by the

development of more economical protective

services.

A number of factors influence the selection

of the right protective service as perishable

commodities move from farm to market. These

include kind and variety of crop, condition of

the product, packaging, precooling, length of

storage before shipment, loading methods,

weather, distance to market, train schedules,

and type of rail equipment used.

Many different kinds of refrigeration, heating, and ventilating services are available.

Generally, the shipper or the receiver has the

responsibility for selecting the protective service for his commodity in transit. To assist in

this selection, the sections that follow present

briefly the transit environmental requirements

for most of the commercially shipped horticultural commodities and ways to meet these

requirements through proper selection of equipment and available services. Recommended

protective services for specific commodities are

given in tables 7, 8, and 9, pages 64-102.

The recommendations in this handbook

should not be considered absolute or final.

They indicate a range of conditions in which

these commodities may be satisfactorily and

economically shipped after consideration of the

variable factors mentioned above. As the primary objective has been to consolidate all such

information into a practical guidebook, it has

been necessary to omit many details. However,

more detailed information is available elsewhere in bulletins, reports, and reprints, many

of which are listed in the Literature Cited.

A description of the modern refrigerator car,

some background on its development, and a

brief outline of the facilities and methods for

servicing it may help users of this handbook.

Mr. Hamer retired in 1960.

RAIL TRANSIT EQUIPMENT

The Refrigerator Car

History.—The introduction and development

of the rail refrigerator car during the mid1800's sparked the rapid expansion of agricul-
AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

FIGURE 1.—An early refrigerator car.

tural production in Florida, California, the

Pacific Northwest, and other specialized producing areas. With the means available to

move fresh produce safely to markets many

miles away, growers concentrated on largescale production of crops best suited to soil

and growing conditions of those areas.

The first refrigerator cars were little more

than boxcars with ice placed in them to ship

berries or meat a few miles to market (fig. 1).

Cars were gradually developed with special ice

compartments, greater ice capacity, and some

insulation. By 1890 carloads of oranges, apricots, cherries, and strawberries were being

shipped from California to eastern markets in

refrigerator cars operated by the railroads and

private carlines. In 1905, the U.S. Department

of Agriculture began studies of commodity

temperatures in transit and of car modifications to improve both service and equipment.

As a result of these early studies, basic improvements were developed in car design which

were adopted and put into effect by the Railroad Administration in 1918. These included

the use of basket-type bunkers, ñoor racks, and

increased insulation. During the next 20 years.

further research by the Department and the

refrigerator car owners was done on modified

icing services, half-stage icing, various kinds

of insulation, and air circulating fans. In

1938, the first car fans were installed. At

about the same time, different types of car

heaters were developed by some of the carlines

and tested in cooperation with the Department.

In 1944, the Refrigerator Car Committee of

the United Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Association was formed to foster improvements in the

refrigerator car for the postwar rebuilding

period. In cooperation with this committee,

the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the railI'oads, and some of the refrigerator carlines

conducted an extensive research and testing

program culminating in certain recommendations for the refrigerator car as we know it

today. These included easy-riding trucks, steel

framing, improved draft gears, half-stage ice

racks, thicker and improved insulation, and

forced air circulation. Thermostatically controlled alcohol (LF) heaters were also developed and tested during this period. They are

standard equipment on many lines today. The

development of the mechanically refrigerated
PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 3

bo

•ao

mtí
4 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

car was delayed by the war, but in 1919 the

first car was placed in service to provide better

protection for frozen foods in transit than was

possible with ice and salt. Since that time

many improvements have been made, including

so-called "all purpose" mechanical cars suitable

for carrying both fresh and frozen produce.

Today there are about 5,500 mechanical cars

in service with more under construction.

Today's refrigerator car. — Approximately

95,000 RS or general-service refrigerator cars

are now in operation, nearly all being of the

end-bunker type. Figure 2 is a diagram of the

modern ice-bunker car showing its component

parts and how it is used under various protective services (86)} Most of these cars now in

service are approximately 40 feet in outside

length but there are some 50-foot cars that are

heavily insulated and used in special services.

Ice bunker capacity varies from about 9,000

pounds per car (both bunkers) to 12,000

pounds. Alost cars now are equipped so that

the ice grates can be raised to the halfway

mark for upper-half-stage icing. Floor racks

are provided for air circulation under the load

and are hinged in sections to permit lifting for

cleaning of car floor. ]Many cars also have vertical wall flues to permit air circulation around

the load, regardless of the type of load or container. Flues are particularly valuable in preventing freezing damage in cold weather to

lading placed tightly against the cold car walls,

as heated air provided within the car moves

down the flue opening and warms the inner

wall lining. During hot weather, when the

car is under refrigeration, air within the flues

intercepts outside heat before it can affect the

commodity temperature.

Two types of air circulating fans are now

installed in over 70,000 RS cars ; the mechanical or floor fan and the electric or overhead fan.

Both types are illustrated in the diagram of

figure 2. The adoption of car fans to provide

forced air circulation is considered to be one of

the most outstanding improvements in refrigerator cars in many years. With the use of the

fans, more uniform temperatures are obtained,

thereby eliminating excessively high temperatures in top layers and chilling or freezing

damage in bottom layers, as shown in figure 3.

Operating the car fans with auxiliary motors

(electric or internal combustion) (fig. 4)

provides rapid cooling or precooling at loading

point and reduces the temperature spread when

the car is held at terminal markets. Fans

should be placed in the "ON" position (fig.

2) regardless of the protective service used or

the commodity shipped, as provided for in Rule

' Italic numbers in parentheses refer to items in the

Literature Cited, p. 103.

84, National Perishable Freight Committee Circular 20-D (51), including cars moving under

heater service and cars shipped with top ice.

Because of the importance of car fans, the shipper should be certain they are in proper operating condition before loading a car, and the

railroads should provide careful maintenance

and inspection to insure they are in good order.

The hinged ice-bunker hatch covers and

plugs may be opened to a number of positions

to provide ventilation in the car and thus take

advantage of low-temperature outside air to

cool the load during certain seasons. The

special tarifli rules under which the ventilating

devices are manipulated are discussed in the

section on Protective Services Available.

All refrigerator cars built in the past 4 or 5

years are equipped with sliding doors, mostly

6 feet wide, permitting the use of mechanical

loading devices such as forklift trucks. Other

improvements include high-speed trucks with

more resilient springs and snubber devices to

promote smooth riding, better shock-absorbing

draft gears to reduce coupling and slack action

impacts, roller-bearing equipped axles, and

steel wheels.

The standard car now has 4 to 6 inches of

insulation in floor, walls, and ceiling to provide

better protection and reduce refrigeration requirements. Some cars used in special service,

such as for frozen foods, have up to 9 inches of

insulation.

Refrigerator cars specially assigned to passenger train service are available for rapid

transit of such crops as strawberries, cherries,

and cut flowers. These express cars are usually

somewhat over 50 feet long but have the same

type of ice bunkers, floor racks, air circulating

fans, and ventilating devices as the regular

freight refrigerator cars.

A number of cars, mostly owned and operated by the Canadian railroads but also available in some parts of the United States, are

equipped with overhead ice bunkers. The cars

have proved satisfactory under certain conditions. With the ice bunkers overhead, the cooled

air moves by convection currents down the

sidewall flues for the entire length of the car,

resulting in fairly uniform load temperatures.

Forced air circulating fans are therefore unnecessary in this type of car. However, efl:ective precooling of a warm load can only be

accomplished with the use of mobile or trackside mechanical units ; hence such cars are used

mainly for frozen foods in the United States.

They are equipped with underslung heaters for

protection against freezing during the winter

months.

In recent years, a large number of bunkerless refrigerator cars (RB type) with a mini-
PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

REFRIGERATION OF ORANGES IN TRANSIT

AVERAGE TOP AND BOTTOM LAYER FRUIT TEMPERATURES

NON-FAN CAR "A" VERSUS FAN GAR"D"

CALIFORNIA TO NEW YORK - STANDARD REFRIGERATION

DAYS

CTOT, O T- i- ^ , . '^'"^'S Neg. 8151-60(10)

iiGURE ¿.—Lse of car fans provides more uniform temperatures and faster cooling in transit of shipments of

warm oranges.

mum of 3 to 31/2 inches of insulation have been

placed in service. Most of these cars are not

equipped with ventilating devices. They are

designed primarily for shipments of beverages

and canned goods which require no refrigeration in transit.

Mechanical Refrigerator Cars

While most of the available mechanical cars

are being used in frozen food service, the majority are designed to also handle fresh produce

within a range of 32° to 70°F. Many hightemperature test loads have been shipped with

satisfactory results, especially commodities requiring temperatures near 32° such as lettuce,

celery, and asparagus, or commodities that require minimum temperature variations in

transit.

These cars are characterized by the type of

air circulation provided within the loading

space. The three principal types are open, complete envelope, and semienvelope designs.

In the open design all of the cooled air is

discharged directly over the load from a grill

in one end of the car or through openings in a

ceiling duct ; the air then passes down through

the load and flues at the sides and ends of the

car and returns to the unit via the space under

the floor racks. This design is best adapted to

precoohng because most of the cold air can

move through the load and thus pick up the

field heat of the commodity.

In the complete envelope design, the cooled

air IS discharged into a ceiling duct and is circulated completely around the load by passing

downward through side and end wall ducts and

back to the refrigerating unit via a floor duct.

The cooling air completely envelops the load but

none enters the load space. This system is best

adapted for frozen foods.

The semienvelope design is similar to the

complete envelope type except that conventional

open-type floor racks are used instead of the

enclosed floor duct, so some of the circulating

cooled air enters the loading space (fig. 5). In

a modification of this system, part of the cooled

air is directed into the loading space through

dampered openings or a series of openings in

the ceiling duct. This design provides for faster
AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

FIGURE 4.—Precooling niotur which operates car fans.

cooling of a warm load although it is less effective than the open design. For commodities

with a high heat of respiration, more uniform

temperatures can be maintained when some air

is moved through the load. With one other design used in some cars the air circulation is

reversed by having the cooled air discharged

under the "floor racks or through a floor duct,

moving upward through the wall flues or load,

and returning through the ceiling duct.

Power for the refrigerating units and fans

is generally supplied by diesel-electric units, although some cars employ a direct-connected

gasoline or diesel engine. Plug-in standby operation from local sources of electricity may be

substituted for the diesel-electric operation during loading or holdover periods at terminals

when the noise and exhaust fumes from the

engine are objectionable.

gMÄ

FIGURE 5.—Mechanical refrigerator car (semienvelope type) showing location of refrigeration equipment and

movement of air.
PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

Automatic temperature control is provided in

these cars. Under the provisions of Rule 710

(nonfrozen commodities) of the Perishable

Protective Tariff the shipper is required to

specify the transit temperature desired. The

railroad representative will then set the car

thermostat to provide this temperature. Because of the inherent temperature differential

in different makes of thermostats and the

necessity for defrosting equipment, some allowance is made for such variations when setting

the thermostat. Table 4 on page 25 contains

suggested temperatures to be specified by shipper for certain fresh fruits and vegetables

shipped in mechanical cars. These temperatures allow for possible thermostat variations

mentioned above.

Precooling of warm loads in a mechanical

car of the open design or of the modified semienvelope design (with openings in ceiling duct)

is slower than with the best precooling methods

in iced cars as previously described. The

reasons are a slower velocity and lesser volume

of air moving through the load and the capacity

limits of the refrigerating unit. It is generally

considered uneconomical to provide the refrigerating capacity required to quickly remove the

field heat involved in a good precooling job as

much of this capacity is not required thei'eafter

to maintain temperatures in transit. However,

some mechanical cars, in which the refrigeration capacity is around 50 percent greater than

the average, are equipped to provide rapid precooling.

While cooling in mechanical cars may be

slower, it is uninterrupted from the time the

car doors are closed after loading. The cars do

not need to be held at loading point for precooling. Earlier pickup and reduced transit

time are therefore possible. Mechanical cars

are well suited for commodities that are loaded

at or near the desired transit temperatures

after room precooling, hydrocooling, vacuum

cooling, or loading out of cold storage. Charges

for transit protective service in these cars for

fresh produce or other nonfrozen commodities

(above 32°F.) are approximately the same as

for Standard Refrigeration Service.- On frozen

food shipments the charges are about 50 percent greater than for Standard Refrigeration

Service on fresh vegetables.

Mechanical cars equipped to handle the full

range of both fresh and frozen commodities are

designed to provide heat for cold-weather protection as well as refrigeration. The heat is

supplied by means of electric heating elements

or bj' reverse-cj'cle operation of the refrigerating unit in which the hot gas from the comSee section on Protective Services Available.

pi'essor is sent into the cooling coils. The

change from cooling to heating is done automatically by the thermostatic controls.

Thermostatically Controlled Fan Cars

Two types of fan cars equipped with a small

diesel-electric unit to provide current for continuous operation of car fans whether the car is

moving or standing are now under test. In one

type, operation of two corner fans in each end

of the car is controlled by a thermostat. These

fans circulate the air from the ice bunkers

through the load space. A center fan in each

end of the car operates continuously through

a duct which bypasses the ice Ininker area entirely, thereby eliminating any intake of cold

air from the ice and circulating only the air

that is already within the loading space. Thus,

when the air temperature within the car

reaches the thermostat setting, the corner cooling fans are shut off, but a uniform temperature is maintained by tlie continued operation

of the bypass fans. To prevent cold air from

the bunkers from flowing out under the floor

racks and unduly cooling the bottom of the load

when the cooling fans are oft", thermostat action

closes dampers over the corner fan openings.

In the other type of car there are no bypass

fans. The three fans in each end operate continuously but their speed is reduced when the

thermostat is satisfied. In this way some air

circulation is maintained in the loading space

but further cooling is greatly retarded.

Besides providing uniform, thermostatically

controlled temperatures, full advantage may be

taken in these cars of the savings afforded by

the use of the various modified refrigeration or

ventilation services (7). Also, better temperatures under heater services can be expected.

For heater service, thermostatically controlled

alcohol heaters are used and all car fans are

kept operating continuously. Temperature control is thus obtained by means of the heater

thermostats.

Car Heaters

Protection against cold is provided by portable heaters placed in the empty ice bunkers.

The standard charcoal heater is rapidly being

replaced by the thermostatically controlled alcohol hoatei- shown in figure 6. Temperature

control in the car using charcoal heaters is provided by lighting one or more heaters, depending on predicted or prevailing outside air temperatures. This method does not take into

account the conditions that actually exist inside

the car, resulting many times in unsatisfactory

control. Since the development of the thermos-
AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

It

FIGURE 6.—Thermostatically controlled alcohol heater

installed on ice grates in car bunker.

FIGURE 7.—Underslung charcoal heater.

N-IOISO
PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 9

tatically controlled alcohol heater, it is possible

to provide protection based on air and commodity temperatures inside the car, greatly reducing both overheating and freezing damage.

The heater pilots are usually lit when the heaters are installed in the car. With the heater

thermostat set for the desired temperature, no

further attention is normally required except to

refuel the heaters. Operation of car fans under

heater service is essential to obtain most effective use of both types of heaters.

Some refrigerator cars and special-purpose

insulated boxcars are equipped with underslung charcoal heaters (fig. 7) which are

mounted underneath the car near one of the

doors. In one type, a copper coil surrounding

the firebox contains ethylene glycol which,

when heated, circulates by gravity through a

pipe coil laid on the car floor under the floor

racks. This applies heat to the bottom of the

load where it is most desired and provides for

uniform load temperatures without the need

for car fans. These heaters are extensively

used in overhead bunker cars and others of the

Canadian railroads. Control is provided by

means of hand-operated dampers that can be

reached from the ground. Another type of

underslung charcoal heater used in this country

in overhead bunker cars has ducts built into the

car floor through which heated air is delivered

to the loading space, through louvers at the

ends of the car.

Icing andjPrecooIing Facilities

Icing facilities are provided at strategic loading points and major rail division points. These

are so located that cars may be re-iced in

transit about once every 24 hours. Many of

these icing stations are equipped with mechanical icers (fig. 8) to speed up the process. Some

of these stations are also equipped with machines for retop icing, both at point of origin

and in transit.

Some railroads have facilities for precooling

cars by means of trackside mechanical precoolers or by utilizing the cold air from icestorage plants.

1

FIGURE 8.—Icing refrigerator car with mechanical icer.
10 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

"Piggyback" Service

"Piggyback" service ov trailer-on-flatcar

operation is being widely employed in tlie

movement of dry freight or merchandise by

many rail and trucking interests. It has had

limited acceptance tlius far for transporting

fresh fruits and vegetables although considerable interest is developing. In one type of

operation, regular over-the-road trailers are

driven onto special railroad flatcars and locked

in position. In another operation special

trailer bodies or containers are removed from

the trailer chassis or special running gear and

placed on the special rail flatcars. These special bodies or containers are similar in design

to regular trailer bodies except for the fastening devices required.

Currently, mechanically refrigerated trailers

and containers are generally being used in Piggyback service for perishable commodities.

Because of the difficulties of re-icing in transit,

ice-bunkered vehicles have not been widely

used for the service. While these mechanically

refrigerated units are thermostatically controlled, merely setting the thermostat is not

enough to insure desired transit temperature.

Limited tests with Texas fruits and vegetables

by the Market Quality Research Division have

shown that, in heavy solid loads and with insufficient or no provision for air circulation

around the load, cooling is unsatisfactory and

uniform temperatures cannot be obtained. It

is, therefore, important that both shippers and

receivers realize that the same principles of air

movement and temperature distribution apply

to mechanically refrigerated trailers in Piggyback service as to over-the-road truck trailers

or railroad refrigerator cars. Warm commodities should not be loaded into these vehicles

without regard to the basic principles of good

rail car or truck van loading (58).

CONTAINERS AND LOADING

The selection and use of proper containers

and the correct loading of these in the car are

important factors in the distribution of fresh

fruits and vegetables. Containers must protect

the commodity, permit such heat exchange as

necessary, and serve as an appropriate merchandising unit with sufficient strength to withstand normal handling. To avoid confusion

and excessive cost, size and design should be

standardized as much as possible. The material,

dimensions, and construction of containers

shipped by rail and the manner in which they

may be loaded are governed by tariffs authorized by the Association of American Railroads

(AAR) through its Freight Loading and Container Bureau in the various freight container

tariffs (52-54, 131). Despite these rules, heavy

transit losses occur through careless packing,

handling, loading and unloading, improper load

pattern, and rough handling of cars.

Containers.—The size, shape, and construction of containers are important for the protection of a given commodity (16). The

containers should hold the desired quantity

without causing pressure bruises or crushing

from too tight a pack, or friction and abrasion

injuries from a loose pack. If necessary the

containers should be shaped to hold the conimodity properly; for example, the pyramidshaped asparagus crate. They must be strong

enough to withstand weight of the upper layers

of containers in a load, especially now with increased use of heavier loading. If cooling is

required after packing, containers must have

sufficient vent openings properly placed for

rapid removal of heat.

Many commodities require liners or pads to

prevent injury or bruising from contact with

the container (fig. 9). Film liners are now

used with some items such as cherries and

pears to modify the concentrations of oxygen

and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and provide a high relative humidity (27, 44). Bananas are shipped with a polyethylene sleeve

or shroud over each stem to minimize scarring

from contact with car walls or with adjacent

fruit in transit.

The use of fiberboard or corrugated cartons

has increased tremendously in the past few

years, with many commodities being packed in

them almost exclusively (28). The principal

factor in this rapid conversion from wooden

containers has been the lower cost of cartons.

With the growing trend to prepackage fruits

and vegetables at production areas, fiberboard

cartons will probably continue to be popular

master containers for shipping the consumer

packages. Until recently, it has not been practical to hydrocool or top ice cartons because of

the damage to the fiberboard by wetting. Several manufacturers are now developing moisture-resistant corrugated materials that will

permit these containers with proper vent holes

to be exposed to hydrocooling water without

weakening the containers. Some may l)e used

with package ice and then top iced.

Loading.—A considerable amount of research

by the railroads has been devoted to the proper

loading of containers to minimize loss and damage in transit. The results may be found in

the various Freight Container Tariffs. Under

these rules, only authorized containers and
^s " PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 11

BN-10151

FIGURE 9.—Apples showing- typical flattened bruises

produced by contact of box with car floor racks. Such

injury can be largely prevented by use of appropriate

cushion liners and careful handling of boxes.

methods of loading, proved by many tests and

by actual use, may be used in loading perishables in refrigerator cars (fig. 10). However,

new containers and loading methods may be

tested by obtaining special permits from the

railroads that handle the test shipment.

In a good load, containers must be placed so

as to take advantage of their maximum

strength and permit adequate stripping or use

of spacers to hold the load in alinement (fig.

11). Necessary channels should also be maintained (1I^2). Any slack in the load should be

removed by the "squeeze" method when required, and appropriate braces used to prevent

load shifting in transit (figs. 12 and 13). Regardless of methods used, close supervision of

each operation is necessary to provide a load

that will retain alinement. Kicking and dropping packages and walking on the load can

result in much more damage to the commodity

than normally occurs in a well-loaded car in

transit.

Commodities shipped in bags should be protected by padding material on the floor racks.

Breakage of baskets in transit is minimized by

the use of the alternately inverted load (127).

Sidewall flues or wall racks in cars are an excellent means of providing air circulation around

a load but sometimes divert air which should be

moving through the load. When loading any

precooled commodity in hot weather, a door

shield or tunnel should be used to prevent

warming of the product and loss of refrigeration in a pre-iced car (fig. 19, page 43). Such

protection is also required in very cold weather

to prevent freezing damage {22). To minimize

freezing damage in a car with no sidewall flues,

containers (or bags) should be loaded compactly and away from contact with the car

walls, as shown in figure 20, on page 44. Such

clearance is particularly desirable in the bottom

layers (figure 21, on page 45). Full advantage

should be taken of the assistance provided by

field representatives of the AAR Freight Loading and Container Bureau and the Freight Loss

4th LAYER

3rd ••

2nd M

Itt ••

FiGUKE 1Û.—Side view of load in a refrigerator car showing arrangement of containers in rows, layers and stacks.
12 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

LENGTHWISE ARRAMGEMENT

OF CONTAINERS IN A CAR

FIGURE 11.—Methods of placing containers in a

refrigerator car.

GUIDE ROW

1 -1 ^

1—ü

THROUGH LOAD

1 IP

L=

DIVIDED LOAD

FIGURE 12.—The two general types of loads for refrigerator cars using a guide row to determine the

number of stacks which can be loaded and amount of

lengthwise space remaining to be taken up with a filler.

resultant increase in weight on bottom layers.

This can result in crushing of weak containers

and increased physical damage in bagged loads.

Greater volume in the load may also mean

changes in air circulation patterns and increases in the refrigeration required, especially

in nonprecooled loads. Heavier loads, therefore,

— riGMT LOAO-C (R IS TIGHTLY FILLED BY CONTAINERS AND

D

-^LENGTH OF LOi A SPACE FILLER

LENGTHWISE SPACE: ^

=J ^

LENGTH OF LOAD

LENGTHWISE SPACE

TIGHT LOAD

and Damage Prevention Section. These organizations exist solely to reduce transit damage.

Heavier loading of many commodities in

specified areas of the country has been stimulated by new incentive freight rates for larger

than minimum loads and by per-car rates. This

is resulting in lower per-package freight and

refrigeration costs to the shipper and better

utilization of rail equipment for the carriers

(U). On the other hand, heavier loading

usually means higher stacking in the car with

(^

LENGTHWISE SLACK

:AUSING A LOOSE LOAD

[]fl

H

= 11

LENGTHWISE SLACK

LOOSE LOAD

FIGURE 13.—Tight loads are necessary to minimize container damage in transit.
PROTECTION OF KAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 13

mean a reappraisal of protective services, especially in hot weather. To achieve the same

temperature reduction during car precooling, it

will be necessary to improve precooling efficiency or increase precooling time. It is important not to block the top bulkhead openings

when a high load is used, as impaired air circulation may dangerously reduce the cooling

rate. Fan cars must be used with heavier loads,

particularly in very hot or very cold weather.

Limited information received on commodities

from areas in which heaver loading has been

used indicates that breakage has not been

seriously increased thus far. Even in 50,000-

pound loads of potatoes in 100-pound burlap

bags or in consumer-size paper bags, bruising

in the bottom layers has increased only slightly.

In some instances, customary refrigeration

services for normal, lightweight shipments

have appeared to be adequate for heavier loads,

mainly with precooled commodities. However,

for heavier loads of commodities loaded at high

temperatures in hot weather, the maximum

protection service recommended for ordinary

sized loads should be selected. For Texas

tomatoes, the protective services needed for

heavier loads and different types of containers

are included in table 9.

PROTECTIVE SERVICES AVAILABLE

General Definition of Perishable Protective Service Rules

The various rail protective services appearing in this handbook and the designated rule

numbers are based in general on information

provided in Perishable Protective Tariffs and

supplements thereof. These tariffs are No. 18

issued by the National Perishable Freight Committee (55) and No. 27 prepared by the REA

Express. Many other kinds of protective services provided in the tariffs do not particularly

apply to the services recommended in the handbook and they arc therefore omitted. The

tariffs also include charges assessed for the

various protective services offered, based on

origin and destination of the shipment, but such

charges are not within the scope of this handbook.

The rules included in the handbook apply to

carlot shipments of fresh fruits and vegetables

having both origin and destination within the

United States. They also cover certain agricultural commodities originating in Canada,

Cuba, or the Republic of Mexico, but only from

the first point in the United States through

which such shipments pass, to points in the

United States.

A further discussion on the use of the protective services is included in the section headed

"Methods of Controlling Transit Environment."

There are three general types of protective

service : Refrigeration, ventilation, and heating

service.

Refrigeration is by three general methods :

bunker icing, body icing, and mechanical.

Ventilation is also of three general types:

Standard, Special, and Combination.

Heating service for other than mechanical

cars comes under four general categories : Carriers' Protective Service, Shippers' Protective

Service, Shippers' Specified Service, and Special

Heater Protective Service. There are also Modified Carriers' Protective Service and Voluntary

Heater Service, but neither of these apply to

the various classes of protective service outlined in the handbook.

Heating is also possible in mechanical refrigerator cars. It is accomplished by thermostatically controlled reverse-cycle refrigeration

or by heating elements contained in the mechanical unit. This type of service comes under

Rule 700 (Mechanical Protective Service),

which is not defined herein. Following is a general explanation of the tai-iff rules shown.

Perishable Protective Tariff 18

Refrigeration service

Rule 200, "Application."—Only sections (K)

and (L) of this rule are referred to in the

handbook. They provide for different compulsory refrigeration services during certain

periods on potatoes (other than sweetpotatoes

or yams) from Idaho Groups B and C, Oregon

Group B, and Washington.

Rule 201, "Standard Refrigeration Service."

—Involves pre-icing or initial icing of car

bunkers and re-icing to capacity at all regular

icing stations in transit. On vegetables moving

under half-stage Standard Refrigeration Service without ice on top of the load, the shipper

may instruct on the bill of lading that if the

car is held at stop, hold, or reconsigning point,

or while at destination, it should be re-iced to

capacity daily, regardless of the amount of ice

in the bunkers. However, the car will not be

re-iced at destination if the consignee, after

accepting the shipment, instructs the carrier,

"Do not re-ice." Cars may be loaded dry and

iced thereafter, depending on available icing

facilities and kind of commodity.

Ride 202, "Furnishing of salt'."—Certain percentages or quantities of salt are added to the

ice to produce lower air and commodity tern-
14 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

peratures in car. The salt may be supplied at

pre-icing, initial icing, replenishing, or one or

more re-icings, in transit, also during precooling operations as ordered by tlie shipper. When

a certain percentage of salt is specified, this

means the ratio of salt to quantity of ice supplied.

Rule 237, "Cooling cats at origin."—Pertains

to shipments of cucumbers, pineapples, potatoes

(other than sweetpotatoes or yams), and tomatoes, from certain States in the Eastern, Southern and Southwestern tei-ritories as shown in

the tariff. The rule, however, does not apply

to potato shipments originating at stations on

certain Southwestern railroads specified in the

rule. The rule is applicable to shipments that

are initially iced by the carrier or shipper with

not more than 5,000 pounds before completion

of loading, and are then transported from the

loading station to destination under Standard

Ventilation. The shipper must show on the bill

of lading that car was so cooled at origin, state

the amount of ice that was supplied, and indicate that the shipment is to be handled in

transit under Standard Ventilation. When a

shipment orginally transported under the provisions of this rule has the service changed to

icing in traiisit, the additional charge will be

on the basis indicated in the rule. This rule

also applies to shipments of potatoes (other

than sweetpotatoes or yams) originating on

one railroad in ]\Iaine, when the railroad absorbs the cost of initial icing not to exceed

5,000 pounds.

Rule 239, "Citrus fridts from Arizona and

California preiced and replenished by carrier."

—Applies to icing operations and certain other

refrigeration and ventilation services which the

shipper may desire in connection with this rule.

The shipper must specify on the bill of lading

whether or not the car is to be re-iced following replenishing of the ice bunkers by the carrier. If one to three re-icings in transit are

ordered, the shipper must specify on the bill of

lading at what regular icing stations the service is to be furnished. The tarifi" provides

stated charges from origin to destination. If,

upon subsequent instructions, the shipment is

re-iced more than three times before arrival

in destination terminal train yard, the shipment will be placed under Standard Refrigeration Service at point of fourth re-icing. The

overall charge, including this change in service,

will be on the basis indicated in paragraph G

of the rule.

Upon written instructions, ventilation in conjunction with this rule will also be furnished

on basis of the charge applicable from origin

to destination, as provided in paragraph D, but

without nullifying the charges provided for in

the rule if the shipment is re-iced after ventilators are opened. Also, if, upon instructions,

the vents are opened at any time after the car

has left the loading station and the car is later

re-iced, it will be transported under Standard

Refrigeration Service from point of first reicing after opening of the vents, with ensuing

charges as in paragraph J of the rule.

Rule 2.Í0, "Handling shipments billed. Initially iced; do not reice."—Involves shipments

initially iced by carrier or shipper before or

after loading with no re-icing in transit. Also

applies to shipments pre-iced by the carrier and

replenished by the .shipper, with no re-icing in

transit. When a shipment is forwarded in an

uniced refrigerator car, the carrier will, upon

reasonable advance written notice, initially ice

the bunkers at a regular icing station in

transit. If the car cannot be iced at the designated station, the change in service will be

made at the first available regular icing station.

If a car originally billed "do not re-ice" under

this rule, upon subsequent instructions, has the

bunkers re-iced before arrival in destination

terminal train yard, it shall be handled under

Standard Refrigeration Service from point of

re-icing to destination, except where other refrigeration services are provided as referred

to in exceptions 2 and 3 of the rule.

If ventilation is desired in conjunction with

refrigeration service provided by this rule, the

shipper must specify the class of ventilation

service. Such ventilation shall not require the

removal of ice from the car bunkers, nor nullify

the charges provided in this rule.

On shipments of potatoes (other than sweetpotatoes or yams) originating at stations in

Idaho Groups B and C, Oregon Group B, and

Washington, during certain periods, the compulsory refrigeration provisions of paragraphs

K and L of Rule 200 will apply.

