Office of Radiation and Indoor Air 

National Air and Radiation

Environmental Laboratory

EPA 402-R-12-005

August 2012

www.epa.gov/narel

Guide for Radiological

Laboratories for the Control of

Radioactive Contamination and

Radiation Exposure

United States

Environmental Protection

Agency
EPA 402-R-12-005

www.epa.gov/narel

August 2012

Revision 0

Guide for Radiological Laboratories for 

the Control of Radioactive Contamination 

and Radiation Exposure

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Office of Air and Radiation

Office of Radiation and Indoor Air

National Air and Radiation Environmental Laboratory

Montgomery, AL 36115
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

This report was prepared for the National Air and Radiation Environmental Laboratory of the Office of 

Radiation and Indoor Air, United States Environmental Protection Agency. It was prepared by 

Environmental Management Support, Inc., of Silver Spring, Maryland, under contracts 68-W-03-038, work

assignment 35, and EP-07-037, work assignments B-33 and I-33, all managed by David Garman. 

Mention of trade names or specific applications does not imply endorsement or acceptance by EPA.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

i

PREFACE

The need to ensure adequate laboratory infrastructure to support response and recovery actions 

following a major radiological or nuclear incident has been recognized by a number of federal 

agencies. The Integrated Consortium of Laboratory Networks (ICLN), created in 2005 by 10 

federal agencies,1

www.epa.gov/erln/

consists of existing laboratory networks across the Federal Government. The 

ICLN is designed to provide a national infrastructure with a coordinated and operational system 

of laboratory networks that provide timely, high quality, and interpretable results for early 

detection and effective consequence management of acts of terrorism and other events requiring 

an integrated laboratory response. It also designates responsible federal agencies (RFAs) to 

provide laboratory support across response phases for chemical, biological, and radiological 

agents. To meet its RFA responsibilities, EPA has established the Environmental Response 

Laboratory Network (ERLN) to address chemical, biological, and radiological threats during 

nationally significant incidents ( ). EPA is the RFA for monitoring, 

surveillance, and remediation of radiological agents. EPA will share responsibility for overall 

incident response with the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE).

This document is one of several initiatives by EPA’s Office of Radiation and Indoor Air 

designed to provide guidance to radiological laboratories that will support EPA’s response and 

recovery actions following a radiological or nuclear incident, such as the detonation of an 

improvised nuclear device (IND) or a radiological dispersal device (RDD) (“dirty bomb”). 

During the response to such an incident, a radiological laboratory may need to process much 

greater numbers of samples, some of which are likely to have higher levels of radioactivity than 

the laboratory is accustomed to handling. This guide describes the likely radioactive 

contamination control and challenges that would face personnel at the laboratory following such 

an incident, and offers suggestions for preparing for these challenges. 

Advance planning by the laboratory to control radioactive contamination and radiation will be 

critical to ensure the rapid delivery of radioanalytical results that meet the required data quality 

objectives associated with the protection of human health and the environment. 

This guide identifies key topics for consideration by the laboratory and presents various 

suggestions on which the laboratory may base its decisions regarding the establishment of 

operational protocols. Specifically, the guide discusses the need to prepare the laboratory to 

participate in the incident response by defining and establishing discreet work areas and 

operational guidelines for the various laboratory activities, based primarily on the levels of 

radioactivity being processed and the flow of radioactive material through the laboratory, and by 

establishing customized laboratory-specific protocols for the key activities that are likely to have 

a significant impact on contamination and radiation control.

As with any technical endeavor, the establishment of effective contamination and radiation 

control for radiological or nuclear incident response in a radiological laboratory will require each 

laboratory to develop practices and protocols that address the unique needs of its facility. This 

guide provides examples of practices and descriptions of work areas that are intended to serve as 

 1 Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, Defense, Energy, Health and Human Services, Homeland Security, 

Interior, Justice, and State, and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

ii 

a starting point for the laboratory to consider in the development of its own solutions to the 

issues presented. The guide does not address a complete catalog of control methodologies or 

potential situations.

This document2

• Radiological Laboratory Sample Analysis Guide for Incidents of National Significance –

Radionuclides in Water (EPA 402-R-07-007, January 2008) 

is one in a planned series designed to present radioanalytical laboratory 

personnel, Incident Commanders (and their designees), and other field response personnel with 

key laboratory operational considerations and likely radioanalytical requirements, decision paths, 

and default data quality and measurement quality objectives for analysis of samples taken after a 

radiological or nuclear incident, including incidents caused by a terrorist attack. Documents 

currently completed or in preparation include:

• Radiological Laboratory Sample Analysis Guide for Incidents of National Significance –

Radionuclides in Air (EPA 402-R-09-007, June 2009)

• Radiological Laboratory Sample Screening Analysis Guide for Incidents of National 

Significance (EPA 402-R-09-008, June 2009)

• Method Validation Guide for Qualifying Methods Used by Radiological Laboratories 

Participating in Incident Response Activities (EPA 402-R-09-006, June 2009) 

• Guide for Laboratories – Identification, Preparation, and Implementation of Core 

Operations for Radiological or Nuclear Incident Response (EPA 402-R-10-002, June 2010)

• A Performance-Based Approach to the Use of Swipe Samples in Response to a Radiological 

or Nuclear Incident (EPA 600-R-11-122, October 2011)

• Uses of Field and Laboratory Measurements During a Radiological or Nuclear Incident 

(EPA 402-R-12-007, August 2012)

• Radiological Laboratory Sample Analysis Guide for Radiological or Nuclear Incidents –

Radionuclides in Soil (EPA 402-R-12-006, September 2012)

Comments on this document, or suggestions for future editions, should be addressed to:

Dr. John Griggs

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Office of Radiation and Indoor Air

National Air and Radiation Environmental Laboratory

540 South Morris Avenue

Montgomery, AL 36115-2601

(334) 270-3450

Griggs.John@epa.gov

 2 All the documents in this series are available at www.epa.gov/erln/radiation.html and at

www.epa.gov/narel/incident_guides.html. 
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

iii 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This guide was developed by the National Air and Radiation Environmental Laboratory 

(NAREL) of EPA’s Office of Radiation and Indoor Air (ORIA). Dr. John Griggs was the project 

lead for this document. Several individuals provided valuable support and input to this document 

throughout its development. Special acknowledgment and appreciation are extended to Dr. Keith 

McCroan, ORIA/NAREL; Dr. Lowell Ralston and Mr. Edward Tupin, CHP, both of ORIA/ 

Radiation Protection Division; and Mr. David Garman, ORIA/NAREL. We also wish to 

acknowledge the external peer reviews conducted by Ms. Dawn Cermak, Dr. J. Stanley Morton, 

Mr. Sherrod L. Maxwell, Dr. Shiyamalie Ruberu, and Ms. Carolyn Wong, whose thoughtful 

comments contributed greatly to the understanding and quality of the report. Numerous other 

individuals inside EPA provided internal peer reviews of this document, and their suggestions 

contributed greatly to the quality and consistency of the final document. Technical support was 

provided by Mr. David Burns, Dr. N. Jay Bassin, Dr. Anna Berne, Dr. Carl V. Gogolak, Dr. 

Robert Litman, Dr. David McCurdy, and Mr. Robert Shannon of Environmental Management 

Support, Inc.

DEDICATION

This report is dedicated to the memory of our friend and colleague, David Garman. Dave 

administered nearly three dozen separate contracted radiochemistry projects for EPA dating back 

nearly 17 years, beginning with the Multi-Agency Radiological Laboratory Analytical Protocols

(MARLAP) in 1994. Dave put up with countless changes of prime contractors, priorities, 

subcontractors, and budgets, all with good cheer, diligence, and all while keeping up with his 

“day job” as counting room lead for alpha-spectrometry analysis at NAREL.

Dave started with EPA’s National Air and Radiation Laboratory in 1992. He left many friends 

throughout EPA and the radioanalytical community, and he will be greatly missed. 
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

iv

Contents

Preface.............................................................................................................................................. i

Acknowledgments..........................................................................................................................iii

Dedication......................................................................................................................................iii

Acronyms, Abbreviations, Units, and Symbols............................................................................ vii

Radiometric And General Unit Conversions................................................................................. ix

1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 1

1.1 Purpose and Scope .............................................................................................................. 3

1.2 Limitations and Regulatory Considerations........................................................................ 4

2. Preparing the Laboratory............................................................................................................ 5

2.1 Defining Types of Operational Areas and Other Areas Affected by Laboratory 

Operations........................................................................................................................... 6

2.1.1 Unrestricted Public Areas...........................................................................................6

2.1.2 Buffer Zones...............................................................................................................6

2.1.3 Operational Areas.......................................................................................................7

2.2 Establishing Acceptable Levels of Radioactivity and Radiation...................................... 13

2.2.1 Action Levels: AAL, Required Method Uncertainty, and ADL..............................14

2.2.2 Establishing Analytical Action Levels for Contamination Control — AAL(C)......15

2.2.3 Limiting the Method Uncertainty, uMR .....................................................................20

2.2.4 Determining the Analytical Decision Level.............................................................21

2.2.5 Establishing Appropriate Corrective Action when the ADL(C) is Exceeded..........22

2.3 Additional Comments Regarding Radioactivity and Exposure Limits............................. 24

2.4 Determining Appropriate Levels of Personal Protective Equipment ............................... 26

2.5 Laboratory Layout and Process Flow ............................................................................... 26

2.6 Additional Planning Considerations................................................................................. 27

2.6.1 Controlled Entry/Egress Points................................................................................27

2.6.2 Step-Off Pads ...........................................................................................................27

2.6.3 PPE Donning/Doffing Areas....................................................................................28

2.6.4 Frisking Stations.......................................................................................................28

2.6.5 Personnel Decontamination Stations........................................................................29

2.6.6 Spill Response/Surface Decontamination Equipment..............................................29

2.6.7 Contamination Follow-Up Protocol.........................................................................30

2.6.8 Additional Shielding Material..................................................................................30

2.6.9 Glove Boxes.............................................................................................................30

2.7 Changing the Work Area Designation During an Incident Response .............................. 31

3. Radioactive Contamination Control......................................................................................... 32

3.1 Sample Handling Protocols............................................................................................... 33

3.1.1 Initial Receipt of Radioactive Materials...................................................................33

3.1.2 Opening, Transferring, and Aliquanting Sample Material.......................................34

3.1.3 Isolating Reduced Fractions for Transfer to Lower-Level Work Areas ..................35

3.1.4 Sample Preparation and Chemical Separation Processes.........................................35

3.1.5 Instrumentation and Radioanalytical Controls.........................................................36

3.2 Movement Between Laboratory Areas (Entry/Egress)..................................................... 37
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

v 

3.2.1 Entry Into a Higher-Activity Area ...........................................................................38

3.2.2 Egress Into a Lower-Activity Area ..........................................................................39

3.3 Laboratory Contamination Monitoring and Control......................................................... 39

3.3.1 Surveillance of Laboratory Surfaces and Equipment...............................................41

3.3.2 Decontamination of Laboratory Surfaces and Equipment .......................................43

3.4 Personnel Contamination Monitoring and Control........................................................... 43

3.4.1 Personnel Contamination Prevention .......................................................................43

3.4.2 Personnel Contamination Surveillance ....................................................................44

3.4.3 Personnel Decontamination......................................................................................45

4. Exposure Control And Radiation Shielding............................................................................. 46

4.1 ALARA Principles............................................................................................................ 46

4.2 General Shielding Information ......................................................................................... 46

4.2.1 Alpha Shielding........................................................................................................48

4.2.2 Beta Shielding ..........................................................................................................48

4.3 Gamma Shielding of Storage Areas.................................................................................. 49

4.3.1 Use of Buffer Zones and Other Unoccupied Spaces................................................49

4.3.2 Consideration of the Occupancy of Affected Areas.................................................50

4.3.3 Strategic Placement of Gamma Shielding Materials................................................51

4.3.4 Consideration of Multi-Level Facilities...................................................................52

4.4 Gamma Shielding of In-Process Materials....................................................................... 52

5. Summary .................................................................................................................................. 54

6. References................................................................................................................................ 55

Appendix A: Planning Considerations for Laboratory Layout and Process Flow........................ 56

Appendix B: Initial Receipt of Radioactive Materials.................................................................. 63

Appendix C: Opening, Transferring, and Aliquanting Sample Material...................................... 68

Appendix D: Isolating Reduced Fractions for Transfer to Lower-Level Areas ........................... 72

Appendix E: Entry Into a Higher-Activity Area........................................................................... 75

Appendix F: Egress Into a Lower-Activity Area.......................................................................... 76

Appendix G: Active Radiological Monitoring Program for Contamination Control................... 80

Appendix H: Surveillance of Laboratory Surfaces and Equipment.............................................. 93

Appendix I: Decontamination of Laboratory Surfaces and Equipment........................................ 98

Appendix J: Establishing MQOs for Sample Screening Measurements .................................... 100

Appendix K: Establishing MQOs for Sample Exposure Rates .................................................. 104

Figures

Figure 1 – Example of Shielding Considerations in Sample and Waste Storage Areas............... 50

Figure 2 – Three-Dimensional Shielding Considerations............................................................. 52

Figure 3 – Alternate Shielding Configurations............................................................................. 53

Figure 4 – Conceptual Layout of the Laboratory and Associated Areas...................................... 56

Figure 5 – Process Flow in the Sample Receiving Area............................................................... 58
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

vi 

Figure 6a – Process Flow in the Screening Areas......................................................................... 59

Figure 6b – Process Flow in the Screening Area with a Single Entryway ................................... 60

Figure 7 – Process Flow in the Routine Work Areas.................................................................... 61

Figure 8 – Example of Radioactive Materials Shipments Initial Survey Results......................... 65

Figure 9 – Work Flow Inside Fume Hood; Unpacking Samples.................................................. 66

Figure 10 – Opening, Transferring, and Aliquanting Sample Material........................................ 69

Figure 11 – Example Layout of the Egress Area.......................................................................... 77

Figure 12a – Hypothetical Environmental Laboratory Operating Under Normal Conditions..... 82

Figure 12b – Hypothetical Environmental Laboratory Operating Under Normal Conditions..... 83

Figure 13a – Hypothetical Environmental Laboratory Operating Under Incident-Response 

Conditions ........................................................................................................................... 84

Figure 13b – Hypothetical Environmental Laboratory Operating Under Incident-Response 

Conditions: Radiochemistry Laboratory Expanded View .................................................. 85

Figure 14 – Example Survey Report Form, Front ........................................................................ 94

Figure 15 – Example Survey Report Form, Back......................................................................... 95

Tables

Table 1 – Laboratory AALs for Contamination and Exposure Control: An Example of Maximum 

Sample Activity, Exposure and Dose Rate, and Radioactive Contamination by Area Type

............................................................................................................................................. 19

Table 2 – Laboratory ADLs for Contamination and Exposure Control: An Example of RoutineLevel Work Area MQOs..................................................................................................... 23

Table 3 – Suggested PPE for Operational Areas.......................................................................... 26

Table 4 – Summary of Major Changes Suggested for Radiological or Nuclear Incident Response 

Operations ........................................................................................................................... 86

Table 5 – Target Areas, Techniques, and Frequency of Radiological Monitoring....................... 90

Table 6 – Example Contamination Investigation and Action Levels........................................... 91
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

vii 

ACRONYMS, ABBREVIATIONS, UNITS, AND SYMBOLS

(Excluding chemical symbols and formulas)

α ........................alpha particle

α ........................probability of a Type I decision error

AA.....................atomic absorption (spectrometry)

AAL ..................analytical action level

AAL(C).............analytical action level for contamination control analyses 

AAL(S)..............analytical action level for field sample analyses

ADL ..................analytical decision level

ADL(C).............analytical decision level for contamination control analyses

ADL(S)..............analytical decision level for field sample analyses

ALARA.............As Low As Reasonably Achievable

AMTLD ............area monitoring thermoluminescent dosimeter

ASHRAE...........American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers

β ........................beta particle

β.........................probability of a Type II decision error

Bq......................becquerel (1 dps)

CFR...................Code of Federal Regulations

Ci.......................curie

CSU...................combined standard uncertainty

d.........................day

DL .....................discrimination level

DOE ..................United States Department of Energy

DOT ..................United States Department of Transportation

dpm ...................disintegrations per minute

dps.....................disintegrations per second

DQO..................data quality objective

DRP...................discrete radioactive particle 

EPA...................United States Environmental Protection Agency

ERLN ................Environmental Response Laboratory Network

γ.........................gamma ray

g.........................gram

GC/MS..............gas chromatograph/mass spectrometer

G-M...................Geiger-Müller

GPC...................gas-proportional counting/counter

Gy......................gray

h.........................hour

HEPA................high efficiency particulate air [filter]

HPGe.................high purity germanium [detector]

HVAC ...............heating, ventilation, air conditioning [system]

ICLN .................Integrated Consortium of Laboratory Networks

ICP ....................inductively coupled plasma 

IND ...................improvised nuclear device (i.e., a nuclear bomb)

IRP ....................Incident Response Plan

L........................liter

LSC ...................liquid scintillation counting/counter
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

viii 

μCi ....................microcurie (10−6 Ci)

μR......................microroentgen (10−6 R)

m .......................meter

MARLAP..........Multi-Agency Radiological Laboratory Analytical Protocols [Manual]

MARSAME ......Multi-Agency Radiation Survey and Assessment of Materials and Equipment 

[Manual]

MDC .................minimum detectable concentration

mg .....................milligram (10–3 g)

min ....................minute

mrem .................millirem (10–3 rem)

MQO .................measurement quality objective

NaI(Tl) ..............thallium-activated sodium iodide detector

NEPA................National Environmental Policy Act

NRC ..................United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission

φMR.....................required relative method uncertainty 

φMR(C) ......................required relative method uncertainty above the AAL(C) for contamination 

control analyses

φMR(S) .......................required relative method uncertainty above the AAL(S) for field sample

analyses

PAG...................protective action guide

pCi.....................picocurie (10–12 Ci)

PPE....................personal protective equipment

PT......................proficiency testing

QC.....................quality control

R........................roentgen

rad .....................radiation absorbed dose

RCP...................Radiological Controls Program

RCRA................Resource Conservation and Recovery Act

RDD..................radiological dispersal device (i.e., “dirty bomb”)

rem ....................roentgen equivalent: man

RFA...................responsible federal agency

RPP ...................radiation protection program

RSO...................radiation safety officer

s.........................second

SI.......................International System of Units

SOP ...................standard operating procedure

Sv ......................sievert

TEDE ................total effective dose equivalent

TLD...................thermoluminescence dosimeter

uMR .....................required method uncertainty

uMR(C).......................required method uncertainty at or below the AAL(C) for contamination control 

analyses

uMR(S)........................required method uncertainty at or below the AAL(S) for field sample analyses

y.........................year

Z........................atomic number
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

ix 

RADIOMETRIC AND GENERAL UNIT CONVERSIONS

To Convert To Multiply by To Convert To Multiply by

years (y) seconds (s)

minutes (min)

hours (h)

days (d)

3.16×107

5.26×105

8.77×103

3.65×102

s

min

h

d

y 3.17×10–8

1.90×10–6

1.14×10–4

2.74×10–3

disintegrations per 

second (dps) Becquerels (Bq) 1 Bq dps 1

Bq

Bq/kg

Bq/m3

Bq/m3

picocuries (pCi)

pCi/g

pCi/L

Bq/L

27.0

2.70×10–2

2.70×10–2

10-3

pCi

pCi/g

pCi/L

Bq/L

Bq

Bq/kg

Bq/m3

Bq/m3

3.70×10–2

37.0

37.0

103

microcuries per 

milliliter (μCi/mL) pCi/L 109 pCi/L μCi/mL 10–9

disintegrations per 

minute (dpm)

μCi

pCi

4.50×10–7

4.50×10–1

pCi

μCi

dpm

dpm

2.22

2.22×106

cubic feet (ft3) cubic meters (m3) 2.83×10–2 m3 ft3 35.3

gallons (gal) liters (L) 3.78 L gal 0.264

gray (Gy) Rad 102 rad Gy 10–2

roentgen equivalent 

man (rem) sievert (Sv) 10–2 Sv rem 102

NOTE: Traditional units are used throughout this document instead of the International System of Units 

(SI). Conversion to SI units will be aided by the unit conversions in this table.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

1

This section refers to both radiological and

radioanalytical contamination.

