f

Forest Planting Practice

in tlie

Central States

^^^^^

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Agriculture Handbook No. 247

U.S. Department of Agriculture

Forest Service
Forest Planting Practice

in the Central States

By G. A. Limstrom, research forester,

U.S. Forest Service, Central States

Forest Experiment Station

Agriculture Handbook No. 247

UVS. Department of Agriculture • Forest Service

December 1963
Acknowledgment

This publication was made possible through cooperation of several Federal, State, and private organizations in the Central States Region. Their

contributions are deeply appreciated.

Extension foresters and other staff specialists at universities and agricultural experiment stations were especially helpful; their reviews of various

sections of the manuscript were carefully considered. Of particular help in

this respect were contributions from the Kentucky Agricultural Experiment

Station, Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, Iowa Agricultural and Home

Economics Experiment Station, Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station,

Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Ohio University, Purdue University

Agricultural Experiment Station, and Southern Illinois University.

Soil scientists and foresters of the Soil Conservation Service cooperated with

the author in correlating soils with planting site classes. Grateful acknowledgment is given especially to H. H. Morse, G. Y. Bell, and Tom Bradley in

Ohio; T. C. Bass and John Holwager in Indiana; L. J. BartelH in IlUnois;

Willard Carpenter and Eugene Oren in Kentucky; W. J. Boatman and Sylvan

Runkel in Iowa; and Harold Grogger in Missouri.

The author is extremely grateful for the cooperation of many coworkers in

the Forest Service, too numerous to mention here, who through consultations

and reviews helped in the preparation of the manuscript.

II
r

Contents

Page

Introduction 1

Where should trees be planted? 1

How productive is the land? 6

What kinds of trees should be planted? 13

Select species adapted to the planting site. 13

Select species and sources adapted to the

locality 13

Select species and sources suitable for

product desired 13

Establishing the plantation 15

Preparing the site for planting 15

Methods of site preparation 16

Where to get trees for planting 23

Quahty of planting stock 23

Care of planting stock 24

Planting seasons 25

Spacing 26

Mixed planting 28

Interplanting 28

Planting methods 29

Direct seeding 34

Planting poplar cuttings 35

Use of \vildings 36

Contract planting 36

Public aid for planting 37

Page

Early care of plantations 38

Planting release 38

Protection of plantations 39

Where to get more help 41

Species selection guides and how to use

them 41

Illinois 41

Indiana 44

Iowa 47

Kentucky 48

Missouri 50

Ohio 52

Literature cited 57

Appendix:

Suggested procedures for making planting

plans 62

Directions for treatment of seed and

methods of sowing for the direct

seeding of pine 62

Insect pests of forest plantations 64

Diseases of forest plantations 65

Common and scientific names of trees

mentioned 69

III

For sale bv the Superintendent of Documents U.S. Government Printing

Office, Washington, D.C., 20402-Price 50 cents
Introduction

For the past half century forest tree planting plantations. Motives for planting are varied, but

has been steadily increasing. Acreage planted per tlie principal ones are to restore idle land to

year throughout the Nation doubled from 1953 productivity, to control erosion, to establish windlo 1962. This is a significant milestone in the i)reaks, and to develop areas for recreation and

history of conservation in our Nation; it indicates wildlife habitats.

a growing interest in the need for and value of tree Although the ratio of successful plantations to

planting. But the main job still lies ahead; the failures has been fairly liigli, the acceleration in

task of reclaiming idle land in the li^nited States phinting programs calls for a better understanding

has just begun {156)} In the Central States of the problems and techniques involved. Recent

Region alone, for example, only about a million technological developments have outmoded pracacres have been planted, while the latest estimates tices that were standard less than two decades

by the Department of Agriculture {159) indicate ago. And today, niore than ever before, landthat more than 7 million acres, exclusive of owners with little experience in tree planting are

federally owned land, are still in need of planting: seeking advice on the subje^'t.

This handbook presents jthe latest available inLand planted i piantabie land ' formation On tree planting in the central hardT„. . ^'"' T-,7\.. 'ZT^r^r. ^^-"od region—where to plant, what to plant, and

Srana.-.::::::::::::::::: IS; ¡It S: Z h<-' t« plant.-rt;#as prepared especially for the

Iowa 56, 919 2.54, 000 nien to wtiojn landowners usually go when seeking

Kentucky 141,650 2,004,000 advice on tree planting—the extension forester,

Missouri onn'^*^ 3,180,000 farm forester, forest ranger, consulting forester,

Ohio ^OQ' 550 ^Q^' '^QO county agricultural agent, and soil conservationist.

Total 965, 888 7, 221, 000 For the Central States Region, it replaces Farmers'

,p A < t i-jutu-D u c Ç14. i ' j Ü • Bulletins 112.3, 1453, and 1994—"Growing and 'From data furnished bv the Branch of State and Pri- T^, ^. TT i JO JV íU T7 >>

vate Forestry, Forest Service, 1962. Planting Hardwood Seedlings on the l^arm,

'Based on estimates from the "National Inventory of "Growing and Planting Conifers on the Farm,"

Soil and Water Conservation Needs" {159). Does not and "Tree Planting in the Central, Piedmont, and

include area of federally owned land in need of planting. Southern Appalachian Regions."]

The material presented here deals primarily

About 100,000 acres of federally owned land in the with the planting of trees for timber production.

Central States are in need of planting. erosion control, and watershed protection. Much

The phenomenal increase in planting during of it applies equally well to planting windbreaks,

the past decade is traced mainly to a growing shelterbelts, and Christmas trees, but the unique

awareness among individual landowners of the features of these specialty plantings are not

need for and desirability of establishing forest treated.?

Where Should Trees Be Planted?

It is not the purpose here to advocate tree Also, some agricultural land may be planted to

planting on land that will yield a greater monetary trees under crop-control programs provided for

return from grazing, farming, or other enterprises. in the Soil Bank Act.

But a landowner may wish to plant trees on parts Having once established his motives for planting

of his farm that are inaccessible to farm equipment t^ees and his desire to do so, the first problem

and where the ordinary farm management prac- confront^ing a prospective tree planter is the det-.„ i. r -11 I ^ 11 X cision of where to plant. He will need to contires are not feasible; or he may wish to allocate g¿^^^ j^ig potential planting sites individuallv.

par ot his land to growmg forest products needed Whether a given tract of land should be planted

on his farm, such as fence posts and barn poles to trees depends upon the answers to three quesnot otherwise readily available. On other parts tions: Will trees grow there? Will it pay to

of the farm, erosion may be so serious that tree grow them there? And, is it necessary to plant

planting for erosion control will be desirable. them there'

'Italic numbers in parentheses refer to Literature Cited, trees, see "Christmas trees for pleasure and profit" {37):

P'57. "Christmas tree producer organizations" {105); and

^ For more specific information on growing Christmas "Christmas trees: the tradition and the trade" {136).

1
íTasí

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 24 7

The answer to tlie first question lias to do with

the productivity of the hind, antl productivity is

such an important subject tliat it will he considered by itself in the following section.

The second question has to do with economics.

Whether or not it will pay to plant trees on a given

area depends upon the purpose of the proposed

plantation. If the purpose is to stabilize the soil,

control erosion (fig. 1), or protect a watershed,

the plantation will pay if the stated purpose is

accomplished. On the other hand, if the purpose

is to grow a merchantable crop, whether it be

Christmas trees, pulpwood, fence posts, or sawtimber, the question can be answered in terms of

dollars and cents; i.e. whether more money can

be made bv growing trees or by growing some other

crop on the land.

Very few plantations in the Central States are

old enough to indicate prospective sawtimber

yields. However, there are many immature

plantations, from which probable yields of posts

and cordwood for a number of species, ages, and

locahties can be estimated (fig. 2, table 1).

In many instances the decision to plant is easy.

If a piece of land is obviously unsuited for farm

crops because of erosion, location, topography,

or geology, then planting trees is one of several

alternatives to consider.

The third question, is it necessary to plant, can

l)e answered by examining the area for "plantabüity," i.e., whether it has less than a desirable

numl)er of trees for fair or good stocking. If the

area has a sufficient number of well-distributed

desirable trees per acre, no planting is necessary!

If stocking is poor, however, and it is not likely

that enougti natural restocking will occur in

5 years, the area is "plantable."

To determine plantability on areas covered

partly with desirable and undesirable trees,

sample talhes should be taken to determine stocking by species. Because distribution of the desirable trees is also important, only one desirable

tree on each milacre (6.6 feet square) should be

counted. Stocking standards to determine plantability are shown on page .3.

In the Central States there are three broad

classes of plantable land, each different from the

others in species suitability, productivity, and

appropriate techniques for" planting: (1) open,

poorly stocked land, (2) cutover or partly stocked

forest land, and (3) strip-mined land. The third

class, strip-mined land represents the extreme

Figure 1.—'

Tree planting is an excellent way .o restore badly gullied land to greater productivity and to stop further «0^^"'
FOREST PLANTING PRACTICE

Land is "plantahle" if il has less

than the following trees of desirable

species per acre—

Siie class ' (Diameter at breast height) Fair stocking Good stocking

innmfier) inumber)

Seedlings:

Less than 1 inch 400 600

Saplings:

1 to 4 inches, small 200 300

4 to 6 inches, large 100 200

Poles:

6 to 8 inches, small 40 120

8 to 10 inche.s, large 30 75

Saw logs :

10+ inches 10 40

' For a combination of two or more size-classes reduce

stocking to seedlings by use of following equivalents:

one saw-log tree is equivalent to 15 seedlings; 1 large

pole = 8 seedlings; 1 small pole = 5 seedlings; I large sapling=3 seedlings; and 1 small sapling = 2 seedlings.

For example an acre with 3 saw logs, 10 large poles, 5

small poles, 20 small saplings, and 100 seedlings would

be equivalent to 290 seedlings and, therefore, classified

as plantable.

in disturbed sites. Here the soils has undergone

complete upheaval, often to a depth of many

IN THE CENTRAL STATES 3

feet, so tliut the resulting surface "soil" bears

little resemblance to the original. These artificially created conditions are so unique that a

special bulletin has been published dealing with

planting on such land (75). Hence we will be

concerned here only with the first two classes.

Open, Poorly Stocked Land.—Open, poorly

stocked land includes prairie land that never was

in forest, and land that was originally forested

but at some time in the past was cleared and

used for some other purpose, usually farming.

Less than half of its surface is covered by a canopy

of tree crowns, and there are less than the prescribed number of desirable trees per acre (see

tabulation above). This includes some land now

being farmed but which is more suitable for growing trees (fig. 3, ^4) and a great deal of land once

used for agriculture but later abandoned (fig. 3,

B). The old fields of the Central States are

typical of poorly stocked forest land that should

be planted to trees. Most tree planting will be

done on this kind of land.

TABLE 1.—Sample yields of immature plantations in th e Central States

Location

Thinnings Growth and yield '

Species

Age Volume removed

per acre

Age D.b.h.,

average

Height

average

Volume per

acre ^

Southern Illinois

Years

17 Vi stand

Years

20

Inches

5. 9

Feet

33 17 cords

Shortleaf Pine

Southern Ohio Not thinned 23 7. 0 42 17 cords

Southern Indiana 14

21

3.2 cords

8.6 cords 21 7. 1 40 20 cords

i: Missouri Ozarks 16

20

5.5 cords

660 posts 20 7. 5 40 840 posts

Loblolly pine

Southern Illinois 13 318 8-ft. mine

props and 183

7-ft. posts

17 7. 4 44 15 cords

Eastern white pine

Eastern Iowa Not thinned 51 10. 9 70 33,467 bd. ft.

Northern Illinois 34

39

2,742 bd. ft.

1,746 bd. ft. 39 8. 9 53 16,123 bd. ft.

Eastern redcedar Northern Arkansas No thinning

records

44 6. 0 40 5,866 posts

Red pine Southeastern Ohio Not thinned 41 8. 5 52 10,324 bd. ft.

Cottonwood

Missouri :

Not thinned

Thinned

14

14

8.9

10.0

82

82

20.97 cords

8 3 cords 20.29 cords

Swectgum Southeastern Ohio Not thinned 40 8.3 55 14 cords

Yellow-poplar Eastern Ohio Not thinned 18 5.0 40 19 cords

Black walnut Central Missouri Not thinned 14 5. 0 35 No record

The average diameters at breast height (d.b.h.) and average heights

plantation; not included are the few overtopped and suppressed trees found

, Does not include volume removed in thinnings. Board-foot volumes

log rule.

are for trees making up the ovcrstory of the

in most plantations,

from tables based on International !'4-inch
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 24 7

Ï-502350

Figure 2.—Posts and poles removed in thinning 20-year-old plantation of shortleaf pine in Missouri. This thinning yielded an

equivalent of 660 posts out of a total estimated stand of 1,500 fence posts per acre. The stand was also thinned at 16 years

yielding 5.5 cords of pulpwood.

The landowner's decision to plant or not to

plant such land should rest mainly on the possibihty of the land restocking naturally to a forest

(118) of desirable trees within a reasonable

period of time, say 5 years. In old fields examined in central Missouri by Drew {39) 30 to

35 years after abandonment, sassafras and persimmon were still prominent components of the

cover, "suggesting a long interval of time prerequisite for reestablishment of such forest

conditions" as existed before the land had been

cleared for agriculture.

When debating the question of whether land

will restock naturally, several points should be

considered. Size of the potential planting site

IS of primary concern. A large parcel of land,

most of which is a long way from natural seed

sources, will take much longer to revert to forest

than a smaller one. The rate at which this

succession proceeds depends on a number of

factors. In a study of 60 randomly selected old

fields adjacent to forested areas in southeastern

Ohio, the principal factor inñuencing the rate of

succession was the distance from seed sources

as measured by the size of the field {91): the

smaller the field the faster it reverted to forest.

Then too, in order to depend on the natural

development of a good forest, there must be seed

trees of desirable species in adequate numbers

nearby. And finally, the site must be in such

condition that the "^ desirable trees can become

established, survive, and grow without undue

competition from associated herbaceous and

brushy vegetation.

According to the Illinois Technical Forestry

Association {63), "The best sites usually develop

blackberry briars or hardwood brush within 2 to

4 years. Medium to poor sites gradually pass

from annual weeds and grasses through broomsedge or other perennial grasses and eventually

into briars and brush. The poorer the site, the

longer this ecological succession requires. Heavily

eroded sites in southern Illinois with all the A and

part of the B soil horizon removed may require

10 years or more to come into broomsedge and

another 10 to 20 years to form a moderately fuU

cover of brush and briars. Such areas often will

not, unaided, develop a full stand of desirable
FOREST PLANTING PRACTICE IN THE CENTRAL STATES

F-386464, 502352

Fijure 3.—A, Some land used for agriculture, such as this

worn-out gullied cornfield should be planted to trees. B,

Most of the tree planting will be done on open, poorly

stocked forest land such as this typical old field in Ohio.

trees for a hundred years or longer." Because of

the loss of productivity through erosion and

changes in the land surface, some kinds of trees

suited to former conditions of the land are no

longer suitable.

Some prairie and grassland may be best suited

for growing trees even though it has never supported a forest cover {80). Dry, exposed bluffs

along the Missouri River in Iowa and many

regularly flooded bottom lands are examples.

Except for shelterbelts and landscaping, most of

the trees planted on prairie and grassland will be

for posts, poles, Christmas trees, and fuel; it is

doubtful whether high-quality sawtimber could

he produced on these sites, particularly on the

heavy, fine-textured prairie soils. For example,

the growth of white pine, Scotch pine, European

ni- '• ^''"^ Norway spruce on some prairie soils in

Illinois was normal during the first .30 years after

planting and then sharply declined and stagnated

(75). The growth pattern of hardwoods on

prairie soils, though not as striking as that of

conifers, shows similar trends {168).

Cutover or Partly Stocked Land.—"Cutover

land," as used here, is land that has been logged

but not cleared for any other use. "Partly stocked

«89-570 0—63 2

land" is land that has been open in the past but

now is more than half covered with trees. This

hxnd may either be prairie land or old fields that

IS being invaded by trees but is only partially

stocked with desirable species. To be classed as

"partly stocked" and "plantable" each acre

should (1) have more than half its surface covered

by a canopy of tree crowns (fig. 4, A), (2) have less

than the prescribed number of trees of desirable

species (see p. 3), and (3) show no prospects of

becoming stocked naturally to the minimum number of trees of desirable species within 5 years

(fig. 4, B).

Much cutover land does not, of course, need

planting. Most of the planting on cutover land

will be on areas so severely burned or logged that

there is little likehhood of natural restocking to

desired species within a reasonable period of time.

Site conditions for planting on partly stocked

old fields are more like those of cutover land than

of open, poorly stocked old fields. Some soil

properties have been improved by the presence

of the trees {32, 9) ; leaf litter covers part of the

ground and some duff and humus—typical of

forest soils—is being formed. The microchmate

resulting from tree cover is, moreover, much

different than on open, poorly stocked land. For

i,,j-msvm§^^í^^-^--^

F-502353, 502354

Figure 4.—A, Natural succession has proceeded so far on this

old field that in a few years it can no longer be classified as

poorly stocked. B, Only the edge of this old field has

become well stocked with yellow-poplar. The field has

not been cultivated for more than 30 years, and not grazed

for 17 years.
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 24 7

these reasons psirtlv stocked old fields are o-roiiped

with cutover land in the classification of land for

planting; poorly stocked old fields arc grouped

with prairies and grasslands.

Cutover or partly stocked land therefore

includes (1) old fields or prairie land that has

more than 50 percent of each acre covered with

trees, but not enough desirable trees at the time

examined to be satisfactorily stocked (p. 3), nor

likely to restock naturally to the minimum number

of desirable trees within 5 years; (2) cutover land,

regardless of stocking, that does not have the

number of desirable trees per acre to be well

stocked and not likely to regenerate naturally

to the rmmber of desirable trees per acre in 5 years;

or (3) fully stocked land where conversion {101,

173) plantings are desired (fig. 5).

How Productive Is the Land?

A knowledge of the productivity of land is as

essential to the forester as it is to the agronomist

or the horticulturist. A choice of planting jack

pine or black walnut on a certain site, for example,

may aflfect potential returns as much as a clioice

between strawberries and corn, or between apples

and blueberries. The suitability of land for

difierent farm crops, based on such well-known

properties as texture, tilth, plowability, and

fertility, has been studied for centuries. Out of

this study and practice has evolved a classification of certain soil properties that helps the

farmer select the best crop for his land. Although

some of these well-known soil properties are

useful in judging land for timber growing, other

properties have recently been found to be equallv

as important {21, 3S', 165). Considering these

site factors in choosing species for planting should

increase the chances of success. The descriptions

of site factors that follow are intended to help in

recognizing them on the ground. For sources of

additional help, see p. 41.

The soil itself is one of the best indicators of

site productivity. So the planter should be

familiar with the characteristics or properties

that make one soil better than or at least different

from another in its capacity to grow trees.

Fio •; TU' F-502355

low auIFi «'V'!?' ^°'T^'}y '"PP°'""9 ° »*°"d of defective

of th° LT", ii° °"'"."' 3°od stocking, conversion plantings

t\tl^^oiT^â^ ^T^r^ *'",*^ sometimes two additional releases otter the pine has been planted.

To compare the productivity of one area with

another, foresters use the term "site index,"

based on the average heights of dominant trees

in a stand at a specified age—usually 50 years.

For example, an area with a site index of 40 for

eastern white pine is regarded as a poor site,

while an area with a site index of 70 is a good site.

Soil Texture.—One of the soil properties of most

concern in tree planting, however, is texture—

the relative amounts of sand, silt, and clay.

Texture is important chiefly because it influences

drainage and hence the amount of water and air

the sou will hold. Coarse-textured or sandy soils

are well drained and aerated but soon become dry

with lack of rainfall (except sands with high water

tables). At the other extreme are the finetextured soils—clays—that can hold much more

water than the sands and hold it longer. Some

of this water, however, is held so firmly that it

is not available for absorption by plant roots.

The best soils are the loams—mixtures of sand,

silt, and clay—which combine the good attributes

of all. So, if the planting site is loamy, the planter has a wide choice of species to choose from;

if the soil is at one extreme or the other in texture,

his choice is more limited and must be made with

greater care.

The Soil Survey Manual {153) outlines generally accepted sod-texture terms as follows:

Sandy soilsLoamy soils

Clayey soilsSandy clay

Silty clay

Clav

-coarse-textured soils

Sands

Loamy sands

Moderately coarse-textured soils

Sandy loam

Fine sandy loam

Medium-textured soils

Very fine sandy loam

Loam

Silt loam

sut

Moderately fine-textured soils

Clay loam

Sandy clay loam

Silty clay loam

fine-textured soils

If there are a large number of stones in the sou,

the textura! class is often prefixed by such descriptive words as"stony," "shaly," or "gravelly.

In the fine-textured soils of southern Ohio

and Indiana, Gaiser and Merz {50) found that
FOREST PLANTING PRACTICE IN THE CENTRAL STATES

site index for red and white pine decreased as

the percentage of silt and clay in the topsoil

increased. But sands, which contain less silt

and clay than do fine-textured soils, are generally

less productive than the sandy loams. Site index

for these species, then, rises with increases in

percentages of silt and clay to a certain point, and

then declines.

Closely related to soil texture are two other

important soil properties—structure and consistency. Structure refers to the arrangement of

soil particles in clusters or aggregates; consistency

refers to the plasticity, stickiness, cementation, or

hardness of soils.

Depth of Topsoil.—Recent research {S, 50) in

many parts of the United States and on several

tree species, has shown that the thickness of the

topsoü or A horizon,^ is one of the most important

smgle » factors affecting growth (fig. 6). The

thickness of the topsoil varies from place to place

from zero to more than 1 foot, depending on

topography, origin of soil, extent of erosion,

native vegetation, and many other factors. A

horizons of most prairie soils are usually darker

colored and thicker than those of forest soils.

Plowing obviously changes the character of

the land surface. On plowed sites, where the

depth of the A horizon was less than plow depth,

some of the subsoil material is mixed with the

topsoil. If the soil down to plow depth is different

in appearance from the soil beneath it and is

more like the original topsoil in color, texture, and

friabihty, it is classified as topsoil. This layer

is sometiraes called the Ap horizon. If so much

of this horizon has eroded away that the remaining

upper layer looks like subsoil, it should not be

regarded as topsoil.

Although the topsoil thickness is not always

related to degree of erosion, the two are usually

so closely linked that for the purpose of site

classification for tree planting they are considered

jointly.

Five classes of topsoil, based on thickness and

degree of erosion, are generally recognized;

, 0. Very deep. No erosion. More than 14

inches thick on more than 75 percent of the area.

, 1. Deep. Little or no erosion. Seven to 14

inches in thickness on more than 75 percent of the

area.

Z^- Moderately deep. Moderate erosion. Three

K> 7 inches over more than 75 percent of the area,

yn land that has been plowed, some of the material

IS made up of subsoil or B-horizon material.

'i. Shallow. Serious erosion. Less than 3 inches

01 topsoil over more than 75 percent of the area.

Un land that has been plowed, the top layer may

be made up mostly of subsoil or even material

irom the substratum.

The topmost layer of an undisturbed soil, usually

tTtif '" ^°^°^ ^^^'^ ^^'^ subsoil (B horizon), due chiefly

A % presence of more organic matter. The combined

siiK t horizons are known as the "solum" and the

"UDstratum or parent material is the C horizon.

6 8 10 12 14

A HORIZON THICKNESS (Inches)

16

Figure 6.—Relation of site index of red and white pines to thickness of topsoil and percent of silt and clay (50) in unglaciated parts of Ohio and Indiana.

4. Gullied. Most of area with an intricate

pattern of gullies, too deep and too numerous for

planting machines. Nearly all of the A and much

of the B horizons gone except a few spots between

gullies.

On some alluvial sites along rivers and streams,

there are no well-defined A, B, and C horizons.

The surfaces of these lowland sites contain much

topsoil recently washed down from upland soils.

Older alluvium, however, may well have developed

surface soil overlying plastic, mottled subsoils.

Effective Rooting Depth.—The depth to which

good root development may occur is termed

"effective rooting depth"; it is an important factor

to consider in the choice of species for planting

{96). Effective rooting depth can be defined as

the depth of the soil to the point below which

there are few if any roots less than one-fourth

inch in diameter. Although there may be a concentration of small roots in the topsoil, some

subsoils may also have a large volume of small

roots. Good root development depends upon soil

properties (texture, structure, and consistency),

the thickness of horizons, and a suitable balance

between soil moisture and soil air.

Effective rooting depth is limited by (1) material

that restricts further downward development of

roots, such as a water table, solid bedrock (fig.

7, ^4), hardpans and, on land cultivated for manj^

years, the plowsole; or (2) material too coarse to

be called soil, such as fragmented bedrock, gravel,

and loose shale (fig. 7, B).
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 247

' 3'-ii:ï?i?S»«îf'r'iî;

r-358683, 602349

Figure 7.—A, Solid bedrock near land surfaces restricts effective

rooting depth of trees. Such sites as a rule are droughty

and not as productive as those with deeper soils. 6, Shallow

loessial soil material with a highly permeable stony substratum. During periods of deficient rainfall these soils are

droughty.

Drainage.—Drainage (i.e. water movement over

and through the soil) greatly affects the balance of

moisture and air in the soil. It is related chiefly

to (1) topography; (2) soil texture, structure,

thickness, and character; (3) the amount of litter

and duff on the soil surface; (4) permeability of

the soil; (5) depth to, thickness, and permeability

of hardpans, substrata, and bedrock; and (6) the

depth to the water table. Many other factors are

also involved, but for planting-site evaluations

they need not be considered.

"Variations in soil drainage can be related by

inference to differences in soil color and patterns

of soil color" (755). Gleying, a term used to

describe the process caused by waterlogging and

lack of oxygen, gives some soils a neutral gray

color. Soils mottled with yellows and grays,

caused by intermittent waterlogging, are usually

poorly drained. Soil color, however, also varies

according to the vegetation under which the soil

has formed. In the Central States, soils formed

under forest vegetation are characteristically

brown, gray brown, or gray, while those developed

under prairie or grassland vegetation are dark

brown or black.

The following general soil-drainage classes,

based on soil color and topography and reflecting

rates of runoff, soil permeability, and internal soil

dramage, were developed by the Soil Conservation

Service {IBS) and should aid in classifying soils for

tree planting:

"0. Very foorly drained.—Water is removed

from the soil so slowly that the water table remains at or on the surface the greater part of the

time. Soils of this drainage class usually occupy

level or depressed sites and are frequently ponded.

Very poorly drained soils commonly have darkgray or black surface layers and are light gray,

with or without mottlings, in the deeper parts of

the profile. In the grassland regions, very poorly

drained soils commonly have mucky surfaces with

distinct evidences of gleying.

"1. Poorly drained.—Water is removed so

slowly that the soil remains wet for a large part of

the time. The water table is commonly at or

near the surface during a considerable part of the

year. Poorly drained conditions are due to a high

water table, to a slowly permeable layer within

the profile, to seepage, or to some combination of

these conditions. In the podzolic soil region,

poorly drained soils may be light gray from the

surface downward, with or without mottlings.

Among the dark-colored soils of the grasslands,

poorly drained soils commonly have slightly

thickened dark-colored surface layers.

"2. Imperfectly or somewhat poorly drained.—

Water is removed from the soil slowly enough to

keep it wet for significant periods but not all of

the time. Imperfectly drained soils commonly

have a slowly permeable layer within the profile,

a high water table, additions through seepage, or

a combination of these conditions. Among the

podzolic soils, somewhat poorly drained soils are

unifornily grayish, brownish, or yeUowish in the

upper A' horizon and commonly have mottlings

below 6 to 16 inches in the lower A and in the B

and C horizons. Among the dark-colored soils of

the grasslands, somewhat poorly drained soils

have thick, dark A horizons, high in organic

n^atter, and faint evidences of gleying immediately

beneath the A horizon.

"3. Moderately well drained.—Water is removed

from the soil somewhat slowly, so that the profile

is wet for a small but significant part of the time.

Moderately well-drained soils commonly have a

slowly permeable layer within or immediately

beneath the solum, a relatively high water table,

additions of water through seepage, or some combination of these conditions. Among podzohc

soils, moderately well-drained soils have uniform

colors in the A and upper B horizons, with mottling

in the lower B and in the C horizons. Among the

dark-colored soils of the grasslands, profiles have

thick, dark A horizons and yellowish or grayish

faintly mottled B horizons.

"4.' Well drained.—Water is removed from the

soil readily but not rapidly. Well-drained soils are

commonly intermediate in texture, although sous

of other textura! classes may also be well drained.

Among the podzolic soils, well-drained soils are

free of mottlings (except for fossil gley), and horizons may be brownish, yellowish, grayish, or

reddish. They may be mottled deep in the 0
p^-

FOREST PLANTING PRACTICE IN THE CENTRAL STATES 9

horizon or below depths of several feet. Among

the dark-colored soils of the grasslands, welldrained soils have thick, dark A horizons; reddish,

brownish, or yellowish B liorizons; and C liorizons

that may or may not be mottled. Well-drained

soils commonly retain optimum amounts of

moisture for plant growth after rains or additions

of irrigation water.