Rule 242, "Top or body icing service, Western Territory."—Applies to shipments of

fruits, berries, melons, and vegetables originating in States (or at certain stations) specified in the tariff. Although the rule caption

includes reference to fruits and berries, top

icing does not seem to be practicable for these

two commodities and apparently is not being

used. The service consists of the placing of

specified amounts of ice in the bedy of car by

the shipper (exclusive of ice in the'packages),

usually on top of the load. This rule also applies where block ice is placed on ñoor racks, in

the centerline channel of the load. The shipper

must specify on the bill of lading the net quantity of ice used in top or body icing. If initial

top ice is to be supplied in transit at certain

stations authorized by the rule, the shipper

must instruct the carrier as to the amount. If
PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VP]GETABLES 15

the amount of top ice supplied to the car exceeds certain permissible maximum amounts

specified in the rule, the excess ice will be

transported at the freight rate applicable to the

lo\vest rated commodity in the car.

The shippei' is permitted to supply 5,000

pounds or less of top ice for precooling melons

from all origins, or vegetable shipments originating in Arizona, California, and Texas. The

ice must be either entirely consumed during

precooling or removed from the body of the

car before transit movement. Whichever of

these disposals of top ice occur must be shown

on the bill of lading by the shipper.

If any ventilation service is desired in connection with top-iced shipments, the shipper

must specify the class of ventilation on bill of

lading.

Rule 2i3, "Top or body icing service, Eastern

and Southern Territories."—This rule applies

only to vegetables and preserved berries, in the

Eastern and Southern territories. Top-icing

methods, also data or instructions to be furnished by the shipper, correspond in general to

provisions in Rule 242.

Rule 2Jt5, "Citrus fruits, precooled, originating in Arizona and California."—Applies to

citrus shipments originating in Califoi-nia and

precooled by the carrier at stations where

carrier's precooling plant is located. This involves cars pre-iced, precooled, and replenished

by the carrier; cars precooled by carrier and

afterwards initially iced by carrier ; and uniced

cars precooled by the carrier and, upon request

of shipper, forwarded without ice through to

destination under instructions "Do not ice."

The rule also covers citrus shipments originating in Arizona and California and precooled

by the shipper in a regularly established cooling plant and loaded into a car pi-e-iced by the

shipper at the station where the cooling plant

is located.

Whichever icing and precooling procedure is

selected must be specified by the shipper on the

bill of lading. Pre-iced or initially iced cars

may be re-iced in transit once, twice, or three

times, subject to stated charges from origin

to destination. The shipper must also show

whether or not the car is to be re-iced in

transit, and the stations at which re-icing is to

be done. If a car, upon instructions, is re-iced

more than three times before arrival at destination terminal train yard, the shipment will be

transported under Standard Refrigeration

Service from point of fourth re-icing, except as

provided under paragraph I of the rule. The

overall charge including this change in service

will be as indicated in paragraph H of the rule.

If, upon written instructions, the car is moved

with vents open at any time after being initially iced and is later re-iced, the shipment will

be transported under Standard Refrigeration

Service from point of first re-icing after opening of the vents. The overall charge including

this change in service will be defined in paragraph I of the rule.

Rule 2k6, "Cooling in car by shipper."—Pertains to precooling of shipments by the shipper

in iced or uniced cars within the States specified in the rule, by mechanically operated fans

or other device during or after loading. The

precooling charges specified in the rule are not

applicable when the lading is precooled by

vacuum cooling or hydrocooling, when the

method of precooling does not utilize the ice in

car bunkers, when the car is initially iced by

the shipper, or when shipper elects to re-ice the

bunkers at his own expense after precooling.

Shipments may be cooled in the car by the

shipper during transit movement, under the

conditions outlined in paragraphs A, E, and F,

part 2, of the rule subject to additional charge

for ice consumed in cooling. The shipper must

show on the bill of lading certain details of

precooling in car at loading point, advice if the

lading was vacuum cooled or hydrocooled, and

instructions if shipment is to be cooled in car

at some station in transit. Cooling of lading in

the car at destination by the consignee is permissible on private siding or public delivery

track where facilities are available, with use of

portable or car fans operated at the consignee's

expense.

Rule 2Jt7, "Fruits, berries, vegetables, melons

and other perishable freight, reiced in transit."

—^Applies to shipments from the States and

Canadian provinces designated in the rule,

which includes all Western States and four

Eastern States. The shipments affected are

those which are originally billed to re-ice a

specific number of times in transit. The shipper

must show on the bill of lading the number of

times the car is to be re-iced, and at what

regular icing stations. Stated charges apply

from origin to destination. If a shipment is

originally billed to re-ice once in transit under

part 1 of the rule, or to re-ice twice in transit

under part 2, or to re-ice three times in transit

under part 3, but upon subsequent instructions

is re-iced oftener than originally indicated before arrival at destination terminal train yard,

it will be placed under Standard Refrigeration

Service from point where the first additional

re-icing occurred. The overall charge including

the change in service will be as in paragraphs

B of part 1, F of part 2, and E of part 3 of the

rule.

If, upon instructions, the vents of the car are

opened at any time after initial icing and the

car is later re-iced, Standard Refrigeration
16 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

Service will apply from point of first re-icing

after opening of the vents (certain exceptions

are made). Charges in this connection will be

as indicated in paragraphs G of part 1, K of

part 2, and J of part 3.

On shipments of potatoes (other than sweetpotatoes or yams) originating at stations in

Idaho Groups B and C, Oregon Group B, and

Washington, during certain periods, the compulsory provisions of paragraphs K and L of

Rule 200 will apply.

_ Rule 2-ÍS, "Retop icing by carriers."—Consists of retop icing in transit by the carrier, at

stations designated by the carriers as retopicing stations, of shipments of vegetables that

were originally top iced by the shipper. Also

applies to shipments of melons retop iced by

the carrier at final destinations designated by

the carrier, if so ordered by the consignee. The

shipper must show on the bill of lading the

amount of top ice that was supplied to the car

at origin, and also specify at what icing station

the car is to be retop iced, and with what

amount of ice. A charge per ton is assessed for

ice supplied.

Rule 251, "Citrus fruits, deciduous fruits,

pineapples, vegetables and frozen berries, also

canned goods (not frozen) from Florida Group

"B" reiced once in transit."—Applies to precooled or nonprecooled shipments originating at

stations in Florida (Origin Group B) which

are initially iced by carrier before or after

loading and re-iced only once in transit. Stated

charges apply from origin to destination. However, if the shipper changes the instructions

and the car bunkers are re-iced more than once

before arrival in destination terminal train

yard, the shipment will be transported under

Standard Refrigeration Service from point of

second re-icing. The rule further provides that

the carrier will accept "change in service" instructions to re-ice once in transit a shipment

that was initially iced by the carrier or shipper

and originally forwarded under instructions to

"initially ice, do not re-ice" (Rule 240).

When either a precooled or a nonprecooled

shipment is forwarded with bunkers dry or

without ice, the carrier will, upon reasonable

advance notice, place the shipment under refrigeration in transit to the extent of initial

icing and one re-icing, at regular icing stations

designated by the shipper. The shipper must

show on the bill of lading whether or not the

shipment was precooled at point of origin, and

indicate at what regular icing station (or stations) the car is to be initially iced or re-iced.

If ventilation is desired in conjunction with

refrigeration service, the class of ventilation

and when or where it should be performed

must also be specified by the shipper. Such

ventilation, however, shall not be construed as

requiring removal of ice from car bunkers.

Ride 252, "Citrus fruit and vegetables from

Florida Groxip "B", initially iced by the shipper

and reiced once in transit by the carrier."—

Pertains to shipments from Florida, pre-iced or

initially iced by the shipper, and re-iced only

once in transit. This rule also applies to shipments which originally moved under Rule 240

("initially iced, do not re-ice"), but the service

was changed en route to re-ice once in transit

on instructions from shipper. Stated charges

apply from origin to destination.

If ventilation is desired in conjunction with

the refrigeration service covered by this rule,

the shipper must specify the class of ventilation

service on the bill of lading. If one or more

vents of the car are open at any time between

initial icing and re-icing, an additional charge

will be assessed the shipper.

Rule 25U, "Fruits, berries, vegetables and

melons preiced and replenished by carrier."—

Pertains to shipments from the Western territory, Louisiana, and some ]\Iiddlewest areas

(except citrus from Arizona and California)

which are pre-iced and replenished by the

carrier. Shipments may be forwarded without

re-icing or with one re-icing in transit, or from

certain origins on specified commodities with

two or three re-icings in transit. Stated charges

apply from origin to destination.

The shipper must specify on the bill of lading

what re-icing, if any, is to follow replenishing

of ice bunkers, and at what regular icing stations. Any additional re-icing or icing service

in transit besides that provided for in paragraphs Cl, C2, C3, and C4 (or in addition to

that originally ordered on the bill of lading),

before arrival at destination terminal train

yard, will result in change to Standard Refrigeration Service from point where the additional re-icing occurred. The overall charge,

including the change in service, shall be as

defined in paragraph G of the rule. If, upon

written instructions, the vents are opened after

car has departed from the loading station and

the car is later re-iced, it will be transported

under Standard Refrigeration Service from

point of first re-icing after opening of the

vents, on the basis of charges indicated in paragraph J of the rule.

On shipments of potatoes (other than sweetpotatoes or yams) originating at stations in

Idaho Groups B and C, Oregon Group B and

Washington during certain periods, the compulsory provisions of paragraphs K and L of

Rule 200 will apply.

Rule 255, "Half-stage refrigeration service."

—This means using only the upper portion of

the car bunkers for icing. In cars equipped for
PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

^ "this service, the ice grates are raised to a point

^B approximately midway between the top and

^B bottom of the bunkers. The service will be sup-

^m plied by the carrier only when refrigerator cars

^B equipped for half-stage icing are available at

^m origin. When a shipper desires a car of this

^Ê type, he must so specify when the car is

ordered. It is also necessary for him to indicate

on the bill of lading "Half-Stage Refrigeration

Service." The service does not apply to shipments originating on some railroads and in

certain areas of the South (such as mentioned

in subparagraph 2 of paragraph A of Rule 258)

when the car is initially iced by the shipper.

If a shipment is loaded in an uniced half-stageequipped car the carrier will, upon instructions,

place the shipment under half-stage refrigeration service at a regular icing station in transit.

This, however, applies only when the point of

origin and the specified regular icing station

are both located in the States or at the stations

shown in the tariff under paragraph A, note 1,

of this rule.

On shipments of potatoes (other than sweetpotatoes or yams) originating at stations in

Idaho Groups B and C, Oregon Group B and

Washington, during certain periods, the compulsorv provisions of paragraphs K and L of

Rule 200 will apply.

Ventilation service

Rule SS5, "Shippers' instructions and %vaybill notations."—Part of this rule provides instructions for ventilation service for refrigerator cars. This is the manipulation of ventilating devices (hatch covers and plugs) of car

bunkers to permit or prevent passage of the

outside air to car interior. The rule is divided

into three parts : Part 1, Standard Ventilation ;

part 2, Special Ventilation; and part 3, Combination Ventilation (combination of parts 1

and 2). Standard Ventilation is the manipulation of vents at certain temperatures as prescribed in the rule. Special Ventilation is the

manipulation of vents at temperatures or stations specified by the shipper, and Combination

Ventilation is the use of both Standard and

Special Ventilation, each on a portion of the

route. The carrier will also accept instructions

to keep the vents closed throughout entire handhng of the shipment.

These classes of ventilation service vary with

the kind of commodity, the geographical location of shipping point, and the time of year.

Cars moving under any class of ventilation

service will not have vents adjusted between

regularly assigned inspection points, except

when trains are delayed, when attention will be

given as soon as practicable. When the shijjper

requests adjustment of vents at a place which

17

is not a regular inspection station, the vents

will be adjusted at the first regular inspection

point beyond. The shipper must specify on the

bill of lading the class of ventilation desired.

Protective service against cold (heater service)

Ride 510, "Shippers' Protective Service."—

Protection against frost, freezing, or artificial

overheating will be provided by the proper use

of heaters furnished, initially fueled at origin,

and installed by the shipper. The heaters will

be subsequently serviced by the carrier as the

shipper directs. (The service, however, will

not be performed on a few eastern railroads

listed under part 2 of the rule.) The heaters

must be of suitable design as to safety, in

proper operating condition, and securely fastened to the bunker or bunkers. There must be

no hay, straw, or other combustible material in

the bunkers. Shipments will be transported

under this rule solely at the owner's risk of

damage by heat or cold not the result of

carriers' negligence.

Parts 1 and 3 of the rule cover commodities

such as liquids, preserves, and canned goods, on

which the service is available from October 15

to April 15 inclusive. Part 2 of the rule applies

from November 16 to March 31, inclusive, on

shipments of fresh vegetables originating in

the New England States and moving to destinations in Heater Territory, part 2; stations in

Illinois on certain railroads; also stations outside of Heater Territory in the Southeast, as

indicated in the tariff.

If LF heaters (thermostatically controlled

alcohol heaters) are used, the shipper must

light the pilot of the heater or heaters when

they are installed. The shipper or his agent

will also light charcoal and underslung heaters

before the loaded car is tendered to the originating carrier, if the outside temperature is at

or below the minimum specified by the shipper.

The shipper must show on the bill of lading the

heater numbers, also when or at what temperatures portable charcoal and underslung heaters

are to be lighted and extinguished; also the

temperature at which each LF heater thermostat is set. In the absence of shippers' instructions, the heaters will not be serviced. The rule

further provides that the vents of refrigerator

cars will be kept closed from origin to destination.

Rale 5H, "Shippers' Specified Service."—

Protection against frost, freezing, or artificial

overheating will, upon reasonable advance notice, be supplied by proper use of heaters furnished, installed, and serviced bv the carriers

as directed by the shipper, within the territory

described in paragraph L, part 1, of the rule.

The rule further provides that the carrier wili
18 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

furnish heater or heaters for preheating of

cars, or for heating while cars are in process

of loading. On shipments destined to points

beyond territory covered by paragraph L, lieater service will, upon specific request of the

shipper, be continued to stations in certain

Southern States as mentioned in paragraph M

of the rule. On shipments arriving at Florence,

S.C, the heater or heaters will be removed by

the carrier, unless otherwise instructed.

The rule applies in general to portable or

underslung charcoal heaters but part 3 of the

rule also provides for the use of LF heaters

(subject to the provisions of part 1) in shipments of tomatoes originating in Arizona, California, Texas, and Mexico. The shipper must

specify the number of heaters required and the

outside temperatures at which each charcoal

heater is to be lighted and extinguished, also

the temperature at which heater thermostat

should be set on LF heaters. The shipper must

also designate the class of ventilation desired

in conjunction with such heater service; otherwise the vents will be manipulated on basis of

Standard Ventilation, except that commodities

listed in paragraph B of Rule 320 will be transported with vents closed. Service under this

rule is available from September 1 to May 31

inclusive.

Rule 515, '-Carriers' Protective Service."—

Requires that the carriers will protect the shipment within Heater Territory, against frost,

freezing, or artificial overheating, furnishing

artificial heat or such other protective service

as may be necessary. This service is available

throughout the heater season, from October 15

to April 15 inclusive, and is subject to stated

charges per car for the movement within

Heater Territory. It is compulsory within

Heater Territory on shipments of potatoes

(other than sweetpotatoes and yams) originating in Heater Territory, part 1, from November 16 to, but not including, March 1.

Portable charcoal, underslung, or LF heaters

may be used. If the shipper desires car vents

to be kept closed in transit, he must so specify

on the bill of lading.

In the absence of instructions as to class of

service beyond Heater Territory, the shipment

will be transported under Standard \'entilation,

except commodities covered by paragraph B of

Rule 320. Carriers' Protective Service will be

furnished in the Provinces of Ontario and

Quebec on shipments wliich are moving under

this class of service from points in the United

States, when destined to points in the United

States via routes through Canada. Paragraph

F of the rule provides exceptions on certain

commodities and areas on certain railroads

where this service does not apply.

Rule 519, "Shippers' Specified Service on

pineapples (see rule 105) or tomatoes. —Applies only while shipments are being held. Protection against frost, freezing, or artificial

overheating will be supplied by proper use ot

heater or heaters furnished, installed, and serviced by the carriers as directed by the shipper,

in shipments of pineapples or tomatoes held at

stations within Heater Territory, part 1. The

rule also applies to tomato shipments held at

stations outside of Heater Territory, part 1,

west of the Mississippi River.

The shipper must instruct the carrier as to

when the heater or heaters are to be installed,

lighted, extinguished, and removed. The shipper must also designate the temperature setting

desired for the thermostat on LF heaters. The

service is subject to a charge per heater day.

The shipper must also specify the class of

ventilation service required, otherwise the

vents will be kept closed.

The service is available between January 1

and December 31 inclusive. It is furnished

solely at the owner's risk of loss or damage

from heat or cold not the result of negligence

of carrier.

Ride 520, "Shippers' Specified Service with

LF heaters."—Protection against frost, freezing, or artificial overheating in shipments of

tomatoes or pineapples from Florida will be

supplied by use of LF heater or heaters furnished, installed, and serviced by the carriers,

as directed by the shipper. When available, the

heaters will be furnished at certain stations in

the South, also at Potomac Yard, Va., and

Jersey City, N.J. If LF heaters are not available at the station specified by the shipper, they

will be furnished at the next station en route

where such heaters are obtainable. If a shipment moves via more than one carrier, the

carrier supplying the LF heater or heaters is

not obliged to permit them to move beyond its

own line. Servicing of the heaters will be available on certain railroads within a number of

States in Heater Territory, parts 1 and 2, and

within a few specified areas in the South. If

the shipment moves beyond these specified territories, it will be handled under Standard

Ventilation, unless the shipper files specific instructions to the contrary.

The shipper must specify the number of

heaters required, and the temperature at which

the thermostat of each is to be set. The carriers

will, upon instructions, remove the heater or

heaters while the car is being held at an intermediate point or at destination. If ventilation

is desired in conjunction with such heater service, the shipper must specify the temperatures

at which the car vents are to be opened and

closed; otherwise the vents will be manipulated
PROTECTION ÜF KAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

Iat the same temperature as specified for heater

thermostat setting. The service is available

from September 1 to May 31 inclusive, and is

subject to a charge per heater day.

Rule 5S0, "Special Heater Protective Service."—Protection against frost, freezing, or

artificial overheating on perishable freight will

be supplied by the use of LF heater or heaters

furnished, installed and serviced by the carriers as directed by the shipper. The service

applies to shipments originating in Special

Heater Protective Service Territory or on the

railroads specified in the rule. The service will

be provided from origin or from first terminal

train yard where LF heaters are available, to

final destination vithin or to point of exit from

Special Heater Protective Service Territory,

subject to stated changes per car. However,

the rule provides that, on certain railroads in

the Northwest, shipments which originate at

stations where LF heaters are not available

will have the service under this rule performed

with charcoal heaters from origin to first regular heater inspection station. LF heaters will

be substituted at that station.

Upon reasonable advance notice, the carrier

will sulîstitute the heater service covered by

this rule (within Special Heater Protective

Service Territory) for refrigeration service,

ventilation service, or one of the other classes

of heater service referred to in paragraph B-1

of the rule. The shipper must designate where

in transit the change in service is to be made.

The bill of lading must .show at what temperature the thermostat of LF heaters should

be set. If ventilation is desired in conjunction

with heater service, the shipper must also specify on the bill of lading that the vents either

be kept closed to destination, or adjusted at the

outside temperatui-es he designates. In the

absence of instructions from the shipper as to

how the vents are to be manipulated, they will

be adjusted at the same temperature specified

for setting of the heater thermostat. When

the shipment moves beyond the territory covered by this rule, it will be handled under

Standard Ventilation unless the shipper files

specific instructions to the contrary. However,

the rule does specifically provide that shipments

of avocados or limes and commodities listed in

paragraph B of Rule 320 in the tarifi" will be

handled with the vents closed, unless the shipper instructs to the contrary. Service under

this rule is available from September 15 to

May 15 inclusive.

Explanation of heating service terms

"Standard Heating in Canada" applies only

on the Canadian Pacific Railway and Canadian

National Railways to shipments orginating

19

within or outside the Heater Territory in the

United States and destined for Canada or moving through Canada to destinations in the

United States (15). Standard Heating provides for use of two portable heaters, one

placed in each bunker of the car, to be lighted

or extinguished at temperatures shown for

various perishable commodities in the tariff.

Should the shipper not desire to forward the

car under the regulations of Standard Heating,

he may specify outside temperatures at which

he requires the heater or heaters to be lighted

or extinguished. The shipper must specify the

number of heaters required, also what manipulation of car vents is desired.

The term "LF heaters," used in Perishable

Protective Tarin" 18 and mentioned in the foregoing definitions of heater service rules, means

thermostatically conti-olled liquid fuel (alcohol)

heaters.

Official Heater Territory, parts 1 and 2, also

Shippers' Specified Service Territory as referred to in Perishable Protective Tariff 18 and

in the heater service rules defined above, are

shown in the maps in figures 32 and 33 on

pages 60 and 61.

REA Express Perishable Protective

Tariff 27

Rule 1, "Regulations governing refrigeratioji."—Has reference to tariff charges for

refrigeration and the importance of clearly

showing all icing instructions on the waybills.

Rule 4. "S«/f."—Pertains to use of salt and

charges therefor, when supplied to car bunkers

at point of origin or in transit. The shipper

must specify what percentage of salt is desired,

and when or at what icing station it is to be

supplied by the REA Express.

Ride 5, "Precooling service."—Applies to carlot shipments placed in pre-iced cars at point

of origin and precooled by the shipper with the

use of precooling apparatus during or after

loading. This rule further provides that shipments, subject to delay, may be cooled in the

car by the shipper at a point in transit in direction of movement to destination, but not ¡Deyond

first regular re-icing station. If the shipper

elects to re-ice the bunkers to full capacity- after

precooling apparatus has been removed from

the car, no precooling charge will be assessed.

There also will be no charge for precooling

service if the method or device used for precooling does not utilize the car bunkers or the ice

contained therein.

This rule also provides for the top icing at

point of origin of melon shipments fi-om Arizona and California, with not more than 5,000
20 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

pounds of ice, provided all of the ice is consumed during cooling or is removed from the

car body before release of the car.

Rule 15, "Modified refrigeration service."—

This rule, under separate paragraphs, provides

for different icing services or combinations

thereof. Included are initial icing by the REA

Express or sliipper with no re-icing or only one

re-icing in transit, and shipments originally

forwarded in dry cars (no ice in the bunkers)

but initially iced somewhere en route. In each

of the above instances, the shipper must specify

a regular icing station at which the one re-icing

or initial icing in transit is to be performed.

This rule also covers shipments which are reiced more than once in transit, or are re-iced in

transit after having been originally forwarded

under instructions not to re-ice.

FACTORS AFFECTING POSTHARVEST LIFE OF FRESH FRUITS AND

VEGETABLES

Fruits and vegetables are living organs,

even though separated from the plant. The

intent during marketing is to maintain freshness and other characteristics of quality (79).

Deterioration in fresh produce is caused chiefly

by aging, decay, functional disorders, moisture

loss, mechanical injury, physical injury, and to

a lesser extent insect and chemical injuries.

Quality is maintained by careful control of

these deteriorative influences.

Because fruits and vegetables are alive, they

breathe or take in oxygen and give off carbon

dioxide. In this process, known as respiration,

fruits and vegetables give off heat which is

commonly measured in B.t.u. (British thermal

units) (SO). The heat given off through respiration is known as vital heat. It varies with

different fruits and vegetables as shown in table

1. There is a direct relationship between the

rate of respiration and the perishability of a

commodity; therefore, vital heat production

may be taken as a measure of perishability.

Heat of respiration has a definite effect on refrigeration requirements during transit. This

will be discussed in a later section on methods

of controlling transit environment. . -,,

Temperature

As life processes are essentially chemical

reactions, their rate is affected by temperature.

Therefore, high commodity temperatures accelerate the rate of respiration of fruits and

vegetables, resulting in more rapid ripening

and aging. Refrigeration is used to slow the

life processes of the fresh commodity as much

as possible without interfering with its normal

metabolism. As an illustration, spinach is a

very perishable vegetable and has a very high

respiration rate which, even at 32° F., produces

4,550 B.t.u. per ton per day. At 40", this rate

is doubled and at 50° it is 41/2 times as great

as at 32°. This emphasizes the importance of

rapid removal of field heat after harvest to

preserve quality and extend shelf life of the

commodity. In general the respiration rate of

fresh fruits and vegetables practically doubles

for each 10-degree rise in temperature. Highly

perishable products such as spinach and strawberries must be moved quickly and maintained

at low temperatures all the way to the consumer {6i).

In contrast to leafy vegetables such as spinach, many fruits, roots, and tubers with low

respiration rates are relatively long lived. As

an example, the apple has a low respiration

rate. It produces only about 900 B.t.u. per ton

per day at 32°, which is about one fifth of that

for spinach at the same temperature. Under

proper refrigeration it has a long storage life

(up to 9 months at 31°-32°).

While low temperatures (32° to 40° F.) are

desirable for many crops, some commodities

such as tomatoes, bananas, and lemons are injured by low temperatures. Chilling injury to

tomatoes results in their failure to ripen properly, with consequent poor flavor and appearance, also extensive decay (75, 76). Bananas

which have been chilled fail to ripen properly

and become discolored (.?). Chilling of lemons

causes various types of rind breakdown or

internal browning {110). It is, therefore,

imperative that such commodities be held at

moderate temperatures. A safe or desirable

range of transit temperatures for most of the

important horicultural crops is given in table 3

on page 24, in the section headed "Commodity

Requirements." A more detailed discussion of

other special requirements for these crops is

contained in the same section.

Moisture

The quality of fruits and vegetables is also

affected by the amount of moisture in the air

surrounding them in transit. A high relative

humidity, about 90 percent, is desirable for

most commodities to prevent wilting or moisture loss. Humidity in both iced and mechanically refrigerated cars is usually high. Low

humidities may sometimes be encountered in

dry-car (no ice) shipments, moving under ventilation. Top ice and package ice used for some

commodities, especially the leafy vegetables,
PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 21

TABLE 1.—Approximate rate of evolution of heat (heat of respiration) by certain fres

fruits and vegetables at the temperatures indicated

[B.t.u. per ton per 24 hours]

Commodity

Apples

Avocados

Bananas 2

Cherries, s\veet___

Citrus:

Grapefruit ^

Lemons

Oranges

Cranberries ^

Grapes:

American type.

Vinifera

Peaches

Pears

Plums, Wickson..

Strawberries

Fresh fruits

Asparagus

Beans, snap

Beets (roots)

Broccoli (sprouting;.

Cabbage.

Fresh vegetables

Carrots (roots).

Celery.

Corn, sweet-.

Cucumbers

Lettuce, head.

Melons:

Cantaloups.

32° F. 40° F. 60° F.

B.t.u.

900

1,250

660

690

725

660

602

365

1,110

770

540

3,265

,300

,830

,650

,450

,200

,130

,620

,560

,690

,640

Honeydew

Onions, dry 5

Peas, green 1 g

Peppers, sweet i 2

Potatoes 6

Spinach j 4

1,320

Sweetpotatoes..

Tomatoes:

Mature-green.

Ripe

880

,260

,720

660

,550

1,715

580

[,020

B.l.u.

1,625

1,015

1,255

1,430

920

1,170

1,735

1,200

5,180

14,000

10,275

4,060

14,300

1,670

3,470

2,420

9,390

2,550

3,500

1,960

900

14,620

4,700

1,430

9,530

2,530

070

260

B.t.n.

5,075

3,090

3,630

4,410

3,487

2,410

8,285

11,000

2,600

17,960

32,000

38,110

7,240

41,900

4,080

8,080

8,220

38,410

10,460

9,200

8,500

3,100

41,880

8,470

37,460

5,290

6,230

5,640

'Avocados at 50' F., 12,230; at 59°, 26,440.

lished data from J. Biale.

'Bananas at 68°, 8,800.

' Grapefruit at 70°, 4,180.

Unpub80° F.

B.l.u.

5,010

8,481

20^200"

41,830

61,950

79,210

' Cranberries at 50°, 1,725.

• Onions at 50°, 1,870; at 70°, 3,630.

° Potatoes at 70°, 2,860.

Source of

data

(')

(HÔ)

[11,5)

(1Í5)

(US) ins)

(U5)

(U5)

ins)

(US)

ins)

(18)

(11*5)

(67)

(ns)

(H5)

(US)

(H5)

(11,5)

(H5)

(HS)

(HS)

(89)

(HS)

(87)

(HS)

(HS)

(HS)

(HS)

(HS)

(HS)

(HS)

(US)

provide added moisture to preserve freshness

and also supply refrigeration. Moisture loss

may also be reduced with certain products by

the use of film box liners and bags (27, ^i).

Diseases

_ Diseases caused by bacteria and fungi and

disorders resulting from abnormal functioning

of fruits and vegetables are numerous and may

cause serious losses in fresh produce after harvest {93-97, 109, 110, 113, IH, 138). Decayproducing organisms (fig. 14) are responsible

for more losses during transit than physiological or functional disorders. Both decay and

physiological disorders, however, are directly

influenced by temperature. In general, rots

develop most rapidly at 70° to 85° F. Many

of these decays are retarded significantly by a

reduction of only 10 to 20 degrees in commodity

temperature. At 32° most decay-producing

organisms are inactive, although there are some

that develop slowly even at this temperature.

Many diseases originate in the field. Control should be directed toward selection of resistant varieties and an adequate spraying and

dusting program. Some diseases of field origin

are superficial and do not change or increase

during ti-ansit. Certain types of diseases, such

as late blight rot in potatoes and tomatoes, and
22 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

FlGlRE 14.—Transit decay in peaches (Rhizopus rot).

BN-101.52

buckeye rot in tomatoes, are ñeld infections, but

the disease may not be evident at time of paclving. Incipient infections of the diseases mentioned develop into active diseases in time,

regardless of transit temperatures. Many of

the decays important during the postharvest

period cause little or no loss to the crop or commodity in the field. In practically all cases,

however, the organism is present in the soil or

on weakened or dead plant materials in the

field. The majority of rots, therefore, occurring in transit and on the market are the result

of infection by fungi and bacteria present on

the fruits or vegetables when harvested. The

amount of decay caused by these rots in transit

is influenced by the inoculum present in the

field; by weather before and during harvest;

and by environment during marketing. Natural or mechanical breaks in the epidermis

permit infection and possible decay.

Various chemical treatments have been developed for retarding decay in transit. These

include sulphur dioxide fumigation for grapes

(120), diphenyl liners and wraps for citrus

fruits (38), and various sprays and dips {19,

20). While these treatments are effective in

varying degrees, they are only supplemental to

adequate refrigeration.

Mechanical Damage

Much deterioration is caused by mechanical

damage which may occur at any time from

harvest on. Careful handling is necessary at

all stages in moving produce to market. Mechanical damage is evidenced as bruises, shatter, cuts, and abrasion. Several of the most

damaging decay organisms can gain entrance

into fruits and vegetables only through breaks

in the skin, many of which are caused by rough

handling. Proper containers, pads and other

cushioning material, proper loading and bracing, and careful handling of cars in transit are

all necessary to reduce mechanical damage.

COMMODITY REQUIREMENTS

In this section there is a brief description of

each of the commodities covered by the handbook. The descriptions include perishability.

transit requirements of temperature and

humidity, principal market disorders, special

packaging or loading requirements, and other
PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 23

information pertinent to proper handling in

transit. Desired transit temperatures and related data are given in tables 2 to 5.

Fresh Fruits

Apples

Desired transit temperature, 32° to 40- F.

Most of the apple crop is held in cold storage

and shipped to market during winter and

spring. The rest of the crop moves directly to

market during the harvest season (25). Apples

shipped at harvest that are destined for storage

should be cooled rapidly and shipped under

refrigeration to hold ripening to a minimum.

Apples of any variety harvested near the end of

the season are more mature than those harvested earlier, so further ripening in transit

l)efore consumption may not be necessary. It

is especially important, therefore, that this

late fruit be shipped at low temperatures.

