U.S. Geological Survey Core Science Systems Strategy—

Characterizing, Synthesizing, and Understanding the Critical 

Zone through a Modular Science Framework

Circular 1383–B

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
Cover.

Clockwise left to right: 

Landsat 5 mosaic of the Greater Chesapeake Bay region available from http://landsat.usgs.gov/. 

A slice of the Geologic Map of North America available from http://esp.cr.usgs.gov/data/geomap_natatlas/.

Landsat 7 scene of croplands near Garden City, Kansas, acquired September 2000, available from http://landsat.usgs.gov/.

A slice of the Gap Analysis Program (GAP) National Land Cover map, 2009, available from http://gapanalysis.usgs.gov/. 

A slice of a map showing Mississippi River Basin watersheds derived from hydrologic data available from The National Map 

 (http://www.nationalmap.gov).

The Blue Marble. Image by NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. Image available from 

http://rsd.gsfc.nasa.gov/rsd/bluemarble/index.html.

Background. Desert to forest: Landsat 5 image, March 28, 2009. In the American Southwest, transitions from one ecosystem to 

another can be dramatic and abrupt. This is true in northern Arizona, where the parched Painted Desert, shown 

in a palette of purples, adjoins Sitgreaves National Forest (shades of green), a realm of pine woodlands with 

abundant wildlife. Image available from http://landsat.usgs.gov/.
U.S. Geological Survey Core Science 

Systems Strategy—Characterizing, 

Synthesizing, and Understanding the 

Critical Zone through a Modular Science 

Framework

By R. Sky Bristol, Ned H. Euliss, Jr., Nathaniel L. Booth, Nina Burkardt, 

Jay E. Diffendorfer, Dean B. Gesch, Brian E. McCallum, David M. Miller, 

Suzette A. Morman, Barbara S. Poore, Richard P. Signell, and Roland J. Viger

Circular 1383–B

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

KEN SALAZAR, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Marcia K. McNutt, Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2013

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Suggested citation:

Bristol, R.S., Euliss, N.H., Jr., Booth, N.L., Burkardt, Nina, Diffendorfer, J.E., Gesch, D.B., McCallum, B.E., Miller, D.M., 

Morman, S.A., Poore, B.S., Signell, R.P., and Viger, R.J., 2013, U.S. Geological Survey core science systems 

strategy—Characterizing, synthesizing, and understanding the critical zone through a modular science framework: 

U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1383–B, 33 p.

ISBN 978-1-4113-3554-7
iii

Foreword

In 2007, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) published a Bureau Science Strategy Facing Tomorrow’s 

Challenges—U.S. Geological Survey Science in the Decade 2007–2017. It provided a view of the future, 

establishing science goals that reflected the USGS’s fundamental mission in areas of societal impact such 

as energy and minerals, climate and land use change, ecosystems, natural hazards, environmental health, 

and water. Intended to inform long-term program planning, the strategy emphasizes how USGS science 

can make substantial contributions to the well-being of the Nation and the world. 

In 2010, I realigned the USGS management and budget structure, changing it from a structure associated 

with scientific disciplines—Geography, Geology, Biology and Hydrology—to an issue-based organization 

along the lines of the Science Strategy. My aim was to align our management structure with our mission, our science priorities, our metrics for success, and our budget. An added benefit was that the USGS 

immediately appeared relevant to more Americans, and it became easier for those outside the agency to 

navigate our organizational structure to find where within the USGS they would find the solution to their 

problem. External partners rarely approached us with a problem in “geology,” but they might need help 

with an issue in climate change or energy research. 

The new organization is focused on seven science mission areas:

• Climate and Land Use Change

• Core Science Systems

• Ecosystems

• Energy and Minerals

• Environmental Health

• Natural Hazards

• Water

The scope of each of these new mission areas is broader than the science directions outlined in the USGS 

Science Strategy and together cover the scope of USGS science activities. 

In 2010, I also commissioned seven Science Strategy Planning Teams (SSPTs) to draft science strategies 

for each USGS mission area. Although the existing Bureau Science Strategy could be a starting point for 

this exercise, the SSPTs had to go well beyond the scope of the existing document. What is of value and 

enduring from the work of the programs that existed under the former science disciplines needed to be 

reframed and reinterpreted under the new organization of the science mission areas. In addition, new 

opportunities for research directions have emerged in the five years since the Bureau Science Strategy 

was drafted, and exciting possibilities for cooperating and collaborating in new ways are enabled by the 

new mission focus of the organization.

Scientists from across the Bureau were selected for these SSPTs for their experience in strategic planning, broad range of experience and expertise, and knowledge of stakeholder needs and relationships. 

Each SSPT was charged with developing a long-term (10-year) science strategy that encompasses the 

portfolio of USGS science in the respective mission area. Each science strategy will reinforce others 

because scientific knowledge inherently has significance to multiple issues. Leadership of the USGS and 

the Department of the Interior will use the science vision and priorities developed in these strategies 

for program guidance, implementation planning, accountability reporting, and resource allocation. These 

strategies will guide science and technology investment and workforce and human capital strategies. 

They will inform our partners regarding opportunities for communication, collaboration, and coordination.

The USGS has taken a significant step toward demonstrating that we are ready to collaborate on the most 

pressing natural science issues of our day and the future. I believe a leadership aligned to support these 

issue-based science directions and equipped with the guidance provided in these new science strategies 

in the capable hands of our scientists will create a new era for USGS of which we can all be proud.

Marcia McNutt 

Director
iv

Contents

Foreword ........................................................................................................................................................iii

Executive Summary.......................................................................................................................................1

Overview: Science for a Changing World—Evolving a Science Paradigm for the 21st Century.....2

Introducing the Core Science Systems Mission ......................................................................................6

Vision for Core Science Systems ................................................................................................................8

Guiding Concepts.........................................................................................................................................11

Start with Science ..............................................................................................................................11

Inherent Integration and Interdependence....................................................................................11

Audience ..............................................................................................................................................11

Workforce Evolution...........................................................................................................................11

Cultural Evolution................................................................................................................................11

Interdisciplinary Science ..................................................................................................................12

Goals, Objectives, and Actions..................................................................................................................13

Goal 1: Provide Research and Data to Characterize and Understand the 

Critical Zone ...........................................................................................................................14

Objective 1.1: Improve Characterization and Understanding of Geologic 

Framework to Inform Studies of the Earth’s Complex Processes........................15

Objective 1.2: Improve Land Surface Data to Better Characterize and 

Understand Relations Between Anthropogenic Influence and 

Natural Earth Surface Processes..............................................................................17

Objective 1.3: Increase Understanding of the Natural and Socio-Cultural

Implications of Biological Diversity...........................................................................19

Goal 2: Expand Applications of USGS Research Through Scientific Services ........................20

Objective 2.1: Modernize Information Management and Publication ..............................21

Objective 2.2: Research and Develop Technological Services that Support

Advanced Research, Data Analysis, Visualization, and Information

Processing.....................................................................................................................23

Objective 2.3: Design and Implement a Robust Suite of Professional Services 

to Aid in Implementation and Use of the Modular Science Framework.............25

Goal 3: Conduct Scientific Analysis and Synthesis to Improve Coverage, Scientific

Quality, Usability, and Timeliness of Information .............................................................26

Objective 3.1: Accelerate Use of Data-Driven Science for New Synthesis 

Products and to Identify New Hypotheses of the Earth System..........................28

Objective 3.2: Develop a Workplace Model for Interdisciplinary Science ......................30

Conclusion.....................................................................................................................................................31

Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................................31

References Cited..........................................................................................................................................32
v

Figures

1. The map depicts the biomass density—a proxy measure of the amount of organic

carbon—stored in the woody components of trees...............................................................3

2. This map shows areas in Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument determined,

through a “fuzzy system” model by USGS scientist Mark Bultman, to predict

favorable environments for the growth of Coccidioides immitis..........................................4

3. The Rio Grande near Bosque del Apache National Wildlife Refuge, New Mexico ..........5

4. The Critical Zone is the seamless collection of all ecosystems that sustain life on

the planet and is the area where humans interact with and often compromise

ecosystem functions ....................................................................................................................7

5. The Core Science Systems vision for a Modular Science Framework is illustrated

as distinct and integrated modules stacked in their natural order based on a

vertical slice of an ecosystem....................................................................................................8

6. Conceptual model for how the Modular Science Framework envisioned for the

Core Science Systems mission is developed through core sciences and

informatics research and development, interfaces with the USGS research

process, and draws from and contributes to the larger pursuit of the Digital Earth.......13

Highlights

What is the Distribution of Forest Biomass Across the Nation? .......................................... 3

Where Does Valley Fever Pose Serious Disease Threats to Humans?............................... 4

Why is an Invasive Species Successful in Taking Over Native Habitat? ............................ 5

Core Sciences ............................................................................................................................... 6

Modules Defined........................................................................................................................... 9

Digital Earth.................................................................................................................................... 9

Geologic Maps Used to Delineate Ecosystems and Critical Habitat ................................. 15

The National Enhanced Elevation Assessment..................................................................... 17

Biodiversity Information Serving Our Nation ......................................................................... 19

Services Defined......................................................................................................................... 20

ScienceBase................................................................................................................................ 22

Research and Decisionmaking Scenario ............................................................................... 23

National Groundwater Monitoring Network .......................................................................... 24

National Phenology Network.................................................................................................... 25

Flood Inundation Mapping......................................................................................................... 26

Cascadia Subduction Zone ....................................................................................................... 27

Cottonwood Lake Study Area ................................................................................................... 28

Synthesis Scenarios................................................................................................................... 29

Synthesis Centers....................................................................................................................... 30

U.S. Geological Survey Core Science Systems Strategy—

Characterizing, Synthesizing, and Understanding the 

Critical Zone through a Modular Science Framework

By R. Sky Bristol, Ned H. Euliss, Jr., Nathaniel L. Booth, Nina Burkardt, Jay E. Diffendorfer, Dean B. 

Gesch, Brian E. McCallum, David M. Miller, Suzette A. Morman, Barbara S. Poore, Richard P. Signell, 

and Roland J. Viger

Executive Summary

Core Science Systems is a new mission of the U.S. 

Geological Survey (USGS) that resulted from the 2007 Science Strategy, “Facing Tomorrow’s Challenges: U.S. Geological Survey Science in the Decade 2007–2017.” This report 

describes the Core Science Systems vision and outlines a strategy to facilitate integrated characterization and understanding 

of the complex Earth system. The vision and suggested actions 

are bold and far-reaching, describing a conceptual model and 

framework to enhance the ability of the USGS to bring its 

core strengths to bear on pressing societal problems through 

data integration and scientific synthesis across the breadth of 

science.

The context of this report is inspired by a direction set 

forth in the 2007 Science Strategy. Specifically, ecosystembased approaches provide the underpinnings for essentially 

all science themes that define the USGS. Every point on Earth 

falls within a specific ecosystem where data, other information 

assets, and the expertise of USGS and its many partners can 

be employed to quantitatively understand how that ecosystem 

functions and how it responds to natural and anthropogenic 

disturbances. Every benefit society obtains from the planet—

food, water, raw materials to build infrastructure, homes and 

automobiles, fuel to heat homes and cities, and many others—

are derived from or affect ecosystems.

The vision for Core Science Systems builds on core 

strengths of the USGS in characterizing and understanding complex Earth and biological systems through research, 

modeling, mapping, and the production of high quality data 

on the Nation’s natural resource infrastructure. Together, these 

research activities provide a foundation for ecosystem-based 

approaches through geologic mapping, topographic mapping, 

and biodiversity mapping. The vision describes a framework 

founded on these core mapping strengths that makes it easier 

for USGS scientists to discover critical information, share 

and publish results, and identify potential collaborations that 

transcend all USGS missions. The framework is designed to 

improve the efficiency of scientific work within USGS by 

establishing a means to preserve and recall data for future 

applications, organizing existing scientific knowledge and data 

to facilitate new use of older information, and establishing a 

future workflow that naturally integrates new data, applications, and other science products to make interdisciplinary 

research easier and more efficient. Given the increasing need 

for integrated data and interdisciplinary approaches to solve 

modern problems, leadership by the Core Science Systems 

mission will facilitate problem solving by all USGS missions 

in ways not formerly possible.

The report lays out a strategy to achieve this vision 

through three goals with accompanying objectives and actions. 