"5. Somewhat excessively drained.—Water is removed from the soil rapidly. Many of the somewhat excessively drained soils have little horizon

differentiation and are sandy and very porous.

Among podzohc soils, somewliat excessively drained types are free of mottling throughout the profile

and are brown, yellow, gray, or red. Among tlie

dark-colored soils of the grasslands, many pi'ofiles

have relatively thin A horizons; brownish, yellowish, grayish, or reddish thin B horizons; and no

jiiottlings within the solum. Only a narrow range

of crops can be grown on these soils, and the yields

are usually low without irrigation.

"6. Excessively drained.—Water is removed from

the soil very rapidly. Excessively drained soils

are commonly lithosols or lithosolic (witli little

or no soil profile development), and may be

steep, very porous, or both. Shallow soils on

slopes may be excessively drained. Among podzolic soils, excessively drained types are commonly

brownish, yellowish, grayish, or reddish in color

and free of mottlings throughout the profile.

Among the dark-colored soils of the grasslands,

profiles commonly have thin A horizons (except

for sand types that may have thick ones)."

Pines, as a group, are unsuitable for planting

on poorly drained soils. Among the conifers,

baldcypress is perhaps the most tolerant of wet

conditions. Hardwoods differ in their tolerance

of periodic flooding {179); there are apparently

few if any adverse effects of flooding on hardwoods

during the dormant season. Mortality caused by

flooding during the growing season, however, is

high for some species even after they have become

well established. In a study of the effects of

various periods of summer inundation on the

mortality of pole-sized trees or larger, Williston

[172) found that all yellow-poplars flooded for

19 days died, and those flooded for only 10 days

were damaged. Sixty percent of the red oak

and 62 percent of the white oak flooded for 21

days died. Eighty-six percent of the sweetgum,

and 73 percent of the red maple survived after

being inundated for at least 21 days.

Aspect and Topography.—The direct and indirect effects of position on the slope and of aspect

on tree and soil development are difficult to

separate. The direct effects are difl'erences in

luicroclimate brought about by diflferences in

slope steepness or aspect. Temperatures, evaporation rates, and sunlight intensity are lower

on northerly aspects than on southerly aspects.

Winds are generally stronger on upper slopes than

on lower slopes ; and in areas of sharp rehef there

•nay be marked differences in precipitation and

Wind velocities among all aspects.

Among the indirect effects sometimes associated

with differences in slope steepness or aspect are

differences in soil thickness, textiu'e, and structure; available soil moisture; acidity; prernea])ility,

and drainage; they account for the differences in

site quality between uplands and lowlands, steep

and gently sloping land, coves and ridgetops, and

among terraces, first bottonis, and second bottoms.

Gaiser and Merz (50) found that aspect, topographic position, and slope had little effect on the

growth of red and white pines planted on old

fields in southeastern Ohio and southern Indiana.

Similar results were reported by Allen {2) for

shortleaf, loblolly, Virginia, and white pines;

yellow-poplar; and black locust plantations in the

Tennessee Valley. But, because these plantations were chiefly on old fields, most of them were

not located on extremely steep slopes.

Gaiser (^9) and Doolittle {38) have reported

definite relations of site index of trees in natural

stands to slope position and aspect when all

degrees of slope are considered. Steep slopes

are more common on cutover land than on old

fields, and on these sites, aspect and steepness are

more important to consider in selecting species

for planting than on old fields in the southern

parts of the region.

Although differences in site quality among

aspects and slope positions no doubt exists, in

most localities there is generally not enough

difl'erence in tree development on such sites to

affect choice of species. However, for certain

species and sites, such as conifers in the prairie

regions and yellow-poplar {132) on cutover land

inthe southeastern part of the region, slope and

aspect need more careful consideration. The

differences in site quality between uplands and

bottom lands are generally so obvious that they

often form the basis for major classification of

sites for a locality or region.

Parent Material.—The parent material (rocks

and minerals from which soils are formed) for

most of the upland soils in the southern half of the

Central States is underlying, consolidated rock

(fig. 8). Parent materials are predominantly

sandstone, Umestone, shale, dolomite, and clay.

Extreme variations occur in texture, permeability,

topsoil depth, and other soil properties. Original

forest cover was chiefly hardwoods, but pines were

dominant on some of the dry sites. Because of

these variations in soil characteristics and topography, the species for each site should be chosen

carefully.

Much of the Central States is covered by materials left by the glaciers. Glacial drift develops

into various kinds of soils. Many contain stones

of various sizes but are, as a whole, productive

and suitable for many tree species. In Missouri,

Iowa, and Illinois the original cover on glacial

soils was chiefly prairie vegetation, while in other

parts of the Central States the original cover was

hardwood forest.

Lake plains, formerly covered by post-glacial

lakes, are rather extensive in northern Illinois,
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 247

GLACIAL ACCUMULATIONS

Dc-highly calcareous

Dn-slightly or non-calcareous

LAKE DEPOSITS

RIVER ALLUVIUM

RESIDUAL ACCUMULATIONS

C-Crystalline rocks

Ss-sandstones and shales

Li- limestones

Ssl-sandstone^, shales and limestone

WINDLAID DEPOSITS

^m

MARINE DEPOSITS

Sc-sands, clays and limestones

Figure 8.—General location of principal parent materials of soils in the Central States. From Atlas of American Agriculture (151).

Indiana, and Ohio. The soils in these old lake

beds range in texture from coarse gravel or sand

to "tight" impermeable clays. The potholes and

depressions so common in these areas were no

doubt the deepest parts of these extinct lakes.

In northern Missouri (71) and most of Iowa and

Illmois, the glacial drift has been covered by windblown material—loess—of various thicknesses

ranging up to more than 50 feet in some localities.

Loessial soils are predominantly silt loams and,

with alluvium, are among the most productive

soils in the region. The original cover was mainly

grass; forests consist mainly of hardwoods and

redcedar.

Most of the soils in broad vaUeys and bottom

lands were formed by the action of water melting

from the glaciers and later overflowing from rivers

and streams. These soils are variable in texture

and permeability, and the original vegetation was

forest in some localities and grass in others. The

original forest cover was predominantly hardwoods—cottonwood, willows, gums, sycamore,

boxelders, and many other species. Ground

cover—grasses, shrubs, and weeds—is invariably

so luxuriant on alluvial soils that it is difficult and

expensive to establish plantations on them.

CoUuvial soils—those developed on lower slopes

and adjacent bottom lands from material that has

fallen from upper slopes—are common in the hilly
FOREST PLANTING PRACTICE IN THE CENTRAL STATES 11

sections of the region. They are generally more

productive than soils on slopes above them, because they are deeper and more permeable.

The mineral character of the soil, through its

influence on texture, nutrient supply, and soil

acidity, greatly influences the productivity of the

site and the species that will grow there. Soils

derived mainly from sandstone, quartzite, and

sandy shales have a relatively low nutrient content; phosphorous and potash especially are

lacking {169). Limestone, dolomite, and some

shales have a high calcium content but also are

sometimes deñcient in potassium and phosphorous.

Tree growth is affected by soil acidity. Soils

derived from rocks such as limestone and dolomite

are calcareous or acid, depending upon how much

leaching has taken place. Other soils, unless they

have been limed, are acid. Some soils derived

from carbonaceous or bituminous shale may be

highly acid. Although there is a wide range in

acidity within which most species are adaptable,

some hardwoods, such as yellow-poplar and cottonwood, grow best on soils that are slightly acid to

calcareous.

Pines, as a group, are better suited to acid soils

than are many hardwoods {45). Redcedar, European larch, and Austrian pine, on the other hand,

do well on calcareous soils. Although many pines

will grow wlien planted on calcareous soils, germination of seed is invariably poor {2.'^), making

direct seeding on this kind of soil impracticai.

Moreover, it would be difficult to regenerate the

pines naturally for succeeding rotations.

Past and Current Use of Land.—Once land has

been cleared and used for pasture or for cultivated

crops, the former composition of the forest is not

a good guide for selecting species to plant. Tree

cutting, burning, grazing, and cultivation can

make profound changes in the productivity of the

land {2S) (fig. 9). Some of these changes, caused

by erosion and compaction, are obvious and can be

readily appraised; others, such as changes in

nutrient availability, soil structure, and the character and extent of soil micro-organisms, are not

yet inWy understood. Nevertheless the performance of numerous species planted on many of these

sites has shown conclusively that some species,

especially hardwoods, adapted to the land before

it was cleared for agriciüture are not suitable for

replanting on the area (4, 5^, 55, 97). However,

hardwoods can be planted on many old fields that

have restocked naturally (fig. 10). On such sites,

soil structure has improved and beneficial soil

micro-organisms apparently are more abundant

(fig. 11) {30).

Rswre 9,—Thif land in southern Illinois at one time no doubt supported a 90od stand of hardwoods. Today, after severe erosion

and sullyins caused by plowing up and down slopes, it is more suitable for the planting of conifer».
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 24 7

r-502338, 3.39, 340

Figure 10.—Stages in succession of an old field: A, FirsNstoge

vegetation composed mainly of grasses and weeds, ß, Second

stage, althougfi still classed as poorly stocked, seedlings and

and a few saplings have appeared,- ground cover is still

predominantly grass and weed. C, Fully stocked with

trees; grass cover absent.

Land, such as the prairies, that never supported

tree growth presents different planting problems,

Irees of some species planted on these sites do not

attam the size or form they do in their native

habitat {98). Prairie soils are often lacking in

soil micro-organisms, such as mycorrhiza, that

are needed for good tree growth.' The selection

01 species for these sites therefore requires special

consideration.

Forest land recently cutover, but not otherwise

altered by burning, clearing, grazing, or plowing,

usually provides good growing conditions for

planted trees, providing care is taken that they

arc not overtopped by ground cover or the trees

remaining in the stand. Because logging in the

past may have removed the best trees in these

stands, the composition of the stand before the

recent cutting may not reveal the true potential

of the site. Many of our defective hardwood

stands formerly grew species of higher commercial

value.

Because of these effects of past uses and current

cover on the survival and development of plantations, it is considered necessary to recommend

different species for planting on open, nonstocked

land than on cutover or poorly stocked land.

F-502344, 3«

Figure 11.—Twelve-week-old yellow-poplar seedlings propagated from seed in potted soil sample cores: A, The beneficial

effects of micro-organisms are apparent in both old field and

forest soils; B, seedlings in the soil from a fully stocked old

field are as well developed as those in the forest soil. Seedling development in the half-stocked old field soil i»/

however, no better than that of the seedlings grown in soil

from the nonstocked part of the same old field.
FOREST PLANTING PRACTICE IN THE CENTRAL STATES

What Kinds of Trees Should Be Planted ?

13

Selecting the species to be planted is perhaps

the most critical decision to be made in advance

of planting. Species chosen must be adapted

to the site, the climate, and the purpose of the

plantation.

SELECT SPECIES ADAPTED TO

THE PLANTING SITE

This rule can hardly be overemphasized. Most

plantation failures result from not choosing the

right species for each site (36). In fact if conditions differ from one part of a planting site to

another, different species are often necessary.

The kind of trees that grew on the site before

it was cleared is not always a good guide to what

should be planted now. This is especially true

on land' that has been cleared for a number of

years. So choose a species that is adapted to

the site as it is today—not as it was 20 years or

more a,go.

Failure to foresee the adverse effects of poor

drainage on the survival and growth of many

species of hardwoods and conifers has also caused

poor results. The adverse effects of dense ground

and brush cover on the survival and growth of

many conifers and the significance of erosion

(/) and topsoil thickness have sometimes been

ignored.

SELECT SPECIES AND SOURCES

ADAPTED TO THE LOCALITY

On the other hand, be sure to choose a species

that has been proved to be adapted to the local

climate. Seedhngs planted should be of a species

native to the area or one that has grown successfully in nearby plantations. It is best, in fact,

if the seed used to produce the planting stock is

from local trees. This is because many species

have developed local races or ecotypes that are

specially adapted to the specific combination of

day length, temperature, and precipitation that

prevails in a particular vicinity.

Selection of sources adapted to local temperature

extremes, especially cold, is important. Frostcaused dieback in a 3-year-old yellow-poplar

plantation in Ohio was more than twice as extensive on trees of southern origin than on those of

local or more northern origin (47). Similarly.

M SIX different geographic sources of loblolly

line planted in southern Illinois, there was much

r\f "'^^^"'^il^ ill trees from the northern sources

(Maryland, Virginia, and Arkansas) than in

those from the three southern sources (North

Urolina, South Carolina, and Mississippi) (174).

And Meuli and Shirley (9£) reported more drought

resistance of green ash seedlings from the northJ^estern parts of the prairie-plains region than

'rom the southern and southeastern parts.

leF

Although loblolly pine is not native to the

Central States, so many successful plantings of

this species have been established north of its

natural range that it has been listed as suitable for

many sites in the southern parts of the region (5).

It is susceptible to severe glaze damage and winterkill, but if owners accept this risk there is a good

chance of higher yields than from other species.

Loblolly pine planting stock should be obtained

from seed sources located at the northernmost

parts of its natural range.

New varieties and hybrids are constantly being

discovered or developed; some of these are superior

to planting stock currently used {69). For

example, two natural hybrid poplars, one exhibiting rapid growth, another possessing a wavy grain

desirable for veneer stock, have recently been discovered in Iowa (77). Hybrids of pitch-loblolly

and shortleaf-loblolly pines also appear promising

(40). A review of recent literature or consultations with workers at forest and agricultural

experiment stations should be made before choosing new hybrids and varieties for large-scale

plantings.

SELECT SPECIES AND SOURCES

SUITABLE FOR PRODUCT DESIRED

Most forest plantations in the Central States are

established to produce some kind of commercial

product. Ranging from Christmas trees to sawtimber, the products desired of course determine

the selection of species to be planted.

Species differ greatly in their suitability for

specific uses. Criteria for considering the relative

merits of each species for various uses are too

numerous to discuss in this handbook. A number

of publications on this subject are available (14^,

85, 156). Lists of species commonly planted in

the Central States, together with the products for

which they are suitable, are given here, however

(tables 2 and 3). The lists also give some of the

most important factors to consider in choosing

species for planting. These include an estimate

of the number of years required to grow the

product desired, the potential quality, and critical

production factors that often affect the success or

failure of a plantation.

In recent years selection of trees for planting

has become more and more refined. Today

specific strains and sources of certain species may

be selected not only for their adaptability to given

sites, as previously discussed, but also for their

superior product characteristics.

Some trees of the same species but from different

sources may differ widely in rate of growth,

resistance to disease and insects, stem and crown

form, color of foliage, branchiness, and wood

quality. For example the marked differences in

stem form, foliage color, and growth rate of Scotch

689-570 0—83-
j^ U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 247

, r^ ,r„ii Vnnwn orown form, and arowth of redcedar from eight

TABLE -^ --Potential yroduds from, conijmm^antations in the Central States ' -

Species and chief uses

Larch, European: ,. , x Logs (lumber, poles, farm timber).

Pine, Austrian :

Christmas trees

Posts

Logs (lumber, farm timber)

Pine, jack:

Christmas trees

Pulpwood and posts

Pine, loblolly:

Pulpwood and posts

Poles and piUng

Logs (lumber, boxes, etc.)

Pine, pitch:

Pulpwood and posts

Logs

Pine, ponderosa:

Christmas trees

Posts

Logs (lumber, boxes, etc.)

Pine, red:

Christmas trees

Pulpwood, mine props and posts.

Logs (lumber, boxes, crates)

Pine, Scotch:

Christmas trees

Pulpwood and posts

Logs (lumber, boxes, etc.^

Pine, shortleaf:

Pulpwood and posts

Poles and piling

Logs (lumber, boxes, etc.)

Pine, eastern white :

Christmas trees

Pulpwood and posts

Logs (lumber, boxes, etc.)

Pine, Virginia:

Christmas trees

Pulpwood, mine props and posts_

Redcedar, eastern:

Christmas trees

Posts

Logs

Spruce, Norway:

Christmas trees

Logs

Years to

produce

50-80

8-12

15-2.5

70-90

5-8

20-30

15-30

35-50

50-60

20-30

60-80

8-12

20-30

70-90

5-8

25-35

70-80

5-8

25-35

70-80

20-30

40-50

60-70

7-10

25-35

70-80

Quality

Fair-

._do_

..do-

._do_

Poor to fair--

Fair to good.

Good

do

do.--.

Good

Fair to poorFair.

_do_

.doFair to goodGood

Fair--

Good to excellentFair

Poor to fair

Good--.

do--

do-.

Fair to goodFair

Good

5--10

15--25

8--15

25--35

70--80

8--12

60--80

Poor-.

Good.

Poor to fairGood

do

GoodFair-.

Critical production factors '

Form, color.

Early stagnation limits yield. Needlecast fungus.

Form, color important.

Glaze, frost injury, seed source.

Do.

Do.

Heavy branching habit.

Needle-cast fungus serious.

European pine shoot moth.

Do.

Do,

Color, form (seed sources very important).

Form, branchiness (seed source very

important).

Seed source.

Tip moth.

Do.

Branchiness.

Do.

Color, form.

Branchiness.

Color, form.

Site requirements.

' The hst of species plantable for Christmas trees is not complete ; only those that can also be planted for wood products,

or that can be mixed with species suitable for wood products, are listed. norpful

2 Special conditions, related generally to the need for a careful selection of stock from specific seed sources, a care

evaluation of the site, or measures to control insects or diseases.

A wide variation in branchiness, taper, crook,

and vigor is common among trees in stands.

Probably these variations in trees growing in the

same environment are in part inherited so that

trees grown from seed tend to have the same characteristics of branching habit, form, and growth

rate as their parents. It seems desirable, therefore, to collect seed from trees that have the

quahties desired in the offspring.

Recent reports indicate that many wood properties affecting suitability for certain products »re

also inherited {102). These properties include

such things as length of wood fibers, wood aensi^'

proportion of summerwood to spring wood m tue

annual rings, and fibril angles, aU of which aüeci

strength, shrinkage or warpage, and pulp qualitj

and yield. There is some evidence that it »

possible, for example, to select cottonwood tor
FOREST PLANTING PRACTICE IN THE CENTRAL STATES

TABLE ?,.—Potential products from hardwood plantations in the Central States

15

Species and chief uses

Ash, green and white:

Pulpwood

Logs (handle stock, lumber)

Catalpa:

Posts

Cottonwood:

Pulpwood

Logs (boxes, crates, lumber, veneer)

Hackberry:

Logs (boxes, crates, furniture, millwork)

Locust, black:

Posts, mine props

Maple, silver:

Pulpwood

Logs (lumber, veneer)

Oak, northern red and bur:

Posts, mine props

Logs

Osage-orange:

Posts and props

Sweetgum:

Pulpwood, posts

Logs (lumber, veneer, etc.)

Sycamore:

Pulpwood, mine props

Logs (lumber, boxes, etc.)

Walnut, black:

Logs (lumber, veneer, etc.)

Yellow-poplar:

Pulpwood, mine props

Logs (lumber, veneer, etc.)

Years to

produce

Quality

Fair_.

Good_

Good_.

do.

Fair

Good...

do.

Fair.

30-50

50-70

15-25

10-20

30-50

50-70

7-15

20-30

40-60

20-30

60-80

15-30

20-30

60-80

20-30

60-80

60-80

20-30

50-70 I do.

Good...

do-

.do.

.do.

.do.

.do....

.do-...

.do-

.do.

Critical production factors '

Site requirements.

Do.

Form, branchiness.

Fiber length.

Branchiness.

Locust borer.

Multiple stems.

Do.

Site requirements.

Do.

Site requirements.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Site requirements.

' Special conditions, related generally to the need for a careful selection of stock from specific seed sources, a careful

evaluation of the site, or measures to control insects or diseases.

planting that will produce pulpwood with a high

proportion of long fibers {16). These factors,

when known, should be considered in the choice

of cuttings or seedlings for planting.

Establishing the Plantation

After species for planting have been selected,

the planting job itself must be carefully planned.

How should the ground be prepared? ' Where is

the stock to be obtained, and what about its

quality? When should the trees be planted and

how far apart? Should they be planted in pure

blocks or in mixtures? What methods of planting

should be used, and under what conditions can

seed be used instead of seedlings? Success or

failure of the enterprise wiU hinge primarily on

the answers to these questions.

PREPARING THE SITE FOR

PLANTING

On many sites no ground preparation is needed ;

on some sites it boosts survival and growth; and

on others it is an absolute necessity. Ground

preparation is often costly; a study of the need

•or it is therefore an important part of planning

^ tree-planting project.

To survive and grow, a planted tree needs light

and certain mineral elements from the soil {10).

There must also be sufficient moisture in the soil

to hold these elements in solution {67, 68) and to

maintain growth processes. And finally soil and

air temperatures, bj^ their efl^ects on evaporation

and water loss of trees (transpiration), also influence survival and growth of planted trees. Three

of these important site factors—soil moisture,

light, and temperature—can be manipulated to

a certain extent by controlling vegetation. The

degree of control needed is governed largely by

local climate, soil properties, topography, vegetation density, and the species selected for plant-in"-

{176,177).

Although site preparation is needed mainly to

reduce competition, it is also sometimes needed to

control injurious rodents, insects, and diseases.

Removing heavy grass and brush cover, for

example, helps reduce population of mice and

rabbits {66) ; and the severity of blister rust, a

serious disease of white pine, can be reduced bv
16 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 24 7

removing; the altornate hosts—o;oosehpTTÍes and

currants—from the proposed planting site and

vicinity.

In ¿eneral, when it appears that adverse Hglit

(and temperature) or soil moisture conditions will

hmit survival and groAvth of planted trees, some

form of site treatment—before or soon after

planting—is desirable. Although usually oidy one

of these factors is limiting, both of them may

combine to result in more serious effects. As

examples, two experiments in the Missouri Ozarks

can be cited: in one, thinned shortleaf pine stands

with hardwood understories removed grew much

faster than similar stands where the hardwood

understory was not removed. In the other (êO,

74), planted shortleaf pine released by removing

the hardwood overstory grew faster thaTi those

that were not released, even though both areas

supported a rather dense hardwood undergrowth.

In these examples both light and available soil

moisture apparently affected tree growth. Zahner

has reported similar results for pine stands in

Arkansas {181).

A light overstory on the other hand, may tend

to increase iiiitial survival on sites where transpiration of the planted trees may be excessive.

The most common sites of this kind in the Central

States are those in western Iowa being invaded

naturally by hardwoods. In the early stages of

this succession the scattered trees and shrubs

protect the interplanted trees from wind and

partially shade them. An experiment conducted

m Wisconsin illustrates the benefits of partial

shade iUO): first-year survival of jack and red

pines under a light aspen overstorv on a sandy

site was 30 to 40 percent higher than on an adjacent open, sandy site. Although soil moisture

during the growing season under the aspen stand

was a little lower than that in the open stand, this

was more than offset by the lower transpiration

rate of the planted pine.

In direct-seeding experiment Phares and Liming

(US) obtamed better germination and firstsummer survival of shortleaf pine in the Missouri

Ozarks when the overstorv was girdled than when

the overstory had been clear cut. The partial

shade afforded by the slowlv dving girdled trees

evidently provided some protection from high

summer temperatures and drv winds.

. On some bottom-land sites'too much free water

in the soil may be the limiting factor. Here

condit-^^ "lay be desirable to improve growing

In general some form of site preparation for

Tow. T^^rHu^^'^^^',*'" "^«d^d for planting in

mnJfù the northern half of Missouri and

Illinois, the northern third of Indiana, and the

dÄffif\P''' ^^ ^^'^- Í" these areas poor distribution of summer rainfaU and highly producbmetlT-PPort luxuriant vege'tatío'n contions criS' ^?t\t'?^\^"^ «oil moisture condiState'"i,'hJ" ^^' «ther parts of the Central

dDitatil i! ''"'''""t '^"d distribution of pre- cipitation are better, soil moisture is seldom a

problem ; here the primary concern is the density

of vegetation.

Site preparation is seldom needed on the typical

nonstocked abandoned fields (90, 163) (fig. 3, 5),

It is needed, however, in bottom lands and on

good nonstocked farmland where there is a heavy,

continuous sod or dense weed and shrub growth

(fig. 12). On cutover and partly stocked land,

site preparation before or immediately after

planting is imperative (fig. 10, C) ; in fact, planting on this land should not be considered unless

the owner is willing and able to control overtopping vegetation as often as needed.

Figure 12.—A rank growth of grasses and weeds on open,

nonstocked lands such as this prairie site in Iowa means some

form of ground preparation is needed before planting, such

as plowing or the use of soil sterilants. During the first few

growing seasons it will be necessary to mow periodically or

use chemicals to keep the planted trees from being overtopped.

METHODS OF SITE PREPARATION

Site preparation for tree planting is done by

mechanical or chemical methods depending upon

the complexitj" and size of the operation, types of

equipment available, character of the soil, species,

and type of cover {166).

Mechanical

Plowing

In heavy sod or dense grassland, plowing is

the most practical ground-preparation method.

Drawn by animal or tractor, most farm plows can

be used to prepare ground for tree planting. On

large-scale operations where purchase of equipment is necessary, heavy plows of the middlebuster type, throwing the slice on both sides of

the furrow, are desirable. Except for poorly

drained sites, shallow, wide furrows, are best;

single- or double-bottomed plows may be used.

On slopes where guUying may occur, plowing

should be done on the contours 'with furrow slices
FOREST PLANTING PRACTICE IN THE CENTRAL STATES 17

on the downhill side. Furrows are usualty plowed

6 to 10 feet apart; sometimes, however, the entire

area to be planted is plowed or disked, especially

in the prairie sections of the Central States.

Plowing the entire area of course greatly increases

ground preparation costs.

Plowing should be done several months before

planting. Trees are usually planted in the bottom of the furrow; however, on wet bottom-land

sites the trees should be planted on top of the

furrow slice.

Furrowing has some disadvantages (126). It

roughens the land surface, making walking difficult and hampering the use of some machines

needed to care for the plantation. Furrows are

also favorite runways for rodents and livestock

that may damage the trees.

Scalping

Scalping is done by scraping away- heavy surface

vegetation from spots 1 to 2 feet square, usually

in conjunction with the planting operation itself.

Trees are planted in the center of the spot.

Scalping, done by hand with hoe or mattock, is

tedious and expensive, and the results are usually

not as effective as those of other methods that

might be used. It should be done only where

other site preparation measures are impracticable.

Ripping and Subsoiling

Ripping and subsoiling are seldom warranted

for tree planting, although in some cases they

may improve site conditions somewhat by loosening impervious hardpans. The few studies that

have been conducted indicate little benefit from

ripping {89).

Disking

Although disking is of limited value in tree

planting, there are situations where it is warranted.

One disking is not enough; it usually results in

increasing the density of the vegetation. On open,

poorly stocked land, especially in the prairie grassland areas, disking should be used to prepare the

ground for planting only when it is definitely

planned to cultivate the land after planting (see

pp. 36 and 38).

On partly stocked land it may be used to prepare

the site for direct seeding (see p. 34) as well as

for planting. Disking may be done in narrow

strips, with the trees planted in the middle of the

strips, or the entire planting area may be disked.

Heavy disks, equipped with hydraulically mounted

rubber-tired wheels to permit easy turning on

small areas, are most adaptable to conditions in

the region (fig. 13). On light to moderately

gullied land the disk can also be used to grade

surfaces to permit machine planting (fig. 14).

Celling and Girdling

Cutting brush and felling or girdling young

hardwoods, without the use of chemicals, invariably resuU in vigorous resprouting {31). Although

Figure 13.—Heavy disk, especially adapted to brushy areas

and heavy ground cover. Rubber-tired wheels hydraulically

mounted, permit raising of disk for easy maneuvering.

F-502342, 343

Figure 14.—The disk can also be used to grade light to

moderately gullied land {A), to permit machine planting (B).
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 24 7

Figure 15.—The "Little Beaver" can be used for girdling

on smooth-barked, single-sfcmmed trees.

one treatment may be adequate for good initial

survival, repeated cuttings after planting are

usually needed to maintain satisfactory survival

and growth. Brush can be cut with brush hooks,

brush scythes, axes, or machetes. The trees may

be girdled (51) by cutting a notch completely

around the tree at a convenient height. The

"Little Beaver" (fig. 15) is a useful tool for

girdling; sometimes, however, if chemicals are not

applied, the girdle made by this machine is

"bridged over" with new growth. For best

results, all cutting and girdling should be supplemented by chemical treatment on cut surfaces (5c?).

Clearing and Grading

Clearing and grading land with heavy machinery

is expensive and should be done only when other

methods are impracticable. Some of this is being

done by large companies on brushy old fields

and on extensive bottom lands for the planting

of cottonwood, hybrid poplars, sweetguni, and

several other species. One example of a site

where clearing and grading appear necessary is

an old field that has been taken over by dense

thickets of thorny crab apple; another is an area

supporting junglclike rhododendron. These

thickets would still be impenetrable bv planting

crews even if the plants had been ' killed bv

chemicals.

