U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Scientific Investigations Report 2013–5139

Prepared in cooperation with the Tri-County Regional Planning Commission

Relation Between Organic-Wastewater Compounds, 

Groundwater Geochemistry, and Well Characteristics 

for Selected Wells in Lansing, Michigan

Relation Between Organic-Wastewater 

Compounds, Groundwater Geochemistry, 

and Well Characteristics for Selected 

Wells in Lansing, Michigan 

By Sheridan K. Haack and Carol L. Luukkonen

Prepared in cooperation with the Tri-County Regional Planning Commission

Scientific Investigations Report 2013–5139

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

SALLY JEWELL, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Suzette M. Kimball, Acting Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2013

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Suggested citation:

Haack, S.K., and Luukkonen, C.L., 2013, Relation between organic-wastewater compounds, groundwater geochemistry, and well characteristics for selected wells in Lansing, Michigan: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations 

Report 2013–5139, 36 p., http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2013/5139/.
iii

Contents

Abstract...........................................................................................................................................................1

Introduction.....................................................................................................................................................1

Purpose and Scope .......................................................................................................................................2

Previous Studies ............................................................................................................................................7

Description of Study Area ............................................................................................................................7

Methods...........................................................................................................................................................7

Sampling Procedures...........................................................................................................................7

Analytical Procedures..........................................................................................................................9

Quality Assurance and Quality Control ...........................................................................................12

Statistical Analyses............................................................................................................................12

Well-Water Quality ......................................................................................................................................12

Organic-Wastewater Compounds Detected..................................................................................12

Well-Water Geochemistry.................................................................................................................14

Change in Well-Water Geochemistry Over Time..................................................................14

Current Well-Water Geochemistry .........................................................................................17

Factors That Influence Well-Water Geochemistry and OWC Detections.................................17

Role of Basin Brines..................................................................................................................17

Well Characteristics Related to Basin Brines.......................................................................21

Role of Surficial Sources..........................................................................................................24

Well Characteristics Related to Surficial Sources...............................................................24

Comparisons of Specific Wells................................................................................................26

Summary........................................................................................................................................................33

References Cited..........................................................................................................................................34

Figures

1. Map showing location of the city of Lansing in the Tri-County region of the 

Lower Peninsula of Michigan.....................................................................................................8

2. Chart showing stratigraphic nomenclature and hydrogeologic units, Lansing, 

Michigan area ...............................................................................................................................9

3. Boxplots showing major ion concentrations, in milligrams per liter, for 13 studied 

Lansing Board of Water and Light wells having data in the years 1969–77 and 

2007–11, Lansing area, Michigan.............................................................................................16

4. Boxplots showing major ion concentrations, in milligrams per liter, for 13 studied 

Lansing Board of Water and Light wells having data in the years 1969–77 and 

2007–11 divided into groups with and without detections of organic-wastewater 

compounds, Lansing area, Michigan ......................................................................................18

5. Piper plots showing historical (1969–77) and current (2007–11) major ion 

chemistry for 13 Lansing Board of Water and Light production wells shown in 

figs. 3 and 4, Lansing area, Michigan......................................................................................19
iv

6. Piper plots showing current (2007–11) major ion chemistry for 20 Lansing Board 

of Water and Light production wells, Lansing area, Michigan...........................................20

7. Graphs comparing historical (1969–77, 13 wells) and current (2007–11, 20 wells) 

major ion percentages in Lansing Board of Water and Light production wells, 

Lansing area, Michigan .............................................................................................................20

8. Graphs showing relation between total pumping and major ion concentrations 

for wells with and without organic-wastewater compound detections ...........................22

9. Graphs showing relation between estimated well completion above or below 

the Parma-Bayport interface and major ion concentrations for wells with and 

without organic-wastewater compound detections ............................................................23

10. Graphs showing relation between median traveltime from the water table 

to the upper sandstone layer and number of organic-wastewater compound 

detections, sodium concentration, and chloride concentration ........................................27

11. Boxplots showing comparison of selected well characteristics for sampled 

wells with and without organic-wastewater compound detections .................................28

12. Graphs showing relation between modeled confining material thickness 

between the Glacial and Saginaw aquifers and number of organic-wastewater 

compound detections, sodium concentration, and chloride concentration ....................31

Tables

1. Comparison of selected characteristics for sampled wells..................................................3

2. Approximate ranges in thickness for Saginaw Formation units...........................................7

3. Wastewater-method compounds and their possible uses or sources..............................10

4. Wastewater-method compounds grouped by chemical use or typical source...............13

5. Comparison of organic wastewater compound detections in the current study 

with detections in other studies, and identification of U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency drinking water regulated compounds...................................................15

6. Median concentrations of major ions and significance levels for 13 wells 

having data in both date ranges: 1969–77 and 2007–11 .......................................................15

7. Well, aquifer, and hydrologic characteristics and groundwater-chemistry 

variables evaluated in sample analysis ..................................................................................25

8. Median values for selected characteristics for sampled wells and 

significance levels......................................................................................................................30

9. Comparison of selected characteristics for wells LN-5, LN-6, and LN-9..........................32
v

Inch/Pound to SI

Multiply By To obtain

Length

foot (ft) 0.3048 meter (m)

mile (mi) 1.609 kilometer (km)

Volume

million gallons (Mgal) 3,785 cubic meter (m3

)

Conversion Factors, Abbreviated Water-Quality Units, 

and Abbreviations

Concentrations of chemical constituents in water are given either in milligrams per liter (mg/L) 

or micrograms per liter (μg/L).

Abbreviations

AHTN acetyl hexamethyl tetrahydronaphthalene

BWL Lansing Board of Water and Light

CLLE continuous liquid-liquid extraction

DEET N,N-Diethyl-meta-toluamide

EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

GC/MS gas chromatography/mass spectrometry

HHCB hexahydrohexa-methylcyclopentabenzopyran

LRL laboratory reporting level

LT-MDL long-term method detection limit

MDL method detection limit

NFM National Field Manual

NWQL National Water Quality Laboratory

OWC organic-wastewater compound

R2 coefficient of determination

USGS U.S. Geological Survey

VOC volatile organic compound

Abstract

In 2010, groundwater from 20 Lansing Board of Water 

and Light (BWL) production wells was tested for 69 organicwastewater compounds (OWCs). The OWCs detected in 

one-half of the sampled wells are widely used in industrial 

and environmental applications and commonly occur in many 

wastes and stormwater. To identify factors that contribute 

to the occurrence of these constituents in BWL wells, the 

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) interpreted the results of 

these analyses and related detections of OWCs to local characteristics and groundwater geochemistry. 

Analysis of groundwater-chemistry data collected by the 

BWL during routine monitoring from 1969 to 2011 indicates 

that the geochemistry of the BWL wells has changed over 

time, with the major difference being an increase in sodium 

and chloride. The concentrations of sodium and chloride were 

positively correlated to frequency of OWC detections. The 

BWL wells studied are all completed in the Saginaw aquifer, 

which consists of water-bearing sandstones of Pennsylvanian 

age. The Saginaw aquifer is underlain by the Parma-Bayport 

aquifer, and overlain by the Glacial aquifer. Two possible 

sources of sodium and chloride were evaluated: basin brines 

by way of the Parma-Bayport aquifer, and surficial sources 

by way of the Glacial aquifer. To determine if water from the 

underlying aquifer had influenced well-water geochemistry 

over time, the total dissolved solids concentration and changes 

in major ion concentrations were examined with respect to 

well depth, age, and pumping rate. To address a possible 

surficial source of sodium and chloride, 25 well, aquifer, or 

hydrologic characteristics, and 2 groundwater geochemistry 

variables that might influence whether, or the rate at which, 

water from the land surface could reach each well were compared to OWC detections and well chemistry.

The statistical tests performed during this study, using 

available variables, indicated that reduced time of travel of 

water from the land surface to the well opening was significantly correlated with detections of OWCs. No specific well 

or aquifer characteristic was correlated with OWC detections; 

however, wells with detections tended to have less modeled 

confining material thickness (as simulated in the regional 

groundwater flow model), which is an estimate of the amount 

of clay or shale between the Glacial and Saginaw aquifers. 

Additional analyses and collection of other data would be 

required to more conclusively identify the source and to determine the potential vulnerability of other wells because each 

BWL well may have a somewhat unique set of characteristics 

that governs its response to pumping. Therefore, it is possible 

that a relevant explanatory variable was not included in this 

analysis. The current patterns of geochemistry, and the relation 

between these patterns and volume of pumpage for the BWL 

wells, indicates other wells may be susceptible to OWCs in the 

future. 

Introduction 

Manufactured and natural organic compounds such as 

pharmaceuticals, antibiotics, surfactants, flame retardants, 

plasticizers, steroids, and other trace organics that are used and 

disposed of by modern society are widely recognized as environmental contaminants (Daughton and Ternes, 1999; HallingSørensen, and others, 1998; Boxall and others, 2003). Human 

and animal wastewater effluents are among the most important 

source pathways for many of these compounds into the aquatic 

environment (Ternes, 1998; Boxall and others, 2003; Paxéus, 

2004; Glassmeyer and others, 2005; Lindqvist and others, 

2005; Miao and others, 2005; Conn and others, 2006; Kinney 

and others, 2006; Reiner and others, 2007). These chemicals are often referred to as organic-wastewater compounds 

(OWCs) or micropollutants. Pharmaceuticals and a wide range 

of other OWCs have been detected in groundwater that serves 

as a drinking water source (Focazio and others, 2008). Pharmaceuticals also have been detected in finished drinking water 

(Reddersen and others, 2002; Zühlke and others, 2004; Jones 

and others, 2005; Benotti and others, 2009; Huerta-Fontela 

and others, 2011). 

Selected OWCs have been extensively studied in 

groundwater that underlies cities (Osenbrück and others, 2007; 

Musolff and others, 2010), and there has been recent interest 

in the effects of the urban hydrologic cycle on groundwater 

Relation Between Organic-Wastewater Compounds, 

Groundwater Geochemistry, and Well Characteristics 

for Selected Wells in Lansing, Michigan

By Sheridan K. Haack and Carol L. Luukkonen
2 Organic-Wastewater Compounds, Groundwater Geochemistry, and Well Characteristics for Selected Wells in Michigan

quality in urban areas and on OWC detection (Eiswirth and 

Hötzl, 1997; Lerner, 2002; Schirmer and others, 2013). In the 

urban setting, groundwater is susceptible to recharge from not 

only precipitation directly, such as in parks and yards, but also 

from leakage from drains and pipes intended to carry drinking 

water, stormwater, industrial wastes, or sewage. In many urban 

areas, more water enters from leaking infrastructure than as 

recharge by precipitation (Lerner, 2002). Stormwater may 

recharge groundwater through a wide array of urban artificial 

recharge systems intended to convey stormwater away from 

impervious surfaces, such as grass filters, drainage swales, 

retention ponds and basins, and in some cases, subsurface 

infrastructure (Pitt and others, 1999). Stormwater may be contaminated with nutrients, pesticides, metals, pathogens from 

animal feces, and dissolved minerals (Pitt and others, 1999). 

Stormwater also may be contaminated with other organic 

compounds such as those that come from gasoline and oil, 

automobile exhaust, and industrial activity, as well as selected 

OWCs (Pitt and others, 1999; Vogel and others, 2009). Leaking underground infrastructure that carries sewage or industrial wastes has been reported to have a large influence on the 

detection of selected OWCs in urban groundwater (Eiswirth 

and Hötzl, 1997; Osenbrück and others, 2007; Musolff and 

others, 2010). In fact, some OWCs and pharmaceuticals have 

been used, along with nutrients, isotopes, industrial chemicals, 

and bacteria, as tracers of urban infrastructure failure (Barrett 

and others, 1999; Fenz and others, 2005; Strauch and others, 

2008; Musolff and others, 2010). 

