^ñJu

agriculture Hondbook No. 202

•

U s DFPT. CF AGRICUITURE

11B R A R V

FEB141962

CUftRfHT SOU» KCOUiS

ACTIVITIES

HANDBOOK

Animal

Disease

Eradication

Division

Agricultural Research Service

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
Agriculture Handbook No. 202

ACriVlflES

HANDBOOK

Growth Through Agricultural Progress

Animal

Disease

Eradication

Division

Agricultural Research Service

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Washington, D.C. Issued 1961

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office,

Washington, D.C.—Price 50 cents (paper)
"We may thoughtlessly reckon our animal

tragedies, the visitations of terrifying,

wealth-sapping diseases, in terms of fiscal

economy only; but in the annals of history,

animal diseases influence the destiny of

Nations. They are at the roots of famines,

plagues, wars, overturned governments and

the lapse of civilizations."

Merillat and Campbell
Foreword

The continued high level of the United States

economy is due in part to the large number of

livestock in the Nation, and their relatively

healthy condition. Although losses to the livestock industry in the United States due to animal diseases and parasites have been estimated

to be more than $2 billion each year, our Nation is relatively better off than are most other

countries of the world in the prevalence of animal diseases. Many livestock plagues of other

lands do not exist here. Conversely, some nations have successfully eradicated diseases that

are widespread in this country and for which

no eradication programs have been authorized

or undertaken.

The Animal Disease Eradication Division of

the Agricultural Research Service is responsible to the people of the United States and to

the livestock industry for the control and eradication of diseases in livestock and poultry.

Progress has been gratifying.

A milestone in State-Federal cooperative efforts was passed with announcement on October 22, 1959, of the eradication of vesicular

exanthema.

Before the 7-year campaign ended, the disease had spread into 43 States. Ten countries

had placed embargoes on our pork products.

Losses ran into millions of dollars.

Incident to the VE campaign, with raw garbage incriminated as the source of many disease organisms, each of the 50 States enacted

a mandatory garbage-cooking law. Enforcement of these laws will assist in preventing the

introduction and spread of livestock and poultry diseases in the United States.

Screwworms, it is encouraging to report,

were not found during the entire year in the

Southeastern sterile fly release area. On November 14, 1959, less than 2 years after the

start of the campaign, cooperating authorities

and scientists ceased the rearing and release

of sterile screwworm flies in the Southeast.

This insect pest annually had robbed livestock growers of $20 million. The cost of combat has been less than the livestock losses for

a single year. A victory has been won—but

the battle against reinfestation continues.

In the brucellosis program a new landmark

was reached when on April 25, 1960, New

Hampshire became the first brucellosis-free

State. In addition to New Hampshire, 12 counties in 4 States were brucellosis-free. At year's

end, 23 States and 63 percent of the counties

in the Nation, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands were modiñed-certified brucellosis areas.

Renewed interest in bovine tuberculosis

eradication has sparked additional research

and was responsible for many meetings in different States throughout the Nation. Forces

are being consolidated and a concerted effort

is being made toward finding methods to rid

the country of this disease.

The State-Federal program for the eradication of scrapie has prevented this disease from

becoming established in the sheep of the Nation.

Sheep scabies is once again the subject of

considerable attention, and programs are being activated to reduce losses from this disease.

Man has catapulted into a jet age. But disease germs have zoomed along with him. The

Division stays alert to the shifting pattern of

animal diseases. Liaison with scientists

throughout the world has been maintained for

the development of plans to cope with emergency situations should exotic diseases find

their way into the Nation's livestock.

It cannot be overemphasized, nor too often

reiterated, that success in the protection of the

country's livestock depends on constant vigilance. To this end we have sought to strengthen

the regulations governing the interstate movement of livestock and poultry.

Division veterinarians must be proficient in

the basic knowledge of their profession. They
Foreword - (Continued)

must also have stimulus for growth. And in

society's increasing complexity they must be

given the means to cope with the mounting demands for specific skills and specialized information. We recognize these needs. Our varied

training programs are designed to meet the

challenge.

Periodically, in order to perform effectively

in the present, as well as to plan for the future,

it becomes necessary to pause for an examination of the past. This handbook, intended for

the use of those intimately concerned with the

health of the livestock of the Nation, is dedicated to that purpose.

R. J. Anderson, Director

Animal Disease Eradication

Division
Contents

Page

COOPERATIVE DISEASE ERADICATION PROGRAMS 1

Brucellosis 1

Scabies 7

Scrapie 12

Screwworms 14

Cattle Fever Tick 20

Tuberculosis 24

Emergency Disease Activities 26

Anaplasmosis 29

Cattle Grubs 31

Hog Cholera 32

Viral Encephalitis 33

Poultry Diseases 34

LABORATORY SERVICES 37

Looking Back in Laboratory Services 37

Achievements 38

Diagnosticians and Epidemiologists 41

Cooperative Projects With Other Laboratories 42

Looking Ahead in Laboratory Services 44

INTERSTATE MOVEMENT OF LIVESTOCK 45

Interstate Regulations 45

Public Stockyards 47

DISEASE REPORTING 51

ACCREDITATION OF VETERINARIANS 55

Standards for Accredited Veterinarians 56

Violation of Standards 57

The Colleges and Regulatory Veterinary Medicine 57

TRAINING 59

PROGRAM APPRAISAL 61

COOPERATIVE ACTIVITIES WITH MEXICO 63
ACTIVITIES HANDBOOK

Animal

Disease

Eradication

Division

Cooperative Disease Eradication Programs

BRUCELLOSIS

Early efforts

Brucellosis of livestock in the United States

has been a serious problem for half a century.

Losses have exceeded hundreds of millions of

dollars.

The first real efforts to control brucellosis

under independent State programs were undertaken in 1922, but little progress was made

until 1934 when the problem was attacked on

a national scale. In that year the cooperative

State-Federal bovine brucellosis eradication

program was launched as part of an emergency

cattle-reduction project because of drought in

many sections. All States cooperated in the

plan, and initial testing indicated that approximately 10 percent of the adult cattle in the

United States were infected.

As the drought emergency subsided, the

project was continued on a limited scale as a

desirable disease-eradication program. It was

found to be more economical to eradicate brucellosis than to live with it; and in 1954, funds

were made available by the Congress and the

various States for an adequate program. Many

States were quick to take advantage of the

opportunity to participate in a cooperative

eradication program, while others lagged and

still others have only recently inaugurated complete area eradication efforts. All 50 States

now have cooperative eradication programs on

an area basis.

Innovations through the years

Considerable progress in eradication was

made prior to World War II, but the program

was hampered by lack of uniformity in procedures and the fact that a suitable vaccine had

not yet been developed. During the war years,

the program suffered from lack of personnel.

On the brighter side was the introduction in

1941 of strain 19 Bruceila vaccine. In the ensuing years it has proved dependable and stable, conferring a serviceable, if not absolute,

immunity.

In 1947, the United States Livestock Sanitary Association adopted Uniform Methods and

Rules for the eradication of brucellosis, which

were then approved by the Division. Additions

and improvements in the Uniform Methods and

Rules have been made from time to time until

today the program is similar in all States.

One of the most important developments in

brucellosis eradication was the introduction in

1952 of the milk-ring test, which has made pos-
G

^2

L

ASSISTANT DIRECTOR

(Field Direction)

E £ Saulmon

ASSISTANT DIRECTOR

(Field Direction)

R. f. Omohundro

ASSISTANT DIRECTOR

(Field Direction)

Ñ L. Knudson

ASSISTANT DIRECTOR

(Field Direction)

Donald Miller

DIVISION DIRECTOR

R. J Anderson

ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR

F. J. Mulhern

CHIEF STAFF OFFICERS

BRUCELLOSIS

ERADICATION

C K MINGLE

E A Schilf N.L. Garlick

I Enckson

TUBERCULOSIS

ERADICATION

A F RANNEY

ft M Scott

C. W Wilder

EMERGENCY

DISEASES

RS SHARMAN (Acting)

N.L Meyer

SPECIAL

DISEASES

J L. HOURRIGAN

L F. Van Gordei

PUBLIC

STOCKYARDS

J. J MARTIN

POULTRY

DISEASES

R. E OMOHUNDRO

(Acting)

SCREWWORM

ERADICATION

R S SHARMAN

E M. Jones

INTERSTATE

REGULATIONS

F L HERCHENROEDER

LABORATORY

SERVICES

J E WILLIAMS

O.J. Hummon EE Wedman

G. B Von Ness

PROGRAM APPRAISAL

H C King

ASSISTANT TO

THE DIRECTOR

(Entomology)

W. G Bruce

ADMINISTRATIVE

OFFICER

.Administrative .

' Management '

A. C. Hutcfiinson

STAFF FUNCTIONS

BRUCELLOSIS: Brucellosis, Leptosp iros! s. Mastitis

EMERGENCY DISEASES: Foot and Mouth Disease, Vesicular Exanthema, Vesicular Stomatitis, Training

SCREWWORMS: Anopla smosi s. Cattle Grubs, Hog Cholera, Screwworms, Viral Encephalitis

SPECIAL DISEASES: Blue Tongue, Contagious Ecthyma, Dourine, Glanders, Scabies, Scrapie, Tick Fever, Disease Reporting

The Information on this chart is based on the functional chart in Administrative Memorandum 102.5 doted September 10,1959

U s DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE NEC. 60 lelsizo AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SERVICE
FIELD DIRECTION

Animal Disease Eradicatiort Division

CO

E. E. Saulmon

Ass't. Director

Í

VETERINARIANS

IN CHARGE

ALKIRE, R. L.

BARNES, A. S.

BOYD, C. E.

BREED, G. W,

BRYANT, M. L.

COON, E. R.

LEIBY, E. D.

OMER, C. R.

PORTEUS, J. R.

WINTER, ASA

Hartford, Conn.

Charleston, W. Va.

Columbus, Ohio

Augusta, Me.

Montpelier, Vt.

Boston, Mass.

HarrlsDurg, Pa.

Albany, N. Y.

Trenton, N. J.

Lansing, Mich.

R. E. Omohundro

Ass't. Di rec tor

T

VETERINARIANS

IN CHARGE

BECTON,PAUL

BOONE, R. W.

CARTER, R. W.

CHAMPLIN, J, B

FISHER, L.T.

HEALY, J. B.

LAUDERDALE,B

MIKEL, C. J.

MILLER, L. N.

PASS, A. G.

PATE, L. J.

REYNOLDS, W.M,

ROUKEMA, E. C.

TURNER, C. A.

TYLER, N. B.

Little Rock, Ark.

Jefferson City, Mo.

Columbia, S. C.

Nashville, Tenn

Frankfort, Ky.

Jacksonville, Fla.

. N.Montgomery, Ala.

Atlanta, Ga.

San Juan, Puerto Rico

Baton Rouge, La.

Jackson, Miss.

Dover, Del.

Richmond, Va.

Baltimore, Md.

Raleigh, N. C.

R. L. Knudson

Ass't. Director

T

VETERINARIANS

IN CHARGE

BARNES, L. R.

BLAKE, G. E.

ERDMANN, A. A.

MYERS, T. R.

Indianapolis, Ind.

Des Moines, Iowa

Madison, Wis.

Bismarck, N. Dak.

NORDSTROM, E. H. Lincoln, Neo.

WADDELL, W. F. Pierre, S. Dak.

WERRING, D. F.

WILSON, E. J.

St. Paul, Minn,

Springfield, III.

Donald Miller

Ass't. Director

T

VETERINARIANS

IN CHARGE

BEAGLE, A. G.

COX, E. S.

GOODING, C. L.

HANSEN, JR., T. W.

MAAS, E. E.

MACKERY, E. R.

MANLEY, D.O.

PYLES, R. L.

RASMUSSEN, J. E.

SCHNEIDER, A. P

SHIGLEY, F. M.

SLACK, J. L.

SMITH, L. H.

SUPLEE, DALE,

WILBUR, JR., J. L.

Salem, Oreg.

Denver, Colo.

Sacramento, Calif.

Oklahoma City, Okla.

Reno, Nev.

Phoenix, Ariz.

Topeka, Kans.

Albuquerque, N. Mex.

Salt Lake City, Utah

Boise, Idaho

Olympia, Wash.

Honolulu, Hawaii

Cheyenne, Wyo.

Helena, Mont.

Austin,Tex.

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE NEG 60 (10)-5127 Agricultural Research Service
ible the frequent, comparatively low-cost

screeniniT vt commercial dairy herds. Milk

samples from dairy herds are obtained at the

milk-processing plants and tested in central

laboratories. Suspicious reactions are related

to the herds from which the samples were

CALVES VACCINATED

Cooperohve State-Federal Brucellosis £rac/icoMon Prograr

—1 r\

194o '^-J—MJUi II 1 1 1 1 1

231,049 ' ^

1953

1960

;=-=tir|||[

^^jonMimii

r OF IGBICUl-TUBE NEG 60171-5ÛT0 *CRICUl.TUB*L REíEAFíCH lEBVICE

RING TESTING: HERDS

Cooperafjve Sfo/e-FeJero/Brucel/oiis Eradication Program

THOUS. HERD TESTS

-1.593,522

% suspicious

=i:-n—

I ^ ^ ^ ^

4%

1952 1954 1956 1958 1960

FISCAL YEAR

taken, and the cattle in those herds are then

blood tested to identify the infected animals.

Less than 4 percent of the milk samples proved

suspicious during 1960. This compares with

26 percent in 1954. Dairy cattle blood-testing

activities during 1960 were concentrated in the

1 f .otfio i-P<5tinf?- oroe-ram. Cattle bearing these identification tags are

Back tag being applied to »« .n ^^«f/j;««J'^r^cXtion points and aba.toi .

blood
4 percent of the dairy herds suspicious to the

milk-ring test, and almost all testing of negative dairy herds was thereby eliminated.

A very significant part of the brucellosis

eradication program is the testing of market

cattle at concentration points and abattoirs.

This procedure, adopted widely during 1960, is

proving particularly effective in screening beef

herds, and for evaluating range and semirange

areas for recertification. It is now being used

extensively in a number of Western States, and

has been adopted in some of the Eastern States

as well. Under the market cattle testing program, animals are identified by a uniform back

tag applied at ranches, farms, or markets.

Blood samples are taken from these animals

at time of slaughter or sale and forwarded to

central laboratories along with the animal identification numbers. The results of negative

tests are credited back to the areas from which

the cattle originated, and herds from which infected animals came are blood tested.

MARKET CATTLE TESTING

Coopero/ive Stale-Federal Bnjcellosii Eradication Program

Tagging Testing

1959 1960

FATES A. "> ^m^ /^

^

- ^^

^

, , ,

S 0 1

195

4 0

?

J F M A M J

1960

JS DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SERVICE

Evolution of the program

Participation through the years has gradually changed from individual-herd plans designed to meet varying conditions, to compulsory area programs, usually on a countywide

basis, for complete elimination of the disease.

When, as a result of a test of all herds, the incidence of brucellosis is reduced to not more

than 1 percent of the cattle in not more than

5 percent of the herds, the area is designated a

modified-certified brucellosis area. By June 30,

1960, 24 States plus Puerto Rico and the Virgin

Islands had been so designated. In addition,

there were more than 800 modified-certified

brucellosis area counties in 24 of the remaining

26 States. With almost 300 counties working

toward initial certification, approximately 72

percent of the Nation is participating on an

area basis.

Current accomplishments

The first county to be recertified by market

cattle testing was Benton County, Wash., in

March 1960. The market cattle testing program eliminated 92 percent of the testing necessary at the ranch under alternate recertification procedures. When market cattle testing is

universally adopted, the savings to livestock

owners will be significant. The much broader,

more effective screening coverage also will help

assure eradication.

Federal funds available for brucellosis eradication during 1960 were reduced substantially.

As a result, a period of readjustment was

necessary, during which the number of new

areas being added to the program was decreased by more than 40 percent as compared

with 1959. The number of new county certifications dropped approximately 28 percent.

Further, the number of new county certifications possible during 1962 will be even less, for

it generally takes more than a year for a county

to qualify for certification. Available funds

for 1960 were channeled into areas that had

accomplished the most work in preceding years,

and those that were close to certification. High

priority was given to areas that were already

modified certified so that the gains already

made would not be lost and progress toward

eradication could continue. Services previously

offered in some areas (such as vaccination, and

tests of infected herds in areas not yet embarked on a complete program) were curtailed.

Some States requested that the payment of Federal indemnities be discontinued so that the

funds could be utilized for testing and vaccinating.

Although limited progress was made in all

areas, the program was not operating as an optimal eradication program during 1960. The

goal of complete eradication, formerly in sight,

seemed more remote. However, with the in-
if'^i:ä/

sJ^^Wy I ¡ '-^''"^"t' eHUCtUOSIS FREI

Wm m "°[>'F'(D CERMFIEO AREAS

Ht\ ■■] COMPLETE ABEA TEIIING

W \ "^IJ Counr.ei (I8;|

Il ^\ f 1 INDIVIDUAl HEÍO

\ V ! 1 PAÍIICIPATION

>^J JUNE 30. 1960

MtC WD ííl lOOi *CSICUirul*ll|Í|AICMSI«VICt

creased funds available for 1961, eradication

activities can be accelerated and by the end of

the year should be back to an adequate level.

In combating brucellosis as in any other disease, the sooner all areas are brought into the

program the lower will be the ultimate cost of

eradication.

Epidemiologists specially qualified in brucellosis eradication activities are being assigned

to the various States as the need arises. They

are carrying out detailed programs designed

to eliminate the disease from all remaining infected herds. Backed by competent laboratory

services, these veterinarians are utilizing all

known procedures for detecting and eliminating brucellosis. Their progress during the past

year in cleaning up formerly infected herds

has been gratifying.

New Hampshire brucellosis free

The most significant event in the brucellosis

eradication program in 1960 was the attainment by New Hampshire of brucellosis-free

status. To achieve this status all herds in an

area must be tested within a period of 18

months. Any herds that were formerly infected must be negative when retested, thus

leaving no known foci of infection. In addition, when brucellosis is found or suspected in

other species of domestic animals, they must

be retested and the disease eliminated.

New Hampshire has had an active brucellosis eradication program for many years. This

State was the second to achieve modified-certified brucellosis area status; it reached that

goal in 1949. At the beginning of the program, in 1934, 49 percent of all herds and more

than 10 percent of all cattle tested in the State

were infected. During subsequent years the

total number of infected animals identified and

removed approximately equaled the cow population of the State. When compared with early

losses, New Hampshire has consistently made

a 100-percent profit on the State-Federal investment in brucellosis -eradication, for the annual cost of the program has been only one-half

of what former losses had been.
A look into the future

New Hampshire will be an example to other

States that brucellosis eradication is both desirable and attainable with the methods and

tools now available. Many counties in other

States are now qualifying as brucellosis-free.

Those States that have not yet attained modified-certified status are intensifying their efforts in order that they will not be too far

behind in the final eradication effort.

SCABIES

At the turn of the century, scabies was a

major problem confronting the livestock industry. Today, after half a century of concentrated effort to eradicate the disease, it is still

a problem.

The recent past

Following a costly 40-year campaign that

began in the early 1900's, it was believed that

cattle scabies had been eradicated from the

western range States. For 2 successive years,

1948 and 1949, no infected herds were reported. But, as a degree of complacency developed, reports of infected herds increased.