The general term radioactive contamination refers to 

the contamination of the laboratory facilities or 

personnel from radioactive materials. In some cases, 

radioactive contamination may occur at levels that 

pose a radiological health and safety concern.

The specific term radioanalytical contamination refers 

to contamination of the sample material, instrumentation, or laboratory facility that leads to sample crosscontamination or otherwise negatively impacts 

radioanalyses.

While the laboratory’s surveillance and control 

measures for personnel protection and for the 

prevention of radioanalytical contamination may 

frequently overlap, the goals are sufficiently different 

that they may be discussed separately in this guide, 

when it becomes important to make the distinction.

1. INTRODUCTION

Every radiochemical laboratory with a radioactive materials license must implement a radiation 

protection program (RPP) that controls and minimizes radiation exposure and radioactive 

contamination.

3

Elevated radioactivity levels in the laboratory may increase the risk of occupational 

radiation exposure, may impact the quality 

of radioanalytical measurements by 

increasing instrument background count 

rates, may increase the possibility of 

cross-contamination among samples, and 

may become a potential source of laboratory and environmental contamination. 

The laboratory should make advance preparations for receiving and handling the 

samples in order to minimize radiation 

exposure and radioactive contamination. 

The primary purpose of the RPP is to protect laboratory personnel and the public 

from the effects of radiation resulting from laboratory activities. This guide assumes that such a 

program is in place and is designed to address issues related to the routine operations of the 

laboratory.

In the event of a radiological or nuclear incident, however, it is likely that many radiological

laboratories will be called upon to perform sample analyses in support of the various response 

efforts taking place, and that the radioactivity concentrations of some of these samples may be 

well in excess of those to which the laboratory is routinely accustomed. The numbers of samples 

and the total quantity of sample material are also likely to be significantly increased. In addition, 

the increased radioactivity levels in the standards and tracers required for analysis, waste 

produced during analyses, sample test sources, and quality control (QC) samples will all 

contribute to the increased radioactivity and radiation levels in the laboratory. 

These advance preparations should be 

clearly outlined in the RPP and in relevant 

standard operating procedures (SOPs). The 

advance preparations for a radiological or 

nuclear incident should include an 

assessment of the configuration of the laboratory, the resources available for the incident 

response, and the sample and waste handling and contamination control procedures to be 

implemented during the incident response. 

In addition, the laboratory staff should be adequately trained to implement these measures 

efficiently and effectively during a radiological or nuclear incident. These preparations, the RPP, 

 3 10 CFR 20.1101, Radiation Protection Programs.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

2 

IMPORTANT NOTE

This guide contains numerous examples of procedures for the control of radioactive 

contamination and radiation exposure. These examples are intended to provide guidance to 

the laboratory in the formulation of its own Radiological Controls Program. Users are

strongly cautioned, however, that these are only examples, which may be used by the 

laboratory to assess its own operations and to formulate procedures that address the 

conditions and operations that may be unique to that specific laboratory. The examples are 

not intended to be prescriptive or to address every situation that the laboratory might 

encounter.

the laboratory SOPs, and the necessary training are essential components of an effective 

Radiological Controls Program (RCP).4

• Control the radioactive materials being handled in the laboratory. This includes the 

accurate assessment (screening) of the nature of the material and the establishment of 

well-defined and effective procedures that will guide the physical handling of the 

material and the movement of the material through the laboratory.

An effective Radiological Controls Program should eliminate, or at least minimize, the effects of 

increased radioactivity and radiation levels on laboratory facilities, personnel, and data quality. 

This may be accomplished through the development of procedures and practices to:

5

• Actively monitor radioactive contamination and radiation exposures, and establish 

quantitative limits for contamination of surfaces, instruments, and personnel.

• Proactively address the decontamination and shielding of laboratory personnel to 

minimize occupational exposures and to prevent exceeding established quantitative 

limits.

• Programmatically address the decontamination of laboratory surfaces and equipment to 

prevent the exceedence of established quantitative limits, thereby reducing instrument 

backgrounds, and minimizing cross-contamination.

As with all other aspects of the laboratory’s incident response activities, an RCP should 

anticipate the unique challenges associated with various radiological or nuclear incident 

scenarios and allow for rapid assessment of, and adjustments to, changing laboratory conditions.

 4 A broader discussion of effective Radiological Controls Programs is provided in the companion document Guide 

for Laboratories – Identification, Preparation, and Implementation of Core Operations for Radiological or Nuclear 

Incident Response (EPA 2010). 5 More detailed guidance for sample screening considerations is provided in the companion document Radiological 

Laboratory Sample Screening Analysis Guide for Incidents of National Significance (EPA 2009b).
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

3 

1.1 Purpose and Scope

The purpose of this guide is to assist the laboratory in developing specific parts of an RCP that 

would enable the laboratory to safely and effectively participate in the response to a radiological 

or nuclear incident. Specifically, this document provides guidance that is intended to assist in the 

assessment of the physical layout of the laboratory, and to assist in the consideration of potential 

changes in the laboratory design and work flow to prevent the incoming sample material from 

compromising the analytical capabilities of the laboratory or exposing personnel to elevated 

levels of radiation.

This guide and its appendices also provide examples of procedures for sample handling; for the 

surveillance, prevention, and control of radioactive contamination throughout the laboratory; and 

for the control of radiation exposure both inside the laboratory and in the areas immediately 

outside the laboratory that may be affected by laboratory operations. These examples are 

intended to be illustrative of typical laboratory operations and to serve as suggestions with which 

the laboratory might develop its own procedures.

This guide is separated into the following sections: 

• Section 2.0 (Preparing the Laboratory) describes potentially significant planning steps that 

(a) define the types of operational areas that a laboratory might typically employ; (b) 

establish acceptable radioactivity and radiation levels for those areas; (c) establish 

appropriate protective equipment for those areas; and (d) give consideration to the laboratory 

layout and process flow for radioactive materials. Other miscellaneous but important 

planning considerations are also discussed. 

• Section 3.0 (Radioactive Contamination Control) addresses specific radioactive 

contamination control measures that may be taken for both personnel protection and 

radioanalytical control. As mentioned above, these two aspects of contamination control 

frequently overlap, and control measures are taken with both goals in mind. Where particular 

recommendations are intended to specifically address one over the other, clarification is 

provided.

• Section 4.0 (Exposure Control and Radiation Shielding) presents the protective measures of 

time, distance, and shielding in the context of incident response activities in the laboratory, 

with the primary emphasis on personnel protection. Some additional discussion of the 

prevention of adverse instrument response from elevated activity and transient sources in the 

laboratory is also provided.

• The guide concludes with numerous appendices that may be useful by providing specific 

examples for implementing the various recommendations. The laboratory is strongly 

cautioned, however, that these are only examples. These examples are not intended to be 

prescriptive or to limit the scope of the laboratory’s preparation for an event, but are intended 

to help the laboratory identify, select, and devise contamination control measures that are 

tailored to its specific needs. Decisions regarding the designation of area types, activity 

levels, appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE), work flow, and protocols are 

decisions that must be made internally, on a case-by-case basis, specific to each laboratory.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

4 

The examples are, however, intended to be applicable to a broad range of radiological 

laboratories: large, small, streamlined, and complex. The specific procedures that a 

laboratory develops to address contamination and exposure control will depend largely on the 

available space, staffing, and other resources of the laboratory. In addition, those procedures 

may need to be periodically reassessed and revised, depending on the changing nature of the 

incident response efforts.

1.2 Limitations and Regulatory Considerations

In the event of a radiological or nuclear incident involving releases of significant quantities of 

radioactive materials to the environment, only those laboratories already having the necessary 

facilities and procedures will be capable of responding to the anticipated demand for analysis of 

samples. Laboratories that either intend to develop segregated contamination and radiation areas 

in their laboratories, or already have them and wish to evaluate them, may find the 

recommendations for physical layout and organizational procedures for laboratories contained in 

this report useful. Laboratories with limited physical infrastructure or a very narrow scope of 

operations may not be able to effectively support the incident response without additional 

preparation and the development of alternate techniques, modified to accommodate their specific 

circumstances.

This guide addresses important considerations in the surveillance and control of radioactive 

contamination and radiation exposure. It is possible that samples related to a nuclear or 

radiological incident may also pose additional risks from other chemical, biological, or physical 

hazards. While it is beyond the scope of this document to address such non-radiological hazards, 

the laboratory should have procedures in place for the assessment of, and response to, these 

additional potential risks. 

This guide does not purport to address specific regulatory compliance issues, including the 

laboratory’s adherence to possession limits and other conditions of its Radioactive Materials 

License. In no way does the content of this guide obviate or relieve the laboratory of its 

regulatory compliance responsibilities in the areas of employee health, safety, or hazardous and 

radioactive materials handling, transportation, or disposal. 

This guide is intended to provide planning guidance in preparation for the response to a 

radiological or nuclear incident, not replace or supersede existing laboratory safety or quality 

plans, such as a Radiation Safety Plan or Laboratory Quality Manual. This guidance may also be 

useful in the laboratory’s review of the existing Radiation Safety Plan or Laboratory Quality 

Manual to ensure the laboratory’s readiness to respond to a radiological or nuclear incident.

This guide contains numerous examples of radioactivity and exposure limits and their use in the 

control of laboratory contamination and radioanalytical integrity. The values used in the 

examples are for illustrative purposes and should not be taken as specific requirements for the

laboratory. This guide cannot address every conceivable situation; each laboratory must develop 

its own activity and exposure limits that are appropriate to the particular laboratory environment 

and operational goals.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

5 

Additional discussion regarding regulatory considerations is provided in the companion 

document Guide for Laboratories - Identification, Preparation, and Implementation of Core 

Operations for Radiological or Nuclear Incident Response (EPA 2010).

2. PREPARING THE LABORATORY

As in any operation, a radiological laboratory will have routine practices and procedures that 

have been established over time to meet the needs of the laboratory, based on the type and 

volume of work typically performed. These practices and procedures may not be sufficient or 

adequate for the laboratory's participation in the response to a radiological or nuclear incident. 

This section describes some key preparations that should be made prior to the acceptance of 

samples related to a radiological or nuclear incident. 

Any laboratory that handles and analyzes radioactive materials should have areas of the 

laboratory designated for specific processes (e.g., sample screening, low-level counting, etc.). 

These processes should be segregated by the potential level of radioactivity expected to be 

present and the likelihood of the material to cause a laboratory contamination issue. 

In laboratories that are accustomed to handling only low-level or environmental samples, the 

segregation of these processes is often overlooked because the entire facility is dedicated to 

handling samples of the same general activity level. Consequently, the laboratory may be at 

significant risk of being rendered unusable by the inadvertent mishandling of high-activity 

material if such material is introduced to the laboratory as part of an incident response effort. 

Similarly, a laboratory that is accustomed to working with higher levels of radioactivity may be 

unprepared for the demands of analyzing very low-activity level samples in the recovery stage of 

the event efforts.

When preparing a laboratory to accept unaccustomed activity levels, the receipt, processing, 

storage, and disposal of higher levels of radioactive materials should be carefully considered 

before allowing work to begin. Likewise, careful consideration should be made of the 

laboratory’s ability to analyze very low-level materials related to the radiological or nuclear 

incident, prior to acceptance of those samples.

Another concern facing many laboratories is that their routine practices may not be directed 

toward the handling of very large numbers of samples. Laboratories that typically handle only 

small numbers of samples may be unprepared for the high throughput demands of an incident. 

The laboratory’s preparations, prior to receipt of samples from an incident, should include 

consideration of these and other potentially limiting factors. 

The laboratory should make advance decisions related to: a) the definition of the different types 

of operational areas in the laboratory; b) the establishment of acceptable levels of radiation and 

radioactive materials for the different types of areas; c) the specific requirements for PPE in 

those areas; d) the configuration of the laboratory, including the layout and the flow of work that 

would best minimize contamination risks; and e) the procurement, allocation, placement, and use 

of additional physical resources, such as frisking stations, decontamination equipment, and 

shielding material. These topics are discussed below, in this section. 
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

6 

The establishment of protocols for sample handling; movement between areas of the laboratory;

surface and personnel contamination surveillance, prevention, and control; and the appropriate 

use of shielding are discussed in Sections 3.0 and 4.0 of this guide.

2.1 Defining Types of Operational Areas and Other Areas Affected by Laboratory 

Operations

Prior to an incident, the laboratory should consider carefully defining the various types of 

segregated areas in a laboratory that may be used during the incident response and that may 

potentially be affected by radioactive contamination and elevated levels of radiation. The 

following list of areas is intended as an example for the laboratory’s consideration. This list may 

not be inclusive of all the area types that an individual laboratory might identify and consider.

2.1.1 Unrestricted Public Areas 

Unrestricted Public Areas include areas open to any individual who is not under the operational 

control of the laboratory. Some areas, such as roads, sidewalks, parking lots, reception and office 

areas, and hallways may be open to members of the general public. Other areas, such as adjacent 

businesses, may be secured from members of the general public but are still accessed by 

individuals who are not responsible to, or under the direction of, the laboratory. These should all 

be considered unrestricted public areas. 

The laboratory is responsible for ensuring that radiation doses to the general public from 

laboratory operations do not exceed regulatory limits, such as those found in 10 CFR 20 (or 

Agreement State regulations). When considering the effects of laboratory operations on radiation 

doses to the general public, the laboratory must also ensure that all sources of radiation are 

properly accounted for. Wastewater effluents, fume hood exhausts, and radioactive and nonradioactive waste will need to be carefully monitored.

2.1.2 Buffer Zones

Buffer zones are generally areas outside the operational areas of the laboratory, but still under 

control of the laboratory and used to insulate the general public from unnecessary risk. For 

example, a building which houses a laboratory operation may be situated on a property, set back 

some distance from the boundary of the property. The area between the building itself and the 

boundary of the property (sometimes referred to as the “owner controlled area”) is not used to 

handle or store radioactive materials, but may be used advantageously to keep members of the 

general public at a safe distance from sources of radiation within the building.

These buffer zones are not generally at risk of becoming contaminated with radioactive materials 

during laboratory operations, but do pose the potential risk of radiation exposure to persons 

within the buffer zone. When used in this protective capacity, the buffer zones should be fenced, 

or otherwise configured to restrict access, and should be monitored frequently enough to ensure 

that changing conditions in the laboratory do not lead to an unacceptable dose to the public.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

7 

CAUTION

RADIOACTIVE

MATERIALS

Any operational area in 

which radioactive 

materials are used, 

stored, or handled, must 

be appropriately posted, 

per 10 CFR 20.1902(e) 

or other Federal or State 

regulation.

Posting Radioactive Materials Areas

In addition to unoccupied buffer zones, the laboratory may wish to establish the traffic areas 

immediately outside the receiving area and at the public entrance of the building as buffer zones, 

with the acknowledgement that there may be high-volume traffic through those areas, 

necessitating frequent exposure monitoring and possibly contamination monitoring.

2.1.3 Operational Areas

Of primary concern to this guide are operational 

areas (see inset), which are secure areas that are 

within the boundaries of the facility and are under 

the direct and immediate control of the laboratory. 

These areas may be used to handle, process, or 

store radioactive materials, or may be administrative areas that are not used for such purposes but 

which could inadvertently become contaminated. 

These areas are generally within the confines of a 

building but could be located outside, as in routes 

between buildings or storage areas for samples and 

waste.

Operational areas should be further considered according to the levels of radiation, types of work 

being performed, the potential for contamination or exposure, and the flow of radioactive 

material through the laboratory.

The generalized operational areas of the laboratory are considered below in the order that the 

radioactive material flows through the laboratory. 

2.1.3.1 Receiving Areas for Incoming Radioactive Materials Packages

A designated Receiving Area for the laboratory should be established for the receipt of 

radioactive materials, including samples. The area should facilitate the: 

• Receipt and inspection of incoming packages, including the determination of radiation 

exposure rates from the shipment;

• Assessment of the shipper’s compliance with pertinent transportation regulations;

• Assessment of the integrity of the shipping containers;

• Assessment of potential contamination of the container and its contents; and

• Routing of the contents of the package to the appropriate area of the laboratory. 