The first goal builds on and enhances the strengths of the Core 

Science Systems mission in characterizing and understanding 

the Earth system from the geologic framework to the topographic characteristics of the land surface and biodiversity 

across the Nation. The second goal enhances and develops 

new strengths in computer and information science to make 

it easier for USGS scientists to discover data and models, 

share and publish results, and discover connections between 

scientific information and knowledge. The third goal brings 

additional focus to research and development methods to 

address complex issues affecting society that require integration of knowledge and new methods for synthesizing scientific 

information. Collectively, the report lays out a strategy to 

create a seamless connection between all USGS activities to 

accelerate and make USGS science more efficient by fully 

integrating disciplinary expertise within a new and evolving 

science paradigm for a changing world in the 21st century.
2 USGS Core Science Systems Strategy—Characterizing, Synthesizing, and Understanding the Critical Zone

Overview: Science for a Changing World—Evolving a Science Paradigm for the 

21st Century

Many problems affecting the Nation and the increasingly interconnected world are consequences of anthropogenic change. Humanity’s growing planetary footprint 

is having unintended and negative effects on basic Earth 

system processes, human welfare, and the sustainability of 

the planet. The relation between humans and the Earth has 

changed markedly over evolutionary history, from being minor 

components of ecosystems to being major drivers of ecosystems and change on a global scale. The geologist A.P. Pavlov 

(1854–1929) was perhaps the first to recognize the magnitude 

of human influence on global ecosystems, referencing his contemporary time as the “anthropogenic era” (Vernadsky, 2005); 

many years later, the “Anthropocene” has been proposed as a 

new geologic epoch (Zalasiewicz, 2008). During this period of 

human influence, the USGS and others have documented that 

climate change is intertwined in such a way that the complexity of most modern problems is without historical precedent. 

For the USGS to be successful in solving the problems affecting the Nation, it is essential that two core science needs come 

together, which include characterizing and understanding 

complex Earth system processes fundamental to all science 

disciplines and integration across scientific disciplines to generate new interdisciplinary knowledge and approaches to solve 

modern problems.

This document describes a decadal vision for Core 

Science Systems, a mission of the USGS to collaboratively 

pursue the evolving paradigm for how greater quantity and 

complexity of scientific information can be linked to a deeper 

understanding of component Earth system processes to answer 

some of the most difficult challenges facing the Nation. The 

report begins with three examples to illustrate the unique 

strengths the USGS can bring to science in the 21st century. 

Specifically, the examples describe modern data-intensive 

techniques used to integrate large and disparate datasets to 

produce new interdisciplinary synthesis products and an 

interdisciplinary approach to developing the process-based 

understanding needed to solve complex problems. The stories 

illustrate the connected nature of the USGS science missions 

and the role Core Science Systems fulfills in providing critical 

characterization and understanding of complex Earth systems.

In these examples, situations are highlighted that required 

the expertise of USGS and partners to illustrate the value 

and relevancy of interdisciplinary and often interagency 

approaches to solve problems. Each story illustrates unique 

challenges that science in the 21st century must address to 

be successful—specifically what is happening on the planet, 

where is it happening, and why is it happening. All three types 

of questions are needed to properly frame modern problems 

and identify effective solutions. The remainder of the report 

describes a framework for Core Science Systems that will 

accelerate the identification and understanding of the what, 

where and why questions at increasing scale and complexity.

Forest ecosystem, Grand Teton National Park, western Wyoming, 

October 2006. Photograph by Melanie Clark, USGS.
Highlight

EXPLANATION

0 200 400 600 MILES

0 400200 600 KILOMETERS

Carbon, in tons per hectare

Biomass

0 50 100 150 200 Greater than 350

0 25 50 75 100 Greater than 175

No biomass (shaded relief)

Figure 1. The map depicts the biomass density—a proxy measure 

of the amount of organic carbon—stored in the woody components 

of trees. The darkest green and red colors show areas with the 

largest biomass and carbon values. The map was produced from 

the National Biomass and Carbon Dataset (J. Kellndorfer, written 

commun., March 15, 2012).

Overview: Science for a Changing World—Evolving a Science Paradigm for the 21st Century 3

What is the Distribution of Forest Biomass Across the Nation?

Josef Kellndorfer and Wayne Walker, two researchers at the Woods Hole Research Center, created the National Biomass 

and Carbon Dataset. The dataset was used to build a 30-meter resolution map of the forest structure and carbon storage 

for the continental United States, the highest resolution ever assembled for any country (fig. 1). This product provided the 

ability to understand forests down to the scale at which parking lots, developments, and deforested regions are visible—

resource managers have critical information to begin asking questions about why certain phenomena are being observed 

and how better management scenarios can be pursued. With this baseline data, the Nation can monitor and predict how 

important carbon resources will respond to changes induced by humans and climate.

To generate the National Biomass and Carbon Dataset, the researchers took advantage of what most scientists considered 

noise in the data. They used the difference between the NASA Shuttle Radar Topography Mission digital terrain model and 

the USGS National Elevation Dataset to estimate forest canopy height. The resulting data were then merged with the USGS 

National Land Cover Dataset to create a model for forest biomass that was calibrated and groundtruthed using information 

provided by the U.S. Forest Service. Their scientific creativity, combined with access to and understanding of datasets from 

multiple agencies, allowed them to create an entirely new synthesized data asset. Their work created a tool for understanding the role that trees play in the global carbon cycle, and a visual product that raises questions about occurrences of 

forest distribution patterns and how they may change in the future.

The next major scientific breakthrough and its source are as yet unknown, but fostering these breakthroughs can rapidly advance scientific understanding in the 21st century and beyond. The Core Science Systems mission is focused on 

activities that facilitate this type of synthesis, from development of authoritative data, to providing services that make data 

accessible, interoperable and usable, to fostering development of new synthesis products demanded by Science for a 

Changing World.
4 USGS Core Science Systems Strategy—Characterizing, Synthesizing, and Understanding the Critical Zone

Highlight

Where Does Valley Fever Pose Serious Disease Threats to Humans?

Public health officials are concerned about the increasing rates of Coccidioidomycosis or Valley Fever, a fungal disease 

that infects more than 100,000 people and animals annually in the southwestern United States. One of several emerging or 

reemerging zoonotic or vector borne diseases of concern, coccidioidomycosis is a systemic infection caused by the inhalation of the airborne fungal spores of Coccidioides immitis. In most cases of acute Coccidioidomycosis, the body’s own 

immune system, if it is not impaired, is sufficient for recovery; however, about 10 percent of cases are severe enough to 

require hospitalization and may progress to chronic or disseminated Coccidioidomycosis and sometimes death. In the past 

decade several states have seen increased rates of Coccidioidomycosis. In California, for example, reported cases have 

more than doubled (from 1483 in 2001 to 4508 in 2010; Bultman, 2008). As the organism is found only in the dry desert soil of 

the United States, Mexico, and Central and South America, defining factors such as soil type, temperature, and salinity that 

encourage organism growth could aid researchers in identifying areas of risk. 

Developing new map products that identify where humans are at greatest risk has far-reaching public health implications. 

Mark Bultman, a USGS researcher, teamed with university and other USGS researchers to identify the factors that affect 

the growth of the fungus to determine if sufficient information was available to model favorable habitat for Coccidioides 

immitis. Bultman was able to locate the data resources he needed for his model from the USGS and other Federal agencies. He used many sources of spatial data, including USGS map products (Geologic Maps, National Elevation Dataset), 

soils from the U.S. Department of Agriculture and mineralogy information from NASA’s Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging 

Spectrometer (AVIRIS) satellite. The resultant maps show an entirely new and innovative way for USGS to inform public 

health decisions by identifying where soils and other conditions interact to create ideal conditions for propagation of the 

disease organism (fig. 2). As rate increases have been associated with environmental factors such as climate and earthquake triggered landslides (Jibson, 2002), maps such as Bultman’s could be correlated with other USGS products such as 

those produced by the Earthquakes Hazards Program. The USGS is positioned to leverage its existing data to enable public 

health officials to elucidate critical environmental factors such as habitat and natural dissemination processes (landslides) 

that contribute to emerging zoonotic and vector borne diseases. This is a high priority for the Centers for Disease Control 

and Prevention (Centers for Disease Control, 2011) as they partner with public health communities to modernize disease 

surveillance for emerging zoonotic and vector borne diseases such as Coccidioidomycosis.

Figure 2. This map shows areas in Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument (outlined in blue boxes) determined, through a 

“fuzzy system” model by USGS scientist Mark Bultman, to predict favorable environments for the growth of Coccidioides 

immitis (Bultman, 2008). Model input included geology, elevation, slope, salinity, vegetation density through Digital 

Orthoimagery Quarter Quadrangles (DOQQ), and clay and borate mineralogy through the Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging 

Spectrometer (AVIRIS) sensor. The red line shows the property boundary for Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument.

Coccidioides habitat modeling

Data used in the Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument analysis:

• Geology

• Elevation [30-meter digital elevation model (DEM)]

• Slope/aspect

• Thematic Mapper clay map

• Thematic Mapper biological soil crust map

• Soil texture

• Soil salinity

• Soil water holding capacity

• Digital orthophoto quarter quandrangle (DOQQ) vegetation density

• AVIRIS clay mineralogy

• AVIRIS borate mineralogy

Facing page: San Carlos River near Peridot, Arizona, 2000. Non-native tamarisk is adjacent to the river channel. Photograph by USGS.
Highlight

Overview: Science for a Changing World—Evolving a Science Paradigm for the 21st Century 5

Why is an Invasive Species Successful in Taking Over Native Habitat?

Land managers are often faced with objectives that are especially difficult to achieve and often are met with limited or poor 

success. Salt cedar (Tamarix ramosissima) is an invasive species that often replaces native vegetation along southwestern rivers and riparian areas (fig. 3). The plant has reduced the value of vast expanses of arid riparian areas valuable for 

extensive provisioning of ecosystem services such as wildlife habitat, including public lands managed by the U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service (USFWS). Traditional methods of controlling salt cedar, such as removing vegetation with heavy equipment followed with herbicide application, did not provide lasting results because salt cedar often reinvaded areas and the 

methods were costly.

In the early 1990s, John Taylor, a USFWS biologist at the Bosque del Apache National Wildlife Refuge teamed with university researchers David Wester and Loren Smith to identify a more effective management solution (Taylor and others, 1999). 

Using their knowledge of local river dynamics, the team hypothesized that upstream dams had interrupted spring flooding 

and overbanking events that were a common process before the river was impounded. Working with the U.S. Bureau of 

Reclamation and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, an experiment was conducted to raise the river flow during a time of 

year when the desired vegetation, native willows and cottonwoods, were most likely to be established. The team and other 

partners demonstrated how hydrological processes could be manipulated to promote the life history of desired vegetation and sustain the desired ecosystem (Taylor and others, 1999). The USGS provided water flow gauging information and 

hydrographs to ensure that adequate water was delivered to the ecological target without damaging human infrastructure.

Following this experiment, the practice of simulating the hydrological environmental stimulus, and thus giving the desired 

native plant community a competitive advantage over the invasive salt cedar, has developed in other areas. This direct 

application illustrates the importance of how modern data can be evaluated in new ways spanning many scientific disciplines to gain an understanding of why salt cedar became invasive and how management practices applied to ecosystem 

processes could achieve desired outcomes. The solution to controlling salt cedar using a process-based ecosystem 

approach is a good example of how integrated scientific measurements can help to address the cause of the issue, 

answering the question of why is something happening in this location, instead of merely identifying the issue. Other issues 

affecting society are far more complex and will require greater integration of knowledge and new methods of synthesizing 

information.

Figure 3. The Rio Grande near Bosque del Apache National Wildlife Refuge, New Mexico. Photograph on left shows typical 

dense invasive salt cedar, whereas photograph on right shows native cottonwood/willow habitat (photographs by Joydeep 

Bhattacharjee).
Highlight

6 USGS Core Science Systems Strategy—Characterizing, Synthesizing, and Understanding the Critical Zone

Introducing the Core Science Systems Mission

Core Sciences

The Core Science Systems mission is founded on 

basic and applied research into the Earth’s complex geologic structure, a comprehensive and high 

resolution characterization of the Nation’s land 

surface, and analytical methods of understanding and characterizing biological habitats and 

biodiversity. These three core sciences, referred 

to in this manner throughout the strategy, span the 

Critical Zone (fig. 4) and provide context for nearly 

all other Earth system science conducted by the 

USGS and many partners around the world.