Annual figures reported were: 28 in 1954, 30

in 1955, 7 in 1956, 25 in 1957, 4 in 1958, 27

in 1959, and 4 in 1960.

In January and February 1959, psoroptic

scabies was found in Kansas in Chase, Clark,

Ford, Gove, Kearny, Lane, Meade, and Wichita

Counties. On February 6, Clark, Gove, and

Meade Counties were placed under Federal

quarantine. State quarantine had been imposed

on these counties on January 31. All infected

and exposed herds were treated, and the remaining herds were inspected before warm

weather arrived. No additional infection was

disclosed. On May 28, Federal quarantines on

Clark and Meade Counties were lifted. An additional inspection of all cattle in Gove County

was completed after the beginning of cold

weather in the fall, and all herds were found

free of scabies before the quarantine was lifted

on February 29, 1960.

During 1959, psoroptic cattle scabies was

also found in Illinois (De Kalb, Du Page, Knox,

and Ogle Counties) ; in Iowa (Clay, Emmett,

and Pottawattamie Counties) ; in Nebraska

(Dawson, Otoe, and Sarpy Counties) ; and in

Texas (Ochiltree and Hemphill Counties).

Sheep scab on the increase

The incidence of scabies in sheep has increased in recent years. With this increase

there has been a resultant rise in the number

of infected animals found at public stockyards.

Cases found at these yards are a reliable

barometer of infection reservoirs in the States

of origin.

In Louisiana and Mississippi, however. Federal quarantines that had been in effect more

than 30 years were lifted July 8, 1957. The

Louisiana parishes affected were Allen, Beauregard, Calcasieu, and Vernon ; and the Mississippi counties were Forrest, George, Greene,

Hancock, Harrison, Jackson, Jones, Lamar,

Pearl River, Perry, Stone, Wayne, and Marion

County east of Pearl River.

In 1957 and 1958 following the introduction

of sheep from out of State, Wyoming reported

outbreaks of sheep scabies. In November 1959,

psoroptic sheep scabies was diagnosed in seven

ewes imported from Pennsylvania into Boulder

County, Colo. The sheep entered Colorado

contrary to State requirements. The small

flock, which consisted of the seven infected animals and eight other exposed sheep, was placed

under State quarantine and customary dipping

procedures were carried out. No other sheep

were involved and there had been no movements from the infected flock.

New Mexico reported sheep scabies in Lea

County in 1959, and at a packing plant in Bernalillo County in 1960. All sheep at the packing plant where the disease was found were

quarantined, and infected and exposed sheep

slaughtered. Sheep purchased during the preceding 12 months were traced to locate the

source of the outbreak. Inspections failed to

reveal further evidence of scabies or the source

of infection. Prior to these outbreaks, scabies

was last reported in New Mexico in 1953.

Training

Training is an important aspect of scabies

eradication and has received increasing empha-
¡s in recent years. From 1953 to 1960, 97

State and Federal employees attended 3-day

scabies t; aining sessions. The courses were design i to give practical instruction in diagnosis

and in the principles of eradication.

Psoroptic Sheep Scabies Reported

INFECTED FLOCKS

1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

FISCAL YEAR

LSt*B.;M SEBÏICÎ

Sheep scab regulations

In March 1960, psoroptic sheep scab was

again reported in New Mexico. And during

the year, 214 scab-infected lots were found at

public stockyards.

The movement of scabby sheep from midwest farm States has become an increasing

problem. The range States, considered free

Psoroptic Sheep Scabies

INFECTED LOTS AT PUBLIC STOCKYARDS

1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

FISCAL YEAR

i, OePARIMEN

of scabies, face the constant threat that the

disease will be introduced from Midwestern

and Eastern States where scabies has not been

attacked so vigorously.

In general, the disease now is confined to an

area bounded on the west and south by the

States of North Dakota, Eastern South Dakota,

Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Tennessee, and Virginia. In recognition of this

situation, and in an attempt to give impetus to

scabies eradication, part 74, title 9, Code of

Federal Regulations was amended June 17,

1960, to be effective August 1. The amended

regulation designates free and infected areas

and provides for the designation of eradication

areas when State and Federal officials mutually

agree to a program. Eastern South Dakota

was the first to be so designated.

The regulation provides for the ofiicial inspection and dipping of infected and exposed

sheep prior to interstate movement. The regulation also requires inspection and dipping of

all sheep from an infected area that are moved

to free or eradication areas, except those moved

to recognized stockyards and slaughtering establishments. Sheep from a free area may be

moved without restriction. The movement of

clean sheep between States in an infected area

is not controlled by the regulations. Thus, the

free area is better protected and incentive is

provided to States in the infected area to initiate programs that will give them increased

protection as eradication areas and eventually

all the benefits of scabies-free status.

Mange mistaken for scabies

Cattle mange is frequently diagnosed in the

field as psoroptic scabies and similarly, psoroptic scabies is, on occasion, initially reported as

mange. Programs in the Western States have

effectively attacked chorioptic and sarcoptic

mange. The disease is reported when found at

stockyards and livestock shows, traced to origin, and energetically combatted.

Chorioptic mange was diagnosed in 60 lots

of cattle at the International Livestock Exposition held in Chicago, 111., in November 1959.

They had been shipped to the show from Illinois, Iowa, Michigan, New York, Ohio, Texas,

and Wisconsin. At the American Royal Livestock Show held in Kansas City, Mo., in October 1959, chorioptic mange was diagnosed in

three lots of cattle that originated in or were

shipped to the show from Illinois and Iowa.

8
SCABIES IN SHEEP

June 17, 1960

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Infected

Eradication

Free

TITLE 9, CODE OF FEDERAL RECULATIOHS. PART 14

NEG. 60 (6)-509e AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SERVICE

During the year, outbreaks of mange—first

thought to be psoroptic cattle scabies—were

reported from Alabama, Oklahoma, and

Wyoming.

Chorioptic mange was also reported from

Oregon. The outbreaks occurred in two flocks

of sheep in Benton County and in three herds

of goats in Clackamas and Lane Counties.

The situat-ion in cat-fle scabies

Psoroptic cattle scabies was reported in a

large feedlot in Weld County, Colo.; a dairy

herd in Marshall County, Ind. ; a feedlot in Pottawattamie County, Iowa; and a ranch in

Baker County, Oreg. Infected and exposed

cattle were treated, and an effort was made to

locate the source of the outbreaks.

In November 1959, mites were found in a

shipment of four bulls and one cow trucked to

the Ogden Union Stockyards in Utah from Sublette County, Wyo. Specimens submitted to

the Utah State University and to the ADE

Diagnostic Laboratory were identified as sarcoptic. Additional infected animals were found

in the Sublette County herd and on adjacent

ranches. An eradication program was started

immediately. The disease may have been present in the area for some time.

The Bureau of Land Management cooperated

by refusing entry of undipped cattle from quarantined areas to lands administered under the

Taylor Grazing Act. A State quarantine was

placed on a large area in Lincoln, Sublette, and

Sweetwater Counties. Additional inspectors

from Colorado, Nebraska, Texas, and Utah

were assigned to assist in the eradication effort.

Inspection of all cattle in the quarantined

area—about 145,000—revealed infection in 14

herds. Cattle in all herds in the quarantined
..//jfí' considered exposed. About 100,000 area wcic v. '^ .

• illlt' were (lii)])ed in hndane, including some

f, ()()() oiit.side tlie quarantined area dipped at

owners' j-equests. Thirty dipping vats were

used, LiO of them newly constructed because of

(lie outbreak. Infected herds were dipped

(^yvi,_.e—exposed herds once—in temperatures

as low as —38 F. Reported losses were one

cow and six calves. One calf drowned, and five

were sick when dipped. Many of the animals

were in very poor physical condition when

treated.

Movements from infected herds were traced

to destinations in California, Colorado, Idaho,

Illinois, Kansas, Nebraska, Utah, and Wyoming. Cattle from infected Wyoming herds

had been moved to several premises in Idaho

and Nebraska. Inspections revealed one infected herd in Bingham County, Idaho, and one

in Keith County, Nebr. Both herds were dipped

twice. Inspections did not reveal any evidence

of the disease in other Idaho and Nebraska

herds involved. The Idaho herds were treated

twice, except those in feedlots. They were inspected and held under quarantine until treated

or slaughtered. Cattle from infected Wyoming

herds received in other States were inspected

and no scabies was found.

Mifes on elk

During 1960, mites identified as Psoroptes

equi var. cervi7iae were found on elk in Idaho

and in Wyoming. A skin condition was noticed

on the elk, which had been shot in Benewah

County, and a veterinary practitioner was

called. The veterinarian sent specimens to the

laboratory, where they were identified as psoroptic. In Wyoming, scabies lesions were observed when members of the Game and Fish

Commission were putting elk through chutes

for tagging and identification purposes at the

Jackson Hole feeding grounds. Laboratory

studies confirmed that mites harvested from a

dead elk were psoroptic. Psoroptic mites have

been found over a period of many years on elk

and on bighorn sheep in several Western

States.

The presence of scabies in wildlife suggests

that they may be a reservoir from which the

disease may spread to domestic animals. However, there has been no good evidence, at least

during the recent years, that this has occurred.

Two requirements are necessary for this to

happen: (1) Mites on wildlife must be able to

propagate on domestic animals, and (2) they

must have the opportunity to spread from wild

to domestic animals. In this country, scabies

has not been observed to spread to domestic

animals from bighorn sheep or elk, and outbreaks during recent years in cattle and sheep

are not believed to have been caused in this

manner. The problem deserves further study.

Field trials—cold lime-sulfur dips

During recent years, public attention has

been drawn to the problem of chemical residues laid down in tissue through treatment of

animals. It is also recognized that some acaricides made available for the control of scabies,

ticks, or both might not be effective eradication agents.

Following careful study of these related

problems, it was decided to conduct field trials

in an effort to prove the efficacy of dips as

eradication agents and to deter'mine whether

a variation of dipping methods or procedures

might reduce the tissue-residue hazards to human health. Consequently, in March and April

1960, field trials were conducted in Iowa to determine whether cold liquid lime-sulfur plus a

wetting agent could be used effectively in sheep

scabies eradication. Eight infected and quarantined flocks totaUng 411 sheep were selected

in widely scattered communities. Sheep were

dipped twice at 10- to 13-day intervals regardless of temperature and weather, or age and

physical condition of the animals.

The trials indicated that healthy lambs and

adult sheep could be dipped in cold liquid limesulfur bath at 29° F., in an atmospheric temperature of 16°, with no deleterious effects,

The addition of the wetting agent Triton GR

5 at 13 ounces to 100 gallons of water gave

complete dip penetration and kept fleece damp

for 4 to 5 days thereafter. Farm waters, regardless of degree of harshness, did not disturb

the equilibrium of the lime-sulfur solution. Immersion of adults for 3 minutes and lambs for

1 to 11/2 minutes in a bath maintained at not

less than 2-percent "sulfide-sulfur" concentration, killed mites within 24 to 48 hours following first dipping. Inspections were made at

10
»^^

BN 11613

Typical scabby sheep.

BN-12792

Scab lesion.

BN-11612

Vat-side test to determine the percentage of "sulfidesulfur" in dip solution.

BN-11609

Scabby sheep being marked and tagged, to aid in postdipping inspections.

BN-11610

Sheep being dipped for 3 minutes in cold liquid limesulfur.

30-day intervals, and live mites had not been

found 90 days later. Inspections at 3-month

intervals are to continue for 1 year.

Additional field trials with cold lime-sulfur

will be conducted during 1961. Decision concerning the use of cold lime-sulfur in scabies

eradication activities will await completion of

these trials.

11
SCRAPIE

Scrapie ¡n history

Scrapie has been known in Great Britain

and Western Europe for more than 200 years.

There is evidence that Spanish Merino sheep

may have carried the disease into Europe. The

disease has been reported in Australia, Austria,

Canada, England, France, Germany, Hungary,

Iceland (where a similar disease is called

Rida), New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Scotland, Spain, and Wales.

The first report in the United States was

from Michigan in 1947. Scrapie was again reported in October 1952 when, in two related

California outbreaks, 21 sheep showed symptoms. The United States Livestock Sanitary

Association and segments of the sheep industry

urged immediate eradication action. And on

October 31, 1952, with an emergency declaration by the Secretary of Agriculture, the cooperative Scrapie eradication program was established.

All sheep in the two California nocks and all

exposed sheep moved from them were slaughtered, as were the immediate progeny. The 55

premises involved were cleaned and disinfected. More than 7 years have passed with

no extension of infection from these outbreaks.

California has since suffered six additional outbreaks that were not associated with those in

1952. The source of the earlier outbreaks is

believed to have been a Canadian nock.

BN-7725

Sheep rubbing against fence rail—an early symptom,

from whifh the disease derives its name.

The disease struck next in Ohio where, in

1953, five infected flocks were found. The

eradication program in Ohio included slaughter

of infected flocks but not exposed sheep moved

from them or the immediate progeny of the exposed sheep. Certain of these animals in Ohio

and Tennessee were later found to have

scrapie. During the same year, scrapie was

diagnosed in three Illinois flocks. These flocks

and exposed sheep moved from them were

slaughtered.

In both Ohio and Illinois it appeared that the

disease had been introduced from the Canadian

flock involved in the first California outbreaks.

Indiana has had 23 infected flocks—more

than any other State. The earliest case was

in August 1954, and the most recent in April

1959. Eight of these flocks, as well as two in

Alabama, two in North Carolina, and one in

Missouri, acquired the disease through movements of exposed sheep from one of the Indiana

flocks. These 13 outbreaks in 4 States resulted

from the movements of 322 exposed sheep into

85 flocks in 14 States—a classic example of

spread. Had the remaining exposed sheep not

been slaughtered, additional cases would undoubtedly have developed.

It became obvious that scrapie could not be

eradicated unless both source and infected

flocks were slaughtered; and that exposed

sheep from those flocks and their immediate

progeny should be slaughtered also. Source

flocks were defined as those determined on ample evidence, and after careful consideration

and consultation, to be disseminating scrapie;

but in which no animals were found that

showed symptoms of the disease.

In the United States, 91 infected flocks have

been reported in the following 24 States: Alabama 2, California 8, Connecticut 2, Georgia

1, Illinois 15, Indiana 23, Iowa 1, Kentucky 1,

Maryland 2, Michigan 2, Mississippi 1, Missouri 1, New York 3, North Carolina 2, Ohio

12, Oregon 4, Tennessee 2, Texas 1, Utah 1,

Virginia 1, West Virginia 1, Wisconsin 2, and

Wyoming 2.

There were 10 outbreaks in 1953; 3 in 1954;

11 in 1955; 23 in 1956; 12 in 1957; 7 in 1958;

11 in 1959; and 13 in 1960.

12
SCRAPIE-lnfected Flocks Reported

1947-59

78 Flocks

21 States

I960

13 Flocks

9 States

Fiscal Yeor

NES 60(10)-9I29

Cooperative scrapie eradication

The cooperative eradication program is

based on procedures long used to eradicate

other diseases, with modifications required by

the unusual nature of scrapie. Prompt reporting of suspicious cases is stressed.

Tentative clinical diagnosis is confirmed by

histopathological studies of brain tissues. Suspect animals are maintained under observation

and are slaughtered until symptoms are fully

developed.

Scrapie in other countries

In August 1959, the Canadian Scrapie eradication program was broadened so that Canada

and the United States, whose regulatory officials had worked closely, now have equivalent

programs. Canadian officials have given assurance that sheep which would have been slaughtered under the current program, had it been

in effect in April 1957, will not be certified for

export to the United States.

Australia and New Zealand—where it is believed scrapie had been newly introduced by

imported sheep—also instituted an eradication

program. Officials in both countries believe

their efforts to eradicate scrapie have been successful. One outbreak among imported sheep

in Norway is being similarly handled.

In certain countries where scrapie is endemic, owners attempt to reduce the incidence

of the disease and the stigma of having an infected flock by slaughtering selected animals of

certain bloodlines. These do not represent organized efforts to eradicate the disease.

Infected flocks and source flocks are quarantined. All sheep and goats in such flocks are

slaughtered under supervision at authorized

slaughtering plants. Exposed animals moved

from these flocks and their immediate progeny

are slaughtered. Premises and vehicles are

cleaned and disinfected.

Principles of eradication

Research efforts to produce a vaccine to increase resistance have been discouraging. If

either breed resistance or individual animal resistance exists, it might be possible to develop

strains of scrapie-resistant sheep. Even if possible, this would be a long and laborious undertaking.

Preventing exposure of susceptible sheep is

the only method now known of avoiding additional outbreaks. Until research proves conclusively whether scrapie spreads from parent to

offspring, or by some form of contact, any effective program must follow appropriately

modified conventional methods which embrace

both possibilities of spread.

Since the agent is known to exist in visibly

affected sheep, it is clear that they must be destroyed. There is no diagnostic test for the

disease in an animal not showing symptoms ;

consequently, there is no way of knowing how

many exposed animals may harbor the infectious agent. This factor, linked with the long

incubation period, necessitates the slaughter

of all exposed animals.

13
ü^»^ i >.%VHK^'^.<*ï5'k'k '*'A^1

An advanced case of scrapie.

BN 7333

Scrapie studies

Each outbreak is carefully studied to establish the epidemiology of the disease. Particular attention is given to symptoms, laboratory

findings, age, sex, breed, history, and pedigree

of each infected animal, movements from infected flocks, and the possible source of the

outbreak.

During the 7 years the eradication program

has been in effect in this country, it has not

been possible to identify the source of several

outbreaks. The majority, however, fall into a

pattern and indicate spread from a limited

number of common foci. Such foci—usually

identified as source flocks—are now being

slaughtered.

Approximately 80 percent of the infected

sheep in this country either were imported or

were the immediate progeny of sheep of foreign registry. The broadened Canadian program should materially reduce the possibility

for further introduction of scrapie through

sheep imported from Canada.

Exposed sheep and their immediate progeny

from 1,800 flocks have been slaughtered. Presently, some 1,500 flocks are receiving the required 6-months' inspection. In November

1956, more than 2,000 flocks were under inspection. These routine inspections have helped

locate infected animals. Almost 50 percent of

the 91 outbreaks were found in this manner.

Sheep under 18 months of age seldom show

symptoms of natural scrapie, Only one of the

161 infected sheep in this country was 18

months old ; the others were older. Three were

more than 7Y¿ years old. The great majority

were from 2y-> to 4 years old with most being

about 3 years of age.

Mortality rates are difficult to determine

with certainty. When an outbreak occurs, the

entire flock is slaughtered before additional

cases have time to appear.

Of the 161 confirmed cases in the United

States, 151 were Suffolk sheep and 10 were

Cheviots. Although the majority of cases have

occurred in one breed, it is generally believed

that sheep of any breed can develop the disease.

The manner in which scrapie spreads is not

well understood. Both experimental and field

evidence suggest it can spread from the dam,

and perhaps the sire, to the progeny. The evidence, however, does not explain how the disease spreads from one breed to another.

Eradicafion and research

The 91 outbreaks in the United States illustrate the potential danger of an insidious disease like scrapie in a country where lively trade

among growers results in wide distribution of

sheep and their diseases.

We look forward to additional research results—particularly those designed to explain

natural transmission. Pi'ecise information

will permit more exact identification of potentially dangerous animals and may require

slaughter of fewer sheep.