Under proper environmental conditions longkeeping varieties of apples may be stored for

several months, thereby furnishing a steady

supply of fruit for the market through the winter and spring (3). Temperatures of 30° to

32° F. are required for most varieties during

this long storage. Certain other varieties,

which are injured by long exposure to temperatures below 40°, may be held satisfactorily for

extended periods in 38° to 40° storage rooms if

the amounts of oxygen and carbon dioxide are

controlled therein. This is the so-called "controlled atmosphere" or CA storage (125). The

storage life of apples is greatly affected by the

rapidity with which their temperature is lowered to the optimum level.

Apples shipped from cold storage should

have a protective service which provides for

temperatures as nearly like cold-storage temperature as possible. Because apples from storage are at temperatures close to the freezing

point of the fruit, little reserve heat is available, so shipments exposed to cold weather for

several days can freeze quickly if not protected

by heater service. Overheating in transit must

TABLE 2.—Desired transit temperatures for certain fresh fruits and vegetables

Fresh fruits

Commodity

Apples

Apricots

Avocados:

Most varieties

West Indian varieties

Bananas ( green)

Cherries (sweet)

Citrus:

Grapefruit

Lemons

Limes

Oranges (Ariz., Calif., and Tex.)

Oranges 'Florida)

Tangerines

Cranberries

Dates

Figs (fresh)

Grapes (Vinifera )

Peaches and nectarines _

Pears 2

Pears '

Pineapples:

Mature-green

Ripe

Plums (including fresh prunes) *..

Strawberries

Desired

transit

temperature

° F.

32 to 40

32 to 34

4.5

55

56 to 60

32 to 36

48 to 52

50 to 55

48 to 50

33 to 45

40 to 45

32 to 38

36 to 40

40 to 50

32 to 36

32 to 40

32 to 45

45 to 55

32 to 36

50 to 60

40 to 50

35 to 45

32 to 35

Fresh vceetables

Commodity

Asparagus

Beans (snap) '

Beets

Broccoli

Cabbage

Carrots

Cauliflower

Celery

Corn fsweet )

Cucumbers

Endive and escarole

Lettuce

Melons:

Cantaloups

Honeydew

Onions ( dry)

Peas (green)

Peppers ("sweet)

Potatoes:

Early-crop

Late-crop

For chipping, early-crop

For chipping, late-crop_

Radishes

Spinach

Sweetpotatoes

Tomatoes:

Mature-green

Pink

Desired

transit

temperature

° F.

34 to 38

45 to 50

32 to 40

32 to 36

32 to 40

32 to 38

32 to 40

32 to 36

32 to 36

45 to .50

33 to 36

32 to 36

35 to 40

45 to 50

32 to 40

32 to 36

45 to 50

55 to 65

40 to 50

60 to 70

50 to 65

32 to 40

32 to 40

55 to 60

55 to 65

45 to 50

' If watery soft rot is present in snap beans at time of loading, a transit temperature of 40° to 45° is desirable to

retard this decay, even though some chilling injury may occur.

"Pears of all varieties shipped for immediate distribution and consumption.

'Pears for storage in producing area, at terminal market, or for transshipment.

' Class of service and desired transit temperature will depend largely on the maturity of fruit and whether or not

the shipment is made in a fan car.
24 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

TABLE 3.—Approximate freezing points of certain fresh fruits and vegetables^

Fresh fruits

Commodity

Apples

Apricots

Avocados

Bananas

Cherries (sweet)

Citrus:

Grapefruit

Lemons

Limes

Oranges

Ta ngerines

Cranberries

Dates

Figs (fresh I

Grapes (Vinifera )

Peaches and nectarines

Pears

Pineapples

Plums including fresh prunes)

Strawberries

Approximate

freezing

point

' F.

28.0

29.5

30.0

29.5

27.0

28.5

29.0

28.0

28.0

29.5

30.0

-4.0

27.0

27.0

29.5

28.5

29.5

28.5

30.0

Fresh vegetables

Commodity

Asparagus

Beans (snap)

Beets (roots)

Broccoli

Cabbage

Carrots (roots)

Cauliflower

Celery

Corn (sweet)

Cucumbers

Endive and escarole

Lettuce

Melons:

Cantaloups

Honeydew

Onions (dry)

Peas (green)

Peppers (sweet)

Potatoes

Radishes

Spinach

Sweetpotatoes

Tomatoes

Approximate

freezing

point

» F.

30.5

30.0

29.5

30.5

30.5

29.0

30.0

31.0

31.0

30.5

31.0

31.0

30.0

30.0

30.0

30.0

30.5

30.0

30.0

31.5

29.0

30.5

' Although temperatures shown in the table represent actual freezing points, certain fruits and vegetables are

susceptible to cold injuries at temperatures considerably higher than those above indicated. Further reference to

such critical temperatures is shown elsewhere in this handbook for the particular commodities involved. More detailed information on the freezing points of fresh fruits and vegetables, on which the above table is based, may be

found in two USDA publications {136, 1Í5).

be avoided to prevent overripening which can

cause a rapid deterioration in quahty and

flavor. During heating, car fans should be

operated to prevent temperatures in the top

layers from rising too high and to keep fruit in

the bottom layers from freezing. Thermostatically controlled alcohol heaters are now used

almost exclusively for shipments of apples

under heater service from the Pacific Northwest, and heater thermostats should be set preferably at 321/2° ilOJ^, 105, U7).

If apples are shipped without transit refrigeration, vents should be kept closed to prevent

outside air at higher temperatures fi-om entering the car and warming the fruit. Apple

shipments moving out of Heater Territory to

warmer areas in the south and southeast should

be changed to refrigeration seiwice at diversion

points such as Laurel, Mont., or Kansas City,

Mo. When danger of frost is past in the

spring, ample refrigeration is required, as

apples at that time are near the end of their

storage life and every precaution must be taken

to maintain their residual quality.

The quality of apples is greatly affected by

bruising (fig. 9), which not only reduces salability but also increases susceptibility to infection bv decay organisms (US). Mature apples,

especially those which have been stored for

long pei-iods, are more easily bruised and therefore require more careful handling and packing

than those freshly harvested. Suitable containers and padding are necessary to minimize

bruising in transit and marketing. The 1-

bushel wooden apple box has l^een the standard

container for apples in the Northwest for many

years but various types of fiberboard boxes are

now being extensively used. These include a

number of tray packs and cell packs which

afi'ord greater protection from bruising during

shipment. Solid loads may be used safely with

apple shipments as apples are not usually precooled in the car. It is desirable to leave a

space between the containers and car walls to

minimize the danger of freezing during winter

shipments in cars without sidewall flues. Film

box liners have been used with success to prolong the storage life of Golden Delicious apples

by preventing moisture loss and shriveling

(27).

Most of the diseases of apples aflfect the fruit

while it is in storage (Hi). Decay in transit

is controlled by transit temperatures of 32° to

40° F. This temperature not only retards the

growth of the rot-producing fungi, but, by also

retarding ripening, decreases the susceptibility
PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 25

TABLE 4.—Suggested temperatures to specify for shipments of certain fresh fruits and

vegetables in mechanically refrigerated cars under Rule 710, Perishable

Protective Tariff

Fresh fruits Fresh vegetables

Commodity Temperature Commodity Temperature

Apples

Apricots

Avocados:

Most varieties

West Indian varieties.

Cherries (sweet)

Citrus:

Grapefruit

Lemons

Limes, green

Oranges (Ariz., Calif., and Texas) ^

Oranges (Florida) 2

Tangerines

Cranberries

Dates

Figs (fresh )

Grapes (Vinifera)

Peaches and nectarines ^

Pears *

Pears '

Pineapples:

Mature-green

Ripe

Plums (including fresh prunes) ^

Plums (including fresh prunes) '

Strawberries

33

33

46

56

33

50

52

49

35

42

33

37

42

33

33

36

47

33

52

42

42

36

33

Asparagus

Beans (snap)i

Beets

Broccoli

Cabbage

Carrots

Cauliflower

Celery

Corn (sweet)

Cucumbers

Endive and escarole

Lettuce

Melons:

Cantaloups

Honeydew

Onions (dry)

Peas (green)

Peppers (sweet)

Potatoes:

Early-crop

Late-crop

Early-crop, for chipping

Late-crop, for chipping.

Radishes

Spinach

Sweetpotatoes

Tomatoes:

Mature-green

Pink

35

46

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

46

34

34

36

46

33

33

46

57

42

60

60

33

33

56

56

47

'If watery soft rot is present in snap beans at time of loading, a temperature around 42'

this decay, even though some chilling injury may occur.

The desired temperature will depend on variety and shipping- area.

'If slight ripening- in transit is desired, a temperature of 45" will be suitable.

' Pears of all varieties shipped for immediate distribution and consumption.

'" Pears for storage in producing area, at terminal market, or for transshipment.

" Plums of average maturity.

' Plums above average maturity.

is desirable to retard

of the fruit to decays such as blue mold, gray

mold, and bull's-eye rots. Most disorders of

apples, including' not only rots such as blue

mold but certain physiological diseases such as

Jonathon spot and scald, are reduced by prompt

cooling (to 30'""-o2") of the fruit immediately

after harvest and maintenance of temperatures

close to this range until the fruit is consumed.

Jonathon spot and scald may develop rapidly at

warm temperatures after the fruit has been

removed from cold storage. Bitter pit, another

physiological disoi'der, has its inception in the

orchard. Its further development is retarded

at temperatures of 32° to 40° ; in susceptible

varieties of apples it could develop appreciably

in 7 to 10 days at 50° to 60°.

Blue mold rot is the most important decay

organism affecting apples. It is controlled by

low temperatures (30°-32° F.). As this decay

is primarily a wound parasite, it usually enters

the fruit through skin breaks caused by bruising or other mechanical injury (II^S). Hence,

careful handling in harvesting, packing, storing, and shipping is of utmost importance to

minimize physical damage to the fruit.

Apricots

Desired transit temperature, 32° to 34° F.

Apricots are very perishable, and losses from

injury and decay are considerable. For best

results, apricots must be harvested and moved

quickly. The fruit should not be left in the

sun after picking as it has a tendency to selfheat. Brown rot, an orchard disease caused by

a fungus, may develop in apricots during transit and in the market (113). It can be retarded

by temperatui'cs below .50° F. Xew infections

are almost entirely prevented at such temperatures. A spotting known as scab or shot hole

also occurs on apricots in California and the

Pacific Northwest. However, it does not de-
26 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

TABLE 5.—Recommended thermostat setting fur LF

(liquid fuel) heaters in shipments of certain

fresh fruits and vegetables^

Commodity

Thermostat

setting

Fresh fruits

Apples

° F.

Avocados 45 2

Pears s 47J^

321^

42K

35

Pears *

Pineapples:

Mature-green _ .

Ripe

Fresh eegelables

Celery .. _ _ _

Peppers (sweet) 45

Potatoes:

Late-crop 40 to 45

Late-crop, for chipping_ 60

Tomatoes:

Mature-green _ 50

47}^

' If LF heaters are used in shipments of commodities

not listed in this table, the heater thermostat should be

set as near as possible to the transit temperature shown

in table 4 for the commodity.

Applies to winter shipments of avocados from California.

' Pears of all varieties shipped for immediate distribution and consumption.

' Pears for storage in producing area, at terminal

market, or for transshipment.

velop or spread in transit or storage. Apricots

moving by freight service should be roomprecooled to 32"^ but loading temperatures of

35° to 40" are adequate for express shipments.

Shipments from both areas should be loaded in

pre-iced cars. Standard Refrigeration Service

is required in transit with 2 to 4 percent salt

added to the ice depending on the weather. In

California wrappecl dry ice is frequently added

with from 800 to 1,000 pounds placed in the

brace at doorway and 100 pounds in each

bunker with the water ice. The dry ice is not

intended for refrigeration, but is used mainly

to retard decay and preserve freshness through

effects of the carbon dioxide added to the car

air. California shipments move via express,

whereas those from the Pacific Northwest are

generall}' transported by freight. The use of

fan cars is recommended for apricots.

Avocados

Desired transit temperature, 45° to 55°F.

The avocado is an extremely tender fruit and

requires very careful handling. The fruit

bruises easily and is very susceptible to decay

when the skin is broken. Dothiorella rot is the

most important rot of Califoi-nia avocados

(110). The fungus (which occasionally induces stem-end rot) sometimes enters the fruit

before harvesting. As the fruit softens, rot

develops. This is about the time the fruit

reaches the consumer. The marketing problem

is further complicated by the fact that a

method of detecting incipient infections has not

been developed to eliminate infected fruits before shipping. The fruit is less susceptible

early in the season. Cercospora spot or blotch

is the most important disease of Florida

avocados and is characterized by lesions and

slightly sunken spots on the fruit. Scab and

anthracnose are other common diseases affecting the avocado in Florida.

Most varieties should be transported at a

temperature around 45°F., but the West Indian

varieties which predominate in Florida should

be transported near 55°. If avocados remain

in transit for extended periods at relatively

high temperatures, they will ripen rapidly and

become soft. Avocados should be precooled to

the desired transit temperature before sliipment and loaded in pre-iced cars. Florida shipments need not be precooled if fruit temperature is not above 60° at loading. All varieties

should be given moderate refrigeration service

in transit, dependent on weather, as avocados

will not ripen satisfactorily if they are held

long at temperatures below 45°. Transit heater

service is necessary during cold weather. Car

vents should be kept closed. When LF heaters

are used for California avocados, the heater

thermostat should be set at 45°.

Bananas (green)

Desired transit temperature, 56° to 60°F.

Most bananas shipped coimiiercially do not

ripen properly on the plant so they must be

picked and shipped green (J). In this condition they can be handled without excessive

bruising but are very susceptible to chilling

injury at temperatures below 54°F. and ripen

rapidly above 60°. Practically all rail shipments of bananas are made under the control

of representatives (banana messengers) of the

companies importing this fruit, who have developed from experimentation special rules for

handling in transit. Because of this, recommended protective services for bananas are not

included in this handbook. Detailed information for such handling should be obtained from

the importer through whom the receiver obtains his bananas. Other instructions pertaining to the transportation of bananas will l)e

found in Rules 105 and 110 of the Perishable

Protective Tariff.
PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 27

Cherries (sweet)

Desived transit temperatures, 32° to 36°F.

Rhizopus rot, gray mold rot (Botrytis),

green mold rot (Alternaría), and blue mold rot

(Pénicillium) are the most common diseases

affecting sweet cherries (113). Some of these

are particularly destructive during transit and

marketing, especially in the presence of skin

breaks and excessive moisture. Skin breaks

can be greatly reduced by avoiding excessively

tight packing and careless handling before and

during loading. Rhizopus rot can be fairly well

controlled in transit by temperatures of 40 ' to

45° F., but the other organisms can grow

slowly at 32'^ and below. It is, therefore, important to place cherries in a cold room as soon

after picking as possible. They should be precooled overnight to about 32'^, and subsequently

loaded in a pre-iced car.

Maximum refrigeration service should be

provided in transit, with 2 to 3 percent salt

added at pre-icing and all re-icings {1Í6).

Additional retardation of decay and maintenance of green stems can be accomplished by

the carbon dioxide released from 800 to 1,000

pounds of wrapped dry ice placed in the doorway brace. An additional 100 pounds of dry

ice can be broken up in each bunker with the

water ice. Recent development of polyethylene

liners for lug boxes of Northwestern cherries

has eliminated the need for dry ice in these

shipments (28, 29). Because the polyethylene

liners extend the marketable life of the

cherries, it is now possible to ship safely by

freight instead of express, and this is steadily

increasing in the Pacific Northwest. California

shipments move mostly by express, using dry

ice instead of the film liners. To maintain uniform temperatures, fan cars are recommended.

Citrus (grapefruit)

Desired transit temperature, 48° to 52°F.

Some of the more important decays and

physiological disorders afifecting grapefruit are

the same as those involving oranges: blue

mold, green mold, stem-end rot, and pitting

(37, 110, 112, 123, 139). Blue mold and, to a

greater extent, green mold rots are a prol^lem

each year in all citrus producing areas in the

United States. Stem-end rot causes important

losses each year in shipments of citrus fruits

from Florida and Texas during rainy years but

is of minor importance in arid States such as

Arizona and California. The first consideration

for the control of blue mold and green mold

rots is careful handling throughout the harvesting, packing, and marketing periods, to minimize peel breaks through which infections occur. The growtli of decay fungi can be retarded

by treating the fruit with certain approved

chemical dips, chemical-impregnated wraps or

liners, and fumigants (38). These treatments

are used either singly or in combination and

are complementary to prompt and effective

cooling to 50°F.

Pitting is a physiological disorder common to

grapefruit when held in temperatures near

40°F. Early-season fruit is especially susceptible, often showing the typical peel pitting

within 15 days. Late-season fruit may not

show the injury until after a storage period of

4 to 6 weeks. Grapefruit may not be adversely

affected by short exposure to temperatures near

40°. However, peel pitting can develop in export shipments and also in distant domestic

shipments if the fruit is held by the receiver

for several days at undesirable temperatures.

A transit temperature of 48° to 52° is recommended for grapefruit because of the impossibility of determining in advance its susceptibility to pitting. The increased protection

against pitting provided by this temperature

range compensates for any possible slight increase in decays.

Protective services in transit are somewhat

the same as those required for oranges, such as

ventilation only, ventilation in conjunction with

refrigeration service, or cooling with ice ranging from modified icing service to maximum

refrigeration (m). Precooling of grapefruit

before shipment will be governed by fruit temperature, fruit condition, and the weather.

When necesary, precooling to 50°F. is recommended. As with oranges, some grapefruit is

"degreened" to produce a normal color by the

use of ethylene gas (IJ^O). However, more

rapid development of stem-end rot will occur in

gassed fruit, if the coloring-room operation is

improper or the temperature therein is not

kept between 80° and 85°.

As with oranges, when treatments are applied which raise the temperature of the fruit,

consideration must be given to the removal of

this excess heat by precooling or additional

transit refrigeration. The use of fiberboard

boxes poses the same cooling problem as with

oranges and open loads (fig. 15) are necessary

{Jtl,U2).

Citrus (lemons)

Desired transit temperature, 50° to 55°F.

Lemons are stored and transported at higher

temperatures than other citrus fruits. Lemons

sometimes become pitted if held for prolonged

periods at low storage temperatures but pitting

is rare at temperatures above 55°F. Brown rot
28 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEFT. OF AGRICULTURE

FIGURE 15.—One loading methud used tu provide vertical zigzag air channels through a

(Freight Tariff 823-c, loading rule 210; so-called spaced bonded-block load).

BN-7932

carton load of citrus

caused by a soil-borne fungus is found on

lemons in groves, in packing houses, and in

storages (110). Due to the acidity of the juice

the fungus is usually confined to the rind, the

central cylinder, and the tissues between the

segments of ñesh. Certain chemicals are sometimes added to the wash water to prevent infection in the packing house. However, the

treatment most commonly used at present to

control brown rot is to sul^merge the fruit for

2 minutes in water heated to 115°, or for 1

minute in 120° water. This disease, as well as

blue mold and green mold rots, is greatly retarded at a temperature of 50°. Chemical treatments immediately after harvesting also afford

an effective control of these diseases.

Cottony rot, another important disease affecting lemons, is a rapidly spreading contact

decay that may attack both green and mature

fruit, and cause heavy losses in the packinghouse or in storage. At the relatively high

temperatures deemed suitable for lemon shipments the decay-producing fungus may cause

substantial damage. However, temperatures of

50° to 55° in transit afford the best control of

most disorders of lemons. Careful handling,

packinghouse sanitation, and washing the fruit

in hot water (as for brown rot) are recommended for preventing cottony rot. These same

control measures should also be used for gray

mold rot, whicli is more common on lemons

than on other citrus fruits. This rot is rarely

found in the orchard, but is very common in

transit, in storage, or on the market.

For winter shipments of lemons Standard

Ventilation only is geneially used, but some

refrigeration is recommended for weaker fruit

such as "tree ripes" and "B-Silver" lemons.

Various modified refrigeration services may be

used for summer shipments or for cars moving

to points in the South {1^2). Pre-iced cars, with

bunker ice replenished after loading, are recommended. The need for re-icing in transit will

be governed by weather and by distance to

market. If a fan car is used for ventilated

shipments it is recommended that the fans be

kept in operation. This, of course, also applies

to cars moving under refrigeration. Practically

all lemons are now packed in fiberboard

cartons. Transit cooling is not a problem with

lemons as they are usually near the desired

transit temperature when loaded.

Citrus (limes)

Desired transit temperature, 48° to 50°F.

Limes are subject to some of the same

diseases that attack oranges and grapefruit:

pitting, blue mold, green mold, and stem-end

rot {110). They are subject to pitting at tern-
PROTECTION OF KAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 29

peratures below 45 ' F. and develop stem-end

rot at temperatures above 50°. The most important transit disease of limes is st\'lar-end

breaJidown occurring in fruit of advanced

maturity. Occasionally this disease appears at

the stem end as weW as at the stylar end. During early stages no organism has been found

associated with the disease, therefore it is considered physiological in nature. The only control measure that can be recommended is to

pick the fruit before it becomes too mature.

Rind breakdown; such as conspicuous spotting

or collapse of the rind occurs in limes during

transit and storage. The name "scald" has

often been used for this trouble. Control measures consist of careful handling, prompt shipment, and storage at temperatui-es between 48°

and 50°. Limes should be room-precooled to

52°-55° during warm weather. ^Modified icing

service in transit will suffice.

Citrus (Oranges)

Desired transit temperature : Arizona, California, Texas, 33° to 45°F. ; Florida, 40° to 45°.

The important decays and physiological disorders affecting oranges are blue mold, green

mold, and stem-end rot (7 70, ]12). Blue mold

and green mold rots in particular are prevalent

in all citrus-producing areas. Stem-end rot is

responsible for serious losses in Florida

oranges each year and during rainy seasons in

Te.xas, but is of minor importance in Arizona

and California. Careful handling throughout

the hai-\'esting, packing, and marketing periods

is of primary importance to minimize peel

breaks, through \\hich infections such as blue

and green mold rots enter. Certain approved

chemical dips, chemical-impregnated wraps or

liners, and fumigants may l)e used to retard the

growth of these decay fungi {:]9, ISO). These

treatments are complementary to prompt and

effective precooling to 50°F. at which temperature oranges will generally remain fi'ee of decay for 5 to 6 days. Additional cooling in

transit will lower the fruit temperature to 45°

or under. Oranges are more subject to decay

than gi-apefruit but are less susceptible to

pitting at temperatures below 40° than grapefruit. Early and midseason varieties are

usually more susceptible to pitting than lateripening varieties, the pineapple variety from

Florida being especially susceptible even during

comparatively short periods in transit. Pitting

is generally more severe at 36° to 40° than at

either higher or lower temperatures.

Oranges, when stored, are usually held at 32°

to 34-. This temperatui-e affords increased protection against decay fungi. Overrefrigeration

is therefore not a factor in the transportation

of oranges. The exact amount of refrigeration

to be used for obtaining desirable temperatures

in transit will depend upon fruit temperature

at time of loading, variety, ciuality, weather,

distance to market, and whether or not the

shipment was precooled. The shipper may select various classes of protective service such as

ventilation only (comprising both Combination

Ventilation and Stanclai'd \'entilation) or cooling with ice, ranging from modified icing service to Standard Refrigeration Service (75,

H^). Ventilation is generally used with winter

shipments but it may be needed during cool

weathei- in other seasons, even in conjunction

with a refrigeration service. A substantial

number of orange shipments are precooled depending on the type of container used, weather,

and condition of the fruit.

Early in the season some orange varieties

are legally salable before developing normal

yellow color, but frequently such oranges are

treated with ethylene gas to degreen them

(HO). However, this gassing treatment sometimes accelerates development of stem-end rot,

if proper coloring-room procedure is not followed. Because of considerable variation in the

color of oranges from time to time, some are

colored with a harmless dye to improve their

appearance. This process is referred to as

"color added," and the fruit is so stamped. The

use of heated solution in this process sometimes produces "aging," which causes browning, wilting, and shriveling around the stem

button or elsewhere on tlie upper part of the

fruit. Oranges from some areas are given a

waxing treatment which is believed to help

minimize weight losses and retain a bright

appearance for a longer time.

All treatments which raise the temperatures

of the fruit increase the refrigeration requirements. Consideration must be given to the removal of this excess heat through precooling

or increased transit refrigeration. The rapid

increase in the use of fiberboard cartons for

all citrus fruits has resulted in slower cooling

rates because of the difficulty in moving air

through the packages and the tighter loads as

shown in figure 16 (4^1, JfS, llf2). As much

space should be provided as possible in the load

by means of channels (fig. 15) or the chimney

method (fig. 27, page 56) and more time

.should be used for precooling in car. Bulk

hydrocooling of oranges is being used in a number of Florida packinghouses. Fungicides are

added to the hydrocooling water to reduce the

development of decay. The fruit is then packed

in regular wirebound or fiberboard containers,

or in polyethylene bags placed in master containers.
30 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

MIDDLE I^DàKIER CEMERLINE TEWPEXATUKES

FANS US

CAKTUvS Vi BOXES

PREICED, STD kEFRlGEKATlO

A A *

n

A ^

(Jutside Air

A ,—•— su

MU' ^-A A /r--A- -A A \ /\/v

I r T^ \

^ ^ y ^ j \

'A^t \/

\Unventilated Cartons

;u' V V J ^ ^

«/

bU \l v"^».^ Standard Boxes

--^ /

, 4U

July8 9 10 u 1Í 13 14 15 16 17 IS 19 20

19S5

^ a

a - — o

a Q.

0

§

o

<v

c

n

(A

V

o

c

4)

C

rt -

^ -•

O c

C 0;

^ -4

c

o

c

o

o

â c

« o

c ,11

c

o

X

J

c

o

0

u

1« (J

at

o>

AMS Neg. 81.-;2-60(10)

FIGURE 16.—Temperature curves showing lack of cooling in unventilated cartons of warm oranges in center of load

as compared with standard boxes.

Citrus (tangerines)

Desired transit temperature, 32^ to 38°F.

This fruit is highly perishable and not

adapted to long storage (40). Tangerines become more tender as ripening progresses. They

are then especially susceptible to green mold

rot {110). Temperatures of SS'^F. and below

are quite effective in retarding this decay. The

usual packinghouse chemical treatment to

check green mold in other citrus fruits should

also be given tangerines. This treatment is best

made soon after the fruit reaches the packinghouse. Tangerines should be thoroughly precooled before shipment, after which moderate

refrigeration will suffice, depending on weather

and distance to market (í4o). The use of fan

cars is recommended.

Cranberries

Desired transit temperature, 36° to 40°F.

The keeping quality of cranberries is determined by growing conditions, maturity,

variety, and storage procedures. They can iDe

successfully stored from 3 to 4 months at temperatures around 36°F. and fairly high relative

humidity {U7, h8). However, such temperatures are not always available in growers'

warehouses, where most of the storage life of

the fruit is spent. Fruit stored for 4 months at

36° should be retailed as quickly as possible

thereafter, since such fruit is very susceptible

to bruising and physiological breakdown {loh)-

Even at low temperatures decay will develop.

Moreover, at temperatures close to 32" cranberries are subject to physiological breakdown,

resulting in the flesh losing its normal white

color and crisp texture. The flesh then becomes

red, tough, and rul)l3ery, and the skin loses its

characteristic high luster. At temperatures

above 40 (especially above 50°) decay development greatly increases.

The rots occurring in cranberries are numerous and not easily distinguished from each

other, even when examined by a specialist

(70.9). Bruising of the fruit during picking,

sorting, and packing operations should be

avoided, especially if the fruit is wet. However,

these precautions alone will not necessarily control decays and incipient fungus infections already existing in the fruit before harvest

{128). Fungus rots can be controlled to a considerable extent by chemical spraying in the

field, also by precooling freshly harvested, prepackaged cranberries in the car or cold storage

rooms especially during warm weather. Cold

storage rooms for precooling purposes are being given some consideration by certain cranberry growers.

Solid loads of warm (nonprecooled), pre-

]:)ackaged cranberries packed in master cartons

cool slowdy in transit, especially in the middle

layer of the load. Tests have indicated that

precooling freshly harvested cranberries re-
PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 31

duces decay in transit {49, 59, 6.J). Transit

temperatures of 36^ to 40° F. are desirable for

cranberries. To obtain such temperatures,

recommended classes of protective service are

given in table 7. If the weather is cool during

the early portion of the trip ventilation service

(no ice) may be used at the beginning, followed

by refrigeration later on, if outside temperatures near destination are high. Or protective

service ranging from modified refrigeration to

Standard Refrigeration Service and 3 percent

salt may be necessary. The governing factors

are the temperature of the fruit at time of loading and the weather. If temperatui-es of the

berries ai'e above 60' when loaded, the shipment should be loaded in a pic-iced car, and

then precooled in the car before departure.

Dates

Desired transit temperature, 40" to 50°F.

Although temperatures lower than 40° F. are

beneficial, they are not recommended because

of increased service cost. Only room-precooled

fruit is shipped in the summer. Although some

precooling is also done during cooler weather,

the lack of time results in much fi-uit being

loaded fairly warm (1^2). During the summer,

modified icing service is sufficient for dates.

The use of maximum refrigeration is not warranted and is wasteful because of the solid

loads used and the fiberboard placed over the

car floor i-acks to protect the cartons. These

practices obstruct air circulation and result in

retarded heat removal from the load. During

fall, winter, and spring, ventilation service only

(no ice) is sufficient for date shipments. No

heater service is ever required.

Figs (fresh)

Desired transit temperature, 32° to 36° F.

Figs are extremely fragile and very susceptible to decay organisms. Alternarla spot,

Rhizopus rot, and gray mold rot are the principal decays affecting fresh figs in transit and

on the market (110). Figs should be promptly

room-precooled or pi-ecooled in the car after

hai-vest to temperatu)-es of 33^ to 36° F. If

subsequently kept at temperatures not higher

than 40S they will not he seriously affected

with decay in transit, or during the usual maiketing period. Figs, due to their delicate

nature, cannot be expected to keep satisfactorily for more than about 10 days. Expedited

transit movement is desirable. Transcontinental shipments move in express cars, which

should be pre-iced befoi-e loading. Standard

Refi'igeration Service with 3 pei'cent salt added

to the ice is necessary in transit. To fui'ther

retard decay and excessive ripening of the figs

during transit carbon dioxide gas may be used

as a supplement. In a good, tight car helpful

concentrations may be obtained with 750 to

1,000 pounds of wrapped dry ice placed in the

doorway area brace of shipments. An additional 100 pounds of dry ice may be broken up

and placed in each car bunker with the water

ice for rapid buildup. Only fan-equipped cars

should be used.

Grapes (Vinifera)

Desii^l transit temperature, 32° to 40° F.

California Vinifera table grapes must be

cooled rapidly to preserve their quality ( ?,

Uo). They are shipped either immediately

after harvest oi- after varying periods of storage. In either case, the fruit should be placed

under refi'igeration within a few hours after

harvest. Undue delays at the high temperatures usually prevailing at harvest time will

favor stem drying, I)erry shrivel due to moisture loss, shatter, and infection by decay

organisms.

Precooling is accomplished foi- botli shipping

and storing grapes by the use of room precooling, forced-air cooling (S2-J4), cooling tunnels,

and car precooling (80) (the lattei' when

grapes move directly to market after harvest

or are transported some distance to storage).

Grapes are not adapted to vacuum cooling.