Other studies by the USGS National Water-Quality 

Assessment Program have focused on understanding waterquality conditions and how natural and human activities 

affect these conditions. For example, recent studies have 

focused on identifying factors that affect vulnerability and the 

pathways and processes through which contaminants reach 

public-supply wells (Eberts and others, 2013). Wells with a 

larger percentage of young water are more vulnerable because 

contaminants may be rapidly transported to the well, and 

there is less time for chemical concentrations to be attenuated. 

Aquifers with highly permeable recharge areas or zones of 

high preferential flow are more vulnerable to surface contamination. Water recharging the aquifer that moves through 

urban areas or manmade recharge areas has the potential to 

pick up contaminants as it moves into the aquifer system. In 

addition, younger waters might be more vulnerable to contamination from human activities in urban or agricultural areas 

than older waters, which may have recharged the groundwater 

system before many of the contaminants associated with these 

activities were widely used. Natural geochemical conditions 

in the aquifer control contaminant behavior, such as mobility, transformation, or delayed transport. For example, in oxic 

conditions, some contaminants are not degraded and may be 

transported longer distances while other contaminants may be 

less mobile. Pumping stresses, particularly seasonal changes 

in pumping schedules, may affect groundwater quality and the 

age of the water withdrawn by the well. Higher pumping rates 

may induce recharge from different areas than when pumping 

is less or intermittent and will increase the area contributing 

water to a well. Additional important factors that may affect 

the vulnerability of wells to contamination are short circuits to 

the natural hydrologic cycle, which occur when water moves 

through sinkholes, dissolution features, or unplugged abandoned wells. 

Analysis of Michigan surface-water samples (1998–

2005) uncovered that the OWCs detected most frequently in 

Michigan were similar to those reported frequently in other 

studies nationwide (Haack, 2009). In 2010, chemical analyses 

of samples collected from 20 Lansing Board of Water and 

Light (BWL) production wells indicated the presence of 16 

OWCs that are widely used in industrial and environmental 

applications and that commonly occur in many wastes and 

stormwater. Evaluation of the identified chemicals, with regard 

to well characteristics and groundwater-recharge areas, may be 

helpful in identifying factors that contribute to the occurrence 

of these chemicals in BWL wells. In 2012, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) entered into a cooperative agreement with 

the Tri-County Regional Planning Commission to interpret the 

results of these analyses and relate detections to well, aquifer, 

hydrologic, and land-use characteristics—specifically urban 

impervious areas.

Purpose and Scope

This report describes the investigation of well, aquifer, 

hydrologic, local characteristics, and general groundwaterchemistry variables (collected during routine monitoring 

by the BWL) and their relation to water-sample analyses 

for OWCs collected as part of this study from 20 Lansing 

area wells (table 1). Variables investigated include (1) well 

characteristics such as age and depth; (2) aquifer characteristics such as type, hydraulic conductivity, and composition; 

(3) hydrologic variables such as frequency of use and typical 

volumes of use; (4) general well-water quality such as major 

ion composition; and (5) local characteristics such as urban 

impervious areas and the 5, 10, and 20 year time-of-travel 

areas for wellhead protection. In this study, time-of-travel 

areas were defined as areas through which water moves from 

the wellhead-protection area to the pumping well in the specified amount of time. Relations among chemical detections and 

measured well variables are analyzed using statistical and geochemical methods. Statistical methods include Spearman Rank 

correlation, the nonparametric Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney test, 

and discriminant analysis. Major ion composition is described 

using Piper plots and boxplots to characterize the geochemical 

changes in water quality revealed by historical data.
Purpose and Scope 3

Table 1. Comparison of selected characteristics for sampled wells.

[NA, not available; -- not applicable]

Characteristic LN-1 LN-2 LN-4 LN-5 LN-6

Age, in years 86 68 59 45 45

Number of organic wastewater compound detections 0 0 1 13 0

Well depth, in feet 500 388 400 436 410

Casing depth, in feet NA NA NA 46 43.3

Percent aquifer material in the glacial deposits 43 6 65 0 88

Percent aquifer material in the Saginaw aquifer 76 84 78 78 66

Percent marginal aquifer material in the glacial deposits 43 0 0 0 0

Percent marginal aquifer material in the Saginaw aquifer 7 13 2 3 22

Percent confining material in the glacial deposits 0 60 0 100 0

Percent confining material in the Saginaw aquifer 6 4 20 19 13

Percent partially confining material in the glacial deposits 0 31 0 0 0

Percent partially confining material in the Saginaw aquifer 11 0 0 0 0

Glacial deposit thickness, in feet 30 35 43 45 40

Modeled confining material thickness, in feet 73.5 13.1 24.4 8.4 7.1

Modeled sandstone thickness, in feet 260.5 314.5 267.0 260.1 262.1

Estimated percent of Saginaw intercepted by well 100 94 100 100 100

Estimated completion below the Parma-Bayport interface, in feet −89.1 21.3 −38.7 −90.5 −72.5

Minimum travel time from water table to upper sandstone layer, 

in years

14.5 3.9 2.4 1.2 1.2

Median travel time from water table to upper sandstone layer, 

in years

23.5 8.8 6.7 2.6 2.6

Minimum travel time from water table to middle sandstone layer, 

in years

32.6 14.9 6.7 4.0 4.2

Median travel time from water table to middle sandstone layer, 

in years

72.7 38.0 21.7 10.6 9.8

Estimated percent impervious area in 5-year time-of-travel area -- 10 56 35 1

Estimated percent impervious area in 10-year time-of-travel area -- 5 49 29 1

Estimated percent impervious area in 20-year time-of-travel area 9 18 72 41 1

Estimated total pumping simulating 1920–2005 conditions in the 

groundwater model, in million gallons

10,484.9 9,112.2 6,289.5 5,296 2,848

Estimated total pumping simulating 2000–5 conditions in the 

groundwater model, in million gallons

817.7 1,417.3 652.0 1,291.3 100.5
4 Organic-Wastewater Compounds, Groundwater Geochemistry, and Well Characteristics for Selected Wells in Michigan

Table 1. Comparison of selected characteristics for sampled wells.—Continued

[NA, not available; -- not applicable]

Characteristic LN-8 LN-9 LN-11 LN-12 LN-14

Age, in years 43 32 43 40 38

Number of organic wastewater compound detections 1 0 3 0 4

Well depth, in feet 345 395 360 390 377

Casing depth, in feet NA 65 53 112.5 77

Percent aquifer material in the glacial deposits 0 21 100 23 47

Percent aquifer material in the Saginaw aquifer 80 89 89 96 86

Percent marginal aquifer material in the glacial deposits 52 15 0 0 0

Percent marginal aquifer material in the Saginaw aquifer 2 2 0 0 3

Percent confining material in the glacial deposits 0 5 0 5 7

Percent confining material in the Saginaw aquifer 8 2 11 4 10

Percent partially confining material in the glacial deposits 48 60 0 73 43

Percent partially confining material in the Saginaw aquifer 11 7 0 0 0

Glacial deposit thickness, in feet 62 62 40 110 70

Modeled confining material thickness, in feet 2.5 .6 16.0 4.5 1.1

Modeled sandstone thickness, in feet 235.1 248.5 253.9 242.6 262.1

Estimated percent of Saginaw intercepted by well 100 100 100 100 100

Estimated completion below the Parma-Bayport interface, in feet .9 −61.2 −20.7 −39.4 −29.8

Minimum travel time from water table to upper sandstone layer, 

in years

4.8 8.2 4.8 5.4 2.5

Median travel time from water table to upper sandstone layer, 

in years

25.4 17.4 9.6 7.7 4.9

Minimum travel time from water table to middle sandstone layer, 

in years

37.7 27.0 12.3 8.9 6.6

Median travel time from water table to middle sandstone layer, 

in years

64.4 70.7 27.0 17.4 13.2

Estimated percent impervious area in 5-year time-of-travel area 49 -- 0 -- 26

Estimated percent impervious area in 10-year time-of-travel area 43 61 1 13 26

Estimated percent impervious area in 20-year time-of-travel area 32 52 1 10 21

Estimated total pumping simulating 1920–2005 conditions in the 

groundwater model, in million gallons

1,447.9 5,109.4 2,961.3 2,849.9 3,067.4

Estimated total pumping simulating 2000–5 conditions in the 

groundwater model, in million gallons

447.9 1,142.9 336.9 491.1 737
Purpose and Scope 5

Table 1. Comparison of selected characteristics for sampled wells.—Continued

[NA, not available; -- not applicable]

Characteristic LN-15 LN-16 LN-17 LN-18 LN-19

Age, in years 38 36 43 42 17

Number of organic wastewater compound detections 2 2 0 1 3

Well depth, in feet 416 335 352 398 310

Casing depth, in feet 70.3 77.3 73.3 76.7 103

Percent aquifer material in the glacial deposits 36 15 58 70 78

Percent aquifer material in the Saginaw aquifer 100 82 68 90 77

Percent marginal aquifer material in the glacial deposits 0 0 0 16 0

Percent marginal aquifer material in the Saginaw aquifer 0 1 0 1 2

Percent confining material in the glacial deposits 45 0 0 7 0

Percent confining material in the Saginaw aquifer 0 14 28 9 16

Percent partially confining material in the glacial deposits 18 79 34 0 21

Percent partially confining material in the Saginaw aquifer 0 3 3 0 5

Glacial deposit thickness, in feet 66 47 65 74 95

Modeled confining material thickness, in feet 1.0 11.9 7.7 2.0 4.6

Modeled sandstone thickness, in feet 245.7 243.7 208.6 222.4 226.1

Estimated percent of Saginaw intercepted by well 100 97 100 100 90

Estimated completion below the Parma-Bayport interface, in feet −103.8 8.2 −16.2 −63.8 22.0

Minimum travel time from water table to upper sandstone layer, 

in years

1.8 4.2 5.0 4.3 1.3

Median travel time from water table to upper sandstone layer, 

in years

3.3 10.0 10.8 14.9 3.8

Minimum travel time from water table to middle sandstone layer, 

in years

5.6 17.5 21.0 30.2 7.2

Median travel time from water table to middle sandstone layer, 

in years

10.9 54.8 25.9 61.4 28.6

Estimated percent impervious area in 5-year time-of-travel area 8 40 1 35 0

Estimated percent impervious area in 10-year time-of-travel area 8 39 14 34 7

Estimated percent impervious area in 20-year time-of-travel area 7 31 13 20 7

Estimated total pumping simulating 1920–2005 conditions in the 

groundwater model, in million gallons

3,868.8 2,668.3 864.0 3,171.9 1,076.6

Estimated total pumping simulating 2000–5 conditions in the 

groundwater model, in million gallons

1,273.2 754.8 108.3 857.3 1,076.6
6 Organic-Wastewater Compounds, Groundwater Geochemistry, and Well Characteristics for Selected Wells in Michigan

Table 1. Comparison of selected characteristics for sampled wells.—Continued

[NA, not available; -- not applicable]