Experience is convincing that the elimination

of infected and exposed animals has effectively

controlled the disease, prevented it from becoming widely established in Cheviot and Suffolk sheep, and prevented spread into other

breeds.

The chances for ultimate success appear

good if sound eradication procedures, supported by ample research, are continued.

SCREWWORMS

The screwworm, CalliU^oga hominivorax

(Cqrl.), is an obligatory parasite on warmblooded animals and causes myiasis. Myiasis

is defined as "any disease caused by the presence of the larvae of flies in or on the body of

an animal." Since screwworm attack, or

14
myiasis, is a disease of domestic animals, the

Animal Disease Eradication Division was assigned the responsibility of effectuating a program to eradicate this insect pest from the

Southeastern United States.

EN-4384

Serewworm flies: Left, male; right, female.

Early investigations

Screwworms have been known in Texas since

1842. During the summer months infestations

spread to adjoining States but subsequent cold,

winter weather usually killed all but those in

southern Texas. Screwworms were unknown

in the Southeast until the summer of 1933,

when the first infestations were reported in the

BN-1416-X

Larvae of serewworm.

vicinity of Boston, Ga. They spread rapidly

and within 2 years were found throughout

Florida. Each summer, infestations spread

into Georgia, Alabama, and occasionally farther north, but they were subsequently killed

by cold, winter weather in all Southeastern

areas except peninsular Florida.

Heavy losses sustained by the livestock industry of the Southeast due to serewworm atBN-4375 BN-4380

Eggs of serewworm. Pupae of serewworm.

15
tack had stimulated 20 years of agitation for

an eradication program. However, although

good control methods were available, they were

not considered sufficiently effective to justify

an eradication effort until the development of

a revolutionary approach to insect control.

This concept envisioned the elimination of an

insect pest by overwhelming the native population with sterile male flies. Since female

screwworm flies when mated with sterile male

flies laid only infertile eggs, race suicide seemed

possible.

Research entomologists of the Agricultural

Research Service conceived and developed the

sterile-fly method of insect control. Basic techniques for the rearing, sterilization, and distribution of screwworm flies were perfected

and ñeld trials demonstrated that screwworms

could be eliminated from localized areas.

Early in 1957, a team of a veterinarian and

an entomologist surveyed the screwworm situation in the Southeast. Their purpose was (1)

to determine losses due to screwworms, (2) to

evaluate the probability of success of an eradication program using the sterile-fly technique,

and (3) to estimate the cost and duration of

such a program. The survey revealed an annual loss of approximately $20 million in the

Southeast, half of which was in Florida. The

surveyors concluded that screwworms probably could be eradicated in 2 years at a cost

of about $10 million.

Further investigation revealed that an area

of some 50,000 square miles, mostly in peninsular Florida, would require weekly dispersals

of sterile male flies averaging 500 per square

mile. This called for a building of sufficient

size, and with adequate equipment, to produce

a minimum of 50 million flies per week. Expansion from an experimental fly-rearing

plant, with production of about 2 million flies

per week, required the design and construction

of new equipment, improvement and mechanization of all operations synchronized to the life

cycle of the fly, a method of automatically packaging irradiated pupae, and development of an

apparatus for airplane dispersal of packaged

flies.

Eradication in operation

Federal-State funds for an eradication program became available during the summer of

1957. Plans were immediately made to convert an airplane hangar at Sebring, Fla., into

a huge fly-rearing establishment. Because of

the time required to remodel the hangar and to

design and build suitable equipment, operation

was not expected before July 1, 1958. In the

interim, it was decided to use the small, experimental fly-rearing facility near Orlando, Fla.,

to train personnel, and to test and develop new

methods and materials.

The winter of 1957-58 was one of the coldest

and wettest in Florida history. Low temperatures in the north and excessive moisture in the

south decimated the screwworm population,

and restricted the pest to a comparatively small

part of southern Florida. In an attempt to

halt the northward movement of flies until the

new fly-rearing establishment could come into

operation, an artificial barrier was estabhshed

by dropping sterile male flies over the northern

part of the State.

Production at the small plant was soon increased to approximately 10 million flies per

week—a sufficient number to maintain an effective barrier and prevent widespread northward

migration of native flies. By late spring a

State quarantine line had been established

across peninsular Florida, extending east and

west from Ocala, to prevent the northward

movement of infested livestock. Animals in

transit from south of the quarantine line were

inspected and sprayed before they moved into

uninfested northern areas.

N-2862S

Mechanized fly-rearing facility converted from airplane

hangar, Sebring, Fla.

16
N-3024

Screwwoim larvae growing on meat-blood-water mixture in electrically heated vats.

The Sebring fly-rearing facility was completed on July 10, 1958. Within a short time,

50 to 70 million flies per week were being produced and dispersed.

Larvae were reared on a mixture of ground

meat, blood, and water in shallow, heated vats

maintained at a constant temperature of 98° F.

Approximately 80,000 pounds of meat, 4,500

gallons of blood, and 9,600 gallons of water

were needed to rear 50 million larvae. Mature

larvae crawled from the vats and dropped into

trays of sand where they pupated. Pupae were

separated from sand and stored under optimum

N-30232

One of six cobalt-60 units for sterilizing pupae of

screwworms.

temperature and humidity conditions. At 5V2

days ±6 hours of age, pupae were sterilized

by being placed in a cobalt-60 unit where they

were irradiated with 8,000 roentgens of gamma

rays. After irradiation, pupae were packaged

in cardboard cartons. The cartons were first

stored for a day or two until the flies emerged

and then were transported to dispersal centers

and loaded in aircraft, from which they were

dropped over the screwworm-infested areas.

Twenty airplanes, each equipped with an automatic carton-dispersing apparatus, were used

in this operation.

Pupae being separated from larvae by sifting.

N-30226

Pupae are automatically measured into cardboard

cartons.

17
N-28349

Airplane releasing carton of sterile flies.

The greatest numbers of sterile flies were

dispersed in the most heavily infested areas

and lesser numbers in the lightly infested

areas. Federal and State livestock inspectors

throughout the Southeastern States examined

livestock and maintained close cooperation

with livestock owners to determine the incidence and relative abundance of screwworms.

The native screwworm population gradually

declined, and by the end of 1958 screwworms

could be found only in Breward and Dade

Counties, Florida, where a localized infestation

persisted. This pocket of screwworms was

finally eliminated. The last case in the region

was found and destroyed February 19, 1959.

The only infestation that has been found in

Florida since that date was in a dehorning

wound, in Highlands County, on June 17, 1959.

Challenge and termination

The apparent absence of screwworms in

Florida for several weeks prompted program

officials to test the effectiveness of the eradication effort by discontinuing release of sterile

flies in a large part of the formerly infested

area. Accordingly, in mid-July 1959, release of

sterile flies was discontinued in that portion

of Florida south of an east-west line through

Lake Okeechobee. The number of livestock

inspectors in the untreated area was doubled.

and livestock owners were urged to make frequent inspections and promptly report any evidence of screwworms. When no infestations

were reported in the test area in the ensuing

3 months, rearing and release of sterile flies

were progressively diminished in the remainder

of the Southeast.

Screwworm fly rearing operations ceased,

and the last sterile flies were dispersed on November 14, 1959. The building then was sealed

and sprayed with an activated pyrethrin insecticide, and on the following day fumigated with

DDVP and TEPP. These precautions were

taken to ensure destruction of any fertile

screwworm flies that might escape from the

heretofor fly-secure building and repopulate

the area. The establishment was then placed

on a standby basis to remain available for

emergency use.

Continuous alert

Continuing systematic animal inspections

for evidence of screwworms, and trapping and

identification of flies in areas over which sterile

flies had been released, ensured rapid detection

of wild flies or larvae that might still survive

in the eradication area.

An insurance screwworm colony is maintained at a Department laboratory in Texas.

Stock from this parent colony could be used in

an emergency to combat future localized outbreaks.

During and following eradication efforts in

the Southeast, it has been necessary to guard

rigidly against reintroduction of screwworms

on animals moving interstate from the screwworm-infested Southwest. This protection has

come, through Federal regulation, from the

establishment of 13 livestock inspection stations along the eastern borders of Arkansas

and Louisiana.

All livestock entering the Southeast from the

Southwest must be unloaded and inspected at

one of the stations. All wounds on livestock are

treated with an approved smear. This is followed by thorough application of an organic

phosphorus insecticide to all animals except

those specifically exempted. A number of

screwworm-infested animals have been intercepted and treated at these stations before being permitted to enter the Southeast.

18
Sfote—Federal Screwworm Eradication Program

HORSE-WHALE MEAT CONSUMPTION

THOUS. LB.

lOO

50

SON DJ TMA M J J A SO

1958 I 1959

FLY REARINO FACILITY, SEBRINO, FLA.

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AOBICULTURE hEG 60(7)5103 AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SERVICE

N-22049

Larvae of screwworm in wound.

State-Federal Screwworm Eradication Program

EGG PRODUCTION

THOUS. GRAMS

S O N D

1958

J FMAMJJA SO

1959

FLY REARING FACILITY, SEBRING.FLA

us DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE NEG 60(715100 AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SERVICE

Stole -Federal Screwworm Eradication Program

MEAT COST PER MILLION FLIES

DOLLARS

4-00

200

^ ^

SON D

1958

i

I

F M A M J J

1959

ASO

FLY REARING FACILITY, SEBRING, FLA

U s DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE NEG 60(715102 AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH

State-FederoI Screwworm Eradication Program

PUPAE PER LITER

THOUS.

8

6

4

2

r-j " LP-'-J-"-

' ' ' - I ' ' - ' .:.,.. 1 .... i i

' '■■> ■■ > ' . ' '

SON DJ FMA M JJ A SO

1958 I 1959

FLY REARING FACILITY, SEBRING, FLA.

U 5 DEPARTMENT OE AGHIC.LTURE NEG 60 (7, 5101 AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SERVICE

Stale -Federal Screwworm Eradication Program

FLIES RELEASED PER 10.000 LB. OF MEAT

SON Djj FMAM JJ A SO

1958 I 1959

FLY REARING FACILITY, SEBRING, FLA

us DEPORTMENT OF AGRICULTURE NEG 60(71 5lOA AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SERVICE

19
During the warm months, when screwworms

can establish themselves in the North and Midwest, livestock from those areas are inspected

to prevent screwworm-infested animals from

entering the eradication area. Air, rail, and

ocean shipments of livestock also must be certified free of screwworms before they are permitted to enter the eradication area.

During the late summer and fall of 1958 and

1959 screwworms succeeded in establishing

themselves in several Mississippi counties adjoining the Mississippi River. Probably these

infestations were started by flies entering the

eradication area from Louisiana or Arkansas

under their own wing-power. The outbreaks

were controlled by intensive animal inspections, treatments, and State quarantines.

Looking ahead in eradication

The success of the eradication program in

the Southeast has stimulated considerable interest among livestock growers and others in

the Southwestern United States.

During 1959, a screwworm survey was made

in the Southwestern United States and Northeastern Mexico to learn more about screwworm

habits and to evaluate the practicability of

using the sterile-fly technique in those areas.

The survey in Mexico failed to reveal any

natural barriers comparable to the water barrier that encloses, on three sides, the screwworm overwintering area in Florida. An eradiEAST-WEST LIVESTOCK MOVEMENTS

Through Screwworm Inspecfiorr Siaiions

THOUS.

75

50

25

75

50

25

MOVING EAST

■■■■■■■■■¡ ¡¡¡ I

imiiiillllluilhi 50NDIJFMAIÍJJASOHD

1^58 , 1959

J F U A y J J

1960

:ULrumiL BESCaocH seftviCE

cation efl'ort would not be practicable without

a perpetual program to prevent reinfestation

of the Southwestern United States through the

migration of screwworm flies northward from

Mexico.

The vast territory involved, the climatológica! and topographical differences from the

Southeastern United States, and the need for

additional information, indicate that any joint

United States-Mexican program should first be

directed toward research, field trials, and methods development.

CATTLE FEVER TICK

A tale of ticks

The theory is that cattle tick fever spread

to the Southern United States from the West

Indies and Mexico. The earliest report of the

disease in this country was made in 1796. In

the middle 19th century, there were frequent

reports of the infection in the South and Southwest.

The nature of the disease was not understood until 1889, when scientists of the U.S.

Department of Agriculture discovered that the

causative agent was a protozoan, Babesia bigemina, transmitted by the cattle fever tick {Boophihis annulatus and Boophilus microphis).

The first step in control of the disease was to

quarantine the infested area. The order controlling movement of southern cattle was issued on July 3, 1889.

By 1907, cattle tick fever (bovine piroplasmosis, Texas Fever, splenetic fever) was

prevalent in the Southern States, and had been

reported in California, Kentucky, Missouri,

Oklahoma, and Virginia. Except for a narrow

buffer zone along the Texas-Mexican border

and sporadic reinfestations in other places, the

Tick Eradication Program had eliminated fever

ticks from the United States by December 1943.

All Mexican territory adjacent to the international boundary along the lower Rio Grande

River is tick infested. Reinfestations in Texas

by tick-infested Mexican animals illegally entering the United States occur regularly. The

river boundary is not an effective barrier

20
against illegal movements or stray animals.

The buffer area under Federal and State quarantine extends 500 miles from Del Rio to the

Gulf of Mexico. This zone is patrolled constantly by Department inspectors in cooperation with Texas livestock sanitary authorities.

The area under quarantine includes parts of

Cameron, Hidalgo, Kinney, Maverick, Starr,

Val Verde, Webb, and Zapata Counties.

The cattle fever tick was eradicated from

California many years ago. However, this

State also has a common border with infested

areas in Mexico, and animals illegally entering

the United States reintroduce ticks from time

to time.

In October 1941, fever tick infestation was

discovered adjacent to the Mexican border in

the Tijuana Valley of San Diego County and

on a few farms in Los Angeles County to which

cattle had been moved from San Diego County.

Infested areas were quarantined and cattle

were systematically inspected and dipped. Infestations in small areas in San Diego County

were also reported in 1943, 1944, 1949, and

1950. In each instance the ticks were eradicated by following customary procedures.

The most recent infestation in San Diego

County was in Marron Valley in June 1956. A

State hold-order was placed on the affected

area, and an inspection and dipping program

inaugurated. No additional ticks were found

after official dippings were started, and the

hold-order was lifted in June 1957. A double

fence was constructed across the valley. Plans

were made to chute-inspect cattle and horses in

Marron Valley periodically at least four times

a year.

In Puerto Rico a tick eradication program, in

operation for a number of years, is coming to

an end. Here the tropical variety of the fever

tick was prevalent, and it was necessary to

treat sheep and goats as well as equines and

cattle.

Troublesome Hcks in Florida

Florida was the last State, aside from Texas,

to be freed of fever ticks. The Federal quarantine in Collier and Hendry Counties in the Big

Cypress Swamp area was lifted in December

1943.

Deer, which served as hosts for the tropical

tick, delayed final eradication. It was only

after the Florida Legislature provided authority to eliminate this host that the vector was

eradicated.

In 1947, slight infestations were found in

Broward, Charlotte, Collier, Dade, Hendry,

Lee, and Palm Beach Counties. Systematic

eradication efforts continued during 1947 and

1948.

In October 1948, a heavy infestation of ticks

was discovered in Volusia County. Investigation of this outbreak disclosed additional infestations in Alachua, Brevard, Flagler, Jackson, Lake, Madison, Orange, Osceola, Putnam,

and St. Johns Counties in Florida and on one

premise in Brantley County, Ga. All these infestations were caused by movement of cattle

from Volusia County.

Systematic inspection and dipping brought

the outbreak under control, and all remaining

Federal quarantines were removed in December 1950. No additional infestations were

found until 1957.

On April 23, 1957, a State inspector found

cattle fever ticks at the Okeechobee Livestock

Market at Okeechobee, Fla. The ticks were

identified as Boophilus viicrophos. This was

the first outbreak of fever ticks in Okeechobee

County since the winter of 1945, when quarantines were placed on that county and on Glades,

Highlands, and parts of Osceola and Polk

Counties.

Since the 1945 infestation in Florida, cattle

passing through all auctions in the State had

been examined for ticks by experienced inspectors, and all cattle except those selling for

slaughter had been dipped. It was as a result

of this routine check that the ticks were found

on cattle from two Okeechobee ranches.

Immediate steps were taken to treat infested

and exposed herds and place a State quarantine

on the area likely to be affected. Action was

also taken to trace animal movements in and

out of the area during the previous 2 or 3 years,

to place the premises involved under State

quarantine, and to investigate the possible

source of the ticks. In all, more than 100

ranches in 10 Florida counties were quarantined. Counties involved were Broward, Dade,

Glades, Hendry, Martin, Highlands, Okeechobee, Palm Beach, and St. Lucie. Premises un21
STORY OF TICK ERADICATION

1920

^ AREAS INFESTED WITH CATTLE FEVER TICKS

U s DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE NEG 60 ( 10) - 5126 AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SERVICE

der State quarantine included those to which

cattle had been moved from ranches where

ticks were discovered and also premises that

had supplied cattle to ranches known to be infested.

Additional experienced State and Federal

tick inspectors were assigned to the eradication

project. During the summer of 1957, 8 infested

herds were found in Okeechobee County, 3 in

Broward, 2 in Highlands, and 1 each in Dade

and Palm Beach Counties. The campaign

ended successfully in September 1958, more

than a year after the last known infestation.

Tick fever sfatus foday

On May 31, 1960, a State inspector again

found Boophilus microphis on cattle at the

Okeechobee Livestock Market. The lot of 21

cattle had been trucked from Palm Beach

County. Additional infested cattle were found

in the herd of origin. The Animal Disease

Eradication Division cooperated with the State

of Florida in instituting a vigorous eradication

program. Tick inspectors traced movements

from infested areas and began the inspection

of cattle and horses throughout central and

southern Florida. Many owners spray their

cattle regularly, which makes it difficult to find

ticks.

Sixteen infested herds were reported in the

following Counties: Palm Beach 10, Martin 4,

Hillsborough 1, and Indian River 1.

A triangular area of approximately 600

square miles including parts of Palm Beach

and Martin Counties was placed under State

22
BN-12794

Inspectors closely examine infected and suspect animals

for evidence of cattle fever ticks.

tie and horses are systematically inspected

south of the line. The program also includes

inspection of cattle at slaughter houses and

inspection and dipping of cattle at auction

markets.

In a tick-eradication program, the pest can

be attacked in two locations—in the pasture

and on the cattle. Animals may be freed of

ticks in one of two ways—by treating with a

tickicide that destroys the ticks, or by pasturing

at proper intervals on tick-free fields until all

the ticks have dropped. Dipping is the method

generally used. The pasture-rotation method

is more complicated and tick-free fields are

seldom available.

quarantine. Infested and exposed herds in

other areas were also quarantined.

During 1960, 91 Mexican livestock were

caught in the Texas-Mexican buffer area by

tick inspectors; also, 31 native American livestock that had strayed into Mexico were caught

on their return. Of the Mexican livestock, 41

were horses of which 3 were found to be tick

infested, and 50 were cattle of which 31 were

infested. Also, animals in 4 United States

herds were found to be infested, and 21 herds

were held for further treatment. In 1960, 12,-

435 certificates were issued for the intrastate

movement of 76,659 livestock from the area.