As discussed in the foreword, the USGS report, “Facing 

Tomorrow’s Challenges—U.S. Geological Survey Science 

in the Decade 2007–2017,” hereafter referred to as Science 

Strategy, helped to focus the organization toward a coherent 

approach to addressing major societal issues and resulted in 

creation of seven science missions. The USGS collects, monitors, analyzes, and provides scientific understanding of natural 

resource conditions, issues, and problems. For more than a 

century, the diversity of scientific expertise in USGS science 

programs has enabled the Bureau to carry out large-scale, 

multidisciplinary investigations and provide impartial scientific information to resource managers, planners, policymakers, and the public. As part of the Nation’s largest water, Earth, 

and biological science and civilian mapping agency, the Core 

Science Systems mission provides science to understand the 

Earth’s geologic framework and to characterize the Nation’s 

land surface and biodiversity. The Core Science Systems mission conducts core science (refer to “Core Sciences” highlight) 

across a broad range of fields from structural geology, geomorphology, and geophysics to geography and remote sensing, 

evolutionary biology and biogeography, and is supported by 

computer and information science. The Core Science Systems 

mission focus on delivering and interpreting high resolution, 

comprehensive maps and other forms of data and information for scientists, resource managers, and the public brings 

together not only research scientists, but also specialists in 

data analytics, software engineering, library science, and data 

management. Through research and development programs, 

Core Science Systems provides scientific data, information, 

and knowledge that function as an underpinning for all USGS 

contributions to a broad base of scientific knowledge serving 

the world.

One of the critical functions of the USGS is to provide unbiased scientific expertise and information to help 

address the Nation’s complex challenges in managing natural 

resources, preparing for and responding to natural hazards, 

and maintaining and enhancing quality of life. As the Nation’s 

Earth and natural science agency, the USGS provides accurate and timely scientific information and knowledge based 

on a characterization of the Earth system from the underlying 

geologic structure to complete ecological systems, natural 

and anthropogenic. The Critical Zone concept, introduced by 

the National Research Council in 2001, is useful for visualizing and discussing the USGS area of interest encompassing 

the Earth system with which humans directly interact and is 

used to discuss the Core Science Systems mission (National 

Research Council, 2001; fig. 4).
Introducing the Core Science Systems Mission 7

Figure 4. The Critical Zone is the seamless collection of all ecosystems that sustain life on the planet and is the area where humans 

interact with and often compromise ecosystem functions. The figure depicts the key elements of the Core Science Systems mission.

The USGS motto, Science for a Changing World, recognizes societal interactions with a complex Earth system, 

which necessitates a swift pace of scientific and technological 

discovery. The Science Strategy suggested a vision for a new 

mission in data integration and new methods of investigation 

and discovery. The core sciences associated with geologic 

mapping, topographic mapping, and biological analytics were 

brought together to advance the USGS motto and form the 

Core Science Systems mission. The mission organization 

includes geologic, geographic, and biologic science along with 

research capabilities in informatics, the combination of computer and information science needed to enable data intensive 

research in an era of increasingly large and complex information systems. The Core Science Systems mission also includes 

data and information management and archiving capabilities 

of the USGS Library and a data preservation capacity charged 

with ensuring long-term access to the Nation’s treasure of 

physical geoscience sample collections.

The complexity of processes sustaining ecosystems 

and the need to answer critical questions of immediate and 

future societal import, demands a framework where scientific 

research, regardless of disciplinary focus, can be organized to 

characterize, understand, and synthesize knowledge of physical and biological processes. The remainder of this document 

lays out a vision and identifies strategic actions for Core Science Systems to accelerate a global movement to create and 

sustain this framework.
8 USGS Core Science Systems Strategy—Characterizing, Synthesizing, and Understanding the Critical Zone

Vision for Core Science Systems

This report describes a new and bold vision for the 

Core Science Systems mission to construct a framework 

that enables the seamless integration across all USGS missions to more effectively tackle 21st century problems. This 

framework will allow diverse science knowledge, products, 

and capabilities (for instance protocols, data assets, scenarios, 

methods, publications, projects, and scientists) to be organized into logical, fluid, and integratable modules (refer to 

“Modules Defined” highlight). The framework envisioned 

will accommodate the complete spectrum of USGS scientific 

assets to enable quick and efficient deployment of scientific 

resources and will focus on specific complex problems facing the Nation in the next decade and beyond. Although the 

framework is inherently a vision of Core Science Systems, 

it is designed to serve the broad needs of the Bureau and our 

partners in the larger scientific and natural resource management communities.

The Critical Zone represents a seamless collection of 

ecosystems that sustain life on the planet, and defines the area 

where humans interact with and often conflict with ecosystem 

functions. The Critical Zone recognizes that ecosystems are 

the result of and are sustained by unique spatial characteristics 

and temporal processes at specific geographic locales. Using 

Bailey’s conceptual model (Bailey, 1996) as a guide, figure 5 

illustrates how the features of ecosystems could be characterized as specific modules that correspond to how much of the 

Earth systems science research is organized, but also account 

for unique site-specific features that drive functions of ecosystems through time. The modules include a great diversity 

of science and scientific assets, ranging from data to projects, 

protocols, and programs. Moreover, the stack of modules 

groups unique ecosystem features and mimics how they occur 

and function in the Critical Zone. In this view, there is no 

single module that is more important than another because all 

are essential features that drive ecosystem functions sustaining the Critical Zone. The modules construct, thus, recognizes 

and respects the valuable disciplinary work conducted by 

scientists, using their expertise and stresses that interdisciplinary collaborative studies are required to understand the entire 

system. Collectively, the complete set of modules represents 

a Modular Science Framework, where each module and the 

scientific work it represents are essential system components 

that contribute to the development of lasting solutions to societal challenges. More importantly, organizing scientific assets 

within the Modular Science Framework will make it easier 

for USGS scientists to discover data and models, share and 

publish results, and discover new interdisciplinary connections 

and research opportunities.

Every scientific discipline and activity of the USGS can 

be fit into one or more modules. Research conducted within 

the distinct and fluid modules is often single disciplinary 

and highly focused to produce base data, information, and 

knowledge of site-specific features, such as soil development 

and chemical and hydrologic characteristics, and temporal processes sustaining specific ecosystems, such as natural drought 

and deluge cycles. The Modular Science Framework provides 

a context whereby the USGS can contribute to the Digital 

Earth, a vision being pursued by the global scientific community (refer to “Digital Earth” highlight). Whereas the organization of the modules is just as they occur in the Critical Zone, 

Figure 5. The Core Science 

Systems vision for a Modular 

Science Framework is 

illustrated as distinct and 

integrated modules stacked in 

their natural order based on a 

vertical slice of an ecosystem

(Bailey, 1996). The Framework 

organizes data, scientific 

and technological methods, 

and models into relevant 

temporal and spatial scales 

(Euliss and others, 2004) to 

facilitate increased scientific 

understanding and decision 

support within the Critical 

Zone.
Vision for Core Science Systems 9

the Modular Science Framework provides a means to define 

where programs exist and where they need to be developed in 

the future to maintain USGS science relevancy. The Modular 

Science Framework thus provides a construct for developing 

integrated and interdisciplinary approaches to study, visualize, 

and evaluate ecosystem function and sustainability in a changing world while recognizing valuable disciplinary science 

and how it contributes to a more holistic understanding of the 

Critical Zone. 

The stack of modules in figure 5 is simplified to illustrate how scientific knowledge and synthesis expressed and 

delivered as analyzable products can be arranged to examine 

and understand the complex relations within a given ecosystem across spatial and temporal dimensions. The disciplinary 

modules can be examined individually or may be collaboratively linked to understand complex functions of natural and 

impaired ecosystems, asking “why is this observation happening here” type questions as described in the story of salt cedar 

controls in the Rio Grande Bosque discussed in the Overview 

section. Sufficient scientific understanding across the modules 

can lead to the creation of synthesis products that facilitate 

new understanding and support resource management uses, 

hazards preparedness and mitigation, policymaking, and 

many other purposes. Figure 5 represents several example 

synthesis products, including Biotic Interactions (Hanson and 

others, 2005), Geochemical Landscapes (Smith and others, 

2009), Hydrologic Landscapes (Winter, 2001), Gap Analysis 

(Edwards and others, 1993), and two national scale products—The National Map and the National Geologic Map. By 

consistently and systematically looking across the breadth of 

USGS digital knowledge and working to bring focus within 

the Modular Science Framework, the USGS can capitalize 

on new syntheses of its core assets to innovate understanding. The Modular Science Framework provides a means for 

scientists to identify new areas of fruitful work by examining 

within and across the modules for gaps in critical understanding. For instance, targeted social science research is needed to 

model social, economic, and institutional variables to provide 

insights into the dynamics of social-ecological systems (Berkes and Folke, 1998; Holling, 2001). The Modular Science 

Highlight

Modules Defined

The Modular Science Framework described for the Core Science Systems vision is a framework consisting of distinct units, 

called modules in this report, where like protocols, data assets, scenarios, methods, publications, projects, and even scientists can be organized to facilitate interdisciplinary Science for a Changing World. The “Modular” term is used because of 

its many meanings in science and mathematics. In general, modularity is the degree to which a system’s components may 

be separated and recombined. In biology, this may refer to linking organisms or metabolic pathways; in ecology, it refers to 

diversity and feedback among ecosystem drivers responsible for resilience and sustainability; in cognitive science, it refers 

to the idea that the mind is composed of independent, closed, domain-specific processing modules that are linked to form 

complex thought; in architecture, it refers to objects that can be joined together to form larger objects; and in computer 

science, it refers to individual self-contained electronic components that can be linked to form a larger system. Modular 

Science Framework, as used in this report, has meaning in each of these areas plus the many specialized scientific disciplines the USGS represents and often may need to link together as part of a larger system to better understand complex 

modern problems and develop effective solutions.

Highlight

Digital Earth

Digital Earth is a concept that has been pursued by 

the global science community since 1998 (Gore, 1998). 

It began as a vision to develop a virtual representation of the Earth where georeferenced locations 

would be collaboratively linked with digital knowledge 

archives from around the globe to help understand 

the entire Earth system and the influence of human 

activities. This report uses the term digital knowledge 

to refer collectively to digital forms of data, information, and knowledge developed through scientific 

research. While there is much work to do, many 

aspects of this vision have been realized with Google 

Earth and growing sources of linked geospatial data 

applications serving as prime examples. However, the 

original vision describing a truly global system where 

collaborative linking of scientific and cultural information systems provide three-dimensional virtual views 

of the globe to improve understanding of the Earth 

and human social influences has not been accomplished. The Modular Science Framework described 

in this report provides the requisite framework for 

the USGS to organize its scientific assets to better 

understand the complex processes affecting the 

Earth system while providing leadership within the 

scientific community to help achieve the larger vision 

of Digital Earth.
10 USGS Core Science Systems Strategy—Characterizing, Synthesizing, and Understanding the Critical Zone

Framework provides a tool to identify important gaps in 

knowledge needed to solve current problems through cataloging existing digital knowledge from the USGS and partners 

around the world and systematically exploring the possibility 

of new synthesis products.

Using the Modular Science Framework as a conceptual 

structure to organize data assets and other products of scientific research provides a unique opportunity and the requisite 

structure to facilitate exploration and development of new 

analysis and synthesis methods in data intensive science. 

The story about the National Biomass and Carbon Dataset 

highlighted in the Overview section illustrates how science 

benefits from new techniques and capabilities. The framework also provides a means for the the USGS to help rapidly 

advance evolution of the Digital Earth through development of the Modular Science Framework and application to 

core mission responsibilities of the USGS. To generate the 

National Biomass and Carbon Dataset, several billion digital 

biodiversity records were used (J. Kellndorfer, written commun., March 15, 2012), which greatly exceeds the computing 

capacity of many contemporary investigations. Other potential 

uses of the envisioned Modular Science Framework would 

include digital data assets that may be many orders of magnitude larger than in the National Biomass and Carbon Dataset 

story. Although digital approaches do not replace traditional 

methods in scientific discovery, they can complement, inform, 

and improve them (Kell and Oliver, 2004).

The massive quantity of data that has been and will 

continue to be collected is enabling a paradigmatic shift to 

new kinds of science (Hey and others, 2009), but it is also 

creating a problem because data often are located in disparate 

and disconnected locations, in incompatible formats, and with 

incomplete information needed to make them seamless and 

interoperable. To answer more complex questions, the Modular Science Framework must be continually examined and 

augmented with finer spatial scale, increased temporal context, 

and greater detail in attribution, measurements, and simulation. This growing quantity and complexity of data, sometimes 

referred to as Big Data (White, 2010), results in data larger 

than can be reasonably handled by smaller data management 

systems and techniques. The Core Science Systems mission 

provides leadership in USGS use of and contributions to this 

new paradigm in scientific process and discovery. Data intensive science is becoming common and it will become larger 

and more important in scientific investigation in the future. 