On brushy old fields, tractors with root-rake

attachments (fig. 16) should be used to gouge out

strips on the contour and pile the debris in windrows along each side of the strip. Although not

necessary, the windrows may be packed with a

tractor and burned. The burning, if attempted,

should be done before the trees are planted. Or,

if a "Bush Hog" is available the debris can be

converted to chips (166).

Land severely gullied (fig. 17) may need some

grading before tree planting. The grading should

be done on the contour, creating a series of terraces rather than long, smooth slopes. Stabifization with grass or mechanical structures might

also be needed before planting on some actively

eroding, severely guUied land.

Chemical Control of Vegetation

Great strides have been made during the past

two decades in developing chemicals to eliminate

or reduce unwanted vegetation. Costs are continually decreasing so that the use of chemicals

is often the most economical as well as the most

effective means to prepare sites for planting

{ISO, 147). In practice, the chemicals are applied

F-502368, 369

Figure 16.—>^, The root rake, attached to the Front of a tractor,

is an effective tool for clearing brush and tree cover trom

areas such as that shown in ß. Also, by removing <'""'*''

the two outermost teeth, the rake can be used to scanty tw

strips simultaneously for direct seeding old fields.
FOREST PLANTING PRACTICE IN THE CENTRAL STATES 19

-m^i

U'"

F-384857

Figure 17.—Severely jullied land may need some grading before planting, especially if planting machines are to be used.

to the leaves of plants (foliage sprays) ; to the base

of stems (basal treatments) ; to wounds created by

frilling, notching, or girdling; to stumps; or to

the soil {8, 184).

Control of vegetation by the use of chemicals

does not always mean that the treated plants are

killed (86). Some of the best chemicals now

available kill only tops or crowns, but resprouting

from the roots or the lower part of the tree may

be weakened or delaj'-ed enough to allow planted

trees to become established and overtop subsequent competing vegetation. Sometimes one or

more additional applications are needed.

Chemicals to Use *

Chemicals used in vegetation control are of two

general types U41, 175), based on their action:

(1) the plant hormone or growth regulator type

that gains entry through leaf, stem, or roots

and disrupts normal growth processes of the

plant. The most common chemicals of this type

are 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T, MCP, and propionic compounds, such as 2,4,5-TP (Silvex) and amitrol

(ainino triazole). (2) The contact type that is

toxic to plants; water-soluble contact chemicals

such as ammonium sulfamate (Ammate), and

arsenical compounds are translocated from one

part of the plant to another. Others, such as

sodium chlorate, the dinitrophenols, trichloroacetic

acid (TCA), and some oils, kill plants by contact

alone even though not readily translocated to

* The identification and description of commercial

products in this publication are solely for information

purposes. Endorsement of any commercial product is

lot intended and must not be inferred.

various parts of the plant. A list of the susceptibility of common woody species to herbicides

has been published {154).

Some chemicals are nonselective and can be

used to control many species of plants while

others are so selective that they can be used for

a single species or a small number of species only.

The effectiveness of all chemicals depends on

many things, the most important of which are

the species, season (133) and method of application; dosage {61); weather; size and age of tree;

and kinds of diluent used (such as water, light

fuel oil, diesel oil, or kerosene). In using the

chemicals recommended for various types of

vegetation control the specific instructions relating

to dosage, methods of mixing, and safety precautions should be followed (table 4). (See also

"Safety Precautions," p. 2-3.)

The chemicals hsted in table 4 are considered

to be the best available for the specified purpose.

There have been so many new herbicides developed

in recent years that many of the old standbys

are becoming obsolete. For this reason, readers

may wish to contact their local service forester,

county agricultural agent, or State Agricultural

E.xperiment Station before starting large-scale

treatments.

Stem Treatments

To kill trees larger than 4 inches in diameter

it is best to apply chemicals in girdles such as

those made by the "Little Beaver," or in frills

or notches cut by an ax. Make these wounds

as close to the ground as possible. Any one of a
20 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 24 7

TABLE i.—Chemicals that can be used to control vegetation for tree planting

FOR HARDWOODS MORE THAN 4 INCHES IN DIAMETER AT BREAST HEIGHT

Method of application

On foliage : Aerial sprays.

On stems:

Frills, girdles

Injections (overlapping applications) _

On stumps: Sprays

Chemical to use

2,4,5-T or 2,4,5-TP (ester) in diesel

oil.

2,4,.5-T (ester) in diesel oil

2,4,5-T (ester) in diesel oil

2,4,5-T (ester) in diesel oil

Dosages, formulations, and seasons of

application

2 lbs. acid and 5 gals, fuel oil per acre

(late spring to midsummer).

12-16 lbs. ahg ' (any time).

40 lbs. ahg, or follow directions by injector manufacturer (anytime).

16 lbs. ahg on top and sides of stump

(any time).

FOR HARDWOODS LESS THAN 4 INCHES IN DIAMETER AT BREAST HEIGHT

On foliage:

Aerial sprays.

Mist blowers.

On stems and stumps: Basal sprays.

2,4,5-T or 2,4,5-TP (ester) in diesel

oil.

2,4,5-T (ester) in diesel oil

2,4,5-T (ester) in diesel oil or kerosene.

2 lbs. acid and 5 gals, fuel oil per acre

(late spring to midsummer).

2 lbs. acid per acre to make 1 gal. solution with oil; emulsify in 4 gals, water

(late spring or early summer).

12-16 lbs. ahg or 2 pts. (4 lbs. acid per

gal. concentrate) to 5 gals, kerosene

or fuel oil (any time).

FOR BRUSH (tree seedlings, shrubs, vines, etc.)

On fohage :

Sprays.

Aerial sprays.

Mist blowers.

2,4,5-T (ester) in water

2,4,5-T or 2,4,5-TP (ester) in diesel

oil.

2,4,5-T (ester) in diesel oil

In garden-type sprayers: 1 fluid oz. (4

lbs. acid per gal.) in 1 gal. water.

Power sprayers, and backpack sprayers, 2 lbs. ahg in water (late spring to

midsummer).

2 lbs. acid and 5 gals, fuel oil per acre

(late spring to midsummer).

2 lbs. acid per acre to ma,ke 1 gal. solution with oil; emulsify in 4 gals, water

(late spring or early summer).

FOR GROUND COVER (grasses, weeds, etc.)

For annual grasses and many broadleaf

weeds :

Soil treatment before and during

emergence of seedlings.

For annual and perennial grasses :

Foliage sprays after emergence and

before maturity.

For annual and perennial grasses and

many broadJeaf weeds:

Foliage sprays after emergence and

before maturity.

For broadleaf weeds :

Foliage sprays

' Acid equivalent per 100 gals.

Simazine

Dalapon.

Amazine

2,4D in diesel oil (ester form) or

2,4D in water (amino form).

Follow directions of manufacturer or

consult local agricultural or forestry

agencies.

Do.

Do.

1 to 2 lbs. per acre in 10 to 20 gals, (two

treatments, early summer and midsummer).

number of chemicals can be used, depending upon

the species method, and season of application

(table 4) Solutions of 2,4,5-T or 2,4,5-TP, in

diesel Oll, light fuel oil, or kerosene, are the

chemicals most commonly used in stem treatments; 2,4-D, alone or in mixture with 2,4 5-T

if.i^'^^/.requently used. Apply liquids liberally^

niling irills and gridles to overflowing. Althou<^h

not recommended for general use in the Central

states, Ammate crystals can also be applied to

frills, using about a tablespoonful for every 4

inches of circumference {178).

For trees smaller than 4 inches in diameter,

basal sprays without girdles or frills are effective.

For good results, thoroughly soak the root collar

and stem just above the root collar.

Stump Treatments

^ilthough basal sprays are usually satisfactory,

trees less than 4 inches in diameter can also be
FOREST PLANTING PRACTICE IN THE CENTRAL STATES 21

felled and chemicals applied to the stumps. Cutting trees to control vegetation is not recommended, unless the logs are to be sold or used.

Apply the chemical liberally on the top and sides

of the stump. Stumps of larger trees felled in

previous logging operations can be similarly

treated. Chemicals should be applied as soon

after cutting as possible. Stumps larger than 10

inches may not need treatment. On botton lands

and good upland sites, however, larger stumps

may sprout prolifically.

Foliage Sprays

Foliage spraying is the most common method of

using chemicals to control tree seedlings, brush,

grasses, and weeds (87). Sprays must be applied

after leaves have attained full size but before they

turn color in the fall. Late spring and early

summer are the best and often the only seasons

for effective foliage spraying. Except when mist

blowers are used, foliage should be thoroughly

drenched. For some species or groups of species

one chemical may be most eflfective, while for

another species or group of species another chemical may be best (table 4). Good top-kill is

generally obtained, but for some species sprouting

from roots may occur 1 to 2 years after treatment.

One or more treatments may, therefore, be needed.

Various types of pressure tanks and backpack

pumps can be used in applying foliage sprays.

Motorized spray equipment such as the mist

blower, mounted on trucks or towed by animal

or tractor has recentlv come into wide use on

large-scale operations where topography permits

(fig. IS). On small areas the backpack mist

blower is an effective tool (142).

Aerial Spraying

Aerial spraying is fast becoming the most

practicable method for large-scale vegetation control (fig. 19). It is especially effective in removing

large trees where on-the-ground foliage sprays or

stem treatments are impractical or too expensive.

The use of the airplane in agriculture for seeding

and for the control of insects, disease, and weeds

has become so widespread that in every State

there are firms that do contract spraying.' State

aviation boards usually have a list of reputable

aerial-spraying firms.

Before deciding in favor of aerial spraying, the

landowner should consider a number of pertinent

factors. First, of course, is the cost in comparison

with ground control methods. Costs will vary

with the size of the job. Airplane spraying lowgrade hardwood stands in Missouri in 1957, for

example, cost $7.75 per acre on a 40-acre tract

and $4.92 per acre for 8Q0 acres (124). A comparable release by hand methods would have cost

from $12.50 to $25.00 per acre.

Other factors to consider are the danger of

contaminating the air, soil, and water with

substances harmful to all forms of life, and the

possible damage to vegetation adjacent to the

area to be spraj-ed. The amount of drift varies

with wind velocity, type of plane used, altitude

of the plane, and kind of chemical. In one

¡^-^Simi"^

F-292704

Rjure 18.—Mist blower, used here to apply insecticides on established plantation, is also an effective machine for making foliar

application in vegetation control before planting.

689-570 a—63 4
22 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 24 7

Figure 19.—Airplane spraying of chemicals is fast becoming

the most practicable method of large-scale vegetation control.

operation drift damage in a 5- to 10-mile wind

extended for 200 j-ards to the leeward side of the

area sprayed {SI). On a calm daj-, drift damage

extended no more than 50 yards in the same

direction. Recent use of invert emulsions has

resulted in still less danger from drift damage.

Helicopters, though more expensive, are better

for spraying than airplanes, especially on rough

terrain and for spraying small areas. They can

generally spray at much lower altitudes than

planes.

Before spraying commences, the boundaries of

the area to be sprayed should be conspicuously

marked and visible from the air. Yellow or orange

flags, balloons, or cloth markings on the ground or

in trees are commonly used to mark the strips to

be sprayed. The best way to mark the boundaries,

however, is to apply chemicals in a basal spray

or in frills on dominant trees along the boundary

2 to 5 weeks before aerial spraying. Foliage of

trees thus treated will turn brown and form a line

easily visible from the air.

Soil Treatments

The newest development in the chemical control of vegetation is treatment of the soil. The

chemicals, some of which are sterilants, are apphed m granular, pellet, or spray form in the

sprmg before the weeds to be controlled emerge.

So new IS this development that only experimental

results are avaUable. Some of these chemicals

are Simazme (fig. 20) (123), Fenuron, and TCA

Apphcation of some of these, and perhaps of

others to come, wUl no doubt prove to be the most

practicable way to control dense vegetation of

grasses, weeds, and shrubs. Some planting specialists have ingeniously added tanks and spreaders

on planting machines so that chemicals can be

applied in strips or spots at the same time trees

cn.Jfr''*/'^^^- Landowners should review

current literature on these developments and consult local agricultural and forestry services in

selecting and applying these new chemicals.

Mixing Chemicals and Diluents

E.xcept where Ammate crystals or where pellets

and granules of soil sterilants are specified, the

chemicals recommended for vegetation control

(table 4) are diluted with various quantities of

oil or water. The choice of diluent and the

concentration <jf the chemical vary according to

the chemical used, the species to be treated, and

method of application (116, 116). Where oüs

are specified, the lighter fuel oils or diesel oils

shf)uld be used, not heavy crankcase oil.

Commercial preparations of 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T,

and 2,4,5-TP are usually available in acid, salt,

or ester forms. To minimize damage from drift,

the low-volatile esters are recommended. Where a

choice is possible, the ester form is preferred

because in general it will give more effective control than the acid or salt forms.

Containers of commercial preparations nearly

always bear labels specifying the "acid equivalent"

of their contents in pounds per unit volume. If

the acid equivalent is 2 pounds per gallon for

example, and you desire a spray with 4 pounds of

acid per 100 gallons of diluent, you would use 2

gallons of the concentrate (table 5).

The diluent and concentrate should be thoroughly mixed, and kept thoroughly mixed while

spraying. The amount of herbicide actually

sprayed per acre will depend as much on the type

of spray equipment and speed of operation as the

concentration of the herbicide. Before beginning

F-ä03665

Figure 20.—Simazine, applied as o preemergent broadcast

spray on disked ground in April, effectively controlled

grasses and broadleaved weeds during the entire growlns

season. Planted pines were not adversely affected by tn«

spray. Note luxuriant vegetation on untreated areas m

background and on sides of planted rows.
FOREST PLANTING PRACTICE IN THE CENTRAL STATES

large-scale operations, therefore, run a trial on

small measured areas to be sure the appropriate

dosages are obtained.

TABLE 5.—Amount oj herbicide to use for sprays oj

different concentrations '

When acid

equivalent of

herbicide is—

2.00 Ibs./gal

3.00 Ibs./gal

3.34 Ibs./gal

4.00 Ibs./gal

Amount of herbicide when required

concentration of spray in pounds

of acid per 100 gallons (ahg) is—

Gals

1. 0

. 7

. 6

. 5

Gals.

2.0

1. 3

1. 2

1. 0

3.0

2, 0

1. 8

1. 5

4. 0

2. 7

2. 4

2.0

12

6. 0

4. 0

3, 6

3.0

16

8.0

5. 3

4. 8

4. 0

20

10. 0

6. 7

6. 0

5. 0

' Taken from Station Paper 41, U.S. Forest Serv. Lake

States Forest Expt. Sta., by Paul O. Rudolf and Richard

F. Watt (128).

Safety Precautions

Some of the chemicals used in the control of

vegetation are poisonous to people or flammable.

Be sure to read the manufacturer's directions for

transportation, storage, and use of the chemical,

as well as the antidote or first aid instructions in

case of accident. Use good "safety sense" in

handling chemicals. Remember:

1. Keep safety equipment, first aid kits, extinguishers, and antidotes readily available.

2. Label aU containers of chemicals.

3. Use rubber gloves, goggles, aprons, and facemasks whenever they are needed to assure proper

protection.

4. Read and follow the directions of the manujwturer in the storage, care, and use of chemicals.

5. Use pesticides with care—read the label.

WHERE TO GET TREES FOR

PLANTING

The best place to get stock for planting is from

the State forest tree nurseries. County agricultural agents, local foresters, and employees of

the U.S. Soil Conservation Service are always

glad to help file appHcations for planting stock.

Or you can write directly to the State agencies

listed below for application blanks, prices, and

shipping mstructions:

state Name and addrese

Illinois State Division of Forestry, Dept. of

Conservation, 106 State OfRce Bldg.,

400 South Spring St., Springfield.

indiana Division of Forestry, State Dept. of

^ Conservation, Indianapolis.

Iowa State Forester, Division of Lands and

Waters, Iowa Conservation Commission, East 7th and Court Sts., Des

^ Moines.

Kentucky Division of Forestry, Dept. of Conservation, New Capitol Annex, FrankMissouri Forestry Division, Missouri Conservation Commission, Farm Bureau Bldg.,

Jefiferson City.

Ohio.

23

SMe Name and address

Division of Forestry, Dept. of Natural

Resources, 751 Northwest Blvd.,

Columbus 8.

It is wise to order stock about 6 months in

advance of planting time to assure a wide choice

of species, sources, and ages of stock.

For direct seeding, or when planning for several

years in the future, it may be possible to specify

that seed be collected from specific trees, especially

if good sources are available locally. Seeds and

planting stock can also be bought from commercial seed dealers and nurserymen. An up-todate list of commercial dealers can be obtained

by writing to the Forest Service, U.S. Department

of Agriculture, Washington 25, D.C.

Unless other sources of known quality are

available, the best way to get cottonwood cuttings

is to make them from trees of the desired quality

near the planting site (see p. 35).

QUALITY OF PLANTING STOCK

The success or failure of a plantation depends

to a great degree upon the quality of stock used.

Because the development of planting stock varies

greatly among nurseries and from season to

season in the same nursery, age alone is not an

indicator of stock quality. Moreover, plantable

stock of most of the species planted is produced

in one growing season.

Stock quality should be judged mainly on the

basis of size and balance. Stem diameter and

length and weight of roots in relation to length

and weight of tops are generally considered the

most practicable criteria for judging stock quality.

Root and top pruning, common practices in

nurseries to adapt seedling size to various methods of planting, also affect stock quality.

A few specific studies have been made to determine grading standards in the region. Chapman

(35) in studying shortleaf pine found that greater

stem diameters meant better survival. Similarly,

yellow-poplar survival was greater the larger the

stem diameter when seedlings ranged from 3/20

to 6/20 inch (76). Survival declined in seedlings

larger than 6/20 inch when roots were pruned to

8 inches.

Top pruning has no detrimental effect on

survival and growth of yellow-poplar and perhaps

most other hardwoods; however, some forked

trees may develop after top pruning of oppositebudded species such as ash and maple. Packing

and shipping are cheaper if hardwood seedlings

are top pruned just after lifting in the nursery.

And more top-pruned than unpruned trees can

be carried in a planting tray.

In most planting, roots are pruned to standard

lengths, depending upon the method of planting

to be used. Pruning is sometimes done to maximum lengths of only 6 inches when planting bars

or planting machines are used, 8 inches when

mattocks are used, and 10 inches when long-bladed

o-rub hoes are used. Because the balance of
U.S. 24

nhvsiolo<.ical processes is involved the dep-ee

Kot pruning .nav greatly affert initial survival

Root systems of seedlings severeh roo prunec

mav not develop sufficiently before the onset

of dry weather to supply water when transpiraX^Te'uSultock grading standards should

be simple and easily applied. They may be used

bv nuîservmen in classifying grades of stock

available for planting, or by purchasers in specifving the qualitv of stock desired. Grading stock

is an expensive and time-consunung job for the

buver If it is found bv random sampling that

80'percent or more of the stock in the nursery

beds or that received from a nursery meets the

preferred standards, grading is unnecessary

The planting stock grades recommended (t^able^

6 and 7) for species commonly planted are based

on specific studies and on stock measurements

taken from trees planted on many experimental

areas. For conifers the standards are based on

stem diameters (at the ground line) and the relation of top length to root length after pruning.

For shortleaf pine, for example, the minimum

stem diameter recommended is 5/32 inch; if roots

are pruned to 6-inch lengths, the tops should be

4 to S inches long. For hardwoods, tbe standards

are based only on stem diameters; maximum stem

diameters are prescribed only if roots are pruned

to S inches or less.

TABLE 6.—Planting stock grades Jor conifers commonly planted in the Central States

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 24 7

Species

Shortleaf pine

Jack pine

Red pine

Eastern white pinePitch pine

Virginia pine

Loblolly pine

Eastern redcedar _ _

Stem diameter at

ground line

Minimum

Inches

73 2

%2

%2

%2

Preferred

Inches

%2

%2

^2

'A 2

%2

TABLE 1 .—Planting stock grades for hardwoods

commonly planted in the Central States

Allowable range in lengths of tops: 4 to 8 inches if roots

are pruned shorter than 8 inches; 6 to 12 inches if roots

are not pruned shorter than 8 inches.

Take a random sample of the planting stock; measure

each tree in the sample, and record the total number of

trees measured, the number above minimum specifications,

and the number above preferred specifications.

Do not accept stock for planting if sample indicates that

less than 75 percent of the trees meet minimum standards.

Grade acceptable planting stock if less than 80 percent

of the trees meet the preferred standards. Discard

trees not meeting minimum standards.

Acceptable stock need not be graded if more than 80 percent

of the trees meet the preferred standards.

In ordering stock for tree planting it is weU to

specify the grades desired. This will alert the

nursery superintendent to your preference and

will enable him to serve you better. Most nurserySpecies

Stem diameter at ground line

Minimum Preferred

Ash, green and white.

Cottonwood

(seedlings)'

Maple, silver

Oak, bur, northern

red, and chestnut_-

Osage-orange

Sweetgum

Sycamore

Walnut, black

Yellow-poplar

Inches

3/

%2

%2

%2

%2

%2

Inches

%2

%2

%2

%2

%2

'%'32

Maximum

(if roots

are pruned

to 8 inches

or

Inches

'%2

732

Vn

'%2

Take a random sample of the planting stock; measure _

each tree in the sample, and record the total number of

trees measured, the number above minimum specifications,

and the number above preferred specifications.

Do not accept stock for planting if sample indicates that

less than 75 percent of the trees meet nunimum standards.

Grade acceptable planting stock if less than 80 percent

of the trees meet the preferred standards. Discard trees

not meeting minimum standards.

Acceptable stock need not be graded if more than »u per- _

cent of the trees meet the preferred standards. .;,

1 Cuttings of cottonwood and hybrid poplars: diameter S

at smaU end should be % to % inch; length 12 to 20 mches; .

from 1- to 2-year-old dormant stems. ï2 Because cottonwood roots readUy, no maximum stem

diameter is needed if roots are pruned to lengths shorter ^.

than 8 inches. ^

men have the facilities and personnel to do an ;:|

economical grading job. The intensity of sam- ;

pling necessary to determine stock quahty depends ..j

on the total amount of stock and its vanabüity.

If less than 75 percent of the sampled trees meet ^

the minimum standards, it is best to reject the -

stock for planting. If less than 80 percent of tHe , trees accepted for planting meet the preferred:

standards, the stock should be graded, and those ;

seedlings not meeting the minimum standards >

should be discarded. The percentage of usable;,

stock in the "Preferred" grade is a good estunate r.

of stock quality. j

CARE OF PLANTING STOCK ¡

Improper care of planting stock is often the^

major cause of high initial mortality. When roots»

of many species, particularly conifers, are exposed,,

for only a few minutes to sunhght on warm days,,

the trees begin to die and cannot be reviveo;,

simply by rewatering (35). The roots of planting^

stock must also be protected from freezuig.|

Stock packed tightly in roUs or bales for more tlian^^

a week without watering may be seriously in]urea'|

from heating; stock packed loosely, on the otner^

hand, may dry too rapidly unless watered ire-j
FOREST PLANTING PRACTICE IN THE CENTRAL STATES 25

quently or stored in a moist atmosphere. It is

therefore imperative to protect planting stock

from exposure from the time the trees are Hfted at

the nursery to the time of actual planting.

Adequate precautions in lifting and packing stock

are taken at most public and private nurseries.

The proper care of stock during periods of transit,

storage, and planting, is, however, largely the

responsibility of the man in charge of planting.

Transportation of Planting Stock

During transit planting stock should be protected from the sun and drying winds. In open

trucks or trailers, the bales or bundles should be

covered completely with canvas or similar material. If these precautions are taken no watering

is needed durmg transit periods of less than 12

hours. »Shipments by railroad freight should be

avoided; express shipments are permissible, but

arrangements should be made in advance to

remove stock from express offices and warehouses

as soon as possible. Ideally, stock should be

transported in an enclosed or covered truck or

trailer at night when the chances of adverse

exposure are minimized, and by a driver alerted to

the importance of protecting the stock.

Storage of Planting Stock

Trees should be planted as soon as they are

received from the nursery. Often, however, this

is not possible. So precautions should be taken

to protect the stock until it can be planted.

As soon as the stock is received it should be

inspected ; some of the bundles or crates should be

opened immediately to check possible damage

from heating or drying. The stock should then

be watered: moisten the interiors of bales and

crates, but do not soak or puddle. Do not

immerse bundles of trees in water until planting

time.

If trees are to be planted within a week after

they are received, they may be left in bales or

crates but should be kept in a cool, shaded, welldrained area such as a barn, woodshed, root cellar,

or an improvised lean-to. Moisten the stock daily.

If it is necessary to hold trees more than a week

before planting, it is best to keep them in cold

storage. Cold-storage facilities are available in

many small cities and towns where eggs and

poultry are stored. Many large orchards in the

Central States also have space available in coldstorage warehouses during the spring planting

season. If the following precautions are taken,

stock can be safely held in cold storage for 4 to

5 weeks:

!• Keep temperature at about 33° to 35° F., as

constantly as possible—never higher than 40°.

2. Do not stack bales or bundles of stock on top

of each other; place them separately on shelves.

If stock is received in two or more deliveries

from the nursery, the date each bundle is placed

•n cold storage should be written on the shipping

tag. Stock held in cold storage the longest time

should be planted first.

3. Water the stock once each week; watering

can be facilitated by attaching a perforated metal

tube to the end of a hose, and inserting the tube

about halfway into the bale.

If cold-storage facilities are not available and

it is necessary to keep stock for more than a week

before planting, the trees should be heeled-in; this

is done by digging V-shaped trenches in a weUdrained, shady location near the planting site

(fig. 21). Trees usually come from the nursery

tied in small bunches of 25 to 50 trees. Untie

these bunches, lay the trees in layers 3 or 4 trees

deep along the sloping side of the trench, and then

pack soil around the roots. Trees may be removed from the trench as required. The trenches

should be kept moist but not soaked. If necessary,

most hardwood species can be left heeled-in over

winter. Coniferous stock, however, should never

be left heeled-in for more than 5 or 6 weeks.

Care During Planting

During planting, trees should be carried in a

bucket or planting box and roots kept moist with

wet moss, excelsior, peat moss, soil, or other

material. Since the roots of baled planting stock

are usually intertwined, the trees should be carefully separated before they are placed in the

planting-stock container. As an extra precaution

against drying, place a piece of water-soaked

burlap over the material covering the roots.

Keeping the roots moist with these materials is

better than placing the trees in buckets of water.

The planter should constantly check the condition of the stock in the container. Careless

planters, in pulling out a tree for planting, often

partly pull out other trees from the container,

thus exposing roots to drying winds and sun.

In large-scale plantings, where several crews are

working or planting machines are used, it is good

practice to assign to one man the responsibility

of packing the stock in containers. When well

trained, he can care for the heeling-in bed, receive

stock from cold storage or the nursery, and pack

stock containers properly for use by the planting

crews.

PLANTING SEASONS

Planting should be done during the dormant

season, that is, after the hardwood trees have lost

their leaves in the fall and before new leaves start

in the spring. Soil conditions should be favorable.

Do not attenipt to plant in frozen or snow-covered

ground or when the ground is wet and "sticky."

The best time for planting depends upon location

within the region.

Except under unusual circumstances fall

planting should be avoided. Trees planted in the

fall are particularly susceptible to frost heave

and winterkill. Frost heaving is especially serious

on bare ground and on fine-textured soils such as
26 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICUUTURE HANDBOOK 247

111/;, i;///,

„, „l/A

„ill//

>ii/// >"*- ÄWf'- 'I*'

--^Ä^-

. .:i?- (

,ii/A

'/ .*

round line

,*/, Ol(/i> >>lfe >il'* il"''" >'"'• "'"'''

,,\l///, „llÍ4 -ill,. '1*//'

Figure 21.—Method of trenching and heeling-in nursery stock: A, Trench is dug deep enough to accommodate roots,- B, layer of i

trees is laid agairist slanting wall; and C, soil is piled and packed against tree roots, leaving trench ready for another layer i

of trees to be heeled-in the same way.

Localion

Iowa, northern Missouri,

northwestern Illinois.

Northern Ohio and Indiana,

central and northeastern

Illinois.

Southern Missouri, southern Ohio, southern Indiana, southern Illinois

and Kentucky.

TI'AfTï to plant

Spring—about April 1 to

May 15. Hardwoods may

be planted in the fall, from

September 15 to December 1, in heavy cover or

coarse soils where frost

heaving will be less likely

to occur. Do not plant

conifers in fall.

Spring—about March 15 to

May 1.

Spring—about March 1 to

April 15.

clays, silty clays, and sandy clays. It is not

likely to be serious on coarse-textured, sandy

soils and on grassy sites that need no ground

preparation. There will be less frost-lieavindamage if trees are planted on top of the furrow

Slice than if planted in the bottom of furrows.

VAmterkill is especially serious when spindly,

op-heavy planting stock is used. 8turd^^ wellbalanced st^ck IS especially important if tWes are

planted in the fall.

SPACING

Optimum spacing for planted trees has always ;

been a controversial subject. Lack of conclusive >

research and a misunderstanding of some factors"

that should be considered have no doubt *

contributed to the diversity of opinion on the '

number of trees per acre that should be planted.

In Europe, where trees have generally been

planted at closer spacing than in the United

States, the trend now is toward wider spacing.