In addition, 172 certificates were issued for the

interstate movement of 21,390 livestock. Also

48,151 herds of 1,045,876 livestock were inspected for ticks, and 9,938 herds of 53,790

livestock were dipped.

Plans for the future

Effective July 1, 1960, a Federal quarantine

was placed on Hillsborough, Martin, and Palm

Beach Counties.

The eradication program includes establishing a State tick quarantine line crossing Florida at Ocala. This is identical with the former

screwworm quarantine line established in May

1958 and discontinued November 1959. Florida

regulations require inspection and dipping of

animals moving north across the line. All catCATTLE FEVER TICK SITUATION

JUNE 30, I960

Area Under

Federo! and Slate

Ouorantrne

U.S DEPARTMENT Of AGRICULTURE NEC 60{9)-9li4

Proposed Stofe Tick

Quorontine Line

AGRICULTURA;- »ESEABCM SERVICE

In freeing pastures, the method followed

may be either direct or indirect. In the direct

method, cattle, horses, mules, and other host

animals are excluded from pastures until all

ticks have died of starvation. This plan is

seldom followed because owners are reluctant

to give up even temporary use of pastures. In

the indirect plan, cattle and other animals remain on infested pastures but are treated with

tickicides at regular intervals to prevent engorged females from dropping and reinfesting

the field.

All seed ticks on the pastures, or those that

hatch from eggs laid by females already there,

eventually die. Those that get on the cattle

from time to time are destroyed by the treatment. Those in the pastures that fail to find

a host starve to death.

23
BN-12793

Dipping cattle for tick eradication

TUBERCULOSIS

The road to eradication

The American consumer has enjoyed increased freedom from the danger of acquiring

tuberculosis from animal products since the

inception of the cooperative State-Federal program in 1917. The considerable reduction in

slaughtering plant condemnations due to tuberculosis bear out the progress of field efforts to

eradicate the infection.

When the program was initiated, about 5

percent of the cattle in the country were tuberculous. The disease was causing approximately

50,000 whole beef carcasses, and an even

greater number of swine carcasses, to be condemned annually as unfit for human consumption. This was equivalent to a 20-mile-long

trainload of live animals. The number of whole

beef carcasses condemned in 1959 was 91.

The number of reactors found throughout

the United States declined steadily from the

advent of the program until a low point in disease incidence was reached in 1952. The infection rate in 1952 was 0.11 percent of all

cattle tested, or 11 in every 10,000.

In spite of the impressive drop in infection

rate since the start of the program, tuberculosis has yet to be eradicated. During 1953 and

1954, the percentage of reactors remained the

same as in 1952.

Beginning in 1955, the number of reactors in

some areas of the country began to increase

until in 1959 a total of 23 of every 10,000 cattle

tested were identified as reactors.

It is apparent that eradication of tuberculosis—and elimination of the last tuberculous

cow—is still a formidable problem. To wipe

out this menace to the livestock industry and to

public health, the Division is pursuing a broad

program of attack.

A year of increasing activity

During 1960, greater awareness of the need

to completely eliminate tuberculosis resulted

in increased attention to the following aspects

of the program : (1) Training in uniform testing techniques; (2) more effective tracing procedures to locate exposed cattle; (3) greater

emphasis on field study projects; (4) additional work in laboratory diagnostics; and (5)

training in post-mortem examination.

Training in uniform testing techniques

National conferences and tuberculosis workshops have afforded opportunities for further

training of field veterinarians in the use of

proper equipment and approved techniques in

the uniform application and interpretation of

the tuberculin test. Division personnel have

conducted annual testing demonstrations for

seniors at colleges of veterinary medicine. This

phase of the program provides qualified personnel for continued improvement of the eradication effort.

More effective tracing procedures

An important adjunct to the regular testing

program is the location of infection by tracing

24
N- 33624

Making the tuberculin test.

(1)

(2)

(3)

infected and exposed animals to the herds of

origin. This involves—

Tracing to herds of origin animals

found with lesions of tuberculosis on

regular kill at slaughtering plants.

Tracing the origin of reactor animals

found in tuberculin tests.

Tracing and follovi^ up on exposed animals associated with infected herds.

Success of the tracing system depends upon

close cooperation of many individuals—the veterinary meat inspector, the stockyards veterinarian and stockyards officials, the livestock

hauler, the livestock market operator, State

and Federal livestock sanitary officials and

their respective field veterinarians, the veterinary practitioner, the livestock dealer, and the

livestock grower. Greater efficiency in tracing

operations are borne out in figures for the 5

years 1955-59, during which 72,005 tuberculosis reactors were slaughtered. Of these, 5,539

or a total of 7.6 percent were found as a result

of tracing to herds of origin animals with lesions reported on regular kill. These reactors

were found by testing 164,824 cattle, or only

0.38 percent of the 43,922,211 cattle tested during the 5-year period. It is anticipated that an

even greater percentage of cases will be traced

as better identification and more complete record systems are developed.

Emphasis on epidemiology (field study

projects)

Epidemiology in tuberculosis has received

increased attention. In cattle this involves

other species of animals, as well as man, as

potential sources of infection.

As the incidence of tuberculosis in cattle has

been reduced, the close study of the interspecies

relationship of the various types of tuberculosis has become increasingly important. Avian

and human tuberculosis, for example, must be

considered in disclosure of possible sources of

infection to cattle.

Special field investigations being conducted

in cooperation with State officials may aid in

developing still more effective procedures.

Additional work in laboratory diagnostics

As increased study and attention is given to

the epidemiological aspects of tuberculosis,

laboratory and diagnostic work has increased.

Specimens from reactor animals in problem

herds are processed through the laboratory,

where tissues are examined pathologically

and bacteriologically. This type of work in

diagnosis of tuberculosis is among the most

involved and time-consuming of medical diagnostic procedures. However, as comprehensive

investigational studies are made, the laboratory

becomes increasingly important in determining

the type of tuberculosis involved.

Training in post-mortem examinations

The Meat Inspection Division has developed

a guide that provides specific instructions and

information on post-mortem examination of

tuberculosis reactors.

This guide makes possible the uniform examination of all tuberculosis reactors, whether

their slaughter is supervised by municipal.

State, or Federal inspectors. Special training,

under the direction of the Meat Inspection Division, has been given to ADE veterinarians

to achieve uniformity in the post-mortem examination of tuberculosis reactors.

25
N-29386

Inspectors follow uniform post-mortem procedures

when examining carcasses of tuberculous reactors.

Tuberculosis forecasts

Progress has been made. But much remains

to be done.

The increasing interest and support being

given by the cooperating States is encouraging.

Division activities in epidemiológica! studies,

laboratory work, and case-finding techniques

will be continued.

Close cooperation with research workers in

both animal and human medicine will hasten

the development and use of new and improved

diagnostic tools.

The support and cooperation of State and

Federal officials, the veterinary profession,

public health agencies, research workers, livestock producers, and consumers will enable continued improvement to be made.

The goal is : Eradication of bovine tuberculosis from the United States.

EMERGENCY DISEASE ACTIVITIES

The former Bureau of Animal Industry was

organized in the U.S. Department of Agriculture to deal with an animal disease emergency,

contagious bovine pleuropneumonia. The Bureau became world famous for the tenacious

application of slaughter and quarantine procedures that resulted in the eradication of contagious pleuropneumonia and several outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease. These same

principals were used more recently by the Animal Disease Eradication Division in eradicating vesicular exanthema.

Planning for emergencies

The Division is now responsible for continuing the development of plans for stamping out

any foreign animal disease that may gain entrance into this country. Such plans must be

workable, realistic, and documented for ready

use. The planning process is a continuing one.

A manual, "Emergency Animal Disease

Eradication Guide," was completed and distributed to each State in March 1960. It covers

both technical and administrative aspects of

an emergency disease eradication operation.

Through continual revision of this loose-lsaf

manual, a practical, up-to-date guide for emergency disease operations will always be available.

The United States is fortunate in being free

of several livestock diseases that are enzootic

in other parts of the world, such as foot-andmouth disease, rinderpest, African swine fever,

and Rift Valley fever. These diseases are very

destructive and result in great losses in countries where they exist. Freedom from such

diseases makes possible more economic production; and economic production makes for

greater availability of meat for consumption.

Maintenance of freedom from disease lies in

planning and preparation for animal disease

emergencies.

Diagnostic personnel and facilities

Since 1950, 50 Division veterinarians have

received special training in the diagnosis of

foreign animal diseases, particularly the vesicular diseases. The veterinarians are available

for consultation in any part of the country.

The Division maintains a diagnostic laboratory at Beltsville, Md. This facility will be

transferred to the National Animal Disease

Laboratory, at Ames, Iowa, when it is com26
pleted. The Plum Island Laboratory of the

Animal Disease and Parasite Research Division is also available for assistance in diagnosis. Statutory prohibition exists against the

importation of foreign animal disease producing agents to any point in this country except

Plum Island. For this reason many of the

tests for such diseases can be conducted only

at that laboratory.

Vesicular diseases

During 1960, 64 reports of suspected vesicular conditions were received in Washington.

Each of these cases v^as investigated and serum

or tissue specimens v^^ere submitted for laboratory tests. A positive diagnosis of New Jersey type vesicular stomatitis v^^as made in 21

of the 64 cases. In each case in w^hich the diagnosis was negative, the herd or animal involved

was regularly reinspected until it could be satisfactorily determined that the condition was

not vesicular. Each tissue specimen received

was checked by complement fixation test

against the seven known types of FMD antisera, with negative results.

Foof-and-mouth disease

With the exception of North America, Central America, Australia, and New Zealand,

foot-and-mouth disease is considered to be enzootic in the major livestock countries of the

world. The disease has been known for more

than 100 years. It was not until the latter part

of the 19th century, however, that its economic

importance was fully realized.

There have been nine outbreaks of foot-andmouth disease in the United States. Not the

last, but perhaps the worst, struck in 1914. It

started in Berrien County, Mich., in August

of that year. For reasons explainable only by

lack of alert and trained diagnosticians and an

inadequate emergency disease reporting system, the disease went undiagnosed until October 15.

The Union Stockyards in Chicago were quarantined on October 28, and the machinery of

eradication finally moved into gear. But before the emergency ended, on June 5, 1916,

havoc and death had spread to the livestock

industry of 22 States. Nine million dollars

had been spent; 172,222 cattle, sheep, swine,

and goats had been sacrificed.

Vesicular stomatif-is

The dust from the foot-and-mouth disease

campaign had hardly settled when "the event

of greatest consequence" in 1917 unfolded.

From the concentration remount station near

Chicago, came word of a disease of the mouths

and tongues of horses. The disease was traced

to similar remount stations at Grand Island,

Nebr., and Denver, Colo., where thousands of

horses and mules had been gathered for shipment to the armies of France and Britain.

Sick animals were immediately isolated,

quarantined, and treated. Infected pens were

cleaned and disinfected.

Then, a carload of horses from Nebraska

arrived at Denver. Several animals were rejected and returned. Four days later the rejected animals had developed lesions that

quickly spread to horses and cattle on neighboring ranches. And before anyone was fully

aware of what was happening, inspectors at

Kansas City were reporting lesions resembling

foot-and-mouth disease in cattle shipped from

Nebraska.

The lesions were diagnosed as those of vesicular stomatitis (VS), a disease well known in

Europe and South Africa, but up to that time

only occasionally noted in the United States.

Before it was controlled, VS had spread from

Nebraska and Colorado to ranches and remount

stations in South Dakota and Wyoming, and

through the usual trade channels to the Atlantic Coast and to France.

In 1917, a prompt and exact differentiation

in cattle between foot-and-mouth disease and

vesicular stomatitis was accompanied by many

difliiculties. Not least among them was the

awareness that a mistaken pronouncement

could lead, on the one hand, to unnecessary and

serious economic disturbances and, on the

other, to the spread of one of the most dread

and readily communicated animal plagues.

Vesicular stomatitis is endemic in certain

parts of the United States and Mexico. It has

occurred sporadically in some parts of Central

and South America. In this country, the disease seldom occurs in winter. It appears annually during the warmer months in'the coastal

27
INCIDENCE OF

VESICULAR STOMATITIS

Confirmed by Laboratory

PREMISES

1960

10 ^^—^^ Bovine

^^^* Porcine

"■■■• Equine

J_ _L J \ L

60

50

40

30

20 -

10

TOTAL -,

1952-60 A

-

_ / » V\ / '* \

1 > ^ \

"

/ ' * \

/ ' » \

1 1 \ \

.

/ ' \ ' •^ \

/ ^ / ^ \

/ / ' .V \

/ ' / * ^N \

1 1 1 K1 1 1 1 1 r-'ï*—

M M J J

MONTH

plains areas of Georgia, Louisiana, North Carolina, and South Carolina. Sporadic outbreaks

occur in other States.

The clinical similarity between VS, foot-andmouth disease, and vesicular exanthema makes

early diagnosis essential. Laboratory tests, animal-inoculation tests, or both, are necessary for

a positive diagnosis.

It is difficult to maintain interest in reporting vesicular conditions in the VS-endemic

areas. Livestock owners and practicing veterinarians become so accustomed to seeing lesions

that an apathy toward reporting develops.

There is danger, therefore, that either foot-andmouth disease or vesicular exanthema will not

be reported immediately if it should appear in

a VS-endemic area and its spread would be

uncontrolled. A continuing campaign to emphasize the necessity of early reporting of all

vesicular lesions is essential.

Vesicular exanthema

Vesicular exanthema (VE) is a disease of

swine characterized by formation of vesicles in

the mouth and on the snout and feet. The teats

and udders of sows may also be affected. Clinically, VE cannot be distinguished from footand-mouth disease and vesicular stomatitis.

VE, which had not been previously diagnosed

in any other part of the world, first appeared

in California in 1932, where it remained confined for 20 years. In 1952 and 1953, the disease spread to 42 States and the District of

Columbia. The first appearance of the disease

outside the State of California was at a garbage-feeding premise in Wyoming. Sixty days

prior to the outbreak the owner started feeding

raw garbage from trains originating in California.

The time-tried eradication measures of inspection, prompt reporting, diagnosis, slaughter, cleaning and disinfecting, and testing of

premises, together with cooking of garbage,

made possible the eradication of VE. Its complete eradication from the United States was

announced by the Secretary of Agriculture in

October 1959.

Present program

With the announcement of the eradication of

VE came immediate requests for cessation of

inspection of garbage-feeding premises and

garbage-fed swine. The knowledge gained

during the eradication program, however,

clearly indicates the importance of garbage

cooking to control swine diseases. In most

areas, regular periodic (but less frequent) inspections of garbage-feeding premises and garbage-fed swine are being maintained.

Search for a laboratory test

When VE was eradicated, it became a disease foreign to the United States. Research

within the continental limits was discontinued

and all VE virus was either destroyed or

shipped to the Plum Island Laboratory. Research at Plum Island will continue in an effort to develop a laboratory test for VE and

28
to learn more about the disease and its effect

on swine.

ANAPLÁSMOSIS

The early account

Anaplasmosis is an infectious and transmissible disease of cattle that apparently has been

in this country for many years. Some have

theorized that it was introduced with the first

cattle brought by the Spaniards.

Theobald Smith and Fred L. Kilborne in

1893 made first mention of the disease in their

report on the cause and transmission of Texas

cattle fever. Frequently encountering another

entity, they questioned whether they were dealing with Texas fever alone or with two distinct diseases.

In 1910, Arnold Theiler, in South Africa,

presented evidence that two diseases were involved, piroplasmosis and another which he

named, anaplasmosis. K. F. Meyer, in 1913,

confirmed observation of anaplasma-like bodies

in California cattle. Thereafter, little attention was given to the disease. Most people believed that it would be controlled with the

eradication of the fever tick. However, in

1926, Darlington reported that although anaplasmosis was a troublesome disease in southeastern Kansas, he had failed to find fever ticks

on infected animals. This was the first indication that eradication of the fever tick might

not eliminate anaplasmosis. Much has been

learned since then.

Nature of the agent

The causative agent of anaplasmosis is Anaplasma marginale, a parasite that destroys the

red blood cells of infected animals. Research

workers are not in complete agreement as to

the nature of the agent. During recent years,

a number of investigators have tried to show

that it is a filterable virus ; however, their work

has been either negative or inconclusive.

Recently, España and coworkers reported

that examination by phase contrast and electron microscopy of hemolyzed erythrocytes

from infected cattle showed the parasite to be

more complex than was generally believed.

Ring, match, comet, and dumbbell-like forms

were observed. They found Anaplasma marginale to be motile, a property not previously

described. This may be important in classifying the parasite as well as explaining the mechanism of cell penetration and the typical marginal position. They believe it is justifiable to

consider A. marginale a true parasite, probably belonging to the Protozoa.

Antibiotics and insecticides

Weapons have not yet been developed for

planned eradication or control of the disease

and anaplasmosis still costs the cattle industry millions of dollars annually. Some progress has been made in combating bovine anaplasmosis on a herd basis. It was found that

several broad-spectrum antibiotics inhibit the

organism. Development of the complementfixation test has given one of the best tools for

identification of infected or carrier animals.

Encouraging results in stemming transmission

of the disease by control of vectors have also

been obtained through the systematic use of

insecticides on infected herds.

Anaplasmosis can be treated. But if tetracycline antibiotic therapy is to be used beneficially, it must be given early in the period

when anaplasma bodies are increasing in number. The antibiotic suppresses formation of

additional bodies. Blood transfusions are indicated during the period of anemia and especially before the crisis is reached in RBC destruction.

Ticks in the west; flies in the south

The anaplasmosis syndrome is similar wherever the disease occurs. However, the vectors

thought to be chiefly responsible for the transmission of the disease in the Southeast are different from those in the West. In the Rocky

Mountain and West Coast Regions, the natural

vectors of primary importance are believed to

be the spotted fever tick {Dermacentor andersoni), and the Pacific Coast tick (D. occidentalis) ; biting insects are considered of secondary importance. In the Southeast, horseflies

and mosquitoes are believed to be the primary

vectors. Natural wild animal reservoirs have

not been implicated in this region as have deer

in California.

29
Prospects for controlling- or eradicating anapiasmosis are less encouraging in the Western

States than in the Southeast since the causative

agent can survive longer in the body of a tick

than in a fly or mosquito. It also has been

shown that anaplasmosis may be transmitted

from one generation of ticks to the next and

then into a susceptible bovine host.

The key to control

Since the infection is easily spread by mechanical transfer of infected blood, man,

through carelessness in performing blood-letting operations, becomes an important potential agent of conveyance. Prevention of natural, mechanical disease transmission is the

key to control. This, in turn, is conditioned by

four factors: (1) The infectivity level of the

blood of carrier cattle; (2) the biting insect

vector density population for any given area;

(3) the lapse of time between insect feeding

on infected and susceptible cattle; and (4) precautions against carelessness in blood-letting

operations. Control of any of these factors has

an immediate, favorable effect on reducing the

disease transmission rate.

In certain areas of the country, herds have

been cleared of the disease by application of the

complement-fixation test and segregation or

disposal of reactors. If segregation is practiced, carrier or reacting animals should be

sufficiently removed from the susceptible group

to insure that interrupted vector feedings are

not resumed on the susceptible animals.