Participation and leadership in this field, within the USGS 

and the larger scientific community, can greatly advance 

knowledge of the Critical Zone and inform decisions affecting 

Earth’s sustainability. An evolving cyberinfrastructure across 

science agencies, academic institutions, and commercial 

industries is available to advance and evolve the new scientific 

paradigm and develop new opportunities for collaboration, 

communication and translation of complex phenomena affecting ecosystems.

The USGS is part of a much larger international scientific 

community working toward systems that will allow Earth science digital knowledge to be rapidly assembled from sources 

across disciplines and from around the world. The USGS is in 

a unique position to make substantial contributions to realize 

the Digital Earth vision by providing critical scientific understanding and data, developing essential services, and creating 

new scientific synthesis applications and products. The USGS 

will provide leadership and scientific content to the rapidly 

developing comprehensive virtual environment being created 

by scientists across the world that supports Earth sciences 

during the next decade and beyond. A Digital Earth concept 

connected with a Modular Science Framework will enable 

scientists and decisionmakers to better understand, communicate, assemble, and integrate disparate research, knowledge, 

data assets, and technology. An established Modular Science 

Framework will provide a centralized, easily accessible platform, allowing sharing and advancing of scientific information. With a robust Modular Science Framework, the National 

Biomass and Carbon Dataset could be developed in 6 months, 

instead of 6 years, and automatically updated as new satellite 

imagery becomes available. Furthermore, rapidly accessible 

knowledge will allow us to answer why questions, or will 

allow finding effective solutions to problems, such as water 

management for salt cedar control, to be rapidly discovered 

and used by decisionmakers in other arenas.

USGS scientists are encouraged 

to deposit their project materials 

with the Field Records Collection, 

Denver Library. Materials in 

the collection are inventoried 

electronically and managed as 

Federal records to ensure ongoing 

access in perpetuity for future 

researchers. Photograph by 

Colleen Allen, USGS.
Guiding Concepts 11

Guiding Concepts

While formulating the Core Science Systems strategy, a 

number of essential concepts emerged as part of the vision to 

help guide the development of goals, objectives, and actions. 

These concepts were discussed regularly in listening sessions 

and meetings with USGS scientists and other stakeholders. The concepts are provided here as an important guide 

to understand the drivers behind the goals, objectives, and 

actions because of their recurrence throughout the document.

Start with Science

“Start with Science” is an emerging USGS theme that 

developed during the course of the science strategy planning process. The significance to Core Science Systems, in 

particular, is twofold: the foundation for the Core Science 

Systems Mission Area is the scientific research conducted by 

its programs and projects, and the services provided by the 

Core Science Systems Mission Area to the USGS as a whole 

need to be conducted as part of a scientific program, using the 

scientific method to develop and improve services and capabilities. The stack of modules in the Modular Science Framework represent the science conducted within various USGS 

disciplines and focus areas, and the framework provides a set 

of methods whereby the science represented by the modules 

can be integrated and synthesized toward answering difficult 

and increasingly complex Earth system science questions. The 

Modular Science Framework represents a scientific pursuit 

founded in Earth system science and informatics research 

programs needed to characterize, understand, and synthesize 

the Earth’s complex structure and function.

Inherent Integration and Interdependence

This report provides goals, objectives, and actions for 

improving core components of the overall USGS mission as 

described in the 2007 Science Strategy. Like all missions of 

the USGS, Core Science Systems crosses organizational unit 

boundaries through necessary interdependence and a need 

for tight integration across programs and projects. The Core 

Science Systems mission is ultimately a USGS-wide responsibility and not fully within the domain of any one program or 

organizational unit. This strategy also makes no presumptions 

about implementation strategies and other details from organizational units outside the USGS but it is written to facilitate 

and encourage broad collaboration with many partners. The 

text is written deliberately to allow for the creative process in 

how the mission strategy will be implemented while providing specific examples to help readers connect to more tangible 

activities.

Audience

The 10-year nature of the science strategy process introduced a challenge in addressing multiple audiences at different 

scales of complexity and detail. Much attention is focused 

toward USGS scientists and other staff of the programs in 

the Core Science Systems organization. The Core Science 

Systems strategy outlines a mission to provide primary Earth 

systems science data; such as mapping of topography, geology and biota; and capacity to integrate much broader USGS 

data and information. The latter comes with the responsibility for application of advanced technologies across all USGS 

missions. For this reason, the full USGS workforce is recognized as an important stakeholder and participant in the Core 

Science Systems vision. Yet, aspects of the Modular Science 

Framework and strategy that include delivery of data, services, and synthesis to specific partners such as DOI resource 

managers requires a focus on audiences across the broader scientific and resource management communities. Stakeholders 

provide critical philosophical, political, and financial support 

to the USGS; and members of the public and industry groups 

reap financial benefit from research and development in the 

USGS. Feedback from each of these audiences sometimes varied greatly, resulting in a very broad perspective for the Core 

Science Systems strategic vision.

Workforce Evolution

The vision described in the science strategy plans will 

only be realized through an evolving USGS workforce. The 

goals, objectives, and actions in the Core Science Systems 

vision are all founded on the history of USGS as an organization deeply committed to developing its workforce, 

through deliberate and calculated recruitment of new skills 

and abilities and through continuing education of its workforce throughout full careers. The rapid pace of technological 

advancement and the importance placed on wise applications of technology to science described in the Core Science 

Systems vision demand investment in continual learning and 

workforce modernization.

Cultural Evolution

Successful implementation of this strategy is dependent 

on the continued evolution of cultural norms within USGS that 

emphasize improved data management, archival, and access 

techniques in the context of interdisciplinary approaches 

to Earth science studies. This evolution places a burden on 

USGS researchers. However, individual scientists are part of 

a much larger worldwide network of researchers, and scientists themselves form the most critical aspect of the emerging 

Modular Science Framework described in this document. 
12 USGS Core Science Systems Strategy—Characterizing, Synthesizing, and Understanding the Critical Zone

The use of scientific programming, software development as 

part of scientific publication, articulating science stories with 

advanced visualization tools, and integration of mobile computer technology are rapidly becoming the norm for scientists 

today and must be an integral part of the USGS of the future. 

Several actions within the Core Science Systems Strategy 

point out areas where new norms can be identified, studied, 

and evaluated.

Interdisciplinary Science

As emphasized in the 2007 Science Strategy and in this 

report, the problems facing the DOI, the Nation, and the world 

are extremely complex and are the result of numerous interacting factors. As a consequence, interdisciplinary science must 

continue to grow as a way to address these complex problems 

(see Gunderson and Holling, 2002; Dietz and others, 2007; 

Liu and others, 2007). Interdisciplinary research and scientific 

synthesis are required for and an outcome from the Modular 

Science Framework. The Modular Science Framework relies 

on a foundation of modules (fig. 6), wherein disciplinary and 

interdisciplinary science occur to produce the fundamental 

understanding of its elements and the preparation of data 

and information resources such that integration is possible. 

Realizing the full benefits of integrated science will require a 

dedicated effort to ensure that the necessary workforce ingredients are in place to achieve the full potential of the USGS as 

an integrated science agency. The USGS must actively shift 

its data resources, knowledge resources, workforce, and tools 

toward a new paradigm of integrated science. While requiring 

active organizational methods to counter the drift toward balkanization in science (Van Alstyne and Brynjolfsson, 1996), 

integrated science is driven by integrated science questions 

that arise at the edges of disciplines represented by modules in 

the framework.

The Digital Earth will be achieved through innovative collaborations between government data agencies and many other partners. 

This example shows a snapshot of the Los Angeles Basin as a high resolution digital elevation model combining data from the USGS 

Landsat Mission and the NASA Shuttle Radar Topography Mission.
Goals, Objectives, and Actions 13

Goals, Objectives, and Actions

The following goals, objectives, and strategic actions 

provide an outline for program and project activities in the 

coming decade to develop the Modular Science Framework. 

Although the goals reflect fundamental strategic requirements 

to achieve the Modular Science Framework, implementation 

methods and other details will evolve through more detailed 

program and project plans. The goals, objectives, and strategic 

actions reflect the vision and guiding concepts described in 

the preceding Guiding Concepts in the Strategy Development 

section. They are not meant to be pursued in sequential order 

as written here, but the top three actions for each objective are 

considered of highest priority.

A conceptual model to serve as a guide in fitting the 

goals, objectives, and actions into the overall vision for the 

Modular Science Framework is provided in figure 6. At the top 

of figure 6, the Digital Earth concept discussed in the Vision 

for Core Science Systems section illustrates the large scientific 

and worldwide community to which USGS contributes digital 

knowledge and from which USGS extracts data, information, 

and knowledge resources developed in the broader science 

community. The research process engaged across the sciences 

in the USGS intersects with the Modular Science Framework, 

drawing digital knowledge from the framework and contributing new understanding and products of research to the framework. Steps are outlined where research teams and individual 

scientists can connect with the Modular Science Framework.

Figure 6. Conceptual model for how the Modular Science Framework envisioned for the Core Science Systems mission is developed 

through core sciences and informatics research and development, interfaces with the USGS research process, and draws from and 

contributes to the larger pursuit of the Digital Earth.
14 USGS Core Science Systems Strategy—Characterizing, Synthesizing, and Understanding the Critical Zone

Geologic map of the Potomac River gorge, Great 

Falls Park, Virginia, and part of the C&O Canal 

National Historical Park, Maryland (U.S. Geological 

Survey Open-File Report 00–264, available at 

http://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/ofr00264).

Goal 1: Provide Research and Data to Characterize and Understand the Critical Zone

Conduct research to produce timely, nationwide, seamless, 

authoritative, open-access digital knowledge for ecosystem 

processes sustaining the Critical Zone.

The rapidly expanding environmental footprint of humanity requires continually evolving Critical Zone research to 

characterize and understand the Earth’s complex processes. 

One of the distinguishing characteristics of the USGS is 

its long-term commitment, arising from its geologic, water 

resource, and land survey roots; to the collection, maintenance, and provision of high quality data that spans a wide 

range of spatial and temporal scales. The Core Science Systems mission fulfills an important role in the USGS, providing 

core scientific data within several modules of the Modular 

Science Framework along with synthesis products such as The 

National Map, several national and continental geologic maps, 

and Gap Analysis Products depicted in figure 5. For more than 

130 years, the USGS and its partners have led development of 

a geologic, geographic, and hydrographic framework of the 

Nation. Long before the Critical Zone concept came into wide 

use, the USGS has been characterizing the Earth’s near-surface 

environment through its geologic and topographic maps and 

stream-gaging network. These maps and other data provide 

a basic foundation for models that inform ecosystem studies 

at multiple scales. With the introduction of biological science 

to the USGS in the last century, biogeographic modeling and 

mapping of species distribution and habitat through time has 

been added to the store of Critical Zone data.

Goal 1 highlights three core sciences that are integral 

to the Core Science Systems mission: geologic mapping, 

topographic mapping, and biodiversity mapping. Each of 

these components of the Modular Science Framework can be 

directed to better focus on challenges and strengthened to take 

advantage of emerging technologies. The goals are to provide 

outstanding map and other data products and to facilitate integration with other modules as a part of the overall framework 

that encompasses ecosystems in the Critical Zone and helps to 

bring context to other modules.

New technology and evolving societal needs demand 

that science delivers knowledge in a form that can be directly 

applied to forecasts of how the Earth and its living systems, 

including humans, influence and react to change. Improving 

the ability to map, model, and analyze information across 

space and time within individual modules will enhance the 

understanding of geologic, hydrologic, human, and biologic 

processes and their changes through time and in varying 

environmental conditions. The resulting characterization and 

understanding of processes will improve timely and accurate 

response to environmental and hazard challenges and better 

inform decisions, whether the challenges can be addressed 

with information from a single module or are better addressed 

through integration of knowledge across modules. An overall focus for the core sciences in the next decade will be to 

increase spatial and temporal resolution through research and 

development of products such as a full four-dimensional geologic map, showing how the complex geologic structure of the 

Earth has changed through time.
Highlight

Ecoregional habitats

Uplands

Rock outcrops

Wetlands/springs/seeps/potholes

Terraces

Riparian floodplain

Goals, Objectives, and Actions 15

Geologic Maps Used to Delineate Ecosystems and Critical Habitat

In the Potomac Gorge region near the Nation’s capital, study of bedrock geology by Southworth and Denenny (2004), 

funded by the National Cooperative Geologic Mapping (NCGM) Program, showed that the geology has a direct and predictable relation to rare plants, critical habitat, and plant communities. The bedrock controls these ecological attributes in 

several ways, such as the rocks that are more resistant to erosion forming topographic highs that have characteristic soils, 

and the less resistant rocks tending to host thicker sediment as well as more advanced soil development. In addition, the 

chemistry of specific rock 

formations lends a basic 

or acidic chemistry to the 

soil, further partitioning 

plant communities and 

animal habitat. In addition 

to controlling aspects 

of physical evolution of 

a watershed and river 

systems, the bedrock 

has a major influence 

on plant communities. 