(17, 42).

Recent experiments in America {11, 18, 78,

119, 120, 138) have provided general information

on the effects of spacing on growth and form of

trees. Over a wide range of spacing (4 by 4 to

9 by 9), at least for periods 5 to 25 years after

planting, trees planted at wide spacings grow

faster in diameter than those planted at close'

spacings. On the other hand, spacing has little

effect on total height of species commonly planted ;

in the region. The total cubic volume of wood^

produced is generally greater in dense stands than >

in more open stands. But in young stands the <

merchantable volume is usually greater in stands

with wide spacings. Logging costs per unit s
FOREST PLANTING PRACTICE IN THE CENTRAL STATES 27

volume of wood decrease with increasing average

tree diameter {109).

In recommending spacing for forest planting

in the Central States the advantages and disadvantages of wide and close spacing were

carefully considered (table 8). No spacing can

be considered ideal or optimum; the decision

must often be a compromise.

In drawing up spacing recommendations, eight

factors were regarded as most important:

1. Objectives oj planting.—The kind and quality

of products desired should be considered. For

short-rotation crops, such as fence posts, mine

props, fuel, and pulpwood, a closer spacing is

necessary to get maximum utilization of the site

than if long-rotation crops, such as poles, and

sawtimber, are the primary objectives. For

erosion control, where wood products are a

secondary or minor objective, close spacing (6 by 6

or 7 by 7) is recommended.

2. Thinnings.—The possibility of thinning the

stands before the harvest cut is also important in

deciding what spacing to use. As a general rule,

no thinning should be considered unless it will

pay for itself either in products removed or in

increased growth of the residual stand (44)- If

commercial thinnings can be made—and this

depends upon accessibility of area, markets, and

species planted—a closer spacing is advisable than

if thinnings cannot be made.

3. Hazards and risks.—There is always the

chance that trees may be damaged or killed

because of adverse site conditions, insects and

disease, windthrow, fire, or grazing. And some

cultural operations may even accentuate these

hazards. For example, early thinning in a shortleaf pine plantation can cause an attack by the

fungus Fomes annosus that will result in high mortality {IOS, 161, 171). The spacing recommendations given here are based on (1) an expected early

mortality of 20 percent due to site and weather

conditions, planting stock quality, planting operations, and (2) subsequent mortality as the stand

develops.

4. Growth rate and stand density.—One of the

objectives of stand improvement is to maintain

or accelerate growth and development of the stand

by thinning. This does not mean that the rapid

growth during the first decade, forming what is

sometimes called "juvenile wood," must be

equaled in subsequent years. Nevertheless, in extremely close spacing growth reduction and even

stagnation may occur before commercial thinnings

can be made. Maintenance of good diameter

growth until trees attain merchantable size is

therefore a factor to consider in the choice of

spacing.

Our spacing recommendations are based in part

on growth data taken from yield tables in current

use. Spacings given are the narrowest possible

to maintain good diameter growth until the first

cutting. The control of juvenile wood by spacing

does not seem feasible. Wahlenberg {162), for

example, reports that the formation of wide annual

rings, largely of springwood, in the first decade of

loblolly pine growth cannot be avoided by close

spacing. It is quite likely that this response is

typical of most of the conifers planted in the

region.

5. Natural regeneration.—Unless stringent controls are used, natural invasion of hardwoods in

plantations is the rule rather than the exception.

These volunteers can be left as nurse trees, or to

improve tlie productivity of the site, or they can

be taken out as thinnings or part of the final crop.

If volunteers are left, the original spacing can be

wider, of course. As long as the crowns of the

planted trees remain dominant, their growth will

not be seriously affected by the subordinate

volunteer trees {106).

6. Branching.—The possible adverse effects of

spacing on branching and selfpruning may not be

as great as formerly thought. In most pine

plantations wide spacing has resulted in slightly

larger branches but no significant increase in the

number of branches (45). And any adverse effect

of wide spacing might well be offset by taking

advantage of the volunteer hardwood growth

TABLE 8.—Spacing recommendations jorjorest planting^ in the Central States

Jack, shortleaf, red.

loblolly, and Virginia White pine Hardwood

pines

Rotation and cutting plan

Spacing Trees per

acre

Spacing Trees per

acre

Spacing Trees per

acre

Fl. No. Fl. No. Ft. No.

Short rotation crops—posts, props, pulpwood,

fuel, etc.

6 X 8 or

7x7

908 or

889

6 X 8 or

7x7

908 or

889

8 X 8 or

6 X 12

681 or

605

Long rotation crops—poles, sawtimber, etc. 8 X 8 to 681 to 6 X 8 or 908 or 6 X 12 to 605 to

Commercial thinnings planned. 9x9 538 7x7 889 10 X 10 436

Long rotation—no thinnings planned __- _ 9 X 9 to 538 to 8 x 8 to 681 to 8 X 12 to 454 to

10 X 10 436 9x9 538 10 X 10 436

' For erosion-control planting a close spacing is recommended—6 x 6 or 7 x 7 feet. For Christmas tree planting,

a 5- X 5-foot spacing is most common. Jack and Virginia pines should not be planted at spacmgs wider than 8x8 feet.
28 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 247

{HI). Close spacing-, on the other hand, has not

ehmmated the need for prunin^r nor sio;nificantly

reduced the cost of pruning. So, for most conifers the choice of spacing need not be influenced

one way or the other by the possibihty of branching. For hardwood planting, however, there will

most likely be a choice.

7. Speae-^.—Spacing reconmiendations sliould

vary by species, or groups of species, because of

inherent differences in growth rate and tolerance.

Until more precise information is obtained, however, all pines except white pine have been grouped

together. A closer spacing is allowed for white

pine than for other conifers because experience

has shown that this species maintains good diameter growth at a closer spacing than most other

pines planted in the region. For other conifers

use spacing recommended for the group if they

are less tolerant of shade than white pine; use

white pine spacing if more tolerant.

Spacings recommended for hardwoods may seem

somewhat wide. Hardwoods as a group will not

maintain good diameter growth to merchantable

size unless thay have plenty of room. If hardwoods are planted close together, they will need at

least one noncommercial thinning to maintain

good growth. Extremely wide spacing results in

heavy branch development on such hardwoods as

oak, walnut, and sycamore. The wide spacing

recommended applies to these species only when

volunteer growth is allowed to develop with but

not overtop the planted hardwoods. If no volunteer hardwood regeneration is present or likely to

come in, closer spacing is advisable.

8. Planting costs.—Planting costs naturally

vary with number of trees planted per acre. So

it pays to plant no more trees than are needed to

meet the objectives of planting. Square spacings

are most commonly used, but if machines are to

be used in planting and caring for the trees it may

be best to alter this pattern to facihtate machine

maneuvering. A 6 by 8 spacing is about equivalent to a 7 by 7 spacing, a 10 by 10 spacing is about

the same as an 8 by 12 spacing.

MIXED PLANTING

Another decision that must be made early in the

plannmg stage is whether to plant all one species

or a mixture of two or more (129). Both mixed

and pure plantings have their advantages and

disadvantages.

Mixed plantings are less likely to be destroyed

completely by disease or insects. There is some

evidence m this country and in Europe (17) that

greater yields per acre are obtained in mixed than

m pure plantings; and sometimes a market may be

iound for one species, none for the other.

Fure plantings on the other hand are easier to

establish maintain, and manage; they are often

easier to harvest and may result in higher stumpage

values. Fure plantings, moreover, are almost

invariably invaded by other desirable species

through natural stocking, thus minimizing the

danger of complete losses through disease or

insects.

If mixed plantings are desired, species should

be selected with great care. First, all species

must be adapted tc^ the site. Second, the slower

growing species should be tolerant of shade cast

by faster growing species mixed with them. In

genera], liardwoods are more suitable for randomly

mixed plantings than pines. If the species

desired do not permit random mi.xing, and the

owner wishes to avoid the risk of large pure

plantings, lie may resort to block or row-group

mixtures (fig. 22).

Mixed planting of conifers and hardwoods are

almost always unsatisfactory. However, on sites

suitable for yellow-poplar, eastern white pine,

wliite or green asli, and northern red oak can be

randomly mixed with the yellow-poplar. On

sites suitable for black walnut the following species

may be mixed in: northern red oak, white ash,

green ash, and sweetgum. If both yellow-poplar

and black walnut are desired, they should be

planted in small-block or row-group mixtures.

On sites suitable for white pine and loblolly pine,

the two may be randomly mixed. Other conifers

should be planted in pure stands or in blocks or

row-groups.

INTERPLANTING

The word "interplanting" is used here to designate any planting on areas that are already

stocked with trees. It includes "underplanting,"

"spot planting," "reinforcement planting,"

"sweetening," and "conversion planting." Interplanting is done chiefly to (1) improve the

stocking and composition of the existing stand,

(2) to utilize the existing stand for the protection

and improvement in survival and early development of planted trees (36) ; or (3) because of some i

emergency it becomes expedient to plant before i

overstories can be removed. To be successful, ,

the selection of species and a good understanding ',

of their shade tolerances are important.

Interplanting to improve the stocking and '

composition of existing stands is good practice on i

old fields and cutover land partially stocked with

trees of desirable species and quality. By planting trees in all openings, or in stands with widely i

spaced trees, the entire area may become well

stocked. No trees should be planted in spots

where they would be overtopped by other trees

to be left in the stand.

When an overstory is temporarily retained

specifically to protect planted seedlings until they

become established, the overstory should be |

removed as soon as possible after seedling estab- ,

lishment is assured. The urgency for removal

will vary with species used for planting and sites.

Plantings on productive sites supporting dense

vegetation will need release sooner than less

productive sites. Shortleaf, jack, Virginia, and
FOREST PLANTING PRACTICE IN THE CENTRAL STATES, 29

XXX X X 0 0 0 0 0 X X XXX

XXX X X 0 0 0 0 0 X X XXX

XXX X X 0 0 0 0 0 X X XXX

XXX X X 0 0 0 0 0 X X XXX

XXX X X 0 0 0 0 0 X X XXX

0 0 0 0 0 X X X X X 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 X X X X X 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 X X X X X 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 X X X X X 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 X X X X X 0 0 0 0 0

XXX X X 0 0 0 0 0 X X XXX

XXX X X 0 0 0 0 0 X X XXX

XXX X X 0 0 0 0 0 X X XXX

XXX X X 0 0 0 0 0 X X XXX

XXX X X 0 0 0 0 0 X X XXX

Checkerboard pattern of

mixing two or more species

by blocks; minimum size

block should be 5 rows of

5 trees each.

XXX X X X X X X X X X XXX

XXX X X X X X X X X X XXX

XXX X X X X X X X X X XXX

XXX X X X X X X X X X XXX

XXX X X X X X X X X X XXX

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

XXX X X X X X X X X X XXX

XXX X X X X X X X X X XXX

XXX X X X X X X X X X XXX

XXX X X X X X X X X X XXX

XXX X X X X X X X X X XXX

B. Row-group pattern for

mixing two or more species.

Minimum size is 5 rows of

the same species to each

strip.

Figure 22.—Suggested methods of mixing species

in plantations, when random mixtures are

inadvisable.

loblolly pines should be released completely

during the first season of planting or as soon

thereafter as possible; white pine, yellow-poplar,

blaek walnut, and red oak overtopped by other

trees should l)e released not later than 3 to 5 years

after planting. Redcedar, sweetgum, and ash

may survive up to 10 years after planting under a

dense overstory, but even for these species earlier

releases are desirable.

For some species and sites, interplanting areas

that have sparse overhead cover may be better for

planting than open nonstocked sites. Scattered

trees and a light overhead cover may help increase

survival of interplanted trees by protecting them

from drying winds, moderating soil-surface temperatures, and lowering transpiration losses during

dry periods. Taller trees adjacent to planted trees

also act as nurse trees to improve form and reduce

branchiness. Light shade cast by girdled overstory trees has increased germination and firstyear survival of direct-seeded shortleaf pine in the

Missouri Ozarks {US).

Interplanting small openings in sparsely covered

tree or brush stands may also be good practice in

western Iowa, where dry, searing winds and high

evaporation rates are critical. In other parts of

the region, interplantings of species such as yellowpoplar and white pine are usually successful in

sparse stands of small, short-lived species such as

sassafras, persimmon, and sumac {99). It should

be borne in mind, however, that other site factors

such as soil, topography, and locality, need to be

considered as much on sites to be interplanted as

on other sites.

PLANTING METHODS

Before 1945 nearly all of the tree planting in the

United States was done by hand. Since that time,

because of the scarcity and high cost of labor and

the many technological advances, most trees—

perhaps more than 75 percent—have been planted

by machine. With the advent of large-scale

machine planting came questions relating to the

effects of these new techniques on the subsequent

survival and growth of plantations. The results to

date show generally that both survival and growth

of machine-planted trees are satisfactory.

In a study on an old field in Ohio, where all common methods of ground preparation were used.

Merz and Funk (90) reported that machine planting was not only the cheapest method used but that

both the survival and growth of white pine 10 years

after planting were as good or even better than for

those planted by hand methods. Today the choice

between hand or machine methods of planting is

governed largely by size of the job and roughness

of the topography, or the density and size of brush,

trees, and debris.

In all methods of planting there are several precautions that must be followed:

1. Plant the tree at the right depth; sUghtly

deeper (never higher) than its depth in the nursery ;

it is easy to see the old ground line on the tree.

689-570 O—63 5
30 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 24 7

2. Plant the tree so that the main mot is straiglit

down, not doubled or sharply l>ont. Trees planted

with roots "U-shaped" in the «rround grow poorly

(52). It is better to cut off tiie ends of long roots

than to have them doubled up.

3. Press the soil well about the roots so as to

hold the tree firmly in place.

4. Plant trees in an upright position, nearly even

with the general ground level, not sunk in a hole,

nor (e.xcept in wet, poorly drained sites) raised on

a mound.

5. Plant only one tree per spot.

Hand Planting

Hand planting is generally done (1) when planting machines are not available, (2) where the planting site is too steep, too stony, too severely gullied,

too brushy, or too small to be planted by machine,

and (3) where there are spots and small patches

that were skipped in machine planting.

There are two general methods of hand planting :

the hole (side or center) method (fig. 23) and the

slit method (figs. 24 and 25).

The side-hole method (fig. 23, A) consists of

digging a hole deep enough to hold the roots of the

tree. One side of the hole is vertical and the tree

is held against this side about ){ to ){ inch deeper

than it grew in the nursery. Loose soil is then

packed around the lower roots, the hole is filled,

and the soil pressed with the foot. The chief

precaution is to make sure that the hole is deep

enough so that the roots will not be doubled or

bent.

The center-hole method is similar e.xcept that

the tree is placed in the center of the hole and soil

packed around the roots (fig. 23, B).

RIGHT

: . :o- . .:\_-f'

4

^

•* ', ' 1 JM '^'.- ' :■■■ i- : ". : "':■■■'> :

WRONG

Figure 23.—Right and wrong methods of hole planting: A.

side-hole method; and ß, center-hole method (99).

o:.~: STEP 1

. p-.;; ORIVE MATTOCK BLADE

STRftlGUT DOWN.

STEP 2.

OPEN SLIT BY

RAISING- HANDLE.

. :.p\-ô

STEP 3

OPEN TOP OF SLIT BY

PULLING BACK MATTOCK.

INSERT TREE.

STEP 4

CLOSE SLIT WITH

MATTOCK BLADE.

STEP 5

TAMP SOIL

WITH HEEU

Figure 24.—Mattock-slit method of planting.

For the hole method use a mattock, a long

straight-bladed grub hoe, or hazel hoe. A shovel

or spade may also be used. This method is

especially adapted to rough, rocky land and to

trees with spreading root systems.

The slit method consists essentially of making a

sht in the ground, inserting the tree roots, and

closing the sUt both top and bottom. It may be

done with a mattock, grub hoe, spade, or planting

bar. It is much more rapid than the hole method

and is especially adapted to smooth land with light

to medium soils and for trees with one long main

root. Again, make sure the slit is deep enough for

the roots.

The best tools for slit planting are the grub hoe

or planting bar with a blade 8 to 10 inches long.

A new tool known as the "K-C" planting bar

appears especially adapted to planting seedlings

with well-developed root systems. The blade
FOREST PLANTING PRACTICE IN THE CENTRAL STATES 31

I. Insert dibble at

angle shown and push

forward to upright

position.

4.Pull handle of di

ble toward planter

firming soil at bottom of roots.

b7. Push forward then

pull backward filling

hole.

Dibble or Planting Bar

2. Remove dibble

and place seedling

at correct depth.

5. Push handle of

dibble forward from

planter firming soil

ot top of roots.

8.FÍII in last hole

by stamping with

heel.

S.lnsert dibble 2

inches toward planter from seedling.

6. Insert dibble 2

inches from last

hole.

9. Firm soil around

seedling with feet.

Figure 25.—Bar-$lit method of planting. (From Stauffer (737).)
32 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 247

should be at least as long as the roots of the ti ees

being planted. If it is not, prune the roots (but

leave at least two-thirds the original length) or

plant by the hole method. Do not double up the

roots 'If properly done, the slit method will give

as c^ood results for taprooted species on light and

medium soils as the hole method. It will be much

cheaper because planting goes much faster.

The planting bar is faster than the grub iioe

and is used where scalping (removal "f grass or

other plant cover) is unnecessary or sod has been

removed by plowing furrows. It mayj^e Purchased or made in the farm shop. 1 he btate

forester or extension forester c^an supply names ol

manufacturers. This tool was developed for use

in planting large acreages, and the farmer who

plans to plant more than about 20 acres may save

money by using it.

Machine Planting

Most planting machines consist of a rolling

coulter that cuts through the ground surface, a

trencher that creates a slit for inserting the tree,

and packing wheels that firm the soil after planting. Many types of planting machines are on

the market, and each year more will no doubt be

developed. There is no single machine, however,

that meets the requirements for all planting situations; and there are some situations where the

use of planting machines is impracticable.

Each planting machine has its advantages and

disadvantages. " To increase the versatihty of

planting machines some manufacturers have developed accessories that can be used to overcome

specific difficulties for various sites and localities.

In planning a tree planting job, then, the landowner should first decide whether planting machines can be used, and second, select the best

machine available for the job.

For small operations, planting machines can be

rented from most State forestry divisions, conservation groups, and some local equipment rental

agencies. For large operations, especially those

that continue for 2 years or more, it is advisable

to purchase a machine.

Types of Planting Machines

Tree-planting machines are of three general

types (if5): the floating type (fig. 26) is attached

to a tractor drawbar in such a way that the entire

machine can be hfted off the ground by the

hydraulic Hft on the tractor. The senufloating

type has its front end carried by the tractor and

its back end carried on wheels; it cannot be hfted

by the tractor. The trailer type has all or nearly

all its weight carried on its own wheels; this type

usually has a coulter and trencher that automatically raise the machine out of the ground over

logs and boulders.

Each of these three types of planting machines

has its advantages and disadvantages for any

particular planting operation. And models of each

F-502357, 465203

Figure 26.—Three types of tree-planting machines in common

use: A, Floating type; B, semifloating type; and C, the

trailer type (photo courtesy of Ohio Power Co.).

type, constructed by dilTerent manufacturers, a,lso

vary in their adaptation to various planting

situations. In making the choice of machines the

follo\nng features, as well as comparative costs,

should be considered {121):

1. Ease of operation.—Comfort of tree planter;

ease in hitching on to tractor or lifting machine

over obstacles; smooth working parts.

2. Maneuverability.—Amount of space needed

to turn around; adaptability to planting small

patches and corners.

3. Protection.—Devices to protect operator from

brush, trees, and other obstructions.

4. Versatility.—Adaptation to a number of

different situations.
FOREST PLANTING PRACTICE IN THE CENTRAL STATES 33

5. Construction.—Sturdiness; quality and thickness of frame, gears, other parts.

6. Stability.—Some machines tip over easier

than others; the trencher is more difficult to

operate smoothly on some machines than others.

7. Tractive power.—Some planting machines

will need larger, more expensive tractors to pull

them than others; some can be drawn by horses.

Wheel tractors are faster to operate on level,

cleared land than crawler tractors; the latter are

better adapted to hilly and brush-covered land.

Critical Operational Factors

Experience during the past decade has revealed

several operational factors that have a bearing

on the use and efficiency of planting machines.

Some are so critical as to prevent the use of any

planting machine, while others are important

factors to consider in selecting the kind of machine

to be used. Sometimes alteration or slight

modification of a machine will make it suitable

for the varying conditions from one area to

another. The most important of the critical

operational factors are size of area, topography,

character and density of cover, and soil conditions.

Size of area.—On small areas (less than 5 acres)

where frequent turning around will be necessary,

it is better to use a floating type of machine;

otherwise much of the area along the edges must

be planted by hand. It is not practicable to plant

areas less than 1 acre by machine.

Topography.—Topography is one of the most

important site factors limiting the use of treeplanting machines. Most of the planting machines now available cannot be used effectively

on steep, rough land.

When planting along the contour, the slope of

the hill aflFects the angle of the trencher and the

stability of both planting machine and tractor.

Whether a tree is planted in an upright position

or on a slant depends on the angle of the trencher.

Machines that have three-point hitches and hydrauHc cylinders controlling the trencher, or

packing wheels and operator seats that can be

adjusted to slope variations, are best for planting

along the contours.

Crawler-type tractors are better and safer than

wheel tractors for planting on slopes. Depending

upon type of planting machine and tractor, a

safe maximum slope for contour planting is 10 to

15 percent on rough ground, 15 to 20 percent on

smooth ground. (A 10-percent slope means a

rise of 10 feet for 100 feet horizontal.) With the

use of specially designed equipment, consisting

of a self-leveling and hydraulically operated plow

and planting machine, the Muskingum Conservancy District in Ohio has contour-planted

slopes as steep as 50 percent.

Planting across contours (up and down slopes)

can be done on steeper slopes than planting along

contours and is limited mainly by tractor power.

On steep slopes it is possible to plant only while

proceeding downhill, but this is still cheaper and

689-570 0—63 6

easier than hand planting. Crawler tractors or

wheel tractors with half tracks should be used

for planting up or down slopes. Up or downhill

planting is limited to sites where no ground

preparation is needed or to sites where scalping

is feasible. In the latter case, a planting machine

with scalpers is desirable. However, no ground

preparation is needed on most of the hill plantings

on old fields in the southern parts of the Central

States.

Character and density of cover.—On open, poorly

stocked land with a heavy sod cover, where no

ground preparation is planned, the use of planting

machines with furrowing or scalping attachments

should be considered. On partly stocked land

(see p. 5 for definition) the use of heavy, tradertype planting machines is nearly always needed.

If cover is dense, or if there is much debris on the

ground, hand planting or the use of a pusher plow

attached to the front of the tractor {133, 127, 131)

is necessary. Machine planting is impracticable

on most cutover land in the Central States.

Soil condition.—Texture, stoniness, and moisture content of soils have an important bearing

on the effectiveness of machine planting. These

factors need to be considered in choosing planting

machines and tractive power for large-scale planting operations. Sometimes the effectiveness of

machines can be improved by the addition of

accessories or the removal of som^ standard parts.

On stony soils the coulters of some machines

do not function properly. One operator solved

this problem on an extremely stony bottom land

in lUinois by removing the coulter; after the

coulter was removed the shoe had no difficulty

going through the stony soil at about the right

depth. When machines are used in planting on

stony soils, it is advisable to have a man follow

behind the machine to dig up and hand plant

those trees not properly planted by the machine;

where conditions are such that many trees have

to be replanted, machines should not be used.

Machine planting in wet clay is difficult.

Crawler tractors generally perform best in this

situation; one operator in Illinois found tha,t a

team of mules towing a trailer-type machine did a

better job than a wheel-type tractor on wet

bottom-land soils. Most of the difficulty in

machine planting wet clay soils is due to improper

slits made by the trencher and packing wheels

becoming clogged with mud {65). Machines

with large packing wheels (12 to 15 inches in

diameter) work better on these sites than those

with the smaller ones. Fox (^6) has improved

the performance of planting machines in this

situation by adding a larger auxihary wheel to

the rear of the planting machine to absorb the

extra pressure when packing wheels hit soft

ground; this also is helpful in coarse, sandy soils.

In general, machine planting on wet clay soils

is easier on land where no ground preparation has

been done than on furrowed or cultivated land.

When two or more different sites are to be planted
34 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 247

it is better to plant the coarse, sandy soils during

wet weather and the fine-textured soils during

dry weather. It is better to keep stock in cold

storage for as long as 5 weeks until soil moisture

conditions improve than to plant in wet, muddy,

clay soils.

The Machine Planting Job

As much vigilance is required to get a good job

of machine planting as is required for hand planting. On dry, sunny, windy days great care must

be taken to "see that roots of trees are kept moist.

Use a soaked piece of burlap over the container

from which trees are withdrawn for planting.

Machine performance should be constantly

checked. Measure the operating tlepth of the

trencher frequently. Dig up a number of trees

each hour to see if depth of planting and sod packing are correct.

Planting stock for machine planting must be of

uniform size and high quality. Both small and

large trees are hard to plant properly. All trees

should, if possible, be of a preferred grade (see

tables 6 and 7, p. 24). Except for oppositebudded species such as ash and maple, hardwood

seedlings may be top pruned to facilitate planting.

If hand planting is also planned, use the smaller

trees of acceptable grades for this job.

A three-man crew is generally used in machine

planting: a tractor operator, tree planter, and

tree packer. When all three men are qualified,

the men on crews switch jobs to reduce fatigue.

As with all mechanical operations, daily maintenance of equipment and a ready supply of spare

parts will reduce the number and duration of

breakdowns.

Safety Precautionsfor Machine

Planting

The following safety rules, adopted by the U.S.

Forest Service (157) may well be considered in

planning and supervising machine-tree-planting

operations.

"(1) Machine shall be provided with foot guards

that completely cover the bottom and sides of

the feet. These guards should be checked frequently for any signs of breakage or other damage.

"(2) A heavy screen guard shall be attached to

the planter, to protect the operator when planting

IS being done in heavy brush. The rear should

be unguarded so the operator can get out quicklv

in an emergency.

"(3) If planting is being done in rough terrain,

or in areas of logs or heavy brush, the machine

that pulls the planter shall be equipped with a

V-shaped blade or angle dozer.

"(4) A signal device such as a buzzer or ropepull shall be provided for the machine operator

« J^Q the tractor driver. The signal for a stop

shall be definitely understood bv both operators,

Or a device mav be installed'on the planting

machine to allow the machine operator' to disengage the master clutch on the tractor or to

release the planting machine from the tractor in

case of emergency.

"(5) Operators shall wear close-fitting clothing,

hard hats, and goggles or other adequate eye

protection if the machine is not adequately

screened.

"(6) Operators shall watch for sticks, logs, or

brush that may poke up through openings in the

machine.

"(7) The power unit drawing the planting

machine shall be confined to limited degree turns

to prevent tipping over the planting machine.

"(8) All tractors shall l)e equipped with upright

exhaust pipes to direct exhaust gases away from

tractor and planting-machine operators.

"(9) All tractor planting-machine outfits shall

be equipped with a first-aid kit fsnake-bite kit

where appropriate), shovel, ax, and fire extinguisher. A rearview mirror should be mounted

on the tractor."

DIRECT SEEDING

Recent studies in the Central States have

demonstrated that direct seeding of pines, oaks,

and walnuts can be successful. In the past the

principal factors limiting success of direct seeding

ha\^e been drought and prédation by birds and

rodents for pine, and pilferage of seeds by squirrels

and other mammals for oak and walnut. Losses

from these causes can be reduced by the proper

selection of sites, site preparation, and adequate

protection of the seed. Best results from direct

seeding can be expected on cutover and partly

stocked land, and then only if sites are suitable

for the species used. Recent, but incomplete

research indicates that yeUow-poplar may also

be direct-seeded on this kind of site.

The advantages of direct seeding are as follows:

(1) It may be much cheaper; (2) the landowner

can sometimes collect his own hardwood seed, thus

saving money and making sure that his trees are

from local stock; (3) seeding can be done even if

planting stock is unobtainable; (4) as seeding mav

sometimes be done in late fall, while planting is

best done in the spring, the workload can be better

distributed; and (5) the more natural root systems

of seed plantings usually insure better trees.

Pine Seeding

Direct seeding pine has one big disadvantage.

In a dry year it may be a nearly complete failure;

drought is the greatest obstacle to success with

direct seeding of pine. It usually is risky business

to direct-seed any of the pine species in heavy

broomsedge, because in addition to drought such

sites are almost always infested with mice that eat

the seeds or seedlings. Some losses to other

rodents and birds also occur.

In general, pine seeding is most suitable on sites

recently logged over, where much of the soil has

been loosened up, on areas that have been recently
FOREST PLANTING PRACTICE IN THE CENTRAL STATES 35

burned, or on areas scarified by disking- or l)y

dragging; a treetop over most oF the area (fig-. 27).

On these sites in the Missouri Ozarks, seeding in

lute fall or early spring has been most snccessful ;

if early spring seeding is desired, stratified seed

should be used. But wlietlier sown in fall or

spring the seed sliould first be treated with bird

and rodent repellents.