These practices have been found feasible in

Virginia, and the State is offering a voluntary

program to livestock owners. Suspect herds

are tested and owners given the choice of removing reactors for immediate slaughter or

holding them under segregation pending

slaughter. A similar project on a limited scale

is being offered in Tennessee. No indemnity is

paid under the voluntary programs.

Halting the disease in Hawaii

Hawaii has had a program since November

1955. It was initiated as a pilot project to see

if anaplasmosis could be eradicated by use of

the complement-fixation test. The essentials of

the program are—

(1) Application of the complement-fixation

test for the detection of carrier animals.

(2) Identification and immediate slaughter

of positive animals.

(3) Testing of herds (including all cattle 2

months of age and over) at not less

than 60-day intervals until two negative tests are obtained.

(4) Testing of blood samples collected from

all cattle slaughtered in the Islands

to detect foci of infection.

Since anaplasmosis was brought to the Islands by importation of carrier animals from

the mainland, only animals negative to the complement-fixation test are now permitted entry.

Cattle must pass two negative tests—one before shipment from the mainland and a second

on arrival, before release from quarantine.

They are retested 60 days after introduction

into a herd. In the absence of a serious vector

problem, Hawaii ofliicials believe that their program provides a practical means of eradicating

anaplasmosis.

Field trials in Mississippi

In January 1959, field trial studies were

started in the Delta Region of western Mississippi. The situation there is different from

that in the Hawaiian Islands, in that biting

insect populations build up during the warm

months from spring to fall. Of the nearly

15,000 head of cattle tested in 79 herds in 16

counties, slightly more than 60 percent of the

animals were classed as reactors or suspects.

Individual herd incidence patterns varied from

no reactors in a few herds to almost 100-percent reactors in several herds.

Unfortunately, because of lack of funds, it

was necessary that owners pay for the collection of blood samples. Hence, herd retests generally were not made at desired intervals during the nonvector winter months. Nevertheless, overall results, from the standpoint of

reduction of losses from anaplasmosis and new

transmission, were encouraging.

During the summer of 1959, there were

fewer losses in herds in which control measures

were practiced than there had been the previous year. Some clinical cases appeared in

the susceptible segregation groups. But in

30
every instance, it was shown that sufficient

testing had not been done to insure that all

carrier cases had been removed prior to the

vector season. Clinical cases and death losses

were extensive in the nonsegregated and nontested herds in the area. This indicated that

conditions for natural spread of the disease

were present.

Several herds in the area are being studied

for the effects of insecticide and antibiotic control. Preliminary findings indicate that regular

use of insecticides and antibiotic feeding support the segregation program.

Trials to continue

Field trial studies in the Delta Region will be

continued until more detailed recommendations

on control can be made. Research and field

studies will also be continued in the sections

of the country where ticks are the primary

vector.

Where anaplasmosis is not too prevalent and

the natural vectors of primary importance are

biting insects, the disease can be controlled by

application of the complement-fixation test, removal of reacting carrier animals by segregation or slaughter, and proper herd management practices.

CATTLE GRUBS

Cattle grubs, also called "warbles" or

"wolves," are the larval stage of the heel fly

or warble ñy. This pest of economic importance has plagued domestic animal producers

throughout recorded history.

The two species present in this country—

Hypoderma Imeatum, the common cattle grub,

and H. bovis, the northern cattle grub—were

probably imported with the first cattle brought

in by the early American settlers. Their subsequent spread paralleled movement of cattle

accompanying settlers during their westward

migration.

The common cattle grub is found throughout

the United States. The northern grub, formerly limited to the Northern States, is gradually spreading south.

The grub story

The two species have a similar life history.

Eggs are attached near the base of the hair on

the host. The adult of the northern species deposits her eggs singly. Her buzzing approach

panics cattle, and the fly in pursuit strikes the

thighs and the rump. The adult of the common species—more stealthy in its approach—

manages to place several eggs on the heels or

the underside of the host.

Eggs hatch in 3 to 6 days and the newly

hatched larvae penetrate the skin. They migrate through the host to the gullet, diaphragm, and abdominal viscera. Nine months

after penetration of the host the grubs appear

under the skin of the animal's back. They come

to rest near the median line between the

shoulders and hips, cut a breathing hole

through the skin, and encyst. The injury at

this site is considered most damaging by the

leather industry.

Soon after the larva reaches the back, it

molts into the second instar. During this stage,

which lasts about 3 weeks, the larva grows and

causes considerable tissue inflammation, usually accompanied by pus, in and around the

cyst. A second molt follows, and the larva

enters the third and final stage of its developmental period. After some 20 days, the mature

larva emerges from the cyst and falls to the

ground. It crawls under a protective object

and pupates.

The pupal period lasts from 16 to 75 days,

depending on temperature and humidity. At

the end of this period, the adult fly emerges

from its pupal case and immediately seeks a

mate. Adults do not feed, and egg laying

promptly follows mating.

Losses

Livestock Conservation Incorporated reports

annual losses from cattle grubs of over $55

million to growers and feeders; $32 million to

the tanning and leather industry ; and $13 million to the meat packing industry—a total of

more than $100 million annually.

Control

The effectiveness of rotenone in controlling

cattle grubs has long been recognized. Some

workers rate it at a little less than 80 percent

as compared with the 85- to 90-percent effectiveness claimed for more recently developed

31
organic phosphate systemic insecticides. The

latter have been used extensively in field trials

during the past few years with encouraging

results.

The future

The National Cattle Grub Committee reports

as follows : "Research in grub control now underway and recommended includes a study of

the ecology and life cycle of the parasite in

various regions, effects of movement of cattle

from one climate to another on the life cycle

of grubs, the apparent resistance of older cattle to grubs, and the possibility of induced immunity to grubs."

The Animal Disease Eradication Division

does not envision a national cattle grub eradication program in the immediate future. However, available reports on each new development in research and field trials are constantly

examined and analyzed in light of possible application to cattle grub eradication.

HOG CHOLERA

The cholera chronicle

Hog cholera is reported to have been in this

country since the early 1830's. Some reports

indicate that it was here before then. During

the latter part of the 19th century it devastated

the swine population of the country. As late as

1913 an epidemic of this disease was responsible for killing 10 percent of the hogs in the

United States.

After much trial and error, research scientists of the former Bureau of Animal Industry

identified a virus as the cause of hog cholera.

Following this, vaccination with live hog cholera virus and serum was started. This type of

immunization saved the swine industry of the

country. Periodic outbreaks, however, continued to occur. Investigations revealed that

they were due to no vaccination or, in some

cases, were directly attributable to the virulent

virus used in the immunization.

HOG CHOLERA REPORTED

Fiscal Year 1960

U S OEfARIMENI OF AGRICULTURE NEC, 60 (11) 5057 AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SFRVlCE

32
Because of the annual incidence of the disease, as well as the fact that the immunizing

agent itself was capable of introducing infection on premises, no State or Federal programs

were proposed for the eradication of the disease. Its control, consequently, remained with

the owner and the practicing veterinarian.

In 1951, modified live virus vaccines were

perfected, which considerably reduced the hazard of virus introduction from immunization.

The trend since then has been reduction in the

use of virulent virus and its replacement with

modified live virus and serum. Also in 1951,

the United States Livestock Sanitary Association outlined procedures in a recommended

hog cholera eradication program.

Status and stimulus

Increased use of newer immunizing agents

and the prohibition against feeding raw garbage, now imposed by all the States, have stimulated the drive for eradication.

Additional impetus has come from Livestock

Conservation Incorporated, which represents

various segments of the swine industry. At its

annual meeting in February 1960, the organization noted that losses and damage from hog

cholera justified an all-out eradication eifort.

It recommended an educational approach and

regional meetings by the U.S. Department of

Agriculture to urge States to start eradication

programs.

Following that suggestion, the Division and

the Federal Extension Service held meetings

in Chicago, New Orleans, and New York during March and May. Industry reaction was

enthusiastic. A fourth regional meeting was

held in Denver, Colo., in August.

The future of hog cholera

Additional regional and State meetings will

be held to acquaint the various interests with

the factors and problems involved in an eradication program.

If industry then is still sufficiently interested

to give its support, it is expected that State

programs for the eradication of hog cholera

will be started.

VIRAL ENCEPHALITIS

Like many other diseases, the encephalitides

were present and infiicting widespread sporadic damage for many years before they were

identified. From Boston in 1854, Texas in 1882

and 1897, North Carolina in 1902, and Louisiana in 1906 and 1907, came reports of a neurologic disease in horses. It was variously

called "forage poisoning," "blind staggers,"

and "brain fever."

The disease was differentiated from a number of others and established, in 1930, as a

definite clinical entity called equine encephalomyelitis. The identification of its viral nature

came as the result of an investigation in California that year of 6,000 affected horses and

mules, half of which died.

Serological distinction of the disease into

two types. Eastern and Western, was made in

1933. The Eastern type has remained localized

along the Atlantic Seaboard and the Gulf of

Mexico, with isolated occurrences in Tennessee,

Missouri, Michigan, and Wisconsin. The Western type has occurred in every State west of

the Mississippi.

EQUINE ENCEPHALOMYELITIS

Reported During Colendar Year 1959

\ 38 \ /

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XJ ' /

TOTAL CASES 1 an

Hc^.60(f¡)-3121

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r 1 ^-- * till .....

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^|S °Sçces- E::^..

From 1935 through 1959, the total number

of horses reported affected with eastern and

western encephalitides in the United States

was 503,725. Of this number, 38,258 died.

Considerable difference of opinion still exists

concerning the natural history of the virus.

There is general agreement, however, that

neither humans nor horses are necessary to the

life cycle of the disease. Both are accidental

33
dead-end hosts. The virus is most commonly

transmitted from bird to bird, with mosquitoes

the principal vector.

Sometimes horses are infected without the

involvement of man. When both horse and

man are involved, horse cases generally precede the human by 2 weeks. What factors are

responsible for this periodic "spill-over" from

birds into horses and man is not known.

With our present knowledge that the virus

affects the horse, mule, ass, deer, pheasant,

wild birds, and humans, it seems more appropriate to designate the disease viral encephalitis.

In horses, following incubation of several

days to 3 weeks, the disease produces typical

symptoms of an encephalitis, including fever

of 107° F., rapid paralysis, sleepiness, eventual

respiratory failure, and death. With the more

virulent eastern type there may be 90 percent

fatality. Horses can be protected by preseason

inoculation with a bivalent vaccine, and mosquito control.

In pheasants, symptoms resemble the paralysis of botulinus intoxication. Outbreaks among

pheasants in the Northeast generally accompany those in horses—suggesting involvement

of the same vector. Mortality can exceed 60

percent.

Present knowledge of viral encephalitis removes the stigma from the horse as a danger

to public health.

The Division has no eradication program for

viral encephalitis, nor is one contemplated.

Nevertheless, in these times of alertness to the

threat of biological warfare, a prompt diagnosis is essential—not only for recognition of

viral encephalitis, but also to be sure that it

is not something else, more deadly and more

difficult to control.

POULTRY DISEASES

Poultry progress

Throughout the pages of history, man has

waged constant war against disease. Next to

those directly aflfecting him and his family,

the diseases that threatened his food supply

have been of greatest importance. As the result of improved husbandry practices and economic pressures on the producers, the place of

poultry in this food supply has increased manyfold since the days of chicken for "Sunday dinner." The housewife now has a choice between

poultry or red meat products never before

achieved in food logistics.

Conscious of the ever-present possibilities

of economic disaster and loss of this vital segment of the Nation's food supply due to disease,

the U.S. Department of Agriculture, at the industry's request, established a Poultry Disease

Section July 9, 1956. Its purpose was to coordinate national poultry disease control and

eradication. The section cooperates closely

with State Livestock Sanitary officials, research

workers, the poultry industry, and other interested governmental agencies.

To provide its veterinarians with additional

experience in poultry disease work, the Division, in 1956, started a training program at

Iowa State University. Poultry disease diagnostic courses conducted in 1957, 1958, and

1959 made available for immediate field work

49 Federal, 12 State, and 2 veterinary practitioner poultry diagnosticians. Graduates

have at their disposal a poultry diagnostician's

kit of equipment plus detailed instructions in

ADE Division Memorandum No. 501.4, Supplement 2, entitled "Investigation of Suspected

Emergency Poultry Disease Outbreaks."

Ornithosis outbreaks

The immediate problem facing the new Poultry Disease Section was the alarming increase

in the number of cases of ornithosis in turkey

flocks in Oregon and Texas. Ornithosis in

poultry and other species, or "psittacosis" as

the disease is known in the parrot bird family

and man, was first described in 1874 in European literature.

Evidence obtained since 1950 has indicated

that ornithosis is fairly widespread among

domestic turkeys. It has also been diagnosed

in ducks and chickens. Numerous epidemics

in humans have been traced to exposure of

processing plant employees to diseased poultrj^

or to recent importations of infected parrots

or psittacine birds. Human cases of psittacosis

have been most severe in Oregon and Texas;

death has resulted in several instances.

A regulation to control ornithosis or psittacosis was published in the Federal Register

34
ORNITHOSIS IN TURKEYS AND DUCKS

Í^7^~ Reported, 1945 - January 1958

I

Î

^^^gw-'ï' h'^g^'

^1 VIRUS ISOLAT

pJ (

1 (

1 \

f

1^

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r V) - •

on March 7, 1957. This regulation (Part 82,

Title 9, CFR) restricts interstate movement of

poultry affected with psittacosis or ornithosis

and their carcasses, parts, and offal. It also

requires disinfection of coops and vehicles used

in transporting affected poultry.

Management' factors in condemnafions

When compulsory inspection of dressed poultry moving in interstate traffic became law on

January 1, 1959, there arose the problem of

high condemnation rates, particularly from

chronic respiratory disease. In an effort to

find some solution for this economic loss, the

Division in cooperation with the Agricultural

Marketing Service conducted surveys in selected flocks in Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, and East Texas. These limited surveys

indicated that the high condemnation rates

were caused by lack of good management, inadequate housing, and substandard or no

disease control plans by producers. Similar

cooperative studies with State and industry

representatives have been conducted in Georgia

and the Delmarva Peninsula.

Poultry prospects

Eradication of ornithosis or psittacosis cannot be planned at this time because of the

unavailability of a reliable, practical field diagnostic test. The immediate objective is the

dissemination of information regarding the

nature and clinical manifestations of the disease. After treatment, recovered nocks may

be marketed when deemed safe by State and

Federal officials.

In 1958, the National Plans Conference of

the National Poultry and Turkey Improvement

Plans adopted a resolution requesting that the

Animal Disease Eradication Division promulgate a Federal Regulation limiting the interstate movement of poultry except from those

flocks and hatcheries that meet the minimum

requirement of the NPIP and NTIP in regard

to pullorum disease and fowl typhoid control.

The regulation was published, and comments

from industry groups are being reviewed before further action is taken.

The Division is engaged in cooperative

studies on poultry diseases with State universities and State departments of agriculture in

Georgia, Maine, Minnesota, and Virginia.

In future plans and operations the watchword is vigilance. Through the Poultry Disease Section, the Division is in a better position to deal with any foreign poultry disease

that may gain entry into this country. Concurrently, close scrutiny will be kept on

changes in the epidemiological patterns of diseases now present in the United States. This

work will be accomplished by recording data

reported by the individual States, conducting

epidemiological surveys concerning chronic

respiratory disease, and gathering information

on the latest research developments.

35
Laboratory Services

LOOKING BACK IN LABORATORY

SERVICES

In June 1955 a committee of scientists inspected Agricultural Research Service disease

laboratories in Washington, D.C., and at Beltsville, Md. ; Auburn, Ala. ; and Denver, Colo.,

and reported that the laboratories were not

adequate to safeguard employees from exposure to disease or the experimental v^ork from

cross-contamination. Much of the laboratory

work in research and regulatory fields at

Washington, Auburn, and Denver was discontinued. Also, in 1955, laboratory programs

which had been performed by the Pathological

Division of the former Bureau of Animal Industry, were assigned to Animal Disease Eradication in 1955. These laboratory programs

were placed under the staff position of Laboratory Services, which now has been enlarged to

a staff of 45.

In addition to maintaining facilities in

Washington, D.C., and at Beltsville, Md., and

Ames, Iowa, Laboratory Services maintains a

close working relationship with all diagnostic

laboratories in the United States and in many

foreign countries. There are 155 animal diagnostic laboratories in this country. Biological

cultures, reference materials, and direct assistance are provided to these laboratories on

request. A Manual and Directory of Animal

Diagnostic Laboratories in the United States

was completed in 1958 and distributed to field

stations, State animal diagnostic laboratories,

State livestock disease control officials, and

others interested in State-Federal programs.

Diagnostic services for the detection of diseases that might be introduced into the United

States are cooperatively administered with the

Plum Island Animal Disease Laboratory. A

staff member is stationed at the Plum Island

Animal Disease Laboratory for this purpose

and to become experienced in recognizing exotic animal diseases.

Training for Division personnel at colleges

and universities is supervised by Laboratory

Services. This includes approval of graduate

programs as well as supervision and guidance

given to individuals in such programs.

Staff members of Laboratory Services have

an opportunity to become experienced in many

fields related to the control and eradication of

animal diseases. The functions of the staff office are practical, and often provide the great

satisfaction of applying knowledge on a pilot

ANIMAL DISEASE DIAGNOSTIC LABORATORIES

JUNE 30. 1960

s DEPARTMENT Of iCRiCuL^uaE -vEG 60 161 50SO tGfiiCuLTuffti K£&£i'*C" StBviCE

scale for disease eradication which has been

established only through many years of scientific research. The staff office provides a corps

of technical personnel having a broad range

of experience with a wide variety of animal

diseases.

Division programs actively supported by

Laboratory Services are those for the eradication of brucellosis, tuberculosis, screwworms,

vesicular diseases, scabies, and scrapie. Laboratory programs are also in progress to support activities in anaplasmosis, leptospirosis,

enzootic abortion of ewes, and enteric infections.

37
ACHIEVEMENTS

Washington, D.C.

The staff of Laboratory Services was instrumental in compiling- and editing material for

inclusion in a publication requested by the

subcommittee on Reorganization and International Organizations of the Senate Committee on Government Operations. Entitled

"Veterinary Medicine of the United States and

its Contribution to Man's Health and Welfare,"

it deals with both national and international

organizations and agencies in which veterinary

medicine of the United States plays a part. It

will be used mainly for congressional review

but should serve as an invaluable documentary

of information on the services veterinary medicine has rendered to mankind.

The semiannual check test kits for brucellosis were supplied to all of the principal StateFederal laboratories. These tests check agreement between laboratories. The results on the

last series showed agreement on 92 percent of

the samples tested.

The chemistry unit, although an integral

part of the Division, performs services for

both Animal Disease Eradication and Animal

Inspection and Quarantine Division pertaining

to (a) acaricides, (b) disinfectants, (c) animal tissues and other matter suspected of

containing poison, (d) animal byproducts offered for entry from areas having or suspected

of having foot-and-mouth disease or rinderpest, and (e) diagnostic agents.

Two hundred and eighty-seven chemical

analyses on products and materials were completed in 1960. In addition to chemical analyses, the laboratory develops apparatus and

methods for vat-side testing of dips used in the

Division's regulatory work. To maintain this

testing of dipping baths, chemicals for 16,872

tests were furnished field inspectors. Also

supplies for 967 tests were furnished inspectors for determining the preservatives in

serums, vaccines, and diagnostics manufactured under the supervision of the Veterinary

Biologies Inspection Section of Animal Inspection and Quarantine.