The Receiving Area should be set up with consideration that all samples and other radioactive 

reagents and supplies will be initially inspected, both visually and with survey instrumentation, 

in this area. The continuing integrity of the incoming materials depends upon the correct 

assessment of the condition of the material upon receipt, and the prevention of crosscontamination from one sample or reagent to another. No sample bottle or other primary 

container of radioactive material should be opened in the Receiving Area; this should be done in 
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

8 

a separate “Screening Area” as described below. The Receiving Area should be solely for the 

external assessment of the characteristics of the shipment. 

In some cases, the physical constraints of the facility may require that the receiving and 

screening process be carried out in the same room. In this case, care should still be taken to 

establish separate “areas” for these processes, clearly posted and controlled to prevent the spread 

of radiological contamination. Work tables, washable partitions, and laboratory fume hoods may 

serve as appropriate means to isolate the different processes.

Receiving Areas for incoming radioactive materials packages should also be sufficiently 

separated, or appropriately shielded, from other areas of the laboratory in which radioactive 

materials are processed, stored, or analyzed. This will facilitate more accurate surveys of the 

incoming packages, and will minimize the potential impact of those incoming packages on 

radiation measurements being performed in the laboratory. The area should, at a minimum, be 

equipped with the following:

• A staging area for incoming materials. Initial exposure rate measurements and removable 

surface contamination surveys of the outside of the package may be performed in this 

area.

• A means for containing and sealing a shipment, sample, or other item that has broken or 

been contaminated in shipping or during handling in the laboratory. Containment bins, 

large durable trash bags, sealable freezer bags, etc., are useful items to have on hand for 

such an incident. 

• An appropriately configured laboratory fume hood6

• A means for containing spilled liquids. This may include a supply of absorbent spill 

recovery material, or in the case of larger volumes, a spill containment curb around the 

work area. The laboratory should ensure that it has sufficient spill recovery capacity

immediately on hand to adequately contain the volume of sample material in any one 

shipment, and that additional supplies are readily available, if needed. 

or other exhaust ventilation system 

for unpacking the shipment. Initial inspection and inventory of the contents, exposure rate 

measurements, and removable surface contamination surveys should be performed in the 

ventilation hood, to protect the workers from contamination in the event that a sample 

container is broken or otherwise compromised in shipment.

• The appropriate equipment and supplies for segregating and decontaminating containers 

that have been potentially contaminated by spilled radioactive material. The area should 

have ready access to the sample screening area, the High-Level Work Areas, and the 

Routine-Level Work Areas, which are described below.

Minimum recommended procedures for receiving radioactive materials, including samples, are 

detailed in Section 3.1, Sample Handling Protocols.

 6 Guidance for determining appropriate laboratory fume hood specifications and configurations may be found in the 

following standards: ANSI/AIHA Z9.5, American National Standards for Laboratory Ventilation; ASHRAE, HVAC 

Applications Handbook; NFPA-45, Standard on Fire Protection for Laboratories Using Chemicals; SEFA 1.2, 

Laboratory Ventilation. 
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

9 

10 CFR 20 Radiation Areas

Activity concentrations or exposure rates in excess of the 

upper limit for High-Level Work Areas will likely require the 

establishment of a Radiation Area. Radiation Area is a 

regulatory term that is used in 10 CFR Part 20.1003 (or 

equivalent state regulations) to describe areas “accessible to 

individuals, in which radiation levels could result in an 

individual receiving a dose equivalent in excess of 0.005 rem 

(0.05 mSv) in 1 hour at 30 centimeters from the radiation 

source or from any surface that the radiation penetrates.”

The establishment of Radiation Areas, and other requirements 

of 10 CFR Part 20, include very specific radiation protection 

measures, which are outside the scope of this document, but 

with which the laboratory should be familiar as a condition of 

its radioactive materials license.

2.1.3.2 Screening Areas for Incoming Samples

The Sample Screening Area should be established where the samples are initially opened, initial 

sample conditions such as preservation are verified, and an aliquant is potentially removed for 

screening analyses. Consequently, the risk of contamination to personnel, laboratory surfaces, 

and other samples is potentially high. The area should be designed to facilitate the preparation 

and screening of distinct samples or batches/shipments of samples, while minimizing the risk of 

contamination to unrelated samples or other areas of the laboratory.

The Sample Screening Area should be a distinct and dedicated area, separate from the sample 

Receiving Area whenever possible, but adjacent to and with direct access from the Receiving 

Area. The Sample Screening Area should be designed, whenever possible, as a self-contained 

preparation and screening analysis laboratory. The area should be equipped with the same 

facilities required in other laboratory areas, such as a fume hood, basic laboratory equipment, 

screening instrumentation, adequate storage for the immediate access to reagents and supplies, 

and adequate utilities, communication systems, and safety and emergency response equipment.

The area should also be equipped with adequate decontamination and survey equipment and 

supplies to facilitate the rapid cleanup and release of the work areas for the preparation and 

screening of other samples.

As with the Receiving Area, this area should have ready access to both the high- and routinelevel work and storage areas without the need to traverse one to get to the other, if possible.

Minimum recommended procedures for opening sample containers and sub-sampling the 

material are detailed in Section 3.1, Sample Handling Protocols.

2.1.3.3 High-Level Work Areas, and 10 CFR 20 “Radiation Areas” 

In the following discussion, “High-Level Work Area” is a term defined specifically for this 

document and should not be confused with, or used interchangeably with, the terms “Radiation 

Area” or “High Radiation Area,” which are described in 10 CFR 20. 

High-Level Work Areas are 

designated areas for processing, 

storing, and in some cases analyzing samples that present an 

elevated risk of sample crosscontamination, or contamination or 

exposure to the employees and the 

facility. 

In evaluating these risks, the 

laboratory should consider both the 

activity concentration and the total 

amount of activity in the sample. 

Elevated activity concentrations 
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

10 

increase the risk of contamination or exposure, but this risk may be somewhat mitigated when 

only small amounts of the sample are handled. Conversely, even moderate activity 

concentrations may pose an elevated risk of contamination or exposure when the volume of 

sample is very large. These concepts are discussed further in Section 2.2, Establishing 

Acceptable Levels of Radioactivity and Radiation. In either case, high-activity concentrations in 

samples or high levels of activity in sample aliquants may interfere with the laboratory’s ability 

to meet the measurement quality objectives (MQOs) for the project. The risks associated with 

these types of samples may be further increased when the contaminants are potentially volatile, 

or are potentially associated with fine or dry particulates that may become airborne during 

handling. 

The following design items and practices should be carefully considered when establishing a 

High-Level Work Area: 

• Areas designated for the processing or storage of high-activity samples and waste should 

be directly accessible from the receiving and screening areas, but should be as remote as 

feasible from the lower-level work areas and especially from any analytical 

instrumentation that may be affected by either radiation exposure or by inadvertent 

laboratory contamination.

• The area should be clearly posted as a High-Level Work Area at all entryways and 

boundaries between other areas. Access should be restricted to essential personnel only.

• High-activity samples should be stored and processed in these areas, without the need to 

travel through other parts of the lab, if possible.

• Consumable materials and other laboratory supplies and equipment should be unpacked, 

to the extent feasible, prior to being moved into the High-Level Work Area. This will 

minimize the risk of contamination from the removal of unnecessary packaging and 

extraneous material from the High-Level Work Area.

• Where the analysis of high-activity level samples may pose an elevated risk of 

contamination to the routine radiation detection instrumentation, or 

where the movement of prepared 

samples through other areas of the 

laboratory is not desirable, specific 

instrumentation may need to be 

procured and dedicated for use only 

in the High-Level Work Area.

• The layout of the area should include 

particular consideration for minimizing radiation exposure to personnel. 

This may include optimizing the 

distance between the accumulated 

radioactive materials and the personnel work stations, as well as installing additional shielding materials.

Negative Room Air Pressure

Establishing a negative pressure gradient from 

higher-level to lower-level areas in the laboratory 

will minimize the movement of airborne radioactivity in the laboratory. Thus, areas with the 

highest activities should be maintained at the lowest 

pressure level. The pressure should then be successively increased through the mid- and low-level 

areas, and into uncontrolled areas so that the 

movement of airborne contamination is always from 

low to high. While this may be accomplished with 

the existing ventilation system, a qualified industrial 

hygienist and health physicist, working with the 

laboratory’s heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) contractor, should always be consulted 

before making even minor modifications to the 

laboratory air handling system.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

11 

• If possible, High-Level Work Areas should employ negative air pressure (relative to 

adjacent areas) to keep airborne radioactive material inside the room.

• Laboratory fume hoods in the High-Level Work Areas may need to be equipped with 

high efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters to reduce the level of radioactive 

contaminants in the exhaust air. In addition, the laboratory may need a program for 

monitoring the filters, to ensure worker protection and to facilitate proper handling and 

disposal. 

• Personnel working in these areas should be thoroughly trained in the laboratory’s

contamination prevention, assessment, and control procedures, and should undergo 

routine retraining periodically and when the scope of the activities changes significantly. 

If possible, they should participate in practical exercises to supplement the training.

• To the extent possible, contamination response procedures for these areas, including 

decontamination efforts, should depend first on the personnel working in that area, in 

order to minimize unnecessary traffic through that area during the response to a 

contamination event.

• An integral part of contamination control training for laboratory personnel in these areas 

should be to recognize when the nature of a contamination event is outside their expertise 

or ability to control and therefore when to seek additional assistance.

• The area should be designed to facilitate the support of contamination control procedures 

from adjacent areas. Whenever possible, the area should be designed to allow additional 

decontamination supplies and equipment to be passed into the laboratory area without 

risk of spreading contamination and without constraining the movement of personnel into 

or out of the area. The use of pass-through cabinets or material air locks is useful in this 

regard and should be employed whenever feasible. 

• The area will require a more rigorous egress policy than other areas of the lab, with 

additional frisking and decontamination resources as described in Section 3.2, Movement 

Between Laboratory Areas (Entry/Egress).

Other design considerations for these areas will not differ significantly from other laboratory 

areas.

2.1.3.4 Routine-Level Work Areas

Routine-Level Work Areas, as the name implies, are designated for sample radioactivity levels 

that fall into the normal scope of work to which the laboratory is routinely accustomed, and for 

which the laboratory has historically demonstrated an ability to achieve the applicable MQOs. In 

most environmental radiological laboratories, the sample activity levels for these areas will likely 

correspond to “normal environmental levels,” as defined by the laboratory. These areas should 

not require changes in safety and contamination control protocol beyond those already in place in 

the laboratory.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

12 

As discussed above, the sample screening and high-level 

work areas may need to be equipped with their own 

dedicated instrumentation; uncharacterized sample material 

and high-activity level samples should not be analyzed on 

instrumentation dedicated to routine- or low-level work.

Routine-Level Work Areas should be accessible from the sample receiving and/or screening 

areas, as well as from the High-Level Work Areas, if possible, following proper egress protocols 

from those areas.

The Routine-Level Work Areas should also have ready access to the nuclear measurements 

instrumentation that will be used in the analysis of samples prepared in those areas, although the 

instrumentation area should be situated as far as practical from the Sample Receiving Area and 

High-Level Work Areas. 

The laboratory may choose to include 

the instrumentation area as a part of the 

Routine-Level Work Areas, in which 

case the instrumentation area should 

still be maintained as a separate area 

with appropriate entry protocols. It is 

recommended, however, that the instrumentation area be designated as a Low-Level Work Area, 

with the descriptions and considerations shown below.

2.1.3.5 Low-Level Work Areas 

In some cases, it may be advantageous to the project for the laboratory to establish Low-Level 

Work Areas, which restrict the flow of radioactive materials and general laboratory traffic in 

order to achieve MQOs that may be well below those to which the laboratory is accustomed. The 

laboratory may also find it useful to designate the instrumentation areas as Low-Level Work 

Areas, in order to maintain the integrity of the instrumentation and the laboratory’s ability to 

meet the project MQOs.

The following design items and practices should be carefully considered when establishing a 

Low-Level Work Area:

• Areas designated as Low-Level Work Areas should not be directly accessible from the 

receiving and screening areas, or from the High-Level Work Areas.

• The area should be clearly posted as a Low-Level Work Area, with access restricted to 

essential personnel only.

• The location and layout of the area should include particular consideration for a) 

minimizing general background radiation to the instrumentation from other parts of the 

laboratory, particularly from sample storage areas and High-Level Work Areas, which 

can elevate the measurement uncertainty and detection capability of radioanalytical 

techniques; and b) minimizing transient variations in the background radiation levels, 

from the movements of samples and waste through the laboratory, which can result in 

significant biases in the net analytical results, especially at low sample activities.

• Only those samples that are necessary for the immediate task at hand should be stored in 

this area. Upon verification of successful analysis, residual sample volumes and prepared 

samples should be promptly removed from the area and transferred to an appropriate 

storage location outside the counting/instrumentation room. 
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

13 

• If possible, the area should employ positive air pressure (relative to adjacent areas) to 

keep airborne radioactive material outside the room. As mentioned above, a qualified 

industrial hygienist and health physicist, working with the laboratory’s HVAC 

contractor, should always be consulted before making even minor modifications to the 

laboratory air handling system.

Other design considerations for these areas will not differ significantly from other laboratory 

areas.

2.1.3.6 Administrative and Public Areas

It is also necessary for the laboratory to recognize those administrative areas occupied by nonradiation workers, and those areas that allow for general public access, which may include areas 

not under the direct control of the laboratory.

These areas will not require any special equipment or supplies, but may require periodic 

monitoring for contamination of the areas and for exposure levels to the occupants of those areas. 

In addition, exiting any of the laboratory areas directly into administrative or public areas will 

require appropriate egress protocols.

2.2 Establishing Acceptable Levels of Radioactivity and Radiation

Once the various types of operational areas are identified, the laboratory should establish 

acceptable levels of radioactivity and radiation exposure and dose rates that will further define 

the areas.

The laboratory should be mindful that the ultimate purpose of establishing limits on the levels of 

radioactivity and radiation, and for pursuing a Radiological Controls Program in general, is to 

ensure that the laboratory can perform the necessary radioanalytical work while minimizing both 

personnel exposure and the radioanalytical effects of laboratory contamination and sample crosscontamination. 

Acceptable levels of radioactivity and radiation in the different areas might be based on the 

initial condition of the lab, the type of work routinely performed, and the type of work expected 

from the radiological or nuclear incident. These acceptable levels should reflect the laboratory’s 

assessment as to what maximum activity and radiation levels should be allowed so that the risk 

to personnel, project MQOs, and the overall integrity of the laboratory’s radioanalytical 

processes are not compromised.

The Multi-Agency Radiological Laboratory Analytical Protocols Manual (MARLAP 2004, 

Chapter 2) provides guidance for pursuing a “directed planning process,” such as the data quality 

objective (DQO) process, for setting well-defined objectives and developing reliable sampling 

and analysis plans that support decisionmaking processes. This directed planning approach will 

be useful in the laboratory’s selection of acceptable levels of radioactivity and radiation, and for 

establishing laboratory-specific protocols for contamination monitoring that support decisionmaking at those levels.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

14 

2.2.1 Action Levels: AAL, Required Method Uncertainty, and ADL

Portions of this guide rely heavily on the use of the terms “analytical action level” (AAL), 

“required method uncertainty” (uMR), “required relative method uncertainty” (φMR), and 

“analytical decision level” (ADL) in characterizing the desired levels of performance of 

screening and analysis methods and the radioanalytical results for use in decisions regarding the 

exceedence of established levels of radioactive contamination and radiation exposure. These 

terms may be used to describe the MQOs for the analysis of field samples related to a nuclear or 

radiological incident, as well as the analysis of internal samples related to the surveillance of 

contamination in the laboratory. Each combination of sample type and analytical method may 

have an AAL, uMR, φMR, and ADL specific to the requirements of the pertinent MQOs.

The term “analytical action level” (AAL) is used as a general term denoting a radioactivity or 

radiation level at which some action must be taken. In the context of laboratory contamination 

control, action is taken by the laboratory to reduce the impact of radiological contamination or 

radiation in and around the laboratory. This action may include surface decontamination, sample 

segregation, emplacement of shielding, increased monitoring frequency, or other actions 

determined by the laboratory. The AALs should correspond to the laboratory’s assessment of 

risk to the radioanalytical processes or to personnel. In making these assessments, the laboratory 

should incorporate what it considers to be acceptable error rates in its decisions as to whether 

personnel or analytical processes are impacted to an unacceptable degree. Assessments of 

acceptable risk and the corresponding radioactivity and radiation levels, and decisions regarding 

acceptable decision error rates, will be specific to individual laboratories and incident response 

activities. These assessments should include significant input from qualified technical resources, 

such as senior analytical, health and safety, and radiation protection personnel.

The selection, validation, and use of a particular analytical method or screening technique rely on 

the ability of that method or technique to provide a result with a specified required method 

uncertainty, uMR, at the AAL, and a corresponding required relative method uncertainty, φMR, for 

results above the AAL. This condition ensures that the quality of the measurement will be 

adequate for making decisions, considering the acceptable decision error rates discussed above. 

Whenever the reported activity or exposure rate exceeds a pre-defined level (the ADL), the AAL 

can be assumed to have been exceeded and appropriate action is warranted. The derivation and 

use of AAL, uMR, φMR, and ADL are discussed in this section and in other companion guides in 

this series.

While closely interrelated, it is important to note that the use of AAL (and the associated uMR and 

φMR) and the ADL represent distinct concepts; they must not be used interchangeably but rather 

should be interpreted and applied according to these guidelines and those of the related 

companion documents.

The values for AAL, uMR, φMR, and ADL will depend on the laboratory area under consideration 

and the analytical processes being performed. This guide offers examples of AALs, uMR, and φMR

values, and ADLs, with examples of the processes used to derive these values. These examples 

are provided for illustrative purposes only and should not be used verbatim, but should be 
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

15 

The following sections, 2.2.2 through 2.2.4, provide an example of the process and associated 

calculations that a hypothetical laboratory might follow to derive AAL(C), uMR(C), and finally 

ADL(C) for swipe sample measurements.