So rapid have new techniqvies in seed treatments

¡md methods of direct seeding been developed that

standard practice today nniy be outmoded in a

short time. Best tecluiicines and methods in

current use have been adecimitely described by

Mann (84) (See Appendix, p. 62). '

Oak and Walnut Seeding

The essential steps in establishing oak and

walnut by direct seeding are as follows:

1. Collect seed by gathering sonnd acorns or

walnuts fronr the ground underneath trees. For

red oak and several other oak species, bad acorns

may be separated from good ones by dumping

them all in a tub of water; the sonnd acorns sink

and the defective ones float. Although it is not

necessary to husk walnuts, they are easier to

handle when this is done ; wlien husked and dried

they can also be tested for somidness by floating

in water.

2. Seed in the fall any time after the seeds are

collected. But if rodents are a problem, spring

seeding is better. To store over winter, the acorns

and hulled walnuts should be mixed with moist

sand, peat, or a light loamy soil and left outdoors

or kept humid in cokl storage over winter. Acorns

should not be allowed to dry out before planting.

Many seeds, either walnut or oak, planted in the

spring may not germinate until the following

spring.

3. Make holes with a hoe, or a dibble, and insert

two acorns or walnuts in a spot, several inches

apart. Cover to a depth about equal to the

diameter of the seed. A fight mulch over the

spot is beneficial but not necessary.

4. If cost is not prohibitive, better results may

be obtained by covering the planted seed with

screen or hardware cloth. No effective repellents

to protect acorns and walnuts from squirrels

have yet been developed.

PLANTING POPLAR CUTTINGS

Forestation by the use of cuttings of cottonwood

and poplar hybrids is often successful (83). Cottonwood cutting material can usually be made

from vigorous sprout and seedling growth along

streams in the same locality where the planting

is planned. Handled properly, the planting can

be done in this manner at a lower cost—and with

F-502346

Rsure 27.—Shortleaf pine direct seeded on a cutover upland hardwood site in the Missouri Ozarks.

appears to be developing.

A good oai<-pine stand
36 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 24 7

better results—than with seedhngs of possible

distant seed origin obtained from a nursery.

The cuttings should be made during the dormant

season, preferably just before plantmg tmie.

Select cuttings from vigorous sprouts or seedhngs;

they are usually most abundant on sandbars

along streams and other lowlands flooded periodically. Although stems 2 years old are permissible,

it is best to make most of your cuttings from parts

of the stem 1 year old. Make the cuttings from

branches as well as the main stem but do not

use the tips of either- Cuttings should be at

least Yi inch in diameter, preferably from

to YA inch. They should be at least 12 inches

long, preferably 'l5 to 20 inches. The cuttings

should be made with sharp tools, so the bark is

not stripped or loosened in the operation.

If cuttings are made a long time in advance of

planting, they should be tied in bundles of convenient size (25 to 50 cuttings) and buried in moist,

well-drained sand or sawdust, outdoors. If they

have to be transported long distances before

planting it may be advisable to pack them in

moist moss or sawdust, or to coat the tips with

paraffin to prevent them from drying {14-8)-

Before planting it is advisable to soak the cuttings

in water for 1 or 2 days Í14-S). For best results

the planting site should be cleared and disked

before planting.

In planting, the cutting should be set in a

vertical position in the ground, with the larger

end at the bottom; the smaller end should be

flush with the ground surface, or not more than

2 inches above the surface. A planting rod

(fig. 28), easily made by a local blacksmith, is

the best tool to use for planting; the cutting

should extend to the bottom of the hole and

should be tamped with the heel of the shoe.

Areas planted with cottonwood cuttings must

be cultivated at least twice during the first year

and once during the second year.

USE OF WILDINGS

In many woodlands and old plantations there

are openings with an overabundance of natural

reproduction. Some of these "naturals," if suitable for the site to be planted, can be dug up with

spades and used in planting. Quite often, however, the overall costs of planting wildings will

exceed costs of planting trees obtained from

nurseries. Care should be taken that the roots

of these seedlings do not dry before planting.

CONTRACT PLANTING

Some landowners may prefer to contract all or

parts of a tree-planting operation. A contract

can include planting surveys, ground preparation,

purchase and transportation of stock, and plant-

>"g- On some small plantings, especially where

the landowner and contractor know each other

well, an oral agreement or a simple, written, inFigure 28.—Planting rods, from VJ- fo %-inch iron, can be

easily made by your local blacksmith for planting poplar

cuttings.

formal memorandum of agreement will suffice.

On large-scale operations, however, it is desirable

to execute formal contracts with the aid of an

attorney. The local county agricultural agent

or public forestry and soil technicians can usually

supply a list of consulting foresters or other

reputable organizations that do contract planting.

The legal procedure for drawing up contracts

no doubt varies somewhat in each State. There

are, however, certain standardized provisions

that the landowner should consider in making the

contract. Some of these are obligations always

assumed by the owner; others, depending upon

the phases of the operation the owner wishes to

contract, are obligations of the contractor. The

obligations of both owner and contractor should

be clearly set forth in the contract.

Obligations of the Owner

1. Payments.—Owner agrees to pay the contractor (a) a specified sum for the planting survey;

(bj tlie cost of trees and transportation, usually

at a specific rate per thousand trees; (c) the cost

of ground preparation, usually at a specified rate

on a per-acre basis; and (d) the cost of planting,

usually at specified rates per thousand trees.

Payments to be made after completion of contract,

or specified amounts upon completion of each

part of tlie contract.

2. Access. The owner agrees to provide the

contractor all rights of ingress and egress to the
FOREST PLANTING PRACTICE IN THE CENTRAL STATES 37

planting site for all men, materials, and equipment

necessary to perform the job contracted.

3. Plantimj .stock and equiptnenf.—If not included in the contract, the owner agrees to furnish

the contractor the planting stock, supplies, ami

equipment, at a specified time, for completing the

job contracted.

4. Maps and location data.—If a planting survey

is not to be included in tlie contract, the owner

agrees to provide the contractor a sketch map

showing the location of the planting area, with

each area properly identified as to species to be

planted, spacing, and mixture. If the owner

wishes to include a planting survey in the contract,

the owner agrees to furnish the contractor the

legal description of the parcel of land to be surveyed for planting.

Obligations of the Contractor

1. If j)lantin;j .surrey.'í are included in contract.—

Contractor will make a planting survey of the

parcel of land specified by the owner. TJie planting survey will include a site evaluation of the

land for planting, delineate (a) areas in need of

planting, giving acreage and location on a sketch

map; (b) area in each planting-site class; (c) number of trees and species to plant on each planting

site; spacing, planting methods, and mixtures to

use; and (d) site preparation needed.

2. If .site preparation i.s included in contract.—

Contractor will furnish supplies and eciuipment

needed to complete the ground preparation specified in the contract; contractor will complete the

specified ground preparation work. Specification

should include time work is to be done, types and

niethods of ground preparation, such as furrowing,

disking, and the use of chemicals to control

vegetation.

3. If stock purchases and deliveries are included

m contract.—Contractor will obtain the quantity

of stock of each species specified by the owner ;

stock will be of seed origin, varietv, and quality

specified by the owner. Stock will be delivered

to planting site in good, plantable condition;

owner reserves the right to inspect planting stock

at destination, and to reject all trees that appear

to have been damaged in transit by heating,

freezing, or desiccation.

4. If planting is included in contract.—The

contractor agrees to abide by the following general

specification, with a tolerance factor not to exceed

10 percent:

a- Trees will be planted at spacings specified in

contract.

b. Trees will be planted slightly deeper than

planted in the nursery.

c. Trees shall be firmed with mineral soil

packed in and around the roots, so that they cannot easily be pulled out of the ground.

d. Trees may be planted by hand or machine

methods.

e. Trees must be planted in such a manner

that roots will not be twisted, balled, or bent in

"U" or "J" shapes.

f. Roots of planting stock must be kept moist

at all times prior to and during the planting

operation.

g. Except for the lengths specified, roots of

trees will not be pruned or cut by the contractor.

h. Trees will be planted on the area specified by

the owner.

Protective Clauses and Penalties

1. Damages.—Contractor agrees to repair, replace, or pay for damage done to any property in

the performance of the contract, beyond ordinary

wear and tear. In case of failure of the contractor

to repair damage to property, the penalty shall be

equal to the cost of having the repair done by

another contractor.

2. Delays caused by ovmer.—The owner shall

pay the contractor at the rate of a specified sum

for each day's delay, for any delays in the planting operation caused by the owner, or his assignees.

3. Failure to complete planting.—In case of

failure of contractor to complete by the closing

date of the planting season the number of trees

and areas specified in the contract, penalty shall

be forfeiture of payment in the amount needed

to complete the planting.

4. Arbitration.—Where differences occur between owner and contractor on the amounts of

penalties to be assessed, they shall be resolved by

a mutually accepted third party, who shall act as

arbiter and whose decision shall be final. Onehalf of arbiter's fee will be paid by the owner,

one-half by the contractor.

5. Survival.—The criterion for satisfactory

planting will be a survival of at least 80 percent

of the trees planted by June 1 of the first growing

season. When the survival at this date is in

dispute the decision will be vested in the arbiter.

PUBLIC AID FOR PLANTING

Because of the growing need for forest products

and good land use in our economy. Federal,

State, and some local public agencies provide

some aid in forest planting on privately owned

land. Public aid usually consists of furnishing

planting stock at nominal prices, technical assistance, and fuTids to partly finance the planting

operation.

All of the States in the region, financed partly

bv Federal funds granted under the ClarkeAlcXary Act {152), furnish planting stock at

prices equal to or slightly above production costs.

Although restrictions vary somewhat from one

State to another, trees purchased for forest

planting may Tiot be used for landscape or ornamental purposes, nor for growing Christmas trees

as the principal crop. In some States favorable

tax laws mav be applied to land planted to trees

{170).
38 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 247

The Cooperative Forest Maiüi^MMiioiit Act of

August 25, 1950 (1B2), authorized tlie Secretary

of Agricuhure "to cooperate with the States to

enable them to provide technical services to i)rivate forest landowners." Under this act a nunihei'

of farm or service foresters are located at various

places in each State to advise landowners on

tree-planting practices as well as forest management and timber marketing.

Financial assistance in forest planting is sometimes furnished by the Federal Government in

programs designed mainly to promote good conservation practices or to control the production

of farm crops. Information on this kind of assistance can be obtained from the State forester,

county agricultural agent, or local Department of

Agriculture representative.

Early Care of Plantations

Although plantation management is not within

the scope of this publication, it is necessary from

the standpoint of plantation establishment to

point out the need for early care and protection.

Indeed, ihe early care needed on certain sites and

the owner's ability to perform these operations

are factors to be considered before deciding

whether the site should be planted. For some

species' and sites, plantation care is costly; on

areas where it is generally needed, costs range

from one-third to one-half of the planting costs.

On many sites little or no plantation care is

needed, but on others it may well mean the

difference between success and failure. On prairie

soils with a dense cover of brome grass or bluegrass, cultivation during the first and second

season after planting may be needed. A studv of

the need for early plantation care is therefore

desirable; it should be made at the time the site

is examined for planting and innnediately after

the planting job is completed.

Early care of plantations includes, mainly,

measures to release the planted trees from coinpetition and measures needed to protect the

plantation from fire, grazing, disease, insects, and

rodents.

PLANTING RELEASE

Two kinds of plantation release are generally

recognized: low release, which includes the removal or killing of such cover as weeds, grass,

and brush; and high release, which refers to the

removal of trees overtopping the planted trees.

Low Release

Low release is needed on those sites where low

cover, such as grasses, weeds, and brush, is so

dense that it will seriously affect the chances of

survival and good growth of the planted trees.

x^ early all the planting of conifers on cutover and

poorly stocked land will need some low release

at least during the first growing season. If a

good preplanting release is done, such fastgrowing species as sycamore and yellow-poplar,

when planted on suitable sites, generally need

no iurther release. Low release will generally

be needed on open, poorly stocked land where

site preparation has been necessary (page 16); it

will seldom be needed on the typical old fields

where no site preparation was needed. Late

spring or early summer is the best time to

begin low release; second and succeeding releases

should be made later only if needed.

On small plantations, or on large plantations

where release is needed on a few scattered patches,

low release can be done by hand methods, using

sickles, scythes, or hoes. On larger plantations,

where the cover consists mainly of grasses and

weeds, mowing is perhaps the best method of

low release. Large rotary mowers have been

quite satisfactory for this work (fig. 29). It is

important that the mowing be done before the

vegetation gets so tall that the planted trees

cannot be seen during the mowing operation.

Control of grasses and weeds by the use of newly

developed chemicals may ultimately prove the

best and cheapest low-release method, however.

On plantations located on prairie soils, where

sites have been prepared by disking, low release

can be done by cultivating. Equipment generally

available on the farm for cultivating farm crops

may be used for low release on these sites. Cultivation is also necessary on bottom-land plantings

of cottonwood, especially if cuttings were used

for planting.

F-502348

Fisure 29.—One type of rotary mower used extensively for the

control of gross and weed cover in plantations.
FOREST PLANTING PRACTICE IN THE CENTRAL STATES 39

On cutover and partly stocked land and some

old fields, where low cover consists mainly of

brush (briars, sumac, laurel, etc.) and tree

sprouts, chemical methods of control are best

(see p. 18 and table 4).

High Release

To assure good survival and growth of planted

seedings, trees overtopping them must be

removed; and the sooner this release is done the

better (20). Except where a light, partial shade

for direct seeding is desired, or where interplan ting

is planned, it is better to completely kill the overstory before planting than to delay this work

until after planting. If the overstory is removed

first, most plantings on cutover or partty stocked

land may not need anj^ high release, or only a

relatively cheap "mop-up" release. On good

sites, where vigorous sprouting occurs, an additional release 4 to S years after planting may be

necessary. Landowners will do well to consider

the costs of these releases before attempting to

plant on such sites.

Large coniferous plantations established under

a partial hardwood overstory can be released best

be aerial spraying, because the coniferous trees

are not affected if recommended chemicals and

concentrations are used. Planted hardwood

seedlings, however, must be released by treating

only the individual tree or shrub to be removed.

Before high release is made it is sometimes

desirable to make a tally of the overstory and the

planted trees. If more than 75 percent of the

planted trees are not overtopped, high release is

perhaps not worth the expense (fig. 30). Also,

some of the trees overtopping the planted trees

may be desirable species, of good form, and potentially better final crop trees than those that were

planted. It would be foolish to remove trees of

this kind. A mixture of planted and volunteer

trees is often a good objective of forest management.

PROTECTION OF PLANTATIONS

Forest plantations should be protected from

fire, grazing, rodents, insects, and disease. Periodic

examinations followed by quick remedial measures

may prevent total loss of the plantation or reduce

control costs later. If diagnosis is difficult (US),

or practical control measures not known, the local

service forester or county agricultural agent should

be consulted. Or, send reports or samples of

damaged plants to a researcii agency, the State

forester, or the State extension forester. Plant

material can be kept relatively fresh and moist by

wrapping in aluminum foil or waxed paper.

Insect specimens should be preserved, in most

instances, in 70 percent alcohol (ordinary rubbing

alcohol is suitable) before shipment. Live insects

may not be sent through the mail. Shipment of

live plant material to other States is regulated bj^

State plant quarantine authorities. An explanatory note should accompany any material shipped.

The note should contain the collector's name and

address, where and when the samples or specimens

were collected, and the name of the plant, if

known.

It is essential that the tree plantings be protected from fire. This can be done partly by

careful handling of brush fires, grass fires, smokes,

and matches. If the planting is adjacent to a

road or railroad, a strip 10 to 15 feet wide should

be plowed around it and kept fresh by disking as

necessary. To prevent erosion, avoid, if possible,

liaving the bare fire lanes run up and down a slope.

Repeated disking and serious erosion can, however, be avoided by seeding a perpetually green

crop, such as fescue or ladino clover, in the fire

lanes.

Cattle, horses, sheep, or hogs can ruin a plantation by browsing, trampling, uprooting, and breaking the trees. Livestock should be kept out of

plantations; the fences should be maintained

permanently, because heavily grazed woodlands

deteriorate rapidly and are neither good pasture

nor good forest.

Measures for rodent control are generally

expensive and difficult; unless severe losses are

apt to occur, control measures are not warranted.

D'amage from mice and rabbits can be reduced by

eliminating tlieir favorite habitat—dense grass and

brush—by mowing or applying herbicides. Mice

populations in small plantations may be reduced

by the use of poison baits, such as strj^chnine

alkaloid or zinc phosphide (13.9) ; intensified hunting maj" reduce rabbit populations. Small plantations may also be protected from rabbits by the

use of repellents (59).

The greatest hazards to tree survival are outbreaks of insect pests or disease. The chances of

loss from them can be reduced somewhat by the

careful choice of species for each site, good planting

practices, and adequate vegetation control. For

example, in localities where the white pine blister

rust is known to be serious, avoid planting white

pine on sites where currants and gooseberries

grow unless these plants can be permanently

eradicated. Planting redcedar within a mile of

apple or pear orchards may result in damage to

both the redcedar and the orchards by the cedarapple rust (12, 14, IH)- Improper planting,

resulting in a mass of tangled roots, may increase

the possibility of serious root rots {60) ; and planting red pine in climates different than the climate

of its natural range often results in severe attacks

by the European pine shoot moth {Rhyacionia

huoliana Schiff).

It is beyond the scope of this buUetin to give a

detailed account of all plantation insect pests and

diseases. The appendix lists some of the insects

and diseases most likely to be encountered (pp. 64

and 65). The references listed give more details

on the identifying sjnnptoms and possible control

measures. Obviously, the status of insects and

diseases that may be considered of little or no
40 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 247

RELEASE NEEDED

Brush 3 to 4 feet higti suppressing pine

or spruce 2 to 4 years offer plonting.

t

Rough, undesiroble"wolf" trees suppressing

5-tolO-year old plonted pine or spruce

RELEASE NOT NEEDED

Planted pine or spruce in opening

in low brush ond weeds.

Planted pine or spruce emerging

from low brush, weeds,or briors.

Figure 30.—CondiHons under which release of planted trees Is and Is not needed.

importance today may change. The tables, therefore, may not include all of the pests which could

seriously affect the success of species commonh^

planted. If serious outbreaks occur, professional

advice on control measures should be obtained.

Serious damage to young plantations of all

species by white grubs (Phyllophaga spp.) may

occur in some sections of the Central States. On

those sites where high infestations do occur, however, some control measures are desirable. If

sample excavations Tuade in late spring or summer

indicate a population of more than one white grub

per cubic foot of soil, serious damage to planted

seedlings is likely. To reduce mortality on these

sites, the roots of seedlings should be dipped in a

2-percent aldrin emulsion just before planting.

Attachments for spraying chemicals on the roots

of seedlings and surrounding soil are obtainable

for some planting machines. For spraying of this

kind for white grubs, a 1-percent emulsion of

aldrin is recommended.
FOREST PLANTING PRACTICE IN THE CENTRAL STATES

Where to Get More Help

41

Much additional information on tree plantins;

is found in the references giveii in this bulletin

(see Literature Cited, p. 57). Technical assistance

in planning tree-planting projects may be obtained

from the local farm (or service) forester. The

names and addresses of farm foresters can be

obtained from the State Division of Forestrv

(see list, p. 23). In addition, the County Agricultural Agent, consulting forester, and the local

Soil Conservation Service leader may supply the

information desired or give advice on contacting

the State extension forester, .State Agricultural

Experiment Station, or U.S. Forest Service

Experiment Stations.

Species Selection Guides and How to Use Them

Species Selection Guides have been prepared for

each State in the region to aid the landowner in

choosing the right species for planting (tables

9-14). Although the landowner usually lias some

latitude in deciding what products to grow (see

tables 2 and 3, pp. 14 and 15), tlie species selected

to grow these products must be adapted to the

local climate and site. The importance of choosing only those species adapted to the site cannot

be overemphasized.

The guides are prepared to aid in on-the-ground

recognition of those features of soil, topography,

and vegetation that are important in choosing

species for planting. Unless the landowner is

familiar with these features on the land selected

for planting, he should examine the site or have

it examined by a qualified technician before

choosing the species and deciding what methods

of site preparation and planting to use.

The guides are intended primarily for plantings

for erosion control and the growing of wood

products. Although a number of the species

included are also suitable for Christmas trees, the

list of species for this purpose is by no means

complete.

In selecting species for each site, careful consideration was given to recommendations from the

woodland conservationists of the Soil Conservation Service and from foresters of the State

divisions of forestry and agricultural experiment

stations in the region (6, 7, 110). The forestry

staff of Iowa State University was especially

helpful in preparing the Guide for that State {_64)

TABLE 9.—Species selection guide forforest planting in Illinois

Soil series (135, 149, 164)

Species to plant, in order of preference

Planting site class

On open poorly

stocked land

On cutover or

partly stocked land

1. Severely eroded land; sheet erosion

so severe that there is less than 3

inches of topsoil. May or may not

be gullied :

a. North of U.S. Route 40 - - All severely eroded soils

do

jack pine

redcedar

red pine

shortleaf pine

Virginia pine

redcedar

red pine

b. South of U S Route 40

redcedar

jack pine

shortleaf pine

redcedar

Virginia pine

NORTHERN ILLINOIS ' UPLANDS

2. Well-drained, medium-textured soils,

with permeable subsoils. Level to

steeply sloping land :

a. North and east aspects ' Seaton, Favette, Downs, Dodgeville (d.ph.), Ellison, Fox,

Onarga, Alvin, Dubuque (d.ph,).

Clary, Baylis, Caniden, Palestine.

do

white pine

Norway spruce

red pine

European larch

black walnut

black locust

red pine

Norway spruce

Europen larch

redcedar

black locust

white pine

black walnut

white ash

Norway spruce

N. red oak

white pine

Norway spruce

N. red oak

blace walnut

white ash

redcedar

See footnotes at end of table.
42

TABLE

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICUITrURE HANDBOOK 24 7

g,^Species selection guide for fared plamting in /¿¿ir,ois—Continued

Planting site class Soil series {135, 149, 164)

Species to plant, in order of preference

On open poorly

stocked land

NORTHERN ILLINOIS' UPLANDS—Continued

Moderately well-drained, mediumtextured soils; subsoils tight but

moderately permeable. Slightly

more droughty than soils in Planting

Site Class 2." Rolling to steep uplands:

a. North and east aspects ^

5.

b. South and west aspectsModerate to poorly drained, mediumtextured soils; fine-textured silty or

clayey subsoils. Nearly level to

steeply sloping land.

Sandy soils, or loamy sands, excessively droughty except where high

water tables occur. May have sandstone bedrock 20 to 30 inches below

surface. Water table deeper than 4

feet in midsummer:

a. North and east aspects

Schapville (d.ph.), Morley, Blount,

Beccher, Starks, Clinton,

O'Fallon, Hickory.

„do_

Schapville (sh.ph.), Eylar, Chatsworth, Berwick, Atlas, Fishhook,' Tomalco, Colp, Stoy.

red pine

jack pine

white pine

European larch

Norway spruce

redcedar

red pine

jack pine

redcedar

sycamore

cottonwood

white ash

white pine

redcedar

Sumner, Hagner, Bloomfield,

Unity, Plainñeld, Perks.

b. South and west aspects do

6. Well-drained, medium-textured soils

that occur over calcareous sands and

gravels. These are characteristically droughty soils in late summer

and early fall.

7. Shallow soils over bedrock less than

15 inches from surface. Bedrock

usually limestone. (In driftless area

of northwestern Illinois.)

Lorenzo, Rodman, Chute, Hennepin, Bold.

Dodgeville, Romeo, Sogn, Rough

stoney land.

white pine

red pine

jack pine

redcedar

jack pine

redcedar

red pine

jack pine

white pine

redcedar

jack pine

NORTHERN ILLINOIS • LOWLANDS

Sands and loamy sands:

a. Water table 18 inches to 4 feet

from surface in midsummer.^

b. Water table less than 18 inches

from surface in midsummer.

n. Heavy clay bottom lands, normally

dark colored. Claypans. Difficul't

planting sites.

10. Poorly drained mineral or organic

soils in depressions. Natural regeneration usually better than

planting.

Homer, Watseka, Maumee, Kilbourne, Hoopston, Cowling,

Milroy.

do_.

Denny, Brooklyn, Ward.

Houghton, Lena

white pine

red pine

jack pine

Norway spruce

European larch

cottonwood

sycamore

silver maple

sycamore

cottonwood

redcedar

Do not plant__.

On cutover or

partly stocked land

white pine

N. red oak

Norway spruce

white ash

redcedar

red pine

redcedar

Norway spruce

white ash

green ash

redcedar

white pine

sycamore

white pine

red pine

redcedar

redcedar

white pine

red pine

jack pine

redcedar

white pine

Norway spruce

red pine

Do not plant.

Do.

Do.

See footnotes at end of table.
FOREST PLANTING PRACTICE IN THE CENTRAL STATES

TABLE 9.—Species selection guide for forest plantinej in Illinois—Cnuünued

43

Planting site class Soil series (13-5, 149, 164)

Species to plant, in order of preference

On open poorly

stocked land

On cutover or

partly stocked land

SOUTHERN ILLINOIS CLAYPAN AREA

(Gently sloping uplands and'poorly drained upland flats)

11. Medium to fine-textured, gently rolling eroded soils, moderately permeable.

12. Fine-textured, imperfect to somewhat poorly drained soils; silty or

clayey mottled subsoils. Nearly

level to rolling lands.'

13. Claypans; very slowly permeable

mottled subsoils; level.

Richview, Ava, Grantsburg, Hosmer, Sciotoville, Stolle, Bogeta.

Weinbaeh, Robbs, Stoy, Colp,

Bluford, Hurst.

Cisne, Wynoose, Ward, Cowden,

Woir, Henry, Ginat.

shortleaf pine

loblolly pine

red pine

redcedar

redcedar

sycamore

cottonwood

Virginia pine

sycamore

sweetgum

cottonwood

redcedar

shortleaf pine

white pine

loblolly pine

red pine

redcedar

redcedar

sycamore

pin oak

Do not plant.

SOUTHERN ILLINOIS HILLY UPLANDS

14. Well-drained, medium-textured soils

that occur on gently rolling to steep

land; moderately permeable with

httle or no restriction to root development. Includes a few soils with

fragipans that somewhat restrict

root penetration: North and east

a. Topsoil at least 7 inches thick. Alford, Stookey, Hickory, Zanes- shortleaf pine aspects:

generally but not always on ville, Wartrace loblolly pine yellow-poplar

northerly and easterly slopes, white pine N. red oak

coves, and lower slopes.^ black walnut

black locust

black walnut

white ash

white pine

loblolly pine

South and west

aspects:

white pine

loblolly pine

N. red oak

shortleaf pine

b. Topsoil 3 to 7 inches thick, gener- do shortleaf pine white pine

ally on upper south and west loblolly pine loblolly pine

slopes and dry, exposed ridges. white pine

redcedar

shortleaf pine

redcedar

15. Shallow soils over chert or solid bed- Rough Stonev Land, Bodine, shortleaf pine redcedar

rock. Muskineum, Wellston. redcedar shortleaf pine

loblolly pine loblolly pine

See footnotes at end of table.
44 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 247

TABLE 9.—Specien selection ijuide jorforest planting in ///i«,oi.s—Continued

Planting site clas.^i Soil series (/.9.i, Z^.'?, 164)

Species to plant, in order of preference

On open poorly

stocked land

On cutover or

partly stocked land

SOUTHERN ILLINOIS BOTTOM LANDS

16. Deep sandy to medium-textured silty

soils, periodically flooded:

A. Well drained; no standing water

on surface or to depths of l>i

inches for periods longer than 10

days dviring growing season."

Frequently ponded; water standing on surface or to depth of l.S

inches for periods longer than 10

consecutive days during growing

season.^

Alliirial bottom latids: Raymond,

Wakeland, Sharon, Belknap,

Keniper, Bird.s, Bonnie,

Beaucoup.

Terrnrea: Wheeling, Camden,

Palestine, Onarga, .-^Ivin, S\jmner, Hagner, Bloomfield, Perks,

Uniontown, Drury.

do ^

/( ottonwood

sycamore

sweetgum

^yellow-poplar

"black walnut

white ash

.silver maple

'cottonwood

sycamore

sweetgum

silver maple

.baldcypress

sweetgum

yellow-poplar

black walnut

white ash

bur oak

sweetgum

white ash

sycamore

cottonwood

pin oak

' Northern Illinois includes entire State north of the Claypan area, roughly all land north of a line from Paris in

Edgar County to Alton in Jersey County.

^ On cutover and partly stocked land, dense forest and ground cover may make this a difficult planting chance.

Control of vegetation will be expensi\-e because two or more release cuttings may be needed after the initial clearing.

TABLE 10.—Species selection guide jor Indiana

Soil series {117)

Species to plant, in order of preference

Planting site class

On open poorly

stocked land

On cutover or

partly stocked land

1. Severely eroded land; sheet erosion

so severe that there is less than 3

inches topsoil; may or mav not be

gullied:

a. North of U.S. Route 40_ All severely eroded soils jack pine

red pine

Virginia pine

shortleaf pine

loblolly pine

red pine

Virginia pine

shortleaf pine

b. South of U.S. Route 40 do

-

GLACIAL SOILS (including old lake beds, outwash plains, and hilly uplands)

2. Well-drained and moderately welldrained sandy soils. The surface

soils are usually slightly to medium

acid. These soils are underlain by

sand, gravel, or stones and are highly

permeable. Level to gently sloping

land.'