Characteristic LN-20 LN-22 LN-23 LN-24 LN-28

Age, in years 46 54 59 86 56

Number of organic wastewater compound detections 0 0 1 0 0

Well depth, in feet 405 430 410 430 445

Casing depth, in feet 54 NA NA NA NA

Percent aquifer material in the glacial deposits 82 68 86 100 76

Percent aquifer material in the Saginaw aquifer 69 56 63 54 66

Percent marginal aquifer material in the glacial deposits 0 0 0 0 0

Percent marginal aquifer material in the Saginaw aquifer 11 4 10 33 10

Percent confining material in the glacial deposits 15 0 0 0 2

Percent confining material in the Saginaw aquifer 20 31 23 13 24

Percent partially confining material in the glacial deposits 0 32 0 0 22

Percent partially confining material in the Saginaw aquifer 0 9 2 0 1

Glacial deposit thickness, in feet 34 62 35 65 45

Modeled confining material thickness, in feet 11.9 93.9 22.0 48.4 75.0

Modeled sandstone thickness, in feet 282.1 261.3 271.5 218.8 270.7

Estimated percent of Saginaw intercepted by well 100 96 100 100 98

Estimated completion below the Parma-Bayport interface, in feet 1.2 16.2 −44.3 −78.2 9.1

Minimum travel time from water table to upper sandstone layer, 

in years

3.3 32.6 2.3 26.1 20.0

Median travel time from water table to upper sandstone layer, 

in years

21.9 59.0 5.1 39.1 34.0

Minimum travel time from water table to middle sandstone layer, 

in years

19.6 64.6 6.6 45.4 43.1

Median travel time from water table to middle sandstone layer, 

in years

123.7 92.2 25.5 89.5 72.5

Estimated percent impervious area in 5-year time-of-travel area 0 -- 50 -- --

Estimated percent impervious area in 10-year time-of-travel area 8 -- 64 -- --

Estimated percent impervious area in 20-year time-of-travel area 16 -- 72 -- 77

Estimated total pumping simulating 1920–2005 conditions in the 

groundwater model, in million gallons

5,880.0 5,555.5 4,909.2 6,959.8 4,674.2

Estimated total pumping simulating 2000–5 conditions in the 

groundwater model, in million gallons

1,435.3 412.5 297 297.5 674.4
Methods 7

Previous Studies

Previous studies have contributed to the knowledge of 

the groundwater resources in the Tri-County region (fig. 1) 

and were used in the analysis of the groundwater chemistry 

and the determination of potential explanatory variables. 

Wood (1969) described the hydrogeology and geochemistry of 

groundwater in the Saginaw Formation. Meissner and others 

(1996) reported geochemical characteristics of groundwater 

from the Saginaw aquifer based on analyses conducted during 

1985–87. Wahrer and others (1996) reported geochemical 

characteristics of groundwater from the Glacial aquifer based 

on analyses conducted during 1985–87. A report by Holtschlag 

and others (1996) documents the development of the regional 

groundwater-flow model and the determination of contributing areas for most production wells in the TriCounty region. 

Luukkonen (2009) describes the refinement of the original 

1996 model, optimization simulations to evaluate alternative 

groundwater-pumping scenarios under selected management 

constraints, and a preliminary characterization of groundwater 

geochemistry.

Description of Study Area

Lansing is located in northwestern Ingham County in 

the south central part of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan 

(fig. 1). Groundwater is withdrawn primarily from the Saginaw aquifer, which consists of water bearing sandstones in 

the Grand River and Saginaw Formations of Pennsylvanian 

age (fig. 2); however, in Ingham County, erosion has removed 

most of the Grand River Formation (Vanlier and others, 

1973). The Saginaw aquifer can be divided into three units 

separated by an interbedded series consisting of shale and 

sandstone lenses and a lowermost shale unit (table 2); however, division into these units also is uncertain in some areas 

because of incomplete data and heterogeneities within these 

units (D.B. Westjohn, U.S. Geological Survey, oral commun., 

2005). Groundwater from the Glacial aquifer is an important 

source in some places. Aquifers in the glacial deposits are 

composed primarily of coarse alluvial and outwash materials. 

Eskers—buried outwash deposits and thin beds of sand and 

gravel within the till—are potential sources of water to wells 

in some areas (Vanlier and others, 1973). The stratigraphic 

relation between units present in the Lansing area is shown 

in figure 2; however, these assignments between formations 

are somewhat uncertain because no lithologic differences or 

stratigraphic horizons mark a change from one horizon to the 

next (Westjohn and Weaver, 1996).

Methods

Sampling Procedures

All water samples were collected by BWL personnel. 

USGS standard sampling methods for water samples to be 

analyzed for the chemicals described in this report are documented in the USGS National Field Manual (NFM; http://

water.usgs.gov/owq/FieldManual/). Prior to sampling, USGS 

personnel visited selected well sites with BWL personnel to 

develop appropriate sample-collection procedures. Among 

other considerations, the sampling methods for wastewater 

compounds (Wilde and others, 2004) proscribe the use or 

wearing of any personal care products that might contain the 

compounds to be analyzed; document that only sampling and 

processing equipment made of fluorocarbon polymers, glass, 

aluminum, or stainless steel should be used; specify the types 

of bottles (laboratory baked, brown glass) to be used for sample collection; and provide information on the proper cleaning and storing of sampling equipment. In general, raw water 

samples were collected directly from a tap at the wellhead by 

BWL personnel following USGS training, and sample collection took place under a protective plastic sheet. Following 

collection and processing, samples were immediately chilled 

and shipped overnight to the USGS National Water Quality 

Laboratory (NWQL) in Denver, Colorado.

Table 2. Approximate ranges in thickness for 

Saginaw Formation units.

Unit Range in thickness

(feet)

Upper sandstone layer 21–115

Interbedded series unit 1–5

Middle sandstone layer 55–150

Lower shale unit 1–69

Lower sandstone layer 30–119
1,850,000 1,900,000 1,950,000 2,000,000 2

Easting, in feet 350,000 400,000 450,000 500,000 550,000 600,000

Northing, in feet

43°

45°

86°

84°

88°

47°

CLINTON COUNTY

Tri-County region

Lansing

EATON COUNTY INGHAM COUNTY

Figure 1. Location of the city of Lansing in the Tri-County region of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan.
Methods 9

Figure 2. Stratigraphic nomenclature and hydrogeologic units, Lansing, Michigan area. [Note: Figure 

denotes relation between units present in the Lansing area and not the complete depositional history from 

the Mississippian through Quaternary periods. The Parma Sandstone is considered by some researchers 

to form the basal part of the Pennsylvanian Saginaw Formation. Other researchers have assigned the 

lower part of the Parma Sandstone to the late Mississippian. Dashed line indicates the uncertainty in 

the placement of the Parma Sandstone into the Pennsylvanian or the Mississippian periods. The Parma 

Sandstone is hydraulically connected to the Bayport Limestone and these units together form the 

Parma-Bayport aquifer. Dotted lines represent aquifer layers within the Saginaw aquifer. See table 2 for 

approximate Saginaw layer thicknesses.]

Analytical Procedures

Wastewater compounds analyzed are identified in table 3. 

Wastewater compounds were analyzed on unfiltered water 

samples, using continuous liquid-liquid extraction (CLLE) 

for sample preparation. Concentrated extracts were analyzed 

by capillary-column gas chromatography/mass spectrometry 

(GC/MS). The analytical method used in this report relies 

on the application of mass-spectrometric techniques, which 

provide compound-specific fragments that, when coupled with 

chromatographic-retention characteristics, produce unambiguous identification of each compound. In addition, the specific 

criteria for the identification of each compound are based upon 

analysis of authentic standards for all compounds. Further 

information on the method can be found in Zaugg and others 

(2006). 

Period

Stratigraphic Nomenclature

Hydrogeologic Unit

(generalized thickness range)

Quaternary

Glacial deposits

Aquifers in the glacial deposits 

(0–300 feet)

confining material (0–95 feet)

Pennsylvanian

Grand River Formation

Upper sandstone layer

Saginaw Formation

Saginaw aquifer

(110–450 feet)

Lower sandstone layer

Saginaw confining unit

(5–100 feet)

Parma Sandstone

Mississippian

Parma-Bayport aquifer

(50–100 feet)

 

Bayport Limestone

Michigan Formation

Michigan confining unit

(50–250 feet)

Marshall Sandstone Marshall aquifer

(100–150 feet)

Middle sandstone layer

{
10 Organic-Wastewater Compounds, Groundwater Geochemistry, and Well Characteristics for Selected Wells in Michigan

Table 3. Wastewater-method compounds and their possible uses or sources.—Continued

[RL, reporting limit; μg/L, micrograms per liter; CAS, Chemical Abstracts Service; NA, not applicable; PAH, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon]

Name RL 

(μg/L) Synonym CAS number Possible uses or sources1

1,4-Dichlorobenzene 0.2 106-46-7 Moth repellent, fumigant, deodorant

1-Methylnaphthalene .2 90-12-0 Gasoline, diesel fuel, or crude oil

2,6-Dimethylnaphthalene .2 581-42-0 Diesel/kerosene (trace in gasoline)

2-Methylnaphthalene .2 91-57-6 Gasoline, diesel fuel, or crude oil

3,4-Dichlorophenyl isocyanate 1.6 102-36-3 Dye, chemical manufacture

3-Methyl-1(H)-indole .2 Skatole 83-34-1 Fragrance, stench in feces and coal tar

3-tert-Butyl-4-hydroxy anisole .2 BHA 25013-16-5 Antioxidant, general preservative

4-Cumylphenol .2 599-64-4 Nonionic detergent metabolite

4-n-Octylphenol .2 1806-26-4 Nonionic detergent metabolite

4-Nonylphenol, total 2 p-Nonylphenol 84852-15-3 Nonionic detergent metabolite

4-Nonylphenol monoethoxylate 1.6 NP1EO NA Nonionic detergent metabolite

4-Nonylphenol diethoxylate 3 NP2EO NA Nonionic detergent metabolite

4-tert-Octylphenol .4 140-66-9 Nonionic detergent metabolite

4-tert-Octylphenol diethoxylate .5 OP2EO NA Nonionic detergent metabolite

4-tert-Octylphenol 

monoethoxylate 

1 OP1EO NA Nonionic detergent metabolite

5-Methyl-1H-benzotriazole 2 136-85-6 Antioxidant in antifreeze and deicers

Acetophenone .4 98-86-2 Fragrance in detergent and foods

Acetyl hexamethyl 

tetrahydronaphthalene

.2 AHTN 21145-77-7 Musk fragrance

Anthracene .2 120-12-7 Wood preservative, in tar/crude oil

Anthraquinone .2 84-65-1 Dye/textiles, bird repellent

Atrazine .2 1912-24-9 Herbicide

BDE conger 47 .3 Polybrominated diphenyl ether 5436-43-1 Flame retardant

Benzo[a]pyrene .2 Benz[a]pyrene 50-32-8 Regulated PAH

Benzophenone .2 119-61-9 Fixative for perfumes and soaps

beta-Sitosterol 2 83-46-5 Plant sterol

beta-Stigmastanol 2 Stigmastanol 19466-47-8 Plant sterol

Bis 2-ethylhexyl phthalate 2 117-81-7 Plasticizer

Bisphenol A .4 80-05-7 Polycarbonate resins, antioxidant

Bromacil .8 314-40-9 Herbicide, noncrop usage

Bromoform .2 Tribromomethane 75-25-2 Ozonation byproduct, explosives

Caffeine .2 58-08-2 Beverages, diuretic

Camphor .2 76-22-2 Flavor, odorant, ointments

Carbaryl .2 63-25-2 Insecticide, crop and garden use

Carbazole .2 86-74-8 Dyes, explosives and lubricants

Chlorpyrifos .2 2921-88-2 Insecticide, termite and pest control

Cholesterol 2 57-88-5 Fecal indicator, plant sterol

3-beta-Coprostanol 2 360-68-9 Carnivore fecal indicator

Cotinine .8 486-56-6 Primary nicotine metabolite

Diazinon .2 333-41-5 Insecticide, ants and flies

Dichlorvos .2 62-73-7 Insecticide, pets and grains

Diethyl phthalate .2 84-66-2 Plasticizer
Methods 11

Table 3. Wastewater-method compounds and their possible uses or sources.—Continued