They should be pi'ecooled to 40° F. or lower

for immediate shipment and as close as possible

to the desired holding temperature of 31° for

storage. Temperatures below 40' should be

maintained in transit. Car precooling is

usually done by means of the built-in car fans,

portable precooling fans, or a combination of

l)oth. The class of protective service i-equii'ed

in transit will depend on the extent of precooling before shipment, as well as the prevailingweather and season (JO-]). Mechanically refrigerated cars may l)e used to shij) precooled

or storage grajees l:)ut some are not designed

for rapid precooling of warm loads.

The standard grape display lug is the commonly used container for grapes. Railroad

tariffs require that these containers be loaded

crosswise of the car. Some method for providing vertical air channels in the load should be

used, particularly when the lading is precooled

in the car. To accomplish this, the gate load,

Hoak load, block load, oi- othei- similar load pattei-ns may be used. Tight loading lengthwise

of the car is essential to prevent any container

movement which may result in shattering of

the grapes in transit (S2). Slack in the load

can be eliminated by the proper use of a mechanical "car-squeeze" and an adequate center

gate, as described in the applicalile Freight
32 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

Container Tariff, to retain load tightness during transit.

The decays that sometimes develop du ringtransit include those caused by Botrytis, Cladosporium, and Alternarla (109). The spread of

Botrytis (gray mold) and Cladosporium is controlled quite effectively in both storage and

transit by fumigation with sulfur dioxide gas,

but fumigation does not kill infections that

have occurred before harvest. Care must be

taken to prevent excessive concentrations of

SO, in the car during fumigation, or injury to

the fi-uit will result (135). A supplemental

fan in the brace will provide uniform distribution of the gas. In mechanically refrigerated

cars, it may be necessary to open the doors

after fumigation to aerate the car.

FUMIGATION WITH SO. GAS MUST BE

DONE WITH CAUTION TO AVOID INJURY

TO WORKERS, FRUIT, AND EQUIPMENT.

EVEN A CONCENTRATION OF 0.25 PERCENT CAN CAUSE RESPIRATORY SPASMS

AND DEATH FROM ASPHYXIATION IF

THE VICTIM CANNOT ESCAPE FROM THE

FUMES. CONCENTRATIONS AS LOW AS

0.04 PERCENT ARE IRRITATING AND CAN

INJURE THE MUCOUS MEMBRANES. A

GAS MASK WITH CANISTER FOR ACID

GASES, OR GOGGLES, SHOULD BE WORN

EVEN WHEN WORKING IN WEAK CONCENTRATIONS.

Peaches (and nectarines)

Desired transit temperature, 32° to 45° F.

Peaches, when eating-ripe, are too soft to be

shipped. They must, therefore, be harvested

at a stage of maturity in which they are firm

enough to be handled Avithout excessive bruising (35). To maintain sufficient firmness during the movement to market, the fruit must be

held at temperatures low enough to retard

ripening until it reaches the retailer. Of equal

importance is control of the two major decays

affecting peaches : brown rot and Rhizopus rot

(fig. 14) (113). Their development during

extended transit periods (7 to 8 days) can be

very rapid unless the fruit is held at 45° F. or

lower. However, peaches held at 40° for 2

weeks or more may be affected by internal

breakdown, which does not occur as rapidly

at temperatures above or below this point.

Holding temperature should be reached quickly

after harvest by room precooling, precooling in

cars, or hydrocooling.

In the eastern peach-gi'owing area, hydrocooling (fig. 24, page 53) has become the most

common method of precooling (106, 107, 129).

In Colorado, precooling is done in the car by

means of car fans or portable mechanical refrigerating units. Room precooling is the usual

practice in California and the Northwest,

although car precooling and hydrocooling are

used to some extent. In hydrocooling, fruit

temperatures should be reduced to 45° F. or

lower and constantlv checked to determine the

performance of the h>-drocooler. The water

temperature should be in the range of 32° to

34° at all times for effective cooling. As the

cooling rate will vary considerably with size of

the peaches, the speed of the hydrocooler should

be adjusted to provide the desired cooling when

the average size of peaches being cooled

changes. After removal from the hydrocooler

the fruit should be loaded promptly into precooled cars to prevent loss of refrigeration.

Warm peaches may be shipped immediately

after loading in mechanical cars. The load will

cool in transit within 18 to 24 hours. While

this is a longer period than normally required

for holding and piecooling a load in an iced car

at shipping point, it does eliminate the delay

and extra cost that usually go with car precooling. Because of the slower cooling rate the

peaches may ripen somewhat during this

period. Fruit so shipped should be firm when

loaded, to prevent excessive softening during

transit with consequent increased bruising.

Peaches that are harvested before reaching

proper maturity will not ripen with good

dessert quality. Considerable interest has been

shown by the industry in improved harvest

maturity for raising market quality (21).

Rapid precooling and transit temperatures below 40° are essential for fruit of advanced maturity. Bruising is also a serious proljlem,

especially in bulging or overpacked containers,

and better packaging than the conventional

containers now used is desirable. Single and

double layer tray-pack boxes of wood or fiberl)oard are being used, mostly in the west.

Moisture-resistant cartons suitable for hydrocooling with jumble-packed fruit are becoming

available. Many studies are now being made to

develop containers that will afford better protection to the more mature fruit and still permit rapid and adequate cooling.

The standard tub peach baskets have received excessive damage when loaded in the

usual upright manner in refrigerator cars. Extensive tests have shown that the alternately

inverted crosswise offset load (fig. 17) greatly

reduces basket breakage and also lowers refrigeration costs per package because of the

larger load (127). Southeastern railroads have

offered incentive rates on carlot shipments of

peaches loaded in this manner, provided they

are properly hydrocooled and a heavier load is

used by adding another complete layer to the

normal load.
r

PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OP FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 33

FIGURE 17.—Alternately inverted load of ^-t-bushel baskets in refrigerator car.

C060

Two serious transit decays of peaches are

brown rot and Rhizopus rot (130). The fungus

that causes brown rot occurs in the orchard and

is favored by warm, wet weather. It is most

prevalent in the Southeastern production area.

Adequate spraying schedules plus proper pacl-cinghouse sanitation are the most effective controls. At least one chemical, sodium orthophenylphenate, applied after harvest, has been

found to be effective in reducing brown rot infections (74). Tolerances have recently been

established for this chemical by the Food and

Drug Administration. Although brown rot can

develop slowly at temperatures as low as 32'-'

F., satisfactory control during normal transit

periods is possible at the recommended temperatures of 32^ to 45"". However, following

the transit period and removal of the fruit to

normal temperatures during retail handling,

brown rot can develop rapidly, even though

none was discernible at time of loading. Thus,

it is important to reduce infections in the

orchard with effective preharvest sprays. The

Rhizopus rot organism usually attacks the fruit

after harvest, but its growth is held in check by

transit temperatures of 45"' and lower. Sodium

orthophenylphenate is also effective for reducing Rhizopus infections. A buildup of spores of

decay organisms in the hydrocooling water can

be avoided by the addition of 100 to 200 parts

per million of chlorine. However, this concentration will not eliminate any brown rot or

Rhizopus rot infection already existing on the

fruit.

Nectarines are handled the same as California peaches.

Pears

The transit protective service for pears is

determined largely on the disposition to be

made of the fruit upon arrival at destination.

It may go into immediate distribution and consumption, into cold storage in the East, or be

transshipped for overseas sale (J).

(1) Desired transit temperature, pears of

all varieties shipped for immediate distribution and consumption: 45*^ to 55°F.
34 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

Pears in this category should be partially

ripened in transit so that it will not be necessary to hold them for extended periods for

ripening after reaching market. Facilities

available at destination often do not provide the

proper environment for ripening, and result

in poor quality fruit. Delay in ripening may

cause an excessive accumulation of fruit in

wholesale and retail channels which adversely

affects prices. Depending on maturity at harvest, pears from the earlier districts usually

require from 7 to 12 days to reach the eatingripe stage when held at ideal ripening temperatures. Therefore, moderate transit temperatures should be provided to initiate this ripening process during a 6- to 8-dav transit period

(118.119).

For early varieties shipped immediately after

harvest (Bartlett, Bosc, Comice), modified

icing services as indicated in the tables should

be used to provide temperatures in the range

of 45" to 5.")-F. for the first 5 to 6 days in

transit. These icing schedules are based on a

transit period of 7 to 10 days. With faster train

schedules now in effect which pi-ovide delivery

on the seventh morning in New York City, it

appears that some further modification of protective services could be safely used. If a nonfan car is used, moderate precooling at origin

should be done to avoid excessive ripening in

the top layers during transit. For shorter

transit periods (less than 6 days) the fruit may

be treated with ethylene gas before or during

shipment to hasten ripening (116).

]\Iidseason and late pears are usually harvested at a more advanced stage of maturity,

so less ripening in transit is needed. They are

generally room or car precooled and shipped

under a modified refrigeration service as indicated in the tables.

All varieties shipped from cold storage during fall or winter in fan cars may have ripening initiated in transit if desired, by the proper

use of LF heaters with thermostats set at

471/2°- Because of the low temperatures usually

prevailing during transit in late fall and winter, no significant warming of the cold fruit can

be expected from any natural source, so artificial heat must be applied. Tests have been

made with winter shipments of pears from the

Northwest in which heaters Avere installed at

Chicago (90, 102). Fruit temperatures Avere

raised to 50°-60° by the time of arrival in New

York. Pears in these cars were then ripe

enough for distiibution 18 to 36 hours sooner

than those in a companion car which was not

heated. Other tests (91) indicated the feasibility of ripening pears by heating in fan cars

after arrival at market (car fans operated by

portable motors) (69) thus eliminating the

extra handling required to move the fruit

through ripening rooms.

(2) Desired transit temperature, pears for

storage in producing area or at terminal market, or for transshipment: 32 to 36'-F.

For maximum storage life, pears must be

quicklv cooled to 31'^ to 32^F. and held contmuouslv at that temperature, whether they are

stored in the production area or at the terminal

market. Consequently, temperatures near the

optimum storage temperature should be maintained in transit. Fruit shipped immediately

after harvest should be thoroughly precooled,

either by room precooling or in the car, and

shipped under maximum refrigeration in warm

weather and some modified icing in cooler fall

months. During severe cold weather, freezing

damage in transit must l^e prevented by heater

service with car vents kept closed to destination. Car fans should be operated in transit to

prevent overheating (hence ripening) in the

top layers of the load. The thermostat on LF

heaters should be set at 32V2'"^.

Practically all pears stored in the Pacific

Northwest and some in California are now

packed and stored in film-lined containers

which increase their storage life and lengthen

shelf life several days after ripening (27). To

prevent possible fruit injury from excessive

atmosphere changes during transit and retail

handling, it is recommended that the film liner

be slit at shipping point after removal from

storage.

The most common transit decays of pears

are blue mold and gray mold rots, bulls'-eye rot,

and Alternaria rot (IH). All of these decays

develop slowly in storage but can increase if

the fruit is exposed to higher temperatures in

transit. However, development of these decays is retarded by the low transit temperatures previously recommended. Chemical treatments before storage and proper packinghouse

sanitation will minimize sources of infection.

Mature-green,

Pineapples

Desired transit temperatures

SO'^ to 60°F. ; Ripe, 40° to 50°.

Practically all pineapples moving by rail have

been imported from Cuba. They were loaded

in rail cars on the island and transported by

car ferry to West Palm Beach or other Florida

ports. Here they were reloaded into refrigerator cars for movement to points in the United

States. In general, the class of protective service used is that which the buyer specifies to

produce the desired break in color or stage of

ripeness required upon arrival at the market.

Pineapples are sensitive to temperatures below

40 F., especially mature green fruit, which
PROTECTION ÜF KAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 35

may retain its acid flavor and fail to color properly if exposed to such low temperatures.

Therefore, temperatures of 50" and higher ai'e

needed for mature green fruit, depending on

the ripening desired in transit. Ventilation

service in warm weather and LF heaters during winter montlis are usually employed. To

maintain the color break in ripe pineapples,

temperatures of 40- to 50- in transit are desired. This will require the use of a modified

refrigeration service in warm weather and LF

heaters in cold weather, with heater thermostats set at 121 -j" for ripe and 52i 2° for mature

green pineapples, and car vents kept closed.

Black rot, sometimes called soft rot, water

blister, or water rot, is one of the most serious

diseases affecting pineapples both in the field

and in transit (110). The causal fungus enters

the fruit through skin breaks caused by insect

punctures or injuries received during harvesting, packing, and marketing processes. It develops more rapidly in ripe than in green fruit.

Cai-eful handling and packing is necessary to

minimize infection. Black rot develops very

rapidly at temperatures between 70'^ and 90^F.

l)ut becomes relatively inactive below 50*^ and

will not develop in fruit below 45^.

Plums (including fresh prunes)

Desired transit temperature, 35 ' to 45"F.

Because of their perishability, plums and

prunes (fresh) should be handled carefully at

all stages of marketing, from the orchard to

the consumer. They are not stored extensively,

nor are they adapted to long cold storage. Moreover, fresh prunes coming out of storage at

shipping point cannot safely be stored again

after arrival at eastern markets. Thus the

fruit should be put into trade channels as soon

as possible after ari-ival at market. Plums are

susceptible to the same rots as other stone

fruits, the most important being Rhizopus rot,

brown rot, gray mold rot, and blue mold rot

(11-1). The controls usually found effective are

adequate spray operations in the orchard, proper precooling of the fruit after picking, prevention of skin breaks and bruising during

handling, and the avoidance of excessively tight

packs (17).

The fruit should be either room precooled or

precooled in the car to the recommended temperatures promptly after packing. The addition

of .salt to the bunker ice during car precooling

is desirable. Transit temperatures of the fruit

should be kept between 35^ and 45"F. If the

fruit is precooled soon after it is picked, a

temperature of 45° or lower will fairly well

retard the progress and development of the

four principal decays. As indicated in table 7,

the extent of precooling at origin and also the

class of protective service necessary in transit

de])ends lai-gely on the maturity of the fruit at

loading and whether the shipment is being

made in a fan car or in a car without fans.

Fan cars should be given preference. All shipments should l)e loaded in pre-iced cars. The

alternately inverted crosswise offset loading

method (fig. 17) may be used for fruit packed

in baskets, if the fruit is adequately precooled

before loading and shipped in fan cars (127).

It has been found that such a load pattern reduces basket flamage and fruit bruising in ti'ansit. For nonprecooled fruit in nonfan cars it

is believed the end-to-end offset method of loading provides some additional air space around

the baskets and helps increase the cooling rate.

With either method of loading, the Ijaskets

should not be overpacked or imve a pronounced

bulge in their lids.

Strawberries

Desired transit temperature, 32° to 35°F.

Strawberries are among the most perishable

fruits shipped commercially by rail and, as

such, require expedited handling in all phases

of distribution. Hence all rail movement is by

express. Because both ripening and development of decay after harvest are very rapid, and

because of a high degree of susceptibility to

bruising, the fruit must be handled with great

care. Low temperatures will control both ripening and decay. Proper precooling is essential

to remove field heat from the berries at the

earliest possible time after picking. Precooling

may be done in cooling rooms or in the car.

In room precooling the berries should be held

for 8 to 12 hours or overnight at an air

temperature as close to 32° F. as possible.

Air-circulating fans should be used and the

containers stacked to provide adequate air

movement around the stacks. The precooled

berries should be loaded in pre-iced cars and

protected during loading by a door shield or

tunnel to prevent warming up and wetting

from condensation.

When cooling in the car, portable precooling

fans in conjunction with the car fans should be

used to obtain the maximum cooling rate (fig.

26, page 55). With beri-ies packed in baskets

in wire-bound crates, at least 4 hours of car

precooling should be performed to reduce temperatures of berries at the doorway to near

40°. Fiberboard trays, unless loaded so as to

provide air channels equivalent in ai'ea to those

in a regular crate load, may require more time

for precooling in cars. Bunkers should be carefully re-iced just before precooling starts and

at least 400 pounds of salt should be worked
36 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OP' AGRICULTURE

into the ice. The car should apain be i-e-iced

before moving in transit.

Only fan cars should be used for the movement of strawberries. They should be pre-iced

at least 6 to 12 hours before loading. Tests

have shown that after express fan cars start

moving in transit, cooling by car fans continues

at about half the rate occurring during precooling with car fans and portable precooling

fans combined. This factor should be considered when determining whether to release

a car after it has been given only the minimum

precooling time.

Strawberries shipped from the Louisiana

area are precooled in the car and move during

relatively cool spring months (100). If precooling has been thorough, salt in transit may not

be required. However, if the weather is hot en

route or precooling was not thorough, 2 to 3

percent salt should be added at replenishing

after precooling and at the first re-icing in

transit. While no similar tests have been conducted in the strawberry areas of Arkansas,

Tennessee, and Kentucky, it is believed that the

above recommendations for Louisiana strawberries will also apply to these other areas. In

California, where room-precooled berries are

shipped over the greater part of the year, the

transit protective service should be commensurate with the season. Standard Refrigeration

Service is used throughout the year, but the

amount of salt added varies with the weather

(117).

Wrapped dry ice is commonly used to slow

ripening and reduce decay in transit ; from 800

to 1,200 pounds are required to produce the

necessary concentration of carbon dioxide in

the car." Carbon dioxide concentrations of 10

percent or above for 24 hours or more are quite

effective in reducing the growth of decay organisms and in retarding ripening and softening of the berries. The dry ice should be placed

in a crib or on a shelf built into the center brace

in such a way that there is at least 6 inches

between the closest dry ice and the berries.

The additional refrigeration furnished by these

amounts of dry ice should be considered in

selecting the aniount of salt to he added to the

water ice in transit, or freezing damage may

result. If 3 percent salt is indicated without

dry ice, 2 or even 1 percent may be ample when

the a))ove amounts of dry ice are used.

The standard wirebound strawberry crates,

loaded lengthwise with 2- to 4-inch vertical

channels between rows, provide a very satisfactory pattern for rapid cooling. The fiberboard tray pack, when loaded with similar

channels, also cools well. As California berries

packed in these trays are room precooled, air

channels in the load are of less importance.

All containers should be carefully handled because the berries are easily bruised.

The principal transit decays of strawben-ies

are gray mold and Rhizopus rot (109). It is

very important to ship only sound fruit, free

from all defects, since these decay fungi, by

nesting, can spread throughout the container.

In transit, Rhizopus rot is more likely to be

found in berries exposed to temperatures above

50° F., whereas gray mold predominates at

temperatures below 50°. Although the latter

decay mav develop slowly at lower temperatures, maintaining the load at 32° to 35° should

safely protect the fruit from decay during

transit.

Fresh Vegetables

Asparagus

Desired transit temperature, 34° to o8°F.

Asparagus is one of the most perishable commodities shipped commercially. It requires

special care at all stages of distribution. Once

harvested, asparagus quickly loses its quality

while undergoing marked changes in structure

and chemical composition (66, 67). It has a

very high rate of respiration (table 1), even at

low temperatures. At temperatures above 40°

F. sugars and vitamin C are lost rapidly and

coarse fibers develop. It is, therefore, very important that asparagus be rapidly cooled to 40°

or lower immediately after harvest, and that

low temperatures be maintained during transit.

In packing, the butt ends of the spears are

set on either spliagnum moss or water-retentive

fiber pads in the crate to maintain crispness of

the spears. While most of the asparagus spears

packed are 9 inches long, there is a trend toward shipping shorter (7-inch) spears, thus

avoiding the waste of shipping inedible butts

which represent from one-quarter to onc-tliird

of the total market weight. Prepacking the

shorter spears in film bags has been started on

a small scale and will probably continue. For

prepackaging it is essential that the bags be

adequately ventilated (about ten to twenty Yninch holes per 1-pound package) to avoid undesirably high CO, and low oxygen levels. This

amount of ventilation will keep water loss low

enough to avoid undesiral^le weight losses and

to maintain turgidity. Preliminary tests indicate that asparagus prepackaged in properly

ventilated film bags can be vacuum cooled successfully and without injury to the spears.

Bacterial soft rot is the most serious postharvest decay, but it is effectively controlled by

temperatures below 40°F. (H). Prolonged

holding (10 days or more) at 32° to 34° may

result in chilling damage. The longest storage

life can be expected at about 36°.
PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 37

Beans (snap)

Desired transit temperature, 45° to 50°F.

Snap beans held for 3 to 5 days below the

desired temperature range (especially below

40 F.) are subject to chilling injury. This

injury is manifested by pitting and russeting

of the pods. If watery soft rot is present a

transit temperature of 40° to 45° is desirable

to I'etard this decay even though some chilling

injury may occur.

Precooling of warm beans is essential. Hydrocooling is effective in quickly removing excess field heat but, bec-ause of the moisture left

on the beans, russeting may result if tliey are

held more than a total of 7 to 8 days. In considering the cumulative effects, both time in

transit and in marketing must be included.

A number of decays affect snap beans in

transit. The most important are watery soft

rot, soil rot, bacterial blight, anthracnose, and

bacterial soft rot (9i). Reasonable control of

the development of these decays in transit is

aft'orded at temperatures around 45°F. Wellventilated containers and open loads are recommended to permit adequate air circulation

through the commodity, to remove heat of

respiration in transit, and permit some drying

of hydrocooled beans.

Beets (bunched)

Desired transit temperature, 32° to 40°F.

Bunched beets packed in wirebound crates

must be package iced and also top iced to keep

the tops in prime condition. The crates when

loaded in the car should provide sidewall space

for top ice to enter and blanket the load on the

sides as well as the top.

Bacterial soft rot is most prevalent on the

tops of bunched beets, rarely attacking the

rootvS (93). The disease is greatly retarded by

rapid cooling and by transit temperatures of

32° to 40°F.

Broccoli

Desired transit temperature, 32° to 36°F.

Broccoli has one of the highest respiration

rates of any of the fruits or vegetables listed

(table 1) and must, therefore, be handled

under maximum refrigeration at all times. Exposure to temperatures above öOV. for only a

short time results in yellowing or browning of

the buds with consequent reduction in

salability. Emanation of ethylene by the

broccoli is believed to be one cause of this

yellowing (65). Moisture loss is also very high

so broccoli should be kept wet by the use of

package and top ice. The pony crate is the

usual and best crate for shipping broccoli. The

use of larger containers frequently results in

the development of excessive heat in the center

of the crate. The pony crate is lined Avith

waterproof paper and two layers of broccoli

are packed between three layers of crushed ice

ranging from 30 to 35 pounds per crate. Hydrocooling, if available, may be used for quick

removal of field heat.

Cabbage

Desired transit temperature, 32° to 40°F.

While less perishable than some of the other

leafy vegetables, field heat should be removed

fairly quickly from early-crop cabbage by hydrocooling, vacuum cooling, or top icing in the

car. A light top icing is desirable after hydrocooling or vacuum cooling since moisture loss

in transit is the most serious problem. Latecrop cabbage is somewhat less susceptible to

wilting but it, too, should be handled under

proper temperatures. The use of fiberboard

cartons or multiwall paper bags has not beeir

very successful in warm weather except when

a good vacuum-cooling job has been done and

the shipment moved under Standard Refrigeration Service. During cool weather, nonprecooled shipments in these containers may move

under Standard Refrigeration Service only.

However, hydrocooling before packaging in

such containers may be used to advantage to

precool and moisten the loads. When top ice is

used as a cooling medium for crated cabbage,

3- to 4-inch channels should be left between

each row of crates, also next to the sidewalls,

so that some of the top ice may settle down into

the spaces. In addition to top ice, block ice can

be placed on the floor racks in the centerline

channel of the load to insui-e adequate refrigeration in this location. Cabbage harvested immediately after a rain during warm weather,

especially if heavily fertilized, may develop excessive wastage during marketing.

Winter shipments of New York cabbage

from storage may require protection against

freezing by preheating the cars followed by

heater service in transit.

The most important transit decays are bacterial soft rot, alternarla leaf spot, gray mold

rot, and watery soft rot (95). Bacterial soft

rot can be controlled and the development of

other decays retarded, by temperatures below

40°F.

Carrots

Desired transit temperature, 32° to 38°F.

Carrots are packed in a variety of containers

which will govern the transit protective service

required. Most of the crop is now topped and
38 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

either prepackaged in film bags or packed in

crates or in mesh or multiwall paper bags (J,

JO). Hydrocooling of the roots, at least to 40"

to 50"^ F., before prepackaging is highly desirable for all prepackaged carrots. Top ice

should be used if hydrocooling is not available

for loose or jumble-packed carrots shipped in

crates. Bunched carrots, if not hydrocooled,

should be cooled by package and top ice, plus

bunker ice during hot weather. Prepackaging

or packing in film-lined crates provides proper

moisture retention. Carrots in fiberboard containers should be loaded with channels between

rows or in a chimney pattern to provide adequate air circulation to remove heat of respiration in transit, and the appropriate amount of

bunker ice used (no top ice) as indicated in

table 8. Fan cars should be used with fans in

operation.

The two most important decays are bacterial

soft rot and watery soft rot, both of which are

controlled bv transit temperatures of 32- to 38°

F. (H).

Cauliflower

Desired transit temperature, 32° to 40°F.

Cooling cauliflower to the desired transit

temperature range within a few hours after

harvest is important to prevent wilting and

poor arrival condition. Untrimmed cauliflower

is packed in wooden crates, loaded in cars with

channels between rows of crates, top iced, and

forwarded with or without bunker ice depending on the weather at loading point and en

route to market {60-62). Much of the trimmed,

film-wrapped cauliflower from California is

packed in ventilated cartons or in crates and

vacuum cooled after packing. Other shippers

prefer to hydrocool the trimmed heads before

they are wrapped and packed. In either instance, the cars should be pre-iced and Standard Refrigeration Seiwice used in transit. For

loads that are well precooled, half-stage Standard Refrigeration Service may be adequate in

moderate weather. Winter shipments of

trimmed and film-wrapped cauliflower from

Texas may be cooled satisfactorily with top ice

only.

Principal decays in transit are bacterial soft

rot of the curd and leaves, and brown rot (Alternaria) (.9.5). Temperatures below 40° F.

will control bacterial soft rot and retard development of the other decays.

Celery

Desired transit temperature, 32° to 36°F.

Celery being a leafy vegetable is highly

perishable and therefore should be cooled to 40°

F. or lower immediately after harvesting (ÍU).

Hvdrocooling or vacuum cooling will quickly

remove field heat of celery. When celery is

packed in crates or water-resistant cartons, top

icing immediately after loading continues the

cooling obtained in the hydrocooler or vacuum

cooler and furnishes the necessary moisture in

transit to prevent wilting. The amount of top

ice used will be governed by the season and

destination. In loading, it is the practice in

California to leave a space between the containei-s and the car sidewalls for filling with top

ice. For long hauls in hot weathei-, retop icing

in transit may be necessary. Bunker ice in

conjunction with the top ice may be used during hot summer months.

Celery hearts prepackaged in perforated film

bags can be hydi-ocooled before packaging,

vacuum cooled after packaging, or room cooled.

The shipping container is usually a fiberboard

box. Standard Refrigeration Service and fan

cars are necessary at all times to maintain desired transit temperatures, with salt added during extremely hot weather. Half-stage Standard Refrigeration Service may be adequate

during mild weather.

Because of heavy losses from freezing damage reported in winter shipments to Canadian

and northeastern destinations for both California and Florida celery, consideration should be

given to the use of some classes of heater service. Both the shipper and the receiver should

keep informed on weather conditions and order

heater service when forecasts indicate low temperatures en route or at destination. All winter

shipments (except celery hearts in fiberboard

boxes) moving into northern territory should

move with top ice only and dry bunkers in

order that lieaters may be placed in the bunkers

if necessary, without the hazard and cost of removing bunker ice en route.

Corn (sweet)

Desired transit temperature, 32° to 36°F.

Corn loses quality more quickly than any

other vegetable or fruit after harvest if not

properly handled. Sugar, which is largely responsible for the eating quality of corn, is lost

very rapidly at ordinary room temperatures.

Over 50 percent is lost in 24 hours. Quick

cooling to 32° F. reduces this loss to onlv 20

percent in 4 days as shown in figure 18. Rapid

cooling immediately after harvest is therefore

imperative. Because of the high respiration

rate of corn, maximum refrigeration is required in transit. Even under optimum conditions, corn gradually loses quality and should

be moved without delay to the consumer. Heat

removal is generally accomplished by hydro-
PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 39

0 12 24 56 48 60 72 84 96

HOURS AFTER STORAGE

FiGURK 18.—Effect of temperature on sugar loss in

sweet corn. (From Appleman, Chas. 0., and John M.

Arthur. Carbohydrate Metabolism in Green Sweet Corn

During Storage at Different Temperatures. Jour. Agr.

Res. 17: 137-152. 1919.)

cooling-, but vacuum cooling- is being- used with

some success in certain growing areas. Top

icing is desirable for vacuum-cooled corn to

replace moisture that may be removed from the

husks during cooling. Because of the difficulty

in removing the heat from ears of corn due to

the insulating effect of the husks and the tight

pack, the usual commercial hydrocooling or

vacuum cooling does not reduce the temperature to the desired 32° ilJ^l). Therefore, immediately after precooling the corn must be

loaded into pre-iced cars and top-iced. Standard Refrigeration Service is generally needed

in addition to top ice, with 2 percent salt added

to the bunker ice during hot weather.

To hasten cooling a channeled or open load

should be used so that the top ice can settle

between the containers. Space between the

crates and sidewalls of the car is also desirable

to provide a blanket of ice around the load.

Retop icing in transit may be required in hot

weather. Tests have shown that operating- car

fans results in lower and more uniform temperatures even with top ice on the load. With

the proper amount of top ice, there is no dangei'

of the commodity wilting or losing moisture in

the car from the forced air circulation.

Cucumbers

Desired transit temperature, 45° to 50°F.

Excess field heat should be removed from cucumbers within 24 hours to retard yellowing

and the development of certain decays in

transit (95). Bacterial soft rot, watery soft

rot, cottony leak, and black rot are especially

stimulated by transit temperatures above 50°

F. Cucumbers are susceptible to chilling injury at temperatures below 45°, particulai'ly if

subjected to such temperatures for 6 days or

longer, and anthi-acnose rot frequently follows

this injury.

Precooling is not usually required. A modified refrigeration service will provide the desired 45 ' to 50 " F. temperatui'e range. Waxing

is a common practice for reduction of moisture

loss and shriveling. Shipments moving to destinations in Northern States and Canada may

require heater service during cold weather.

Endive and escarole

Desired transit temperature, 33° to 36°F.

These leafy vegetables are similar to lettuce

and are handled somewhat similarly. Because

they are very perishable and have a high

respiration rate, prompt refrigeration after

harvesting is required. Hydrocooling is the

usual commercial practice followed by top icing

and bunker ice. However, vacuum cooling can

also be effectively used. Transit decays are

similar to those of lettuce (.9J).

Lettuce

Desired transit temperature, 32° to 36°F.

Lettuce is one of the most perishable and

easily damaged of the commercially shipped

vegetables. Prompt cooling, suitable transit

temperatures, and careful handling are required to prevent excessive deterioration in

transit. Precooling to 33° to 35° F. should be

done just as soon after cutting as possible.

This is accomplished by vacuum cooling oi- with

package ice and top ice. Cooling with forced

air circulation in bunker-iced cars has occasionally been used in areas where harvest temperatures are low. Vacuum cooling provides the

fastest cooling but it does not necessarily insure

the lowest average transit temperature. The

lettuce may be cooled Ijy subjecting the packed

container to the vacuum process before loading

or, in some special installations, the entire load

can be cooled simultaneously by placing the

loaded refrigerator car in a vacuum chamber

(fig. 25, page 54). This latter method has the

advantage of not exposing the lettuce to outside

temperatures after cooling which occurs when

cooling precedes loading. Vacuum cooling is

now being used for most of the commercial

lettuce crop and is being expanded by the development and use of portable units (26).