3. Well-drained or moderately welldramed, medium-textured soils with

a root zone generally permeable.

•Subsoils usually clayey, but .somewhat permeable. Uplands and

plains:

a. More than 7 inches of topsoilerosion slight to moderate.'

Berrien, Boyer, Casco, Coloma,

Fox, Nekoosa, Oakville, Oshtemo, Ottawa, Ottokee, Perrin,

Plainfield, Rodman, Seward,

Spinks, Teegarden, Tyner.

Belmore, Bremen, Cana, Celina,

Cincinnati, Edenton, Gibson,

Grayford, Hanna, Hillsdale,

Jennings, Kalamazoo, Longlois,

Miami, Negley, Parke, Pike,

Rossmoyne, Rush, Russell, Sisson, Sunfield, Tracy, Tuscola,

Wynn, Xenia.

red pine

jack pine

white pine

white pine

red pine

See footnotes at end of table.

white pine

white pine

yellow-poplar

black walnut

N. red oak
FOREST PLANTING PRACTICE IN THE CENTRAL STATES

TABLE 10.—Species selection guide jor Indiana—Continued

45

Planting site class Soil series {117)

Species to plant, in order of preference

On open poorly

stocked land

On cutover or

partly stocked land

GLACIAL SOILS (including old lake beds, outwash plains, and hilly uplands)—Continued

b. Topsoil 3 to 7 inches thick ; erosion

moderate to severe.

do white pine

jack pine

red pine

white pine

N. red oak

red pine

4. Well-drained upland and lacustrine

soils with slowly to very slowly

permeable clay subsoils. Gently

rolling to steep land.

Aboite, Galena, Lucas, Markland,

Morley, St. Clair, Uniontown.

shortleaf pine ^

loblolly pine '

white pine

white pine

shortleaf pine '

loblolly pine ^

5. Imperfectly to poorly drained soils

with silt pans or claypans on gently

sloping to slightly undulating land.

Subsoils usually saturated in spring

of the year.

Avonburg, Clermont, Loy, Mullins, Vigo, Weir.sweetgum

sycamore

eottonwood

pin oak

sweetgum

pin oak

sycamore

RESIDUAL UPLAND SOILS (chiefly of sandstone, shale, and limestone origin)

6. Well and moderately well-drained,

medium-textured soils that occur on

gently rolling to steep land; moderately permeable with little or no

restriction to root development.

Derived principally from sandstone

and shale. Includes a few soils with

fragipans that somewhat restrict

root penetration:

a. Topsoil at least 7 inches thick,

generally but not always on

northerly and easterly slopes,

coves, and lower slopes.'

b. Topsoil 3 to 7 inches thick, generally on upper south and west

slopes and dry, exposed ridges.

7. Well-drained to excessively welldrained, coarse and medium-textured

soils on rolling to steep land. Underlain immediately by shale or coarse

to medium-textured subsoils.

8. Poorly to imperfectly drained soils

with siltpan or claypans that restrict

root penetration and water movement. Nearly level uplands usually

saturated in spring.

9. Shallow rocky limestone soils, with

fine-textured subsoil; limestone bedrock 6 to 20 inches below surface.

Strongly sloping to steep:

a. Topsoil more than 7 inches

b. Topsoil 3 to 7 inches.

Muskingum, Tilsit, Wellston,

Zanesville, Christian (derived

partly from loessial material).

-doColyer.

Johnsburg.-

white pine

loblolly pine '

shortleaf pine

yellow-poplar

white pine

shortleaf pine

loblolly pine '

shortleaf pine

loblolly pine '

sweetgum

sycamore

shortleaf pine

loblolly pine '

Fatrmount, Corydon, Milton,

(shallow phase) Orleans, Rugby.

.dowhite pine

shortleaf pine

shortleaf pine

North and east

aspects:

yellow-poplar

"N. red oak

black walnut

white ash

white pine

loblolly pine ^

South and west

aspects : white pine

loblolly pine '

N.red oak

shortleaf pine

white pine

shortleaf pine

shortleaf pine

loblolly pine '

sweetgum

N.red oak

white ash

shortleaf pine

loblolly pine '

white pine

shortleaf pine

white pine

shortleaf pine

See footnotes at end of table.
46 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICUITTURE HANDBOOK 24 7

TABLE 10.—Species selection guide for Indiana—Continued

Planting site class Soil series (117)

Species to plant, in order of preference

On open poorly

stocked land

On cutover or

partly stocked land

RESIDUAL UPLAND SOILS (chiefly of sandstone, shale, and limestone origin)—C ontinued

10. Well-drained, deep limestone soils,

either rocky or shallow limestone.

Limestone bedrock usually deeper

than 20 inches. Gentle to strongly

sloping uplands:

a. Topsoil more than 7 inches ' Crider, Bewleyville, Frederick, white pine North and east

Hagertown, Pembroke, Russell- shortleaf pine aspects:

ville. loblolly pine black walnut

black walnut ' N. red oak

black locust white ash

white ash white pine

red oak South and west

aspects:

white pine

loblolly pine '

black walnut

N. red oak

white ash

b. Topsoil 3 to 7 inches do-. - shortleaf pine

loblolly pine '

white pine

white pine

WINDBLOWN UPLAND SOILS (parts of southwestern Indiana)

11 Well-drained, deep soils developed

in relatively thick deposits of windblown loessial materials, on gently

sloping to steep topography.

Bloomfield, Hosmer, Manlove,

Oaktown, Princeton, Birbeck.

shortleaf pine

white pine

white pine

shortleaf pine

BOTTOM-LAND SOILS (first bottoms, terraces, and depressions, derived from varied materials)

13.

Well- to moderately well-drained,

medium-textured soils on first bottoms and terraces along streams

and rivers.'

Imperfectly to poorly drained soils

on level to slightly undulating areas.

Subsoils usually saturated with water

in spring of year.'

Adler, Eel, Boehne, Elkinsville,

Genesee, Griffin, Huntington,

Raymond, Lindside, Martinsville,

Rahm, Morganfield, Philo,

Pope, Pekin, Ockley, Sciotoville, Uniontown, "Wheeling,

Wilbur, Woodmere.

Developed from limestone:

Guthrie, Lawrence.

Developed from glacial lili: Washtenaw. Bethel, Delmar, Inwood,

Blount, Nappanee, Crosby,

Brookston, Kokomo, Keysport.

Developed from outwash, terrace, or

lacustrine (lake-bed) soils:

Whitaker, Sleeth, Westland,

Abbington, Kibbee, Colwood,

Robinson, Mahalasville, Needham, Bartle, Peoga, Vincennes

Weinbach, Ginat, Chilo, Henshaw, Patton, Dubois.

Developed from loess: Reesville.

Ward, Ragsdale, Iva, Ayrshire.

Developed from loess, sandstone, and

shale: Mullins.

cottonwood

sweetgum

baldcypress * white pine

black walnut

white ash

sweetgum

sycamore

cottonwood

silver maple

baldcypress '

See footnotes at end of table

white ash

sycamore

black walnut

sweetgum

white pine

sweetgum

silver maple
FOREST PLANTING PRACTICE IN THE CENTRAL STATES

TABLE 10.—Species selection guide for Indixina—Continued

47

Planting site class Soil series (117)

Species to plant, in order of preference

On open poorly

stocked land

On cutover or

partly stocked land

BOTTOM-LAND SOILS (first bottoms, terraces, and depressions, derived from varied materials)—Continued

14. Poorly drained organic soils- Carlisle, Tawas, Linwood, Willette, Rifle, Peat, Adrian, Palms,

Houghton, Edwards, Warners,

Kerston, Wallkill.

Do not plant.

' On cutover and partly stocked land, dense forest and ground cover may make this a difficult planting chance,

trol of vegetation will be expensive because two or more release cuttings may be needed after the initial clearing.

2 Do not plant shortleaf pine north of U.S. Route 40.

' Do not plant loblolly pine north of U.S. Route 50.

' Plant baldcypress only on sites south of U.S. Route 40.

TABLE 11.—Species selection guide for Iowa

ConPlanting site class Species to plant, in order of preference

EASTERN IOWA (from U.S. Route 69 east to the Mississippi River)

1. Sandy soils, or finer-textured soils

over bedrock less than 15 inches

from surface.

Deep, well-drained medium-textured soils; generally permeable,

but includes some that are moderately impermeable at depths

greater than 18 inches.

Moderate to poorly drained, shallow, clay loams, silty clays, and

clays; "tight" slowly permeable,

subsoils.

Sogn, Thurman, Dickinson, Chelsea,

Lamont, steep stony land.

Fayette, Dubuque, Quandahl, Tama,

Carrington, Coggon, Chase burg,

Givin, Berwick, Mahaska, Otley,

Taintor, mixed alluvium.

Zwingle, Schapville, Traer, Marion,

Weiler, Lindley, Shelby, Gosport,

Keomah, Bucknell, Pershing, Belinda, Bauer, Grundy, Haig, Sperry,

Seymour, Edina, Clarinda, Lagonda, mixed alluvium.

North and east aspects, coves and second

bottoms: white pine, red pine, jack pine,

redcedar.

South and west aspects, ridgetops: jack pine,

red pine, redcedar.

North and east aspects, coves and second

bottoms: white pine, red pine, European

larch, Norway spruce,' white spruce,'

black walnut, cottonwood, green ash.

South and west aspects: white pine, red pine,

jack pine, European larch.

Alluvial bottom-land soils: cottonwood,

sycamore, silver maple, green ash,

hackberry, black walnut.

North and east aspects, coves and second

bottoms: green ash, redcedar, white pine,

hackberry, cottonwood, silver maple,

Norway spruce.'

South and west aspects: redcedar, jack pine,

cottonwood, green ash, hackberry.

Bottom lands: cottonwood, green ash,

sycamore, silver maple.

WESTERN IOWA (from U.S. Route 69 to western boundary of State)

4. Droughty soils ; well-drained sandy,

or medium-textured soils with low

moisture-holding capacity.

5. Deep, well-drained soils; generally

permeable but includes some soils

that are moderately impermeable

at depths greater than 18 inches.

See footnotes at end of table.

Hamburg, Ida, Arion.

Monona, Marshall, Castaña, Napier,

Steinauer, Minden, Hornick-first

bottom, Sharpsburg, Winterset,

Ladoga, Nodaway, mixed alluvium.

Redcedar.

North and east aspects, coves and second

bottoms: redcedar, European larch, white

pine,^ black walnut, cottonwood, white

spruce.^

South and west aspects: redcedar, jack pine,

European larch.

Bottom lands: cottonwood, silver maple,

hackberry, black walnut, sycamore.
48 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 24 7

WESTERN IOWA (from U.S. Route 69 to westorn boundary of State)—Continued

Moderate to poorly drained, .-^hallow clay loams, silty clays, and

clays; "tight," slowly permeable

subsoils.

Clarinda, I^uluii-first bottoms, Shelby,

LaHunda, (iara, Mah'ern, Wabash,

and mi.xed alluvium.

North and east aspects, coves and second

bottoms: redcedar, .sycamore, cottonwood, green ash, silver maple, hackberry.

South and west aspects: redcedar, bur oak,

sycamore, cottonwood, hackberry.

Bottom lands: sycamore, cottonwood, silver

maple, green ash.

' Plant in northeast Iowa only, north of U.S. Route 6.

' Do not plant on sites with calcareous topsoils.

TABLE 12.—Species selection guide for Kentucky

Planting site class Soil series {73)

Severely eroded land; sheet erosion so

severe that there is less than 3 inches

of topsoil; may or may not be severly

gullied:

a. Subsoil coarse to moderately finetextured.

b. Subsoil fine-textured with compact clay, sometimes with limestone slabs or marl outcrops.

2. Well-drained to moderately welldrained, medium-textured, moderately deep to shallow soils on gently

rolling to steep land- derived from

sandstone, shale, and/or silt stones,

a. Coarse to medium-textured subsoils, generally on north and east

steep slopes. 2

b. Soils moderately deep to fragipans,

or shallow to sandstone or shale, on

level to sloping land. (Muskingum

and Hector on sloping to steep.)

Deep, well-drained, gentle to stronglv

sloping upland and terrace soils; with

rapid to moderately permeable, medium to moderately fine-textured subsoils; underlain by limestones, sandstones, and/or shales:

a. Topsoil more than 7 inches thick -

b. Topsoil 3 to 7 inches thick.

See footnotes at ond of tablp

Hector (cool slopes)'

Muskingum (cool slopes).

Bedford, Captina, Cincinnati,

Coolville, Dickson, Freeland,

Grenada, Hector (lower hot

slopes),' Kenton, Landisburg,

Lax, Leadvale, Loudon, Mercer,

Mobely, Monongahela, Muskingum Oower hot slopes),'

Nicholson,Pearman, Providence,

Richland, Rossmoyne, Sango,

Sciotoville, Tilsit, Whitwell,

Zaleski, Zanesville.

Allegheny, Apison, Allen, Ashburn,

Ashton, Armour, Bealeyville,

Braxton,

Caylor,

Crider,

Decatur,

FranksFleming,

Baxter, Brandon,

Christian, Cookeville,

Capshaw, Crossville,

Cruze, Cumberland,

Dexter, Ells, Etowah,

town, Faeeville, ..^....„p,

Hagerstown, Hayter.Hermitage

Holston, Humphreys, Jefferson,

Loradale, Loring, Lexington,

Linker Kintonia, Malt, Manse,

Memphis, Maury, Mountview^

Nolichucky, Pembroke, Pace,

Negley, Pickwick, Rennox, Ruston, Russelvillc, Sequatchie,

Shelbyville, Wavnesboro

Wheeling, Wolftever, Trappist!

Wellston.

Species to plant, in order of preference

On open poorly

stocked land

loblolly pine

shortleaf pine

Virginia pine

redcedar

white pine

loblolly pine

shortleaf pine

black walnut

black locust

loblolly pine

shortleaf pine

white pine

white pine

loblolly pine

shortleaf pine

black walnut

black locust

shortleaf pine

loblolly pine

white pine

On cutover or

partly stocked land

loblolly pine

shortleaf pine

Virginia pine

redcedar

yellow-poplar

N. red oak

black walnut

white ash

white pine

loblolly pine

white pine

loblolly pine

shortleaf pine

white pine

loblolly pine

N. red oak

black walnut

yellow-poplar

white ash

white pine

loblolly pine

shortleaf pine
w^

FOREST PLANTING PRACTICE IN THE CENTRAL STATES

TABLE 12.—Species selection guide for Kentucky—Continued

49

Planting site class Soil series (73)

Species to plant, in order of preference

On open poorly

stocked land

On cutover or

partly stocked land

Well-drained to excessively welldrained coarse and medium-textured

soils on rolling to steep land; underlain immediately by shale or coarsetextured parent material of variable

origin.

Well- to moderately well-drained upland soils with thin clay subsoils, or

rocky and shallow to thin-bedded limestones or calcareous shale with clay

subsoils; usually eroded.

Well-drained upland and terrace soils

with medium to slow internal drainage and clay subsoils of limestone

and/or shale origin; gently to strongly sloping:

a. Topsoil more than 7 inches thick ^.

b. Topsoil 3 to 7 inches thick.

Bodine, Beulah, Bruno, Colyer,

CuUeoka, Guin, Hartsells, lola,

Lakin, Muskingum (upper hot

slope),' Rockcastle, Westmoreland.

Ashwood, Eden, Edenton, Colbert, Talbott, Caneyville, Corydon, Fairmount, Otway,

Tumbez, Westmoreland (very

rocky phase), Ashburn (very

rocky phase), Hagerstown

(shallow and rocky phases),

Maury (shallow phase), Pembroke (shallow and rocky

phases), Salvisa (very rocky

phase).

Beasley, Bigbone, Brashear, Donerail, Enders, Hampshire, Heitt,

Jessup, Licking, Lowell, Maddox, Markland, Muse, Needmore, Rarden, Salvisa silt loam

Swaim, Uniontown, Upshur,

Weon, Woolper.

do

7. Moderately well- to well-drained,

medium to coarse-textured bottom

soils of variable origin. Fertile, highly productive land.^

Poorly to somewhat poorly drained

bottom, terrace, and upland soils,

a. Slopes less than 2 percent.^

b. Slopes 2 percent or more.^-

Very sandy, alluvial

streams and rivers.^

soils along

Adler, Barbourville, CoUins, Commerce, Egam, Ennis, Huntington, Hymon, Lindside,. Lobelville, Morganfleld, Philo, Pope,

Robinsonville, Staser, Shannon,

Vicksburg.

Atkins, Avonburg, Blago, Bürgin,

Calhoun, Calloway, Carroll,

Caseyville, Clermont, Cotaco,

Dekoven, Dunning, Elkins, Falaya, Fawcett, Ginat, Guthrie,

Henry, Henshaw, Ina, Inglefield, Johnsburg, Lawrence, Lee,

Lickdale, McGary, Melvin,

Mhoon, Mullins, Newark, Olivier, Purdv, Robertsville, Reellen, Sees, vStendal, Taft, Tupelo,

Tyler, Waverly, Weinbach, Zipp.

Clack, Crevasse, sandy alluvial

land.

shortleaf pine

loblolly pine

redcedar

white pine

shortleaf pine

loblolly pine

redcedar

cottonwood

yellow-poplar

black walnut

black locust

sweetgum

white pine

loblolly pine

baldcypress

cherrybark oak

baldcypress

sweetgum

sycamore

pin oak

cottonwood

baldcypress

loblolly pine

shortleaf pine

sycamore

sweetgum

pin oak

cottonwood

sycamore

sweetgum

baldcypress

loblolly pine

shortleaf pine

redcedar

white pine

N. red oak

redcedar

Do not plant unless

cleared and cultivated:

cottonwood

yellow-poplar

black walnut

black locust

sweetgum

cherrybark oak

white pine

loblolly pine

baldcypress

sweetgum

pin oak

sycamore

baldcypress

sweetgum

pin oak

sycamore

baldcypress

loblolly pine

sweetgum

sycamore

cottonwood

baldcypress

"Hot slopes" are generally on south and west aspects, between Azimuth readings of 12.5° to 340°

are generally north and east aspects between Azimuth readmgs ot áW ana i^o

1 r\ , , ., ^ r.t I 1 1 j f„,„o+ QTiH urniinH cover mav m£

"cool slopes"

.enerally north and east aspects between Azimuth readmgs ol áW ana I.íO Hiffimlt nlantine chinee Con-

' On cutover and partly stocked land, dense forest and ground cover -^^vZ ^;,,'\'^^\7*;äe in^^^^^ troi of vegetation will be expensive because two or more release cuttmgs may be needed after the mitial clearing.
50 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 24 7

TABLK l.'3a.—Species selection guide for Missouri

Planting site class Common soil serios ' (70, 71, 95, 150) Species to plant, in order of preference

NORTHERN AND WESTERN MISSOURI (north of Missouri River and west of the Ozarks)

Well-drained sandy soil, or medium-textured soils with low

water-holding capacity; some soils

shallow to sandstone bedrock at

20 to 30 inches. (Includes "river

hills" and bluffs.)

Deep, moderately well to somewhat poorly drained mediumtextured soils; includes some soils

with 40 inches or more of silty surface soils and silty clay to clay

subsoils.

Poorly drained fine-textured soils

with "tight" claypan subsoils.

Sarpy sandy loam (60-64), Cass

sandy loam (.52), Boone (26-27),

Knox-Menfro (18), Shallow Huntington (()2-'.).3), Marshall-Pettis

(14), Nodaway-Sharon (66).

Grundv (11), Shelby (16), Summit

(11), Tama (14), Union (20), Winfield (20), Lindlev (21).

Edina (28), Marion (10), MexicoParsons (24), Osage clay-Wabash

clay (58), Putnam-Oswego (15),

Seymour (29), Weldon (25).

Uplands: redcedar, white pine.^

bottom lands: cottonwood, silver maple

hackberry, sycamore.

North and east aspects: black walnut, green

ash, black locust, cottonwood, yellowpoplar,^ white pine.2

South and west aspects: jack pine, redcedar.

Bottom lands: cottonwood, sycamore

green ash, black walnut.

Uplands: redcedar, sycamore, cottonwood, green ash, hackberry, silver

maple.

Bottom lands: sycamore, cottonwood,

green ash, hackberry.

1 The list of soil series in each planting site class is not complete; the number in parentheses foUowing a sou series

refers to the basic soil series symbol occurring on soil surveys currently being made in Missouri by the Soil Conservation

2 Plant white pine only in part of Missouri north of the Missouri River and east of U.S. Highway No 63 on north

and east aspects of soils specified. Plant yellow-poplar on recommended soils in only the following localities: the "Bootheel, and the eastern Ozark border region. "

TABLE 13b.—Species selection guide for Missouri

Planting site class

Common soil series '

{70, 71, 95, 150)

Species to plant, in order of preference

On open poorly

stocked land

OZARK REGION

On cutover or

partly stocked land

4. Severely eroded land; less than 3

inches of topsoil; gullied.

5. Well-drained, medium-textured soils;

permeable subsoils for 40 inches or

more. On areas bordering prairie

some of these soils may have rock

sand, or gravel at 24- to 36-inch

depths, and somewhat droughty

Level to steeply sloping land, uplands and bottom lands:

a. North and east aspects

All severely eroded soilsb. South and west aspects.

c. Bottom land.

6. Well-drained, stony or chertv-silty

surface soils; permeable subsoil with

rock, sand or gravel. Droughty soils

on rolling to steep slopes ^ ^ ^

See footnotes at end of table.

Baxter (2), Craig (6), LoringMemphis (19), Hagerstown (1).

-do.

Huntington-Robinsonville (66)..

Baxter cherty (3) or stony (4),

Bodine cherty (5) or stony (4),

Clarksville cherty (5) or stony

(4), Eiden (7), Gosport (17-31),

Snead stony (13), Sogn stony

(13).

eastern redcedar

shortleaf pine

loblolly pine ^

shortleaf pine

loblolly pine '

eastern redcedar

black locust

black walnut

shortleaf pine

loblolly pine '

eastern redcedar

loblolly pine ^

shortleaf pine

black walnut

shortleaf pine

loblolly pine ^

eastern redcedar

eastern redcedar

shortleaf pine

loblolly pine ^

black walnut

eastern redcedar

green ash

yellow-poplar ^

shortleaf pine

lobloUy pine '

eastern redcedar

black walnut

loblolly pine '

shortleaf pine

eastern redcedar

loblolly pine '
FOREST PLANTING PRACTICE IN THE CENTRAL STATES

TABLE 13b.—Species selection guide for Missouri—Continued

51

Planting site class

Common soil series •

(70, 71, 95, 150)

Species to plant, in order of preference

On open poorly

stocked land

On cutover or

partly stocked land

OZARK REGION—Continued

7. Moderate- to poorly drained, medium-textured surface soils, and 40

inches or more of fine-textured subsoils (silty clay to clay). Some of

the soils near prairie land may have

very heavy (claypan) subsoils. Level

to steeply sloping land:

a. Uplands Grenada (20), Guthrie (10), Leba- loblolly pine ^ eastern redcedar

non (9), Union (20), Nixa- eastern redcedar shortleaf pine

Dixon (8). shortleaf pine loblolly pine ^

green ash

b. Lowlands Robertsville-Calhoun (10), Wav- loblolly pine ' Do not plant unerly (76). sycamore less cleared:

cottonwood sycamore

green ash cottonwood

green ash

8. Sandy soils, excessively drained and

droughty. Upland soils have sandstone bedrock at 20 to 30 inches.

Uplands and bottom lands (stream

gravel) :

a. Uplands HanceviUe (26), Tilsit (23), Col- shortleaf pine shortleaf pine

linsviUe (27). loblolly pine 3 loblolly pine ^

b. Lowlands Stream gravel (96) ; bottom lands : cottonwood Do not plant unshallow to sandy or gravelly sycamore less cleared:

(91-94). loblolly pine ^ cottonwood

sycamore

SOUTHEASTERN LOWLANDS (the "Bootheel," and adjoining counties)

9. Poorly drained, silt to clav surface Alligator (79), Olivier (25), Rob- sycamore Do not plant.

soils and clay subsoils; includes the ertsville (10), Sharkev (78), sweetgum

"gumbo" bottom lands; level to Waverlv (76), imperfectly to cottonwood

gently rolling land. poorly drained bottom-land silver maple

soils with silty clav subsurfaces baldcypress

(67-54).

10. Sandy to medium-textured, siltv

soils, deep, highly permeable:

a. Well-drained; no standing water Beulah (64), Clack (60), Sarpy cottonwood sweetgum

on surface or to depths of 18 (64), deep, well-drained bottom- sycamore yellow-poplar

inches for periods longer than 10 land soils (66). sweetgum black walnut

consecutive days during growing yellow-poplar white ash

season.* black walnut

white ash

silver maple

baldcypress

cherrybark oak

cherrybark oak

b. Frequently ponded ; water standing on surface or to depth of 18

do cottonwood sweetgum

sycamore white ash

inches for periods longer than 10

consecutive days during growing

season.*

sweetgum

silver maple

baldcypress

sycamore

cottonwood

' The list of soil series in each planting site class is not complete; the number in parentheses following a soil series

refers to the basic soil series symbol occurring on soil surveys currently bemg made m Missouri by the Soil Conservation

Servie 6

' Fiant white pine only in part of Missouri north of the Missouri River and east of U.S. Highway No. 63 on north and

east aspects of soils specified. Plant yellow-poplar on recommended soils in only the following locahties: the Bootheel,

and the eastern Ozark border region.

' Loblolly pine recommended only in counties adjoining Arkansas. i* i *• -u n

* On cutover and partly stocked land, dense forest and ground cover may make this a difficult planting chance. Control of vegetation will be expensive because two or more release cuttings may be needed after the initial clearing.
52 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 24 7

TARLE 14.—Species selection guide for Ohio

Planting site class Soil series (104, 107, IOS)

Species to plant, in order of preference

On open poorly

stocked land

On cutover or

partly stocked land

RESIDUAL SOILS OF SOUTHERN AND SOUTHEASTERN OHIO

Severely eroded land; sheet erosion

so severe tliat there is less than 3

inches of topsoil. May or may not

be gullied.

Well-drained, medium-textured soils

that occur on gently rolling to steep

land; moderately permeable with

little or no restriction to root development:

a. Topsoil at least 7 inches thick,

generally but not always on northerly and easterly slopes, coves,

and lower slopes.'

b. Topsoil 3 to 7 inches thick, generally on upper south and west

slopes and dry, e.xposed ridges.

3. Well-drained uplands soils with moderate to slowly permeable clav subsoils, Rolling to steep land.

4. Shallow well-drained to excessively

well-drained, medium-textured soils

on rolling to steep land. Underlain

immediately by black shales.

Soils with clay subsoils of poor physical conditions, derived from calcareous shales. Moderately steep and

usually severely eroded:

a. Slight to moderate erosion; topsoil 3 to 7 inches thick.

b. Severely eroded; topsoil less than

3 inches thick; gullied.

Shallow rocky limestone soils, with

fine-textured subsoil. Limestone

bedrock 6 to 20 inches below surface

Strongly sloping to steep:

a. Topsoil more than 7 inches thick

b. Topsoil 3 to 7 inches thick.

See footnotes at end of table.

All sexerelv eroded soils^

'Derived chiefly from sandstone and

shale: Wellston, Zanesville, Tilsit, Alford, Frankstown, Tuscarawas, Sluskingum, Meigs,

Stony Muskingum, Stony

Meigs, Gilpin.

Derived parllij from litnestone or

other calcareous material: Brooke,

Belmont, Westmoreland.

do

Rarden, Latham, Eifort, Trappist,

Upshur, Coolville, Keene, Byington, Fawcett, Guernsey.

Colyer

Shallow Otway, Shallow Jacksonville, Shallow Bentonville.

.do.

Fairmount, Heitt, Otway, Corydon, Shallow Cedarville", Shallow

or Stony Bratton.

-do.