All pullorum antigen employed for official

testing under the National Poultry and National Turkey Improvement Plans must meet

the chemical and sensitivity standards established by Laboratory Services. Tests I'epresenting a production total of 1,349,488

milliliters of K polyvalent pullorum wholeblood antigen, 1,021,751 milliliters of Redigen

whole-blood antigen, and 37,605 milliliters of

pullorum tube antigen were performed in 1960

in support of this program for the control of

salmonellosis.

Beltsville laboratory

BRUCELLOSIS.—All diagnostic materials used

to conduct Brucellosis serological tests are produced at Beltsville.

A total of 702,240 milliliters of Brucellosis

plate antigen, 119,500 milliliters of concentrated tube antigen, and 114,060 milliliters of

Bruceila Ring Test antigen were produced

during 1960. The amounts of the three antigens produced each year reflect the activities of the brucellosis eradication program

since 1950.

Brucella abortus Strain 1119

ANTIGENS PRODUCED AND DISTRIBUTED

900

600

300

US.ML.

r

/V^

- Plate /

Y \

_

^—^Tube -

'y \ .n^^^'ííísí:

__,.——'""" Brucella ring test

1950 1953 1956 1959

US Oef'aflTMENT OF AGRICULTURE NEG 60|7|-5it3 úGHICULTURA. "ESEiftCH SERVICE

Antigens are distributed for the most part

to State-Federal Cooperative Laboratories.

Small amounts are furnished on request to research institutions and foreign countries designated for use as standard antigens for

comparative testing or research purposes.

More than 10,000 agglutination tests for

brucellosis were made on samples from cattle

and swine from Federal 'herds during 1960.

Commei'cially prepared Brucella plate antigens totaling 119,600 milliliters were tested

for sensitivity, total cell concentration, purity

and sterility and were found to be satisfactory

for diagnostic purposes.
All Brucella abortus strain 19 vaccine produced in the United States for use in StateFederal brucellosis eradication is examined at

Beltsville before release. Vaccines that do not

meet the rigid requirements for purity, hydrogen ion concentration (pH), total cell concentration, viability, and colonial characteristics are rejected. During the year, 1,516 serial

lots, representing 8,604,946 doses, were tested.

Of this amount, more than 7,949,876 doses

(92.4 percent) were released as safe and reliable for use. There has been a gradual increase in volume production of desiccated

strain 19 vaccine (lyophilized) since the release of this product in 1945. Eighty-six percent of the 43,024,733 milliliters produced in

1960 were desiccated vaccines.

Brucella abortus Strain 19

VACCINE RELEASED FOLLOWING TEST

Mil.DOSES

1950 1953 1956 1959

us OEPftRTMENTOFAGfilCULTUfiE NEG 60(7)-5ll4 aQRlCULTUfliL fi£SE*BCH SERVICE

In addition to the Brucella strain 19 vaccine

(liquid) produced at Beltsville for reference

purposes, 840 doses were distributed for vaccinating calves in 19 Federal institution herds.

On numerous occasions, cultures of the organism causing brucellosis have been supplied

to private and Government laboratories in the

United States and in many foreign countries.

To replace stock cultures for use in producing the vaccine, continuous since the procedure

was inaugurated in 1940, 107 selected Brucella

abortus strain 19 cultures were supplied to 17

commercial laboratories and 2 State institutions during 1960, and 106 selected cultures

were sent to 17 foreign countries. Of the 213

cultures distributed, 50 percent were furnished

for distribution outside the continental United

States.

Thirty-six selected cultures of Brucella

abortus antigen strain 1119-3 were distributed

to 4 States and 10 foreign countries for use

in producing antigens and for research purposes. Stock cultures of Brucella abortus

strains 19 and 1119-3 (Ij^ophilized) are maintained at the Division laboratories at Beltsville

for immediate distribution to approved institutions throughout the world.

The Division also extends technical assistance and training to scientists from many

foreign lands interested in the brucellosis eradication program of the United States. As a

result of those exchanges, a close working relationship has been established with scientists

in many parts of the world.

Through arrangements with the International Cooperation Administration and other

agencies, 26 individuals representing 16

foreign countries and the Pan American Sanitary Bureau were approved for visits to the

Beltsville Laboratories in 1959. The various

phases of production, standardization, and

control of Brucella antigens and vaccine and

the diagnosis of brucellosis in animals were

demonstrated and discussed.

During the year, 1,716,460 milliliters of

mammalian contract tuberculins produced commercially for the Agricultural Research Service were tested and released as satisfactory for

use in the State-Federal program for diagnosis of tuberculosis.

VESICULAR DISEASES.—Serological testing is

another important function of Laboratory

Services at Beltsville. Of special importance

is the diagnosis of vesicular exanthema, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, and vesicular

stomatitis, and their differentiation from footand-mouth disease.

Vesicular stomatitis of the New Jersey type

was the onlj' vesicular disease diagnosed in

1959 from 36 tissue and 257 serum samples

received. The first cases again were reported

during May from the enzootic coastal plain

areas of North Carolina, South Carolina,

Georgia and Louisiana. Simultaneously, vesicular stomatitis appeared in six counties

bordering the Texas side of the Rio Grande

River. The Texas outbreak was part of an

epidemic that progressed northward through

Mexico, crossed the Rio Grande into Texas,

and finally abated.

39
LABORATORY DIAGNOSES OF VESICULAR STOMATITIS

Counliei, January 1 - December 31, 1959

The epidemiology of this Texas outbreak is

comparable to that of 1949, which also started

early in the season and progressed from Texas

and Arizona into Colorado, Utah, Wyoming,

and Wisconsin before it stopped in the fall.

The possible reservoirs of infection and vectors

remain unknown. The infection frequently

spreads from the Carolina-Georgia and

Louisiana-Mississippi endemic coastal plain

areas northward into Virginia, West Virginia,

and Maryland.

ANAPLASMOSIS. — Serological diagnosis of

anaplasmosis of cattle is another activity of

the Beltsville laboratory. Interest in the possibility of establishing a control program for

this disease is increasing. Since the Agricultural Research Service is no longer in a position to produce anaplasmosis antigen in its

own laboratories, a cooperative agreement has

been established for its production at the Texas

Agricultural Experiment Station.

Two million test doses of anaplasmosis complement-fixation antigen were delivered to the

Division's Beltsville laboratory on June 7,

1960, by the Texas A & M College. This

delivery completed phase I of the cooperative

project between the Division and Texas A & M

College for the production of anaplasmosis

antigen. The antigen is now available for

distribution to cooperating laboratories. Under

phase II, another 2 million test doses are

scheduled for delivery by June 30, 1961.

The Beltsville laboratory is responsible for

distributing antigen, complement, standard

sera, and other diagnostic materials related to

performance of the comploa.ent-ñxation test

for anaplasmosis in the various field laboratories.

It also maintains general supervision of

testing eflñciency and accuracy of the 16 Federal, State, or University laboratories engaged

in the testing of serum for anaplasmosis. A

composite report of the results on a large

number of unknown serum samples forwarded

to these 16 laboratories for comparative test

has recently been made. A total of 21 State

or Federal serologists have completed training

at the laboratory in the complement-fixation

test for anaplasmosis.

The new "small" tube technique for anaplasmosis has been inaugurated and all laboratories engaged in anaplasmosis testing have

been so informed. Each laboratory was furnished the new publication, "Manual and

Directory of Animal Diagnostic Laboratories

in United States," standard serums, hemolysin,

standard complement, and antigen.

The serologj^ unit also tests for dourine and

glanders all equine serum samples submitted

from the various quarantine stations and other

points.

During 1960, 11,085 tests were made for

dourine and 11,075 for glanders.

Ames diagnostic laboratory

The Diagnostic Laboratory at Ames, Iowa,

was established in 1957 under a cooperative

agreement with Iowa State University to service the Division's programs in tuberculosis,

brucellosis, scrapie, and other diseases of national interest. The staff of 20 will be

transferred to the National Animal Disease

Laboratory in 1961.

TUBERCULOSIS.—Many new types of bacterial

organisms closely resembling Mycobacterium

tuberculosis are being recovered from human

patients thought to be tubercular. In order

to maintain the confidence built up in the

tuberculin test over the years, it was important

to get more information about the causes of

reactions to mammalian tuberculin in no-grosslesion cases under field conditions. A project

was established for this purpose in 1957.

Specimens collected from animals that reveal NGL reactions as well as specimens from

regular kill are studied. Procedures include

direct culturing of specimens, animal inoculations for initial recovery of organisms and

40
typing, and staining of smears and histológica!

sections for evidence of acid-fast organisms.

Isolations of soil acid-fast organisms are

capable of producing allergens which crossreact with mammalian and avian strains.

These allergens usually produce low sensitivity

when injected intramuscularly. Guinea pigs

inoculated intramuscularly with soil acid-fast

isolates were still reacting 31/2 to 4 months

after inoculation ; only avian and mammalian

tubercuhn were used on the second test. The

greatest reaction was obtained with avian tuberculin. Field evidence indicated the soil

acid-fast produced sensitivity may be of short

duration, and the time between exposure and

testing will be shortened to less than 2 months

in future laboratory trials.

Microscopic study of 417 cases of suspected

tuberculosis lesions on regular cattle kill was

made. Thirty-one percent were positive for

acid-fast bacteria, and another 10 percent contained atypical acid-fast organism. Of the

remainder, 33 percent were mycotic, parasitic,

or neoplastic, and 26 percent were negative.

This compares favorably with lesions selected

from tuberculosis-reactor animals. Out of 160

such lesion cases, 23 percent showed typical

organisms and 17 percent showed atypical

acid-fast bacilli. Of other causes, 22 percent

were mycotic, parasitic, or neoplastic, and 38

percent were completely negative. While indicating the general effectiveness of the tuberculosis control program, these figures reflect

the difficulties that will be encountered in the

final phase of tuberculosis control. They stress

the importance of careful meat inspection and

laboratory procedures in detecting tuberculous

animals on regular kill, and tracing them back

to source herds, which may then be tuberculintested.

Studies were completed on the use of media

versus laboratory animals for primary isolation of acid-fast organisms from bovine tissues. These studies revealed that certain

media are as good as laboratory animals, or

possibly better, for the primary isolation of

Mtjcobacterium tuberculosis organisms. This

has resulted in a saving of time and laboratory

animals.

BRUCELLOSIS.—Correlation of serological and

bacteriological results in reactor herds is in

progress. Attempted isolations from 63 vaccinates in 10 herds were positive in 18 (29

percent) of the animals, although 4 of the

infected vaccinates were in the negative or

suspect serological range. In nonvaccinated

cattle, isolations were possible in 19 (46 percent) of 41 animals in 8 herds, and only 2

of these were classed as suspects. In herds

containing both vaccinated and nonvaccinated

animals, 4.5 percent of the isolations were from

vaccinated cattle, while 55 percent were from

nonvaccinates. Only 1 of the 15 herds that

were shown to contain infected cattle had a

negative Brucella Ring Test (BRT) history.

An isolation of a Brucellalike organism

was made from tissues submitted by the New

Mexico field station from a ram with a history

of loss of viability of sperm. Preliminary

serological and biochemical studies revealed

that the organism has certain characteristics

of all three of the Brucella species but is dissimilar to any one in particular.

TRICHINOSIS.—The cooking of garbage fed

to swine was initiated as a measure to control

vesicular exanthema ; however, other diseases

are also reduced by this measure. One of

these is trichinosis. To evaluate the incidence

of Trichina, 64 lots of 1,896 diaphragms were

examined for the isolation of Trichinella

spiralis. Trichina were found in 188 diaphragms of 21 of these lots. Since diaphragms

were submitted only from Northeastern States,

the study did not show national distribution.

SCRAPIE.—Pathological evidence is used to

diagnose scrapie, as no virological means are

available. Diagnosis is based on the history

and findings of characteristic vacuoles in the

brain. Twenty-seven laboratory confirmations

of the disease were made at the Ames Laboratory from January 1958, to August 4, 1960.

Studies have been started to evaluate the

present methods of histopathological diagnosis.

DIAGNOSTICIANS AND

EPIDEMIOLOGISTS

Specialized training programs are being

utilized to establish teams of diagnosticians

and epidemiologists for investigating and

studying animal disease outbreaks. These

groups will function for field investigational

work when diseases of unusual nature or pro41
portions are encountered. This service will

include diagnosticians and epidemiologists for

vector-transmitted diseases, industrial and

phytotoxicological diseases, radiation diseases,

mycotic, protozoal, and viral diseases. Other

teams will be trained in the investigation of

such exotic diseases as rinderpest, foot-andmouth disease, and virulent strains of Newcastle disease of poultry.

Records of past anthrax outbreaks suggest

that alternate wet weather and drouth, where

the organism is established in the soil, may

cause increased incidence of the disease. The

prediction of a 1959 increase in the Southern

Great Plains was followed by the identification

of at least four foci of infection. The importation of infected cattle from Mexico caused a

fifth outbreak.

Studies of hog cholera and immunization

procedures in the Corn Belt indicated that

weather may also favor complications following vaccination with modified viruses. Sequelae were reported more common during hot,

humid weather. The need to continue use of

virulent virus was not established.

COOPERATIVE PROJECTS WITH

OTHER LABORATORIES

Salmonellosis

Because of the importance of serological typing in a program to control salmonellosis in

domestic farm animals and poultry, a cooperative program was established with U.S. Public

Health Service.

A bacteriologist has been assigned by the

Division to the Communicable Disease Center

in Georgia to conduct typing and identification

of enteric organisms of animal origin. This has

enabled State animal disease diagnostic laboratories to submit more cultures for study and

typing. This laboratory activity will be transferred to the National Animal Disease Laboratory in 1961.

Lepfospirosis

The relationship between lepfospirosis in

wildlife and livestock is under study by an epidemiológica! team in cooperation with the New

Bolton Center of the University of Pennsylvania.

It is important to establish the role of wildlife lepfospirosis in the study area because of

many favorable opportunities for the transmission of infection to domestic animals and to

humans. This team is using the agglutinationlysis test and several nutrient media to isolate

and identify leptospira from livestock, the

water supply, and from wildlife in the vicinity

of the diseased herds.

The motility of leptospira and their lack of

resistance to drying makes water a principal

means of spread. Investigators have found

leptospira are adversely affected by acidic water ; they lose motility at a pH below 6.0. They

prefer alkaline water. Stream pH in the area

of study varies from 6.9 to 8.5. Many streams

and pools persist throughout the year, and during their low stages in summer, animals standing in them may become infected.

Although the project has been active for less

than 6 months, much information regarding

the role of wildlife has accumulated. The demonstration of Leptospira pomona infection in a

woodchuck indicates the importance this common inhabitant of pastures might assume in

control of bovine lepfospirosis. One outbreak

was investigated in which blood cultural isolations were made from 8 of the 22 cattle in the

herd. The source of infection was found to be

carrier animals which were introduced into the

herd less than a month before the blood isolations were made.

A national survey of serological techniques

used in the diagnosis of lepfospirosis was completed this year. Check samples were submitted

to all laboratories conducting lepfospirosis

tests.

The results indicated considerable variation

in procedures. Adoption of a standard test with

strict adherence to details of procedure would

improve the uniformity of results. Efforts are

being made to encourage the adoption of a

standard serological technique. The various

tests, such as the agglutination-lysis test, are

being studied to determine the sources of their

inherent variation. A serological method for

detecting dairy herds infected with lepfospirosis by means of the composite herd milk sample has been developed. Serum samples of ani42
mais, including- wildlife, submitted from all

parts of the United States are examined for

antibodies against at least 12 leptospiral serotypes. This service is of particular value where

signs of leptospirosis are observed, but routine

testing with Leptospira pomona antigen yields

negative results. Where infection with the

less common serotypes is indicated locally

(Iowa), field investigations are performed in

an effort to isolate the causative agent.

Enzootic abortion

RECORD OF THE DECADE.—The virus of enzootic abortion in ewes was first discovered in

Scotland in 1950. Since then it has also been

reported in several European countries.

In the spring of 1958, the Montana Veterinary Research Laboratory isolated and identified the virus in ewes in Montana. This was

the first report of the disease in this country.

It confirmed the belief that many of the hitherto undiagnosed cases of abortion in sheep in

the United States may have been due to this

virus. Its similarity to the enzootic abortion

virus of Scotland was subsequently established

by a Scottish research group. Although exact

distribution and prevalence of the disease in

the United States were unknown, it was suspected to be widespread.

A STUDY OF INCIDENCE.—The Division entered into an agreement with Montana State

College on January 26, 1959 to study the prevalence of enzootic abortion in ewes in this country and to improve the antigen used in the complement-fixation test for the disease.

The survey was initiated by soliciting samples from nocks in which ewes had aborted and

had a negative history as regards vibrio infection. During the period January 26, 1959

to April 21, 1960, the following results were

reported by Montana Veterinary Research

Laboratory, Montana State College:

Incidence of enzootic abortion reported during the period January 26, 1959-Ma>j 16, 1960

Flocks Sheep

State

Total Positive Suspicious Total Positive Suspicious

Arizona _. _ ... 1

6

1

22

18

2

4

2

0

1

0

18

7

0

0

1

0

1

4

0

0

3

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

38

61

6

1,416

587

26

42

11

35

19

293

1

15

86

4

15

7

9

0

1

0

152

78

0

0

1

0

1

22

0

0

16

0

0

0

0

0

California _ 2

Colorado 0

Idaho__ 83

Montana 24

Nebraska 0

North Dakota.- . _ __ _ . 3

Oregon,. 1

South Dakota 0

Tennessee,. 0

Utah 30

West Virginia 0

Wisconsin 0

Wyoming _ . 15

Minnesota 0

New Mexico ._ . 0

New York 0

Iowa 0

Totals'._, . 79 35

44.3

5

6.0

2,671 271

10.7

158

Percent 5.8 _ .. _

' Positive flocks were found in 7 of 18 States submitting samples. Suspicious flocks were found in 1 additional State.

43
Survey work conducted thus far indicates

that EAE has been in this country for some

time. This work has been biased to some extent by the sampling of suspected flocks. A

more accurate indication of the prevalence of

this disease could be had by testing random

samples collected from ewes at time of slaughter.

Vaccination studies have not yet been completed.

FUTURE AIMS.—A psittacosis-lymphogranuloma group antigen is produced from enzootic

abortion virus. The current complement-fixation test is not specific and not too effective in

individual animals. It is fairly accurate when

used to diagnose the condition in flocks provided 30 percent of the flock is tested.

Additional survey work is needed to more

accurately determine the prevalence of enzootic

abortion in ewes. Further studies also are

necessary to refine the antigen and increase its

specificity.

The disease is not the type, such as foot-andmouth disease, rinderpest, or African Swine

Fever, that compels drastic action.

Considering the economic effect of the disease in other countries, and the additional

studies that are necessary, present circumstances do not warrant Division participation

in a control program.

THE WORLD PICTURE.—This is not a reportable disease in countries such as England, Scotland, and France. Regulatory officials do not

believe that its economic effects in sheep in

those countries warrant an eradication program.

A voluntary vaccination program is followed.

The vaccine is reported to be effective. Even

in infected flocks, the rate of abortion appears

to decrease rapidly following vaccination of

all ewes.