Additional examples describing the determination of AAL(C), uMR(C), and ADL(C) values for 

sample screening activity, and exposure rate monitoring are provided in Appendix J, 

Establishing MQOs for Sample Screening Measurements, and Appendix K, Establishing 

MQOs for Sample Exposure Rates.

considered as guidance for the laboratory to develop its own action levels and criteria by which 

to make contamination and exposure control decisions.

It should be understood that the terms AAL, uMR, φMR, and ADL are also applicable to the MQOs 

assigned to the laboratory analysis of field samples from incident response activities. In fact, the 

AALs, uMR, φMR, and ADLs that apply to the laboratory contamination control measurements 

might be derived from the AALs, uMR, φMR, and ADLs that apply to the analysis of field samples. 

Where it becomes necessary in this document to distinguish field sample MQOs from 

contamination control MQOs, the parentheticals (S) and (C) will be added as needed for clarity: 

AAL(S) = Analytical action level for field sample analyses

uMR(S) = Required method uncertainty at or below the AAL(S) for field sample 

analyses

φMR(S) = Required relative method uncertainty above the AAL(S) for field sample 

analyses

ADL(S) = Analytical decision level for field sample analyses

AAL(C) = Analytical action level for contamination control analyses

uMR(C) = Required method uncertainty at or below the AAL(C) for contamination 

control analyses

φMR(C) = Required relative method uncertainty above the AAL(C) for contamination 

control analyses 

ADL(C) = Analytical decision level for contamination control analyses

Other guides in this series (see Preface) provide additional discussion and examples for deriving 

and applying these values in a variety of scenarios using both external, incident-derived DQOs 

and internal, laboratory-specified DQOs.

2.2.2 Establishing Analytical Action Levels for Contamination Control — AAL(C)

Consider an example scenario in which the laboratory wants to establish limits for removable 

alpha-emitting radioactive contamination on surfaces in a particular laboratory area. In this case, 

MQOs for contamination control measurements, i.e., AAL(C), uMR(C), and ADL(C), will be 

directly related to the required MQOs for incident response sample analyses, AAL(S), uMR(S), 

and ADL(S).
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

16 

In this example scenario:

• The laboratory area is used for the preparation of samples that are required to meet MQOs 

that apply to the majority of sample analyses performed by the laboratory. Consequently, this 

area is considered a “Routine-Level Work Area.”

• The most stringent MQO states that the required method uncertainty, uMR(S) (i.e., the 

combined standard uncertainty (CSU) estimated by the laboratory) is not to exceed 1.5 pCi/g 

at the specified AAL(S), which is 10 pCi/g.

• Sample activity measurements below 10 pCi/g are also limited to the required method 

uncertainty, uMR(S), of 1.5 pCi/g and measurements above 10 pCi/g are limited to a required

relative method uncertainty, φMR(S), of 15% of the measured activity.

• The current analytical method in use in the laboratory employs a sample aliquant of 2 grams 

and has the capability to produce a CSU of 1.3 pCi/g (13%) at an activity concentration of 10 

pCi/g, before sources of potential laboratory contamination are considered. 

The laboratory, therefore, has a method that currently limits the CSU to 1.3 pCi/g at the 

prescribed AAL(S) of 10 pCi/g and wishes to determine what maximum level of potential 

contamination would increase the method uncertainty, uMR(S), to 1.5 pCi/g. 

• In the analysis of field samples, and the related uncertainty calculations, this maximum level 

of potential contamination would be considered an additional contribution to the method 

uncertainty because it introduces a potential bias to the final result, which may then be added 

in quadrature to the CSU. 

• In the laboratory’s contamination control measurements, however, that maximum level of 

potential contamination would be considered the analytical action level, or AAL(C).

The required method uncertainty for field sample analyses, uMR(S), may therefore be estimated by 

the laboratory by the following equation: 

2 2

MR u (S) = CSU + AAL(C)

or 

2

2

AAL( )

g

1.3pCi

g

1.5pCi + C 













 =

Solving for AAL(C) shows that the maximum tolerable level of potential contamination, 

AAL(C), would be equal to 0.75 pCi/g in the field sample analysis.

Since each sample analysis employs an aliquant of 2 g, the maximum tolerable level of alpha 

contamination in each 2 g sample aliquant is:

0.75 pCi/g × 2 g = 1.5 pCi.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

17 

Modifying the Plan

Any modifications to the area type definitions, 

acceptable activity levels, laboratory layout, or 

usage of a given area should be accompanied by 

a thorough review to ensure that the protection of 

health, safety, and the environment, and the 

prevention of laboratory and sample contamination have been adequately addressed.

The AAL(C), expressed in activity units of pCi, is therefore 1.5 pCi alpha activity.7

0.15 pCi/cm2 × 100 cm2 = 15 pCi alpha activity per swipe sample.

Following this assessment, the laboratory technical personnel are consulted, the sample 

preparation process is reviewed, and potential sources and mechanisms of contamination are 

identified. Based on the available information, and perhaps based in large part on the technical 

judgment of the staff, it is estimated that surficial contamination from approximately 10 cm2 of 

laboratory workbench surfaces could potentially enter the analytical process and result in 

radioanalytical contamination. This estimate may come from empirical task assessments or from 

general observations of how much a technician inadvertently touches the benchtop, etc. Again, 

note that the values in this example are for illustrative purposes only. Each laboratory will need 

to assess its own processes and situations on a case-by-case basis. In all cases, however, the 

potential contamination should be limited to a level that does not significantly impact the 

required sample analysis method uncertainty, uMR(S).

Limiting potential contamination from laboratory workbench surfaces to 1.5 pCi (as determined 

above) per 10 cm2 surface area gives a maximum allowable contamination level of 

1.5 pCi / 10 cm2 = 0.15 pCi/cm2

.

A removable surface contamination swipe, covering a standard area of 100 cm2, should therefore 

have no more than:

8

The AAL(C), therefore, is 15 pCi of alpha activity per swipe sample, expressed in terms of 

activity units per swipe sample. 

In this example, the laboratory estimates that limiting the potential contribution from sources of 

laboratory contamination to 1.5 pCi would effectively limit the CSU in the reported sample 

results to: 

• the required method uncertainty (uMR) of 1.5 

pCi/g at the 10 pCi/g AAL, and

• the required relative method uncertainty

(φMR) of 15%, at activities above the AAL.

Because the maximum allowable removable 

surface contamination has been estimated at 

0.15 pCi/cm2

, the maximum allowable 

removable surface contamination would be 15 pCi per 100 cm2 swipe. The laboratory’s 

contamination control analytical action level, AAL(C), for alpha activity on a removable surface 

contamination swipe in Routine-Level Work Areas is therefore 15 pCi (33 dpm) per swipe. The 

 7 In this and other examples in this guide, results are rounded to two significant figures, per MARLAP (2004), 

Section16.6.3.

8 In this example scenario, the transfer efficiency of the swipe sampling procedure and the potential contamination 

transfer “efficiency” to the field sample are considered to be the same. Therefore, the swipe removal factor does not 

need to be considered in this specific application. For more detailed discussion regarding swipe removal factors and 

other important considerations in swipe sampling and analysis, see the companion document A Performance-Based 

Approach to the Use of Swipe Samples in Response to a Radiological or Nuclear Incident (EPA 2011).
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

18 

determination of the required method uncertainty, uMR(C), and analytical decision level, ADL(C), 

in the laboratory’s contamination control measurements are discussed later in this section.

The laboratory may then consider similar scenarios for the various processes and work areas, and 

generate a list of AAL(C) values beyond which the levels of radioactivity or radiation will be 

considered too high, which will be the laboratory’s indication that some response, or corrective 

action, is warranted. These AAL(C) values should guide the development of analytical methods 

to be used for making contamination and exposure control decisions in the different work areas.9

 

9 When assessing appropriate AAL(C) values for radioanalytical contamination control, the laboratory should 

consider the impact that different types of contamination have on the various processes that are affected. For 

example, alpha spectrometry analyses may be significantly affected by very small amounts of alpha-emitting 

contaminants. Alternately, pure beta-emitting contaminants, such as Sr-90, may have little radioanalytical impact on 

that analysis. The type of radiation and the impact on the desired MQOs should be carefully considered.

These values should be periodically reviewed and may need to be occasionally modified. If 

possible, a focal review and any necessary adjustments should be made after reviewing the 

available information about a radiological or nuclear incident and the MQOs for the project, and 

before receiving samples from the incident. 

The laboratory, at a minimum, should establish those levels of radioactivity and radiation that 

define High-Level Work Areas. The laboratory should distinguish those areas from “routine” 

work areas that represent the type of work to which the laboratory is accustomed and that are 

already governed by the laboratory’s existing Radiation Protection Program or Radiation Safety 

Manual. It is recommended, however, that a more thorough classification of potential activity 

and exposure levels be considered. An example of the scope of classifications and activity levels 

segregating the different area types is shown in Table 1, Laboratory AALs for Contamination 

and Exposure Control: An Example of Maximum Sample Activity, Exposure and Dose Rate, and 

Radioactive Contamination by Area Type.

Note that the values shown in Table 1 include the AAL of 33 dpm per 100 cm2 swipe for 

removable surface alpha contamination, as determined in the example above. 

While the classifications and values shown in Table 1 may be based in part on practical 

experience in a variety of radiological laboratories, they should be considered only as examples 

and are intended simply to provide conceptual guidance for the laboratory to establish its own 

criteria. Each individual laboratory should evaluate the requirements of a specific project and the 

type of work typically performed at that laboratory and in the various work areas, and assign area 

types and activity levels that are appropriate to the project at hand.

Table 1 describes example AALs for three general aspects of radiological laboratory operations. 

Analytical action levels for radioactive contamination, sample activity concentrations, and 

exposure and dose rates are provided for each area type, such as “High-Level,” “Routine-Level,” 

etc. Sample activity and contamination AALs are further classified by alpha, beta, and gamma 

activity levels. In some cases, a distinction is made between lower- and higher-energy beta 

activity because the required limits of detection and necessary instrumentation may differ 

significantly for low-energy beta-emitters, such as 3

H and 14C.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

19 

Table 1 – Laboratory AALs for Contamination and Exposure Control: An Example of 

Maximum Sample Activity, Exposure and Dose Rate, and Radioactive Contamination by 

Area Type

AREA DEFINITIONS

Public 

Access

Admin.

& 

Buffer

Low 

Level

Routine 

Level

High 

Level

CONTAMINATION LIMITS

Maximum Removable Contamination (net dpm/100 cm2)

alpha <5 <5 5 33 200

beta/gamma <20 <20 20 350 2,000

beta <150 keV <25 <25 50 350 2,000

Maximum Fixed Contamination (net dpm/100 cm2)

alpha <20 <20 20 175 350

beta/gamma <100 <100 100 850 2,000

SAMPLE ACTIVITY LIMITS

Maximum Screening Activity Concentrations per Matrix

Solids (pCi/g)

alpha na na 4 100 1 E+04

beta >150 keV na na 8 200 2 E+04

beta <150 keV na na 20 500 5 E+04

gamma na na 8 200 2 E+04

Liquids (pCi/L)

alpha na na 40 100 1 E+04

beta >150 keV na na 75 200 2 E+04

beta <150 keV na na 400 1,000 1 E+05

gamma na na 70 200 2 E+04

Air Filters (pCi/filter)

alpha na na 4 100 1 E+04

beta >150 keV na na 8 200 2 E+04

beta <150 keV na na 20 500 5 E+04

gamma na na 8 200 2 E+04

Alternate Total Activity per Aliquant (pCi)

alpha na na 500 5,000 1 E+07

beta >150 keV na na 1,000 10,000 2 E+07

beta <150 keV 2,500 25,000 5 E+07

gamma na na 1,000 10,000 2 E+07

EXPOSURE AND DOSE RATE LIMITS

Maximum Sample Exposure Rate (μR/h at surface of container) 100 5,000 100,000

Maximum Area Ambient Exposure Rate (μR/h) 2× bkg 2× bkg 2× bkg 500 1,000

Maximum Estimated Dose Rate, TEDE (mrem/h) per 10 CFR 20* 0.01 0.01 0.50 2.50 5.0

* 10 CFR 20 limits the maximum dose rate to the public and to workers. 0.01 mrem/h is the value that is 

approximately equivalent to the annual public limit 100 mrem/y; 2.5 mrem/h is the value that is equivalent to the 

5,000 mrem annual dose limit to radiation workers working 2,000 hours per year; 5 mrem/h is the maximum dose 

rate allowed before establishing a “Radiation Area”; the value of 0.50 mrem/h for Low-Level Work Areas has no 

regulatory basis, but rather may reflect the laboratory's desire to further limit the radiation in that area. 
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

20 

2.2.3 Limiting the Method Uncertainty, uMR

In the example scenario provided above, the laboratory has determined the actual levels of 

radioactive contamination or radiation exposure that should trigger responsive action in the 

laboratory to mitigate the effects of such levels of contamination or exposure. The laboratory 

must then select a method for sampling and analyzing the parameter of interest, which in this 

case is removable surface contamination by alpha-emitting radionuclides.

If the laboratory had a method that would definitively measure that parameter with absolute 

precision, it would be a simple matter of comparing the measurement results directly to the 

AALs derived above. Of course, this is not the case for any analytical method, and the 

uncertainty of the method must be taken into account when comparing the measurement result to 

the established AALs.

In order to make effective decisions regarding the presence or absence of radioactivity or 

radiation at a specified level, a careful assessment should be made of the maximum uncertainty 

that should be tolerated in the sampling and analysis method. The companion document, A 

Performance-Based Approach to the Use of Swipe Samples in Response to a Radiological or 

Nuclear Incident (EPA 2011), provides a detailed example for calculating the required method 

uncertainty in a swipe sampling and analysis scenario. Other guides in this series, including 

Radiological Laboratory Sample Analysis Guide for Incidents of National Significance –

Radionuclides in Air (EPA 2009a), Radiological Laboratory Sample Screening Analysis Guide 

for Incidents of National Significance (EPA 2009b), and Guide for Laboratories – Identification, 

Preparation, and Implementation of Core Operations for Radiological or Nuclear Incident 

Response (EPA 2010), provide additional examples that are pertinent to other situations that 

might be encountered.

In general, the required method uncertainty, uMR, at activity levels equal to the AAL is calculated 

as:

1 α 1 β

MR

AAL- DL

− + −

≤

z z

u

Where

AAL = analytical action level

DL = discrimination level10

The DL is the point where it is important to be able to distinguish the expected measurement 

result from the AAL. When one expects the instrument response to a sample to be at the 

z1−α and z1−β are the 1− α and 1−β quantiles of the standard normal distribution function, 

where α and β are the respective probabilities of making a Type I or Type II error.

In the example scenario, the analytical action level for alpha activity in removable surface 

contamination swipes, AAL(C), has been established as 33 dpm per 100 cm2 swipe sample. 

Other AALs are shown in Table 1.

 10 Careful distinction should be made between the discrimination level (DL) and the analytical decision level (ADL). 

These terms have quite different meanings and are not to be used interchangeably. 
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

21 

background response rate for that instrument, then the DL might be zero. If one expects an 

instrument response near the AAL, however, the DL might be closer to the AAL. In the example 

scenario, the AAL(C) for removable alpha activity in Routine-Level Work Areas (33 dpm per 

swipe) is expected to be distinguishable from the AAL(C) for Low-Level Work Areas, so the DL 

is set to 5 dpm per swipe.11

8.5

1.645 1.645

AAL- DL 33 5 ( )

1 1

= +

− = + =

−α −β z z

uMR C

The z-factor of 1.645 is selected from a standard table of cumulative normal distributions, 

corresponding to α and β probabilities of 0.05. 

Under these conditions, the required method uncertainty for the contamination control analysis, 

uMR(C), at the AAL will be:

dpm per swipe

It is now incumbent upon the laboratory to identify sampling and analysis conditions that satisfy 

the required method uncertainty. This may be as simple as adjusting swipe sample count times 

on an instrument or as involved as developing entirely new sampling or analysis protocols to 

control the overall result uncertainty. Once these sampling and analysis conditions are identified, 

they should be recorded and actively associated with the specific AAL, preferably in the form of 

a laboratory’s SOP. If the laboratory ultimately cannot satisfy the required method uncertainty, a 

careful assessment should be made by experienced technical personnel of the impact on the 

analysis of field samples and the risk of failing to meet those MQOs in the event of laboratory 

contamination. The Incident Commander, as well as the laboratory’s management and quality 

assurance personnel, should be immediately notified of any potential failure to meet incident 

MQOs.

Required method uncertainties should then be determined for each AAL, and the appropriate 

sampling and analytical protocols documented, once again based on laboratory-specific 

conditions. 

2.2.4 Determining the Analytical Decision Level

After determining the required method uncertainty (uMR) for the contamination analysis, the 

laboratory can then determine the ADL, which is the calculated radioanalytical value that is to be 

used in making decisions as to whether the AAL is likely to have been exceeded.12

 11 In general, the DL for a given scenario may be selected as the AAL for that category in the next lower activity 

level area, with DL=0 for low-level work areas and administrative areas. DLs should be evaluated by each 

laboratory for each AAL on a case-by-case basis. 12 Specific application of uMR to the AAL, to determine the appropriate ADL, will depend on which decision error 

the laboratory would consider to be worse; deciding that the sample activity is below the AAL when it is not, or 

deciding that the sample activity is above the AAL when it is not. A detailed discussion addressing both situations is 

provided in Section 4 of the companion document, A Performance-Based Approach to the Use of Swipe Samples in 

Response to a Radiological or Nuclear Incident (EPA 2011).
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

22 

In the example scenario introduced above, the laboratory establishes an ADL that is below the 

AAL to minimize the risk of incorrectly deciding that the true swipe alpha activity is below the 

AAL, when it is actually above the AAL. Consequently, the ADL(C) would be calculated as:

ADL(C) = AAL(C) MR − z ×u 1−α (C)

 = 33 − (1.645×8.5) =19 dpm per swipe

 

ADLs should then be calculated for each AAL in Table 1 and its corresponding uMR. It may be 

convenient for laboratory personnel to list the AAL, uMR, ADL, and the sampling and analytical 

conditions (i.e., pertinent SOPs) required to achieve these MQOs, for each area type that might 

be encountered. The example values provided in Table 1 have been reduced to the values 

pertinent to the Routine-Level Work Area, and supporting information for each parameter has 

been added. 