This map of the bedrock 

and others of surficial 

geology developed by the 

NCGM Program provides 

a framework that aids 

with developing predictive ecohydrology models 

such as plant community 

patterns and wildlife 

habitat. Ecology of the Potomac River Gorge showing geologic units and landforms as critical habitats and 

ecological land units.

Objective 1.1: Improve Characterization and 

Understanding of Geologic Framework to Inform 

Studies of the Earth’s Complex Processes

The published strategy for geology research in the USGS 

(Gundersen and others, 2011) provides the following statement in a goal that closely aligns with Goal 1 in this plan and 

this objective:

“A comprehensive understanding of the Earth’s 

geologic framework is needed to inform the critical 

decisions the Nation and the world will make about 

resource utilization, environmental quality, and 

hazard mitigation.”

The Core Science Systems mission is responsible for 

the research that results in characterizing and understanding 

the Earth’s geologic framework. Geologic maps represent 

multidisciplinary investigations that constrain evolving models 

of the Earth’s structure, evolutionary history, and response to 

and interactions with humans. The geology in these models 

describes the history of geologic processes in a given area, 

that is, processes that represent temporal evolution of the area. 

As such, geologic models represented by maps present four 

dimensions, a three-dimensional volume of the Earth plus 

the fourth dimension of time. Mapping the Earth systems has 

moved to an era that improves the ability to deliver knowledge in a form that can be directly applied to forecasts of how 

the Earth and its living systems drive and react to change. 

Next generation studies will generate three dimensional Earth 

system models representing understanding of the geologic processes in the Critical Zone, and their alterations through time. 

The resulting understanding of processes will improve timely 

and accurate response to environmental and hazard challenges.

Strategic Actions

1. Develop three- and four-dimensional models of crustal 

characteristics and processes through expanded field 

investigations and improved laboratory and remote sensing technology.
16 USGS Core Science Systems Strategy—Characterizing, Synthesizing, and Understanding the Critical Zone

2. Use improved elevation data and landscape analytical 

techniques to advance geomorphology and active tectonic 

research.

3. Use advanced microanalytical techniques for dating and 

analyzing the composition of rocks and sediment, including measures of past environmental conditions, to refine 

the mapping of surface and near-surface geologic materials of the Critical Zone.

4. In collaboration with State Geological Surveys and other 

partners, create a common geologic map data model for 

the Nation through analysis and interpretation to correlate 

rock units and properly convey spatial resolution and map 

characteristics.

5. Apply geoinformatics to deliver seamless geologic maps 

for the Nation that honor scale and content requirements.

6. Improve understanding of deep geologic basin processes 

with cutting edge geophysical and geologic studies, 

employing three-dimensional modeling.

7. Expand understanding of dynamic crustal processes as 

they relate to sediment transport and landscape evolution.

Stream flowing into the Potomac River in Whites Ferry, 

Virginia. Photograh by Cynthia L. Cunningham, USGS.
Goals, Objectives, and Actions 17

Objective 1.2: Improve Land Surface Data to Better Characterize and Understand Relations Between

Anthropogenic Influence and Natural Earth Surface Processes

Geospatial land surface data are primary resources 

required for Earth science research and applications. Since its 

inception, the USGS has collected, produced, and published 

geospatial data in the form of hardcopy topographic maps. As 

the USGS transitioned into the digital realm, the categories for 

features portrayed on a topographic map became segmented 

into data layers or themes, which were digitized into separate databases. Not only were these data layers maintained 

separately, but being derived from older topographic maps, 

were often out of date. Fundamental research in geographical 

information science is necessary to update these data and provide the foundation required for collaborative, integrated Earth 

science. These scientific advances will ensure that USGS can 

improve reliable, ready access to high-quality, authoritative, 

integrated, up-to-date, spatially-consistent geospatial data that 

fully support the interdisciplinary science called for in the 

Highlight

The National Enhanced Elevation Assessment (NEEA)

The NEEA project is led by National Geospatial Program (NGP) 

and the Land Remote Sensing Program in the Climate and Land 

Use Change mission area. The NEEA was completed in 2012, and 

provides key information about requirements for a national program 

for enhanced elevation data. The NEEA was sponsored by member 

agencies of the National Digital Elevation Program (NDEP), an interagency consortium dedicated to the collection, dissemination, and 

use of digital elevation data products. A primary objective accomplished in the NEEA is the documentation of technical requirements 

and business cases for development of a new national program 

focused on collection and provision of enhanced high-resolution, 

high-accuracy elevation data. The study also identifies national 

program implementation alternatives, costs, and benefits that meet 

the priority needs of Federal, State, and other stakeholders. The 

study results indicate the broad, mission-critical requirements for 

enhanced elevation data, literally hundreds of functional programmatic applications from 34 Federal agencies, 50 States, territories, 

tribes, local governments, and representatives from nonprofit groups and private industry.

NGP has a lead role in pursuing the follow-on steps, and current activities include formalizing program recommendations, 

intensifying outreach and coordination with potential partner agencies, and developing a funding strategy and implementation timeline. All the implementation scenarios for an enhanced national elevation program include recognition of the 

information technology infrastructure required to manage the massive amounts of data in this foundational Earth science 

dataset. Geoinformatics research through the Core Science Systems mission could make substantial contributions toward 

the information management practices that will be needed to efficiently administer the data and products in a new national 

elevation initiative.

The availability of significantly enhanced base elevation data will facilitate numerous developments and improvements 

in other core data assets and research activities that use those datasets. For instance, new consistently collected, 

high-resolution, high-accuracy elevation data would allow for development of significantly improved hydrography data 

to upgrade the National Hydrography Dataset, a key USGS data resource for distributed hydrologic modeling research. 

Such a development would eliminate the current condition with base elevation and hydrography layers in which users 

often need to account for the lack of precise vertical integration between the datasets. The availability of newer types 

of elevation products, such as full return waveform light detection and ranging (lidar) data, will also facilitate innovative 

applications across the USGS. Scientific investigations require more than just high-quality bare-Earth elevations, such as 

the characterization of vegetation canopy habitats or mapping of human-built structures in forest fire prone areas along 

the wildland-urban fringe. The Modular Science Framework will play a key role in developing and demonstrating these new 

applications of remote sensing based elevation products for interdisciplinary science, particularly through the Center of 

Excellence for Geospatial Information Science (CEGIS).
18 USGS Core Science Systems Strategy—Characterizing, Synthesizing, and Understanding the Critical Zone

USGS Science Strategy. By meeting the needs of USGS inter- when extracted from elevation, land cover, boundaries, 

disciplinary science for base geospatial data, the requirements and hydrography layers.

of other Federal, State, local agencies, and tribal nations, as 4. Conduct studies to fully characterize, quantify, and docu- well as nongovernmental and private entities and the general ment the data quality and uncertainty of foundational public, are also met. topographic data, including locational (coordinate) and 

attribute accuracy. Strategic Actions 5. Research methods for instituting spatial/temporal data 

1. Produce enhanced elevation data of higher resolution models so that the vast store of historical maps, aerial 

and accuracy for three-dimensional measurement of the photography, and satellite imagery possessed by the 

Earth’s land and coastal submerged topography and its USGS can be readily used for retrospective analyses.

natural and human-constructed features. 6. Research and establish production methods for nation2. Conduct research on data structures and analytical meth- wide seamless, vertically integrated, high resolution data 

ods for making these new types of geospatial content for topographic, geologic, biologic, and hydrologic applireadily usable by scientists. cations and processes.

3. Ensure that all foundational geospatial data exhibit precise 7. Research, develop, and implement new models for geovertical integration. For instance, a waterbody, stream spatial processing, data mining, exploration, management, 

channel, or ocean shoreline should be exactly the same archiving, and storage. 

A part of the USGS enhanced 

elevation work, the image 

shows the Alamosa, Colorado 

area and the elevation 

difference derived from 

processing lidar data. Colors 

indicate the magnitude of the 

differences, and boundary line 

indicates where contour lines 

were delivered for the Federal 

Emergency Management 

Agency (FEMA) as part of a 

multi-agency cooperative lidar 

collection. Uses of these data 

include floodplain mapping 

and risk assessment, urban 

planning, invasive plant 

species mapping, tree-canopy 

height measurement, and 

elevation data improvement for 

The National Map. Lidar image 

by John Kosovich, USGS.
Goals, Objectives, and Actions 19

Objective 1.3: Increase Understanding of the 

Natural and Socio-Cultural Implications of 

Biological Diversity

Biogeographic information—biological information 

on species and when and where they occur on Earth—are 

basic requirements for understanding fundamental questions in ecology and conservation science. Biodiversity on 

Earth is not completely cataloged or quantified. Mapping 

and modeling of species and habitats are based on current 

knowledge of species and species assemblages, as well 

as classification systems and related information management. Current theories of speciation and community ecology recognize a temporal aspect to species relationships. 

Major drivers of landscape modification, including climate 

change, highlight the temporal dynamic in characterizing 

and understanding biodiversity, but current data are not 

adequate to understand and predict how species assemblages and species-habitat relationships might change. 

Given the importance of biodiversity to ecosystem studies and the social and natural values that underlie current 

efforts to understand the biological diversity, it is necessary 

to advance knowledge and capacity in this area.

Strategic Actions

1. Enhance mapping of plant communities and animal 

habitats on a regular cycle in sufficient detail with 

thoughtful, detailed data organization to be flexible and 

adaptive given long-term change.

2. Determine the critical information necessary to confidently determine the status and condition of biological 

diversity through time.

3. Model species distributions across their full extent 

through studies that are comprehensive in terms of 

understanding biological diversity and adaptable with 

respect to data management.

4. Refine vegetation classification and mapping with new 

observations and improved integration methods to 

increase spatial and temporal resolution.

5. Improve biological occurrence data in terrestrial and 

marine environments through data integration of additional trusted source data.

6. Continue to develop taxonomic data, expertise, and an 

accessible standardized nomenclature.

7. Improve methods for modeling, mapping, and understanding how biodiversity varies across space 

and through time.

Highlight

Biodiversity Information Serving Our 

Nation

BISON is a comprehensive view of biological occurrences in the United States with more than 82 million 

records generated by approximately three-fourths of 

a million professional and citizen scientists across 

the Nation. A portal to one agency’s data is useful but 

a resource that facilitates visualization and geospatial query and analysis of occurrence data from all 

Federal agencies combined with data from across 

the public and private sectors is transformative for 

science and society. BISON synthesizes the primary 

occurrence data (a species or other taxon, the location at which it was observed or collected, who made 

the scientific observation, and on what date). These 

points are then linked back to extended ancillary data 

and metadata in the original data set. The primary 

occurrences are viewable in an interactive geospatial environment for query, analysis, and downloading. Synthesis occurs through adherence to global 

standards such as Darwin Core, taxonomic integration through the Integrated Taxonomic Information 

System, and integrated high resolution geospatial 

layers. BISON also has access to some of the biggest 

supercomputing resources on Earth, so computed 

layers can be developed and made available to 

answer questions that were previously beyond the 

capability of most scientists.
20 USGS Core Science Systems Strategy—Characterizing, Synthesizing, and Understanding the Critical Zone

Goal 2: Expand Applications of USGS Research 

Through Scientific Services

Improve the application and impact of USGS research products through development and testing of services, software, 

tools, and participatory frameworks that build and apply the 

Modular Science Framework.

One of the driving concepts in the 2007 Science Strategy 

and the aim of the Modular Science Framework is to provide 

increased capacity to answer more complex science questions 

related to societal challenges through digital knowledge. The 

Modular Science Framework needs to be a functioning system, 

able to be applied to science questions and management challenges to better inform decisions impacting society. Coupled 

with the core sciences described in Goal 1, the Modular Science Framework requires sustained and focused research and 

development in computer and information science to apply 

evolving theories of distributed complex scientific information 

networks to USGS digital knowledge. The Modular Science 

Framework is not envisioned as a monolithic software or data 

system; rather it provides a method of tying together many different data systems across the USGS and around the world.