LOOKING AHEAD IN LABORATORY

SERVICES

Laboratory Services must look toward providing even broader diagnostic programs to

meet the varied and changing needs of the Division. Specialists in the epidemiological study

of most major diseases of animals must be

available to meet the challenge of this highly

technical field. Expanded and modern facilities and equipment will soon be available at

the National Animal Disease Laboratory.

Funds totaling $16,250,000 were granted in

July 1956 for establishment of the laboratory.

Construction began in late summer of 1958

on a 318-acre farm tract east of Ames, Iowa.

The national laboratory will include an Administration Building, large and small animal laboratory buildings, a central heating and emergency power plant, sewage decontamination

plant, and various types of support structures

and animal quarantine barns.

Most of the activities of Laboratory Services

will be transferred to the new laboratory in

the spring or summer of 1961. Regulatory

functions will occupy approximately 20 percent of the total space, of which about onehalf will be devoted to diagnostic services for

Division programs. The remaining space will

be used for laboratory functions in support of

the biologies control programs of the Animal

Inspection and Quarantine Division.

The diagnostic services programs at the National Animal Disease Laboratory will require

a staff of about 50, of which 18 will be veterinary specialists. The remainder will be technical employees, animal caretakers, and others

required to service the various programs. Recruitment for the laboratory staff at Ames has

been limited almost exclusively to present Division personnel having an interest in the laboratory service programs of the Division.

The staff will move into these new facilities

with a continuing determination to provide the

best possible diagnostic services to meet the

program needs of the Division.

44
Interstate Movement of Livestock

INTERSTATE REGULATIONS

Many regulations are considered by the public as a burden imposed on commerce for purposes they do not readily comprehend.

However, regulations fill an important gap

in animal disease control and eradication programs. Methods of disease dissemination are

thoroughly studied, and regulations are drawn

to prevent spread of the diseases. If these regulations were not enforced, most programs

would be ineffective.

Interstate Regulations administers two programs :

(1) Enforcement of regulations promulgated under authority of the Animal

Quarantine Laws. (Acts of May 29,

1884; February 2, 1903; and March

3, 1905)

(2) Enforcement of the 28-Hour Law. (Act

of June 29, 1906)

Animal quarantine laws

The regulations promulgated pursuant to the

Animal Quarantine Laws are contained in

Parts 71 through 83 of Title 9, Code of Federal

Regulations. These regulations are designed

to prevent the spread of communicable diseases

by controlling the interstate movement of livestock, including poultry, which are apparently

free of disease or exposure thereto. Special

provisions permit the interstate movement of

reactors to the tuberculosis, brucellosis, and

paratuberculosis tests, but only under certain

carefully supervised conditions which insure

their proper handling until final disposition.

The regulations also provide for the proper

cleaning and disinfection of all cars, boats, and

other vehicles used in the interstate transportation of diseased livestock and poultry. These

sanitary precautions apply likewise to yards

and other premises used in connection with

such shipments.

Inspection for compliance with the laws is

conducted throughout the United States at

highway and railroad points, stockyards, and

livestock centers. Apparent violations are reported to the Department for further investigation and possible prosecution.

During 1960, reports were received of 367

violations of the AQ Laws. Twenty-eight of

these cases, together with 8 on hand at the beginning of the year, were closed when further

investigation revealed that either a violation

did not occur or there were insufficient grounds

on which to prosecute. Of the 225 cases sent

to the Ofiice of the General Counsel, 180 were

recommended for prosecution. Because of extenuating circumstances it was recommended

that the remaining 45 cases be disposed of by

letters of warning.

In the same period, notice was received of

199 dispositions as follows:

99—by Court action (including 2 dismissals).

29—declined for prosecution by the Department of Justice; however, 27 of these

cases with the concurrence of the Department of Justice had been recommended for disposition by letter of

warning.

71—declined for prosecution by various

United States Attorneys; however,

warning notices were issued to the

alleged violators.

28-hour law

With the advent of railroads there began a

new epoch in the delivery of livestock to markets. "The first cars employed were crude affairs, built of slats without overhead protection and without means provided for watering.

. . . car roofs were built, not for shelter, as

might be supposed, but to prevent the cattle

from jumping out, as the railroads had incurred considerable losses from that cause."

45
This mode of transportation was attended with

much cruelty. As reported from several

sources in 1871: "Cars are terribly overcrowded, and animals are carried great distances without food or water." . . . "Cattle

trains yield the road to most others, and pass

hours on sidings ; the animals are without food

or water, and often with insufficient ventilation in summer or shelter in winter; they are

jolted off their legs and then goaded till they

struggle up, for they cannot be permitted to lie

down ; they thus arrive at destination trampled

upon, torn by each others' horns, bruised,

bleeding; having in fact suffered all that animals can suffer and live. The whole system of

cattle transportation in the United States as at

present conducted is an outrage on the first

principles of humanity."

A monotonously deadening repetition of

these practices and a mounting public clamor

culminated in the Act of June 29, 1906. This is

essentially a law to prevent cruelty to animals

while in transit interstate. It prohibits the

confinement of animals m a car for a period

longer than 28 consecutive hours without unloading them in a humane manner into properly equipped pens for rest, water, and feeding

for a period of at least 5 hours. In some instances animals may be fed and watered without unloading them into pens, provided adequate space is available for rest in the cars.

And in some cases written request, accidental

causes, or acts of nature, which cannot be anticipated or avoided by the exercise of due diligence and foresight, may excuse continuous

confinement for 36 hours or longer. Although

the law is applicable only to railroad and water shipments, attempts have been made to apply its humane principles to motortruck shipments as well.

The 28-Hour Law does not provide for the

issuance of regulations ; thus, its administration is governed by the language of the law

itself and Court decisions subsequently rendered.

Enforcement of the overconfinement provisions of the 28-Hour Law is performed by examination of records maintained by the carriers (waybills and similar documents). Periodic inspections are made at the more than

800 feed, water, and rest stations throughout

the United States to insure that the facilities

Hogs being- reloaded after a period for feed, water,

and rest, in compliance with the 28-hour law.

and equipment are adequate and properly

maintained. Railroads operating such facilities are promptly notified to correct unsatisfactory conditions. Apparent violations of the

28-Hour Law are reported to the Department

for further investigation and possible prosecution.

In 1960, 482 reports were received of alleged

violations of the 28-Hour Law. Prosecution was

recommended in 252 cases. During this period

reports were received on 176 prosecutions in

which penalties of $18,450 and costs were imposed.

Interstate Regulations was also instrumental

in developing and distributing the following

publications :

(1) ARS 91-13, "A Guide for the Enforcement of Regulations Governing the Interstate

Movement of Livestock and Poultry." This

comprehensive manual was issued as a source

of information to field representatives and as a

guide to uniform procedures to be used in investigating and reporting apparent violations

of the 28-Hour Law and the Animal Quarantine Laws.

(2) "Regulations and Laws Administered

by the Animal Disease Eradication Division."

This publication contains a reprint of subchapters B and C of chapter 1, title 9, Code of Federal Regulations, and also certain Acts of Congress that are the basic laws upon which the

rules and regulations of the Animal Disease

Eradication Division are based.

(3) ARS 91-17, "Health Requirements and

Regulations Governing the Interstate and In46
ternational Movement of Livestock and Poultry." This is a loose-leaf compilation of all the

State and Federal regulations and also includes

the Animal Inspection and Quarantine regulations and the Canadian import regulations.

Objectives

A well-informed field organization is essential for the proper enforcement of our programs. As before, meetings will be held as

conditions warrant for the purpose of improving operating procedures. Changes in regulations and other information having widespread application will likewise be promptly

brought to the attention of our inspectors.

Contact will be maintained by field representatives with individuals and organizations engaged in livestock activities to keep them informed of the laws and regulations pertaining

to their activities. Such contacts should do

much to prevent or reduce the number of inadvertent violations.

A more effective enforcement of the interstate regulations and laws has resulted from

close cooperation with State and local livestock

officials. It is expected that this cooperation

will continue with increasing advantages to all

agencies engaged in animal disease control

programs.

PUBLIC STOCKYARDS

The first record

An Act of Congress dated May 29, 1884,

authorized the Commissioner of Agriculture

to oi'ganize a Bureau of Animal Industry, appoint a Chief "who shall be a competent veterinary surgeon," and to employ a force "not to

exceed 20 persons at any one time."

The same Act, Section 4, authorized special

investigations of pleuropneumonia, or any contagious, infectious, or communicable disease,

"along the lines of transportation from all

parts of the United States. . . ."

In this general language lies legal authority

for public stockyards inspection.

For several years Texas fever was the only

disease subject to stockyards control. In 1897,

inspection was extended to sheep scabies and

in 1903, to cattle scabies. By 1905, activities

v.-ere enlarged to embrace inspection for communicable diseases of all livestock received at

public stockyards.

Since its beginning, public stockyards inspection has been important in controlling or

eradicating Texas fever in cattle, dourine and

glanders in horses, scabies in sheep and cattle,

foot-and-mouth disease, and vesicular exanthema.

The stockyards service proved its importance

in controlling and eradicating vesicular exanthema. Since most major markets were involved, the manner in which VE was handled

unquestionably prevented the development of

additional foci of infection. On many occasions stockyards inspection not only stopped

the spread of infection but also helped the

Division locate farm sources where the disease

was not known to exist.

The cooperation between the management

of stockyards companies and the Division in

controlling the VE epidemic cannot be overemphasized. It demonstrated that in these days

of rapid transit, the Division, by working with

marketing interests, can effectively control the -

spread of livestock diseases.

Stockyards inspection activities were enhanced when, in furtherance of efforts to prevent the spread of brucellosis, provision was

made, on January 1, 1957, for specifically

approved stockyards and slaughtering establishments. These approved establishments

operate under State inspection. Cattle may

move interstate to them without having to

meet certain prior requirements. Subsequent

movements from such markets, however, must

be in compliance with Federal regulations. As

of June 30, 1960, there were 8,430 such establishments.

The importance of stockyards inspection

From an economic standpoint, no service

supplies more information on the health of the

Nation's livestock than does the stockyards inspection service. If efforts were being made to

learn which diseases existed in livestock, inspection of premises would be required. This

would be an impracticable service. However,

a very satisfactory method of making this determination is available by inspecting the 60

to 65 million animals that annually move

through 56 major marketing centers.

47
PUBLIC STOCKYARDS

Operating Under Federal Inspection

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

June 30, 1960

NEC. 60 (6) -5099 AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SERVICE

48
This service provides a means of preventing

the interstate spread of communicable diseases

of animals. It also builds confidence in buyers

at inspected markets that they are getting

healthy livestock.

The statistical story

In 1960, a total of 219 Federal veterinarians

and livestock inspectors examined, segregated,

and safely handled all diseased animals. Under

their supervision, 2,536 cars and 24,882 trucks

contaminated by diseased animals were cleaned

and disinfected.

Inspectors directed the dipping for scabies

of 53,627 cattle and 374,834 sheep, and supervised the immunization of 150,043 hogs against

cholera.

For the interstate movement of livestock

found to be apparently free from communicable diseases, inspectors issued 296,045 health

certificates.

The following statistics show the comparative volume of activities at public stockyards

in 1959 and 1960 :

1959 1S60

Number Number

Stockyards operating 58 58

Cities in which located 56 56

Animals inspected:

Cattle 21,977,606 21,700,786

Sheep 11,908,863 12,351,029

Swine 28,926,309 31,448,004

Total animals inspected -_ 62,812,778 65,499,819

Animals dipped for scabies:

Cattle ...„ 21,456

Sheep __, 388,450

Swine immunized against hog

chlorea for movement to farms

for stocker and feeder purposes 151,613

Total animals dipped and

immunized 561,519

Health certificates issued for

shipments 275,834

Infectious cars received 393

Cars cleaned and disinfected i.... 2,317

Trucks cleaned and disinfected.... 34,683

Diseased animals received ^ 434,971

53,627

374,834

150,043

578,504

296,045

235

2,536

24,882

' 446,493

1 Includes requests by States and railroads.

2 Includes 91,620 brucellosis, 10,089 tuberculosis and

186 paratuberculosis reactors; and 333,076 other

diseased animals.

- Includes 65,822 brucellosis, 7,077 tuberculosis and

122 paratuberculosis reactors; and 373,472 other

diseased animals.

49
Disease Reporting

A look at the future

Experience gained in the VE epidemic emphasized the need of keeping personnel alert

to the constant threat of disease whose appearance in public stockyards could wreck the

livestock industry. Equally essential is competence in the early diagnosis of diseases.

N-32662

Inspectors examine livestock for symptoms of disease.

Training programs will be improved to give

inspectors increasing information about disease conditions. Interchange of personnel will

be made between stockyards inspection and

cooperative disease eradication programs to

increase familiarity with all Division activities.

A manual is being written that will bring

greater uniformity in the handling of livestock

at public yards.

Stockyards inspectors stand in the first line

of defense in protecting the livestock industry

from the ravages of communicable diseases.

Continuing efforts to improve inspection proficiency in the early detection of disease will

further assure the public that its food supply

is well guarded.

Development of reporting

When Norsemen landed on North American

shores around the year 1004, they brought with

them cattle, sheep, horses, and goats. By the

time Jamestown was settled, these domestic

animals had vanished. The Spaniards brought

horses, but they remained in the west.

So when a bull and three heifers from England arrived at Plymouth colony in 1624, they

came to an environment that was more nearly

disease-free than it has ever been since.

Communities developed, but remained isolated. Movement of animals was local. The

few early records available indicate that apparently serious losses did occur in certain

localities. Generally, however, when diseases

were introduced they did not become widespread.

Early agricultural journals, starting with

the "American Farmer" in 1819, attempted to

publish reports of animal diseases. Soon many

of them had regular veterinary columns. Until the publication of the "American Veterinary

Review" in 1877, these journals were the principle sources of information on incidence of

animal diseases.

When the U.S. Department of Agriculture's

Bureau of Animal Industry came into being in

1884, more attention was given to preparing

official statistical reports showing the incidence

of certain livestock diseases and the extent of

loss suffered. A substantial part of this information came from routine program reports by

State and Federal inspectors.

More than 35 years ago, the Secretary of the

United States Livestock Sanitary Association

urged that national veterinary vital statistics

be collected and distributed. This recommendation was based on the conclusion that such information was essential to disease control. The

Association, recognizing the need for a national

reporting service, adopted a resolution recom51
mending that livestock sanitary authorities in

the States gather reliable information about

the health of livestock and outbreaks of communicable diseases, and forward it to a central

location for summary and publication.

More recently, the Association's Committee

on Morbidity and Mortality again reviewed the

situation, and adopted a plan to assist the U.S.

Department of Agriculture in establishing, in

cooperation with State livestock sanitary officials, a system for collecting and disseminating

statistics on livestock diseases. This was the

beginning of the Animal Diseases Reporting

System, established in the Agricultural Research Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, in November 1955.

Reporting will not, in itself, prevent the

spread of disease. But it is an important

foundation in building sound programs of livestock disease prevention, control, and eradication. During the past several years, much

progress has been made. The individual States

have assumed responsibility for collecting information within the State. The U.S. Public

Health Service has participated actively in

instituting State reporting systems. At the

same time, the Agricultural Research Service

has cooperated closely with State Livestock

Sanitary Officials, the U.S. Livestock Sanitary

Association, the U.S. Public Health Service,

State health departments, veterinary colleges,

the American Veterinary Medical Association,

Poultry Division of the Agricultural Marketing

Service, and other Federal and State agencies.

Why disease reporting?

Why is animal disease reporting important?

Its purpose is to furnish continuing information that will enable us more accurately to

estimate disease losses. These reports also

alert us to changes in disease incidence and

help in program planning.

Reporting includes four basic steps: collection of information, processing, use, and coordination. To be effective this must be a

continuous cycle with each step coordinated

with and supporting the others.

Shortcomings

Animal disease reporting has its weak spots.

Reports rarely ;:._ -il occurrences of a

given disease. Sometimes practitioners fail to

cooperate. Some reports do not include all

of the diseases observed; others include some

diseases more consistently than they do others,

or may have incorrect field diagnoses.

These reports have additional weaknesses.

The owner of diseased livestock may fail to

consult a veterinarian, thus, the occurrence is

not reported, or the veterinarian may visit

the herd only once. Perhaps several cases have

occurred before he is called. Others that are

not reported to him may occur after his call.

No reporting system can reñect all occurrences

of every disease, particularly those that are

common or widespread.

Obviously, these and other factors must be

considered if disease reports are to be interpreted properly. Constant effort is needed to

improve the system to keep the effects of these

shortcomings to a minimum.

The veterinary practitioner

Since he does daily battle with disease, the

practitioner has a definite stake in a reporting system, and without his help there can

be no program. By his cooperation the practitioner provides a wealth of disease information not readily available elsewhere.

Although reporting programs are criticized

for their inaccuracy of diagnosis and of evaluation based on incomplete participation, the

means are available to obtain better data. Accuracy can be improved as time goes on. And

the reports do provide the most realistic information obtainable on county. State, and

national levels. This is particularly true if

the information is available over a period of

years so that broad trends can be recognized.

There are also indirect benfits from practitioner participation. A working relationship

is created which encourages consultation and

prompt reporting to regulatory officials of potentially serious disease outbreaks.

Collection of information

This is the most difficult aspect of the reporting cycle. Obviously, the widest possible

range of accurate informational sources is

needed if the final reports are to have meaning.

Practicing veterinarians .... veterinary colleges .... veterinary science departments of

52
agricultural colleges and universities ....

diagnostic laboratories .... inspection services

at public stockyards and auction markets ....

antemortem and postmortem inspections at

slaughtering plants operating under Federal,

State, and municipal supervision .... inspection at poultry slaughtering plants .... reports

from regulatory officials of the Public Health

Service, and State and Federal Departments

of Agriculture .... and from Federal and

State Wildlife Conservation Services .... all

of these are current sources of useful information.

Several survey methods can be used to augment data supplied by routine reporting. One

method is to conduct a survey on a herd-byherd basis or, in a serological survey, at selected laboratories, to determine the prevalence

of selected diseases in the field.

This method is valuable not only as an aid

in determining the prevalence of certain diseases but also as a "monitor" for diseases

not known to be in the area—particularly

foreign diseases. Samples can be obtained by

veterinarians taking part in a field survey or

they can be chosen at random or by design

from those received at laboratories in the

course of routine work. Samples can also be

collected from animals at slaughterhouses or

concentration points, and in the case of wildlife during organized hunts, trapping programs, or as "kill-specimens" obtained at check

stations during hunting seasons.

Another method is to make a comprehensive

survey of representative herds to obtain information on a variety of infectious diseases and

other disorders. The survey might include

repeat visits and the reports could include

valuable data on disease prevalence in a herd

over an extended period of time.

Still another approach is to organize practicing veterinarians on a selected area basis so

that on specified days or during particular

periods they make detailed reports of all diseases encountered.

Also, cooperative owners might be asked to

keep accurate records of disease losses in their

herds over a period of time.

Processing

To simplify processing the reports, they

should be prepared on standardized forms, consolidated, summarized, and distributed at appropriate intervals. As soon as the quality

and quantity of data are adequate, the information can be placed on machine records to

obtain more complete analyses.

Processing should be handled and planned so

that eventually reports can be consolidated into

a single source reference to form a picture of

the incidence and prevalence of a livestock

disease.