[RL, reporting limit; μg/L, micrograms per liter; CAS, Chemical Abstracts Service; NA, not applicable; PAH, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon]

Name RL 

(μg/L) Synonym CAS number Possible uses or sources1

d-Limonene 0.2 5989-27-5 Fungicide, antimicrobial, fragrance

Fluoranthene .2 206-44-0 Component of coal tar and asphalt

Hexahydrohexamethylcyclopentabenzopyran.2 HHCB 1222-05-5 Musk fragrance

Indole .2 120-72-9 Pesticide inert, fragrance in coffee

Isoborneol .2 124-76-5 Fragrance in perfume

Isophorone .2 78-59-1 Solvent 

Isopropylbenzene .2 Cumene 98-82-8 Phenol/acetone, fuels and paint thinner

Isoquinoline .2 119-65-3 Flavors and fragrances

Menthol .2 89-78-1 Flavor in cigarettes, cough drops

Metalaxyl .2 57837-19-1 Herbicide, fungicide

Methyl salicylate .2 119-36-8 Liniment, food, beverage, sun block

Metolachlor .2 51218-45-2 Herbicide

N,N-Diethyl-meta-toluamide .2 DEET 134-62-3 Insect repellent

Naphthalene .2 91-20-3 Fumigant, moth repellent, gasoline

para-Cresol .2 106-44-5 Wood preservative

Pentachlorophenol .8 87-86-5 Wood preservative, fungicide

Phenanthrene .2 85-01-8 Explosives, tar, diesel and crude oil

Phenol .2 108-95-2 Disinfectant

Prometon .2 1610-18-0 Herbicide, noncrop

Pyrene .2 129-00-0 Component of coal tar and asphalt

Tetrachloroethylene .4 PCE 127-18-4 Solvent, degreaser

Tributyl phosphate .2 126-73-8 Antifoaming agent, flame retardant

Triclosan .2 3380-34-5 Disinfectant, antimicrobial

Triethyl citrate .2 Ethyl citrate 77-93-0 Cosmetics and pharmaceuticals

Triphenyl phosphate .2 115-86-6 Plasticizer, resin wax, roofing paper

Tri(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate .3 78-51-3 Flame retardant

Tri(2-chloroethyl) phosphate .2 3380-34-5 Plasticizer, flame retardant

Tri(dichlorisopropyl) phosphate .2 77-93-0 Flame retardant

1

From Zaugg and others, 2006. 

The NWQL uses a statistic called the long-term method 

detection limit (LT-MDL; Bonn, 2008), which is similar to 

the current U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 

method detection limit (MDL) (U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency, 2005), and is determined on an annual basis for each 

compound. The LT-MDL is statistically defined as identical 

to the EPA-MDL: the smallest measured concentration that 

can be reported with 99-percent confidence that the concentration of the compound is greater than zero, and there is less 

than a 1-percent chance of a false-positive determination. It is 

calculated over an extended period of time, and therefore may 

change over time. In conjunction with the LT-MDL, NWQL 

uses a laboratory reporting level (LRL) set higher than the 

LTMDL. LRLs also may change over time if LT-MDLs are 

revised after annual reviews. 

Currently (2013), the NWQL reports without qualification most analytical results greater than the LTMDL (Bonn, 

2008). Concentrations of some compounds are always 

reported as estimated owing to the analytical method used 

having highly variable performance for that particular compound. Concentrations of some chemicals detected at less than 

the LRL may be reported if the analytical method includes 

compound-specific identification—usually a matching spectral 

signature—such as for the compounds discussed in this report. 

For these results, there is greater uncertainty as to the actual 

concentration. 
12 Organic-Wastewater Compounds, Groundwater Geochemistry, and Well Characteristics for Selected Wells in Michigan

Quality Assurance and Quality Control

Several quality-control sample types are used to interpret 

ambient environmental concentrations of wastewater compounds in aqueous samples. The quality-control sample types 

used in this study included field blanks and replicate environmental samples. 

Field blanks characterize the likelihood of positive bias 

or contamination owing to field and laboratory handling. Field 

blanks consisted of laboratory-grade organic-free water that 

was processed in the field and laboratory in the same manner 

as environmental samples. Two field blanks were submitted, 

and no wastewater constituent was detected in either field 

blank. 

Replicate samples are used to characterize the amount 

of variability associated with sample collection, processing, 

and analysis. One field replicate sample was collected for 

well LN-11. Pyrene was detected at less than the LT-MDL 

in both samples, but the replicate also had detections of 

bis (2ethylhexyl) phthalate and phenanthrene (both less than 

the LT-MDL) although the original sample did not. Discrepancies in results for a primary sample and its replicate may 

arise when concentrations are near the LT-MDL. Prior studies 

have indicated that when data are available from more sensitive assays, constituents less than the LT-MDL in the current 

assay are indeed present in the sample (Haack, 2009). Replicate results indicate two considerations for interpretation of 

concentrations near the limits of detection for the wastewater 

method. First, even though a compound is reported as not 

detected, it may indeed be present. This is particularly true for 

the analysis used, because the reporting levels are relatively 

high in comparison to methods that might target individual 

constituents. Second, when the compound is reported with an 

estimated concentration, there is confidence that it is indeed 

present in the sample, but with more uncertainty regarding the 

actual concentration. Based on these considerations, compounds detected by the wastewater method in either a primary 

environmental sample or an associated replicate, but not both, 

should be considered present in the sample.

Statistical Analyses

All statistical tests were evaluated at probabilities 

(p-values) of obtaining results by chance of less than 0.05 

(p < 0.05). Spearman Rank Correlation was performed to 

evaluate correlations among variables. The Wilcoxon-MannWhitney test is a nonparametric hypothesis test that was used 

to determine the probability that the center of the distributions 

of defined groups of wells were the same. This test, like most 

nonparametric hypothesis tests, requires no assumptions about 

the sample population distribution, is resistant to outliers, and 

is more appropriate for small sample sizes where non-normality is more difficult to detect. Discriminant analysis was used 

to determine whether one or more quantitative variables could 

be found to classify the sample data into the two groups (wells 

with detections and wells without any detections). Canonical 

discriminant analysis was used to investigate whether there 

was a linear combination of the quantitative variables that best 

described the differences between the defined groups of wells. 

Well-Water Quality

Organic-Wastewater Compounds Detected

Of the 69 constituents analyzed in samples from 20 wells, 

16 were detected. Ten wells had no detections, and 10 had 

1 or more compounds detected. The wastewater compounds 

detected in this study are indicated in bold type in table 4. 

Three compounds were detected at greater than the LRL: 

fluoranthene, pyrene, and phenanthrene. Two compounds 

(isopropylbenzene and phenol) were detected at greater than 

the LT-MDL but less than the LRL, and estimated concentrations were provided. All remaining compound detections were 

less than the LT-MDL. Because there were only three results 

that were at or greater than the LRL, only the presence or 

absence of a compound or the total number of OWC constituents detected in each well was considered in subsequent 

evaluations.

All OWCs detected were in the “Industrial chemicals” 

category. Some of these industrial chemicals are very persistent, such as the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (table 4), 

whereas the persistence of others varies depending on the 

environmental setting, such as soil type and condition, and 

whether or not aerobic. Chemicals in the “Industrial chemicals” category often are detected in groundwater at sites with 

industrial pollution, but usually at much higher concentrations 

than those reported in this study. Industrial chemicals also may 

be found in human wastewater and septic waste, accompanied 

by pharmaceuticals, chemicals associated with personal care 

compounds, and human or animal wastes. Chemicals in the 

“Industrial chemicals” category also are prevalent in urban 

stormwater (Pitt and others, 1999; Vogel and others, 2009). 

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are prevalent in stormwater 

runoff from pavement treated with sealcoat, which is commonly used in the Midwest of the U.S. (Watts and others, 

2010). Vogel and others (2009) applied the same analysis 

method to stormwater samples in Nebraska as was used for 

the BWL wells, and did not detect bis (2ethylhexyl) phthalate, isopropylbenzene, or pentachlorophenol, but did detect 

all remaining constituents detected in BWL wells. Bis (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and pentachlorophenol are among a list of 

proposed European stormwater priority pollutants (Eriksson 

and others, 2007).
Well-Water Quality 13

Table 4. Wastewater-method compounds grouped by chemical use or typical source.

[Compounds in bold detected in this study]

Industrial chemicals Human wastewater1 Detergent metabolites

1,4-dichlorobenzene

1-methylnaphthalene

2,6-dimethylnaphthalene

2-methylnaphthalene

3-methyl-1H-indole

3,4- dichlorophenyl isocyanate

4-cumylphenol

3-tert-Butyl-4-hydroxy anisole

AHTN 

benzophenone

HHCB

tri(2-chloroethyl)phosphate

tributyl phosphate

triclosan

tri(dichlorisopropyl)phosphate

triethyl citrate (ethyl citrate)

4-n octylphenol

4-tert-octylphenol

4-tert-octylphenol diethoxylate

4-tert-octylphenol monoethoxylate

nonylphenol diethoxylate

octylphenol diethoxylate

para-nonylphenol

5-methyl-1H-benzotriazole Other

anthracene

anthraquinone

benzo[a]pyrene

Human pharmaceutical 

or metabolite

caffeine

cotinine

acetophenone

camphor

d-limonene

menthol

methyl salicylate

N,N-diethyl-meta-toluamide (DEET)

bisphenol-A Sterols

bis 2-ethylhexyl phthalate

bromoform

carbazole

diethyl phthalate

fluoranthene

3-beta-Coprostanol (animal)

beta-Sitosterol (plants)

beta-Stigmastanol (plants)

Cholesterol (animal)

indole

isoborneol

isophorone

isopropyl benzene

isoquinolone

Urban herbicides 

and pesticides

bromacil

diazinon

prometon

naphthalene

para-Cresol

pentachlorophenol

phenanthrene

phenol

BDE congener 47

pyrene

tetrachloroethylene

triphenyl phosphate

tris (2-butoxyethyl) phosphate

Agricultural herbicides 

and pesticides

atrazine

carbaryl

chlorpyrifos

dichlorvos

metalaxyl

metolachlor

1

Compounds detected in 100 percent of wastewater-treatment-plant effluents (Glassmeyer and others, 2005).
14 Organic-Wastewater Compounds, Groundwater Geochemistry, and Well Characteristics for Selected Wells in Michigan

Although well-water samples were analyzed for an 

assortment of wastewater-related and potentially human-use 

compounds, no compound that would most likely be associated with human or animal waste was detected. Table 4 groups 

all compounds analyzed into typical chemical type and source 

categories. Constituents detected in 100 percent of wastewatertreatment-plant effluents (Glassmeyer and others, 2005), and 

human pharmaceuticals or their metabolites were not detected. 

Likewise, the animal- or plant-derived sterols often found 

in fecal material from humans or animals were not detected. 