The other method of cooling involves the use

of 20 to 35 pounds of crushed ice in the con-
40 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

tainer Mith 4 or 5 dozen heads of lettuce. In

addition to package ice, from 9,000 to 25,000

pounds of top ice is used per carload, depending

on seasonal temperatures. Tests have shown

that after the usual 16 to 18 hours required to

cool the lettuce to 32° to 34° by this method,

it is held consistently at this temperature by

the package and top ice. Precooling of drypack lettuce with car or portable fans is slow,

especially in the carton-pack.

The rapid development of vacuum-cooling

facilities has enal^led the wide use of fiberboard

containers and the economies of field packing.

The elimination of package ice in these containers has somewhat reduced bruising of the

lettuce but has increased the problem of maintaining adequate refrigeration. It is important

to thoroughly precool carton-packed lettuce because the insulation provided by the container

and the usual solid load permit only slow cooling in transit (4J). Transit refrigeration

should be depended on only to remove the heat

of respiration and heat leakage into tlie car.

For vacuum- and car-precooled lettuce shipments maximum refrigeration with bunker ice

and at least 2 percent salt in transit is required

during the summer months. Half-stage Standard Refrigeration Service or modified fullbunker services may be used at times during

cool weather. Mechanically refrigerated cars

with the thermostat set at 34° F. are also being

used for vacuum-cooled lettuce (8, 13).

As with celery, considerable freezing damage

has been found at destination in winter shipments of lettuce that moved in cars without

heater service to Canadian markets. Cars moving through extremely cold weather should be

pz'otected by heaters under one of the "Protective Service Against Cold" rules appearing

in the Perishable Protecti\e Tariff. When cars

are held on track at destination for more than

a few hours, the car fans should be opei-ated

with portable holding motors to maintain uniform load temperatures, whether the car is under heat or refrigeration (69).

Bacterial soft rot is the most important

transit disease of lettuce (92,98). It commonly

follows physiological disorders, such as tipburn.

Bruising and mechanical injury, which may occur from rough handling or excessively tight

packing, also increase susceptibility to soft rot.

Careful handling and low temperatures provide

the most effective control. Other important disorders which affect lettuce in transit are russet

spotting, gray mold rot, tipburn, downy mildew, and watery soft rot. Some of these are

caused by fungi and others are physiological

disorders. They are all minimized by temperatures near 32° F. It is therefore evident that

the continuous maintenance of nearly optimum

temperatures provides the best control of wastage in lettuce.

Melons (cantaloups)

Desired transit temperature, 35° to 40°F.

The sooner cantaloups are precooled after

picking, the longer will be their marketable life

(85, 137). California, Texas, and Arizona

cantaloups are precooled in pre-iced refrigerator cars by portable or car fans and bunker ice.

Usually a calculated amount of top ice is used

to speed the precooling (S3). Either half-stage

or full bunker Standard Refrigeration Service

is provided in transit, depending on weather or

destination (121).

Cantaloups should be thoroughly precooled to

35° to 40° F. to assure arrival in sound condition of hard-ripe or choice melons on transcontinental shipment. Cantaloups are now generally packed in nailed or wirebound wooden

crates although the use of fiberboard cartons

has increased in recent years. The amount of

top ice supplied for precooling depends on the

loading temperature of the melons (83). A

recommended top icing schedule is shown in

the tables following this section. It is essential

that either the top ice be completely melted or

the remaining ice be removed from the car on

completion of precooling, for additional freight

charges will be assessed on any ice remaining.

Special precooling methods are necessary for

melons in cartons as the use of top ice is not

well adapted to this pack (133). Some shippers

have used hydrocooling with apparent success.

Fan cars are recommended for cantaloup shipments, not only because of the convenience of

the built-in fans for precooling, but also because they provide more uniform temperatures

in transit. The fans produce faster meltage of

the top ice and also dry the melons and crates

after the top ice is gone.

Melons (honeydew)

Desired transit temperature, 45° to 50°F.

While a cool shipping temperature is desirable, honeydew melons do not require precooling. Prolonged exposure to temperatures

below 40° F. is harmful (137). Honevdew

melons from California, Texas, and Arizona

are loaded in dry (noniced) refrigerator cars

and treated for 18 to 24 hours before shipment

with a low concentration of ethylene gas (500

to 1,000 p.p.m.) to accelerate degreening and

other ripening processes. Pulp temperature

must be 65° or above for significant response

to ethylene. Often during hot weather the pulp

temperature at loading is 90° or above, but

this high temperature is not harmful during the

gas treatment.
I

PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 41

Initial icing is done after etliylene treatment,

either at the loading shed or at the first icing

station en route. Half-stage icing is commonly

used under either Standard Refrigeration Service or modified icing rules, depending upon

seasonal temperatures and degree of transit

ripening desired (88). Fan cars are desirable

for producing more uniform temperatures in

transit.

HOWEVER, NO FANS SHOULD BE OPERATED

DURING THE ETHYLENE GAS TREATMENT,

DUE TO EXPLOSION HAZARD IF CONCENTRATIONS OF ETHYLENE SHOULD HAPPEN TO

BE MUCH HIGHER THAN THOSE RECOMMENDED.

Onions (dry)

Desired transit temperature, 32^ to 40°F.

A temperature of 32' to 40° F. and low relative humidity, not above 70 to 75 percent, are

desirable for onions to keep them dormant and

prevent sprouting and decay.

During cool weather. Standard Ventilation is

adequate for the ti-ansportation of onions from

most areas. During warm summer weather,

dry car loading followed by half-stage Standard

Refrigeration Service is recommended for California. During winter weather, shii)ments originating in New York State will frequently

require heater service, such as Carriers' Protective Seiwice or Shippers' Specified Service.

Pads on the floor racks of the car are desirable

to minimize bruising in the bottom layer of

sacks.

The commonest disease of onions is "neck

rot," a gi'ay mold rot that develops at the top

of the bulb (94). The fungus can develop to

some extent even at 32° F.

Peas (green)

Desired transit temperature, 32^ to 36°F.

During 1958, green peas showed the heaviest

loss per car of any of the fresh fruits, melons,

and vegetables, averaging $155.32 per car in

642 carloads originated. While this loss includes container damage it does indicate the

perishability of this vegetable which requires

top speed in handling and maximum refrigeration in all phases of distribution. Green peas

tend to lose a large part of their sugar content

rapidly and hence, their flavor, unless promptly

cooled to near 32° F. Because of the high

respiration rate of peas, they should be maintained near 32"° during transit and distribution.

Hydrocooling or vacuum cooling and loading in

pre-iced cars is desirable, followed by top icing

plus Standard Refrigeration Service in transit.

The most important decays that develop in

transit are

and watery

low transit

bacterial soft rot, gray mold rot,

soft rot, all greatly retarded by the

temperatures recommended (9i).

Peppers (sweet)

Desired transit temperature, 45° to 50°F.

Sweet or bell peppers are subject to chilling

injury when held at temperatures below 45° F.

They should therefore be shipped at moderate

temperatures. The symptoms of chilling injury

are surface pitting and discoloration near the

calyx, followed by such decays as alternarla rot

and gray mold rot. Temperatures above 50°

not only increase the development of bacterial

soft rot and Rhizopus rot, but also favor ripening (.96).

^Modified refrigeration service is usually all

that is necessary. The amount of ice needed

depends upon the temperature of the peppers at

loading. During winter months, some refrigeration service in conjunction with ventilation

may be necessary during the early part of the

transit period, followed by heater service in

colder areas.

Potatoes

Desired transit temperatures: Early crop,

55° to 65°F. ; late crop, 40° to 50°; for chipping, early crop, 60° to 70° ; for chipping, late

crop, 50° to 65°.

Potatoes are often erroneously treated as

"hardware" with not enough regard for careful handling or optimum temperature (111).

This results in heavy losses from sprouting,

decay, overheating, freezing, and mechanical

damage. While temperature is not generally a

vital factor in the transportation of sound,

mature potatoes, decay originating at bruises,

cuts, or skinned areas, or induced by heat injury before or during harvest, is a serious problem and must be controlled by relatively low

temperatures. Like most fruits and vegetables,

potatoes with unbroken skins are substantially

protected against the invasion of decay-producing organisms ; are resistant to moisture

loss, and are largely immune to tissue (surface) browning. Fortunately, potato tubers

have the ability to produce suberin and wound

periderm (essentially new skin). Thus skinned

and feathered surfaces may be healed if provided the proper environment. The optimum

temperature range for healing is from 65° to

75° F. Below 50° healing proceeds slowly, and

no measurable protection develops at temperatures below 40°. High humidity is essential to

periderm formation.
42 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

Preventing physical ii).juiies by careful handling from harvesting to the retail outlet is

very important. Padding over floor racks of

cars is essential to protect the bottom layer of

potatoes in bags from scuffing and bruising in

transit {70, 132). With the current availability

of special per-car freight rates in certain districts, heavier loading is being encouraged.

With the resulting higher stacking, more

weight is imposed on bottom layers of bags,

thus increasing the possibility of physical damage. However, no information has been received that indicates much greater damage

occurs due to the increased weight, even for the

50,000-pound load. Care must be taken with

these high loads not to obstruct the top bunker

openings which would impair needed air circulation. Proper stacking is important to prevent shifting. Winter shipments must be loaded

so as to minimize the danger of even slight

freezing.

The principal decay of potatoes in transit is

bacterial soft rot {97), which is most prevalent

during warmer weather. Following cool, wet

growing seasons, late blight may cause decay

in transit. Both are held in check fairly well

at temperatures below 60'F.

Potatoes may be divided into early crup and

late crop. Each requires somewhat different

protection in transit.

Early-civp.—These are "new" or "early"

potatoes which are shipped immediately after

harvesting and are generally not fully matured.

This immaturity results in varying amounts of

skinning or feathering during washing, .sorting,

and sizing ; therefore, conditions in transit

must be provided for the formation of new skin

to minimize the development of decay and surface bro\\-ning. A moderate temperature of

about 60 F. in transit is desirable for these

potatoes. This temperature, while slightly below the optimum for periderm formation, is

effective in preventing development of decay

organisms. The desired temperature can be

achieved by modified icing services, or sometimes by ventilation service alone {6, 9, 115).

Properly used, these services will provide the

desired temperatures for healing and reduce

protective service costs as compared with

Standard Refrigeration Service. Early-crop

potatoes should be loaded so as to permit cooling of the load. Precooling is not necessary

unless the potatoes are unusually warm at loading, and it is not desirable to precool the load

below bb"-" to 60'^'. The recommended refrigei-ation services presented in table 8 are based in

part on the loading temperatures of the potatoes. Ventilation can be used to aid in drying,

if weather permits. This is particularly true

of the Floiida ci'op moved during the winter.

Late-crop.—These potatoes are harvested at

a mature stage in summer and fall, a large

percentage being placed in storage. Transit

temperatures lower than the 55° to 65=F. recommended for early potatoes are not injurious

for fi-eshly hai'vested late potatoes as skm

healing is not an impoi'tant factor. During hot

weather, some refrigeration to retard decaj- is

essential for freshly harvested potatoes. Specified refrigeration services are compulsory

during the summer and early fall for certain

areas in Idaho, Oregon, and Washington, as

shown in the Perishable Protective Tariff under

Rule 200. The governing dates and refrigeration services applicable thereto are prescribed

by the shippers' agencies and are subject to

revision each year. As a consequence, such

data in table 8 may diflfer somewhat from that

for the current year. \"entilation service is

usually sufficient during cool fall weather from

most of the late-crop-producing areas. From

November 16 to but not including March 1,

Carriers' Protective Service is compulsory in

Heater Territory (Part 1). Special Heater

Protective Service with LF heaters (fig. 6) is

available for potato shipments originating in

Special Heater Protective Service Territory,

and heater thermostats should be set at 40°.

Winter shipments from Maine move under

Shippers' Protective Service and it is customary to set the thermostats on LF heaters at 45°

{101).

Protection against freezing in transit is the

greatest problem in moving table-stock potatoes

of the late crop to market. Studies are now

being conducted on shipping precut potato seed

under appropriate heater service (50). In addition to adequate transit heater service, it is

also essential to preheat cars before loading,

provide protection during loading with appropriate canvas door shields or loading tunnel

(fig. 19) {22), and use proper loading methods

{^6. 56). The "pyramid through load" method,

as recommended by the Freight Loading and

Container Bureau of the AAR, is the most satisfactory type of load (fig. 20). No bags are in

contact with the sidewalls, thus minimizing

chance for freezing in lower layers and side

rows. The bottom two or three layers of loads

containing small-consumer bags should also be

loaded to avoid contact with the sidewalls as

shown in figure 21. Paper may be used on sidewalls to prevent scuffing and chafing of consumer-size bags but is of no value as insulation

{70). If paper or pads are used on the floor

i-acks, space must be left at the juncture of the

racks and sidewalls to permit air circulation

around the load. Car fans should alwavs be

operated. While shipments are under heater

service, fan operation will prevent cold pockets
PROTECTION Oí^ KAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 43

BN-10153

FIGURE 19.—Canvas loading tunnel between car doorway opening and potato storage to prevent loss of temperature

during loading.

on the floor and overheating in the top of tlie

load. For Maine potatoes shipped at the end

of the storage period in late spring, one railroad provides free initial icing- up to 5,000

pounds.

Potatoes for chipping.—Early-crop potatoes

for chipping require a transit temperature between 60- and KP F. While 70° is closer to the

desired optimum, the presence of decay may

require temperatures nearer 60 . \'entilation

service only may be used for such potatoes but

some modified refrigeration service with vents

open may be required in hot weather. Earlycrop chipping potatoes are less likely to develop

decay in transit if shipped unwashed.

Late-crop potatoes for chipping i-equire

higher temperature in transit than those for

table stock so that sugar will not accumulate

in the potatoes during transit, and reconditioning can proceed in potatoes which have been

stored at low temperature.

When LF heaters are used for late-crop chipping potatoes which were stored around 40^" F.,

the heater thermostats should be set at 60° in

order to promote some conditioning in transit

(¿4). However, chipping potatoes coming out

of 50° to 55° storage may be transported at

the same temperature (50° to 55°).

Consideration is being given by the cai-riers

and carlines, to a special arrangement that will

permit the use of LF heaters east of St. Louis

and Chicago in shipments of chipping potatoes

originating in Special Heater Protective Service Territory.

Radishes

Desired transit temperature, 32° to 40° F.

Practically all radishes are now topped and

prepacked in small consumer-size film bags and

shipped in wirebound crates or baskets. Hydrocooling is recommended, followed by top

icing of the load. In addition, bunker icing

should be used in warm weather. Bunched

radishes should also be top iced to prevent

yellowing, wilting, and decay of the tops. Bacterial soft rot is the principal decay that may

occur in transit. Bagged and bunched radishes

are both affected by a black spotting of the

surface which can be effectively controlled by
44 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

UN 10160

FIGURE 20.—One form of lecommended compact "pyramid" load for 100-lb. bags of potatoes. (Note space between

car walls and potatoes.)

a temperature of 50' F. or lower (90). An

open or channel load should be used to permit

the top ice to settle down between the containers throughout the load for maximum

refrigeration efficiency.

Spinach

spinach are bacterial soft rot, antiiracnose,

downy mildew, and leaf spot (i?.j'). Temperatures from 32- to 40^ F. should be maintained

in transit in order to inhibit these decays, retain good gi-een color and crispness, and control

the rate of respiration.

Desired transit temperature, 32° to 40° F. Sweetpotatoes

This leafy vegetable has a very high rate of

respiration (table 1). For this reason, the

packing of spinach in fiberboard cartons or

multiwall paper bags has been found unsatisfactory because of the difficulty in removing

the respiratory heat from these containers in

transit. Containers such as crates or baskets

that provide more adequate ventilation and are

adaptable to package and top icing are usually

used and are recommended. While vacuum

cooling of this commodity might be desirable,

the general practice is to cool with package ice

and top ice in conjunction with modified bunker

icing.

The more important diseases that affect

Desired transit temperature, 55"' to 60° F.

Sweetpotatoes that are to be marketed

promptly should be kept at temperatures above

55° F. Roots that are to be stored should be

cured at 85° with high humidity for about 1

week and storage temperatures then maintained

Ijetween 55 and 60'. Sweetpotatoes are more

subject to chilling injury than is generally

thought (68). Such injury increases the possibility of decay, reduces culinarv qualitv, and

impairs apixiarance. Subiecting roots to temperatures of 50° or below for only a few days

may seriously affect their storage life. The

chilling injury often does not become evident

immediately after exposure to low tempera-
PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 45

FIGURE 21.—Method of loading bottom ayers of bagged potatoes away

freezing damage.

BN-10154

fi'om car sidewalls to minimize danger of

tures but may become apparent 2 or 3 weeks

later. Principal transit decays are Rhizopus rot

and black rot (9:1).

Proper transit temperatures can usually be

obtained by Special Ventilation Service, closing

vents below 55'' F. and opening them above 55".

Shipments to northern markets in winter

months should be protected by Special Ventilation in conjunction with heater service.

Tomatoes (mature-green)

Desii-ed transit temperature, 55° to 65° F.

Tomatoes are subject to chilling injury. Best

results are obtained when mature-green tomatoes are kept between 55° and 65° F. (1, 76,

126). Although tomatoes which have had no

field chilling can withstand low, but not freezing, temperatures for a few days without becoming seriously injured, it is not advisable for

the fruit temperatures to be lower than 50°

during transit (77). This precaution is taken

for several reasons: (1) transit temperatures

below 50° retard ripening even after the tomatoes are placed at favoral)le ripening temperatures; (2) chilling injury is cumulative (75,

7a), and althuugli tomatoes may escape damage

from a period of low field or transit temperatures alone, they may be seriously damaged if

one exposure follows the other; and (3) exposure to low temperatures short of serious injury

may cause numerous dark skin blemishes that

detract from the appearance of the fruit.

Chilling injury ordinarily cannot be detected

at the time the tomatoes are unloaded from the

cars.

Most of the decay of tomatoes injured by low

temperatures is caused by a fungus, Alternaria

sp. {77, 96), which ordinarily will not attack

tomatoes that have been kept at moderate tem-

¡îeratures. The influence of temperature on

the susceptibility of mature-green tomatoes to

this rot is shown in figure 22.

Excessive field heat should be removed

quickly, but additional refrigeration should be

used sparingly and in line with calculated

needs. A schedule of modified icing services

for mature-green tomatoes, based on their loading temperature, appears in tables 8 and 9 (see

also 7, 11, 12, 57, 8Í). These services are-

])redicated on the use of fan cars, with the fans

in operation from origin to destination and
46 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

70

60

55°

50

BN-10155

FiGl'RE 22.—Influence of tempeiature on susceptibility

of mature-green tomatoes to alternaria rot. Fruits

shown were inoculated and held at indicated temperatures for 14 days and then held 14 days longer at 60°F.

vents kept closed after icing. At certain times

of the year when outside temperatures are cool,

Standard Ventilation will suffice. If shipments

from Florida encountei- cold weather, heater

service with LF heaters will be necessary under

Shippers' Specified Service (Rule 520). On

late fall shipments from California and winter

shipments from Texas and Mexico, Special

Heater Protective Service with LF heaters

(Rule 580) mav be used, followed by Shippers'

Specified Service with LF heaters (Rule 514) if

so reciuired, upon entry into the territory applying to each rule. The thermostat on LF

heaters should be set at 50"" F. and car vents

kept closed during heater service.

Tomatoes (pink)

Desired transit temperature, 45" to 50° F.

Tomatoes picked after some color has developed are usually referred to as "pink" tomatoes

but they are sometimes erroneously termed

"vine ripened" tomatoes. Precooling is usually

needed to remove excessive field heat from such

tomatoes. The desired temperature to which

they should be precooled depends on the stage

of color development and the distance to market. In a 3- to 4-day transit period, fruits

showing less than Vs color at harvest need not

be precooled below 60° F. providing the transit

temperature is held around 45'-' to 50°. Tomatoes harvested with more than Vis color should

be precooled to 50° and transported at 50°, if

transit ripening is to be held to 50 to 70 percent

color during a period of 4 days {76). Recommended modified icing services for pink tomatoes, based on the use of fan cars, are presented

in table 8. The thermostat on LF heaters

should be set at 47V2° and car vents kept closed

during heater service.

Frozen fruits and vegetables

Desired temperature. OF. and lower.

The inherent quality of frozen fruits and

vegetables is dependent on prompt freezing to

the recommended temperature and then maintaining this temperature eoniinuouisJy until the

product is used by the consumer. This recjuires

the most careful handling at all points in the

chain of distribution : packing, transportation,

subsequent storage, wholesaler, retailer and

consumer {12Jf). Unless temperatures no higher than 0- F. are maintained constantly, original quality is afi'ected. Studies by the United

States Department of Agriculture have shown

that quality lost by exposure to temperatures

above the optimum cannot be recovered (2).

This quality loss accumulates or increases during each intei-val that the temperature is above

the optimum. In other words, recooling a

frozen product to zero or lower does not correct

previous temperature damage or restore the

original quality. As a result of studies of this

nature, the National Association of Frozen

Food Packers has recommended that all frozen

products be transported no higher than 0°.

Every precaution should be taken in loading

and unloading frozen commodities to prevent

any rise in temperature. Cars should be

thoroughly precooled to zero before loading if

possible. All loading and unloading should be

done inside the cold storage warehouse, or suitable loading tunnels or door shields should be

jirovided. If there is any delay, car doors

should be closed and the mechanical refrigeration unit operated during the interim. Most

frozen foods moved by rail are now shipped in

mechanically refrigerated cars in which the

thermostat is set at zero.

Heavily insulated, iced cars (either end

Inniker or overhead bunker types) are used to

a limited extent for frozen foods, moving under

Standard Refrigeration Service plus 30 percent
PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 47

salt. The cars should be pre-iced from 24 to 86

hours before loading- in order to become

thoroughly precooled. They should have 6

inches or more of insulation and be in good condition. End-bunker iced cars should be equipped

with built-in fans in good working order. The

commodity tempei'ature in storage before loading should be at oi' below 0 ' F. Temperature

of a nuinbei' of packages should be checked by

means of a reliable hand or insert thei'mometer

during loading (Jl). Air circulation ai'ound

tlie load is necessary to prevent the heat passing through car wails fi'om i-aising commodity

tempt«atures during transit. Wall flues oi- I'acks

should be provided and car fans kept in operation to insure forced-air movement.

METHODS OF CONTROLLING TRANSIT ENVIRONMENT

The necessity for providing favorable environments for fruits and vegetables after harvest has been explained. This section desci'ibes

the available methods of heating and cooling

that can be used to obtain these conditions in

transit. Some of the basic principles of heat

transfer are discussed in the following paragraphs to provide shippers with a better understanding of the subject.

Refrigeration Principles

Definition

What IS refrigeration? It is the process of

removing heat from a substance, or of loweringits tempei'ature and maintaining it at a desired

level. What, then, is heat—or cold? Heat is a

form of energy- that is possessed by all matter.

Its level is measured by temperature. Cold is

merely an expression of a relatively low level of

heat and has no real substance. Therefore, we

cool an object by removing heat from it, not by

pumping "cold" into it. Heat always flows

naturally from a warmer to a cooler body. For

instance, when you place your hand near or on

a cold object it feels as if cold was coming- from

the object. Actually, what is felt is heat leaving

the hand. When ice is placed in water, the

water is cooled because the ice alDsorbs heat

from the water. Heat is measurable and can be

added to or removed from a body to laise or

lower its temperature. It is commonly measured

in British thermal units (B.t.u.). One B.t.u. is

defined as the quantity of heat required to raise

the temperature of 1 pound of water 1^ F. The

ratio of heat required to raise the temperature

of a given weight of any other material (such

as fruits and vegetables) to that required to

cause an equivalent rise in the same weight of

water is called its specific heat. This is discussed under refrigeration-load calculations.

Sources of refrigeration

To provide the necessary means for absorbing heat from the commodities to be cooled we

use ice, ice and salt, solid carbon dioxide (dry

ice), evaporation, mechanical refrigeration,

and cold outside air (ventilation).

Ice.—When water freezes to ice at 32' F., a

consideral)le amount of heat must be removed

to change it from the liquid to the solid stage.

This heat is called "latent" heat because it is

not felt or apparent as the temperature remains

at 32° during this change. A total of 144 B.t.u.

must be removed to freeze 1 pound of water

and the same amount must be added to melt 1

pound of ice. Therefore, 144 B.t.u. must be

absorbed from surrounding air and objects for

every pound of ice melted. This is why ice is

such a good source of refrigeration for many

uses above 32\ The standard ton of refrigeration represents the amount of heat required to

melt 1 ton of ice in 1 day and is 288,000 B.t.u.

(144 B.t.u. 2,000 lb.) or 12,000 B.t.u. per

hour. Although ice freezes (and melts) at 32"^

its temperature can get much lower while it is

being made or while it is stored at low temperatures. If abnormally cold ice is placed in

packages or used as top ice, it may cause freezing damage when it comes in contact with produce, especially the leafy vegetables.

Ice and salt.—Since most of the heat-absorbing ability of ice occurs at 32 - F., we must add

salt to the ice if we want lower temperatures

or a more rapid cooling rate. When salt is

added to ice, it causes the ice to melt faster.

This means it absorbs heat faster from its surroundings than normally, resulting in faster

cooling and a lower ultimate temperature than

can be obtained from ice alone. In addition, the

salt lowers the freezing point of the water

melted from the ice, and the resulting brine

temperature is below 32°. The lowest theoretical temperature of ice, salt, and brine that can

be obtained is —6°, but because it is not possible to obtain a perfect mixture of ice and salt

in practice, +.5° is about the lowest temperature obtainable. This is obtained when the

amount of salt added is 30 percent, by weight,

of the ice. Lesser amounts of salt give correspondingly higher temperatures. Proper mixing

of the salt with the ice is necessary to get

maximum refrigeration.

Carbon dioxide (dry ice;.—Solid carbon

dioxide has a very low temperature (—109°F.)

which is most suitable for frozen foods. Unless

used in specially designed bunkers or other con-
48 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195. U. S. DEPT. OP AGRICULTURE

tainers, its cost is excessive. It is unusual in

that it does not melt but passes directly from

the solid to the gaseous state. The latent heat

required for this change of state is approximately 260 B.t.u. per pound or somewhat less

than twice that of water ice. In shipments of

some highly perishable fruits, such as strawberries and cherries, dry ice is placed in the

loading space or in car bunkers with the water

ice to build up a concentration of CO; gas in the

car as a deterrent to spoilage and ripening in

transit.

Mechanical réfrigération.—This may be described as a mechanical heat pump in which the

heat is picked up in the space to be cooled by

the refrigerant in the cooling coils or evaporator. It is then pumped outside by means of the

compressor, to the condenser where it is dissipated to the outside air or cooling water. The

capacity of the system depends on the size of

the compressor (how much it can pump), the

size of the cooling coils (how much heat they

can absorb), and the size of the condenser (how

much heat it can give up to the outside air or

cooling water). When mechanical refrigeration

was first developed it was natural to compare

its cooling effect with that of ice. Hence, if a

system could absorb as much heat in 1 day as a

ton of ice (288,000 B.t.u.) it was said to have a

capacity of 1 ton. This expression is still used

generally in rating refrigerating machines, but

is usually expressed in B.t.u. per hour (12,000

for 1 ton). Because mechanical units in refrigerator cars can easily produce temperatures

well below the freezing point, they have been

used primarily for frozen foods which require

temperatures of zero and below in transit.

However, mechanically equipped cars designed

to operate at a wide range of temperatures

with thermostatic control are now in service

for nonfrozen commodities including fresh

produce as well as frozen foods (A).

The heat load

Now that we have briefly discussed the

source of refrigeration available for cooling, let

us determine the heat to be removed. The heat

load is composed of (1) sensible or field heat

of the commodity, packages, and car structure,

(2) the heat of respiration of the commodity,

(3) heat leakage into the refrigerator car during transit, and (4) heat generated by the

operation of car fans.

Field heat (Hg) is that which must be removed to lower the temperature from that at

loading to the desired transit temperature. It

involves the specific heats (Sp.ht.) of product

and containers (see table 6), the w'eight of

product and containers, and the temperature

difference (TD).

Hs = Sp.ht. X weight X TD = B.t.u.

Car body heat is the heat (He) to be removed from the walls, floor, ceiling, and insulation to cool the interior of the car. As a rough

estimate for the average 40-foot refrigerator

car, the total weight of car-body items to be

cooled may be assumed as 8,800 pounds with a

specific heat of 0.40 B.t.u./lb.

He = 8,800 X 0.40 X TD = B.t.u.

TABLE 6.—Specific heat above freezing of certain fruits and vegetables^

Fresh fruit Specific heat Fresh vegetables Specific heat

Apples

Apricots

Avocados

Bananas

Cherries, sweet

Citrus:

Grapefruit

Lemons

Limes

Oranges

Tangerines

Cranberries

Dates, dried

Figs, fresh

Grapes

Peaches

Pears

Pineapples, ripe

Plums (fresh prunes)

Strawberries

B.t.u./lb.

0.87

.88

.72

.80

.87

.91

.92

.89

.90

.90

.90

.36

.82

.86

.90

.86

.92

Asparagus

Beans, snap

Beets (roots)

Broccoli (sprouting)

Cabbage, late

Carrots (roots)

Cauliflower

Celery

Corn, sweet

Cucumbers

Endive and escarole

Lettuce

Melons

Onions, dry

Peas, green

Peppers, sweet

Potatoes

Radishes

Spinach

Sweetpotatoes

Tomatoes

B.l.u./lb.

0.94

.91

.90

.92

.94

.90

.93

.9.5

.79

.97

.94

.96

.94

.90

.79

.94

.82

.95

.94

.75

.95

'Amer. Soc. Eefrig. Engin., Refrig. Appl. Data Book, chap. 23. 1959.
PROTECTION OF KAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 49

Heat of respiration (Hu) is determined from speed of 35 m.p.h. At this speed, fan heat outtable 1 which gives the amount evolved per ton put is around 2,000 B.t.u. per hour per car

in 24 hours at different temperatures (oO). (Ht-r).

The amount of heat produced in transit in- Hpp = 5,000 X precooling time (hr.) .B.t.u.

volves two time periods, one covering- the initial xj r, nn

cooling period, and the other the balance of the HPT = 2,O00X.60 (%) Xtransit time (hr.)

transit period after the temperature has stabi- =B.t.u.

lized. In calculating the heat evolved by respi- Heat hud during precooling (H,.) can be

ration, the average temperature for each of shown as follows

these periods is used. The time involved in the H„ = H, (field'heat) + H.P (respiration)

first period wil vary depending on Nvhether +HO (car structure)+H„ (fans)

cooling IS done before shipment or m transit. u ^ , . / ^ tp v^«"^/

Precooling in the car (before shipment) may . ^^^^^^ ^0"^d dunng transit aiter initia] cooling

require from 6 to 20 hours, while cooling in indufies somewhat difl'erent sources :

transit may take from 1 to 3 days. Total heat HT = HRT + HI, (leakage) +HFT (fan)

of respiration in car equals H«, + HHT- These heat loads are all in B.t.u. For the ice

HRP^ Respiration rate (at average temperature requirement in pounds, divide by 144.

during initial cooling) ' time Wt.