Technological services include digital methods by which 

data and information are discovered, accessed, processed, 

and applied to various types of applications such as simulations and analytical systems. As in any technical field, there 

are broad-ranging debates about the efficacy of one service 

approach or another, and it is anticipated that debate in the 

field of technological services will carry on for many decades 

to come. The USGS is a leader in the development of services for its products such as The National Map data services 

(U.S. Geological Survey, 2012f), the National Water Information System web services for streamflow and water quality 

(U.S. Geological Survey, 2012c), and the suite of services 

from the National Earthquake Information Center providing 

information about seismic activity across the Earth (U.S. Geological Survey, 2012b). These example applications were initiated with the purpose of serving a particular application need 

and a specific group of stakeholders, but have resulted in many 

new innovative applications created by USGS and non-USGS 

scientists and developers. Whether directly or indirectly, 

services providing data in forms that can be used broadly by 

a multitude of applications are a core part of the Modular Science Framework.

Professional services in this goal refer to the ways in 

which people and organizations contribute to the functionality 

and ongoing development of the Modular Science Framework. A prime example of a service for the Modular Science 

Framework is the role of the USGS Library in the data mining 

and archiving processes described in the conceptual model 

(fig. 6). As data and other scientific products and tools are used 

to populate the Modular Science Framework, an archival and 

notification system, leveraging human-assisted technology, 

can constantly monitor the framework, keeping users aware of 

new data holdings, new techniques being employed, new scientific publications, and new research projects in a way never 

before possible. Professional services provided as components of the conceptual model can be evaluated and tested for 

effectiveness using empirical methods to measure and analyze 

everything from the effectiveness of tools to the recorded 

comments about interactions with people and organizations 

providing services.

Access to and incorporation of digital knowledge external 

to the USGS, such as data and partner researchers, are vitally 

important to the continued evolution of technological and 

professional services. The connection of the Modular Science Framework to the larger Digital Earth is illustrative of 

a complex challenge requiring research and development of 

services. To be effective, users must have access to the wealth 

of data, tools, and capabilities from other science agencies, 

academic institutions, resource management organizations, 

and monitoring networks. Technological services provide part 

of the pathway to seamless integration with these resources; 

however, there are many other aspects that require development and maintenance of research partnerships, data access 

agreements, and targeted research and development into new 

ways of tapping remote data streams. An overall focus for the 

informatics research of Core Science Systems is to continually 

Highlight

Services Defined

The concept of services within and from the 

Modular Science Framework is used to discuss 

how the framework is interacted with, either 

conducting research and organizing subsequent 

digital knowledge within the framework, or interfacing with the framework to address a societal 

challenge. Services may be used elsewhere in this 

report with concepts such as ecosystem services, 

but in this context they refer specifically to technological services, that provide interfaces to the 

digital knowledge brought together in the Modular 

Science Framework. Professional services, work 

conducted by people and organizations to grow 

and maintain the Modular Science Framework and 

its applications to science and decisionmaking, 

are critical. The terms, ‘services’ and ‘service orientation’, are used in this goal in a broad sense to 

describe the applications of the Modular Science 

Framework for scientific research and for addressing societal challenges. The fundamental point 

raised here is that pursuing service orientation, 

whether used in the technological sense (Erl, 2005) 

or the professional services sense (Teng and Barrows, 2009), forces the development of capabilities 

and resources that can be examined individually, 

quantitatively measured and analyzed for effectiveness, and improved incrementally.
Goals, Objectives, and Actions 21

test whether USGS digital knowledge is being served to the 

rest of the world in a way that supports anticipated and unanticipated but valid uses. USGS researchers must have access to 

the broadest possible base of digital knowledge from the rest 

of the world.

Objective 2.1: Modernize Information 

Management and Publication

The global pursuit of a Digital Earth by many organizations and the possibilities for creating new forms of interactive scientific content has launched many large and small 

scale efforts to transform the scholarly publishing paradigm 

(Attwood and others, 2009). Efforts include digitizing previously analog information into new archives accessible to 

digital analysis, improving information management throughout the duration of science projects, and establishing formal 

publication of data alongside traditional scientific publications. 

As the USGS is part of this global scientific community, the 

data produced and published by USGS scientists have a longlasting scientific impact beyond an existing study or even the 

career of an individual scientist. Although many major USGS 

programs with coordinated, long-term observation or monitoring programs have well established methods for publishing and managing data, adapting and improving methods to 

promote use and ultimate impact of data should be a major 

focus across the USGS. The conceptual model for the Modular Science Framework (fig. 6) shows several steps where 

the research process intersects through data and information 

management to the framework—data mining, data publishing 

and archiving, scientific workflows, and final publishing. Each 

of these steps requires facilitation that can be provided through 

the Core Science Systems mission and also direct investment from all USGS missions, programs, science centers, and 

individual scientists. Figure 6 indicates that all steps in the 

science lifecycle conducted within USGS should be examined 

critically for how they can contribute to and take advantage 

of the data and information aspects of the Modular Science 

Framework.

Strategic Actions

1. Facilitate more rapid and incremental release of quality 

scientific data and associated materials prior to and associated with final interpretive publications.

2. Increase the use of data citation methods across the 

breadth of USGS science in coordination with international standards bodies such as DataCite (DataCite, 2012), 

and incorporate data citation into the official research 

record of USGS scientists through automated methods 

wherever possible.

3. Improve rescue and curation of historical data, physical 

specimens, and samples throughout the USGS into robust 

archives that can be used for new research.

4. Research new methods of describing data, scientific workflows, and research such as videos published alongside a 

scientific paper that present a more nuanced understanding of the research.

5. Continue to develop and implement data documentation 

standards and new methods for computer-assisted metadata creation and maintenance.

The Castle Pines Core was a joint 

scientific venture between Federal, 

State, and local organizations to obtain 

detailed geologic and hydrologic data 

pertaining to the bedrock aquifers in 

the Denver Basin. After languishing 

unused and inaccessible in a local 

government office, a collaborative effort 

transferred the core to the USGS Core 

Research Center where information 

about the core and photos are available 

online and the physical data can be 

accessed by public and private entities 

for research.
Highlight

22 USGS Core Science Systems Strategy—Characterizing, Synthesizing, and Understanding the Critical Zone

ScienceBase

Much more science is conducted in the USGS and many more products are produced than ever see the full light of day 

in scientific publications and USGS reports. Library scientists have begun calling this type of research information “dark 

data,” with the library community around the world working toward ways of managing, curating, archiving, and exposing 

these data for broader use (Heidorn, 2008). One USGS strategy to address this problem is the ScienceBase platform for 

scientific data and information management (U.S. Geological Survey, 2012e). ScienceBase takes the approach of providing 

a data management platform for use by individual scientists and science teams early enough in the research lifecycle that 

project data are identified and posted online sooner rather than later, professional and technological services that transform and expose data in ways that they can be accessed by a broad range of applications, and open methods of accessing ScienceBase data and documentation (metadata) so that they can be easily incorporated into other outlets such as 

Science Center web sites. Two parts of the Core Science Systems mission, a group focused on scientific data management 

at the project level and the USGS Library focused on long-term management and archiving of the USGS data record, are 

teaming together to extend the ScienceBase platform for broad use across the spectrum of formal USGS data publications 

and the so called, “long tail” of dark data. By collaborating with other projects who are also tackling this problem such as 

DataONE (DataONE, 2012), the USGS is contributing to and taking advantage of research activities such as formal data citation processes (DataCite, 2012), all part of the global pursuit of Digital Earth.

Data and Information

Explore Data

Get Data in 

Different Ways
Goals, Objectives, and Actions 23

Objective 2.2: Research and Develop 

Technological Services that Support Advanced 

Research, Data Analysis, Visualization, and 

Information Processing

Scientific data search, access, analysis and visualization tools and techniques have become critically important 

for the execution of science. To lead integrated studies of 

Earth systems, the USGS must ensure that software tools 

and techniques are state-of-the-art, interface smoothly with 

infrastructure developed by various science communities, and 

are fully accessible to USGS scientists. In addition to speeding 

development and ultimate performance of software, the USGS 

can drastically improve the capacity for individual researchers 

to pursue science at a scale that has not been previously accessible to them. In addition to reducing time needed to conduct 

an analysis, visualize data, or develop a simulation model, 

applying software engineering rigor to the development of 

scientific software such as models, visualization systems, and 

analysis tools will improve sustainability and adaptability 

of scientific software. Synthesis across the Modular Science 

Framework will depend on the ability to integrate data and 

information among modules. The core sciences discussed in 

Goal 1 will provide an important aspect of contextualization 

in the geologic, topographic, and biogeographic framework. 

Comprehensive data integration services for the Modular 

Science Framework will depend on capturing and modeling 

data semantics or meaning across the breadth of information 

represented in the modules (Berners-Lee and others, 2002).

The following list of actions provides a broad view of 

the type of computer and information science work needed to 

advance the Modular Science Framework. Far more detailed 

research and development are required than may be articulated 

in this report or conducted in the USGS. Though often not 

considered within traditional views of the USGS scientific 

portfolio, it is vital for the Core Science Systems mission to 

lead in developing informatics as a research discipline. This 

will enable the USGS to participate in and take advantage of 

the tremendous pace of this research from academic and commercial sectors along with other government agencies.

Highlight

Research and Decisionmaking Scenario

John is a USGS researcher who specializes in sediment transport modeling in the coastal ocean. An interagency team 

addressing harmful algal blooms in the Gulf of Maine suspects that summer toxicity events are strongly affected by redistribution of cyst-laden sediment during the winter months and asks John to investigate with a numerical simulation. A decade 

ago, he would have started by asking his immediate colleagues if they had forcing models and parameterizations he might 

be able to use. Now he can quickly discover and review available scientific workflows in the Gulf of Maine involving wave 

modeling through discovery applications written within the Modular Science Framework and finds that the National Aeronautics and Space Administration has forcing and parameterizations that he can adapt for his study in the Gulf of Maine.

A decade ago he would have run the simulation on his local computer cluster, after writing custom scripts to download 

additional forcing data he identified from various FTP sites, data portals, and Web services. Now he simply selects components and parameters in a cloud-based environment used by the entire geosciences modeling community. Metadata are 

generated automatically for John’s new workflow, including his model configuration parameters and quality information, 

indicating that this is an experimental product that has not been validated. John then publishes his new data and workflow 

to a repository within the Modular Science Framework.

Subsequently, Amy, a researcher from Boston University studying contaminated sediment in Boston Harbor, is notified that 

new model data meeting criteria she has specified are available from John’s work. She uses his workflow with standardized components to interpolate the gridded model results for comparison with sediment profiles she has collected, with 

model output to her preferred spreadsheet. She finds that John’s experimental model product matches her data better than 

any previously available simulation and adds this information to the metadata associated with John’s dataset. Through a 

“subscription” to the Modular Science Framework, John is notified of Amy’s use and change to the dataset and then uses 

her profile data to help quality control his final published model data product. While John is writing his scientific paper on 

harmful algal blooms, a Coastal and Marine Spatial Planning team in Maine uses bottom stress data from the model to help 

locate sites for submerged aquatic vegetation restoration. 

A decade ago, John spent most of his time on routine tasks to produce data that were used almost exclusively by himself 

and his immediate colleagues. Now, based on the innovative data and tools provided by the Modular Science Framework, 

he spends less of his time on routine tasks and has substantially increased his scientific output while contributing to the 

efficiency of other scientific work.
24 USGS Core Science Systems Strategy—Characterizing, Synthesizing, and Understanding the Critical Zone

Strategic Actions

1. Capture the knowledge of how data layers interact into 

services that describe how to negotiate interrelations 

between data themes for models and other analyses that 

explore pathways (for instance, contaminant pathways).

2. Enhance and publish methods of producing scientific 

software that facilitates repeatability of results to transfer 

application to other situations (also known as scientific 

workflows).

3. Exploit and further develop simulation modeling frameworks and other methods of coupling to explore how different Earth processes can be analyzed in novel combinations to address more complex Earth science questions.

4. Conduct research into methods and techniques for embedding data quality metrics and uncertainty information 

within derived and processed data at a sufficient level to 

aid in usage and application selection through automated 

and human-assisted means.

5. Develop a technological and methodological framework 

for incorporation of observations of physical and biological phenomena from public data networks.