There were no detections of the nonyl- or octyl-phenols that 

often derive from detergent breakdown or may be included 

in a variety of cleaning agents, and therefore are common in 

human wastewater and septic waste (Glassmeyer and others, 2005). There were no detections of the insect repellent 

N,N-diethyl-meta-toluamide (DEET) or of the remaining 

“Other” category of chemicals, many of which are used in 

personal care products. Using the same or equivalent methods, many of the above categories of chemicals are detectable in surface water in Michigan and elsewhere, especially 

where wastewater-treatments plants influence surface water 

(Haack, 2009). Using equivalent methods, the USGS tested 47 

groundwater sites in 18 States (Barnes and others, 2008). In 

that study, coprostanol was detected at 4.3 percent of the tested 

sites, caffeine at 12.8 percent, 4-octylphenol monoethoxylate 

at 19.1 percent, triclosan at 14.9 percent, and DEET at 34.8 

percent. Additionally, using equivalent methods, the USGS 

tested 25 groundwater wells that are used as source water for 

drinking water in 13 States (Focazio and others, 2008). In that 

study, coprostanol was detected at 4 percent, triclosan at 8 percent, DEET at 12 percent, caffeine was not tested, and 4-octylphenol monoethoxylate was not detected at any site. Analyses 

were done for three pesticides in the current study, and none of 

the three were detected. Diazinon, an urban-use pesticide, was 

not detected by Barnes and others (2008), but was detected 

at 4 percent of sites by Focazio and others (2008); prometon 

and bromacil were not tested. Results from these two USGS 

National surveys indicate that the chemical categories not 

detected in the current study do occur in groundwater at some 

locations across the U.S. Overall results show that the tested 

BWL wells did not contain chemicals typically associated with 

human wastewater.

Frequency of detection for compounds in the current 

study is reported in table 5 and is compared to the frequency 

of detection of the same compounds in the two USGS groundwater studies previously mentioned (Barnes and others, 2008; 

Focazio and others, 2008). In general, chemicals detected in 

the BWL wells also have been detected in other groundwater 

wells across the country.

Well-Water Geochemistry

With the exception of 1985–95, selected BWL wells 

have been tested each year as part of a routine water-quality 

monitoring program for concentrations of the major cations 

calcium, magnesium, and sodium, and for the major anions 

chloride and sulfate. Bicarbonate concentrations were collected during routine monitoring for 1969–2006 and were estimated using alkalinity and pH for 2007–11 because bicarbonate concentrations were not collected by the BWL for recent 

years. In addition, pH and specific conductance were measured 

in most recent years. The number of years of data depends on 

well age, which ranges from 17 to 86 years in service. Well 

age was calculated to be 2013 minus the approximate installation date for each well. Thirteen wells had data from 1969 

to 1977 and from 2007 to 2011. Two wells had data only from 

2000 or later. 

Change in Well-Water Geochemistry Over Time

Well-water geochemistry has changed over time (fig. 3). 

Thirteen wells were tested for major ions at least once from 

1969 to 1977 and from 2007 to 2011. For each of the 13 wells, 

a single year of analysis in each date range (1971 or earliest 

year for 1969–77 and most recent for 2007–11) was selected. 

Well LN-28 had a reported sodium concentration of less than 

5 milligrams per liter (mg/L) in 2011; this value was replaced 

by 2.5 mg/L, one-half the detection limit, for subsequent 

calculations. Table 6 shows the median ion concentrations for 

each date range for these 13 wells. The Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney test indicates that the 2007–11 concentration is significantly greater (p < 0.05) than the 1969–77 concentration for 

all ions except bicarbonate, which has significantly decreased 

(table 6). In 2009, one BWL well exceeded the EPA Secondary 

Maximum Contaminant level for chloride, which is 250 mg/L. 

Because total dissolved solids were not always measured, 

total dissolved solids were estimated as the sum of the major 

cations and anions, and the estimated value was compared to 

available measured values. Estimated total dissolved solids 

were linearly related to measured dissolved solids with a 

regression coefficient of determination (R2 ) of 0.95, indicating good agreement between the two methods. Total dissolved 

solids increased from 1969 to 1977 and from 2007 to 2011, as 

would be expected in the case where ion concentrations were 

increasing. The median value for the 13 wells with data from 

both date ranges was 618 mg/L for 1969–77 and 815 mg/L 

for 2007–11; furthermore, the Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney test 

indicated the increase is significant (p = 0.0403). 
Well-Water Quality 15

Table 5. Comparison of organic wastewater compound detections in the current study with detections in other studies, and 

identification of U.S. Environmental Protection Agency drinking water regulated compounds.

[EPA, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; μg/L, micrograms per liter; nt, not tested]

Chemicals detected

This study 

(number of 

samples)

Frequency of detection, in percent

EPA drinking 

water regulated 

contaminant

Drinking water 

maximum 

contaminant level 

(μg/L)

This 

study

USGS National 

Groundwater 

Survey1

(47 samples)

USGS National 

Drinking Water 

Sources Survey2

(25 samples)

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

Naphthalene 2 10.0 38.5 0.0

1-Methylnaphthalene 1 5.0 nt .0

2-Methylnaphthalene 1 5.0 nt .0

Anthracene 1 5.0 2.1 .0

Fluoranthene 1 5.0 4.3 4.0

Phenanthrene 2 10.0 2.1 4.0

Pyrene 6 30.0 2.1 4.0

9,10-Anthraquinone 1 5.0 nt 4.0

Plasticizers

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate 5 25.0 nt nt yes 6

Bisphenol A 1 5.0 29.8 320

Diethyl phthalate 2 10.0 nt nt

Other chemicals

Carbazole 1 5.0 nt nt

Indole 1 5.0 nt 0.0

Isopropylbenzene 2 10.0 nt .0

Pentachlorophenol 1 5.0 nt 4.0 yes 1

Phenol 1 5.0 3,40 432

1

Barnes and others (2008).

2

Focazio and others (2008).

3

Compound detected in at least one field blank in the indicated study.

4

Reporting limit 2 μg/L as opposed to 0.2 μg/L in the current study. 

Table 6. Median concentrations of major ions and significance 

levels for 13 wells having data in both date ranges: 1969–77 and 

2007–11.

[Concentrations in milligrams per liter]

Ion

Median concentration Wilcoxon-MannWhitney 

p-value 1969–77 2007–11

Calcium 104 140 0.0111

Magnesium 32 46 .0023

Sodium 9 29 .0088

Bicarbonate 386 310 .0004

Chloride 17 68 .0156

Sulfate 47 150 .007
16 Organic-Wastewater Compounds, Groundwater Geochemistry, and Well Characteristics for Selected Wells in Michigan

Figure 3. Major ion concentrations, in milligrams per liter (mg/L), for 13 studied Lansing Board of Water and Light wells having data in 

the years 1969–77 and 2007–11, Lansing area, Michigan. 

x

o

x

o

o

Bicarbonate1969–77 Bicarbonate 2007–11

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

550

13 13

Bicarbonate concentration, in mg/L

x

x

Calcium 1969–77 Calcium 2007–11

50

100

150

200

250

13 13

Calcium concentration, in mg/L

x

Magnesium 1969–77 Magnesium 2007–11

10

20

30

40

50

60 13 13

Magnesium concentration, in mg/L

x

oo

Chloride 1969–77 Chloride 2007–11

100

150

200

250

300 13 13

Chloride concentration, in mg/L

o

o

Sodium 1969–77 Sodium 2007–11

100

120

140

160

13 13

Sodium concentration, in mg/L

x

Sulfate 1969–77 Sulfate 2007–11

13 13

Sulfate concentration, in mg/L

30 Number of values

EXPLANATION

x

x

o

o

Upper adjacent

75th percentile

Median

25th percentile

Lower adjacent

Lower outside

Lower detached

Upper detached

Upper outside

schematic boxplot

80

60

40

20

0 0

50

0

150

200

250

300

350

100

50
Well-Water Quality 17

Wells with and without OWC detections have changed in 

different ways over time, as indicated in figure 4. Although the 

eight wells without detections and the five wells with detections both show increases over time in all ions except bicarbonate, the five wells with detections demonstrate a larger 

increase in sodium and chloride. Median chloride percentage 

relative to the other anions in wells with detections was 0.10 

for 1969–77 and 0.31 for 2007–11; median chloride percentage relative to the other anions in wells without any detections 

was 0.03 for 1969–77 and 0.14 for 2007–11. In addition, the 

five wells with OWC detections have shown less increase over 

time in sulfate. The Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney test indicates 

that during 2007–11, the chloride and sodium concentrations 

are significantly greater in wells with detections, as compared 

to wells without detections (p = 0.0123 and p = 0.0139).

The major ion composition of well water also can be 

evaluated using “Piper plots.” Piper (1944) developed a 

diagram that enables the classification of water on the basis 

of the major ions. The Piper plot allows easy visual comparison of the chemistry of water samples, identification of water 

with similar characteristics, and identification of any change 

in water chemistry. For the plot, concentrations of the ions are 

converted to milliequivalents per liter, and then the relative 

percentages of the cations and anions are determined. For 

purposes of the plot, cations and anions each sum to 100 percent. If any cation or anion comprises 50 percent or more of 

the milliequivalents for a water sample, the water is said to be 

dominated by that ion.

Piper plots for the 13 wells with data from both 1969–77 

and 2007–11 are shown in figure 5. During 1969–77, all wells 

could be characterized as bicarbonate dominated water, since 

bicarbonate constituted more than 50 percent of the anion 

composition. All but two wells could be characterized as 

calcium dominant during 1969–77; the remaining two wells 

had nearly as much sodium as calcium, and these two wells 

also had nearly 50 percent chloride composition. By 2007–11, 

although most wells still were dominated by calcium, two 

wells had gained significant sodium since 1969–77. In 

addition, few wells remained bicarbonate-dominated, with 

chloride and (or) sulfate replacing bicarbonate. Additionally, 

as indicated by figure 5, wells with and without OWC detections have different geochemistry during 2007–11, with a 

tendency for a greater proportion of chloride and sodium in 

four of the five wells with detections. Piper plots show clearly 

that although the geochemistry of all 13 BWL wells tested 

has changed over time, wells with OWC detections tended to 

change in a different manner than those without detections. 

Current Well-Water Geochemistry

Piper plots of current well-water geochemistry (most 

recent analysis from 2007–11) for all 20 BWL wells are 

presented in figure 6. Comparison of figure 6 with figure 5 

indicates that the well-water geochemistry of the seven newer 

wells (which did not have data for 1969–77) falls into the calcium-bicarbonate dominated category, with one of the seven 

wells having nearly 50 percent sodium and 50 percent chloride 

composition. The Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney test indicates that 

currently (2013), wells with OWC detections have significantly more sodium and chloride than wells without detections 

(p = 0.0235 and p = 0.0457). The total number of detections 

of OWCs in the BWL wells during 2007–11 was inversely 

correlated (Spearman Rank Correlation) with the bicarbonate content and the sulfate-to-chloride ratio of those wells. In 

other words, wells with OWC detections had lower bicarbonate content, more chloride, and less sulfate than wells without 

detections. These patterns are seen in figures 6 and 7.

Factors That Influence Well-Water 

Geochemistry and OWC Detections

Role of Basin Brines

The primary natural source of sodium and chloride to 

wells in the study area would be basin brines. Meissner and 

others (1996) described water from the Saginaw aquifer in 

the study area as primarily calcium-bicarbonate dominant 

and characteristic of water recently recharged to an aquifer. 