Selected ADL values are presented below in Table 2. The laboratory may find it useful to 

include similar information in the training of personnel working in this area, and to post this 

information in the Routine-Level Work Areas so that it is readily available when needed.

2.2.5 Establishing Appropriate Corrective Action when the ADL(C) is Exceeded

When the ADL(C) is exceeded for any given measurement, the laboratory should respond 

quickly and decisively in order to prevent the uncontrolled spread of contamination and to 

maintain the integrity of its radioanalytical processes. The laboratory should have formalized 

procedures describing the appropriate response and corrective action to be taken for each type of 

exceedence.

At a minimum, the corrective action should include the return of the laboratory environment to 

its previous condition, and the performance of follow-up measurements to verify the 

effectiveness of the laboratory’s response.

To continue the example presented above, if a removable contamination survey is performed in a 

Routine-Level Work Area, and the survey result for gross alpha activity exceeds the ADL(C) of 

19 dpm per swipe, some corrective action must be taken. The laboratory’s corrective action plan 

may require:

Additional examples describing the determination of AAL(C), uMR(C), and ADL(C) values for 

sample screening activity, and exposure rate monitoring are provided in Appendix J, 

Establishing MQOs for Sample Screening Measurements, and Appendix K, Establishing 

MQOs for Sample Exposure Rates.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

23 

Table 2 – Laboratory ADLs for Contamination and Exposure Control: An Example of 

Routine-Level Work Area MQOs

MQOs for ROUTINE-LEVEL WORK AREAS

AAL uMR [1]

Sampling 

SOP[2]

Analysis 

SOP ADL

CONTAMINATION LIMITS

Maximum Removable Contamination (net dpm/100 cm2)

alpha 33 8.5 SOP# SOP# 19

beta/gamma 350 100 SOP# SOP# 190

beta <150 keV 350 91 SOP# SOP# 200

Maximum Fixed Contamination (net dpm/100 cm2)

alpha 175 47 SOP# SOP# 98

beta/gamma 850 230 SOP# SOP# 480

SAMPLE ACTIVITY LIMITS

Maximum Screening Activity Concentrations per Matrix

Solids (pCi/g)

alpha 100 29 SOP# SOP# 52

beta >150 keV 200 58 SOP# SOP# 100

beta <150 keV 500 150 SOP# SOP# 260

gamma 200 58 SOP# SOP# 100

Liquids (pCi/L)

alpha 100 18 SOP# SOP# 70

beta >150 keV 200 40 SOP# SOP# 140

beta <150 keV 1,000 180 SOP# SOP# 700

gamma 200 40 SOP# SOP# 140

Air Filters (pCi/filter)

alpha 100 29 SOP# SOP# 52

beta >150 keV 200 58 SOP# SOP# 100

beta <150 keV 500 150 SOP# SOP# 260

gamma 200 58 SOP# SOP# 100

Alternate Total Activity per Aliquant (pCi)

alpha 5,000 1,400 SOP# SOP# 2,800

beta >150 keV 10,000 2,700 SOP# SOP# 5,500

beta <150 keV 25,000 6,800 SOP# SOP# 14,000

gamma 10,000 2,700 SOP# SOP# 5,500

EXPOSURE AND DOSE RATE LIMITS

Maximum Sample Exposure Rate (μR/h at surface of container) 5,000 1,500 SOP# SOP# 2,600

Maximum Area Ambient Exposure Rate (μR/h) 500 150 SOP# SOP# 260

Maximum Estimated Dose Rate, TEDE (mrem/h) 2.50 0.6 SOP# SOP# 1.5

[1] The calculation of uMR in this table assumes a z-factor of 1.645, related to α and β probabilities of 0.05.

[2] The Laboratory Sampling and Analysis SOPs have been omitted, as actual method parameters are not used 

to generate these specific example values. In an actual DQO summary, these columns would be completed 

with the laboratory method references that correspond to the stated MQOs.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

24 

• notification to the area supervisor or Radiation Safety Officer (RSO);

• surface decontamination, following established protocols;13

• follow-up survey to verify that the removable surface contamination is now below the 

ADL(C); and

• filing of a brief incident report to the area supervisor or RSO documenting the incident, 

the corrective action taken, the results of the follow-up measurements, and the necessary 

approval to resume work. 

The laboratory’s response to area exposure rate ADL(C) excursions may be to move nearby 

samples to remote storage. Sample activity concentration ADL(C) excursions might be addressed 

by processing the sample material in a higher-activity area or by sub-sampling to limit the total 

amount of activity being handled, which is discussed in more detail below. The laboratory should 

develop individual requirements for immediate response, corrective action, and the resumption 

of work, for each contamination control measurement in each area type.

2.3 Additional Comments Regarding Radioactivity and Exposure Limits 

Limits on sample activity concentrations are intended to allow the use of sample screening data 

to segregate radioactive samples to a particular part of the laboratory for processing. In some 

laboratories, however, it may not be possible to have both a “High-Level” and “Routine-Level” 

facility for every process. For that reason, Alternate Total Activity limits are provided to allow 

for the segregation of a small representative sample aliquant (portion of a high-activity sample) 

in the higher-activity level area. That reduced aliquant may then be brought into a lower-activity 

level area for further processing. 

EXAMPLE 1: The screening analysis results from a 500-g solid sample indicates beta activity of 

approximately 5,000 pCi/g, for beta-emitters with emission energies >150 keV. While the 

laboratory has facilities for the gross handling and digestion of high-activity samples, there 

are no separate facilities for chemical separation or counting. What is the largest sample 

aliquant allowed for processing in the Routine-Level Work Areas?

In this case, the sample exceeds the 100 pCi/g activity concentration ADL for this category 

of beta activity. A small representative aliquant may be processed in the Routine-Level 

Work Area, provided that the total beta activity does not exceed the 5,500 pCi total sample 

activity ADL, as determined by the screening results. Consequently, 1.1 g of material may 

be segregated in the High-Level Work Area and brought into the Routine-Level Work Area 

for further processing: (5,500 pCi limit) / (5,000 pCi/g sample activity) = 1.1 gram sample 

limit.

EXAMPLE 2: In the same scenario, how much sample material may then be transferred into the 

instrumentation laboratory for analysis, if that area is considered a Low-Level Work Area 

and the corresponding ADL for total beta activity per sample is 500 pCi?

 13 See Appendix I, Decontamination of Laboratory Surfaces and Equipment, for a general example of a 

decontamination protocol.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

25 

The representative 1.1-g sample aliquant that was brought into the Routine-Level Work 

Area for processing should be further reduced to the equivalent of no more than a 0.1-g 

aliquant, prior to being brought into the instrumentation lab: (500 pCi limit) / (5,000 pCi/g 

sample activity) = 0.1 gram sample limit.

Additional discussion regarding the handling and sub-sampling of higher-activity samples is 

given in Section 3.1, Sample Handling Protocols.

The limits on exposure and dose rates in Table 2 are intended to allow the laboratory to specify 

protective measures for the employees based on the type of area, and to control the impact of 

radiation on the analytical instrumentation in the various areas. Similarly, contamination limits 

allow the laboratory to control the potential impact of laboratory operations on the ability of the 

laboratory to achieve certain MQOs, as well as allowing the laboratory to further target 

protective measures to specific work areas.

Note that the values given in Table 2, and in the examples above, are provided for guidance only

and are intended to illustrate possible limits that may be used for controlling radioactivity and 

radiation levels in the various parts of the laboratory. These values will need to be adjusted based 

on specific laboratory operations. For example, in areas performing gross α/β analyses, the AAL 

and corresponding ADL values may be considerably higher than those that might be acceptable 

for areas in which alpha spectrometry analyses are performed. These decisions must be carefully 

considered on a case-by-case basis.

When establishing operational limits to the measured radioactivity and radiation levels in the 

different parts of the laboratory, a significant concern will be the potential effect of that 

radioactivity and radiation on the laboratory’s ability to perform sample measurements that meet 

the MQOs that have been established for the radiological or nuclear incident response. For 

example, a laboratory might limit sample activity concentrations in an area based on an 

estimation of the level of cross-contamination among samples that is likely for some particular 

process, such as soil grinding or the vigorous boiling of water samples. The laboratory may wish 

to limit the radioactivity associated with such potential cross-contamination to an amount that

will not have a significant impact on the incident response decisionmaking process.

In a similar example, the laboratory may wish to limit the fluctuations in nearby counting 

instrumentation by estimating the exposure rate that would be required from a batch of samples 

transiting the laboratory, to cause such a response in the instrument. This maximum allowable 

exposure rate might be distributed among several samples to determine a maximum allowable 

exposure rate, per sample.

In each example, the AAL established by the laboratory is the level of radioactivity or radiation 

that is expected to negatively impact laboratory operations. As this true sample value cannot be 

measured with absolute precision, the uncertainty of the measurement method (uMR) as well as an 

acceptable level of decision error rate, are also considered when determining an ADL, which is 

the measurement value beyond which it is understood that the AAL is likely to have been 

exceeded.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

26 

2.4 Determining Appropriate Levels of Personal Protective Equipment

Once the acceptable levels of radioactive materials and radiation are established for the various 

areas, the laboratory must designate required PPE that is appropriate for the activity levels, 

chemical hazards, and the type of work being performed.

It is not possible, within the scope of this document, to determine appropriate levels of PPE for 

the unique situations encountered in each laboratory. As with the designated activity 

concentrations, and contamination and exposure levels shown in Table 1, this document provides 

only examples for the laboratory to consider in its determination of appropriate levels of PPE. 

These examples are shown in Table 3, Suggested PPE for Operational Areas. 

Table 3 – Suggested PPE for Operational Areas

Work Area 

Definitions

Important Note: Example requirements for 

respiratory protective equipment have been 

intentionally omitted from Table 3, as the selection, 

training, and use of respiratory protective 

equipment are complex and well outside the scope 

of this guide. These matters should be carefully 

considered by the laboratory’s health and safety 

professionals, in light of the type of samples, 

activity levels, methodologies, and engineering 

controls to be used, and should be thoroughly 

documented in the laboratory’s Radiation 

Protection and Respiratory Protection Programs. 

Qualified health physicists and industrial hygienists 

should be consulted prior to designating the use of 

this equipment.

Low LevelRoutine LevelHigh Level

Long sleeves, pants. × × ×

Closed, flat work shoes. × × ×

Safety Glasses × × ×

Lab Coat × ×

Disposable Gloves × × ×

Head Covering ×

Disposable Lab Coat/Smock ×

Disposable Shoe Covers (Booties) ×

Disposable Cuffs ×

Disposable Gloves (2nd Layer) ×

Disposable Coveralls ×

Respiratory Protection (see note)

It is important to note, however, that most standard laboratory PPE does not provide adequate 

protection from external exposures to gamma or high-energy beta activity. PPE is primarily 

designated as protection against chemical hazards, heat/cold and other physical hazards, and as a 

mechanism for controlling worker and laboratory contamination. Protection against ionizing 

radiation is discussed further in Section 4.0, Exposure Control and Radiation Shielding.

2.5 Laboratory Layout and Process Flow

A key element of laboratory contamination control is the specific and dedicated use of different 

areas in the laboratory, with proper consideration to how the activity levels in the various areas 

are related and how materials and staff will move from one area to another. 

The laboratory should be configured, whenever possible, to reflect the logical flow of operations 

and to minimize the impact of potential contamination events. Dedicated work spaces can 
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

27 

minimize the risk that contamination in one area will impact other processes. The laboratory 

should also establish contingency plans for handling out-of-control events, such as sample spills 

or broken containers.

In existing facilities, work areas might be reassigned or rearranged to facilitate a more efficient 

and controlled environment. In designing new facilities, careful attention should be paid to the 

physical layout of the laboratory and the anticipated flow of work through the different areas. In 

some cases, separate facilities may be constructed for handling high-level vs. low-level samples.

In combined facilities, it is advantageous to have the low-level processes as remote as feasible 

from high-level processes. Related processes should be situated close to one another to minimize 

traffic through the work areas, and the flow of work through the laboratory should be smooth, 

logical, and efficient. These factors will help minimize incidental contamination issues and help 

contain the contamination when it does occur. Appendix A, Planning Considerations for 

Laboratory Layout and Process Flow, provides a more detailed discussion of the various 

considerations for separating high-level and low-level sample processing areas in a single 

laboratory facility. The examples are intended to be illustrative and may be applicable to a wide 

variety of laboratory configurations.

Additional information about laboratory configuration, process flow, and other critical elements 

in the preparation of a laboratory for response to a radiological or nuclear incident is provided in 

the Guide for Laboratories – Identification, Preparation, and Implementation of Core 

Operations for Radiological or Nuclear Incident Response (EPA 2010).

2.6 Additional Planning Considerations 

In addition to defining operational areas in the laboratory, establishing acceptable levels of 

radioactivity and radiation for those areas, determining appropriate levels of PPE, and 

considering the layout and process flow in the laboratory, several other important planning 

considerations are briefly introduced below. 

2.6.1 Controlled Entry/Egress Points 

When planning the various work areas in the laboratory, consideration should be made for 

existing traffic paths and entryways, as these may be limitations to the intended layout of the 

work areas. 

Each distinct area type, examples of which are provided in Section 2.1, should have limited and 

controlled access and egress points. Further, the points of entry should be distinct and distant 

from the points of egress, whenever possible.

2.6.2 Step-Off Pads

The strategic placement and liberal use of adhesive step-off pads or mats will significantly 

decrease the risk of laboratory contamination resulting from the migration of radioactive 

materials from foot traffic. Step-off pads should be changed frequently to maintain their 

effectiveness and should be surveyed prior to removal and disposal so that potential 
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

28 

contamination issues may be identified and corrected. The proper use of step-off pads is 

discussed in Appendix F, Egress Into a Lower-Activity Area.

2.6.3 PPE Donning/Doffing Areas

Sufficient space should be allotted at the area entry points for the storage of, and access to, the 

PPE that is required in that area. Consideration may also need to be given to space for benches, 

tables, or other ancillary furniture that will facilitate easy and efficient donning of the required 

PPE.

The efficient removal (doffing) of PPE, in a manner that helps prevent laboratory contamination, 

should be facilitated by the placement of PPE doffing stations at the controlled egress points. 

Doffing areas should include step-off pads, frisking stations, and used PPE and waste 

receptacles, as well as ready access to personnel decontamination equipment and a phone or 

intercom to summon assistance, if needed.

2.6.4 Frisking Stations

Frisking stations are locations that provide ready access to hand-held survey equipment. The 

survey equipment to be used at these stations may be incident-specific. Geiger-Müller probes, 

exposure rate meters, etc., should be selected with consideration of the radionuclide and type of 

radiation encountered in the specific incident as well as the detection sensitivity of the instrument 

and the ability to meet the operational objectives established by the laboratory. Frisking stations 

should be planned for strategic areas throughout the facility, including egress points and 

laboratory areas where sample containers, work surfaces, or personnel should be frequently 

monitored for contamination.

The layout and location of a frisking station should facilitate the task it is intended to 

accomplish:

• Frisking stations should be located so as to intercept the movement of potentially 

contaminated materials or personnel through the lab. It is necessary to place frisking 

stations at the controlled egress points from an area of higher activity to an area of lower 

activity, so that personnel and materials can safely move to the lower-activity area. It may 

also be desirable to place additional frisking stations within a work area to monitor the 

movement of radioactivity within the lab.

• Except for the necessary frisking stations at controlled egress points, locating a frisking

station in a high traffic area such as a hallway may increase the risk of contamination to 

passing personnel and equipment since potentially contaminated materials are 

deliberately brought to the frisking station for survey. Having a frisking station in a high 

traffic area may also discourage a thorough survey if the traffic impedes or interferes with 

the surveying process. Whenever possible, if a frisking station is to be located in a high 

traffic area, it may be advisable to create a small alcove for that purpose, or to allow 

sufficient room for traffic to keep well clear of the frisking process.

• Frisking stations should be equipped with a table or other surface for placing materials to 

be surveyed. The table should be covered with plastic-lined, absorbent, disposable 
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

29 

laboratory paper, which should be changed frequently. The surface should be divided into 

two areas, one for staging “incoming” materials to be surveyed and the other for “clean” 

materials that have been successfully surveyed. If any item is determined to be 

contaminated, the item and the “incoming” area should be decontaminated and the 

laboratory paper replaced. Consequently, frisking stations should be designed with ready 

access to decontamination equipment and supplies, a receptacle for potentially 

contaminated waste, and ready access to a phone or intercom system to summon 

assistance, if needed.

• Frisking stations at controlled egress points should be equipped with hand-held survey 

probes necessary for surveying clothing, materials, and other surfaces. In addition, 

stationary hand-and-foot monitors may expedite traffic through the area. 

2.6.5 Personnel Decontamination Stations

Personnel decontamination stations need not be elaborate or take up significant space beyond a 

normal laboratory configuration. A typical decontamination station should be equipped with a 

sink for routine hand-washing as well as a shower or drench hose with eyewash station. The 

laboratory should ensure that the decontamination area is adequately supplied with:

• Hand soap and a chelating detergent;

• Disposable sponges, scrub brushes (such as fingernail brushes), and paper towels;

• Temporary clothing, such as paper coveralls and booties, in the event that the employee’s 

clothing must be removed;

• A temporary modesty screen, to encourage the disposal of potentially contaminated 

clothing prior to leaving the area; and

• Receptacles for potentially contaminated clothing and supplies.

The laboratory’s Radiation Protection Program should provide additional detailed guidance on 

personnel decontamination that is tailored to the specific facilities and to the radioactive 

materials and processes in use. These laboratory-specific details are outside the scope of this 

document. 