(tons) :-B.t.u. Heat transfer

HRT =Respiration rate (at average transit tern- So far, we have been discussing the heat that

perature after cooling) x No. of ^"^*^ ?^ removed by a source of refrigeration.

davs Wt. (tons) = B.t.u. f^^^^' ^^ this heat transferred from the warm

„ . , , ' ,TT , . ,, , ^ ^, ^ '^^"i t^ the refrigerating surface? Heat can

Heat leakage (Hj is the heat that passes move directlv from a warm to a cold body by

through the car structure. It varies with the radiation, bv direct contact (conduction) or by

amount and condition of insulation and air means of an intermediate medium such as air

leakage into the car. as well as the difference (convection). Radiation of heat is not an imbetween temperatures inside and outside the portant means of cooling in refrigerator cars

car. During short precooling periods the heat Cooling bv direct contact (conduction) is acleakage is generally not great enough to be complished when top or packao-e ice is used or

included m calculations. The rate of heat flow when cold water is used for hvdrocooli'ng

through the walls is called the "conductance" Cooling a load in a car is usuallv "done bv air

(C), and IS expressed in B.t.u. per degree tem- which moves either by natural convection'or is

perature difference per hour. For rough calcu- forced bv fans. The rate of heat transfer

lations, the following conductances for the (cooling) is speeded up considerablv bv forced

average 40-foot refrigerator car with 1,430 circulation of the air with fans or moving larw

square feet of surface area were determined volumes of ice water by means of pumps HiSi

from tests conducted by the Association of velocity of air is also desirable for the ranid

American Railroads (108) : transfer of heat from the commodity to the

Insulation thickness Conductance COOHllg mcdlum. Tllis IS whv COOlincr ic mnvo

I'lt'' ^''¡o^,''-' 1-apid and temperatures more unifoîm Tn^ars

4-414 _'"_ -I"" "!"""_ liT^o ^^'ith fans operatmg than in cars without fans

5-6 98..5 (69. SO).

6-7 90.0

To calculate heat leakage (H^) in transit. Sample Refrigeration Load Calculations

HL==CXTD/ time (hr.) =B.t.u. ^, u'^^ü"^' *^^^í '^ ^^^' ^^ l^^^^cd with oranges in %-bushel wirebound crates:

Car fans generate a certain amount of heat Load = 1 056 ci-ates

(Hp) when operating. This heat should be Net Wt. fruit = 45 0 lb per crate

considered when calculating the refrigeration =47 600 lb total

load. During precooling, car fans or portable Net Wt. crates = 3..5 lb each

precooling fans move approximately the same =3 700 lb total

volume of air as the car fan output at 50 m.p.h. Sp.ht. fruit = 0.90 B tu /lb /°F

car speed, with a heat input of approximately Sp.lit. crates = 0.40 B t u /lb/°F'

5,000 B.t.u. per hour (HFP). During transit, Initial temp. (T,)=8b° ' " "^ "^ '

fans operate only when the car is moving, so it Final temp. (To) =50°

is necessary to estimate what percentage of the TD = Ti—T- = 80 50

time a car is moving and its average speed dur- =30°

ing the transit period. Assume that the car is Car conductance (4 to

moving 60 percent of the time at an average 41/0 in. insulation) = 117.0 B.t.u./°F/hr
50 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

1. For precooling- in 8 hours:

Field heat (Hs)-^VVt. > Sp.ht. <TD

Hs (oranges) ^47,600 -0.90 30

=^1,285,200 B.t.u.

Hs (crates) =3,700 - 0.40 30

= 44,400 B.t.u.

1,285.200 + 44,400= 1,329,600 B.t.u.

Ice requirement: 9,233 lb.

Ca7- body heat (He) = 8,800 x Sp.ht. x TD

= 8,800 0.40 . 30

= 105,600 B.t.u.

Ice requirement: 733 lb.

Heat of respiration {URP) = Respiration rate

: hours \Vt.

Av. temp, during = = 65°

precooling 2

Respiration rate at 65° = 167 B.t.u./ton/hour

HHP = 167X8X ^"^'^^^ =31,797 B.t.u.

2,000

Ice requirement: 221 lb.

PtecoolingfanheatCHip) = heat per hour

hours

= 5,000 8

= 40,000 B.t.u.

Ice requirement : 278 1b.

Total precooling load :

Hs.

Hc =

HRP =

HFr =

Hs + He + HRP + HFP =

Total precooling ice requir

Hs.

He =

HRP =

HFP =

Hs + He + HRP + Hpr -

Ice meltage : 1,308 lb. per

= 1,329,600 B.t.u.

= 105,600

= 31,797

= 40,000

= 1,506,997 B.t.u.

ement :

= 9,2331b.

= 733

= 221

= 278

= 10,465 lb.

hour.

To cool this load from 80 to 50"^ F. would

therefore require nearly 10,500 pounds of ice

which amounts to practically all the ice in both

bunkers. From a practical standpoint the car

should be re-iced about half-way through precooling to maintain a satisfactory cooling rate.

These figures represent the theoretical heat

transfer and probably exceed what occurs in

actual practice. The time required to cool this

load would depend on the volume of air moved

and the distribution of air through the load.

2. Transit refrigeration for the precooltMl

load:

Assumptions :

Load temperature 50°

Transit time after precooling =

A\. outside temp. = 75°

5 days (120 hr.)

Heat of respiration at 50° = 2,600 B.t.u., ton day

TD = 75—50 = 25°

Av. car speed = 35 m.p.h.

Car fan operation 60% X120 hr. = 72 hr.

Refrigeration load = HRT + Hi. — HFT

Heat of respiration (YLRT) = Respiration rateX

hours ^ Wt.

Respiration rate at 50° = 2,600 B.t.u./ton/day

HRT = 2,600—11——x5 = 309,400 B.t.u.

2,000

Ice requirement : 2,149 1b.

Heat leakage (HL) = ConductancexTI) iiouis

= 117.0 • 25 120

= 351,000 B.t.u.

Ice requirement : 2,437 lb.

Car fans (transit) (HFT) = Heat output fan

operating time

= 2,000-72

= 144,000 B.t.u.

Ice requirement : 1,000 lb.

Total refrigeration load:

HRT = 309.400

HL = 351,000

HFT-^144,000

HRT + H,. + HFT = 804,400 B.t.u.

Total ice requirement :

HRT = 2,149

HI =2,437

HFT 1,000

HRT - HI. + HFT = 5,586 lb.

Total precooling and transit ice requirement =

10,465 + 5,586 = 16,051 lb.

Under the conditions assumed, re-icing the

car to capacity at loading point after precooling

and shipping without re-icing in transit should

be more than ample refrigeration to maintain a

temperature of .)0 F. to destination.

3. Nonprecooled load, cooled in transit:

Assumptions:

Same load and temperatures as in paragraphs 1

and 2.

Time to cool in transit = 3 days (72 hi-,)

Av. outside temp. = 75°

Transit time = 5 days (120 hr.)

Field heat: 1,329,600 B.t.u. (same as in paragraph 1 for precooling).

Ice requirement: 9,233 1b.

Car body heat: 105,600 B.t.u. (same as in paragraph 1 for precooling).

Ice requirement : 733 lb.

Heat of respiration (H„) = Respiration rateX

daysxWt. (tons)

Av. temp, during 3 days cooling = 65°

Av respiration rate at 65° =4,000 B.t.u.'ton/

day '
PROTECTION OF KAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 51

Av. temp. dui-iiiK remaining 2 davs in transit =

Av. respiration rate at 50''= 2,600 B.t.u.'ton '

dav

HR (3 davs cooling) =4,000x3x23.8 = 285,600

B.t.u.

HR (last 2 davs) ^2,600x2x23.8 = 123,760

B.t.u.

Total lieat of respiration: 285,600 + 123,760 =

409,360 B.t.u.

Ice requirement : 2,843 lb.

Heat hakage (HL) =Conductance - TD ; hours

Av. TD during 3 davs at 65°= 10°

HL=117X10 72

= 84,240 B.t.u.

Av. TD during- 2 davs at 50° = 25°

H, -117x25x48

= 140,400 B.t.u.

Total heat leakage: 84,240 + 140,400 = 224,640

B.t.u.

Ice requirement : 1,560 1b.

Fan heat (HF) =2,000 hr. in transit; ; ^c car

fan operation

= 2,000 120 .60

= 144,000 B.t.u.

Ice requirement : 1,000 lb.

Total transit refrigeration load :

Hs-1,329,600 B.t.u.

Hc= 105,600

HR= 409,360

HL= 224,640

Hr= 114,000

Hs+ H,- + HR

+ HL + HF = 2,213,200 B.t.u.

Total ice requirement: 9,233 + 733 + 2,843 +

1,560-1,000 = 15,369 lb.

Following is a comparison of refrigeration

requirements of the precooled and nonprecooled

cars :

Precooled rar Nonprecooled car

Heat load (lb. ice) fib. ice)

Field heat 9,233 9,2.33

Heat of respiration 2,370 2,843

Car bodv heat 733 733

Heat leakage 2,437 1,560

Car fans 1,278 1,000

Total 10,0.51 1.5,36!)

lb. (8.00 lb. (7.68

tons) tons)

These calculated totals indicate a slightly

greater ice requirement for the car precooled

before moving in transit. This is due to the

increased heat leakage in the precooled car because of a greater temperature difference between the inside and outside of the car for the

entire period of 5 days.

These calculations are presented only to give

the reader some understanding of refrigeration

requirements and some of the factors which

contribute to ice meltage. The mechanical refrigeration capacity required can readily be

calculated by dividing the heat load in the

above problem by the time. In the example, the

total heat to be removed in 8 hours of precooling is 1,506,997 B.t.u. This is 188,375 B.t.u.

per hour. Dividing this by 12,000 shows that

a capacity of about 15 tons would be needed at

the temperatures stated in the problem.

A question that has been asked many times

is, "How much cooling can I expect from a ton

of ice?" Using the figures from the sample

calculation, this is simple to determine. In the

equation H = Wt. X Sp.ht. xTD, we find that

TD -- H/ (Wt. - Sp.ht. ). The amount of refrigeration available for cooling from 1 ton of ice is

288,000 B.t.u. For the given load then the tem1 .• ^ .. 288,000 perature reduction expected = =

1056x45 .90

6.73 or roughly 7 degrees. This, of course, does

not take into consideration the car body heat,

heat of respiration of the product, and heat

leakage from the outside which will compete

for the refrigeration available from the ton of

ice. Therefore, the actual temjjerature reduction of the commodity will be somewhat less.

Precooling tests on carloads of grapes and

cantaloups indicated that only about 70 percent

of the theoretical amount of cooling could be

attained, because of loss of refrigeration. As

the sensible heat of the fruit represents around

90 percent of the total heat, it is reasonable to

assume that the actual temperature reduction

will be about 90 percent of 6.73 or 6 degi'ees, if

no losses occur. Products with a lower specific

heat such as sweet corn (0.79) have a lower

heat content so that a little more cooling could

be expected. As a rule of thumb then, we can

say that 1 ton of ice, under conditions of no

refrigeration loss, will cool 24 tons of fruit 6

degrees. It should be remembered that time is

not involved in this calculation. The time required to do this cooling will depend on the

method of precooling used.

Precooling Methods

Precooling is the rapid cooling of a commodity to a suitable transit or storage temperature soon after harvest, befoi'e it is stored or

moved in transit. Precooling is accomplished

before or after packaging; by holding in storage, special cooling rooms, or tunnels before

loading or by cooling in the car after loading.

Types of precooling include hydrocooling,

vacuum cooling, room cooling, tunnel cooling,

cooling in car with mechanical device, or the

use of package and top ice (98, 99). Adequate

precooling reduces the transit refrigeration requirements and helps to maintain more uniform temperatures (fig. 23).
52 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

/TOF k.

• N

6 0!

\

-ÑON-•PREC OOLE D

V,

50 \

^^^

^ ^^

\

y'PREC GÓLE D TO 3Q F

40 /

\

/ N

V

-PRECooLir JG I

i'^.

TRAN SIT

30 F

PE RIOD PER OD

I 23456769 10

TEST PERIOD - DAYS

AMS Neg. 8153-60(10)

FIGURE 23.—Adequate precooling results in lower transit temperatures. Two cars of warm pears shipped under

Standard Refrigeration Service (one precooled in car, the other nonprecooled) and scheduled for storage at

terminal market.

Hydrocooling is accomplished by flooding,

spraying, or submerging tlie commodity in cold

water (fig. 24). Refrigeration is supplied by

means of ice or mechanical refrigeration.

Usually the product is packed in conventional

wooden containers before hydrocooling and the

containers are lidded after passage through the

hydrocooler. The increasing use of fiberboard

boxes or cartons has resulted in considerable

research to develop a waterproof fiberboard

that will stand up during hydrocooling and in

transit after wetting. Bulk hydrocooling (before packaging) of certain commodities is now

being done in several States. The time required to obtain the desired temperature in a

hydrocooler depends on the physical characteristics of the commodity, the amount of heat to

be removed, the type of container, and the

volume, velocity, and temperature of the water

(129).

Water temperature should be kept as close to

32° F. as possible for maximum cooling rate.

The performance of the hydrocooler should be

watched closely by frequent checks on fruit

temperature. The water can be kept sanitary

by the use of bactéricides which are made available by the manufacturers. Research on the

use of fungicides in the cooling water is being

carried on ; some fungicides are being used in

citrus hydrocooling.

Vacuum cooling, a relatively new method of

rapid cooling, is particularly adapted to the

leafy vegetable {26). Celery and sweet corn

are also being cooled by this process although

more time is usually required than for leafy

products such as lettuce or spinach. The rapid

cooling obtained with vacuum and the elimination of package and top ice has resulted in the

wide adoption of fiberboard cartons for certain

products, notably lettuce.

Vacuum cooling is based on a simple principle. The commodity to be cooled is placed in a

steel chamber or tube that can be tightlv sealed

(fig. 25) and a high vacuum is drawn.' Water

evaporates rapidly from the commodity under

these conditions provided the resulting vapor

is condensed or exhausted from the system.

The commodity is cooled by this evaporation at
PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OP FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 53

FIGURE 24.—Packed peaches movinp thioug-h hydrocooler.

BN-10156

a rate oí around 1,060 B.t.u. removed per pound

of water lost. Since the boiling point of water

drops under reduced pressure, the pressure in

the tubes is held close to 4.6 mm. or .18 inch of

Hg. At this point water boils at 32- F.; thus

a high rate of cooling is accomplished without

danger of freezing the commodity.

The i-ate of cooling under vacuum depends

upon the ratio of surface to volume or mass of

the commodity and the ease with which water

can he I'emoved from the tissues. Thus leafy

vegetables cool much faster and to a lower

temperature in practice than, for example,

cantaloups or potatoes. While this process

necessarily remo\'es some water from the product, the moisture loss is not high enough to

impair quality in the commodities now being

commercially vacuum cooled. Cooling is continued to the desired temperature by further

reducing the air pressure. Evacuation of the

chamber and cooling of the product require

about 3<' minutes for leafy vegetables. One of

the advantages of the vacuum process is that

cooling proceeds uniformly throughout the

produce in standard containers and conventional load patterns. Studies have shown that

impermeable materials, such as film liners in

lettuce cartons, greatly reduce the cooling rate.

The film must be perforated to allow moisture

to be removed from the container. The use of

vacuum cooling and fiberboard cartons has

made field i)acking possible with some commodities, thereby reducing costs as compared with

former shed operations. Because of the high

initial and operating costs and the complexity

of the equipment, permanent vacuum installations are limited to large-volume business in

central locations. However, practical portable

vacuum cooling units have been developed,

which have extended use of the process to many

areas of limited production (99).

Room cooling probably provides the most

thorough precooling whore refrigeration facilities are available in the packing area {120).

Disadvantages are the slow cooling rate and

the extra handling involved. However, it provides for the accumulation of wanted sizes and

grades of commodities and permits holding

them for market for short periods if necessary.

Refrigeration is supplied by mechanical units

or by ice bunkers. Rapid cooling is dependent

on adequate volume and velocity of air, as provided by portable or built-in fans. Containers

must be stacked properly to permit maximum

air flow around or through them for rapid

cooling (120). Cars can generally be loaded
54 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

FIGURE 25.—Carload uf lettuce moving into vacuum cooler.

I;N- 10157

more advantageously from a precooling room

than from the packing line. Gases for decay

control may be applied in storage and coolingrooms if means are provided for exliavisting or

washing the gas from the air after each exposure period.

A new method of room cooling now being

tried with fruit is forced-air cooling. The containers are tightly stacked in rows to prevent

air passing between the containers. The air

is forced through the fruit because a pressure

differential is developed between the two sides

of the containers. Very favorable cooling rates

have been obtained by this method in California

with packs and containers which permit free

passage of air ( J2, ].), Ji). It has also been

li'ied in car cooling with some success.

Tunnel coolers in which produce is moved

beneath high-velocity jets of cold air are used

to a limited extent in California. The produce

may move directly from the tunnel into cai-s or

it may be placed in storage rooms for holding

or further cooling. This method requires a

number of high-speed lans which use considerable power (81).

Cai precooliny, or cooling in the car after

the warm commodity has been loaded, is accomplished through (1) utilizing the bunker

ice by operating either car fans or portable

precooling fans, or both, (2) using mechanical

precooling units mounted along the tracks or

on trucks, (.j) using top ice on the load with or

without package ice, and (4) circulating cold

air from a storage-plant cooling system into

the car.

Car fans are operated by portable precooling

motors (electric or internal combustion) attached to special fittings on the car as shown in

figure 4 (70.;). Portable precooling fans are

mounted at the top bunkei- openings in both

nonfan and floor-fan cars, or over the center

fan in electric fan cars. To increase cooling

rates the car fans and portable fans can be

operated simultaneously (fig. 26) (100). In

electric fan cars the canvas baffles of the portable fans should not cover the two outside or

corner car fans, as a greater volume and movement of air is obtained with these fans

uncovered.

In all types of air cooling, high air velocity is

necessary, not only to quickly carrv the lieat

from the load to the ice or cooling coils, but to

provide good air distribution through the load.

Because of the great refrigerating capacity of
r

PKOTKCTION OF KAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 55

liN~101.")8

FiciRE 211.—Recommended method of installing portable precooling fans for operation in conjunction with electric

car fans. Corner car fans should be left uncovered.

ice, especiall.v with air movement over its surfaces, the cooling rate is determined largely by

the velocity and distribution of the air. With

the use of fiberboard cartons thei'e has been

considerable difficulty in precooling because of

the usual solid load pattern, inadequate ventilation of the cartons, and the natural insulating

characteristics of the fiberboard which i-educes

heat flow from the product. ]\Iany studies are

being conducted to develop adequate ventilation

in fiberboard cartons and improved load patterns that will permit better air circulation to

all containers in the load (J^1, H2). As the

rate of cooling depends largely on the amount

of surface of the carton exposed to air movement, it is important to open the load as much

as possible. A step in this direction is the

chimney method of loading (fig. 27). However,

this method exposes only a limited surface to

air movement and is not as efficient as the

bonded block method (fig. 15 on page 28).

Cars should be pre-iced when used for precooling, as much of the heat stored in the car

superstructure will thus be removed, and some

cooling of the product will occur during loading. It is desirable that the ice bunkers be replenished to capacity before the precooling fans

are started. In pre-iced cars the old ice should

be barred do\\-n before replenishing and all

voids eliminated so that the maximum amount

of ice can be placed in the bunkers. For most

commodities, it is necessary to add salt to the

ice before the start of precooling. At least 400

pounds per car should be supphed during the

re-icing and worked in well with the ice. Additional salt should be added during the precooling of warm loads. The ice should not be

allowed to become lower than the half-way level

in the bunkers during precooling and the

bunkers should be refilled to capacity before the

car is released for transit, or the car should be

re-iced at the first icing station if it is close to

the loading point. The shipper or precooling

operator should take temperatui-es of the commodity in a number of places in the car with

accurate insert thermometers, to determine

what amount of cooling was done. A single

temperature taken in a container at the door-
56 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

FIGURE 27.—One manner of providing openings in a

carton load (chimney method). However, note the small

areas of carton surfaces exposed to the circulating air

in the chimneys.

way will not represent the average load temperature.

In many cases, not enough time is allowed for

thorough precooling due to lateness in loading,

early pickup by the railroad, and the desire to

get a car rolling to mai'ket as soon as possible.

Thorough precooling will provide lower average

transit temperature and better product condition at destination.

I\Iany of the above suggestions apply to mechanical precooling units as well. It is important to pre-ice the cars, to provide an open load

pattern for maximum contact of cold air with

the commodity, and, above all, to allow sufficient time for precooling. Truck-mounted precooling units (fig. 28) may be used in certain

areas where electric power is not available to

operate car and portable fans. This is true

when limited track space is available at the

loading shed and loaded cars must be moved

away to provide space for incoming empty cars.

Precooling unit operators should keep a close

check on air blast and return air temperatures

and promptly defrost the cooling coils when required. Care must also be taken in adjusting

the canvas baffle placed on top of the load at the

doorway, so that the cooling air does not bypass

BN-10159

FIGURE 28.—Precooling car with truck-mounted, mechanical refrigerating- unit.

or short circuit other parts of the load. The

bunker top openings and car fan openings

shoukl be covered to prevent the air from bypassing the load.

Warm produce loaded in a mechanical car is

cooled by the car's refrigeration unit. It is not

necessary to hold mechanical cars at the loading station for precooling as required when

auxiliary precooling equipment is used in regular ice-bunker cars (4). One of the advantages

of the mechanical car is that cooling begins immediately after the doors are closed on completion of loading, and continues uninterruptedly whether or not the car is moving.

However, most of the mechanical cars now in

service are designed primarily to maintain desired temperatures in transit, rather than to

precool rapidly at origin. The additional capacity and higher air velocities that would be

required for rapid cooling of warm loads would

increase equipment cost considerably.

Most of the present mechanical equipment

will reduce commodity temperature to 40-50^

F. m 18 to 24 hours, which is satisfactorv for
PROTECTION OF KAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 57

many of the less perishable fruits and vegetables. Some mechanical cars have been designed for rapid cooling. More attention is

being directed to this factor in the general

service cars now being built. The use of stated

amounts of body ice in these cars for precooling

or as an aid to cooling in transit has been

authorized for melons and vegetables in some

areas. However, this applies only to the relatively few mechanical cars equipped with floor

racks and suitable drains for disposal of water

from the melting ice.

Crushed ice placed in the container as it is

packed is an excellent means of rapid cooling,

but with many commodities, it is being supplanted to a large extent by hydrocooling and

vacuum cooling. Snow ice, blown into the car

to cover the top of the load and fill channels in

the load, is also effective in precooling leafy

vegetables, cantaloups, and similar perishable

products (72). The water from the melting

ice moves down through the load and maintains

the desirable high humidity. For precooling

some fruits and vegetables, cantaloups for instance, portable precooling fans or car fans are

used to accelerate meltage of the ice and cool

the load before transit movement (So). By

melting all of the top ice before transit, the

shipper is relieved from the payment of certain

charges ordinarily assessed by the railroads on

cars which are forwarded with ice remaining

on the load.

Some western railroads have established precooling plants for rapid cooling of loaded cars

at cei'tain origin points. This service is furnished to citrus shippers for about $8 per car.

The cars are moved to these plants from the

loading stations and cold air is forced through

the cars by the use of ducts connected to the

bunker hatch openings.

Transit Refrigeration

The refrigeration service required in transit

depends on (1) commodity characteristics, (2)

seasonal temperatures, (3) load temperature

(whether precooled or not), (4) load pattern,

(5) type of container, (6) I'outing, and (7)

destination. Basically, the commodity will dictate the overall transit environment required.

These may be grouped as follows: minimum

refrigeration (50° to 65° F., for such items as

bananas, lemons, mature-green tomatoes) ;

average refrigeration (38° to 50°, for oranges,

peaches, grapefruit) ; maximum refrigeration

(32° to 37°, for sweet corn, strawberries,

grapes, asparagus, cheiTies) ; frozen foods (0°

and below).

Outside air temperatures en route are a primary influence on inside car temperatures in

transit. The refrigeration service must be adjusted to seasonal variations. If a load has been

thoroughly precooled either before or after

loading, less refrigeration in transit is necessary to maintain desired temperatui'es. Refrigeration costs may be reduced by the use of

such services as half-stage (fig. 29) or modified

icing services in fan cars (described in following sections). Moderately warm loads moving

in fan cars mav be cooled in transit nearly as

ii. 50

ÜJ

(T

3

h-

<

a:

UJ

a.

LiJ

45

40

35

30

FULL BUNKER ICING

HALF - STAGE ICING

LOADING 23456789

DAYS IN TRANSIT

AMS Neg. 8134-60(10)

FIGURE 29.—Transit temperatures of room-precooled California grapes shipped m fan cars under full bunker and

half-stage Standard Refrigeration Service.
58 AGRICULTURE HANÜBUUK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

effectively with half-stage as with full bunker

refrigeration as shown in hgure 30. Shipments

moving to northern destinations over relatively

cool i-outes will require less refrigeration than

those going to warmer southern areas.

The means for obtaining specific transit temperatures are provided under the regulations of

the Perishable Protective Tariff. These include

such varied refrigeration services as certain

amounts of ice specified by the shipper; initial

ice with no re-icing in transit; initial ice plus

one, two, or three re-icings; or Standard Refrigeration Service in which tlie bunkei-s are

re-iced to capacity about once a day en route.

Varying amounts of salt may l^e added if desired in very hot weather; also different quantities of top ice may be placed on tlie load, with

or without bunker ice. The icing services

recommended for fruits and vegetables are presented in detail in tables 7, 8, and 9.

It is important that full advantage be taken

of the protective services provided in the

Perishable Protective Tariff, not only for

proper protection of the commodity but to reduce the cost of the service. Oven-efrigeration

may not only damage the lading l)ut result in

unnecessary costs to the shipper. In certain

instances, a railroad may offer a quantity of

free ice for a certain commodity at a specified

time of the year. The shipper should keep informed of such offers by contact with his local

railroad representative or by means of trade

publications. It is again emphasized that car

fans should always be placed in the "ON" position regardless of the pi-otective sei-vice used,

in order to obtain uniform tempei-atures and

faster cooling.

In mechanical cars, tempei-ature is controlled

by the thermostat setting. Suggested temperatures for various commodities shipped in these

cars may be found in table 4, ]3age 25.

Ventilation

Many times duiing the year the temperature

of the outside air is below that desired for the

commodity. Within certain limitations, outside

air may then be used to cool the load by opening

the ventilators of refrigerator cars and circulating the cool air through the load. The

amount of cooling desired is obtained by

manipulating the vents at different outside air

temperatures and at certain regularly assigned

inspection points as specified by the shipper

(fig. 31). Commodities may not only be cooled

or warmed, but some that are wa.shed just before loading, such as potatoes, may have much

of the surplus moisture removed in transit by

proper venting. No charge is made by the

carriers for this service but the waybills must

carry full instructions as authorized in the

Protective Tariff from the shipper covering the

class of ventilation desired.

80

^ 70'

UJ

cr

3

6Ü <

cr

UJ

Q.

LLI 50'

40

WARM FLORIDA ORANGES

AVERAGE TOP DOORWAY TEMPERATURES

FAN CARS

STANDARD REFRIGERATION

FULL BUNKER VERSUS HALF STAGE

^^^-^^-^

^s MARCH, APRIL, MAY

\ (S

^____^ HALF STAGE

FULL BUr Pt^^fL^ "^"""-^ ) o_——n}

LOADING

DAY

1 ^ :< 4 ;

DAYS AFTER LOADING

.\MS Nepr, 813:,-fi0(10)

FIGURE .30.—Transit temperatures of warm Florida oranges shipped under full bunker and half-stag-e Standard

Refrigeration Service.
PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 59

0

UJ

Q:

D

<

cr.

hi

ÛL

NOV. 29 30 DEC. I 8 9 10 II

.\MS Nee. >il.5<i-Ü0(lU)

FIGURE 31.—Transit cüoluig of citrus obtained by leaving car vents open to 20 F. under Combination Ventilation,

compared with Standard Ventilation or refrigeration.

Protective Service Against Cold

During winter months, cars moving through

low outside temperatures may be heated to prevent losses from freezing. The railroads provide heater service with portable heaters under

the Perishable Protective Tariff in "Heater

Territories" designated therein (figs. 32 and

33), which cover roughly the northern half of

the United States {'>1, ',.:). The service is

available for shipments originating in or moving into or through these territories durhig

specified winter months. It is optional on the

part of the shipper with the exception of potatoes (other than sweetpotatoes or yams) for

which Carriers' Protective Service is compulsory from November 16 through February in

Heater Territory, part 1. There is also a Voluntary Heater Service provided by the carriers at

stations in Heater Territory, part 1, at stations

outside of the Heater Territory west of the

Mississippi River, and at some stations east of

the river on a few specified railroads. This

heater service, however, applies only to fi'uits

and vegetables originating at stations outside

of Heater Territory, Part 1.

An apparent lack of knowledge on the part

of some shippers of the need for and the availability of heater service, together with the

shipper's desire to keep transportation costs as

low as possible, results in heavy losses from

freezing damage each year. Losses are greatest

in commodities that are normally moved at

temperatures near their freezing point, such as

lettuce, celery, and particularly apples when

shipped out of cold storage (77). The approximate freezing points of certain fresh fruits and

vegetables are shown in tal)le 3, page 24. Shipments of top-iced vegetables have been particularly vulnerable, especially when moving

with additional ice in the bunkers. Cars from

the warm producing areas often move into

northern regions where the temperatures may

be well below zero before heater service can be

inaugurated. It is costly to remove ice from the

bunkers for installation of heaters. Also, undesirable temperature changes may occur in the

car during the operation. Therefore, bunker
60 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195. U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

•sr

M.Ol.r T.intorr if"" ')

[ j H.ol.. T..r,«)r-, (Pon 2)

Hon H«al«r Tarfitary

FIGURE 32.—Heater Territory (Parts 1 and 2).

A.MS NIK. S1:.7-C0U0)

ice service should be prescribed only if necessary.

Serious consideration should l)e given by the

shipper or receiver to ordering a heater service

for shipments moving into the Heater Territory before very low temperatures are encountered in transit. Heater service may be

advisable for certain commodities for which it

has not been specified in the tables of recommended protective services which follow. Existing and anticipated weather conditions upon

which to base this decision are usually availal)le

from the local offices of the Weather Bureau.

Full advantage should be taken of this valuable

service.

Heater service, in general, as defined by the

tariff, not only provides protection against

freezing, but also against artificial overheating.

When portable charcoal heaters, with uncontrolled burning rate, were used in nonfan cars,

there was constant danger that high temperatures would be built up in the top layers of the

load and would result in overripenmg or other

adverse effects. Thermostatically controlled

liquid fuel (LF) heaters (fig. 6), with control

based on inside air temperatures, in fanequipped cars provide safe and uniform temperatures. These heaters are also of considerable advantage in nonfan cars because their

thermostatic control reduces the danger of

ovei'heating in the top layers of the load. Automatic LF heaters are rapidly replacing

manually controlled charcoal heaters, especially

in Heater Territory, part 1. The lighting and

extinguishing of heaters at specific outside air

tem])eratures may eventually l)ecome obsolete

for most commodities (ICH, 105). Protection

against freezing in most general-service mechanical cars is provided theiTnostatically

either by electric heating elements or by hot gas

in the refrigerating unit under reverse cycle

operation H).