Calcium-sulfate and sodium-chloride dominant water was 

detected in the Saginaw aquifer, but not typically in the study 

area. Sodium-chloride dominant water was detected in the 

Saginaw Bay area, about 70 miles (mi) northeast of the study 

area (Meissner and others, 1996). That sodium-chloride water 

was typically much higher in dissolved solids (1,000–5,000 

mg/L) and was attributed to mixing with brine from within the 

aquifer or from underlying aquifers. In addition, Meissner and 

others (1996) reported that in the southern portion of the aquifer where the study area is located, chloride was typically less 

than 10 mg/L, but that chloride concentrations in water from 

the Parma-Bayport aquifer, which lies below the Saginaw 

aquifer, could reach values greater than 100,000 mg/L. They 

also reported that higher chloride concentrations were associated with deep wells in the Saginaw aquifer, and that high 

chloride concentrations in such wells could be due to mixing 

with underlying waters. Meissner and others (1996) reported 

that sulfate concentrations in the Saginaw aquifer generally 

were less than 100 mg/L in the southern portion of the aquifer, 

encompassing the study area. A natural source of sulfate could 

be dissolution of gypsum (calcium sulfate) in the Parma-Bayport aquifer, or in portions of the Saginaw aquifer. Because of 

the interest in the influence of basin brines on BWL well-water 

quality, several evaluations of the existing well-water geochemistry were conducted.
18 Organic-Wastewater Compounds, Groundwater Geochemistry, and Well Characteristics for Selected Wells in Michigan

Figure 4. Major ion concentrations, in milligrams per liter (mg/L), for 13 studied Lansing Board of Water and Light wells having data 

in the years 1969–77 and 2007–11 divided into groups with and without detections of organic-wastewater compounds, Lansing area,

Michigan. 

o

Calcium concentrations, in mg/L

x

o

o

Bicarbonate concentrations, in mg/L

o

x

o

Magnesium concentrations, in mg/L

o

o

x

Chloride concentrations, in mg/L

x

o

x

x

Sodium concentrations, in mg/L

x

o

x

Sulfate concentrations, in mg/L

8 8 5 5

Calcium

1969–77

no detections

Calcium

2007–11

no detections

Calcium

1969–77

some detections

Calcium

2007–11

some detections

8 8 5 5

Bicarbonate

1969–77

no detections

Bicarbonate

2007–11

no detections

Bicarbonate

1969–77

some detections

Bicarbonate

2007–11

some detections

8 8 5 5 8 8 5 5

8 8 5 5 8 8 5 5

Magnesium

1969–77

no detections

Magnesium

2007–11

no detections

Magnesium

1969–77

some detections

Magnesium

2007–11

some detections

Chloride

1969–77

no detections

Chloride

2007–11

no detections

Chloride

1969–77

some detections

Chloride

2007–11

some detections

0

Sodium

1969–77

no detections

Sodium

2007–11

no detections

Sodium

1969–77

some detections

Sodium

2007–11

some detections

Sulfate

1969–77

no detections

Sulfate

2007–11

no detections

Sulfate

1969–77

some detections

Sulfate

2007–11

some detections

30 Number of values

EXPLANATION

x

x

o

o

Upper adjacent

75th percentile

Median

25th percentile

Lower adjacent

Lower outside

Lower detached

Upper detached

Upper outside

schematic boxplot

150

200

250

100

50

20

30

40

50

60

10

20

80

100

120

140

160

60

40

200

350

400

450

500

550

300

250

0

100

150

200

250

300

50

0

150

200

250

300

350

100

50

150
Well-Water Quality 19

Figure 5. Historical (1969–77) and current (2007–11) major ion chemistry for 13 Lansing Board of Water and Light production wells 

shown in figs. 3 and 4, Lansing area, Michigan. (D, organic-wastewater compounds (OWCs) detected; ND, OWCs not detected). 

PERCENT

Current data (2007–11)

Calcium

 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0 

 0 

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 

Magnesium

 0 

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 

Sodium

Chloride

 0 

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 

 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0 

Bicarbonate

 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0 

Sulfate

 0 

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 

Sulfate + chloride

 0 

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 

Calcium + magnesium

 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0 

 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0 

PERCENT

PERCENT

PERCENT

Historical data (1969–77)

Calcium

 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0 

 0 

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 

Magnesium

 0 

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 

Sodium

Chloride

 0 

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 

 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0 

Bicarbonate

 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0 

Sulfate

 0 

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 

Sulfate + chloride

 0 

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 

Calcium + magnesium

 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0 

 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0 

PERCENT

PERCENT

EXPLANATION

D

ND
20 Organic-Wastewater Compounds, Groundwater Geochemistry, and Well Characteristics for Selected Wells in Michigan

PERCENT

Current data (2007–11) for all 20 production wells

Calcium

 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0 

 0 

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 

Magnesium

 0 

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 

Sodium

Chloride

 0 

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 

 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0 

Bicarbonate

 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0 

Sulfate

 0 

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 

Sulfate + chloride

 0 

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 

Calcium + magnesium

 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0 

 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0 

PERCENT

PERCENT

EXPLANATION

D

ND

LN-9

Figure 6. Current (2007–11) major ion 

chemistry for 20 Lansing Board of Water and 

Light production wells, Lansing area, Michigan. 

(D, organic-wastewater compounds (OWCs) 

detected; ND, OWCs not detected). 

Figure 7. Historical (1969–77, 13 wells) and current (2007–11, 20 wells) major ion percentages in Lansing Board of Water and Light 

production wells, Lansing area, Michigan. (D, organic-wastewater compounds (OWCs) detected; ND, OWCs not detected). 

Current data (2007–11) Current data (2007–11)

Sulfate

Chloride

Bicarbonate

0

25

50

75

100

ND D

Major ions, in percent

Historical data (1969–77)

Sodium

Magnesium

Calcium

0

25

50

75

100

Major ions, in percent

ND D

Sodium

Magnesium

Calcium

ND D

0

25

50

75

100

Major ions, in percent

Sulfate

Chloride

Bicarbonate

0

25

50

75

100

Major ions, in percent

Historical data (1969–77)

ND D
Well-Water Quality 21

Well Characteristics Related to Basin Brines

If water from the Parma-Bayport aquifer has been drawn 

up into the BWL wells over time, then total dissolved solids 

might be greater in older wells or in wells from which more 

water has been pumped. Estimated total volume pumped from 

each well was calculated to be the sum of estimated pumpage 

used for the 2009 Tri-County regional groundwater model 

for all modeled time periods representing 1920–2005 conditions. There was no correlation (Spearman Rank Correlation) 

between well age or the total volume pumped from the well 

over time and current (2007–11) total dissolved solids concentrations in the BWL wells. The total volume pumped over 

time for a well is correlated with well age (p = 0.0003). Wells 

were characterized according to whether they were completed 

above or below the Parma-Bayport aquifer, and the distance in 

feet above or below this interface was estimated by comparison with the elevation of the bottom of the well calculated as 

the elevation of the land surface at the well location minus the 

well depth. The current (2007–11) median total dissolved solids concentration was 644 mg/L in wells completed above the 

Parma-Bayport interface and 785 mg/L for wells completed 

below. The Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney test indicated these 

values were not statistically different (p = 0.0626). Likewise, 

there was no significant difference in the 2007–11 concentration of calcium, magnesium, sodium, bicarbonate, chloride, or 

sulfate in wells completed above or below the Parma-Bayport 

aquifer, and there was no correlation between individual ion 

concentrations and well age or the total volume pumped from 

the well over time. Among the 373 estimated total dissolved 

solids values obtained from the 20 BWL wells, the largest 

value was 1,382 mg/L. The range of current (2007–11) total 

dissolved solids was 403 to 1,086 mg/L, which is well within 

the typical range for the part of the Saginaw aquifer that 

encompasses the study area (Meissner and others, 1996). 

If water from the Parma-Bayport aquifer has influenced 

well-water geochemistry over time, then the observed increase 

in total dissolved solids concentration between 1969–77 and 

2007–11, and the increase in all ions except bicarbonate, might 

be related to whether the well was completed above or below 

the Parma-Bayport aquifer, to well age, or to whether a well 

was pumped more or less over the period of interest. These 

physical factors were examined for any correlation with the 

difference in concentration of total dissolved solids or each 

individual ion in the 13 wells having data between 1969–77 

and 2007–11, as well as the difference in percent composition of each ion over the same time period. Completion of 

wells above the Parma-Bayport aquifer was significantly 

and positively correlated only with the increase over time in 

magnesium concentration. Well age and difference in pumping 

between 1969–77 and 2007–11 were not correlated with any 

of these variables. 

Total pumping does differentially affect the major ion 

composition of water from wells with or without OWC detections. Figure 8 shows that, for wells with no OWC detections, 

wells that have been pumped more over time have lower 

concentrations of most ions. In contrast, for wells with OWC 

detections, the pattern is quite different. For wells in which 

OWCs were detected, there is little decrease in major ions 

with pumping. In fact, most ions appear to increase, and chloride concentrations are much higher, regardless of pumping, in 

wells with detections as compared to those without detections. 

Completion of wells in the Parma-Bayport aquifer 

appears to have a slight effect on major ion geochemistry 

(fig. 9). The deeper into the Parma-Bayport aquifer the greater 

the concentration of most ions in BWL wells, regardless of 

whether these had OWC detections. However, sodium and 

chloride are much greater in wells with detections.

Other variables that were not investigated for this study 

would potentially help to explain more of the current geochemistry. For example, Wood (1969) reported that a Lansing 

area well constructed in 1954 was completed near the site of 

an old brine well and produced water with a chloride concentration of greater than 1,000 mg/L. In addition, nearby wells 

also had higher than typical chloride concentrations, with a 

pattern that could be attributed to the variation in pumping 

rates of the different wells. Notably, this area is near wells 

LN-4 and LN-23, which exhibited chloride concentrations 

greater than 250 mg/L intermittently from 1956 to 1963. 

Neither well has exceeded 250 mg/L of chloride since 1963. 

In this case, a local source, and pumping effects from adjacent 

wells, may have contributed to the higher chloride concentrations in these two wells. Well pumping and completion of 

wells in the Parma-Bayport aquifer appear to at least partially 

explain aspects of the current geochemistry of BWL wells. 

However, sodium and chloride concentrations constitute the 

major geochemical difference between wells with or without 

OWC detections, and these ion compositions currently are 

not explained by pumping or by interaction with the ParmaBayport aquifer.
22 Organic-Wastewater Compounds, Groundwater Geochemistry, and Well Characteristics for Selected Wells in Michigan

Figure 8. Relation between total pumping and major ion concentrations for wells with and 

without organic-wastewater compound detections. The lines on each graph are meant to 

denote general trends in the data. 

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000

Concentration, in milligrams per liter

Estimated total pumping, in million gallons, for sampled wells 

with organic-wastewater compound detections

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 12,000

Concentration, in milligrams per liter

Estimated total pumping, in million gallons, for sampled wells 

with no organic-wastewater compound detections

Calcium

Magnesium

Sodium

Bicarbonate

Chloride

Sulfate

Calcium

Magnesium

Sodium

Bicarbonate

Chloride

Sulfate
Well-Water Quality 23

Figure 9. Relation between estimated well completion above or below the Parma-Bayport 

interface and major ion concentrations for wells with and without organic-wastewater 

compound detections. The lines on each graph are meant to denote general trends in the 

data. 

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

−100 −80 −60 −40 −20 0 20 40

Concentration, in milligrams per liter

Well completion in feet above or below the Parma-Bayport aquifer interface 

for sampled wells with no organic-wastewater compound detections

Calcium

Magnesium

Sodium

Bicarbonate

Chloride

Sulfate

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

−120 −100 −80 −60 −40 −20 0 20 40

Concentration, in milligrams per liter

Calcium

Magnesium

Sodium

Bicarbonate

Chloride

Sulfate

Well completion in feet above or below the Parma-Bayport aquifer interface 

for sampled wells with organic-wastewater compound detections
24 Organic-Wastewater Compounds, Groundwater Geochemistry, and Well Characteristics for Selected Wells in Michigan

Role of Surficial Sources

An alternative explanation for increased sodium and 

chloride in groundwater is surficial sources. Several studies 

have shown elevated concentrations of chloride in glacial 

aquifers related to urban land use. Mullaney and others (2009) 

reported that water from shallow monitoring wells in urban 

areas had the largest chloride:bromide ratio, and that urban 

waters commonly contained chloride:bromide ratios indicating input from sewage or animal waste. In addition, upward 

trends in chloride loads were apparent in several urban basins 

for which additional long-term data were available. Likewise, 

Lindsey and Rupert (2012) evaluated changes in chloride, 

nitrate, and dissolved solids in networks of wells in urban 

or agricultural settings across the U.S. They reported that a 

larger percentage of urban land-use networks had statistically 

significant increases in chloride, dissolved solids, and nitrate 

concentrations than agricultural land-use networks. One potential source is the use of salt, primarily for deicing of roads 

and other impervious surfaces, which has increased in the 

U.S. since 1950 (Kostick and others, 2007). Other sources of 

chloride in groundwater in urban areas include wastewater and 

septic-system discharges, recycling of chloride from drinking 

water, leachate from landfills and salt storage areas, and stormwater (Eisena and Anderson, 1979; Panno and others, 2006; 

Mullaney and others, 2009). 