Virginia pine

shortleaf pine '

loblolly pjine ^

white pine

white pine

loblolly pine ^

shortleaf pine '

red pine *

yellow-poplar

black walnut

black locust

European larch

white pine

shortleaf pine '

loblolly pine ^

red pine *

shortleaf pine '

loblolly pine -

white pine

red pine <

shortleaf pine '

loblolly pine ^

Virginia pine

white pine

red pine •

redcedar

white pine

Austrian pine

Virginia pine

redcedar

Virginia pine

redcedar

white pine

shortleaf pine '

redcedar

shortleaf pine '

Virginia pine

loblolly pine '

Virginia pine

shortleaf pine '

white pine

yellow-poplar

N. red oak

black walnut

white ash

white pine

loblolly pine -

white pine

shortleaf pine '

loblolly pine '

red pine *

white pine

shortleaf pine '

loblolly pine ^

red pine *

shortleaf pine '

loblolly pine '

white pine

redcedar

white pine

Austrian pine

Virginia pine

redcedar

Virginia pine

white pine

redcedar

shortleaf pine '

shortleaf pine '

Virginia pine

redcedar
FOREST PLANTING PRACTICE IN THE CENTRAL STATES

TABLE li.—Species selection guide for Ohio—Continued

53

Planting site class Soil series {I04, 107, IOS)

Species to plant, in order of preference

On open poorly On cutover or

stocked land partly stocked land

RESIDUAL SOILS OF SOUTHERN AND SOUTHEASTERN OHIO-Continued

7. Well- and moderately drained deep

limestone soils, derived from limestone. Limestone bedrock usually

deeper than 20 inches. Gentle to

strongly sloping uplands:

a. Topsoil more than 7 inches thick '

b. Topsoil 3 to 7 inches thick do

Hagerstown, Maddo.x, Cedarville,

Bratton, Bedford, Deep Jacksonville, Deep Bentonville.

white pine

shortleaf pine '

loblolly pine ^

yellow-poplar

black walnut

black locust

white ash

Norway spruce

shortleaf pine '

Austrian pine

loblolly pine ^

white pine

white pine

yellow-poplar

black walnut

N. red oak

white ash

Norway spruce

white pine

loblolly pine ^

shortleaf pine •

Austrian pine

GLACIAL SANDSTONE AND SHALE SOILS OF NORTHEASTERN OHIO

8. Severely eroded land; sheet erosion All severely eroded soils_ Virginia pine

jack pine

Virginia pine

jack pine so severe that there is less than 3

inches of topsoil. May or may not

be gujlied.

red pine •• red pine ''

9. Shallow, droughty soils developed Loudonville, Millwood, Massillon. Virginia pine white pine

from thin glacial till over sandstone red pine * red pine *

outcrops, or from acid sands and jack pine

gravels. white pine

10. Well- and moderately well-drained,

deep medium- to fine-textured soils

with a medium to slowly permeable

root zone:

a. More than 7 inches of topsoil; Ellsworth, Wooster, Hanover, white pine white pine

erosion negligible. ' Fallsburg, Rittman, Canfield, Norwav spruce black walnut

Alexandria, Wayne. European larch Norway spruce

b. Topsoil 3 to 7 inches thick; ero- do yellow-poplar white ash

sion moderate to severe. sweetgum N. red oak

white ash sweetgum

black walnut sycamore

white pine white pine

jack pine N. red oak

red pine * red pine *

11. Imperfect to verv poorly drained. Wadsworth, Ravenna, Mahoning, sycamore sweetgum

medium- to fine-textured deep soils Frenchtown, Marengo, Venango, sweetgum pin oak

on level or gently rolling till plains. ^ Trumbull. pin oak

cottonwood

silver maple

baldcypress

silver maple

GLACIAL LIMESTONE SOILS OF WESTERN OHIO

12. Severely eroded land; sheet erosion

so severe that there is less than 3

inches of topsoil. May or may not

be seriously gullied :

a. Subsoils coarse to medium textured.

b. Subsoils fine textured, with calcareous, compact clay.

See footnotes at end of table.

Virginia pine

shortleaf pine

loblolly pine ^

redcedar

Virginia pine

Virginia pine

shortleaf pine '

loblolly pine ^

jack pine

redcedar

Virginia pine
54 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 24 7

TABLE 14.—Speciev selection guide for Ohio—Continued

Planting site class Soil series (104, 107, 108)

Species to plant, in order of preference

On open poorly

stocked land

On cutover or

partly stocked land

GLACIAL LIMESTONE SOILS OF WESTERN OHIO—Continued

13. Shallow to moderately deep mediumtextured soils underlain liy gravel,

calcareous glacial till, shale, or

limestone.

14. Well- and moderately well-drained,

deep medium- to fine-textured soils

with medium to slowly permeable

root zones.

a. More than 7 inches of topsoil;

erosion negligible.^

b. Topsoil 3 to 7 inches thick; erosion moderate to severe.

15. Imperfect to very poorly drained,

deep, medium- to fine-textured soils

with medium to slow permeability;

level to gently undulating till plains

or in depressions.'

Shallow Milton, Milton, Mill

Creek, Ockley, Wea, Fox, Negley. Casco, Edenton, Romeo,

Hennepin, Wynn, Rodman,

Warsaw, Parke, Pike.

Celina, Caesar, Ionia, Sardinia,

Thackery, Tippecanoe, Corwin,

Xenia, Dana, Cardington, Birkbeck, Grayford, Miami, Williamsburg, Kendallville, Russell,

Wawaka, Sidell, Saybrook, Morley, Uniontown, Varna, London,

Rossmoyne, Jessup, Cincinnati,

Jennings.

Crosby, Massie, Sleeth, Crane,

Weinbach, Odell, Fincastle, Bennington, Raub, Bonbas, Blount,

Henshaw, Randolph, Blanchester, Elliot, Pitchin, Brookston, Westland, Montgomery,

Abington, Kokomo, Millsdale,

McGary, Cope, Pewamo, Chippewa, Ragsdale, Clermont,

Bethel, Delmar, Condit, Wickliffe, Avonburg.

white pine

red pine

Austrian pine

shortleaf pine '

loblolly pine ^

redcedar

white pine

Austrian pine

shortleaf pine '

loblolly pine ^

sweetgum

Norway spruce

Austrian pine

shortleaf pine '

loblolly pine ^

white pine

sweetgum

sycamore

baldcypress

cottonwood

pin oak

European larch

white pine

Austrian pine

shortleaf pine '

loblolly pine ^

redcedar

white pine

yellow-poplar

black walnut

white ash

sweetgum

N. red oak

Norway spruce

white pine

N. red oak

loblolly pine ^

shortleaf pine '

sweetgum

white ash

silver maple

LAKE PLAINS SOILS OF NORTHERN AND NORTHWESTERN OHIO

16. Moderately well-drained, fine- to

very fine-textured soils with a slow

to very slowly permeable root zone.

Sloping to moderately steep land:

a. Topsoil more than 7 inches thick.

b. Topsoil less than 7 inches thick.

17. Well-drained to poorly drained sandy

soils. The surface soils are usually

slightly to medium acid. These soils

are highly permeable. Level to

gently sloping land:

a. Water table deeper than 4 feet in

summer.

b. Water table 18 inches to 4 feet in

summer.

c. Water table less than 18 inches

deep in summer.

See footnotes at end of table.

Ottokee, Oakville, Plainfield, Seward, Painesville, Haney, Tuscola.

Rimer, Kibbie, Tedrow, Digby

Wauseon, Reynolds, Cohvood,

Milgrove, Granby, Maumee.

white pine

red pine •• Austrian pine

Norway spruce

red pine *

white pine

Norway spruce

jack pine

red pine '

white pine

white pine

jack pine

red pine *

cottonwood

sycamore

sweetgum

silver maple

white pine

Norway spruce

Austrian pine

red pine *

white pine

Norway spruce

Austrian pine

red pine *

white pine

red pine *

white pine

red pine *

Do not plant
FOREST PLANTING PRACTICE IN THE CENTRAL STATES

TABLE 14.—Species selection guide jor Ohio—Continued

LAKE PLAINS SOILS OF NORTHERN AND NORTHWESTERN OHIO—Continued

55

Soil series {I04, 107, 108)

Species to plant, in order of preference

Planting site class

On open poorly

stocked land

On cutover or

partly stocked land

18. Poorly and imperfectly drained medium- to fine-text<ired soils on level

areas. Subsoils usually saturated in

spring.^

19. Poorly drained organic soils in dePaulding, Nappanee, Toledo, Fulton, Hoytville, Latty, Caneadea,

Canadice, Lorain, Fries, Olmstead, Wilmer, Haskins, Mermill, Roselms, Wickliffe.

Muck, peat . .

sycamore

sweetgum

silver maple

cottonwood

Do not plant

sweetgum

silver maple

sycamore

cottonwood

Do not plant.

pressional areas. (Natural regeneration usually better than planting).

BOTTOM-LAND (ALLUVIAL) SOILS THROUGHOUT OHIO

20. Well-drained medium-textured soils Eel, Lobdell, Philo, Linside, Se- cottonwood white ash

on first and second bottoms along necaville, Medway, Genessee, sweetgum sycamore

streams and rivers.' Chagrin, Pope, Huntinton, baldcypress baldcypress

Moshannon, Ross, Chili, Men- white pine black walnut

tor, Holston, Monongahela, black walnut sweetgum

Wheeling, Colerain, Vincent, white ash white pine

Glenford, (Vause). Norway spruce

European larch

21. Poorly to very poorly drained soils Shoals, Orrville, Stendal, Newark, sweetgum sweetgum

on level to slightly undulating areas. Defiance, Sloan, Papakating, sycamore silver maple

Subsoils usually saturated with water Dunning, Elkins, Wabash, Ty- baldcypress baldcypress

in spring of year.' ler, Algiers, Wallkill, Melvin, cottonwood

Atkins. silver maple

' Do not plant shortleaf pine north of U.S. Route 40.

2 Do not plant loblolly pine north of U.S. Route 50, and use stock from Maryland, Delaware, or Virginia seed sources

only.

' On cutover and partly stocked land, dense forest and ground cover may make this a difficult planting chance.

Control of vegetation will be e.xpensive because two or more release cuttings may be needed after the initial clearing.

* European pine shoot moth is a very serious pest of red pine, particularly on sites located north of U.S. Route 40.

The information given in the Species Selection

Guides is classified under three major headings:

Planting Site Class, Soil Series, and Species to

Plant. Under the first, Planting Site Class, in the

left-hand column, are listed the distinctive site

features that can be recognized by an appraisal of

surface characteristics and soil properties. Each

planting site class is assigned an identifying number. In some States the U.S. Soil Conservation

Service has classified soils for forest planting into

groups. Each group consists of soil series that are

somewhat similar in such soil properties as texture, rooting depth, drainage, parent material, and

productivity. In States where this information

was available, the planting site classes are based

primarily on these soil groups.

However, in order that other important factors

(chiefly depth of topsoil, slope position, aspect, and

erosion) that vary within soil groups and soil series

may be considered, a further breakdown of planting site classes into subclasses is necessary. Subclasses are designated as "a," "b," "c," and so

forth. For example, Planting Site Class No. 2

for Ohio is subdivided into 2a (more than 7 inches

topsoil), and 2b (topsoil 3 to 7 inches thick).

Most planting site classes include two or more

soil groups and many soil series. Even though

there may be differences in characteristics among

the soil groups and series in one planting site class,

the same species in the same order of priority are

suitable for planting on any of them. White pine,

for example, may grow faster on some soils than

on other soils in the same class, but it is nevertheless the best species for planting on all soils in the

class.

The soil series associated with each planting site

class are hsted in the middle column of the Species

Selection Guides. For readers familiar with this

system of soil classification, or if up-to-date-soil

survey maps are available, this list of soil series

will aid in identifying planting site classes.

Species to plant appear in the double column

on the right. Species are listed for each site in

order of preference; except for Iowa and northern

Missouri, separate lists are given for open, poorly

stocked land and for cutover or partly stocked

land.
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 24 7

Seriously eroded and gullied land presents spe- not correlated with any specific soil group or sou

cial problems and is suitable for only a few species series,

in each State (fig. 31). Such land is, therefore,

r-502356, 360, 361, 362

Figure 31.—Few species are adapted to severely eroded land. Compare growth and survival of 7-year-old *'*"'",'°'¡*?P'JJí!'

where all topsoil has been eroded, with background where 1 to 3 inches of topsoil remain, for white (A), pitch (e), loblolly (tj,

and Virginia pines (0).
FOREST PLANTING PRACTICE IN THE CENTRAL STATES 57

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1959. Elytroderma needle blight of ponderosa

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1953. Sprouting of blackjack oak in the Missouri

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1942. Exposure of roots of shortleaf pine stock.

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1948. White pine blight in relation to site and

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1957. Site index of scarlet and black oak in

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(39) Drew, William B.

1942. The revegetation of abandoned cropland in

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58 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 24 7

(40) Duffield, J. W., and Rightcr, F. I.

1953. Annotated list of pino hybrids made at

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19.51. Fomcs annosus on eastern redcedar in two

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1956. An experiment in sowing and planting

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1958. Illinois trees and shrubs: their insect

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(44) Fassnacht, Donald L.

1948. Young pine plantation thinnings yield

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1957. Influence of geologic parent material and

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43 pp., illus.

(46) Fox-, George F.

1958. Modifications of a Lowther tree planter for

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(47) Funk, David T.

1958. Frost damage to yellow-poplar varies by

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1961. Pruning white pine—a literature review.*

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(49) Gaiser, R. N.

1951. Relation between topography, soil characteristics, and the site index of white oak in

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1953. Growth of planted red and white pine in

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(51) Greth, John W,

1957. Ax girdling kills large cull hardwoods.

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1959. Observations on root systems of planted

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1948. Forest disease problems in the Northeast

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1955. Growth, form and survival of plantationgrown broadleaf and coniferous trees in southeastern Iowa. Iowa Acad. Sei. Proc. 62: 109-

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1958. Growth of planted green ash, black walnut,

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1961. Chemical weed control as a planting operation.* Amer. Pulpwood Assoc., N.Y., Tech

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(57) Hepting, George H.

1955. The current status of oak wüt in the United

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'(75)

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and Downs, A. A.

1944. Root and butt rot in planted white pine at

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Hildreth, A. C, and Brown, G. B.

1955. Protecting trees and shrubs from rabbit

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1959. Pinus slrobus L. A literature review and

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1958. A test of measured dosages for chemical

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Hubert, Ernest E.

1931. Outline of forest pathology. New York.

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Illinois Technical Forestry Association.

1957. Forest planting practices for Illinois.* 35

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1957. Tree planting on the farm. Ext. Serv.

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Johnston, E. F.

1957. Lowther tree planter modified for silt and

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1959. Mouse injury to forest planting in the

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1949. Light and water in relation to growth and

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1949. Plant and soil water relationships. 347 pp.,

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1958. Relationship of site conditions to establishment and early growth of McKee hybrid poplar.

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Krusekopf, H. H.

1945. Major soil areas of Missouri. Mo. Agr.

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1958. Soils of Missouri-genesis of great soil groups.

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Lane, R. D., and McComb, A. L.

1953. Effects of grass competition upon the establishment of hardwood plantations in Iowa.

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458, illus.

Ligon, W. S., and Karraker, P. E.

1949. A key to Kentucky soils. Kv. Agr. Expt.

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Liming, Franklin G.

1946. Response of planted shortleaf pine to overhead release.* U.S. Forest Serv. Cent. States

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1960. Forestation of strip-mined land in the

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1955. Planting stock grades for vellow-poplar.

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1957. Two natural Iowa hybrid poplars. Forest

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FOREST PLANTING PRACTICE IN THE CENTRAL STATES, 59

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1958. Results 18 years after planting loblolly pines

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1947. The growth of conifers on prairie soil. Jour

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1944. Subclimax prairie. Torrev Bot. Club Bui

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1958. Helicopter spraying with 2,4,5-T to release

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1955. Pests and diseases of trees and shrubs. Wis

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1960. Cottonwood plantations for southern bottomlands.* LT.S. Forest Serv. South. Forest

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1962. How to direct-seed the southern pines.

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1935. Strength and related properties of woods

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1952. Apparent kill of persimmon and sassafras

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1954. Controlling hardwood sprouts with foliage

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1955. 2,4,5-T better than

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Expt. Sta. Note 88, 2 pp.

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1955. Yellow-poplar responds to preplanting

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1959. Preplanting ground treatment tests for

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1952. Natural regeneration on old fields in southeastern Ohio.* U.S. Forest Serv. Cent. States

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Meuli, L. S., and Shirley, H. L.

1937. The effect of seed origin on drought resistance of green ash in the prairie-plains States.

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Miller, D. R., Kimmey, J. W., and Fowler, M.

1958. White pine blister rust. U.S. Dept.

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1948. Planted pines on claypan soils of southern

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1955. Observations on open-grown, non-native

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1948. Tree planting in the central, Piedmont,

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1959. Color, form, and growth variations in

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1959. Partial conversion of poor hardwood stands

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Mitchell, Harold L.

1956. Plans for research on forest genetics at

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Mook, Paul v., and Eno, Harold G.

1961. Fomes annosus; what it is and how to

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Morse, H.H., and Bone, Samuel.

1957. Understanding Ohio soils. Ohio State

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National Christmas Tree Growers Association.

1956. Christmas tree producer organizations.

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Neebe, David J., and Fletcher, Peter W.

1960. Thinning of eastern cottonwood in Missouri. Mo. Agr. Expt. Sta. Res. Bui. 733, 20

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Ohio Department of Natural Resources.

1954. Know Ohio's soil regions. (Map, rev.

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1958. Our Ohio soils. 95 pp., illus. Columbus.

Osborn, R. M.

1951. Costs of producing mine props.* U.S.

Forest Serv. South. Forest Expt. Sta. Occas.

Paper 124, 22 pp., illus.

Paton, Robert R.

1947. Reforestation in Ohio. Ohio Agr. Expt.

Sta. Spec. Cir. 76, 12 pp., illus.

Paul, Benson H.

1938. Knots in second-growth pine and the

desirability of pruning. U.S. Dept. Agr.

Misc. Pub. 307, 36 pp., illus.

Pearce, John

1947. Identifying injury by wildlife to trees and

shrubs in Northeastern forests. U.S. Fish and

Wildlife Serv. Res. Rpt. 13, 29 pp., illus.

Phares, Robert E., and Liming, Franklin G.

1960. Comparative development of seeded and

planted shortleaf pine on a forest site in the

Missouri Ozarks. Jour. Forestry 58: 957-959,

illus.

Pirone, P. P.

1951. Maintenance of shade and ornamental

trees. 436 pp., illus. New York.

Potts, S. F.

1958. Silvicide equipment and methods for use

along power lines and in forest management.

Trees 18(5): 7, 28-29, 34, illus.

Potts, Samuel Frederick.

1958. Concentrated spray equipment mixtures

and application methods. 598 pp., illus.

Caldwell, N.J.
60

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(1341

(135)

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U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 247

Purdue University Agricultural Experiment Station.

(n.d.) A map of Indiana soils. 4 pp., illus.

Quarterman, Elsie.

1957. Early plant succession on abandoned cropland in the central basin of Tennessee. Ecology

38: 300-309, illus.

Ralston, R. A.

1953. Some effects of spacing on jack pine

development after 25 years.* U.S. Forest

Serv. Lake States Forest Expt. Sta. Tech.

Notes 388, 1 p.

Reukema, Donald L.

1959. Some recent developments in the Wind

River Douglas-fir plantation spacing tests.*

U.S. Forest Serv. Pacific Northwest Forest &

Range Expt. Sta. Res. Note 167, 7 pp., illus.

Rhody, John P.

1953. Performance of tree-planting machines on

Pennvrile State Forest.* U.S. Forest Serv.

Tree'Planters' Notes 14; 13-16.

Ricker, Daniel L.

1961. The Hanson-Lowther tree planter. U.S.

Forest Serv. Tree Planters' Notes 46: 1-3,

illus.

Ries, S. K., Grigsby, B. H., and Davidson, H.

1959. Evaluation of herbicides for several species

of ornamentals. Weeds 7(4): 409-417, illus.

Rogers, Nelson F.

1958. Airplane-sprayed herbicides release shortleaf pine from hardvk'oods.* U.S. Forest Serv.

Cent. States Forest Expt. Sta. Note 117, 2 pp.

Rotty, Roland.

1951. Tree-planting machines.* U.S. Forest Serv.

Tree Planters' Notes 2, 10 pp.

Rudolf, Paul O.

1950. Forest plantations in the Lake States. U.S.

Dept. Agr. Tech. Bui. 1010, 171 pp., illus.

1953. Plows to precede a tree planting machine.*

U.S. Forest Serv. Tree Planters' Notes 14:

10-12, illus.

and Watt, Richard F.

1956. Chemical control of brush and trees.* U.S.

Forest Serv. Lake States Forest Expt. Sta.

Paper 41, 58 pp., illus.

Rudolph, Victor J., Lemmien, Walter, and Day,

Maurice W.

1956. Growth of white pine in some pure and

mixed plantings in Michigan. Mich. Agr.

Expt. Sta. Quart. Bui. 38(4): 538-546.

Sampson, Arthur W., and Schultz, Arnold M.

1957. Control of brush and undesirable trees.

UnasylvalO(l): 19-29,(3): 117-128,(4): 166-

182, and 11(1): 19-25, illus.

Schneider, Howard W.

1957. The Ottowa debris plow and scalper.*

U.S. Forest Serv. Tree Planters' Notes 28:

1-3, illus.

Schomaker, Charles E.

1958. Two-year results of planting yellow-poplar

in north Alabama. Jour. Forestry 56: 37-38,

illus.

Shipman, R. D.

1958. Effect of season of treatment on girdling

and chemical control of oak and sweetgum

Jour. Forestry 56: 33-35, illus.

Sluder, Earl R.

1958. Control of cull trees and weed species in

hardwood stands. U.S. Forest Serv. Southeast.

Forest Expt. Sta. Tech. Paper 95, 13 pp.,

illus.

Smith, Guy D.

1942. Illinois loess. 111. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui.

^ 490: 139-183, illus.

Sowder, A. M.

1957. Christmas trees: the tradition and the

trade. U.S. Dept Agr., Agr. Inf. Bui. 94, 22

pp., illus.

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Stauffer, J. M.

1952. How to order seedlings. What to do when

your seedlings arrive.* U.S. Forest Serv.

Tree Planters'^ Notes 10, 3 pp.

Stiell. W. M.

1959. Intermediate cuttings in red and white

pine plantations. Canad. Dept. North. Aff.

and Nat. Resources, Forest Res. Div. Tech.

Note 81, 27 pp.

Stoeckeler, J. H., and Jones, G. W.

1957. Forest nursery practice in the Lake States.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Handb. 110, 124 pp.,

illus.

and Limstrom, Gustaf A.

1942. Ecological factors influencing reforestation

in northern Wisconsin. Ecol. Monog. 12:

191-212, illus.

Sutton, R. F.

1958. Chemical herbicides and their uses in

silviculture of forests of eastern Canada.

Canad. Dept. North. Aff. and Nat. Resources,

Forest Res. Div. Tech. Note 68, 54 pp.

Swan, D. A.

1961. The solo back-pack mist blower. Amer.

Pulpwood Assoc. Tech. Release 61 R23, 2 pp.,

illus. New York.

Sweet, C. v., and Johnson, R. P. A.

1958. Selection of lumber for farm and home

building. U.S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bui. 1756,

44 pp., illus.

Swingle, R. U.

1944. Chlorotic dwarf of eastern white pine.

Plant Dis. Rptr. 28: 824-825, iUus.

Toole, E. R.

1949. White pine blight in the Southeast.

Jour. Forestry 47: 378-382, illus.

1959. Sweetgum blight. U.S. Dept. Agr. Forest

Serv. Forest Pest Leaflet 37, 4 pp., illus.

Tukey, H. B., Hamner, C. L., Norman, A. G., and

others.

1954. Plant regulators in agriculture. 269 pp.,

illus. New York and London.

United Nations, Food and Agriculture Organization.

1958. Poplars in forestry and land use. FAO

Forestry and Forest Prod. Studies 12, 511 pp.,

iUus. Rome.

University of Illinois.

1959. Principal soil association areas of Illinois.*

Dept. Agron. Cir. AG1397, 10 pp., illus.

University of Missouri Agricultural Experiment

Station.

1950. Key for identifying soils of Missouri.

Prog. Rpt. 12, 21 pp., "illus.

U.S. Department of Agriculture.

1936. Atlas of American Agriculture. Illus.

Wash., D.C.

1951. The principal laws relating to the establishment and administration of the national

forests and to other Forest Service activities.

Agr. Handb. 20, 80 pp.

PP

Soil survey manual. Agr. Handb. 18, 503

., illus.

1961. Chemical control of brush and trees.

Farmers' Bui. 2158, 23 pp., illus.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service.

1955. Wood handbook. Agr. Handb. 72, 528

pp., illus.

1958. Timber resources for America's future.

Forest Resource Rpt. 14, 713 pp., illus.

1959. Health and safety code. 363 pp., iUusWash., D.C.
FOREST PLANTING PRACTICE IN THE CENTRAL STATES 61

(158) U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation

Service, and Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station.

1956. Brief descriptions of soil units for soil

surveys in Iowa soil conservation districts.*

51 pp., illus.

(159)

1962. Basic statistics of the national inventory of

soil and water conservation needs. Statis. Bui

317, 164 pp., illus.

(160) Verrall, A. F.

1958. Fusiform rust of southern pines. U.S.

Dept. Agr. Forest Serv. Forest Pest Leaflet

26, 4 pp., illus.

(161) Wahlenberg, W. G.

1955. Six thinnings in a 56-year-oId pure white

pine plantation at Biltmore. Jour. Forestry

53: 331-339, illus.

(162)

1960. Loblolly pine.

N.C.

603 pp., illus. Durham,

(163) Wakeley, Philip C.

1954. Planting the southern pines. U.S. Dept

Agr., Agr. Monog. 18, 233 pp., illus,

(164) Walker, Ernest D., and Purnell, W. F.

1956. Understanding soils. 111. Agr. Col. Ext.

Serv. Cir. 758, 39 pp., illus.

(165) Walker, Laurence C, and Perkins, Henry F.

1958. Forest soils and silviculture in Georgia.

Ga. Forest Res. Council Rpt. 4, 36 pp., illus.

(166) Weetman, G. F.

1958. Forest seeding and planting techniques and

equipment. Pulp and Paper Res. Inst. Canada Tech. Rpt. 74, 130 pp., illus.

(167) Westcott, Cynthia.

1950. Plant disease handbook. 746 pp., illus.

New York.

(168) White, Donald P.

1941. Prairie soil as a medium for tree growth.

Ecology 22: 398-407, illus.

(169) Wilde, S. A.

1958. Forest soils. 537 pp., illus. New York.

(170) Williams, Ellis T.

1957. State forest tax law digest, 1956.* U.S.

Dept. Agr. Forest Serv., 86 pp.

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Williams, Robert D.

1959. Growth and yield of a thinned shortleaf

pine plantation.* U.S. Forest Serv. Cent.

States Forest Expt. Sta. Tech. Paper 169, 12

pp., illus.

Williston, H. L.

1959. Inundation damage to upland hardwoods.*

U.S. Forest Serv. South. Forest Expt. Sta.,

South. Forestry Notes 123, 4 pp.

and Huckenpahler, Bernard J.

1958. Response of six conifers in north Mississippi underplantings. Jour. Forestry 56: 135-

137, illus.

Woerheide, John D.

1959. Loblolly seed from Maryland best of six

sources tested in southern Illinois.* U.S.

Forest Serv. Cent. States Forest Expt. Sta.

Note 129, 2 pp.

Woods, Frank W.

1955. Control of woody weeds: some physiological aspects.* U.S. Forest Serv. South. Forest

Expt. Sta. Occas. Paper 143, 50 pp.

1958. Some eflfects of site preparation on

moisture in sandhills of west Florida.

Sei. 85(4): 148-155.

Cassady, John T., and Rossoll, Harry.

1958. How to prepare gulfcoast sandhills

planting pines.* U.S. Forest Serv.

Forest Expt. Sta. Occas. Paper 161,

illus.

soil

Soil

for

South.

11 pp..

Yawney, Harry W.

1961. Killing cull trees with ammate crystals—a

case study.* U.S. Forest Serv. Northeast.

Forest Expt. Sta. Forest Res. Notes 120, 4

pp., illus.

Yeager, Lee E.

1949. Effect of permanent flooding in a riverbottom timber area. 111. Nat. Hist. Survey

Bui. 25: 33-65, illus.

York, H. H., Wean, R. E., and Childs, T. W.

1936. Some results of investigations on Polyporus

schweinitzii fr. Sei. 84: 160-161.

Zahner, Robert.

1958. Hardwood understory depletes soil water

in pine stands. Forest Sei. 4(3) : 178-184, illus.

Zak, B.

1957. Littleleaf of pine. U.S. Dept. Agr. Forest

Serv. Forest Pest Leaflet 20, 4 pp., illus.
62 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 247

Appendix

SUGGESTED PROCEDURES FOR

MAKING PLANTING PLANS

The degree of detail required in making plans

for planting depends to a large extent on the size

of the area to be planted, the number of tracts to

be planted, number of years required to complete

the planting, the complexity of site conditions, and

the existing knowledge of these site conditions.

On small plantings no formal planting plans are

necessary; on large operations, however, it is

desirable to make site evaluations and to prepare

"blueprints" for the planting. The following

step-by-step procedures may be helpful in preparing these plans.

Land Ownership Status

Examine deeds to verify land ownership; look

especially for easements granting rights to. construct highways, powerlines, pipelines, or reservoirs, and for reservations in the title that provide

rights for strip mining. Exclude these areas from

the proposed planting site.

Appraisal of Planting Needs

1. Cover classes.—Survey each tract to determine the acreage of (1) land that does not need

planting, (2) open, poorly stocked land, (.3) cutover or partly stocked land, and (4) strip-mined

land. On a large scale map (4 inches to the mile

is suggested) mark out the boundaries of land in

each of these classes.