2.6.6 Spill Response/Surface Decontamination Equipment 

As with personnel decontamination stations, laboratory spill response and surface 

decontamination preparedness need not be overly burdensome to the laboratory. Many needed 

supplies and equipment will already be on hand for response to chemical spills and 

decontamination.

Supplies to address minor decontamination events, such as sample bottles or laboratory bench 

surfaces, should be kept in the individual laboratory area and should include:

• A chelating detergent in a spray or squeeze bottle; 

• Disposable wipes;

• Paper towels;

• A supply of secondary containment bags or bins; and
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

30 

• Access to a receptacle for potentially contaminated waste.

Equipment and supplies for larger events involving the response to radioactive materials spills 

and surface decontamination should be readily available at strategic locations throughout the 

laboratory. The primary equipment and supplies will be preferably located on a cart, so that the 

materials can be easily brought to the location of the spill/contamination. The cart and its 

contents should be clearly marked for use only in spill or contamination response, to prevent 

their use in normal housekeeping tasks. The cart and its contents should be frequently inspected, 

preferably using a check-off/sign-off document to ensure that adequate supplies are readily 

available when needed.

2.6.7 Contamination Follow-Up Protocol

Following a sample spill or other contamination event, it will be necessary to verify that the 

affected surfaces, materials, and equipment have been properly decontaminated before they are 

approved for use in the laboratory. The laboratory should have established guidelines for resurveying potentially contaminated surfaces, etc., documenting the results of those follow-up 

surveys, and in some cases obtaining the approval of the RSO or other safety staff before 

resuming normal operations.

2.6.8 Additional Shielding Material 

The laboratory should establish fixed radiation shielding in those areas where protection from 

elevated exposure to beta and gamma radiation is needed. These areas may include the sample 

and waste storage areas for high radioactivity materials, selected work stations in the high-level

and routine areas, and the radiation measurement instrumentation area.

In addition to fixed shielding, the laboratory should keep on hand a variety of temporary and 

portable shielding devices that will accommodate activity sources that were not anticipated in the 

initial planning or the laboratory layout. These devices may include:

• Lead bricks or sheets;

• Lead pigs or other containers for transporting samples; and

• Polycarbonate or acrylic sheets, to be used for beta shielding.

In planning for the laboratory to respond to a radiological or nuclear incident, the availability, 

location, and transportation of these additional shielding materials within the laboratory should 

be considered. A more thorough discussion of shielding requirements is found in Section 4, 

Exposure Control and Radiation Shielding.

2.6.9 Glove Boxes 

In some cases, high-activity samples and samples that present a high risk of airborne 

contamination should be processed in a glove box. Whether it is a permanent structure or a 

temporary glove box located inside a fume hood, the laboratory should ensure that it is large 

enough for the intended purpose and properly equipped with all required sample handling and 
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

31 

decontamination equipment, and that the personnel are adequately trained in the transfer of 

material into and out of the box, and the associated surveillance and decontamination practices. 

If the laboratory intends to install a glove box, qualified engineering and health physics 

professionals should be consulted. The engineering and safety requirements related to the 

selection and use of glove boxes are complex and beyond the scope of this guide.

2.7 Changing the Work Area Designation During an Incident Response

The modification of a work area’s designation with respect to activity levels, particularly the 

change from a higher-level work area to a lower-level work area (e.g., the conversion of a HighLevel Work Area to a Routine-Level Work Area) should generally be discouraged during an 

incident response due to the potential for allowing unobserved contamination to remain in the 

newly designated lower-level work area. Nonetheless, it is recognized that some modification of 

the laboratory’s processes may be necessary under certain circumstances. 

Prior to allowing an area’s designation to be changed from a higher-level work area to a lowerlevel work area, a detailed plan should be created by the laboratory that addresses:

• which areas will be affected;

• how the flow of work through the laboratory will be affected;

• which equipment and surfaces in the area under consideration will remain and which will 

be removed;

• what decontamination protocols will be used on both the remaining equipment and 

surfaces, and those to be removed;

• which contamination control ADL(C)s will be applicable to the new area (i.e., what the 

area-type designation of the new area shall be);

• the number and type of surveys that will be necessary to change the area-type 

designation; and

• the requirements for documentation and approval prior to allowing the work area to be 

placed into service under the lower-level designation. 

Similarly, the conversion of a lower-level work area to a higher-level designation should require 

a plan that addresses the same considerations described above, except that decontamination and 

surveillance prior to changing the area-type designation are not necessary in that case.

Any plan for converting laboratory areas should include consideration that materials and 

equipment being moved through the laboratory in preparation for the conversion are likely to be 

moved through other lower-level work areas, for which lower contamination and exposure limits 

apply. Consideration should also be made for the ultimate re-use or disposal of equipment or 

materials being removed from higher-level work areas, and for the ultimate return of a newlydesignated higher-level work area to its former lower-level status. Finally, the frequent or 

repetitive change of area-types should not be allowed as a routine practice and should not be 

considered a reasonable substitute for having sufficient laboratory space and infrastructure to 

properly respond to a radiological or nuclear incident. 
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

32 

The protocols in the associated appendices are provided as generalized templates only, and are not 

intended to prescribe specific requirements for the laboratory. Some of the example protocols provide 

great detail simply to illustrate the benefit of a careful and systematic approach to sample handling. 

Each laboratory will need to make its own decisions regarding the need for specific protocols, and the 

content of those protocols it decides to implement in order to accommodate the unique layout and 

established procedures in the laboratory.

3. RADIOACTIVE CONTAMINATION CONTROL

After preparing the physical laboratory to respond to a radiological or nuclear incident, as 

described in Section 2.0, the laboratory should consider establishing operational protocols that 

provide task-specific instruction to personnel for controlling radioactive contamination and 

radiation exposure. 

These protocols should address the areas of concern related to the handling and control of 

elevated levels of radioactivity in samples, waste, and other laboratory materials and the 

processing of the large numbers of samples that may be expected during the response to a

radiological or nuclear incident. These areas of concern include:

• The appropriate handling of radioactive samples, including the initial receipt of samples, 

the proper handling of opened sample material, the isolation of small amounts of material 

for further processing, and modified procedures for chemical separations.

• The establishment of dedicated equipment for high-activity samples and the use of 

detector QC measurements to control and monitor low-level radioanalytical 

contamination.

• The proper movement of materials and personnel through the laboratory to prevent the 

migration of radioactive contamination.

• The systematic monitoring and removal of radioactive contamination.

Brief discussions regarding these specific topics are presented below. Example protocols are 

presented in the associated appendices. 

In establishing protocols for the control of radioactive material, the laboratory may find it useful 

to require that additional personnel are readily available to support the primary employee by 

providing supplies, recording data, and performing other tasks as needed. This may help to 

minimize the number of collateral tasks being performed by the person handling the samples and 

other potentially contaminated materials, thereby minimizing the likelihood of laboratory 

contamination.

In addition, the establishment of specific protocols will generally require the measurement of 

radiation and a comparison of the measurement results to the analytical decision level, as 

discussed in Section 2.2. The laboratory should be familiar with the concepts related to MQOs, 

ADLs, AALs, etc. Familiarity with the companion guides14

 14 See Preface. 

in this series and MARLAP (2004)
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

33 

Appendix C, Measurement Quality Objectives for Method Uncertainty and Detection and 

Quantification Capability, will significantly aid in the understanding and application of these 

concepts.

3.1 Sample Handling Protocols

The laboratory should develop protocols for receiving and screening potentially radioactive 

materials. Elevated activity samples should be segregated from low-level samples as soon as they 

are identified, ideally at the point where they are shipped from the field and before they reach the 

laboratory. The laboratory should communicate with the field personnel, where possible, and 

make arrangements for segregated shipments, whenever possible. Advance notification from 

field personnel regarding the expected delivery of samples, including the number, field screening 

information, and a copy of the chain of custody, may assist the laboratory in its preparations for 

sample receipt. Samples should be screened as part of the sample receipt process and separated 

into low-level and high-level streams, as early as practicable, but prior to their release to the 

laboratory for analysis. Field screening results may be considered in the laboratory’s initial 

receipt of the samples but should not replace laboratory screening protocols. In some cases, 

extremely elevated activity levels may necessitate that a sample be rejected for receipt by the 

laboratory, or routed to another location for additional processing or sub-sampling prior to 

acceptance by the laboratory. Guidance on sample screening, including examples, can be found 

in the companion document, Radiological Laboratory Sample Screening Analysis Guide for 

Incidents of National Significance (EPA 2009b).

The laboratory should develop protocols for opening, transferring, sub-sampling, and aliquanting 

sample material. These protocols should incorporate screening data proactively to ensure 

appropriate handling of elevated activity samples, including the isolation of small sample 

fractions for processing in lower-activity areas, if necessary.

Sample preparation practices should be reviewed to ensure that they minimize the risk of 

laboratory contamination and sample cross-contamination, and incorporate contamination 

monitoring and control techniques, where possible. The analytical procedures should ensure that 

the risk of detector contamination is minimized, and that such contamination is rapidly identified 

and corrected, when it does occur. 

3.1.1 Initial Receipt of Radioactive Materials

Upon receipt of sample material or radioactive sources, it is extremely important that an external 

dose rate measurement and a survey of the removable surface contamination from the shipping 

package be performed. These surveys may be required by federal and applicable state regulations 

for certain radioactive materials packages, but they are strongly recommended for the receipt of 

all shipments that could potentially contain radioactive materials. In addition, the contents of the 

package should be surveyed for removable surface contamination prior to distribution in the 

laboratory. Finally, the inside of the package and any packing material may need to be surveyed 

prior to disposal, where the survey of the contents indicates potential contamination. 
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

34 

The laboratory should consider establishing a specific protocol that would be appropriate for the 

general receipt of radiological material, with activity and exposure limits that reliably ensure 

identification of materials that may compromise the laboratory’s established contamination and 

exposure limits. An example of a sample receipt protocol is provided in Appendix B, Initial 

Receipt of Radioactive Materials. In addition to the limits selected by the laboratory, the 

laboratory should be familiar with the requirements of 10 CFR 20, 10 CFR 71, 49 CFR 173, and 

other applicable regulations regarding the transportation, receipt, and handling of radioactive 

materials packages.

It is recommended that the laboratory develop a standardized form, to be completed with each 

shipment, which guides the technician through the various steps of receiving a package. The 

form should document the measurements performed and include or reference appropriate action 

levels, and instructions for responding to measurements above the action levels. An example of 

this type of form is shown in Figure 8, Example of Radioactive Materials Shipments Initial 

Survey Results, in Appendix B.

3.1.2 Opening, Transferring, and Aliquanting Sample Material

The opening of the sample container and the removal of sample material present a significant 

risk of laboratory contamination, particularly when handling dusty or friable samples, or when 

the samples contain discrete radioactive particles (DRPs), also referred to as “hot particles,”

which may become electrostatically charged and therefore difficult to control. Upon receipt in 

the laboratory, the sample container may need to be opened and sample material removed for 

screening analysis to determine gross activity levels. Decisions regarding the appropriate storage 

areas and work locations for the sample should be based on those screening measurements.

The laboratory might consider a protocol that addresses the staging and opening of the sample 

containers, the removal of sample material, and the transfer of that material to an appropriate 

container for further processing. Issues such as the dedicated use of work areas for specific tasks, 

the screening of sample containers, the proper disposal of waste materials, and the ultimate 

destination for the removed sample material should be addressed. 

An example protocol for this phase of sample handling is provided in Appendix C, Opening, 

Transferring, and Aliquanting Sample Material. As in all the examples provided in this guide, 

suggestions are offered for the laboratory’s consideration, but the laboratory will need to make 

its own decisions about the establishment and content of specific protocols.

The example provided in Appendix C is somewhat simplified and is very specific to the transfer 

and aliquanting of soil material. It is intended to illustrate particular points regarding the flow of 

work, the organization of the work area, suggested practices to control dust and to minimize 

laboratory contamination, and surveillance practices to identify contamination events if they 

occur. Other laboratory procedures and steps should be examined in the light of these points to 

control contamination. 
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

35 

Where possible, the laboratory’s sample preparation and chemical separation procedures should be 

flexible enough to allow the laboratory to accommodate both pre-established incident response MQOs 

and incident-specific MQOs. The laboratory’s procedures should incorporate the collection, review, 

and communication of screening data proactively to ensure the appropriate handling and aliquanting of 

elevated activity samples. Laboratories with pre-established digestion and dilution protocols that use 

screening results as “trigger” points will save time during sample preparation. At the same time, this 

process ensures that the total activity handled during sample processing is decreased and that the 

subsequent decontamination of labware, equipment, and detectors is minimized.

3.1.3 Isolating Reduced Fractions for Transfer to Lower-Level Work Areas

As discussed in Section 2.2., the laboratory will benefit from designating specific areas for the 

handling of sample materials with pre-set activity ranges. Nonetheless, it is recognized that not 

all laboratories will be able to establish redundant facilities in multiple areas for all tasks. Where 

laboratory facilities are limited, it may be helpful in some cases to isolate a small, representative 

aliquant of a highly radioactive sample to be brought into the lower-level work areas for 

processing. This may be done in a small High-Level Work Area in the laboratory, or may even 

be done in a remote facility, separate from the analytical laboratory.

If the desired target aliquant is large enough that it can be taken directly from the bulk sample 

and an accurate measurement of a representative subsample may be reasonably expected, the 

laboratory might allow the procedures described in Appendix C to be followed. If the desired 

target aliquant is very small, a reliable measurement of the aliquant size may be difficult or the 

homogeneity of the aliquant may not be assured. In such cases, a larger intermediate aliquant 

may need to be taken, digested, or diluted, and a fraction of the final digestate/solution then 

taken that is equivalent to the target aliquant. In these cases, the accuracy of any dilutions 

performed will be improved and the uncertainty of the final concentration minimized if the initial 

sample amount and the digestate solution taken for analysis are measured gravimetrically. An 

example protocol is briefly described in Appendix D, Isolating Reduced Fractions for Transfer 

to Lower-Level Areas, and is carried out in the laboratory fume hood configuration described in 

Appendix C.

In this relatively simple manner, a larger subsample of the original material may be further 

divided into much smaller representative aliquants that may contain micrograms or microliters, 

or less, of the original sample. The reduced aliquant with the associated reduced activity level 

may then be brought into lower-level work areas for processing.

3.1.4 Sample Preparation and Chemical Separation Processes

If a sample must be processed to separate and purify radionuclide(s) of interest, measures should 

be taken to detect and minimize cross-contamination. While specific measures taken should 

reflect the needs and vulnerabilities of each operation, examples of typical measures could 

include:

• Minimizing the levels of activity, based on screening results, that may be handled in any area 

or specific operation;
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

36 

• Grinding solid samples using equipment such as paint shakers or ball mills, which minimize 

the release of particulates into the air;

• Maximizing the use of disposable labware for high-level work, and segregating labware and 

equipment for low-level work from that for high-level work;

• Providing dedicated facilities for cleaning low- and high-activity labware and equipment;

• Making provisions to test the effectiveness of cleaning/decontamination, such as analyzing 

rinse waters or performing equipment blanks;

• Establishing a system to identify equipment used and the sequence in which samples were 

prepared to facilitate corrective action whenever unexpected high activity is identified later 

in the process;

• Using plastic-backed, bench/hood absorbent paper liners in preparation areas;

• Pre-treating fume hoods or other surfaces with a strippable coating, which proactively 

enables effective decontamination;15

• Identifying housekeeping expectations and responsibilities and setting a schedule for keeping 

work areas clean.

and

3.1.5 Instrumentation and Radioanalytical Controls

The purpose of radioanalytical contamination control is to protect the quality of the results and to 

ensure that the required radiochemistry MQOs are met. The levels of contamination that 

significantly affect the quality of the data are generally much lower than those needed to protect 

the health of laboratory personnel. Effective radioanalytical contamination control will, by 

default, minimize personnel contamination and simplify decontamination efforts, both of which 

have significant impacts on the sample throughput and laboratory staff morale. 

The starting point for effective radioanalytical contamination control is good laboratory 

practices. However, good laboratory practices which may be sufficient for routine operations 

may not be sufficient when high-level activity samples are processed. Contamination control 

measures, initiated during the receipt and processing of the samples, should be continued during 

the analytical process to maintain the integrity of the laboratory.

Such measures should be proactive, and the initiation of corrective actions should take place 

before contamination becomes a detrimental factor to laboratory processes and jeopardizes the 

reliability of the data. Implemented measures should reflect the needs and vulnerabilities of each 

operation. Examples of measures to protect the integrity of the counting instrumentation and the 

resulting measurements include:

• Logging sample IDs in the order of preparation for non-disposable equipment (e.g., grinders, 

glassware, etc.) to facilitate investigation of potential cross-contamination;

• Protecting gamma-ray detectors by bagging samples, detectors, or both;

 15 Additional information on the use and efficacy of strippable coatings may be found in Section 3.2 of the 

companion document, A Performance-Based Approach to the Use of Swipe Samples in Response to a Radiological 

or Nuclear Incident (EPA 2011).
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

37 

• Swipe-testing certain sealed sample test sources, such as bagged gamma test sources or liquid 

scintillation vials, prior to their transfer to the nuclear instrumentation room, to verify the 

lack of removable surface contamination;

• Screening sample test sources to identify excessively high-activity samples prior to 

introduction into detectors;

• Designating detectors for low and high-activity samples;

• Designating detectors for specific analytes, especially those analytes that are susceptible to 

interference from the residual effects of other analyses performed in the same detectors (e.g.,

americium and plutonium results by alpha spectrometry may be biased by the residual effects 

of short-lived uranium and thorium progeny contamination on the detector);

• Establishing AALs, MQOs, and ADLs for investigation and corrective action (e.g., sample 

count rate or final sample activity exceeds pre-established criteria);

• Removing high-activity samples from gas proportional counters and alpha spectrometers as 

soon as the count is finished;

• Checking detector background after exposure to high-activity samples, after first defining 

“high activity” as it pertains to levels that may cause radioanalytical concerns;

• Periodically performing removable surface contamination surveys on gamma detectors to 

assess contamination from non-gamma-emitting radionuclides (e.g., 90Sr, 239Pu) on sample 

containers and other laboratory surfaces; and

• Increasing emphasis on tracking and trending of detector background count rates and method 

blank results.