Significantly, studies conducted in Michigan have shown 

a similar influence of surficial land use on sodium and chloride 

concentrations in wells. Myers and others (2000) reported 

that recent residential development in suburban areas west of 

Detroit, Mich., was associated with increased chloride concentration in waters recently recharged (assessed by tritium concentration) to the glacial aquifer. Chloride:bromide ratios have 

been used to evaluate the sources of chloride in groundwater 

(Panno and others, 2006). In the study by Myers and others 

(2000), chloride:bromide ratios indicated that the source of 

chloride was halite (rock salt) and not brine. Thomas (2000a, 

b) also reported high chloride concentrations in shallow 

groundwater in agricultural and residential areas of the western Lake Erie drainage in Michigan and Ohio. Finally, Aichele 

(2004) reported that chloride concentrations exceeding the 

secondary maximum contaminant level of 250 mg/L were 

widely distributed in drinking water wells in Oakland County, 

Mich. In particular, Thomas (2000b) noted that young waters 

(as defined by tritium concentration) have significantly higher 

concentrations of chloride, sodium, calcium, potassium, and 

sulfate, and higher total dissolved solids, than did older waters. 

In addition, young waters also had significantly higher concentrations of nitrate, and 97 percent of young waters had one or 

more detections of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Older 

waters were not tested for VOCs or pesticides using equivalent 

methods as for young waters; therefore, comparisons of these 

compounds between the two types of waters could not be 

made. The source of chloride to young waters was inferred 

to be surficial sources, based on chloride:bromide ratios, and 

based on the fact that chloride was in higher concentration in 

shallow wells as opposed to deep wells potentially susceptible 

to basin brines. These results are very consistent with current 

findings for the BWL wells.

Well Characteristics Related to Surficial Sources

To address a possible surficial source of sodium and 

chloride, and because bromide data were not available, a 

variety of characteristics was compiled (table 7). These well 

characteristics included potential explanatory variables that 

might influence whether, or the rate at which, water from the 

land surface could travel through the glacial deposits to reach 

the well opening in the Saginaw Formation. Minimum and 

median traveltimes from the water table to the upper, middle, 

and lower Saginaw aquifer units were determined using the 

Tri-County regional groundwater-flow model (Luukkonen, 

2009) and the particle tracking program, MODPATH (Pollock, 

1989). A total of 300 hypothetical particles were distributed on 

the sides of each bedrock aquifer cell simulating the sampled 

Lansing-area wells under 2006–7 pumping conditions. These 

particles were tracked backward using the steady-state model 

along flow paths through the groundwater-flow field until they 

reached a top cell face in the uppermost model layer, which 

represented the water table. Thus, the position of the particle 

at the end of the simulation represents the location at the water 

table where the particle enters the groundwater-flow system. 

These recharge areas and the 5, 10, and 20 year time-of-travel 

areas were overlain on urban areas as delineated from 2003 

aerial photos of the Lansing area to determine estimates of the 

percent impervious area in the wellhead-protection area. In 

this study, time-of-travel areas were defined as areas through 

which water moves from the wellhead-protection area to the 

pumping well in the specified amount of time. The wellheadprotection areas consist of the areas (projected up to the land 

surface) where water enters the groundwater-flow system at 

the water table and the areas through which water flows from 

the water table to a simulated pumping well. For example, 

the 5-year time-of-travel area represents the land-surface area 

where some of the water entering the groundwater system is 

estimated to reach the well opening in 5 years or less. Other 

potential explanatory variables determined from well logs and 

model estimates included the aquifer and confining material 

percentages in the glacial and bedrock aquifers, the confining 

material thickness between the Glacial and Saginaw aquifers, 

glacial deposit thickness, and bedrock-surface elevation. 
Well-Water Quality 25

Table 7. Well, aquifer, and hydrologic characteristics and groundwater-chemistry variables evaluated in 

sample analysis. 

Well characteristics

Well age

Well depth

Casing depth

Pump capacity

Land elevation

Location

Estimated elevation of Parma-Bayport surface

Estimated completion above or below the Parma-Bayport interface

Potential contamination source nearby

Aquifer characteristics

Till thickness between Glacial and Saginaw aquifers

Shale thickness between Glacial and Saginaw aquifers

Combined confining material thickness between Glacial and Saginaw aquifers

Thickness of glacial deposits

Total sandstone thickness

Total shale thickness

Thickness of uppermost sandstone layer

Thickness of intercepted part of Saginaw aquifer

Estimated percent of Saginaw aquifer intercepted by well

Estimated elevation of top surface of Saginaw aquifer

Bottom elevation of well

Percent aquifer, marginal aquifer, partially confining, or confining material in Saginaw aquifer and Glacial aquifer

Hydraulic properties of Glacial and Saginaw aquifers

Hydrologic characteristics

Typical volumes of use

Total pumping

Median traveltimes in wellhead-protection area

Minimum traveltimes in wellhead-protection area

Groundwater chemistry

Major ion concentrations

Ratios/changes in major ion concentrations
26 Organic-Wastewater Compounds, Groundwater Geochemistry, and Well Characteristics for Selected Wells in Michigan

Spearman Rank Correlation indicated that the total number of OWCs in BWL wells, as well as the concentrations of 

sodium and chloride, were significantly negatively correlated 

with both the minimum and median time of travel from the 

upper sandstone layer to the water table in the Glacial aquifer, 

and also with the minimum time of travel from the middle 

sandstone layer to the water table in the Glacial aquifer. No 

other physical characteristic was correlated with total number 

of OWCs detected, or with sodium and chloride concentrations. Likewise, the Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney test indicated 

the same time-of-travel variables were significantly less in the 

wells with detections as compared to those without. The well 

with the largest number of detections had one of the lowest 

median traveltimes. The patterns of sodium, chloride, and 

OWC detections with respect to the median traveltime from 

the water table to the upper sandstone aquifer layer are shown 

in figure 10. A lower traveltime estimate indicates that water 

from the water table may be drawn into a well more quickly 

than in the case of a longer traveltime estimate. Lower traveltimes may be related to aquifer characteristics that permit 

more rapid movement from the water table downward into 

aquifers below. Pumping may induce water to move from the 

surface downward into a well, but movement will be constrained by barriers, such as less permeable materials termed 

confining layers. Figure 11 compares selected well characteristics between wells with and without OWC detections. 

Other than median traveltime, no characteristic is statistically significantly different (p < 0.05) between the two well 

categories (table 8). However, wells with detections tend to 

have thicker modeled lower confining material (as simulated 

in the Tri-County regional model), which is an estimate of 

the amount of clay or shale between the Glacial and Saginaw 

aquifers. Areas with little or no clay or shale would have more 

of a hydraulic connection between the two aquifer units. Thus, 

wells with OWC detections (and higher sodium and chloride) 

would be more susceptible to downward movement of water 

from the overlying glacial materials if this confining material 

were thin or absent. Figure 12 shows that there is a pattern of 

lower sodium and chloride concentrations and fewer OWC 

detections in wells with greater modeled confining material 

thickness. Specifically, all detections occurred in wells with 

less than 30 ft of modeled confining material, although some 

wells in the same category had no detections. Figure 11 also 

indicates that there are other well characteristics that tend to 

differ between wells with and without detections, such as the 

percent of marginal aquifer in the rock (as specified in the 

Michigan Department of Environmental Quality water-well 

record database, Wellogic), which was less than 10 for wells 

with detections, but ranged much higher for wells without 

detections. The percent marginal aquifer in the rock was 

nearly a significant variable (table 8). However, it can also 

be seen in figure 11 that there is wide variation for most well 

characteristics, and just as for the confining material thickness 

as simulated in the model, many wells with no detections have 

similar characteristics to those with detections. 

Canonical discriminant analysis using the well characteristics for the 20 recent water samples indicated that the 

percent marginal aquifer in the rock, the median and minimum traveltimes from the water table to the upper sandstone 

aquifer layer, the median and minimum traveltimes from the 

water table to the middle sandstone aquifer, and the sulfate 

to chloride ratio were significant variables in distinguishing 

between the two groups. At the 0.1 (p = 0.1) significance level, 

the estimated total pumping and the modeled confining material thickness also would be significant variables. Discriminant 

analysis with these variables correctly classified all 10 wells 

with detections into the same group; however, 2 wells with 

no detections were misclassified into the group of wells with 

detections. So, as indicated previously in the other analyses, 

many characteristics are similar for wells in each group.

Comparisons of Specific Wells

To evaluate well characteristics further, three wells were 

compared (table 9). Well LN-5 had the highest number of 

OWC detections of any well, and well LN-6 had none. These 

two wells are very near to each other and have similar well 

characteristics, with the exception that the driller’s log for 

well LN-5 reports only clay in the overlying glacial materials. 

Well LN-6 has a value greater than 10 for percent marginal 

aquifer in the rock, which as described previously is associated with lack of OWC detections. Nevertheless, sodium and 

chloride concentrations are relatively high for this well. The 

major difference between wells LN-5 and LN-6 is the fact that 

well LN-6 has experienced declining pumping since 1971, and 

the total volume pumped from this well over time is approximately one-half of that pumped from well LN-5.

Well LN-9 (table 9) also was examined for well characteristics that may place this well, which had no OWC detections, within the group of wells with detections in the Piper 

plots of figures 5 and 6. Well LN-9 is a newer well than LN-5, 

but its total volume pumped and the volume pumped since 

1971 is very similar to that of well LN-5. Sodium and chloride 

concentrations are much less in well LN-9 than in well LN-5, 

but well LN-9 falls within the geochemical composition of 

most wells with detections, which may be related to the relatively aggressive pumping of this well. This well has less than 

1 foot (ft) of modeled confining material thickness and only 

a slightly greater median traveltime from the upper sandstone 

layer to the water table in the Glacial aquifer. Therefore, well 

LN-9 may be susceptible to OWC detections. 
Well-Water Quality 27

Figure 10. Relation between median traveltime from the water table to the upper sandstone layer and number of organic-wastewater 

compound detections, sodium concentration, and chloride concentration. 