2. Site evaluation.—Make a systematic survey

of the land to be planted in sufficient detail to

outline on the map those areas with major differences in soil texture and structure, depth of

topsoil, effective rooting depth, drainage, topography, parent material, and past use.

3. Planting .site classes and subclasses.—Consult

the Species Selection Guide (p. 41) for the State

in which the planting site is located. Select the

planting site classes and subclasses that most

closely coincide with the site-evaluarion data.

Access Roads and Fire Lanes

It is well to plan and lay out a road and fire-lane

system in advance of planting. This will facilitate

plantmg and future management of the plantation,

especially if the land is to be furrowed, cultivated,

or cleared. In general one truck trail 1.5 to 20 feet

wide through each 40-acre block will suffice.

Make use of old, established routes of travel as

much as possible, unless they are so located that

they constitute erosion hazards. If fire risks are

high, fire lanes surrounding each 40 acres of

plantation are desirable (p. 39).

Site Preparation

If site preparation is necessary, designate location, area, and kind on the map (see p. 16 to 23).

The Planting Job

In planning a large planting project it will be

helpful to prepare a separate "Planting prescription" for each area differing from others in methods

of site preparation, species to be used, spacing and

planting arrangement. The prescription should

include the methods of site preparation planned,

number of trees by species needed, spacing, and

whether planting wUl be pure or mixed. If

mixed planting is planned the method of mixture

should be prescribed. The seed source and stockquality specifications should be included, as well

as cost estimates and lists of equipment and materials needed.

DIRECTIONS FOR TREATMENT OF

SEED AND METHODS OF SOWING FOR THE DIRECT SEEDING

OF PINE =

Seed Treatment

Quick, prompt germination improves the odds

for success by reducing the period of exposure to

predators and adverse weather. Seeds of all

southern pines except longleaf are somewhat

dormant and require cold, moist stratification to

speed germination. Stratification is in alternating

layers of wet peat moss or other suitable material

at about 36° F.

The stratification period varies by species and

individual lots. The only sure way to determine

it is to test the germination of samples stratified

for different lengths of time. When such tests

are impractical, blanket recommendations are to

stratify loblolly for 60 days, slash for 30, shortleaf

for 45 to 60, sand for 15 to 30, Virginia for 30, and

white pine for 30.

There is an easy way to stratify small lots in a

home refrigerator. Seeds are soaked in water for

several hours and then placed in a polyethylene

bag which is tied shut and refrigerated at about

38° F. for the length of time recommended above

for each species. Enough water should be added

periodically to rewet surfaces of seeds when they

dry out.

Repellent coatings are added after stratification.

The same repellents and stickers have performed

well with all southern pine species. Arasan-75

and anthraquinone are used almost exclusively

for protection against birds—at concentrations of

^ Excerpts from "How to Direct-Seed the Southern

Pines," by William F. Mann, Jr. (84).
FOREST PLANTING PRACTICE IN THE CENTRAL STATES) 63

10 pounds of Arasan-75 and 15 pounds of anthraquinone per hundred pounds of seed. Arasan-75

gives a more durable coating, but is highly irritating to the eyes, throat, and mucous membranes of those who must handle the seed. Hence

anthraquinone is preferred for hand-sowing operations. (See "Safety Precautions," p. 23.)

Stauffer's Endrin 50W, applied at the rate of

2 pounds per 100 pounds of seed, is standard for

protection against insects and rodents. It should

be thoroughly blended with the bird repellent

before application to insure that all seeds are

coated uniformly.

A light aluminum overcoating hastens drying

of the repellent coating and lubricates seeds so

that they flow freely through hoppers. About

1 cupful per hundred pounds of seed is ample.

Either Dow Latex 512-R or Flintkote's asphalt

emulsion C-13-HPC is a suitable sticker. Latex

is diluted with clean, soft water in the ratio of

1:9 and asphalt 1:3. Latex is easier and cleaner

to mix and apply, but requires careful handling

and storage.

With a wire basket, and equipment made from

two steel drums, two men can treat 1,000 pounds

of seed daily. One drimi has the top removed:

it is used to apply the sticker. The fine-meshed,

heavy-wire basket is about 20 inches deep. It

holds the seed when it is dipped into the sticker.

The other drum is used to apply the chemical.

It has a close-fitting but removable cover and is

mounted on an axle so that it tumbles end-overend when the crank is turned. A single set of

baffles is welded inside the drmn to help mix the

seed and repellents.

The sticker is mLxed with water in the dipping

drum. It should be stirred at regular intervals

during the treating operation. Unused sticker

should be discarded and a fresh batch prepared

at the start of each day's work.

The treating procedure is as foUows: Put 35

to 50 pounds of dewinged seed (amount varies

by species) into the basket and lower it into the

sticker. Stir the seed with a paddle. In about 2

minutes, lift the basket and allow the surplus

sticker to drain off for about 30 seconds. Draining

for more than 30 seconds is hazardous because the

sticker quickly sets, resulting in a poor bond of

repellents to the seed. Next, pour seed into the

mixing drum, add a weighed amount of repellent,

and stir it into the seed with a paddle. Then close

the cover tightly and rotate the drum for about

2 minutes. To coat with aluminum, add powder

to the drum and tumble for another minute.

Finally, remove the coated seed and spread it out

to dry in a layer 2 or 3 inches thick on paper or

canvas.

Small lots can be repellent-coated with the aid

of a lard can, a small basket made of window

screen, and heavy-weight paper bags. One-pound

batches are best. Seed is placed in the basket and

dipped into the sticker in the lard can. It is

stirred for about 2 minutes, lifted out, allowed to

drain for 30 seconds, and poured into a paper bag.

A weighed quantity of blended repellents is then

put into the bag, which is closed tightly and shaken

vigorously for about 60 seconds. If it is desired

to overcoat with aluminum, one or two teaspoons

of the powder can be added and the bag shaken

again for about 30 seconds. Finally, the seed

is spread out to dry.

The seed can be sown as soon as it is dry enough

to handle—the less delay the better. If inclement weather delays sowing, the seed can be

held safely for 2 weeks in a well-ventilated, unheated building or a refrigerated room.

Methods of Sowing

Sowing can be done by hand or with seeding

guns, hand-operated "cyclone" seeders, airplanes,

helicopters, or tractor-drawn machines.

Distribution by hand is efficient on small areas

of disked strips or plowed furrows. One man can

cover 15 to 20 acres per day, and seed is conserved because it is cast only on the prepared

parts.

The "cyclone" hand-operated seeder is useful

for broadcast sowing on tracts up to 200 acres

in size. One man can sow about 20 acres a day.

Its greatest utility is on areas that are irregular

in shape or where scattered patches of established

pines are to be bypassed.

Fixed-wing airplanes and small helicopters

have been used extensively in the past 5 years.

Both give excellent distribution and precise sowing rates. They are best adapted for large operations. A light plane can cover up to 1,500 acres

per day and a helicopter 3,000 acres.

Tractor-drawn machines have also come into

wide use in recent years. There are now at least

10 models, and more may be expected. All have

one feature in common: they prepare a seedbed

and sow in rows at a single pass. They can be

broadly grouped as furrow seeders and disk seeders.

Fiu-row seeders have either a middle-buster

plow puUed behind a tractor or a V-plow mounted

at the front of a tractor. Most of the pulled

models have an arrangement to bury the seed or

press it into firm contact with the soil. They are

best suited for sandy soils where seeds broadcast

on the surface fail to germinate adequately.

Front-end models also work best on sandy soils, and

they can operate in moderately heavy brush.

With either type, about 20 acres can be covered

daily.

Disk seeders were developed to sow two rows

simultaneously with the same tractor power

required for single-row furrow seeders. They can

sow about 30 acres per day. They have two

separate offset disk units, each about 1}^ feet

wide and 4 to 5 feet apart. Seeds are dropped

directly on the disked soil and pressed down by

a packing wheel. Sowing rates must be higher

than with furrow seeders, because considerable

seed is lost from silting.
64 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 24 7

Though tractor-drawn implements have some

advantages over those for broadcast sowing,

most have sharp limitations. Therefore, all

types should be carefully investigated to determine

it a particular machine is adapted to soil and cover

conditions on the area to be regenerated.

INSECT PESTS OF FOREST PLANTATIONS '

Tree species and pest ^ Symptoms

Control measure

Insecticide

Reference

Author'

Ash, green and white;

The ash borer

Podosesia syringae fraxini (Lug.)

Oystershell scale

Lepidosaphes ulmi (L.)

Fall w%bworm

Hyphantria cunea (Drury)

Catalpa:

Catalpa sphinx

Ceratomia catalpae (Bdv.)

Cottonwood:

Poplar borer

Saperda calcarata (Say)

Poplar and willow borer,

Sternochetus lapathi (L.)

Cottonwood leaf beetle. .

Chrysomela scripta (F.)

Hackberry:

Hackberry nipple gall

Pachypsylla celtidis-mamma (Flet.)

Larch, European:

Spruce budworm

Chroisioneura fumiferana (Clem.)

Larch sawfly

Prisliphora erichsonii (Htg.)

Locust, black:

Locust borer

Megacyllene robiniae (Forst.)

Maple, silver:

Maple callus borer

Sylvora acerni (Clem.)

Cottony maple scale

Pulvinaria innumerabilis (Rathv.)

Oak, red, bur:

Kermes pubescens (Bogue)

Gall insects

numerous species (cynipids)

Osage-orange:

Fruit tree leaf roller

Archips argyrospila (Wlk.)

European fruit lecanium

Lecanium corni (Bouché) _

Pine:

Sawflies

Neodiprion spp.

Bark beetles

Ips spp., Dendroctonus spp.

Weevils

Hylobim spp., Pigsodes spp.

See footnotes at end of table.

Bore trunk at ground level..

Weakens tree, may kül

Webbing of branches, foüage.

Defoliation

Frass at base of tree.

Bore in branches and trunk.

Leaves skeletonized

Conspicuous growths on leaves.

Defoliation

do

Bores into sapwood, heartwood.

Frass around wounds

Cottony mass on branches,

twigs.

Distort—kUl, shoots, leaves...

Abnormal swelling of twigs

Web leaves together

Scale on twigs, branches

Defoliation

Engraving in cambium area__

Gnawing of bark and cambium.

DDT spray on

trunk.

Dormant oil spray

Lead arsenate

English (^43).

do

Lead arsenate or

DDT spray.

DDT application

on trunk

DDT application.

Lead arsenate or

DDT spray

Lindane spray.

DDT.

.do.

.do.

-do.

-do.

English US).

.do.

Craighead (54)...

do

DDT spray. English (43).

None recommended.

Dormant spray

winter, malathion summer.

Dormant oil

spray.

Rarely serious

enough to

justify spraying.

DDT spray

Dormant spray

Craighead (34)

English (43)

.do.

.do.

Craighead (34)-

do

DDT.

BHC.

-do.

English (43)...

McDowell (82)

Craighead (34)-

-do.
FOREST PLANTING PRACTICE IN THE CENTRAL STATES

INSECT PESTS OF FOREST PLANTATIONS '-Continued

65

Tree species and pest ^

Pine, loblolly, shortleaf:

Rhyacionia frustraría (Comst.)..

Rhyacionia rigidana (Fern)

Pine, red:

European pine shoot moth

Rhyacionia buoliana (SchiS)

Pine, Scotch:

Zimmerman pine moth

Dioryctria zimmermani (Grote)

Pine, white:

White pine weevil

Pissodes slrobi (Peckj

Redcedar, eastern:

Bagworm

Thyridopieryx ephemeraeformis

(Haw.)

Aphid

Cinara sahine

Spruce, Norway, white:

Spruce budworm

Choristoneura fumiferana (Clem)

Eastern spruce gall aphid

Chermes abietis L.

Sweetgum:

Forest tent caterpillar

Malacosoma disstria Hbn.

Sycamore:

Sycamore lace bug

Coryihucha ciliata (Say)

Bagworm

Thyridopieryx ephemeraeformis

(Haw.)

Walnut, black:

Walnut caterpillar

Dalana integerrima G. & R.

Black walnut curculio

Conotrachelus retentus (Say)

Yellow-poplar:

Tuliptree scale

Toumeyella liriodendri (Gmel.)

Symptoms

Bud and twig mortality..

Bud mortality, brooming.

Terminal, tree killing

New growth on leader turns

over and wilts, needles and

bark turn brown, resin blobs

on leader.

Defoliation

Honeydew on branches.

Defoliation

Pineapplelike galls on twigs _

Defoliation

Leaves become pale and dry.

Feeds on leaves

Defoliation.

Crescent-shaped scar on husk

or young nut.

Scales on branches, twigs

Control measure

Insecticide

DDT..

do.

doDDT..

Malathion.

DDT

do..

Lindane.

Lead arsenate

spray.

Malathion spray.

Lead arsenate or

malathion

spray.

Lead arsenate or

DDT spray.

Lead arsenate

Dormant spray.

Reference

Author '

English (43).

.do.

McDowell {82)^_

English (43)

Craighead (S^)..

English (43)

McDowell

Craighead (34).

English (43)...

Craighead (34)

English (43)

do

English (43).

do

Craighead (34)--

Page

57

57

59

60

58

281

287

37

46

480

482

64

418

65

66

67

69

147

' The author is indebted to the Division of Forest Insects, Central States Forest Experiment Station, for material

presented in this table.

' White grubs are injurious to nearly all tree species planted; for control measures see p. 40.

' See Literature Cited, p. 57.

DISEASES OF FOREST PLANTATIONS '

Tree species and disease Symptoms Control

Ash, white and green:

Anthracnose

(Marssonia fraxini).

Catalpa:

Verticillium wilt . ...

Large, irregular brown areas, numerous

along leaf margin progressing inward

to midveins.

One to several branches wilt. Discolored

streaks in sapwood of affected branches

aie first purple and later bluish brown.

No control practical in forest trees;

on ornamentals use organic mercury (ê2) or Bordeaux spray.^

Remove and burn infected trees (14).

( Verticillium alboatrum).

See footnotes at end of table.
66 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 247

DISEASES OF FOREST PLANTATIONS '—Continued

Tree species and disease

Cottonwood:

Dothichiza canker

{Dothichiza poputea).

Hackberry:

Witches'-broom

(Gall mite—powdery mildew complex) .

Larch, European:

Larch canker

(Dasyscypha wiUkommii).

Locust, black:

Verticillium wilt

{Verticillium alhoatrum).

Maple, silver:

Nectria canker

{Nectria cinnabarina).

Verticillium wilt

{Verticilliwn alhoatrum).

Tar spot

{Rhytisma acerinum).

Oaks:

Oak wilt

{Ceratocystis fagacearum)

Twig blight

{Sphaeropsis quercina).

Anthracnose

{Gnomonia véneta).

Leaf blister

( Taphrina coerulescens)

Pines:

Root rot

{Fomes annosus).

Root and butt rot

{Polyporus schweinitzii).

Shoestring root rot_

(.Armillaria mellea).

See footnotes at end of table.

Symptoms

Dark-colored cankers on stems and

branches which over a period of years

enlarge and girdle the tree.

Swelling, widening buds with enlarged,

distorted bud scales; shoots are

dwarfed and clustered, becoming

broomlike in appearance.

Depressed branch and stem cankers with

small white to orange, cuplike fruiting

bodies around the edge.

Brownish streaks in wood, wilting

branches.

Target-shaped lesions with sloughing

discolored, sunken bark; lesions produce perennial cankers.

Greenish streaks in wood. Wilting

branches generally followed by tree

death.

Yellow-gi'een spots that become shiny

black, erupted and thickened.

Red oaks: leaves curl around midrib,

bronze discoloration of leaves, severe

defoliation, death of tree.

White oaks: similar to red oaks except

that symptoms are often confined to

one or several branches. White oaks

may live for several years and some

may recover.

Dieback of twigs and branches accompanied by black streaking in the sapwood. Black fruiting bodies the size

of a pinhead in the dead bark. Infected trees are sometimes killed.

Brown dead areas in the leaves, often

triangular in shape, defoliation.

Circular, raised, wrinkled, yellowish areas

on the leaves.

In plantations, causes rapid decline and

death of trees, usually in groups 3 years

or more after first thinning; presence

of thin white mycelial fans under bark

of roots and root crown, with softstringy rot in wood; endemic in natural

stands, causing root and butt rot.

Crowns become thin with short chlorotic

needles, often clustered at ends of

twigs; cones form prematurely; darkbrown annual conks arise from roots or

as brackets from trunk near base, and

browning and death follow.

Decline in vigor of part or all of crown,

followed by death, often involving

groups of trees; may be sudden collapse in smaU trees; copious resin flow

at base of trunk in pines; mycelial fans

and rhizomorphs present under bark

at base and roots; honey-colored mushrooms sometimes present.

Control

Plant disease-free stock avoid wounding (13, 114).

No control (14, SB).

This disease is believed to have been

successfully eradicated from the

U.S. Trees suspected of being infected with larch canker should be

reported to the nearest State or

Federal tree disease specialist (12,

14, 114).

No control (14, 22).

Tree removal, sanitation procedures;

site improvement (14, 22).

No control (14, 22).

No control (14, 22, 62).

Fell diseased trees and spray top and

stump with mixture of DDT and

BHC, and spray stump with 2,4,5-

T (19, .57).

Prune out and burn aU diseased wood

im).

No control practical (12, 14, 114).

No contol practical (14, 114).

Careful planting to avoid root crowding and injury; increased spacing

to defer need for thinning; treating

stumps with creosote during thinning operations may help; avoid

establishing new plantings in areas

where root rot is prevalent; no

practical control in natural stands

(41, 53, 58, 94, 161).

Avoid the establishment of pine plantations on sites wdth poor drainage

or high pH (63, 180).

Usually associated with weakened

trees; no practical control (Í4, ^^)-
FOREST PLANTING PRACTICE IN THE CENTRAL STATES,

DISEASES OF FOREST PLANTATIONS '—Continued

67

Tree species and disease Symptoms Control

Pines—Continued

Dwarfmistletoe

{Arceuthobium spp.)-

Needle cast

(Spp. of Lophodermium, Hypoderma, Hypoderinella, and Bifusella.)

Pines, 2 to 3 needled:

Gall and blister rusts

{Cronartium spp.)-

Pine needle rusts

{Coleosporium spp.).

Pine, Austrian:

{See Pines and Pines, 2 to 3

needled.)

Pine, jack:

Needle blight

{Elytroderma déformons.)

Pine, loblolly:

Littleleaf disease

{Phytophthora cinnamoni in conjunction with adverse soil conditions, including poor aeration,

low fertility, and moisture

stress.)

Fusiform rust.

{See Pines, 2 to 3 needled.)

Pine, ponderosa:

Needle blight. {See Pine, jack.)

Pine, red:

Tympanis canker

{Tympanis spp.).

Resinosis (Incompletely understood, usually associated with

tight, poorly drained or alkahne

soils and fungus infections, especially Polyporus schweinitzii.)

Pine, Scotch:

{See Pines and Pines, 2 to 3

needled.)

Pine, shortleaf:

Littleleaf disease.

(See Pine, loblolly.)

Pitch canker

{Fusarium lateritium f. pini).

See footnotes at end of table.

Witches'-broom in the crown with fusiform swellings on infected branches;

swollen trunk infections finally becoming cankerous, predisposing trees to

windbreak; short fragile, yellow to

green mistletoe shoots usually present

in infected areas.

Needles turn red or brown and are shed

prematurely; tiny, black fruit bodies

appear on infected needles, usually

after they fall to the ground.

Slightly spindle-shaped fusiform or

globose swelling on twigs, branches, or

stems, giving rise to white bladderlike

fruit bodies which rupture in spring to

expose orange-yellow spore masses;

perennial cankers sometimes formed on

trunk infections with certain Cronartium. spp.

Small, white blisterlike pustules on

needles containing orange-yellow spore

masses; repeated infection and defoliation on young trees cause reduction in

growth; not serious on older trees.

Red discoloration of foliage followed by

browning and death; causes conspicuous witches'-brooms on twigs of ponderosa pine but not on jack pine;

browned needles have small, narrow,

dull-black fruit bodies scattered over

surface; young stands are severely

damaged.

Early stages resemble symptoms of nitrogen deficiency; in advanced stages the

crown is sparse and foUage appears in

tufts at twig tips; needles are markedly

shortened and yellow to yellow-green;

sprouts develop on lower trunk, and

trees produce large crops of small

cones; disease rare on trees under 20

years.

Produces annual sunken cankers on mam

stems at branch whorls; cankers inconspicuous until dead bark sloughs off;

attacks red pine in plantings out of

optimum range for species.

Progressive dying from the top downward,

accompanied by resin now at the butt

and a white mottUng of inner bark.

Copious pitch flow from cankers on

stems and branches; underlying wood

is characteristically pitch-soaked;

white mycelial growth sometimes evident in cankers under bark.

Remove infected trees in stand during

logging operations; no infected

trees should be left for seed source

Control not practical in most cases;

Lophodermium pinastri can be controlled with 8-8-100 Bordeaux

spray ^ {14, ! '>)

No control practical in forest stands;

galls of Cronartium harknessii on

ponderosa pine can be pruned off;

certain silvicultural practices will

reduce damage caused by C.

fusiforme in loblolly plantations

{IS, 14, 160).

No control usually warranted {14)-

No control practical except for salvage

cuttings in severely damaged stands

{28).

Losses in forest stands can be reduced

by following certain cutting practices designed to eliminate diseased

trees; on park trees applications of

commercial fertilizer prevent symptom development and improve conditions of trees in early stages of

littleleaf {182).

Avoid establishment of red pine

plantations south of optimum range

for species ; damage on white pine is

inconsequential, and no control

necessary {12, 14)-

Avoid plantings on tight, poorly

drained soil {60, 180).

Remove infected trees in thinning

operations or other improvement

cuttings (13).
68 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 247

DISEASES OF FOREST PLANTATIONS '—Continued

Tree species and disease

Pine, Virginia:

Pitch canlier (See Pine, shortleaf).

Pine, white:

White pine blister rust

(Cronarlium ribicola).

Resinosis (See Pine, red).

Chlorotic dwarf

(Unknown).

Eastern white pine blight needle

blight (A disease of physiogenic

origin. Recent evidence suggests it is caused by ozone, a

naturally occurring oxidant

which sometimes reaches toxic

concentrations in the atmosphere during storm fronts.)

Redcedar, eastern:

Cedar-apple rust

(Gymnosporangiuin juniperi-virginianae).

Cedar blight

(Phomopsis junipovora).

Fomes root rot (See Pines).

Spruce, Norway:

Cytospora canker

(Cytospora kumei)

Fomes root rot (See Pines).

Sphaeropsis tip blight

(Sphaeropsis ellisii).

Sweetgum:

Sweetgum blight (Incompletely

understood, but probably caused

primarily by moisture shortages

mfluenced by low rainfall, tight

soils, or lowering of water table)

hycamore:

Anthracnose

{Gnomonia véneta).

Walnut, black:

Anthracnose

{Gnomonia leptostyla).

Walnut blight

{Xanthomonas juglandis).

See footnotes at end of table.

Symptoms

The most conspicuous symptoms are the

spindle-shaped swellings on branches

and stems bearing numerous white

blisters filled with orange powdery

spore masses. The swellings enlarge

annually, become cankerous and produce successive crops of spores which

infect ribes bushes, the alternate host;

cankers eventually girdle and kill infected stems.

Progressive shortening of needles and

internodes, resulting in dwarfed trees

which eventually die; in advanced

stages only the current year's needles

are present which become chlorotic and

occasionally exhibit tip burn; disease

is commonly found in plantations up

to 15 years old.

Browning and death of the outer portions

of the current year's needles. May

cause reduced increment; needles sometimes shortened and drop prematurely;

repeated attacks may cause death;

occurs both in natural stands and in

plantations.

Globose, pitted swellings or galls on

twigs and foliage producing conspicuous

orange telial horns during rainy periods.

Twig dieback accompanied by small

brown cankers or lesions on the smaller

branches.

Browning of needles, dying

branches, resin flow.

lower

Brown needles and twig dieback at the

ends of branches. Minute black fruiting bodies at base of afi'ected needles

and in dead bark.

General decline of tree resulting in stag

heading and in some cases death.

Leaves and twig tips brown and die upon

emergence from buds (resembles frost

injury) ; later symptoms show brown

spots along main veins that coalesce to

kill leaves; twigs killed by small cankers.

Irregular dark brown or blackish spots on

leaflets, branch tips are killed; plant

defoliates.

Black, necrotic spots occur on nuts, leaves

and spring shoots. '

Control

Destroy ribes bushes in white pine

stands and in a protective zone of

.500 to 1,000 feet around the stands.

Width of protective zone varies

with climate, elevation, latitude,

and species of pine and ribes

hosts {93).

No control known (I44).

No control generally applicable. Fertilization and other soil improvement measures have shown promise

and are practical only where small

numbers of trees are involved

{37, H5).

Avoid planting within 1 mile of apple,

pear, hawthorn, or mountain ash

trees (12, I4, II4).

Remove and burn all dead branch

tips (le, 14, 114).

Prune out and destroy all diseased

material, plant on suitable sites,

maintain vigor (12, 14, 114).

Cut and burn diseased parts of tree;

spraying with organic mercury or

Bordeaux may be justified in

Christmas tree plantations ^ {le,

No control known {I46).

No control; on ornamentals use

Bordeaux or organic mercury

sprays 2 (I4, 22).

No control; on ornamentals use

Bordeaux sprays 2 {I44, 167).

Do.
FOREST PLANTING PRACTICE IN THE CENTRAL STATES 69

DISEASES OF FOREST PLANTATIONS '—Continued

Tree species and disease Symptoms Control

Yellow-poplar:

Npf^tria canker - Elliptical cankers beneath cracking bark. No control {14)-

{Nedria magnoliae).

' The author is indebted to the Division of Forest Diseases, Central States Forest Experiment Station, for material

presented in this table. ,..r.,j 4.J.-

2 Bordeaux mixture is used at the rate of 8-8-100, two or three applications, applied every 14 to /I days, starting

when the leaves emerge in the spring. Bordeaux mixture is prepared by dissolving 8 pounds of copper sulfate in 100 gallons of water. Eight pounds of hydrated lime are mixed with a small amount of water and the suspension added to the

copper sulfate solution in the spray tank and agitated.

Organic mercury recommended is 10 percent phenylmercury-acetate or 7.5 percent phenylmercury-triethanolammonium-lactate, used at the rate of 1 pint per 100 gallons of water, applied three to five times at 7- to 10-day intervals,

starting when the leaves emerge in the spring.

COMMON AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF TREES MENTIONED

Alder European _ __ Aln-us glutinosa (L.) Gaertn.

Alder! speckled (European) A. incana (L.) Moench

Ash green . Fraxinus pennsylvamca Marsh.

Ash' whitel" - ^- (^inericana L.

Baldcypress '- '-'-" Taxodium distichum (L.) Rich.

Boxelder---V--------I- ^<^^ negundo L.

Crab apple - ^alus Mill. spp.

Catalpa, northern Catalpa spenosa Vfaider

Cottonwood Populus deltoides B&TtT.

Elm, red (slippery elm) Ulmus rubra Mnhl

Hackberry__- Celtis occidentahsL.

Larch, European ¿«"^ <^««'^"" ^^llLaurel (mountain laurel) Kalmia laitfolia L.

Locust, black RobtmapseudoacactaL.

Manie red - - Acer rubrum h

Maple', sUvêr'"(s'oftmaple)"_ n"'"''''"Trl f«n,

Oak,black__. Quercus velutina ham.

P, . , Q. macrocarpa Michx.

oStr^Uari^;:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::;--"- Q.fai^atavar.pagodaefouam.

Oak! chestnut g- ^^a L

Oak, northern red ____._____--------------------------- §; ^„¿„siris Muenchh.

Oak, white Madura pomífera (Raf.) Schneid.

Osage-orange Diospyros virginiana L.

Persimmon, common Pinusnigra Arnold

Pme, Austrian p. fc^ntóana Lamb.

rine, jack

x>. , ui 11 P- taeda L. Pine, obloUy p. palustris Mill

Pine, longleaf p ^¿ ¿^ Mill.

Pme, pitch p ponderosa La-ws.

Pme, ponderosa p resinosa Ait.

Pme, red "

Ü-CXÍ. - P- sylvestris L. Pme, Scotch . p ^chinata Mill.

Pme, shortleaf p virginiana Mill.

Pine, Virginia p ^trobus L.

I'lne, white (eastern white) Juniperus virginiana L.

Kedcedar, eastern

_, , , , Rhododendron L. spp.

Rhododendron '-- Sassafras albidum (Nutt.) Nees

Sassafras __"__[.- Oxydendrum arboreum (L.) DC.

Sourwood Pjjga excelsa Link

Spruce, Norway p_ glauca (Moench) Voss

Spruce, white "

Liquidambar styradflua L.

oweetgum ' _ _ _ _ Platanus occidentalis L.

Sycamore, American Juglans nigra L.

Walnut, black '_'_ Salix L. spp.

Willow ' ' y Liriodendron iulipifera L.

Yellow-poplar (tulip tree)

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE ; 1963 O—689-570