In some cases, the laboratory may perform periodic cleaning of certain detector components, 

such as alpha or gamma spectrometer detectors. The laboratory should establish acceptable 

protocols for the periodic maintenance of detector systems. In addition, the laboratory should 

ensure that appropriate quality control checks are performed prior to cleaning and maintenance, 

to support the data acquired prior to any potential changes to the detector system, as well as 

ensuring that new background calibrations are performed after cleaning but prior to resuming 

sample analyses. 

3.2 Movement Between Laboratory Areas (Entry/Egress) 

After the laboratory defines and delineates the various types of work areas, as described in 

Section 2.1, it is recommended that protocols be established for movement between the areas. 

These protocols should be designed to minimize the risk of contamination to personnel, samples, 

supplies, and equipment, and to facilitate the isolation and removal of such contamination, if it 

occurs.

Entrance and egress points should be well defined and, whenever possible, separate. It is 

recognized, however, that separate entrance and egress points are not always possible in all 

laboratory settings, and that a single entryway or doorway will often need to serve both purposes. 

When moving between areas of different activity levels, precautions should be taken to protect 

both the workers and the materials from contamination. In specifying these precautions, the 

laboratory should ensure that the employees are well trained in the protocols and that those 
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

38 

protocols are thorough, but not unnecessarily burdensome. Overly burdensome guidelines, 

whose purpose is not immediately obvious, may be circumvented or ignored by the staff. 

When providing training for entry and egress protocols, the following points should be 

emphasized:

• Individuals should be mindful that entry into an area of higher radioactivity will 

necessitate the eventual exiting from that area, with the associated egress protocols, and 

that entry is always easier and faster than egress. 

• Any movement from an area of higher radioactivity to an area of lower radioactivity 

entails the risk of contamination to the personnel, samples, supplies, and equipment in the 

lower-activity area. Consequently, any transition should be carefully considered and 

planned to minimize the number of trips and the unnecessary movement of materials into 

(and out of) an area. 

• No material should be removed from a higher-activity area to a lower-activity area unless 

it has been surveyed and determined to meet the entrance criteria for the lower-activity 

area and decontaminated, if necessary.

• Where possible, additional equipment should be procured in order to minimize the need 

to move equipment between different types of areas, especially where the risk of 

contamination to the equipment or the area is high. 

• As there is no effective decontamination for sample material, any sample material 

processed in a higher level area may need to be screened or sub-sampled in order to allow 

its entry into a lower-activity area. This is time consuming and should be avoided 

whenever possible. Sample materials transiting an area should remain properly sealed. 

Having noted the preceding points, the laboratory may wish to develop specific protocols to 

guide personnel in their entry to and egress from specific areas in the laboratory.

3.2.1 Entry Into a Higher-Activity Area

When entering a higher-activity area from a lower-activity area, as when moving from the 

instrumentation laboratory to sample preparation lab, the primary concern should be the 

protection of the employee and the materials being moved from the potential sources of 

contamination in the higher-activity areas. There is little concern that the materials or supplies 

entering the higher levels area will contaminate that area because they begin in the lower level 

areas, and it is assumed that the materials have met the criteria for those areas. Consequently, 

entering a higher level area from a lower level area need not entail contamination surveillance, 

such as screening or frisking practices, or decontamination protocols.

It may be helpful for the laboratory to ensure that the entry area, immediately outside the higheractivity area access point, is equipped with the following items:

• Lockers, cubbies, bins, or other containers for storing personal items that are not to be 

transported into the area;
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

39 

• An ample supply of PPE items required for entry. This may include a selection of gloves, 

shoe covers, disposable coveralls, etc.; and

• A table or other surface for staging materials.

When entering the higher level area, the materials being moved into that area should be carefully 

considered. The number of trips back and forth should be minimized and no unnecessary items, 

such as redundant supplies or unneeded packing materials, should be taken into the area as these 

items present an unnecessary contamination risk. 

Appendix E, Entry Into a Higher-Activity Area, provides an example of the type of protocol a 

laboratory may establish for transiting from a lower-activity area to a higher-activity area. Each 

laboratory should specify the entry protocol for each area, which will depend greatly on how the 

area types are defined, what activity levels are specified, and what type of PPE is required.

3.2.2 Egress Into a Lower-Activity Area 

When leaving a higher-activity area, the primary concerns should be the containment of any 

radioactive materials being moved, and the assessment and control of contamination on the 

employee and the materials being moved. The goal is to prevent the migration of any potential 

contamination into the lower-activity area, which would expose lower level sample materials, 

laboratory facilities, and unprotected employees to the contamination source.

The protocols for egress from a higher-activity area will necessarily be more complex than the 

entry protocols. It may be useful to ensure that additional personnel are available to assist the 

egress process, including decontamination activities, if needed. An example protocol for moving 

personnel and materials from a higher level area to a lower level area is provided in Appendix F, 

Egress Into a Lower-Activity Area. As with other example protocols, this is based on a 

hypothetical laboratory operation, under very specific operating conditions, and is intended only 

as an example on which a laboratory might choose to base its own protocols.

The egress area should have provisions for contamination surveillance, removal of PPE, and the 

effective decontamination of items that are identified as contaminated. An example layout for an 

egress area is shown in Figure 11 of Appendix F.

3.3 Laboratory Contamination Monitoring and Control

In order to detect, control, and prevent the spread of radioactive contamination in the laboratory, 

a fully functional Radiological Controls Program should be implemented. This program must 

address low levels of radiological contamination that also present radioanalytical problems for 

the laboratory.

In some cases, the spread of cross-contamination as low as 0.25–1 pCi for beta/gamma-emitting 

nuclides and 0.1 pCi for alpha-emitting nuclides could lead to the reporting of erroneous results 

for low-level environmental samples and allow low levels of contamination to escape outside of 

the radiologically controlled area.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

40 

A laboratory’s established radiological monitoring program should provide for adequate 

monitoring during normal operations and should include additional provisions for monitoring 

when handling samples that contain concentrations of radioactive contaminants well above those 

normally processed. These additional provisions could include increasing the frequency of 

surveys as a function of the activity level and number of samples processed, and expanding the 

areas of concern to include:

• Hallways, sample receipt area (inside and outside), and even administration areas;

• Inaccessible areas, such as laboratory hoods (including ductwork, fans, and exhaust stacks), 

floor drains, sink drains, and traps;

• Hood filters, and hood scrubber waste water; and

• Building external locations, such as the roof, loading and receiving docks, and the nearest 

sanitary or storm drains into which building liquid discharges are directed.

Surveys can be performed using portable survey meters, taking swipe samples, or taking grab 

samples, if appropriate. Additional information regarding contamination and dose can be 

obtained from ambient air monitoring of sample receipt and high-activity sample processing 

areas and from samples of mop water and step-off pads.

It is important to establish baseline activity values for these measurements under current 

laboratory conditions. Because some of these surveys may not be performed during routine 

operations of the laboratory, it may be necessary to develop and implement documented 

procedures to identify critical areas, and approaches to performing non-routine surveys. This also 

means that data should be collected for all sample locations, so that a baseline and an action level 

are established for each type of measurement and location. Any data collected during the 

incident response period should be evaluated against this baseline, assessed quickly, and 

followed with appropriate response, such as additional surveys or cleanup to minimize exposure, 

protect the integrity of samples and radioanalytical measurements, and prevent laboratory 

contamination or releases of radioactive materials to the environment.

Radiological monitoring of designated areas should take place at specified frequencies,

16

 16 Guidance on strategies for establishing survey frequencies was issued by the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory 

Commission (NRC, 1999: NUREG 1556, vol. 11), but each laboratory should develop its own program. The 

approach should also keep in mind that the NUREG document is focused primarily on human health concerns, 

although much lower levels of radioactive contamination may be of concern in radioanalytical facilities where 

measurements of low-level radioactivity are being performed.

with 

specified sampling and measurement techniques, using pre-determined MQOs. Examples of 

these important components of a radiological monitoring program are provided in Appendix G, 

Active Radiological Monitoring Program for Contamination Control. Specific procedures for 

surveillance and decontamination of laboratory surfaces, equipment, and personnel are discussed 

in the following sections.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

41 

“Fixing” Contamination In Place

The use of paints, epoxies, and other coatings to 

affix contamination to a surface permanently or 

semi-permanently may be a viable option for alpha 

and low-energy beta contamination in cases where 

the fixed-in-place radionuclides pose no external 

dose risk to personnel. These techniques can be 

especially useful when the contaminated surface is 

difficult to clean (e.g., porous concrete, wood, etc.) 

but replacement costs are prohibitive. Careful 

records must be kept to assist any eventual 

decommissioning activities in the facility, and 

fixed contamination areas should be clearly 

identified in the laboratory. 

3.3.1 Surveillance of Laboratory Surfaces and Equipment

Surveillance of laboratory surfaces and equipment should employ both hand-held survey 

equipment and laboratory swipes. Section 2.2 and Appendix G discuss the need to establish 

acceptable levels of fixed and removable contamination17

3.3.1.1 Fixed Contamination Surveys

and associated survey MQOs in the 

various area types prior to accepting samples from a radiological or nuclear incident. Note that in 

the transfer of materials from a higher-activity area to a lower-activity area, the contamination 

limits must satisfy the requirements of the lower activity before the materials leave the higheractivity area.

Fixed contamination surveys, using hand-held 

survey instruments, should be required on all 

potentially affected surfaces that present a risk 

of exposing laboratory workers to radiation 

above the limits specified in the area 

descriptions or causing elevated or unstable 

background levels that may adversely affect 

instrumentation. Laboratory surfaces should 

be surveyed periodically and after any 

necessary decontamination efforts. All 

materials, such as laboratory equipment, 

paperwork, samples, etc., that are being 

moved from a high-activity level area to a 

lower-activity level area should also be 

surveyed. In some instances, it may be useful 

to survey sample test sources that have been prepared in a high-activity level area, prior to 

transferring those samples to a lower-activity level area.

The laboratory should ensure that the hand-held survey instrument selected for use is appropriate 

to the type of radiation expected in the samples from the incident. If the type of potential 

contamination is uncertain or if the samples from the incident involve multiple types of radiation,

the surface may need to be surveyed repeatedly using the different instrument types. When 

possible, survey equipment should be calibrated with the radionuclide of interest or an 

appropriate conversion factor should be determined. Additional guidance on the calibration and 

use of hand-held survey equipment is provided in Radiological Laboratory Sample Screening 

Analysis Guide for Incidents of National Significance (EPA 2009).

While the laboratory will have established procedures for the calibration and use of hand-held 

survey equipment, the actual implementation of these procedures can be highly technique-

 17 For purposes of this document, “fixed” contamination refers to the portion of contamination that remains attached 

to a surface after reasonable attempts to clean or decontaminate that surface. Contamination that is fixed to the 

surface is usually of concern only as a source of external exposure unless it becomes loose and is redistributed. 

“Removable” contamination is transferrable by contact, inhalation, or ingestion. The amount of removable 

contamination usually is determined by obtaining swipe samples (EPA 2011).
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

42 

dependent, and the instrument results can vary significantly from one user to another. The 

response of any hand-held survey instrument, particularly those measuring alpha and beta

radiation, to a radioactive source is dependent on the orientation and distance of the probe to the 

surface being measured, which may be different for each person unless steps are taken to ensure 

uniformity in the use of these instruments. Instrument check sources, therefore, should be 

measured by each technician daily or prior to use. The frequent measurement of check sources

and the comparison of the results to established acceptance criteria by each individual technician 

performing the surveys may help to ensure consistency in the use of the instruments.

3.3.1.2 Removable Surface Contamination (Swipe) Surveys 

The collection and analysis of swipes is intended to identify removable surface contamination. In 

general, a swipe survey is performed by selecting an appropriate swiping material, such as a 

paper or glass fiber filter. The swipe may be used dry or may be wetted with an appropriate 

agent, and is then drawn across a pre-determined area of the potentially contaminated surface. 

The swipe is then analyzed with an appropriately calibrated instrument, such as a gas 

proportional counter, liquid scintillation counter, or gamma spectrometer. Results are usually 

reported in activity units per swipe or per unit area swiped. 

Swipes specifically designed for radiological surveys are commercially available, in a variety of 

materials, with or without adhesive backing for planchet mounting, and soluble in liquid 

scintillation cocktail, if desired.

The laboratory should develop and validate procedures for performing swipe surveys that are 

specifically suited to the surfaces and the type of radiological material in use. Those procedures 

should be specifically designed to meet the MQOs of the survey, which are in turn based on the 

type of area being surveyed and the activity levels employed there. Those procedures should be 

sufficiently clear and straightforward to ensure that appropriately trained personnel responsible 

for performing a survey for radioactive contamination can properly select and use the survey 

equipment and other necessary instrumentation.

Additional information and suggestions for the implementation of radiological surveys, including 

example forms for recording survey data, are included in Appendix H, Surveillance of 

Laboratory Surfaces and Equipment. 

Due to the wide variety of survey equipment, swipe materials, and swipe analysis techniques, 

this guide does not address the use of specific equipment or the performance of specific 

analytical practices. Where specific techniques are discussed in Appendix H, they are provided 

only as examples and should be carefully reviewed by the laboratory technical management staff 

to determine applicability to the specific laboratory conditions.

Detailed guidance for performing swipe surveys is provided in the companion document A 

Performance-Based Approach to the Use of Swipe Samples in Response to a Radiological or 

Nuclear Incident (EPA 2011) and in the Multi-Agency Radiation Survey and Assessment of 

Materials and Equipment Manual (MARSAME 2009).
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

43 

3.3.2 Decontamination of Laboratory Surfaces and Equipment

Decontamination procedures for surfaces in the laboratory will generally be limited to nonporous surfaces that can be readily cleaned with conventional methods. It is therefore important 

that the laboratory restrict the use of absorbent or porous materials, such as fabric or unfinished 

wood, to those absolutely necessary to the laboratory operations. Absorbent or porous surfaces 

are difficult, and frequently impossible, to decontaminate to acceptable levels after a 

contamination incident. These items must then be disposed of as radioactive waste, which may 

be difficult and expensive. If such items or surfaces must be used, they should be coated to the 

extent possible with a non-absorbent covering. For example, if a wood pallet is needed to bring 

new equipment into the hot zone, the pallet may be covered with Tyvek to reduce the risk of 

contaminating the pallet.

Appendix I, Decontamination of Laboratory Surfaces and Equipment, is an example protocol 

intended to provide guidance for the decontamination of laboratory surfaces. In developing its 

own protocols, the laboratory will consider the types of surfaces, work areas, etc., that may be 

unique to that facility. 

3.4 Personnel Contamination Monitoring and Control

Personnel contamination monitoring and control are critical to the control of radioanalytical 

contamination in the laboratory, and should be a significant component of the existing radiation 

protection program. The three major components of personnel contamination control are 

prevention, monitoring for personnel contamination, and the effective decontamination of 

personnel should contamination occur. Depending on the existing contamination control 

practices in place in the laboratory, some of the measures listed below might already be in place, 

while others should be planned prior to, and implemented during, incident response activities. In

any case, all routine practices and any additional personnel contamination control practices that 

might be put into effect during incident response situations should be accompanied by detailed 

and clearly written SOPs. The laboratory staff should be trained in these procedures, and the 

training should be documented.

3.4.1 Personnel Contamination Prevention

The spread of very low-level radioanalytical contamination as a result of staff activities can 

occur easily and is difficult to detect. Very often, practices that have no serious consequences in 

a laboratory used for the analysis of stable metals or environmental organic contaminants may 

significantly impact the quality of radioanalytical data. For example, uncontrolled movement of 

personnel or materials from one area to another may result in spread of contamination and, even 

in very low amounts, may increase the instrument background and adversely affect detection 

limits. It may be advisable to consider limiting staff to specific functions and work areas. To 

continue the example, analysts working with open sample containers who are thus potentially 

exposed to radioanalytical contamination should be precluded from entering the instrumentation 

area, where the sample test sources are counted and where maintaining low background is most 

critical.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

44 

Some of the additional recommended practices listed below are not intuitive, and others are 

simply “good laboratory practices,” but all need to be considered when planning for incident 

response activities involving samples with increased levels of radioactivity:

• Single use of disposable gloves when handling samples;

• Removal and disposal of gloves when moving from a hood area to a laboratory bench 

area;

• Frisking of laboratory coats prior to and after use;

• Frequent change of laboratory coats (and subsequent laundering or disposal depending 

upon the laboratory situation);

• Proper use of laboratory coats (i.e., keeping them buttoned and with sleeves rolled down 

and used only when not compromised);

• Careful placement of contaminated materials into disposal containers (as opposed to 

dropping them in or overfilling) to avoid spread of contamination through release of 

particulates into the air;

• Removal of gloves and frisking of hands before touching non-contaminated items (e.g., 

telephones, computers, cabinets, drawers, doorknobs, reference texts, etc.);

• Review of personal hygiene and taking appropriate protective measures, such as tying 

back or covering loose hair with disposable caps, removing threadbare or compromised 

garments, removing loose jewelry, wearing appropriate footwear, and covering wounds 

securely; and

• Identifying the procedures and having equipment in place for a rapid decontamination of 

personnel, clothing, and other items.

3.4.2 Personnel Contamination Surveillance

Contamination survey procedures for personnel are identical to those used for fixed 

contamination surveys of laboratory surfaces, described above. Additional procedural guidance 

is recommended, however, to ensure that the individual surveying him/herself does not 

inadvertently contaminate the survey equipment.

Radiological surveys of laboratory personnel should be conducted after handling radiological 

material, before leaving the work area. In addition, surveys of the hands, arms, or other pertinent 

areas may be performed frequently during the handling of radiological material to detect and 

prevent the spread of contamination during the process. Frequent personnel surveys may also 

help maintain control of radiological material within a small work area such as a fume hood, 

where the integrity of low-activity zones within the hood itself may be important for 

radioanalytical contamination control.