6. Design and improve scientific computing systems, such as 

modeling frameworks, to allow computationally intensive 

operations to run through state-of-the-art technology platforms, from cloud-based resources to high-performance 

computing centers.

7. Conduct research into the development of ontologies 

specific to the fields of Earth systems science conducted 

by the USGS to aid in the interrogation of data assets and 

integration of disparate resources.

8. Conduct research into methods and techniques for 

monitoring data usage across disparate ways that data are 

accessed to facilitate comprehensive analyses of data use 

in distributed networks.

Highlight

National Groundwater Monitoring Network

As part of its role of providing leadership to communities of which the USGS is a part, there are important opportunities to 

coordinate federation of data networks of partner organizations into common, nationally consistent networks. The National 

Groundwater Monitoring Network is complementary to The National Map vision of a seamless data product comprising individual State and local contributions. To create this federation of State groundwater monitoring networks of water 

quantity and quality, the USGS has developed a portal to pull these data together in real time and mediate local formats so 

content is expressed according to international standards and terminology. This portal allows users to interact with the 

disparate State networks as though they were a single information system to evaluate historical and current conditions 

of the Nation’s groundwater resources. This interaction enables analysis across a range of external data resources that 

would not be easily completed without the network. Additional examples in the USGS that demonstrate capacity to produce 

a seamless experience with all manner of data should form critical building blocks for the Modular Science Framework.
Goals, Objectives, and Actions 25

Objective 2.3: Design and Implement a Robust 

Suite of Professional Services to Aid in 

Implementation and Use of the Modular Science 

Framework

The Core Science Systems mission includes responsibilities for scientific data and information management, curation, archiving, preservation, and long term availability. This 

mission is evident across the spectrum of direct data holdings 

of geologic maps, topographic maps, biogeographic maps, and 

supporting data systems that make up the core of the Modular 

Science Framework. The USGS Library has been steadily 

growing from a physical resource of paper holdings, public 

spaces, and their curation to include a digital library at its 

core, which is part of an evolution in library systems around 

the world toward more holistic agents for information literacy 

(Bruce and Lampson, 2002). To continue to provide national 

historic resources to the Nation, the unique and irreplaceable 

physical collections in the USGS should continue to be preserved and maintained, while developing ways that researchers 

can leverage these resources using digital means. The arrows 

in the Modular Science Framework conceptual model (fig. 6) 

represent areas where technological and professional services 

are needed for efficient, timely, and robust interactions within 

the framework to occur. Coordination across the spectrum of 

data management responsibilities in the Core Science Systems 

mission and throughout the USGS can result in a powerful 

suite of professional services performing a critical core function in USGS research.

The ongoing development and growth of the Modular 

Science Framework is dependent on methods to continually 

test its effectiveness and impact on research across the USGS 

and its mission responsibilities to provide unbiased scientific 

information to the Nation. Effectiveness monitoring and regular adjustment to science and technology priorities needs to be 

an integral aspect of the Modular Science Framework. Testing 

and monitoring of the framework can take advantage of a 

number of different technologies and methods, but it is more 

than simply analyzing logs summarizing the usage of various 

technological systems. Effectiveness analysis should incorporate methods from social science and other nontraditional 

fields to define and conduct tests on the intended and actual 

application of the digital knowledge services shown in the 

conceptual model for the Modular Science Framework (fig. 6).

The number of tools and approaches has become overwhelming for many researchers. There is an increasing need 

for the USGS to provide support to the individual researcher 

in understanding, selecting, and applying the many software engineering, technology, and computer science options 

available.

Strategic Actions

1. Evolve a community of practice capacity to directly 

answer simple and complex scientific technology challenges posed by research teams across the USGS, creating 

a knowledge base of specific solutions and methods 

and supporting interactive sharing of ideas and methods 

between different parts of the organization.

2. Combine traditional library catalog holdings with a robust 

and comprehensive catalog of digital knowledge.

3. Initiate services in data analytics, the process of systematically analyzing increasingly complex and large 

data-sets to identify new patterns and suggest hypotheses, 

in cooperation with scientists from across the USGS to 

explore new syntheses.

4. Promote citizen science monitoring and mapping networks and protocols with development of technologies 

Highlight

National Phenology Network

The USGS partners with other agencies, nonprofit organizations, 

citizen scientists, educators, and students in the USA National Phenology Network (USA National Phenology Network, 2012). Phenology 

tracks recurring plant and animal life cycles such as the timing of 

plant leafing, flowering, and bird migration. Volunteers not only track 

and report changes in plants and animals but also help digitize handwritten Migration Observer Cards containing observations on bird 

migration from the late 19th century to the 1950s. National Phenology 

Network volunteers provide current and historical data that document the effects of climate change on flora and fauna. Jack Meixner, 

a rancher in central Texas, observes and reports phenology of juniper 

trees (Juniperus spp.) as part of a USA National Phenology Network 

regional campaign to understand and forecast production of juniper 

pollen for human health applications.
26 USGS Core Science Systems Strategy—Characterizing, Synthesizing, and Understanding the Critical Zone

and methods through specialists in the USGS and with 

partner organizations.

5. Participate in the development and engineering of global 

scientific cyberinfrastructure through general international 

standards bodies such as the Open Geospatial Consortium 

and the International Organization for Standardization, as 

well as national and discipline-specific organizations such 

as the U.S. Geoscience Information Network, the Data 

Observation Network for Earth, the National Ecological 

Observatory Network, and the National Science Foundation EarthCube initiative.

USGS Community for Data Integration (http://goo.gl/855cU) 

Photograph by Ricardo McClees-Funinan, USGS.

Highlight

Goal 3: Conduct Scientific Analysis and Synthesis to Improve Coverage, Scientific Quality, 

Usability, and Timeliness of Information

Flood Inundation Mapping

The evolution of technology and science to display flood 

inundation maps based upon USGS streamgaging realtime readings has revealed a myriad of opportunities for 

conveying how a significant hydrologic event can impact 

citizens’ lives, the economy, and the ecosystem within 

the watershed. New techniques of merging hydrologic 

information with Hazus social and economic data from 

Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) 

allows for unique scenarios of impacts based upon each 

incremental reading of the USGS streamgage—allowing emergency managers to know what the potential 

impacts could be before the first raindrop falls.

Pursue broad Earth science challenges that synthesize 

digital knowledge across multiple scientific disciplines.

“We are drowning in information, while 

starving for wisdom. The world henceforth 

will be run by synthesizers, people able to put 

together the right information at the right time, 

think critically about it, and make important 

choices wisely.” (Wilson, 1999)

The Modular Science Framework is a key to 

the Core Science Systems mission. It will help drive 

scientific synthesis by organizing massive quantities 

of information to facilitate understanding the operation of the entire Earth system. For the purpose of this 

report, synthesis is defined broadly, from applications 

that generate new science products by integrating and 

merging traditional data products to highly sophisticated 

data-driven science that employs high-speed computers 

to generate interdisciplinary syntheses and hypotheses. 

Synthesis exploration may range from a simple mashup, 

a term used broadly to describe combinations of two or 

more information sources to create something new, to 

the refined creation of an entirely new and seamlessly 

integrated product. One of the most vital contributions 

the USGS brings to the increasing amount of government, academic, and industry scientific data available 

for syntheses is a long history of scientific excellence, 

critical review, and standards for accuracy. While synthesis may begin with either a working hypothesis or 

a broad ranging exploration of compatible data assets, 

it must ultimately be grounded in the scientific method 

to produce results meaningful to science and societal 

challenges.

Systematic research aided by the Modular Science 

Framework will produce visualization tools needed to 

understand key physical and ecological processes to help 
Goals, Objectives, and Actions 27

identify solutions to complex problems facing society at scales 

ranging from site specific to landscape. Synthesis provides 

effective ways to examine what and why questions using new 

digital techniques not possible with traditional approaches 

and computing platforms common in the 20th century. As 

science evolves toward what is often referred to as a fourth 

paradigm, data-intensive scientific discovery (Hey and others, 

2009), virtual floods of data records will be concentrated into 

more specialized modules. Increased scale and complexity of 

information will require greater computational capacity and 

interactions between scientists, resource managers, citizens, 

and many others to effectively integrate science for relevance 

to future societal needs.

Studies of the Earth provide the foundation for understanding most geologic, hydrologic, and biologic processes 

of societal significance. Integrating these components in a 

whole Earth systems approach requires new geospatial science research, developing higher resolution datasets such as 

elevation and land cover, more efficient field data acquisition, 

and new instrumentation and processing methods for remote 

sensing and other techniques. It also involves developing new 

scientific technology platforms, from laboratory microanalytical techniques for investigating processes on a microscopic 

scale to global observation networks. These approaches offer 

prospects for enhancing the ability to understand the Earth 

and how it functions. Global change will require an increased 

emphasis on understanding linkages among bedrock, soil, 

topography, hydrology, biological systems, oceans, and the 

atmosphere. Scientific computational technology and the 

ability to portray and analyze data in four dimensions will 

accelerate the pace of scientific discovery and understanding 

in the coming decade. As the pace of new interdisciplinary 

methods and techniques accelerates, capturing the scientific 

workflow in a way that can be used to repeat results, develop 

methods, and make connections between scientists and across 

disciplines will become increasingly important.

A fundamental understanding of the Earth system across 

the spectrum of the full vertical ecosystem as described by 

Bailey (1996) is vital to improving understanding of energy, 

mineral, soil, water, and biological resources, as well as effects 

of climate change, where and when hazards will occur, and the 

sustainability of life itself. Processes that form soils and topography influence the Critical Zone, and an understanding of 

how geologic and geomorphic structures affect the availability 

and quality of water resources, along with societal decisions 

that influence most hydrologic processes, must be applied to 

science questions arising across all USGS missions. Processes 

that determine where habitats arise and are sustained and the 

Highlight

Cascadia Subduction Zone

Insights into active faults above the Cascadia subduction zone from integrated study.—Integration of datasets 

from diverse sources has yielded fresh insights into the 

Cascadia subduction zone. Oblique underthrusting of the 

Juan de Fuca plate beneath North America contributes 

to northward motion of crustal blocks along the Cascadia 

zone. These motions, modeled from plate tectonic theory, 

have been documented by recent Global Positioning Satellite (GPS) results (black arrows) from an NSF consortium. 

USGS scientists have used lidar topography to reveal 

precise locations for surface-rupturing, active faults along 

the block boundaries, which were previously demarcated 

by poorly defined boundaries on geologic and geophysical maps created by USGS and its partners in the National 

Cooperative Geologic Mapping Program. On Bainbridge 

Island, the Seattle Fault breaks the surface (left image), 

providing a location to trench the fault and document a 

history of several large earthquakes during the past 2000 

years (right image). Similar work is underway to investigate 

suspected active faults in the Puget-Willamette Urban Corridor revealed by lidar; more than 20 active faults have been 

documented. Modeling is underway to test the hypothesis 

that the rupture history of the block-boundary faults may be 

related to the history of great subduction zone earthquakes 

on the Cascadia subduction zone.
28 USGS Core Science Systems Strategy—Characterizing, Synthesizing, and Understanding the Critical Zone

occurrence and movement of biological species are critical 

to understanding and predicting where change will occur 

under different scenarios. Likewise, processes that determine 

patterns of human settlement through time often are related 

to how societies are affected by hazards and climate change 

and how human actions affect ecosystems. Understanding the 

connections between human actions and the Earth system is 

critical because decisionmakers consider the effects of management actions on natural and human systems.

The Modular Science Framework serves an important 

function in helping identify gaps within the vertical structure 

of the modules and critical missing knowledge vital to making 

connections between modules and underlying data resources. 

Examination of the Modular Science Framework and concentrating on synthesis possibilities can help identify opportunities for collaboration across the USGS and with partners from 

other science and resource management agencies. Examination of the full breadth of information available through the 

Modular Science Framework may lead to the formulation of 

entirely new hypotheses about the nature of Earth systems or 

interactions between ecosystem components. For example, 

The National Map might be examined in relation to other 

available information within the Modular Science Framework 

to evaluate a new hypothesis that may enhance its value, 

such as asking why specific patterns of vegetation show up 

in certain geographic locations—could variations in space or 

time be isolated from the data and examined for existence of 

vegetation patterns under past or future conditions? Information from modules of the Modular Science Framework such as 

hydrosphere, hydrologic landscapes, weather, and geochemical information might be used in sophisticated analyses to 

evaluate the hypothesis while contributing to knowledge of 

how climate and land-use impacts may affect other resources 

characterized through The National Map. As an evolving 

framework for scientific synthesis, the Modular Science 

Framework will improve the capacity of the USGS to conduct 

whole systems research needed to better inform the diverse 

decisionmaking community.