A number of heater services are available to

the shipper. They vary in cost and completeness of coverage, and their use will be governed

l)y the geographical location of shipping point
F PROTECTION OF KAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 61

Heater T«rrltory (Part ])

SHiippsra Spvcified S«rvlc« Rui« 514

Non H«oí»r Terrltofir

"« Portiolly Sl^ipper» Specified Servie« Territory

FIGURE 33.—Heater Teiritory (Part 1

AMS Neg. 8158-60(10)

and Ship)5ers' Specified Service Territory.

and routing of the car. The most complete

coverage is Carriers' Protective Service in

which the raih-oad assumes all responsibility

for freezing damage. In Shippers' Specified

Service, available generally in the eastern half

of the country, the heating equipment and service is furnished by the carrier, but temperatures for lighting and extinguishing (or thermostat setting on LF heaters) are specified by

the shipper. Under Shippers' Protective Service, the shipper or his agent may supply all

heaters and initial servicing thereof, but subsequent servicing is by the carrier as the shipper

directs (101).

With all these classes of service, the shipper

must specify the type of ventilation desired. It

may range from Standard Ventilation to "Keep

Vents Closed."

Heater services are covered in more detail in

the section pertaining to the tariff rules.

Cars moving to destinations in Canada may

have heater service provided by the Canadian

railroads on a basis somewhat similar to that in

the United States. If heater service in Canada

or definite ventilation instructions are not specified by the shipper on the waybill, shipments

will be handled under Standard Ventilation

after crossing the border. At the present time

only charcoal portable heaters are used for the

most part in end bunker cars in Canada. LF

heaters are not generally available. Except

under special arrangements U.S.-owned heaters

are removed at the border and Canadian heaters installed. Under "Standard Heating in

Canada," the portable charcoal heaters are

lighted and extinguished by the Canadian railroads at specified outside temperatures for different kinds of connnodities (15). These temperatures are also shown in the regular Perishable Protective Tariff of the U.S. railroads.

However, the shipper is permitted to specify

other lighting and extinguishing temperatures

on the bill of lading if he wishes.
62 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEFT. OF AGRICULTURE

Operating Car Fans at Destination

Upon arrival at destination, many cars are

held up to several days before unloading. While

under refrigeration with the car fans off, temperatures in top layers of a load may rise

several degrees, causing excessive ripening or

decay, whereas bottom layers may be cooled to

a dangerously low temperature. Electric holding motors are now available for operating the

car fans to maintain a uniform temperature m

the car during the holdover period (69).

RECOMMENDED PROTECTIVE SERVICES

Tables 7, 8, and 9 present the protective services recommended for carlot shipments of the

different connnodities shown, together with the

Perishable Protective Tariff rule numbers applying thereto.

Mixed shipments of certain fruits and vegetables are provided under the tariff. As only

one protective service applies to the entire carload, only commodities requiring somewhat

similar transit temperatures should be loaded

together. In general, the protective service selected should be based on the most perishable

commodity in the load. Charges for the protective service on mixed loads are based on the

highest rated perishable commodity in the car.

Proper selection of the service to be used

must l)e governed by weather prevailing at

loading and anticipated en route, time in

transit, kind of container, load pattern, and

size of load. Also to be considered are commodity loading temperatures, whether the car

will be precooled, condition and maturity of the

commodity, and type of car being loaded. These

and many other factors must be evaluated by

the shipper. To many experienced operators in

the produce industry, these requirements are

quite familiar. All concerned should be constantly alert to possible savings afforded by

modified refrigeration service, but they must

keep in mind the temperature requirements of

the commodity, the need for more refrigeration

to protect certain heavier loads, and the everpresent danger of freezing damage in winter

shipments.

Entries in the tables have been kept as brief

as possible by including only those factors

which may have a direct bearing on the class

of protective service to be selected. Descriptions of the protective services recommended

have been reduced to a minimum. Usually a

choice of services is given, each to provide the

desired transit temperature under certain

weather conditions or other influencing factors.

Some of the services described are not based

on studies by the Department but are commercial practices that have been evaluated and

given a tentative recommendation. These practices are indicated by a footnote in the tables.

The tariff rule numbers cited are not broken

down into parts, sections, or paragraphs thereof. When such additional designation is necessary for entry on the bill of lading, it will be

shown thereon by the carriers' agent at point

of origin. The rule numbers appear in numerical order and therefore are not necessarily m

tlie order in which the protective services are

listed. The "Remarks" columns of the tables

contain such entries as type of container, load

pattern, weather conditions, or certain other

data to aid in selection of the proper protective

service.

The general terminology used in the handbook tables conforms with that appearing in

the Perishable Protective Tariffs. A few of the

technical terms used are as follows :

Pre-iced : Bunkers or tanks of refrigerator

cars iced to capacity before loading.

Initial icing: To ice the car bunkers for the

first time after loading is completed, generally

at tlie first icing station en route.

Re-icing or ventilation service at some designated station or after a certain lapse of time,

such as "re-ice in transit at third and fifth

icing stations" or "Standard Ventilation beginning fourth or fifth night" : The actual

location of the icing or inspection stations

where such special service will be performed,

for entry on bill of lading, can be determined

by the local freight agent on the basis of the

particular train schedule involved.

Percentage of salt (2% salt, etc.) : The ratio

of salt to be added should be based on the quantity of ice supplied.

Icing: All icing or re-icing operations referred to pertain to full-bunker icing unless

"half-stage" icing or stated amounts of ice are

specified.

Cold storage: Refers to commodities that

have been held in a cold room at or near the

desired transit temperature for some time before loading.

Room precooled: Commodity is cooled to

near the desired transit temperature by placing

in cold room for a short time, generally overnight or from 8 to 12 hours.

Precooled in car : Referred to in the tariff as

"cooling in car." Car fans, portable fans, or

mechanical cooling units are used.

Carton : A "fiberboard box" as defined in the

Freight Container Tariffs.

Shipping point: The area shown is that

which is usually quoted by the produce trade.

Destination: "East" means the area generally east of the Mississippi River and north of
I

PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 63

Potomac Yard. "North" refers generally to the

States along the Canadian boundary between

the Rockies and Lake Älichigan. "Midwest" is

the general area adjacent to the Mississippi

River and extending to the Rockies. "West

Coast" means the Pacific Coast States, whereas

"Northwest" may mean either the Pacific

Northwest or such States as Montana, Idaho,

or Nevada. "South" or "Southeast" refers to

the southern group of States. "Northeast" refers to the New England States, and "Southwest" to the general area of Texas, New

Mexico, and Arizona.

These terms are fairly broad in scope and

some overlapping can be expected.

References in the handbook to tariff rules are

meant to include supplements to and reissues of

the tariff, also reissues, changes, and cancellations of such rules, or the items, notes, and

exceptions pertaining thereto. The handbook

will be revised as often as practicable, to reflect

such changes.
64 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

1

Protective service

dependent on

weather, distance, and ripeness of fruit.

After no danger of

transit freezing.

Salt may be varied

from 2';, to 4%

dei^ending on

weather and

amount of

precooling.

Express movement

3

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PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 65 ß tí

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68 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

n

M

tt

1

0Î

Extremely hot

weather.

1. Cool weather.

2. Hot weather

and longhauls.

1. Cool weather.

2. Hot weather

and long

hauls.

3. Use only when

pre-iced carsnot available.

Precool by carrier

or shipper.

Do.

Do.

Do.

0; CO "* lOi-i iT)"-!l"'*"*

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PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 69

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do

do

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.._ do

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Room precool

or precool incar with

mobile unit.

do

do

Ali points

East, Midwest,

2 to 3 days.

3 to 4 days

do

5 to 7 days

do

Transcontinental.

East, Midwest,

4 to 5 days.

Transcontinental.

do

Start to December 15.

dodo

do

do

Start to December 15.

do

dodo

do

Florida (all

points).

do.

do...,.

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do

do

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70 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

Pi

1. Early fall; warm

weather.

2. Late fall; cool

weather.

1. "Advance schedule" shipments.

2. Warm weather;

advance schedule shipments.

"Advance schedule" shipments.

Pi

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p PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 71

Oi

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m ca fl

- ?^ c c3

Room i)rocool

or precool in

car with mobile unit.

do

Precool with

car fans.

do

do

Room precool,

or precool in

car with mobile unit.

Not precooled...

do

do

Room precool or

precool in car

with mobileunit.

East, Midwest,

4 to 5 days.

do

do

do

Transcontinental.

do

East, Midwest,

2 to 3 days.

3 to 4 daysEast, Midwest,

5 to 7 days;

transcontinental.

East, Midwest,

4 to 5 days.

do

dodo....

do

do

do

May and June. _ do

do

do

do

do

do

do

dodo

dodo

do

do

o

Q

o

Q

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Q

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Q

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72 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEFT. OF AGRICULTURE

cn

ci

E

«

a;

3

Pi

246, 251,

252

201, 246,

255

201, 246

201, 240,

247, 385

240, 246

246, 251,

252

201, 385

201

201, 202

201, 202,

246

1

11

1

Pre-ice, replenish by shipper,

1 re-icing in transit on .second or third day.

Standard Refrigeration, halfstage.

Pre-ice, replenish by shipper.

Standard Refrigeration.

Same protective" services as

for Texas nonprecooled

grapefruit, during similar

period and for same des- tinations.2

Initial ice, do not re-iceInitial ice, 1 re-icing in transit.

When commodity loading temperature is under 50° F:

Standard Ventilation.Standard Refrigeration

from some designated point,

if outside temperatures near

destination are high.

When commodity loading temperature is 50° to 55°

F: Standard Refrigeration.

When commodity loading temperature is 55° to 60°

F: Standard Refrigeration,

3% salt at initial and firsttwo re-icings.

When commodity loading temperature is over 60° F:

Pre-ice, replenish. Standardard Refrigeration, 3'';, saltat pre-icing, replenishing,and first two re-icings.

g

'S

£

be

c

1c

Precool with

car fans.

Room precool

or precool in

car withmobile unit.

Precool with

car fans.

Not precooled.--Room precool

or precool incar with

mobile unit.

do

Not precooled...

dodo

Precool in car.--

c-r

o fc

.H-5

11

do....

Transcontinental.

do

Same as for

Texas grapefruit.

3 to 5 days

7 to 10 daysAll points

do

do

doc

Í

be

c

'E_a

Cß

do

May and June..

do

October to June.

October to April.

do

September and

October.

do

do

do

'0c

bC

c

a

X

do

do

do

Texas (Lower Rio

Grande Valley).

Florida (all points).

do

Massachusetts

(Cape Cod).

do

do

do

Commodity and

variety

Do

Do

Do

Do

Tangerines...

Do

Cranberries

(early

season).

Do

Do

Do
PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 73

>

o

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c:£-2§3S

c3 CO > Pi-i m bX)

tí X

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CO 1—1 TH Cl T] C-l M 01 Cl

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Refrigerat pre-icing

s. 7.50 to

apped dry

lb. broken

Í" P ?ä p

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dtion f

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en commodityerature is uttandard Ven

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ated point, if

era tures near J3

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74 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEFT. OF AGRICULTURE

.3

«

s

tí

Do.

For immediate

consumption.

1. For immediate

consumption.

—

Pi

254

201, 202,

246

246, 254

201, 202,

246

201, 202,

246

201, 255

201, 202202, 240

247, 255

247, 254,

255

1

II¡I

II

E

o

1

do

Pre-ice, Standard Refrigeration, for fan cars. Same

service for nonfan cars,except add 2% salt at preicing and all re-icings.

Pre-ice, replenish, 2 re-icings

in transit.

Pre-ice, Standard Refrigeration, 2 or 3% salt at first

re-icing only, on basis ofbunker capacity.

Pre-ice, Standard Refrigeration, 2 or 3% salt at first

re-icing only, on liasis ofbunker capacity.

1. Pre-ice, Standard Refriger- ation; or

2. Pre-ice, Standard Refrigeration, half-stage.Pre-ice, Standard Refrigeration, 3% salt at pre-icing

and all re-icings.

Pre-ice, do not re-ice, 3% saltWhen commodity loading

temperature is 75° F. or

under: Initial ice, half-stageafter loading, 3 re-icings intransit on fourth, sixth and

seventh days.

When commodity temperature is over 75° F:

1. Pre-ice, half-stage, replenish, 3 re-icings in

transit on fourth, sixth,and seventh days; or

-a

o

1be

c

"o

8

£

04

Cold storageRoom or car

precool, orhydrocool 35°

to 45° F.

Room or car

precool, orhydrocool to

35° F. or

lower.

Precool in car

Not precooled

or precool incar.

HydrocoolRoom precool

overnight.

do

Not precooled...

do

§•1 O 0)

P-Í3

do

East, Midwest,

5 to 9 days.

East, Midwest;

5 to 9 flays.

Midwest, West

Coast; 3 to 5

days.

All points

do

East, Midwest;

West CoastEast; 7 to 10

days.

do

C

S

c

'a,

CL

November to

March.

May to

September.

May to

September.

August

June to August--

do

.July and Augustdo

July

do

Shipping point

do

California

(central).

do

Colorado (Palisades, Grand

Junction).

Georgia and

South Carolina

(southeast).

do

Washington

(Wenatchee,

Yakima).

do

California

(Sacramento

River, Marysville).

do

-0

c

■■BA

£

o

Do

Peaches and

nectarines.

Do

Peaches..^

Do

DoDo

Pears:

Bartlett

Do
PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 75

0)

3 aj.c

c o S

8Sl

c

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Carriers'

rvice, thenand Heater

hört hauls,

For more

s such as

in transit.

^C S-ÏÏ

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October to

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September to

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do

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(central, northern).

do...

Oregon and

Washington

(Medford,

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Yakima).

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76 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

1

1. Cool weather.2. Moderate

weather.

3. Warm weather.

For average maturity fruit in

fan cars.

0Î

247, 255

240, 247,

515

247, 515

247, 255

385, 519,

520

240

251

385

201

246, 254

>>

ll

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Pre-ice, half-stage, 1 re-icing

in transit.

Same protective services as

above for Oregon andWashington cold storageor room precooled Bosc andComice pears destined tothe S(juth.

Same ¡¡rotective services as

above for Oregon andWashington cold storage or

room precooled Bosc and

Comice jjears destined to

the East.

Pre-ice, half-stage, 1 re-icing

in transit.

Origin to West Palm Beach:

Customary practice is to

load in box cars, thence bycar ferry to West PalmBeach for reloading in refrigerator cars.2

West Palm Beach to destination:

I.Standard Ventilation; 2

or

2. Shippers' Specified Service. Set thermostat

on liquid fuel heatersat 4212° for ripe and

521 2° for mature-green,

keep vents closed.2

I.Standard Ventilation; 2

or

2. Initial ice, do not re-ice; 2

or

3. Initial ice, 1 re-icing in

transit.2

Standard Refrigeration 2

Pre-ice, replenish, 2 re-icings

in transit.

1

E

§

.._ lio

do

do.....

do

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do

do

do

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precool, 40°

to 45° F.

= 2

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gi

West Coast

South; 6 to 10

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East; 7 to 10

days.

West CoastEast; Midwest-.

do

.....do....

do

East

c

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tn

tu

c

a

M

Throughout

entire season.

September to

April.

do.-l

Throughout

entire season.

Year-round

Winter

Spring and

fall.

Summer

June to

September.

Commodity and Shipping point variety |

do

Oregon and

Washington

(Medford,

Hood River,Wenatchee,Yakima).

do

do

Cuba (imi)ort via

W. PalmBeat-h, Fla.)

do

do

do

California

(central).

Do

Anjou

Do

Do

Pineapples

Do

Do

Do

Plums (includind fresh

prunes).
PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 77

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1M

E

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1. Cool weather.

2. Warm weather.

3. Hot weather.

Crates.Fiberboard cartons

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Crates.

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AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

1n

1

1. Cool weather.

2. Hot weather

and dependent on distance. Burlap

bags (50 and

100 lb.).

Paper bags

(10 lb.).

Burlap bags (100

lb.), pyramid or

"liump" load.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Fiberboard cartons;

master paperbags (50 lb.).

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PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OP FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 89

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__._do

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do

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do

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3to4days

5 to 7 days

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dodo

dodo

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do

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(southern).

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do

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I))

crop
90 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

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92 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

1

s

Re-icing in transit

subject to

Standard Refrigeration

charges. Masterpaper bags (50

lb.); paper bags

(10, 15, and 50

lb.); burlap bags

(100 lb.).

Master paper bags

(50 lb.); paper

bags (10, 15,

and 50 lb.);burlap bags

(100 lb.).

Burlap bags (50

and 100 lb.) in

pyramid load on

blanket pads;paper and meshbags (50 lb.);paper, polyethylene, and meshbags (10 lb.) in

master paperbags.

Do.

Do.

Carriers' Protective Service compulsory November 16 through

February.

201, 237

237, 240

247, 255201, 247,

255

385, 514,

515, 580

Recommended or commonly used

protective service

1. Initial ice, 1 re-icing in

transit on third or fourthday; 2 or

2. Free initial icing up to

5,000 lb. may be made

available during this period by one railroad.2

1. Initial ice, do not re-ice; 2

or

2. Free initial icing up to

5,000 lb. may be made

available during this period by one railroad.2

When commodity loading temperature is under 70° F:

Initial ice, half-stage, 1 reicing in transit on fourth orfifth day.

When commodity loading temperature is over 70° F:

1. Initial ice, half-stage, 1 reicing in transit on fourth

or fifth day; or

2. Pre-ice, half-stage, replenish, 1 re-icing in transit

on fourth or fifth day; or

3. Pre-ice, Standard Refrigeration, half-stage.

1. Standard Ventilation; or

2. Carriers' Protective Service; or3. Special Heater Protective

Service. Set thermostatat 40° F. on liquid fuelheaters, keep vents closed.

In Shippers' Specified

Service Territory for charcoal heaters, light one

heater at 20°, secondheater at 10°, extinguish

one heater at 15°, secondheater at 25°, keep vents

closed.

1

i do

do L...

Not precooled..-

.....do .-

Storage

11

fi

South

Pennsylvania

or north andwest thereof.

Mainly midwest

from Gulf of

Mexico to

Canada; 4 to

7 days.

.....do ....

do

c

0

te

c

'a.

.S*

May, June,

and July.

do

August 15 to

September 30.

.....do

October 1 to

April 30.

'S

a

*S.

do

do

Minnesota and

North Dakota

(Red River

Valley).

do

do .---

c«

1o

o

0 00 0 0

Q 0 Q Q (S
PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 93

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cartons.

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When commodity loading temperature is .50° to 55° F:

Special Ventilation, keep

vents closed. Shippers'Specified Service. Setthermostat at 50°

F on

liquid fuel heaters, keep

vents closed.'

When commodity loading temperature is 55° to 60° F:

Initial ice, half-stage, with

1,000 lb. per bunker, do not

re-ice. Shippers' Specified

Service. Set thermostat at

50° F. on liquid fuel heaters,

keep vents closed.'

When commodity loading temperature is 60° to 65° F:

Initial ice, half-stage, with

2,000 lb. per bunker, do notre-ice. Shippers' Specified

Service. Set thermostat at

50° F. on liquid fuel heaters,

keep vents closed.'

When commodity loading temperature is 65° to 75° F:

Initial ice, half-stage, with

3,000 lb. per bunker, or tohalf-stage capacity, do notre-ice. Shippers' SpecifiedService. Set thermostat at

50° F. on liquid fuel heaters,

keep vents closed.'

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o aj-S-3 o

tí S-T3.3 O) —

>>^ M -r ca ?í

^-2¿ S" o; 3

*^"a S.Í: ST3

•V j; g<N o tí

tí ajÄ ft S >H o

p:MH<í^feE-i

^ =
102 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

TABLE 9.—Texas mature-green tomatoes shipped by rail from loiver Rio Grande Valley

and east Texas: Recommended icing schedules for fan-equipped cars witli

fans in operation and vents kept closed

Commodity loading

temperature, size of load,

and number of days

in transit

75° (<) K0° F.

700 lugs:

3 to 4 days _

5 to 7 days_.

8 days

9 days

10 days

Maximum

initial

icing '

Pounds

10,000

10,000

10,000

10,000

10,000

840 lugs:

3 to 4 days 10,000

5 to 7 days 10,000

8 days 10,000

9 days 10,000

First reicing

(third

icing

station)

Second

re-icmR Total

(seventh ice

icing supplied

station)

10 days.

1,000 lugs or 532

wirebound

3 to 4 days 10,000

.5 to 7 days 10,000

days 10,000

10,000

9 days

10 days.

616 wirebound crates:

3 to 4 days

5 to 7 days

8 days

9 days

10 days

S0° to K5° F.

700 lugs:

3 to 4 days. .

5 to 7 days..

8 days

9 days

10 days

840 lugs:

3 to 4 days.

5 to 7 days.

8 days

9 days

10 days

1.000 lugs or 532

wirebound

crates:

3 to 4 days

5 to 7 days

8 days

9 days

10 days

616 wirebound crates:

3 to 4 days

5 to 7 days

8 days

9 days

10 days

10,000

10,000

10,000

10,000

10,000

10,000

10,000

10,000

10,000

10,000

10,000

10,000

10,000

10,000

10,000

10,000

10,000

10,000

10,000

10,000

10,000

10,000

10,000

10,000

10,000

10,000

10,000

Pounds

1,800

2,700

2,700

2,700

2,700

2,700

3,900

3,900

3,900

3,900

3,600

5,100

5,100

5,100

5,100

4,500

6,600

6,600

6,600

6,600

2,700

3,600

3,600

3,600

3,600

3,900

5,100

5,100

5,100

5,100

5,100

6,600

6,600

6,600

6,600

6,600

8,100

8,100

8,100

8,100

Pounds

0

0

1,800

2,700

3,600

0

0

1,800

2,700

3,600

0

0

2,100

3,000

3,900

0

0

2,100

3,000

3,900

0

0

,800

,700

,600

0

0

1,800

2,700

3,600

0

0

2,100

3,000

3,900

0

0

2,100

3,000

3,900

Pounds

11,800

12,700

14,500

15,400

16,300

12,700

13,900

15,700

16,600

17,500

13,600

15,100

17,200

18,100

19,000

14,500

16,600

18,700

19,600

20,500

12,700

13,600

15,400

16,300

17,200

13,900

15,100

16,900

17,800

18,700

15,100

16,600

18,700

19,600

10,500

16,600

18,100

20,200

21,100

22,000

Commodity loading

temperature, size of load,

and number of days

in transit

Maximum I

initial I

icing '

First reicing

(second

icing

station)

I 3

Second

re-icing

(sixth

icing

station)

I

Total

ice

supplied

S5° to nil" F.

700 lugs: , 3 to 5 days ; 10,000

6 to 7 days 10,000

8 days.

9 days.

10 days.

10,000

10,000

10,000

840 lugs:

3 to 5 days 10,000

6 to 7 days 10,000

8 days 10,000

9 days , 10,000

10 days ! 10,000

1,000 lugs or .532

wirebound

3 to 5 days ' 10,000

6 to 7 days 10,000

Sdays 10,000

9 days 10,000

10 days 10,000

616 wirebound crates:

3 to 5 days , 10,000

6 to 7 days ! 10,000

8 days i 10,000

9 days 10,000

10 days 10,000

90° F. and over

700 lugs:

3 to 5 days

6 to 7 days...

8 days

9 days

10 days

840 lugs:

3 to 5 days.

6 to 7 days.

10,000

10,000

10,000

10,000

10,000

10,000

10,000

8 days 10,000

9 days.

10 davs.

,000 lugs or 532

wirebound

crates:

3 to 5 days

6 to 7 days...

8 days

9 days

10 days

10,000

10,000

10,000

10,000

10,000

10,000

10,000

616 wirebound crates:

3 to 5 days 10,000

6 to 7 days j 10,000

8 days \ 10,000

9 days I 10,000

10 days 10,000

3,600

3,600

3,600

3,600

3,600

5,100

5,100

5,100

5,100

5,100

6,600

6,600

6,600

6,600

6,600

8,100

8,100

8,100

8,100

8,100

4,500

4,500

4,500

4,500

4,500

6,600

6,600

6,600

6,600

6,600

8,100

8,100

8,100

8,100

8,100

10,000

10,000

10,000

10,000

10,000

0

1,800

2,700

3,600

4,500

0

1,800

2,700

3,600

4,500

0

2,100

3,000

3,900

4,800

0

2,100

3,000

3,900

4,800

0

1,800

2,700

3,600

4,500

0

1,800

2,700

3,600

4,500

0

2,100

3,000

3,900

4,800

0

2,100

3,000

3,900

4,800

13,

15

16

17

18

600

400

300

200

100

15,100

16.900

17.800

18,700

19,600

16,600

18,700

19,600

20,500

21,400

18,100

20.200

21,100

22,000

22,900

14,500

16,300

17,200

18,100

19,000

16,600

18,400

19,300

20,200

21,100

18,100

20,200

21,100

22.000

22,900

20,000

22,100

23,000

23,900

24,800

' For tomatoes shipped from lower Rio Grande Valley, if car is initially iced before loading, increase the amount

of ice added at first re-icing by 900 lb. For shipments from east Texas, if car is initially iced the day before load-
PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

LITERATURE CITED

103

1. AGRICULTURAL MARKETING SERVICE.

I'J-'ILJ. SHIPPIXG TEMPERATURES FOR TOMATOES.

U.S. Dept. AgT., PA-290, 4 pp.

AGRICULTI'RAL RESEARCH SERVICE.

1958. PROTECT FROZEN FOODS FROM TEMPERATURE DAMAGE. U.S. Dept. Agr., West.

Res-. Res. Lab., Albany 1Ü, Calif.,

ARS-74-9, 11 pp., illus.

ALLEN, F. W., and HEWITT, V. J.

19o9. APPLES, PEARS, GRAPES, AND BANANAS.

Amer. Soc. Refrig. Engin., Refrig.

Appl. Data Book, chap. 24, 18 pp.

ANDERSON, G. E.

1959. RAILWAY REFRIGERATOR CARS. Amer. Soc.

Refrig'. Engin., Refrig. Appl. Data

Book, chap. 33, 17 pp.

BARGER, W. R.

1956. TRANSIT-REFRIGERATION STUDIES WITH

PREPACKAGED C-ARROTS. Conf. on Transportation of Perishables, Asilomar,

Pacific Grove, Calif., Apr. 10-12, Proc,

pp. 50-56.

1958. TRANSIT REFRIGERATION AND PRECOOLING

STUDIES WITH EARLY POTATOES. Conf.

on Transportation of Perishables,

Davis, Calif., Feb. 3-5, Proc, pp. 178-

181.

HARVEY, J. M., and RINGEL, S. M.

1959. TRANSIT TEMPERATURES OF CALIFORNIA

MATURE-GREEN TOMATOES SHIPPED BY'

RAIL. U.S. Dept. Agr., Mktg. Res. Rpt.

349, 12 pp.

HARVEY, J. M., and STEWART, J. K.

1958. TEST RESULTS SHOW SAFE LETTUCE SHIPPING PRACTICES. West. Grower &

Shipper 29(3): 24-26,39. March.

- and !McKiLLOP, A. A.

lu.

11.

1957. A RAILWAY' TRANSPORTATION TEST WITH

CALIFORNIA EARLY POTATOES. U.S.

Dept. Agr., AMS-160, 10 pp.

and R.\DSPINNER, W. A.

1956. TRANSIT REFRIGERATION STUDIES WITH

CALIFORNIA PREPACKAGED C-A.RROTS. U.S.

Dept. Agr., AMS-97, 21 pp.

RADSPINNER, W. A., FRIEDMAN, B. A.,

12.

13.

and MORRIS, L. L.

1953. TRANSIT AND RIPENING STUDIES WITH

CALIFORNI.A MATURE-GREEN TOMATOES,

FALL 1952. U.S. Dept. Agr., Handling,

Transportation and Storage Off. Rpt.

302.

R.\DSPINNER, W. A., and MORRIS, L. L.

1954. TRANSIT AND RIPENING STUDIES WITH

CALIFORNIA MATURE-GREEN TOMATOES,

FALL 1953. U.S. Dept. Agr., Handling,

Transportation and Storage Off. Rpt.

317; Univ. Calif. Veg. Crops Ser. 66.

STEWART, J. K., HARVEY, J. M., and

others.

1958. TRANSIT TEMPERATURES OF CALIFORNIA

LETTUCE. U.S. Dept. Agr., Mktg. Res.

Rpt. 285, 16 pp.

14.

15.

16.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

ßUE XKUiUN, P. L.

1959. EFFECT OF HEAVIER LOADING OF RAIL

SHIPMENTS ON THE MARKETING OF

FRESH FRUIT, VEGETABLES, AND MELONS.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Mktg. and Transportation Situation, MTS-134, pp. 33-37.

July.

CANADIAN NATIONAL RAILWAY COMPANY.

1946. CODE OF RULES FOR HANDLING PERISHABLE

TRAFFIC. Cir. 19-D, Aug. 1.

CAREY, L. C.

1950. CONTAINERS IN COMMON USE FOR FRESH

FRUITS AND VEGETABLES. U.S. Dept.

Agr., Farmers' Bui. 2013, 61 pp., illus.

CEPONIS, M. J., and FRIEDMAN, B. A.

1957. EFFECT OF BRUISING INJURY AND STORAGE

TEMPERATURE UPON DECAY AND DISCOLORATION OF FRESH, IDAHO-GROWN

ITALIAN PRUNES ON THE NEW YORK

CITY' M.ARKET. Plant Dis. Rptr. 41(5) :

491-492. May 15.

CLAYPOOL, L. L., and ALLEN, F. W.

1951. THE INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE AND

OXYGEN LEVEL ON THE RESPIRATION

AND RIPENING OF WICKSON PLUMS.

Hilgardia 21(6): 129-160. Nov.

COOK, H. T.

1956. TREAT.MENTS SUPPLEMENTING REFRIGERATION. Conf. on Transportation of

Perishables, Asilomar, Pacific Grove,

Calif., Apr. 10-12, Proc, pp. 69-73.

24.

26.

1959. SUPPLEMENTS TO REFRIGERATION. Amer.

Soc. Refrig. Engin., Refrig. Appl.

Data Book, chap. 29, 7 pp.

CRAFT, C. C.

1955. EVALUATION OF MATI'RITY INDICES BASED

ON PRESSURE-TEST READINGS FOR EASTERN-GROWN PEACHES. U.S. Dept. Agr.,

AMS-34, 8 pp.

EDGAR, A. D.

1955. SHIPPING POTATOES IN SUBZERO WEATHER.

U. S. Dept. Agr., Mktg. Activ. 18(11) :

10-11.

ENGER, M. R., MYERS, K., BREAKIRON, P. L., and

BARGER, W. R.

1958. EFFICIENCY' AND POTENTIAL ECONOMIES OF

DUAL-PURPOSE SHIPPING CONTAINERS

FOR MATURE-GREEN TOMATOES. U.S.

Dept. Agr., Mktg. Res. Rpt. 257, 69

pp., illus.

FiNDLEN, H., and HANSEN, J. C.

1958. TRANSPORTATION OF LATE-CROP POTATOES

FOR CHIPPING. Nati. Potato Chip Inst.,

Prod, and Tech. Div. Mtgs. Proc, pp.

3-6. January.

FISHER, D. F., and SMITH, EDWIN.

1951. HANDLING APPLES FROM TREE TO TABLE.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Cir. 659, 43 pp., illus.

(Revised.)

FRIEDMAN, B. A., and RADSPINNER, W. A.

1956. VACUUJI-COOLING FRESH VEGETABLES AND

FRUITS. U.S. Dept. Agr., AMS-107,

15 pp.

ing it should be re-iced at first icing station instead of second or third with double the amount of ice shown in the

schedule for first re-icing. In no case, however, should the amount of ice added at such re-icing, plus that still remaining in the bunkers from previous icing, exceed 10,000 lb.

For east Texas shipments, if third icing station is reached less than 60 hours after initial icing, re-ice at fourth

icing station instead.

' For east Texas shipments, if second icing station is reached less than 30 hours after initial icing, re-ice at third

icing station instead.
104 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEFT. OF AGRICULTURE

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

GERH.\RDT, F.