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Number of organic-wastewater compound detections

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Sodium concentrations, in milligrams per liter

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Chloride concentrations, in milligrams per liter

Median travel time to upper sandstone layer, in years
28 Organic-Wastewater Compounds, Groundwater Geochemistry, and Well Characteristics for Selected Wells in Michigan

Figure 11. Comparison of selected well characteristics for sampled wells with (D) and without (ND) organic-wastewater compound 

detections. 

x

10 10

Modeled sandstone thickness, in feet

10 10

Glacial deposit thickness, in feet

x

10 10

Median travel time from the water table 

to the upper sandstone layer, in years

x

o

o

10 10

Estimated percent of Saginaw 

intercepted by well

10 10

Modeled confining material thickness, in feet

o

10 10

Percent aquifer material in 

the Saginaw aquifer

220

280

300

320

340

360

260

240

200

10

40

50

60

70

30

20

0

0

60

80

100

120

40

20

20

80

100

120

140

60

40

110

105

100

95

90

0

60

80

100

120

40

20

30 Number of values

EXPLANATION

x

x

o

o

Upper adjacent

75th percentile

Median

25th percentile

Lower adjacent

Lower outside

Lower detached

Upper detached

Upper outside

schematic boxplot

ND D ND D
Well-Water Quality 29

Figure 11. Comparison of selected well characteristics for sampled wells with (D) and without (ND) organic-wastewater compound 

detections.—Continued

x

x

10 10

Percent marginal aquifer material 

in the Saginaw aquifer

Estimated percent impervious area 

in 10 year time-of-travel area

x

10 10

Percent partially confining material 

in the Saginaw aquifer

10 10

Percent aquifer material 

in the glacial deposits

10 10

Percent partially confining material 

in the glacial deposits

Estimated percent impervious area 

in 5 year time-of-travel area

4 10

o

6 10

10

40

30

20

0

10

40

50

60

70

30

20

0

2

8

10

12

14

6

4

0

20

80

100

120

60

40

0

20

80

100

60

40

0

10

40

50

60

70

30

20

0

80

30 Number of values

EXPLANATION

x

x

o

o

Upper adjacent

75th percentile

Median

25th percentile

Lower adjacent

Lower outside

Lower detached

Upper detached

Upper outside

schematic boxplot

ND D ND D
30 Organic-Wastewater Compounds, Groundwater Geochemistry, and Well Characteristics for Selected Wells in Michigan

Each BWL well may have a somewhat unique set of 

characteristics that governs its response to pumping and its 

susceptibility to water from the Glacial aquifer. Analysis of 

the available data indicates that the shorter the time of travel 

between upper layers of the Saginaw aquifer and the water 

table in the Glacial aquifer, the greater the concentration of 

sodium and chloride, and the greater probability of OWC 

detection. In addition, the absence of a confining layer may 

have an influence on the same constituents. Variability in 

pumping individual wells over time influences the current 

Table 8. Median values for selected characteristics for sampled wells and significance levels.

Well or aquifer characteristic

Median

Wilcoxon-MannWhitney p-value Sampled wells 

without detections

Sampled wells 

with detections

Median travel time from the water table to upper sandstone layer 

in Saginaw, in years

19.7 5.9 0.0477

Modeled confining material thickness, in feet 12.5 6.5 .1895

Glacial deposit thickness, in feet 53.5 54.5 .3941

Modeled sandstone thickness, in feet 260.9 249.8 .5525

Estimated percent of Saginaw aquifer intercepted by well 100 100 .9633

Percent aquifer material in the Saginaw aquifer 68.5 81 .2555

Percent marginal aquifer material in the Saginaw aquifer 8.5 1.5 .0573

Percent partially confining material in the Saginaw aquifer .5 0 .6249

Estimated percent impervious area in 5-year time-of-travel area 1 35 .1113

Estimated percent impervious area in 10-year time-of-travel area 10.5 31.5 .2507

Percent aquifer material in the glacial deposits 63 41.5 .3946

Percent partially confining material in the glacial deposits 26.5 9 .6398

geochemistry of the wells. These results, combined with the 

consistent relation between sodium and chloride concentrations, and OWC detections, are consistent with a surficial and 

likely anthropogenic source of sodium, chloride, and OWCs. 

Geochemical models and analysis of additional constituents 

such as bromide might allow more refined interpretation of 

the possible sources and processes influencing changes in 

groundwater geochemistry in BWL wells. Nevertheless, BWL 

wells demonstrate patterns of geochemical change observed in 

groundwater in other urban settings.
Well-Water Quality 31

Figure 12. Relation between modeled confining material thickness between the Glacial and Saginaw aquifers and number of organicwastewater compound detections, sodium concentration, and chloride concentration. 

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

N

0 20 40 60 80 100

umber of organicwastewater compound detections

Modeled confining material thickness between

the Glacial and Saginaw aquifers, in feet 

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

0 20 40 60 80 100

Sodium concentrations, in milligrams per liter

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

0 20 40 60 80 100

Chloride concentrations, in milligrams per liter
32 Organic-Wastewater Compounds, Groundwater Geochemistry, and Well Characteristics for Selected Wells in Michigan

Table 9. Comparison of selected characteristics for wells LN-5, LN-6, and LN-9.

[--, not applicable]

Characteristic LN-5 LN-6 LN-9

Age, in years 45 45 32

Number of organic wastewater compound detections 13 0 0

Well depth, in feet 436 410 395

Casing depth, in feet 46 43.3 65

Percent aquifer material in the glacial deposits 0 88 21

Percent aquifer material in the Saginaw aquifer 78 66 89

Percent marginal aquifer material in the glacial deposits 0 0 15

Percent marginal aquifer material in the Saginaw aquifer 3 22 2

Percent confining material in the glacial deposits 100 0 5

Percent confining material in the Saginaw aquifer 19 13 2

Percent partially confining material in the glacial deposits 0 0 60

Percent partially confining material in the Saginaw aquifer 0 0 7

Glacial deposit thickness, in feet 45 40 62

Modeled confining material thickness, in feet 8.4 7.1 .6

Modeled sandstone thickness, in feet 260.1 262.1 248.5

Estimated percent of Saginaw aquifer intercepted by well 100 100 100

Estimated completion below the Parma-Bayport interface, in feet −90.5 −72.5 −61.2

Minimum traveltime from water table to upper sandstone layer, in years 1.2 1.2 8.2

Median traveltime from water table to upper sandstone layer, in years 2.6 2.6 17.4

Minimum traveltime from water table to middle sandstone layer, in years 4.0 4.2 27.0

Median traveltime from water table to middle sandstone layer, in years 10.6 9.8 70.7

Estimated percent impervious area in 5-year time-of-travel area 35 1 --

Estimated percent impervious area in 10-year time-of-travel area 29 1 61

Estimated percent impervious area in 20-year time-of-travel area 41 1 52

Estimated total pumping simulating 1920–2005 conditions in the 

groundwater model, in million gallons

5,296.0 2,848.0 5,109.4

Estimated total pumping simulating 2000–5 conditions in the 

groundwater model, in million gallons

1,291.3 100.5 1,142.9
Summary 33

Summary

In 2010, groundwater from 20 Lansing Board of Water 

and Light (BWL) production wells was tested for 69 organicwastewater compounds (OWCs). OWCs were detected 

in one-half of the sampled wells. Three compounds were 

detected at greater than the laboratory reporting level (LRL): 

fluoranthene, pyrene, and phenanthrene. Two compounds 

(isopropylbenzene and phenol) were detected at greater than 

the long-term method detection limit (LT-MDL) but less than 

the LRL, and estimated concentrations were provided. All 

remaining compound detections were less than the LT-MDL. 

The types of OWCs detected do not indicate contamination 

with fecal materials or wastewater. No pharmaceuticals were 

detected, although few were tested. The OWCs detected are 

common industrial pollutants that may arise from a variety of 

environmental sources and are common constituents in stormwater. Analysis of the identified chemicals with regard to well 

characteristics and groundwater-recharge areas may be helpful 

in identifying factors that contribute to the occurrence of these 

chemicals in BWL wells. In 2012, the U.S. Geological Survey 

(USGS) entered into a cooperative agreement with the TriCounty Regional Planning Commission to interpret the results 

of these analyses and relate detections to local characteristics 

and groundwater geochemistry. 

Analysis of groundwater chemistry data for 1969–2011 

indicated that the geochemistry of the BWL wells had changed 

over time, with the major difference being an increase in 

sodium and chloride. The concentrations of sodium and 

chloride were correlated with OWC detections. The BWL 

wells studied are all completed in the Saginaw aquifer, which 

consists of water-bearing sandstones of Pennsylvania age. The 

Saginaw aquifer is underlain by the Parma-Bayport aquifer, 

and overlain by the Glacial aquifer. Two possible sources of 

sodium and chloride were evaluated: basin brines by way of 

the Parma-Bayport aquifer and surficial sources by way of the 

Glacial aquifer. If water from the underlying Parma-Bayport 

aquifer had influenced well-water geochemistry over time, 

then the observed increase in total dissolved solids concentration between 1969–77 and 2007–11, and the increase in all 

ions except bicarbonate, might be related to whether the well 

was completed above or below the Parma-Bayport aquifer, 

to well age, or to whether a well was pumped more or less 

over the period of interest. There was no correlation (Spearman Rank Correlation) between well age or the total volume 

pumped from the well over time and total dissolved solids 

concentrations in the BWL wells for 2007–11. Likewise, there 

was no significant difference in the 2007–11 concentration of 

calcium, magnesium, sodium, bicarbonate, chloride, or sulfate 

in wells completed above or below the Parma-Bayport aquifer, 

and there was no correlation between individual ion concentrations and well age or the total volume pumped from the 

well over time. Completion of wells above the Parma-Bayport 

aquifer was significantly and positively correlated only with 

the increase over time in magnesium concentration. Well 

pumping and completion of wells in the Parma-Bayport aquifer appear to at least partially explain aspects of the current 

geochemistry of BWL wells. However, sodium and chloride 

concentrations constitute the major geochemical difference 

between wells with or without OWC detections, and these ion 

compositions do not appear to be explained by pumping or by 

interaction with the Parma-Bayport aquifer. 

To address a possible surficial source of sodium and 

chloride, a variety of well characteristics were compiled. 

These well characteristics included potential explanatory 

variables that might influence whether, or the rate at which, 

water from the land surface could reach each well. Spearman 

Rank Correlation indicated that the total number of detections 

in BWL wells, as well as the concentrations of sodium and 

chloride, were significantly negatively correlated with both the 

minimum and median time of travel from the upper sandstone layer to the water table in the Glacial aquifer, and also 

with the minimum time of travel from the middle sandstone 

layer to the water table in the Glacial aquifer. In addition, 

wells with detections tended to have less modeled confining 

material thickness (as simulated in the regional groundwater 

flow model), which is an estimate of the amount of clay or 

shale between the Glacial and Saginaw aquifers. Based on the 

potential explanatory variables available for this analysis, the 

preponderance of the data indicates surficial sources, possibly 

stormwater runoff. 

Each BWL well may have a somewhat unique set of 

characteristics that governs its response to pumping so it is 

possible that a relevant explanatory variable was not included 

in this analysis. For example, pumping from other nearby 

wells, well-development procedures, or the proximity of 

potential contaminant sources may be affecting the groundwater geochemistry at each well and the potential for contamination by OWCs. The current analyses indicate that patterns 

of geochemistry, and the relation between these patterns and 

volume of pumpage for the BWL wells, indicate other wells 

may acquire detectable OWCs in the future. Additional analyses and collection of additional data would be needed to more 

conclusively identify the source and to determine the potential 

vulnerability of other wells. Nevertheless, BWL wells demonstrate patterns of geochemical change observed in groundwater in other urban settings.
34 Organic-Wastewater Compounds, Groundwater Geochemistry, and Well Characteristics for Selected Wells in Michigan

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Publishing support provided by the U.S. Geological Survey 

Science Publishing Network, 

Columbus Publishing Service Center

For more information concerning the research in this report, 

contact the 

Director, Michigan Water Science Center

U.S. Geological Survey

6520 Mercantile Way, Suite 5

Lansing, MI 48911–5991

http://mi.water.usgs.gov/
Haack and Luukkonen—Organic-Wastewater Compounds, Groundwater Geochemistry, and Well Characteristics, Lansing, Michigan—Scientific Investigations Report 2013–5139