Objective 3.1: Accelerate Use of Data-Driven 

Science for New Synthesis Products and to 

Identify New Hypotheses of the Earth System

One of the primary purposes of the Modular Science 

Framework is to organize and bring together an ever growing 

suite of digital knowledge in a way that suggests opportunities for analysis and synthesis. Deliberate focus on gaps in the 

Modular Science Framework is necessary to identify constraints on the ability to properly frame and develop solutions 

Highlight

Cottonwood Lake Study Area (CLSA)

The CLSA is perhaps the oldest example of integrated ecological science in the USGS. Located in the northern prairies, 

work at the site began in 1967 by a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) laboratory that later became a USGS facility with 

the formation of the Biological Resources Discipline. Initial work focused on the relations among waterfowl and wetlands 

but shifted in 1979 to an integrated effort between USFWS ecologists and USGS hydrologists. Over time, the effort grew as 

the need for new integrated studies in chemistry and geology were identified. Today, CLSA is aimed to improve understanding of complex ecological relationships through integrated 

studies by biologists, hydrologists, geochemists, and others 

within USGS. Studies at the site have formed much of the 

basis for current understanding of wetland ecology in the 

United States and elsewhere. During its 43-year history, CLSA 

has also attracted many scientists from universities and other 

Federal agencies (for example, USFWS, Bureau of Reclamation, and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers) that conducted multidisciplinary or interdisciplinary investigations. This important 

work is the result of an entirely grass-roots effort in which 

scientists came together through mutual scientific interests; 

this has been the primary factor contributing to the success 

of this important scientific work (U.S. Geological Survey, 

2012d). The journal, Wetlands, published a commemorative 

issue that recognized 30 of the papers published over the past 

3 decades that had the greatest impact on wetland science 

(Society of Wetland Scientists, 2012). Three of the papers 

(Euliss and others, 2004, 2008; Winter and Rosenberry, 1995) 

were from research conducted at CLSA by USGS scientists.
Goals, Objectives, and Actions 29

to problems affecting society and enhance collaboration for 

consistent maximized beneficial use in scientific synthesis. 

Figure 5 illustrates synthesis products that have developed 

inductively through hypothesis-driven scientific research 

incidental to the existence of the framework (Hydrologic 

Landscapes) along with products that were developed through 

deliberate focus on synthesizing multidisciplinary information (The National Map). Science projects in the USGS that 

are focused on a particular problem or geographic area often 

produce new synthesized data products, methods of processing 

and presenting data, and suggested enhancements to national 

data assets that might prove scalable and applicable to many 

other areas. To build these ideas into new national data assets, 

research must be conducted to determine suitability of the 

concepts and methods for larger scales, and development 

resources must be applied to either enhance an existing data 

system or establish something new. Although not all good 

ideas for new major data assets are achievable, the USGS 

could substantially increase its portfolio of high-quality scientific data by creating opportunities and a venue for science 

teams to propose such products. In addition, the existence of 

the Modular Science Framework and continual growth of data 

available for computational analysis can open new avenues for 

data-driven or inductive research, complementary to synthesis 

exploration initiated with hypotheses (Kell and Oliver, 2004).

Highlight

Synthesis Scenarios

A researcher within the Climate and Land Use Change mission area of USGS has just processed and performed quality assurance on a year’s worth of environmental monitoring data from a distributed network of on-the-ground sensors. 

Using software tools developed for the Modular Science Framework, she automatically populates database attributes that 

describe the physical setting of each sensor location. These attributes are pulled from an automated query of the data 

contained in The National Map and the National Geologic Map Database, and the sensor site attributes include information 

such as elevation and derived terrain descriptors (slope and aspect), land cover type, landscape position, soil type, bedrock unit, closest stream, watershed (hydrologic unit code), and closest road. Now that the fully attributed observational 

data have been posted to a Web service for public distribution, they are linked to other monitoring datasets contained in 

the observation registry so that users querying one monitoring network’s data are also notified of other available sampling 

data in their region of interest. This functionality was implemented based on informatics research on spatial and temporal 

linking of heterogeneous, distributed databases.

A research ecologist is investigating the effects of land-use change, recreational use, and water quality degradation on 

the habitat of a species of concern on a National Wildlife Refuge. As she begins her investigations, she is able to access 

data that tell the complete story of the area of interest: historical photographs; archived data covering a long period of 

record; satellite imagery at multiple points in time; studies of the biota; surveys of public opinion about what is valued on 

the refuge; longitudinal data from the National Survey of Fishing, Hunting, and Wildlife-Associated Recreation; records that 

document the establishment of the refuge; planning documents; studies of water quality. These information resources can 

be accessed on a tablet computer in the field and are organized to present the most relevant information based on exact 

location and context.
30 USGS Core Science Systems Strategy—Characterizing, Synthesizing, and Understanding the Critical Zone

Strategic Actions

1. Develop methods and techniques to anchor scientific data 

across all Earth systems studies to core science data (for 

example, anchoring all water measurement data to the 

National Hydrography Dataset).

2. Research and develop methods for a comprehensive 

virtual observatory containing relevant observations of 

physical and biological phenomena important to USGS 

research, including plant and animal species occurrence 

and human structures of importance to hazards characterization and risk assessment.

3. Monitor emerging issues of societal concern in a systematic and focused way and develop new synthesis products 

for visualizing or summarizing issues in the context of 

space and time.

4. Produce digital thematic products through synthesis, interpretations, and maps that include geologic and biologic 

scenarios, simulations, and predictive models relevant to 

ecosystem change and health, groundwater flow, resource 

assessment, carbon sequestration, and potential hazards.

5. Evaluate spatial and temporal impacts of human activities 

on the Earth system by merging social and economic data 

with Earth process data using novel approaches to provide 

more robust knowledge to decisionmakers, scientists, and 

the public.

6. Promote use of high-speed computers and advanced 

methods in semantics and other data-driven techniques to 

quantify linkages in digital knowledge to properly frame 

ecological processes in space and time and uncover interdisciplinary hypotheses useful for developing solutions to 

complicated cross-cutting problems affecting the Nation.

7. Support development of novel scenario evaluation tools 

for asking and answering applied science questions in collaboration with resource managers.

Objective 3.2: Develop a Workplace Model for 

Interdisciplinary Science

“When you are a mature scientist or becoming a 

mature scientist, the most important attribute is to 

identify the problem that needs to be solved and then 

apply whatever tools are needed. That is not a very 

easy thing to do. First, the hardest thing is to identify 

the problems that need to be solved. Secondly, how 

do you train people to use these tools? I don’t look 

at science as compartmentalized. I look at it as a 

wonderful tool set.” (William A. Haseltine, from 

Brint and others, 2009)

This model has had an incredible impact throughout the 

history of science. “It took an ex-physicist—Francis Crick—

and a former ornithology student—James Watson—to crack 

Highlight

Synthesis Centers

The John Wesley Powell Center for Earth System Analysis and Synthesis (U.S. Geological Survey, 2012a) was established 

as a USGS Earth system science ‘think tank’. Its goal is to develop new and innovative approaches that apply scientific 

understanding to resolve significant and complex issues. Synthesis projects derive from scientist proposals, where 

researchers on the cutting edge of their fields determine needs and assemble the best teams to combine knowledge and 

data. The Powell Center has launched 15 Working Groups that consist of teams that cross disciplines and organizations. 

With a dedication to producing and publishing newly synthesized data for the larger scientific community and decisionmakers, the Powell Center serves as a prototype for integrating science in the USGS.

The creation of the National Water Center, in Tuscaloosa, Alabama, is an example of a brick and mortar approach to facilitating integrated research and science operations. At this Center, scientists from the National Weather Service, USGS, 

and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers will collaborate to create new scientific approaches and merge operational systems to 

create the ability to forecast hydrologic conditions from the summit to the sea.

The National Water Center is located on the 

University of Alabama Campus in Tuscaloosa, 

Alabama. A groundbreaking ceremony was 

held for the 65,000-square-foot building on 

February 21, 2012. A 200-member staff is 

expected to occupy the center in June 2013.
Acknowledgments 31

the secret of life. They shared a certain wanderlust, an indifference to boundaries.” (Robert Wright, 1999). 

“We are not students of some subject matter, but 

students of problems. And problems may cut right 

across the borders of any subject matter or discipline.” (Popper, 1963).

The central role of the Modular Science Framework to 

the Core Science mission and to the entire USGS is that it permits us to incorporate the indifference to disciplinary boundaries valued by Watson and Crick, the interdisciplinary problem 

solving philosophy recognized by Popper, and accommodate 

the need for discovery of diverse tools by developing scientists 

recognized by Haseltine. The Modular Science Framework 

organizes USGS science, including knowledge, data, tools, 

technology and other aspects of scientific discovery into a 

common framework that depicts the intricate relations among 

them under a single auspice, just as they occur in nature. 

There is no single module that is more important than another 

because all are essential to Critical Zone functions. All the 

scientific components within each module of the Modular 

Science Framework, including humans, are also all essential 

disciplinary components that must work together to develop 

lasting solutions to modern problems. To meet this challenge, 

a cultural change within the scientific community will be 

required that is without historic precedent.

Strategic Actions

1. Develop funding models that reward interdisciplinary science proposals that transcend discipline and mission area 

boundaries, including a competitive grants process.

2. Reduce cultural and spatial barriers to interdisciplinary 

research, such as creating virtual laboratories and collaborative offices, linking field scientists directly to the 

Modular Science Framework, and relocating scientists 

to high-level collaborative centers, such as the Powell 

Center or the National Water Center (refer to “Synthesis 

Centers” highlight).

3. Continually study the USGS and conduct comparative 

analyses with other organizations to identify best practices 

and approaches to interdisciplinary science.

4. Promote and facilitate employee involvement with communities of practice (Wenger, 1998) such as the Community for Data Integration (Community for Data Integration, 2012) to create more opportunities for collaborative 

learning and advancement of science.

5. Collaborate with organizations that conduct and support 

research of social and ecological systems to better inform 

decisionmaking for coupled human and natural systems.

6. Embrace the development of more reimbursable opportunities at high levels to facilitate accountability in collaborative partnerships with governmental organizations.

Conclusion

The rapid expansion of humanity across the Earth and an 

increasing environmental footprint lead to growing challenges 

for which the USGS can help understand and inform through 

research and characterization of complex Earth system 

processes. The Core Science Systems vision for a Modular 

Science Framework, based on research of ecosystem processes 

sustaining the Critical Zone, will accelerate the movement in 

the global scientific community toward the Digital Earth and 

an ability to address societal challenges in interactions with 

the Earth. This science strategy plan has outlined three goals 

along with specific actions to achieve the Modular Science 

Framework vision. First, conduct research to produce timely, 

nationwide, seamless, authoritative, open-access digital 

knowledge for ecosystem processes sustaining the Critical 

Zone from the geologic framework to land surface characteristics and biological diversity. Second, improve the application 

and impact of USGS research products through development 

and testing of services, software, tools, and participatory 

frameworks that build and apply the Modular Science Framework. Third, pursue broad Earth science challenges that synthesize digital knowledge across scientific disciplines through 

systematic examination of the Modular Science Framework, 

taking the necessary steps to develop cultural norms that 

enable scientific synthesis.

Acknowledgments

First and foremost, we thank all of the individuals who 

attended listening sessions and other meetings and contributed 

their comments in person or online. Comments about bright 

spots, lessons learned, and successes from which to grow were 

very helpful. Perhaps as important were the many contributions to this report in the form of written and oral comments. 

Kevin Gallagher and the Core Science Systems (CSS) senior 

leadership team played a key role in helping to ground the 

vision in programmatic and workforce realities while being 

open to discuss new ideas. Vivian Hutchison, Marcia McNiff, 

and Mark Newell provided excellent support for the team and 

contributed ideas and perceptions in the writing of the strategy. 

The co-chairs for all Mission Area strategic plans along with 

their team members were extremely helpful in responding to 

ideas about the future of CSS and the needs being identified 

within their areas for what CSS could provide. We especially 

thank Marty Goldhaber for helping to launch the CSS strategy process, providing new perspectives on what CSS can 

mean for the future of the USGS, and lending expert advice 

and review throughout. This report was much improved by 

thoughtful reviews from Marty Goldhaber, Natalie Latysh, and 

Kevin Gallagher.
32 USGS Core Science Systems Strategy—Characterizing, Synthesizing, and Understanding the Critical Zone

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