1955. USE OF FILM BOX LINERS TO EXTEND

STORAGE LIFE OF PEARS AND APPLES.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Cir. 965, 28 pp., illus.

SCHOMER, H., and WRIGHT, T. R.

1956. SEALED FILM LUG LINERS FOR PACKING

BiNG CHERRIES. U.S. Dept. Agr., AMS121, 8 pp.

ScHOMER, H., and WRIGHT, T. R.

1957. FILM LUG LINERS LENGTHEN MARKET LIFE

OF SWEET CHERRIES. U.S. Dept. Agr.,

AMS-177 (leaflet.)

GREEN, W. P., HUKILL, W. V., and ROSE, D. H.

1941. CALORIMETRIC MEASUREMENTS OF THE

HEAT OF RESPIRATION OF FRUITS AND

VEGETABLES. U.S. Dept. Agr., Tech.

Bui. 771, 22 pp., illus.

GUILFOY, R. F., and JOHNSON, H. D.

1956. SUGGESTED METHODS FOR CHECKING TEMPERATURES OF FRESH AND FROZEN FOOD

SHIP.MENTS. U.S. Dept. Agr., Mktg.

Res. Rpt. 150, 9 pp., illus.

GUILLOU, R., and PARKS, R. R.

1956. FORCED AIR FOR COOLING FRUIT. Univ.

Calif. Agr. Ext. Serv. August

(pamphlet.)

1956. FORCED AIR FRUIT COOLING. Amer. Soc.

Agr. Engin., Mtg. Pacific Coast Sect.,

Dec. 26-27, 11 pp. (Mimeo.)

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

42.

1956. CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS I.N FRUIT PACKAGES REL.ATED TO REFRIGERATION AND

TRANSPORTATION. Conf. on Transportation of Perishables, Asilomar,

Pacific Grove, Calif., Apr. 10-12, Proc,

pp. 34-39.

HALLER, M. H.

1952. HANDLING, TRANSPORTATION, STORAGE,

AND MARKETING OF PEACHES. U.S.

Dept. Agr., Bibliog. Bui. 21, 105 pp.

HARDENBURG, R. E., and LUTZ, J. M.

1959. COMMODITY STORAGE REQUIREMENTS.

Amer. Soc. Refrig. Engin., Refrig.

Appl. Data Book, chap. 23, 13 pp.

HARDING, P. L., and FISHER, D. F.

1945. SEASONAL CHANGES IN FLORIDA GRAPEFRUIT. U.S. Dept. Agr., Tech. Bui. 886,

100 pp., illus.

LUTZ, J. M., RADSPINNER, W. A., and

SUNDAY, M. B.

1955. INFLUENCE OF CHEMICAL TREATMENTS

AND POLYETHYLENE BAGS ON KEEPING

QUALITY OF FLORIDA GRAPEFRUIT. U.S.

Dept. Agr., AMS-8, 14 pp.

MACRILL, J. R., and NIXON, H. W.

1959. CITRUS FRUITS. Amer. Soc. Refrig. Engin.

Refrig. Appl. Data Book, chap. 25, 32

pp.

and SUNDAY, M. B.

1949. SEASONAL CHANGES IN FLORIDA TANGERINES. U.S. Dept. Agr., Tech. Bui.

988, 59 pp., illus.

HAR\-EY, E. M., ATROPS, E. P., HRUSCHKA, H. W.,

and BARBER, H. R.

1954. SHIPPING AND COOLING-IN-CAR TESTS WITH

ORANGES IN FIBERBOARD CARTONS IN

DIFFERENT LOAD PATTERNS, 1953. U.S.

Dept. Agr., AMS-2, 38 pp.

. ATROPS, E. P., KAUFMAN, J., and MACRILL, J. E.

1951. TRANSPORTATION TEST WITH LEMONS

FROM SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA TO NEW

YORK, AUGUST 1951. U.S. Dept. Agr.,

43.

1956.

44.

45.

46.

HARVEY, J

1958

Handling, Transportation and Storage

Ofi'. Rpt. 260.

ATROPS, E. P., RADSPINNER, W. A.,

LUTZ, J. M., and others.

COMPARISON OF TYPES OF CONTAINERS,

REFRIGERATION, AND LOADS IN THE

TRANSPORTATION OF NON-PRECOOLED

NAVEL ORANGES IN HALF-BOX FIBERBOARD CARTONS FROM CENTRAL CALIFORNIA TO CHICAGO AND NEW YORK, DECEMBER 1952 AND JANUARY 1953. U.S.

Dept. Agr., AMS-135 (formerly

Handling, Transportation, and Storage

Rpt. 293).

M.

THE USE OF POLYETHYLENE-LINED PACKAGES TO MAINTAIN FRUIT QUALITY IN

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48.

49.

50.

51.

52.

1958. FACTORS AFFECTING TRANSIT TEMPERATURES IN RAIL SHIPMENTS OF WESTERNGROWN LETTUCE. Conf. on Transportation of Perishables, Davis, Calif.,

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HRUSCHKA, H. W.

1959. PROTECTING MAINE POTATOES FROM

FREEZING, OVEff iEATING AND BRUISING

DURING RAIL TRANSIT. Maine Agr.

Expt. Sta., Misc. Rpt. 89, 28 pp.

and KAUFMAN, J.

1949. STORAGE OF PREPACKAGED CRANBERRIES.

Pre-Pack-Age 3(2) :18, 20, 22, 32. October.

and KAUFMAN, J.

1951. STORAGE TESTS WITH PREPACKAGED CRANBERRIES. U.S. Dept. Agr., Handling,

Transportation and Storage Off. Rpt.

235.

KAUFMAN, J., REDIT, W. H., and

RAMSEY, G. B.

1955. EFFECTS OF PRECOOLING, SALTING, CARTON

^TINTILATION .AND LOAD P.ATTERN ON

TEMPERATURE, MOISTURE CONDENSATION

AND SPOILAGE IN RAIL SHIPMENTS OF

PREPACKAGED EARLY BLACK MASSACHUSETTS-GROWN CRANBERRIES. U.S. Dept.

Agr., AMS-43, 23 pp.

SMITH, W. L., JR., TOKO, H. V., and

.\KELEY, R. V.

1959. HEALING PRECUT POTATO SEED PIECES DURING TRANSIT. U.S. Dept. Agr., AMS334, 24 pp., illus.

JAMISON, W. T., AGENT

1955. CODE OF RULES FOR HANDLING PERISHABLE

FREIGHT. Nati. Perishable Freight

Com., Cir. 20-D. April 20.

1958. SPECIFICATIONS OF STANDARD CONTAINERS

AND LOADING RULES FOR FRUITS, FRESH,

AND VEGETABLES, FRESH OR GREEN.

Freight Container Tariff 1-F, Pacific

Coast & Transcontinental Ter. Effective Nov. 14.

53.

1958. SPECIFICATIONS OF STAND.ARD CONTAINERS

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AND VEGETABLES, FRESH OR GREEN.

Freight Container Tariff 2-F. Southwest. & West. Trunk Line Ter. Effective June 20.
PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 105

54.

55.

56.

0 1.

58.

59.

1952. SPECIFICATIONS OF STANDARD CONTAINERS

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AND \EGETABLES, FRESH OR GREEN.

Freight Container Tariff 4-B. Official

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60.

61.

62.

63.

64.

65.

66.

67.

1960. RULES AND REGULATIONS GOVERNING THE

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Perishable Protective Tariff 18. Nati.

Perishable Freight Com. Effective

June 18.

JAKVIS, J. W.

1959. HANDLING POTATOES. Union Pacific Railroad, Dept. Traffic, Livestock and

Agr., Omaha, Neb.

JOHNSON, H. B., and NEWSOM, D. W.

1957. RAIL TRANSIT REFRIGERATION OF MATUREGREEN TOMATOES FROM THE LOWER RIO

GRANDE VALLEY OF TEXAS. U.S. Dept.

Agr., AMS-188, 12 pp.

JOHNSON, H. D., and BREAKIRON, P. L.

1956. PROTECTING PERISHABLE FOODS DURING

TRANSPORTATION BY TRUCK. U.S. Dept.

Agr., Handb. 105, 70 pp., illus.

KAUFMAN, J., BEXFIELD, P. L., and HARDING,

P. R., JR.

1955. SHIPPING TESTS WITH MASSACHUSETTSGROWN CRANBERRIES IN CONVENTIONAL

REFRIGERATOR CARS WITH STANDARD

VENTILATION AND IN MECHANICALLY

REFRIGERATED CARS. U.S. Dept. Agr.,

AMS-187, 9 pp.

HRUSCHKA, H. W., and WlANT, J. S.

1950. RAIL SHIPPING TESTS WITH LONG ISLAND

CAi'LiFLOWER—1949. U.S. Dept. Agr.,

Handling, Transportation and Storage

Off. Rpt. 228.

HRUSCHKA, H. W., and WIANT, J. S.

1951. RAIL SHIPPING TESTS WITH LONG ISLAND

CAULIFLOWER—1950. U.S. Dept. Agr.,

Handling, Transportation and Storage

Off. Rpt. 259.

HRUSCHKA, H. W., and WIANT, J. S.

1952. RAIL SHIPPING TESTS WITH LONG ISLAND

CAULIFLOWER—1951. U.S. Dept. Agr.,

Handling, Transportation and Storage

Off. Rpt. 268.

RINGEL, S. M., HAMER, A. A., and

others.

1958. EFFECT OF PRECOOLING ON MARKET QUALITY OF CRANBERRIES SHIPPED BY RAIL OR

TRUCK. U.S. Dept. Agr., Mktg. Res.

Rpt. 287, 9 pp.

LEWIS, W. E.

1957. MAINTAINING PRODUCE QUALITY IN RETAIL

STORES. U.S. Dept. Agr., Handb. 117,

30 pp., illus.

LIEBERMAN, M., and HARDENBURG, R. E.

1954. EFFECT OF MODIFIED ATMOSPHERES ON

RESPIRATION AND YELLOWING OF BROCCOLI AT 75 DEGREES F. Amer. Soc.

Hort. Sei. Proc. 63:409-413.

LiPTON, W. J.

1958. EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON ASPARAGUS

QUALITY. Conf. on Transportation of

Perishables, Davis, Calif., Feb. 3-5,

Proc, pp. 147-151.

1957. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES IN HARVESTED

ASPARAGUS (ASPARAGUS OFFICINALIS)

AS RELATED TO TEMPERATURE OF HOLDING. Univ. Calif., Davis, Calif., 116

pp. (Ph.D. thesis.)

68.

69.

70.

71.

LUTZ, J. M.

1945. CHILLING INJURY OF CURED AND NONCURED

PORTO RICO SWEET POTATOES. U.S. Dept.

Agr., Cir 729, 8 pp., illus.

FiNDLEN, H., and KAUFMAN, J.

1957. OPERATING FANS IN CARS OF PRODUCE

AFTER ARRIVAL AT TERMINAL MARKETS.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Mktg. Res. Rpt. 206,

9 pp., illus.

REDIT, W. H., HARDENBURG, R. E., and

72.

73.

75.

76.

FiNDLEN, H.

1952. INFLUENCE OF PADS AND CAR LINING ON

POTATO TRANSIT TEMPERATURES. U.S.

Dept. Agr., Handling, Transportation

and Storage Off. Rpt. 274.

MALLISON, E. D., GORMAN, E. A., and HUKILL,

W. V.

1937. PROTECTION OF APPLES AND PEARS IN

TRANSIT FROM THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST

DURING THE WINTER MONTHS. U.S.

Dept. Agr., Tech. Bui. 550, 55 pp.,

illus.

and PENTZER, W. T.

1938. BODY ICING IN TRANSIT REFRIGERATION OF

VEGETABLES. U.S. Dept. Agr., Tech.

Bui. 627, 42 pp., illus.

MANN, C. W., GORMAN, E. A., and HUKILL, W. V.

1943. STAGE ICING IN THE REFRIGERATION OF

ORANGES IN TRANSIT FROM CALIFORNIA.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Tech. Bui. 857, 37

pp., illus.

MCCLURE, T. T., and SMITH, W. L.

1959. POSTHARVEST DECAY OF PEACHES AS AFFECTED BY TEMPERATURES AFTER HYDROCOOLING IN WATER OR DOWICIDE A SOLUTIONS. Phytopath. 49:472-474.

McCoLLOCH, L. p.

1955. EFFECT OF LOW FIELD TEMPERATURES ON

QUALITY OF TOMATOES. Fla. State Hort.

Soc, Proc. 68:188-192.

77.

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82.

1954.

PENTZER

1954.

1958. BETTER QUALITY TOMATOES THROUGH

TEMPERATURE CONTROL AND CAREFUL

HANDLING. 12th Nati. Conf. on Handling Perishable Agr. Commod., Mar.

10-14, Proc. pp. 66-72.

and WORTHINGTON, J. T.

1952. LOW TEMPERATURE AS A FACTOR IN THE

SUSCEPTIBILITY OF MATURE-GREEN

TOMATOES TO ALTERNARÍA ROT. PhytOpath. 42(8) :425-427.

— and WORTHINGTON, J. T.

WAYS TO PRE\T;NT CHILLING MATUREGREEN TOMATOES. Pre-Pack-Age 7:22-

25. Feb.

W. T.

WASTE AND SPOILAGE. Marketing—Yearbook of Agriculture, U.S. Dept. Agr.,

pp. 377-381.

AsBURY, C. E., and BARGER, W. R.

1945. PRECOOLING CALIFORNIA GRAPES AND

THEIR REFRIGERATION IN TRANSIT. U.S.

Dept. Agr., Tech. Bui. 899, 64 pp.,

illus.

and BARGER, W. R.

1948. PRECOOLING GRAPES IN TUNNEL COOLERS.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Handling, Transportation and Storage Off. Rpt. 198.

BARGER, W. R., and KAUFMAN, J.

1949. TESTS ON THE SHATTERING OF GRAPES IN

TRANSIT IN SHIPMENTS MADE FROM

CALIFORNIA TO NEW YORK, IN AUGUST,

SEPTEMBER, AND NOVEMBER, 1948. U.S.

and Storage Off. Rpt. 207.

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106

83.

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85.

86.

87.

AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

—; BARGER, W. R., DEWEY, I). H., and

othei's.

1948. TOP-ICING C.\NT.A.LOUPS. U.S. Dept. Agr.,

Handling, Transportation and Storage

Off. Rpt. 18.5.

— and McCOLLOCH, L. P.

REFRIGER.\TION OF TOMATOES IN TRA.NSIT

Pre-Pack-Age 6(1) :11-14.

WiANT, J. S., and MACGILLIVR.A.Y, J. H.

195

89.

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95.

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97.

1940. MARKET QUALITY AND CONDITION OF CALIFORNIA CANTALOUPS AS INFLUENCED BY

MATURITY, HANDLING, AND PRECOOLING.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Tech. Bui. 730, 74

pp., illus.

PLUMMER, K. V.

1958. LATEST DE\ELOPMENTS IN THE RAILR0.4D

REFRIGERATOR CAR FIELD. Conf. on

Transportation of Perishables, Davis,

Calif., Feb. 3-5, Proc. pp. 193-196.

PRATT, H. K., and MORRIS, L. L.

1958. PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF VEGETABLES

AND FRUIT HANDLING. Food Technol.

in Australia, 10(8) :407-417. Aug.

MORRIS, L. L., RY.A.LL, A. L., and

FRIEDMAN, B. A.

19o7. TESTS OF MODIFIED PROTECTIVE SERVICES

IN THE TR.\NSP0RTATI0N OF HONEY DEW

MELONS FRO.M CALIFORNIA TO NEW

YORK CITY, 1955 AND 1956. Univ.

Calif., Veg. Crops Ser. 90, 15 pp.

August.

MORRIS, L. L., and TUCKER, C. L.

19.34. TEMPER.\TURE .iND LETTUCr: DETERIOR.\-

TiON. Conf. on Transportation of

Perishables, Davis, Calif., April 26-28,

Proc, pp. 77-83.

RADSPINNER, W. A.

1949. RIPENING OF PEARS IN FAN CARS. U.S.

Dept. Agr., Handling, Transportation

and Storage Off. Rpt. 203.

WOMELDORPH, S. E., JR., WIANT, J. S.,

and REDIT, W. H.

1950. RIPENING PEARS IN FAN CARS AT THE TER-

.viiNAL MARKET. U.S. Dept. Agr., Handling, Transportation, and Storage

Off. Rpt. 222.

RAMSEY, G. B.

1958. DISEASES AND INJURIES OF LETTUCE ON

THE MARKET. Conf. On Transportation

of Perishables, Davis, Calif.. Feb. 3-5,

Proc, pp. 126-127.

FRIED.MAN, B. A., and SMITH, M. A.

1959. .AiARKET DISEASES OF BEETS, CHICORY, EXDIVE, ESCAROLE, GLOBE ARTICHOKES,

LETTUCE, RHUBARB, SPINACH, AND

SWEETPOTATOES. U.S. Dept. Agr.,

Handb. lo5, 42 pp., illus.

and FRIEDMAN, B. A.

1941. :MARKET DISEASES OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES: ASPARAGUS, ONIONS, BEANS,

PEAS, CARROTS, CELERY, AND RELATED

VEGET.-'-BLES. U.S. Dept. Agr., Misc.

Pub. 440, 70 pp., illus.

and SMITH, M. A.

1960. MARKET DISEASES OF CABBAGE, CAULIFLOWER, TUR.N'IPS, CUCI'MBERS, MELONS,

AND RELATED CROPS. U.S. Dept. Agr.,

Handb. 184, illus. In press.

WiANT, J. S., and MCCOLLOCH, L .P.

1952. MARKET DISEASES OF TOMATOES, PEPPERS,

AND EGGPLANTS. U.S. Dept. Agr.,

Handb. 28, 54 pp., illus.

WiANT, J., and S.MITH, M. A.

98.

99.

100.

101

102

103.

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105.

106.

107.

108.

109.

110.

111.

REAR, J. C.

1956. PRECOOLING. Conf. on Transportation of

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Calif., Apr. 10-12, pp. 60-69.

1959. PRECOOLING. Amer. Soc. Refrig. Engin.,

Refrig. Appl. Data Book, chap. 31,

8 pp.

REDIT, W. H., and HAMER, A. A.

ID:.:». PRECOOLING AND SHIPPING LOUISIANA

STRAWBERRIES. U.S. Dept. Agr., Mktg.

Res. Rpt. 358, 39 pp., illus.

and LuTZ, J. M.

1955. HEATER TESTS WITH WINTER SHIPMENTS

OF MAINE POTATOES BY RAIL, JANU.\RY

AND FEBRUARY 1954. U.S. Dept. Agr.,

AMS-7, 28 pp.

RADSPINNER, W. A., and WIANT, J. S.

1951. RIPENING PEARS IN TRANSIT IN FAN CARS.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Handling, Transportation and Storage Off. Rpt. 234.

RYALL, A. L., HANNUM, D. B., and

HRUSCHKA, H. W.

1953. COMPARISON OF FLOOR TYPE WITH 0\ERHEAD ELECTRIC TY'PE REFRIGER.\TOR CAR

FANS IN THE PRECOOLING AND TRANSIT

REFRIGERATION OF CALIF. TABLE GRAPES,

SEPT. 1952. U.S. Dept. Agr., Handling,

' Transportation and Storage Off. Rpt.

288.

and SMITH, E.

1948. CAR HEATERS AND WINTER PROTECTION OF

FRUIT SHIPMENTS—SUMMARY' OF TRANSPORTATION TESTS WITH APPLES FROM

WASHINGTON STATE, DEC. 1947, JAN.

AND FEB. 1948. U.S. Dept. Agr., AARUSDA Tests No. 22-27, illus.

SMITH, E., and GERHARDT, F.

1947. CAR HEATERS AND WINTER PROTECTION OF

FRUIT SHIP.MENTS SUMßlARY OF TRANSPORTATION TESTS WITH APPLES FROM

WASHINGTON STATE, DEC. 1946-JAN.

1947. U.S. Dept. Agr., AAR-USDA

Tests No. 12-15.

and S.MITH, M. A.

1953. PRECOOLING SOUTH CAROLINA PEACHES.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Handling, Transportation and Storage Off. Rpt. 306.

SMITH, M. A., and BENFIELD, P. L.

1949. .MARKET DISEASES OF FRUITS AND \EGETABLES: POTATOES. U.S. Dept. Agr.,

Misc. Pub. 98, 60 pp., illus.

1955. TESTS ON HYDROCOOLING AND REFRIGERATION OF PEACHES IN TRANSIT FROM

GEORGIA AND SOUTH CAROLINA, 1954.

U.S. Dept. Agr., AMS-62. 24 pp.

RICHARDSON, C. A.

1948. HEAT TRANSMISSION REPORT. AsSOC.

Amer. Railroads, Refrig. Car Res., 178

pp.

ROSE, D. H., BRATLEY, C. 0., and PENTZER, W. T.

1939. MARKET DISEASES OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES: GR.4PES AND OTHER SMALL

FRUITS. U.S. Dept. Agr., Misc. Pub.

340, 25 pp., illus.

BROOKS, CHAS., BR.\TLEY, C. 0., and

WINSTON, J. R.

1943. MARKET DISEASES OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES: CITRUS AND OTHER SUBTROPICAL FRUITS. U.S. Dept. Agr., Misc.

Pub. 498, 57 pp., illus.

— and COOK, H. T.

1949. HANDLING, STORAGE, TRANSPORTATION,

AND UTILIZATION OF POTATOES: A DIGEST OF INFORMATION ON THE SUBJECT

PUBLISHED MOSTLY FOR 1938 TO 1948.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Bibliog. Bui. 11, 163

pp.
PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 107

112.

113.

COOK, H. T., and REDIT, W. H.

114.

11.5.

116.

117

118.

119.

120.

121.

122.

12.3.

124.

125.

1951. H.\RVESTING, HANDLING AND TRANSPORTATION OF CITRl'S FRUITS. U.S. Dept.

A.ST., Bibliog. Bui. 13, 178 pp.

— FISHER, D. F., BROOKS, CHAS., and

BRATLEY, C. O.

195Û. MARKET DISEASES OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES: PEACHES, PLUMS, CHERRIES

AND OTHER STONE FRUITS. U.S. Kept.

Agr., Misc. Pub. 228, 27 pp., illus.

(Revised.)

— McCoLLOCH, L. P., and FISHER, D. F.

MARKET DISEASES OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES: APPLES, PEARS, QUINCES. L^.S.

1951.

Dept. Agr., Misc. Pub. 168, PP-.

illus. (Revised.)

RVALL, A. L.

1953. REFRIGERATION OF CALIFORNIA EARLY POTATOES. 9th Ann. Yearbook of the

Kern County Potato Growers Assoc. 5

pp. March.

1955. ETIIVLENE TREAT.MENT OF BARTLETT PEARS

MO\TNG TO MIDWESTERN AND WESTERN

M.4.RKETS. Blue Anchor 32(2) :11. May.

RVALL, A. L.

1956. THE EFFECTS OF BUNKER SALTING, DRY ICE

AND AIR CIRCULATION ON TEMPERATURES IN EXPRESS SHIPMENTS OF FRESH

STRAWBERRIES. Conf. on Transportation of Perishables, Asilomar, Pacific

Grove, Calif., Apr. 10-12, Proc, pp.

7.3-86.

1959. TRANSIT SERVICES AS RELATED TO THE

RIPENING OF CALIFORNI.A BARTLETT

PEARS. Advisorv Bd. for Promotion of

Fresh Bartlett Pears, 1515 Ninth St.,

Sacramento 14, Calif., 8 pp. June 10.

( Mimeo.)

CLEMENTS, J. R., RADSPINNER, W. A.,

1953.

RYGG, G,

1958.

and others.

1950. .A. COJIPARISON OF TR.A.NSIT PROTECTIVE

SERVICES FOR BARTLETT PEARS DURING

THE E.ARLY PART OF THE SHIPPING

SEASON. U.S. Dept. Agr., Handling,

Transportation and Storage Off. Rpt.

232. Oct.

and HARVEY, J. yi.

1959. THE COLD STORAGE OF VINIFERA TABLE

GRAPES. U.S. Dept. Agr., Handb. 159,

46 pp., illus.

— and RADSPINNER, W. A.

HALF-STAGE ICING OF CANTALOUPES TEST

SUCCESSFUL. West. Grower & Shipper

24(5) :54-59. April.

L.

INFLUENCE OF HANDLING PROCEDURES AND

STORAGE AND TRANSIT TEMPERATURES

ON IMPROVING AND MAINTAINING

QUALITY OF DATES. Date Growers' Inst.

Rpt. 35:2-5.

and GETTY, M. R.

1955. SEASONAL CHANGES IN ARIZONA AND CALIFORNIA GRAPEFRUIT. U.S. Dept. Agr.,

Tech. Bui. 1130, 44 pp.

SAWYER, F. ;\IILES, MIDURA, THADDEUS F., and

VoNDELL, RICHARD M.

1960. HANDLING FROZEN FOOD. A Guide for

Distributors, Univ. Mass. in cooperation with U.S. Dept. Agr., Coop. Ext.

Serv. Pub. 350, 20 pp., illus.

ScHOMER, H. A., and SAINSBURY, G. F.

1957. CONTROLLED-AT:\IOSPHERE STORAGE OF

STARRING DELICIOUS APPLES IN THE

PACIFIC NORTHWEST. U.S. Dept. Agr.,

AMS-178, 14 pp.

126. SEELIG, R. A.

n. d. FACTS AND POINTERS ON MARKETING

FRESH TOMATOES. United Fresh Fruit

& Veg. Assoc. BuL, 77 pp., illus.

127. SHADBURNE, R. A.

1958. IMPROVED LOADING OF BASKETS OF

PEACHES AND FRESH PRUNES IN RAILROAD CARS. U.S. Dept. Agr., Mktg.

Res. Rpt. 275, 76 pp., illus.

128. SHEAR, C. L., STEVENS, N. E., and BAIN, H. F.

1931. FUNGOUS DISEASES OF THE CULTIVATED

CRANBERRY. U.S. Dept. Agr., Tech.

Bui. 258, 58 pp., illus.

129. SMITH, W. L., JR., REDIT, W. H., BENFIELD, P. L.,

and others.

1957. PEACH HYDROCOOLING, SHIPPING, AND

FUNGICIDAL TESTS. U.S. Dept. Agr.,

AMS-199, 19 pp.

130. HAULER, M. H., and MCCLURE, T. T.

1956. POSTHARVEST TREATMENT FOR REDUCTION

OF BROWN AND RHIZOPUS ROTS OF

PEACHES. Phytopath. 46:261-264.

131. SPANINGER, C. A., Agent

1957. CONTAINER AND LOADING RULES TARIFF.

Freight Tariff 823-C, Southern

Freight Tariff Bureau. June.

132. STEWART, J. K., and KASMIRE, R. F.

1958. AN EVALUATION OF FLOOR PADS FOR

TRANSIT PROTECTION OF POTATOES.

Conf. on Transportation of Perishables, Davis, Calif., Feb. 3-5, Proc. pp.

182-188, illus.

133. and LIPTON, W. J.

1958. PRELIMIN.ARY PRECOOLING TESTS WITH

CANTALOUPES IN FIBERBOARD CONTAINERS. Conf. on Transportation of

Perishables, Davis, Calif., Feb. 3-5,

Proc. pp. 113-117.

134. TOLLE, W. E.

1959. MAINTENANCE OF QUALITY OF PREPACKAGED CRANBERRIES DURING RETAIL DISPLAY. U.S. Dept. Agr., Mktg. Res.

Rpt. 320, 20 pp., illus.

135. UOTA, M., and CooK, F. L.

1958. IMPROVED METHODS NEEDED FOR SO: GRAPE

FUMIGATION. Blue Anchor 35(3) :20-

21, 36. Aug.

136. WHITEMAN, T. M.

1957. FREEZING POI.NTS OF FRUITS, \EGETABLES,

AND FLORIST STOCKS. U.S. Dept. Agr.,

Mktg. Res. Rpt. 196, 32 pp., illus.

137. WlANT, J. S.

1938. MARKET-STORAGE STUDIES OF HONEY DEW

MELONS AND CANTALOUPS. U.S. Dept.

Agr., Tech. Bui. 613, 19 pp., illus.

May.

138. — and BRATLEY, C. 0.

1948. SPOILAGE OF FRESH FRUITS AND VEGETABLES IN RAIL SHIPMENTS UNLOADED

IN NEW Y'ORK CITY, 1935-42. U.S.

Dept. Agr., Cir. 773, 62 pp.

139. WINSTON, J. R.

1950. HARVESTING AND HANDLING CITRUS

FRUITS IN THE GULF STATES. U.S.

Dept. Agr., Fanners' Bui. 1763, 67 pp.,

illus. (Revised.)

140.

19:J5. THE COLORING OR DEGREENING OF MATURE

CITRUS FRUITS WITH ETHYLENE. U S.

Dept. Agr., Cir. 961, 13 pp. illus.
108

141.

AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

142.

143.

144.

CuBBEDGE, R., and KAUFMAN, J.

1952. EFFECT OF HVDKOCOOLING AND OF TOP

ICING ON TEMPERATURE REDUCTION IN

CARLOT SHIP.MENTS OF CRATED GREEN

SWEET CORN. U.S. Dept. Agr., Handling, Transportation and Storage Off

Rpt. 270.

--— CuBBEDGE, R., and KAUFMAN, J.

1959. SHIPPING FLORIDA CITRUS FRUIT IN WIREBOUND CRATES AND CARTONS—A COMPARISON OF COMMERCIAL PRACTICES.

U.S. Dept. Agr., AMS-342, 15 pp.

—— HRUSCHKA, H., and CUBBEDGE, R!

190Í5. EFFECT OF PACKINGHOUSE TREATMENTS

TEMPERATURES IN TRANSIT AND CONTAINERS ON DECAY IN TANGERINES. U S

Dept. Agr., AMS-125 (formerly Handling, Transportation and Storage Off.

Rpt. 263), 37 pp.

-— HRUSCHKA, H., CUBBEDGE, R., and

MECKSTROTH, G. A. , , U

1953. A COMPARISON OF PROTECTIVE SERVICES

COMMONLY USED FOR RAIL SHIP.MENTS

OF FLORIDA ORANGES AND GRAPEFRUIT.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Handling, Transportation and Storage Off. Rpt. 305.

145. WRIGHT, R. C, ROSE, D. H., and WHITEMAN, T. M.

1954. THE COMMERCIAL STORAGE OF FRUITS,

VEGETABLES, AND FLORIST AND NURSERY

STOCKS. U.S. Dept. Agr., Handb. 66,

77 pp.

146. WRIGHT, T. R., and ADAMS, D. F.

1949. SALTING PRACTICES IN EXPRESS FAN CARS

LOADED WITH PACIFIC NORTHWEST

CHERRIES. U.S. Dept. Agr., Handling,

Transportation and Storage Off. Rpt.

215.

147. and SMITH, EDWIN.

1951. FRUIT TEMPERATURES IN COMMERCIAL

NORTHWESTERN APPLE SHIPMENTS PROTECTED WITH AUTOMATIC ALCOHOL

HEATERS DURING JANUARY AND FEBRUARY 1951. U.S. Dept. Agr., Handling,

Transportation and Storage Off. Rpt.

249.

148. and SMITH, EDWIN.

1954. RELATION OF BRUISING AND OTHER FACTORS TO BLUE MOLD DECAY OF DELICIOUS

APPLES. U.S. Dept. Agi-., Cir. 935, 15

pp.

ti u. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1961—531848