From time to time it becomes necessary to

reduce summary reports to simple figures.

The source data are necessarily varied and influenced by a great many factors. And while

it may not be difficult to assess statistically the

effects of some factors, others are more elusive. And these elusive variables must be

considered in analyzing available data.

Benefits from disease reporting

To be of most value, reports should be on

a monthly, semiannual, annual, and special

basis. They are of particular interest to animal disease regulatory and public health officials, manufacturers of biologicals, medical

schools — both veterinary and human — and

many other specialized groups.

Through their use, officials and professional

medical analysts are able to chart disease

trends on an area. State, regional, and national

scale. The recurrence of disease cycles, of

great importance in disease-control activities,

can be recognized through a compilation of

morbidity data. With this information appropriate measures can be taken sooner to reduce

losses. This is made possible through knowledge of the course the disease has taken in a

certain area, or is likely to assume at a particular time, or under any given circumstances.

A reporting system is of inestimable use in

the sound evaluation of research requirements

and is invaluable if control and eradication

programs are to be given adequate advanced

planning.

Routine clinical reports regularly submitted

by practitioners pinpoint geographical areas

where detailed investigations and surveys

should be conducted. Systematic disease reporting by regulatory inspectors at stockyards

and slaughtering establishments is of special

value, since these data can be directly related

to known animal numbers.

53
Through the use of these standard reporting

procedures, sound statistical data become available in a form that can be rapidly processe;!

and readily subjected to detailed statistical

analysis.

Benefits accrue directly to the livestock industry through the utilization of animal

disease reports by biological and pharmaceutical manufacturers in planning their production

programs. The knowledge of disease trends

and cycles thus provided, enables them to anticipate needs and gear their production

schedules to specific disease requirements. As

a result, reduced operating costs are reflected

in lower prices to livestock producers. In

addition, they guarantee the livestock industry

an adequate supply for probable needs.

Modern clinical disease reporting techniques

have many other advantages. For example,

they are of material assistance in recognizing

possible modes of transmission among animal

species, both wild and domestic ; and they provide indirect evidence of the effectiveness of

animal disease control measures.

Thus it can be seen that reporting systems,

in providing reliable and comprehensive information to scientific projects, answer a longstanding need in many related fields of effort.

By providing sound animal disease statistics

on geographical and seasonal patterns, the

reports serve as an additional protective measure to the entire livestock industry and to

human health.

Coordination

Deficiencies of standard reporting systems

can be overcome to some degree through the

contributions and close cooperation of veterinarians at diagnostic laboratories, stockyards,

and slaughtering establishments, and by

adequate epidemiological investigations and

proper surveys among the animal population.

State and national coordinators are responsible for final coordination and correlation of

the reporting efl'orts, and for final organization

to fit all into a harmonious whole.

To avoid confusion and keep reports as

simple as possible, diseases must be reported

by their preferred names rather than synonyms. To be of value, the data must include

the number of cases, number of herds and

flocks, and the counties involved.

In order for the national office to properly

tabulate and consolidate the State's reports

into a national summary, the State reports

must conform to a general form type. Therefore, planning, guidance, and direction from

the individuals responsible for all phases of

the reporting activities are essential for

necessary development and improvement.

' i^Hr f-, r^'if-^^J^ -

54
Accreditation of Veterinarians

It has become increasingly apparent that

communicable diseases of livestock cannot be

controlled or eradicated on a herd basis alone.

The manner of disease spread is complex.

Eradication requires the participation of veterinarians in many segments of the profession.

In recognition of this need, the Division and

the State regulatory offices have relied heavily

on veterinary practitioners to supplement the

disease control activities of State and Federal

veterinarians. Evidence of this reliance appears in most State and Federal regulations,

which specify that certain movements can be

made when certified by a full-time State or

Federal veterinarian or an accredited veterinarian.

Considerable technical analysis goes into the

development of animal disease control regulations. Clearly, State and Federal governments are delegating an important responsibility to the accredited veterinarians of the

Nation. The certificates they are empowered

to issue are extremely important in preventing

the spread of livestock diseases.

Approved and accredited veterinarians

The former Bureau of Animal Industry for

many years recognized accreditation of veterinarians. The need became evident soon after

the inauguration of the tuberculosis eradication program in 1917.

A list was compiled of "approved" veterinarians who were authorized to conduct

tuberculosis tests on cattle destined for interstate movement. "Approved" veterinarians

were those who had received instruction in

testing techniques, so that reliance could be

placed on their ability to approve the interstate

movement of cattle in connection with tuberculosis eradication. Later, lists of "approved"

and "accredited" veterinarians were developed.

The differentiation was: The "approved" veterinarian was qualified to perform the tuberculosis test, but it was necessary that he be

"accredited" to issue interstate certificates.

Even in the early days, it was recognized

that the receiving State officials had to place

confidence in a health certificate issued by a

practicing veterinarian in the originating

State. As requirements for accreditation were

developed, and standards for its maintenance

were recognized, State and Federal regulations

placed increasing responsibility on the accredited veterinarian to assure the healthy status

of livestock in domestic and international transit. Unquestionably, the performance of

accredited veterinarians has improved through

the years that this classification has been in

effect.

In the early days an accreditation examination was given by the Bureau of Animal

Industry. This was later discontinued.

Eventually, the responsibility of determining

practitioner qualification was delegated to the

State and Federal officials in charge of disease

control and eradication activities in the locality

where the practicing veterinarian desired accreditation. They determine the applicant's

knowledge of interstate and export requirements and his ability to conduct tests and

examinations according to established policies.

Recommendation is then made to the Director of the Animal Disease Eradication Division

that the practicing veterinarian be accredited

in that State. A further check by the Division

is made to determine that the basic requirements of accreditation are satisfied.

Requirements for accreditation

(1) The applicant must be a graduate of a

school approved by the Department of Agriculture.

(2) The applicant must be licensed in the

State where accreditation is desired.

(3) The applicant must have demonstrated

to the satisfaction of the State and Federal

55
disease control officials that he has knowledge

of interstate and intrastate requirements, disease control and eradication programs, and

capabilities in the desired techniques.

A register of accredited veterinarians is

maintained by the Division. A certificate of

accreditation signifying by vi^hom accreditation

was recommended, and approved by the Director or Acting Director of the Division, is

furnished each accredited veterinarian.

Standards were reiterated and given to all

veterinarians accredited during the year. It

was pointed out that the accreditation of veterinarians is the responsibility of the Animal

Disease Eradication Division. Since accreditation is recognized in many State and Federal

regulations pertaining to intrastate, interstate,

and international movements of livestock, it

was thought advisable for the maintenance of

uniformity to outline the standards under

which an accredited veterinarian functions.

It stated that the following standards will

be used to evaluate the proper conduct of the

practitioner when performing services as an

accredited veterinarian :

STANDARDS FOR ACCREDITED

VETERINARIANS

1. All animals and poultry certified as disease-free will be inspected and identified by

the accredited veterinarian issuing the certificate. All certificates issued must be signed by

the veterinarian performing the inspections,

vaccinations, and/or conducting the tests.

2. All certificates will be correctly and fully

completed and forwarded to the appropriate

State and/or Federal official for approval.

Distribution will be made according to existing policies and regulations.

3. Required tests will be applied according

to recommended procedures using standard

techniques prescribed by State and Federal

oflicials.

4. Certificates issued that reflect results of

tests performed by another veterinarian shall

clearly indicate the name of the veterinarian

conducting the tests, where tested, date, and

the results.

5. All official test forms must be promptly

completed and appropriate copies submitted

to the laboratories or office of the State or

Federal official.

6. All reactor animals disclosed by tests will

be identified within prescribed time limitations

and according to existing cooperative procedures within the State.

7. Supervision will be maintained over all

infected herds and flocks including suspect animals and birds for which the accredited

veterinarian is responsible under existing cooperative program procedures within the State.

8. Calf vaccinations will be performed at the

prescribed ages using approved techniques

with proper identification according to cooperative program procedures.

9. Official calf vaccination certificates will be

promptly completed and copies furnished the

owner and State and/or Federal office as called

for by existing program procedures within the

State.

10. All diagnosed or suspected cases of reportable diseases of livestock and poultry will

be reported immediately to the State and/or

Federal regulatory official.

11. The accredited veterinarian will fully

instruct all owners of infected premises as to

the proper method of cleaning, and inspection

of cleaning and disinfection as may be required

by the existing State and/or Federal pohcies.

12. Extreme care will be exercised in the

cleaning and disinfection of footwear, instruments, nose tongs, etc., to minimize the danger

of spread of disease between animals and

premises.

13. All official duties and activities should be

carried out according to conformity with regulations and instructions governing such duties

and activities.

14. An accredited veterinarian will keep himself fully informed on the current policies and

regulations of cooperative livestock disease

control and eradication procedures and will

advise livestock owners accordingly.

15. The performance of all official duties

and activities of an accredited veterinarian in

the State where such duties are performed is

56
subject to such supervision and direction as

may be considered appropriate by the State

and/or Federal regulatory officials.

16. Failure to comply fully with these standards may be cause for removal from the list

of accredited veterinarians.

VIOLATION OF STANDARDS

If the standards for accredited veterinarians

are violated, the privileges of accreditation are

removed. This action is taken on evidence of

violation of standards upon recommendation

by either the cooperating State or Federal

official in charge of livestock disease control

activities in the State where the violation occurred. It is preferred that the recommendation for removal of accreditation be made

jointly. Restoration to the register of accredited veterinarians can be accomplished when

the applicant has demonstrated proper intent

of compliance with the standards to the satisfaction of both the State and Federal official

in his State, who in turn make such recommendation to the Director of the Division.

This recommendation must meet the approval

of the Director.

THE COLLEGES AND REGULATORY

VETERINARY MEDICINE

During recent years, the Division has

worked with the Deans of the Schools of

Veterinary Medicine regarding regulatory

veterinary medicine and basic information on

the duties and responsibilities of accredited

veterinarians. Emphasis on this phase of

veterinary medicine is being given by the

schools, particularly to senior students. An

exploratory examination on veterinary accreditation is offered the senior classes to determine the knowledge gained in this field.

Excellent cooperation has been received from

the schools of veterinary medicine.

The livestock industry and the livestock

disease regulatory officials of this country

recognize the very important part that the

accredited veterinarians play in the disease

control and eradication programs of the

Nation.

57
Training

In the early years of Federal work in animal

disease eradication, the responsibilities of the

employee were limited to the eradication of

contagious bovine pleuropneumonia. Use of

a greater portion of the authority contained in

the original Animal Disease Eradication legislation, plus additions to it, has since increased

the complexity of programs and the duties of

employees.

A Division veterinarian today must have a

sound, basic knowledge of communicable animal diseases and the problems involved in their

control and eradication. In most cases he must

also be a supervisor and a manager. These

factors have made it necessary for the Division

to design special training programs to meet its

specific needs.

Veterinary Administrator Development

Program

In 1960, 13 veterinarians participated in the

Veterinary Administrator Development Program. This activity provides training in the

administration of ADE programs and helps

prepare the trainee for a position of greater

responsibility. The length, type, and place of

training vary to meet the needs of the individual. Usually it comprises 9 months at

designated Animal Disease Eradication and

Animal Inspection and Quarantine stations,

divided as follows: 2 weeks at the port of

New York; 2 weeks at Laredo observing livestock export-import activities and Texas fever

tick eradication ; 2 weeks at the Chicago stockyards ; 5 months at one ADE field station ; and

2 months at another.

The trainee observes all phases of the technical programs as well as the administrative

operations necessary for their implementation.

During the periods at the two Division field

stations the trainee frequently acts in the

capacity of veterinarian in charge. This helps

provide understanding of the problems and

responsibilities in the operation of a station.

Epidemiology

During 1960, 15 ADE veterinarians received

training in the basic principles of epidemiology

at the United States Public Health Service

Communicable Disease Center, Atlanta, Ga.

In the year ahead, it is planned to make similar training available to approximately 100

Division veterinarians. Thorough understanding of the basic principles of epidemiology—

broadly defined as the eiïect of a disease on

a community—is essential to the development

and eflficient operation of eradication programs.

Blowfly identification

With the eradication of screwworms from

the Southeastern United States, animals moving from the Southwest to the Southeast must

be inspected to determine that they are not

infested. Larvae or nies found within the

eradication zone, and suspected of being screwworms, must be immediately identified and

appropriate eradication efforts started. To

this end, 25 personnel, including stockyard

veterinarians, livestock inspectors, and sei'ologists, attended blowfly identification courses at

the Sebring screwworm eradication headquarters—another example of a program designed to meet a specific need.

Radiology

Approximately 50 veterinarians received

training in 1960 to qualify them as radiological monitoring instructors. They, in turn, will

conduct monitoring training courses in their

respective States so that all employees will

ultimately have a basic understanding of the

problems involved in radiological defense. In

1961, it is hoped to train sufficient personnel

in the use of radiation measuring devices so

59
that fixed monitoring stations can be established at each stockyard under Federal insiDection.

Scabies, serology, and ticks

Identification of scabies mites, techniques for

conducting serological tests, diagnosis of

BN-12078-X

Instructor watches as trainee examines scabby sheep.

EN-120T9-X

Trainees learn to identify mites at a scabies training

school.

foreign animal diseases and anthrax, diagnosis

of poultry diseases, and tick identification are

additional examples of specialized training

courses that have been conducted.

The Division appreciates the necessity for

continuing the development of all employees.

As additional areas for specialized training are

recognized, measures will be taken to satisfy

the need.

60
Program Appraisal

Why?

An important concern of the Animal Disease

Eradication Division is that its responsibilities

are being properly and effectively carried out.

To assure this, management must have reliable

information on which to act.

This function is considered one of the most

important to be initiated by the Division in

recent years. It is designed to give constructive criticism and review of Division programs

by its own personnel. It is an attempt to

evaluate programs by people not involved in

them, so that if certain aspects require modification or correction, they can be made for

the benefit of all concerned.

Thus, it may be said that the chief reason

for program appraisal is to develop and conduct reviews and analyses of Division activities

in order to achieve more efficient and effective

administration.

What it is

With the realinement of Division functions

in 1958, there was provided a new function

of Program Appraisal. It is neither a line

nor an operating function, but a staff or advisory function. It does not make changes in

procedures at any level. It is independent of

line operations. Independence permits factual

and unbiased reports.

Program Appraisal, of course, does not in

any way relieve others in the Division of their

primary responsibilities.

The functions and objectives of Program

Appraisal are—

(1) To evaluate the adequacy and effectiveness of policies and procedures.

(2) To determine whether programs are

being administered in accordance

with established policies and procedures.

(3) To evaluate Division programs at National and State levels.

(4) To determine overall effectiveness, efficiency, and economy of operations.

How ¡t operates

Program Appraisal personnel make station

reviews and appraisals by visits to the stations.

One or more of each of the following types of

employees are visited and accompanied in their

routine activities : District and area veterinary livestock inspectors, stockyard veterinarians, and fee-basis veterinarians. Other

people, including Extension personnel, representatives of farm organizations, veterinary

associations, and State emploj^ees are also

contacted. Visits are made to laboratories,

Federal stockyards, inspection stations, and

approved auction markets.

Meetings with Division employees are usually made with no advance notice. In addition to observation and appraisal of field work

and techniques, the following are reviewed :

(1) Supervision

(2) Plan of work and work assignments

(3) Public relations

(4) Knowledge of individual diseases and

programs

(5) Attitudes concerning programs

(6) Available informational material

(7) Equipment and supplies

(8) Records and reports

It is important that information be obtained

from field personnel in regard to all procedures

used in the programs with which they are in

contact. It is equally important that problems

hindering the achievement of objectives be

clearly defined. Finding deficiencies and defining problems is the key to eflñcient and eco61
nomical program operations. The purpose of

program appraisal is not solely to unearth

shortcomings of programs or personnel. But

it is necessary to locate and define deficiencies

and problems so that all of the Division's facilities may be utilized to correct them.

During program appraisal at a station, considerable time is spent with the Veterinarian

in Charge. Each program is reviewed to delineate problems and to reassess objectives and

goals.

Another important aspect of program appraisal is a determination of the cooperative

relationship existing between Federal and

State offices and the amount of support being

given by farm and livestock organizations.

Other areas that are reviewed at the station

level include work organization and planning,

utilization of personnel, policies and procedures, training programs, funds, and records.

Usually a week is spent at each station with

the time divided equally between office and

field.

What it gives

With a variety of programs, a decentralized

organization involving some 50 stations, and

the fact that because of their cooperative nature programs vary from station to station,

management must be informed of what is going on at the point of operation. This service

is provided by program appraisal.

Another benefit is the location of deficiencies

before they become the object of criticism by

people outside of the organization.

Program appraisal is not a one-way effort

concerned only with attempting to find deficiencies at the field level. It also tries to find

problems, which, because local conditions make

regulations unworkable, are handicapping field

operations. By defining such problems, corrective action can be taken that will help make a

smoother and more efficient operation.

Frequently, a station has devised an efficient

method of pei'forming some particular function. This information often is useful in other

States. Program appraisal is a means of finding such procedures and passing on the information so that other States may benefit.

62
Cooperative Activities With Mexico

Between 1946 and 1954 over $100,000,000

was spent by the governments of Mexico and

the United States in joint efforts to eradicate

foot-and-mouth disease. Few investments have

been more profitable. It has been estimated that

the amount spent is equivalent to 1 year's losses

were the disease introduced into the United

States. There have been no recurrences of the

disease in Mexico since April 1954. The results indicate the effectiveness of a strenuous

campaign by two neighbor Nations in successfully completing a task that many thought

impossible.

Activities in recent years have been carried

out under authority of the Mexico-United

States Commission for the Prevention of Footand-Mouth Disease. The Sub-Secretary of Agriculture for Livestock, for the Republic of

Mexico, Dr. Daniel Mercado, serves as Director

of the Commission. A small group of Mexican

and American veterinarians still have the responsibility of checking reports anywhere in

the countiy of animals suspected of being affected with a vesicular condition.

A number of vesicular conditions occurring

in Mexico during 1959 were diagnosed through

serological techniques as New Jersey type vesicular stomatitis. Most of the cases were

along the United States-Mexican border. The

condition was also diagnosed during the same

period on a number of ranches on the United

States side of the river. During 1960, vesicular stomatitis was diagnosed in Central and

Southern Mexico.

Excellent cooperation is extended by officials

of the Mexican Department of Agriculture and

by Mexican members of the Commission in

carrying out cooperative activities.

In 1959 arrangements were made with the

Mexican Department of Agriculture for conducting a preliminary screwworm survey covering 300,000 square miles of northeastern

Mexico, in conjunction with a similar survey

being made in the Southwestern United States.

A group of Mexican and American veterinarians and technicians interviewed veterinarians

with the Mexican Department of Agriculture,

veterinary practitioners, officers of cattlemen's

associations, local government officials, packing

and slaughter house personnel, ranchers, and

farmers. The purpose of the survey was to

determine the incidence and relative abundance

of screwworms ; the effects of climate, terrain,

livestock practices, and other factors on the

screwworm population in the different areas;

and the existence, if any, of natural barriers to

fly migration.

In essence, the study sought to determine the

feasibility of a joint Mexico-United States

screwworm eradication effort. The results of

the survey are indicated in the report on screwworms.

1^ U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1961 594031

63