While the laboratory will develop its own personnel surveillance protocols, those found in 

Appendix F, Egress Into a Lower-Activity Area, may be helpful.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

45 

Specific requirements for personnel contamination monitoring depend on the level of activity 

expected and the potential for radiation exposure during handling. These requirements should be 

considered for every staff member and every visitor and must be identified in the RPP. In 

incident response situations accompanied by the potential of increased exposure, additional 

considerations might include:

• Implementation or increased frequency of monitoring of external exposure using 

thermoluminescence dosimeters (TLDs) and finger rings, including potential use of real 

time dosimetry when working with significantly elevated levels of radiation.

• Implementation or increased frequency of monitoring of internal exposure using 

techniques such as in-vivo and in-vitro bioassay and air sampling. An arrangement with 

an outside laboratory specializing in in-vivo and in-vitro radiobioassay analyses may be 

necessary, unless in-house capability is available.

• Increased frequency of exposure reporting. In addition to more timely warnings of 

increased worker exposure, this may have the added benefit of providing frequent 

reminders to workers that work habits impact exposure control.

Additional personnel contamination surveillance information can be found in the U.S. DOE 

Radiological Control Manual (DOE, 1994).

3.4.3 Personnel Decontamination

Any instance of personnel contamination should be reported immediately to the laboratory’s

Radiation Safety Officer, or other qualified response personnel identified by the laboratory. In 

general, personnel decontamination efforts consist of removing the contaminated article of PPE 

or personal clothing, as appropriate. In cases where the employee is found to be directly 

contaminated, the decontamination procedure may be similar to that used for chemical 

decontamination of personnel. A discussion of typical equipment and supplies for personnel 

decontamination stations is provided in Section 2.5.

The procedure should consider whether movement to another area or decontamination in place is 

most appropriate. In some situations, the employee’s movements through the work areas should 

be restricted to prevent the spread of contamination through the laboratory, unless there is urgent 

need to move the employee to another location, such as a chemical shower. In other cases, 

moving the employee to a contained decontamination area may be the most effective way to 

protect the laboratory and other personnel and to facilitate decontamination of the affected

individual(s). 

The laboratory should develop protocols for personnel decontamination that address the specific 

sample materials, reagents, and radionuclides involved in the incident response. The combined 

issues of radiological and chemical exposures, and medical treatment and surveillance are 

beyond the scope of this guide. A qualified health physicist, industrial hygienist, and 

occupational medical professional, as appropriate, should be involved in the development of 

personnel decontamination protocols.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

46 

ALARA

TIME, DISTANCE, SHIELDING

12

9

6

3

4. EXPOSURE CONTROL AND RADIATION SHIELDING 

The information in this section assumes a basic 

understanding of the physical properties of alpha, beta, 

and gamma radiation. Federal regulations18

4.1 ALARA Principles

require that 

laboratory personnel receive sufficiently detailed 

training in these and related issues, prior to being 

allowed to work in a radiologically controlled area, 

such as the laboratory areas described in this guide. 

Nonetheless, a complete and detailed discussion of the 

subject of radiation protection and dose reduction is 

complex and well beyond the scope of this guide, and 

should be referred to a qualified health physicist, 

particularly in cases where elevated activity levels are 

encountered and a measurable radiation dose may be 

received by laboratory personnel.

In all cases, a worker’s exposure to radiation and radioactive materials should be kept As Low 

As Reasonably Achievable (ALARA). Any shielding techniques employed by the laboratory 

should be considered in this broader context of ALARA, which should take into account 

practices that maximize the distance between the source of radiation and the worker or equipment 

affected, and that minimize the amount of time spent in proximity to the source of radiation. 

These time and distance factors should be considered and optimized prior to making decisions 

about shielding requirements.

4.2 General Shielding Information

Despite the detailed level of training that a laboratory worker may receive prior to handling 

radioactive materials, the subject of shielding radioactive sources to prevent exposure to 

personnel is conceptually complex due to the various interactions between the primary radiation 

and the material through which it travels. This often results in additional, secondary sources of 

radiation that should also be considered. Consequently, the laboratory should be initially content 

with a simplified first-order approximation of the shielding requirements, and then be prepared to 

make minor adjustments based on actual survey measurements performed during the initial 

 18 10 CFR 20 and 29 USC 654,(b)(1), § 5(a)(1).

Hospital and Emergency Medical Treatment

In the event that radiologically contaminated personnel require urgent medical attention, emergency 

response and hospital workers will need to treat and transport those contaminated personnel. The 

laboratory should coordinate, in advance, with hospital and emergency room personnel to ensure that 

those facilities are willing and prepared to receive and treat contaminated personnel. In some cases, 

the laboratory may need to provide decontamination and surveillance support at the hospital.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

47 

phases of the project. This empirical approach will expedite the initial setup of the laboratory and 

facilitate improved responsiveness to changing laboratory conditions.

In the selection of shielding materials, the laboratory should ensure that all shielding material is 

of sturdy construction and impervious to penetration by the radiological sample material, and 

that the outer surfaces are able to be easily decontaminated. Fabric, paper, cardboard, and similar 

materials, though capable of providing adequate shielding from alpha and beta radiation, should 

not be used because they cannot be effectively decontaminated. 

The effectiveness of any shielding measures will be determined primarily by performing area 

surveys with hand-held survey meters. The employees must be adequately trained in the use of 

hand-held survey meters and the interpretation of the results.

When considering shielding requirements in the laboratory, the source and type of radiation 

should be carefully considered. Improperly shielded beta activity can actually increase the risk of 

exposure to the workers and the laboratory equipment, and unnecessary gamma shielding can be 

expensive and unwieldy. A thorough knowledge of the details of the radiological or nuclear 

incident and continuous vigilance in the performance of laboratory radiation surveys will help in 

the selection and use of shielding that is appropriate to the project.

In determining appropriate shielding requirements for different types of radiation, two relatively 

simple concepts are typically employed. The first is that of the “range” of particle radiation, 

which is the average distance that a particle will travel through a specific type of shielding. The 

range of an emitted particle is dependent on the type of particle, its emission energy, and the 

material used to construct the shielding. Most alpha particles, for example, have a limited range 

of less than 10 centimeters in air. The second concept is the “half-value layer,” which will be 

applied to gamma radiation. Simply stated, the half-value layer is the thickness of a given 

material that will reduce the intensity of the gamma radiation to one-half of its original value. 

These values are entirely dependent on the gamma emission energy and the type of shielding 

employed. For example, if 137Cs is the source term radionuclide in a radiological or nuclear 

incident, the intensity of the resulting 662 keV gamma emissions from the sample material will 

be reduced to one-half of its original value by using a 6.3-mm thick layer of lead shielding. The 

half-value layer and other analogous measures, such as the 1/10th value layer, are commonly

used to decide the thickness of shielding material needed to provide adequate protection.

An additional consideration in the design and implementation of radiation shielding is the 

occupancy of the personnel, or the amount of time that an individual spends in close proximity to 

the radiation source. Areas with a low occupancy, such as waste storage areas, may require less 

shielding than areas in which a worker spends the majority of his/her time, although these low 

occupancy areas still require appropriate posting and dose rate monitoring.

The examples provided below are intended to illustrate possible solutions to shielding 

requirements in the laboratory. Every actual laboratory situation, however, is likely to be unique 

and will require solutions that are tailored to those specific laboratory conditions.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

48 

4.2.1 Alpha Shielding

Shielding against alpha radiation is not a concern in a radiological laboratory. The range of any 

alpha particle through a solid material, such as a glass or polypropylene sample container, will be 

much less than the thickness of the container. For stored materials, the sample, waste, or source 

container provides adequate shielding against alpha radiation. For in-process materials, where 

the primary health concern is the inhalation or ingestion of alpha-emitting radionuclides, worker 

protection is ensured by the use of appropriate engineering controls such as the laboratory fume 

hood as well as PPE. Nearby instrumentation is unaffected because the instrument housing 

effectively blocks all alpha radiation.

4.2.2 Beta Shielding

Beta shielding should address two primary concerns: protection against the effects of the beta 

particle itself and protection from the bremsstrahlung (photon) radiation that is produced when 

the velocity of a beta particle is changed suddenly, as when thin sheets of metal are used for 

shielding. Whenever possible, primary beta shielding should minimize the production of 

bremsstrahlung radiation by employing material of a low atomic number (Z), such as 

polycarbonate, instead of high-Z material such as lead. Even in low-Z material, however, the 

production of bremsstrahlung radiation may be high enough to require secondary shielding. In 

these cases, a high-Z secondary shielding material, such as lead, is placed between the primary 

shielding and the area to be shielded. When handling and storing beta-emitting radionuclides, 

careful surveillance of both the beta and gamma field near the material is required, even when 

the radionuclide is known to be only a beta-emitter, with no associated gamma emissions, such 

as 90Sr/Y.

The storage conditions should be considered when determining the need for shielding betaemitting materials. Most beta particles will have a range of less than 100 cm in air, and a much 

smaller range of less than 1–2 cm in solid materials. The laboratory should have on hand an 

adequate supply of conveniently sized 0.25–0.5-cm thick plastic panels, to be used for additional 

beta shielding, as needed. 

If the storage conditions are such that—

• The beta-emitting material is stored in durable glass or plastic containers;

• Sufficient distance is maintained between the radiological material and the laboratory 

personnel and equipment; and 

• The employee presence in the storage area is minimal —

it may be preferable to avoid the use of additional shielding material in very close proximity to 

the samples. This may reduce the production of bremsstrahlung radiation and avoid the need for 

additional shielding material.

Beta shielding for work in progress should consist of a low-Z material, such as polycarbonate 

sheets or an enclosure such as a glove box. The material should be clear to allow the sample to 
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

49 

be seen during handling and should be configured to allow necessary access of the hands while 

protecting the rest of the worker’s body, particularly the face and any other exposed parts. In 

some cases, when shielding high energy beta sources results in the production of excessive 

bremsstrahlung radiation, an additional layer of leaded glass may provide sufficient protection 

while maintaining visibility and access to the sample.

Shielding the hands of the individual handling the sample material, although often neglected, can 

be readily achieved with a second layer of durable gloves, such as butyl rubber.

Radiation detection instrumentation rarely requires additional beta shielding for the same reason 

that alpha shielding is not required. For most beta particle measuring instrumentation used in the 

laboratory, the detector’s housing generally reduces or eliminates external beta radiation.

The need for beta shielding in any given situation will be difficult to predict, due to the selfabsorption by the samples and their containers, and should be determined by empirical 

measurement of the beta radiation in the area. In addition, gamma radiation measurements 

should be performed regularly, after the beta sources and shielding are in place, to determine the 

need for additional shielding of the resulting bremsstrahlung radiation.

4.3 Gamma Shielding of Storage Areas

Gamma radiation is, by far, the most likely type of radiation that will require additional shielding 

measures due primarily to the penetrating nature of gamma photons. Gamma shielding, which 

necessarily consists of massive material such as lead bricks and panels, is not always easily 

moved and may be in limited supply in the laboratory. 

Prior to accepting samples from a radiological or nuclear incident, the laboratory should make an 

initial estimate of the amount of shielding that is likely to be required. This estimate should 

account for the volume of space to be shielded; the placement, number, and activity levels of the 

sample material; and the projected waste streams. The laboratory may want to enlist the 

assistance of a qualified health physicist to perform this estimate.

Due to the expense and the difficulty in moving some shielding materials, some generalized 

considerations for designing gamma shielding for storage areas are discussed below.

4.3.1 Use of Buffer Zones and Other Unoccupied Spaces

Figure 1 shows an example of sample and waste storage areas in a laboratory diagram excerpted 

from Appendix A, Planning Considerations for Laboratory Layout and Process Flow. The large 

arrows represent the exposure gradient that might be expected, based on the amount of shielding 

provided, with the darker areas representing areas of high gamma exposure and the lighter areas 

representing lower levels. Notice that the less shielding provided, the more distance is required 

for the gamma field to be reduced to lower levels.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

50 

Figure 1 – Example of Shielding Considerations in Sample and Waste Storage Areas

4.3.2 Consideration of the Occupancy of Affected Areas

Inside the building, the laboratory may consider the occupancy factor expected in adjacent areas. 

In the example shown in Figure 1, it is assumed that the sample staging area is a transitional 

holding area for samples that are about to be processed, and that the time the workers spend in 

this area is minimal. Consequently, shielding requirements for this area may be reduced. These 

areas, however, still require appropriate posting and dose rate monitoring. 

Similarly, shielding inside the storage areas has been kept to a minimum in this example, on the 

assumption that the time any worker spends inside the actual storage areas is limited. In some 

Exposure Gradient

= Gamma Shielding Rad waste receptacle

Frisker A = Example of shielding that 

allows continued access

Gross Prep

And

Aliquanting

SCREENING

RECEIVING

Waste

Accumulation

Area

Sample

Storage

Area

Sample

Staging

Area

RESTRICTED BUFFER ZONE INCOMING TRAFFIC AREA

RESTRICTED BUFFER ZONE

A

PORTABLE 

SHEILDING
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

51 

instances, however, this may not be the case. For example, if the laboratory employs a sample 

custodian whose primary responsibilities are to manage the samples inside the storage areas, 

additional shielding may be required inside the storage area to protect the worker during the 

considerable time spent inside that area.

Unlike the unoccupied buffer zones or areas with low occupancy, the sample receiving area may 

be continually occupied and must be adequately shielded from the radiation in the adjacent room.

The effect of occupancy may be considered arithmetically. First, assign an occupancy factor that 

is equal to the fraction of time that the area in question is occupied. In the above example of the 

sample staging area, the area is occupied only 20 percent of the time, which is equal to 

occupancy factor of 0.20. Next, determine the acceptable level of exposure in that area by 

dividing the usual acceptable exposure level by the occupancy factor. The application of any 

occupancy factor less than 1.0 to allow exceptions to the acceptable exposure levels in any area 

should be reviewed and approved by the laboratory’s RSO or health physicist. 

4.3.3 Strategic Placement of Gamma Shielding Materials 

After considering buffer zones and pertinent occupancy factors, shielding should be placed as 

needed to prevent exceeding the maximum exposure levels stated in the laboratory’s area 

definitions. The placement of shielding should also optimize the stability of the background 

levels in nearby instrumentation.

In some cases, it may be more convenient to place the shielding outside the area. Figure 1 shows 

additional shielding material added immediately outside the Sample Storage Area, in the 

hallway. 

In some cases, the cost to the laboratory for permanent shielding materials may be reduced, and 

the laboratory’s ability to respond to changing conditions within the facility may be increased, by 

the judicious use of portable shielding, such as the panel shown in Figure 1 between the Sample 

Staging Area and the Gross Preparation and Aliquanting area. Such portable shielding may be 

used to address a sudden influx of samples in the Staging Area during an incident response. 

Caution should be used in this approach, however, because the placement of shielding further 

from the source of radiation allows for less overall protected work area due to the reduced 

shielding angle. Reliance on reduced occupancy factors in the unshielded areas should be 

controlled to minimize worker exposure. In addition, portable shielding may be secured or 

controlled in a manner similar to an electrical “Lock Out/Tag Out” program to prevent 

unintended worker exposure by movement of the shielding by unauthorized personnel. 

Figure 1 also shows a particular situation in which the entryway to the Sample Storage Area 

must be shielded to protect the workers immediately outside, while still allowing access to the 

area. In this example, the shielding inside the door (labeled “A”) is stationary and personnel walk 

around it to access the sample storage area. This is just one example of a technique that might be 

employed for shielding traffic lanes.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

52 

4.3.4 Consideration of Multi-Level Facilities

Not shown in Figure 1 is consideration of multi-level facilities that house radiological 

laboratories. It should be understood that radiation extends in three dimensions and that in such 

facilities, it may be necessary to evaluate areas on adjacent levels and to potentially shield the 

work areas above and below the sources of radiation exposure.

4.4 Gamma Shielding of In-Process Materials

When radioactive materials are handled directly by the employees performing radioanalytical 

processes on the materials, additional shielding and other precautionary measures may need to be 

taken, since the sample material is now in very close proximity to the employees and may be 

open to the environment. In addition, changes in background associated with the movement of 

elevated levels of radioactivity in the laboratory may compromise measurements performed 

within the changing radiation field. Appropriate shielding may help minimize changes in the 

background.

Sensitive instrumentation is readily shielded in the same manner and with the same materials as 

storage areas. Lead bricks or panels placed strategically between the source of radiation and the 

instrumentation are simple and effective shielding solutions.

Shielding the employees who must handle the radioactive material is not always as 

straightforward. Small amounts of highly radioactive material (in an appropriate sample 

container) may be placed inside a lead pig, to be opened only as needed to remove small 

aliquants. Larger quantities of material should be staged inside small lead enclosures until 

needed, then minimally handled to perform the necessary laboratory functions.

When providing gamma shielding for samples undergoing laboratory procedures, particular care 

should be taken to evaluate potential exposures in all directions. These considerations are often 

overlooked in laboratories that are unaccustomed to higher levels of radioactivity. Figure 2 

demonstrates the need to evaluate gamma 

shielding in three dimensions. The 

worker should be adequately protected 

from “gamma shine.” This includes 

direct irradiation by the sample material, 

as well as scattered gamma photons and 

induced X-rays from the surrounding 

materials.

In some situations, workers may be 

shielded effectively from gamma 

radiation emitted from a relatively 

localized source by placing the shielding 

in close proximity to the source, as 

shown in Figure 3a. This configuration maximizes the shielded work area with a minimum 

amount of shielding. 

Figure 2 – Three-Dimensional Shielding 

Considerations
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

53 

In situations involving sources that are distributed over a larger area and where limited shielding 

is available, it may be preferable to shield the worker from gamma radiation in the same manner 

that instrumentation is shielded. That is, the shield is placed in close proximity to the work 

station in such a way that it protects only the specific worker or area, rather than shielding a 

larger work area, which might require significantly more shielding material. This alternate 

shielding configuration is shown in Figure 3b. This configuration may conserve shielding 

material in some situations and may provide additional flexibility and responsiveness to the 

laboratory in its efforts to respond to a radiological incident. This configuration may also have 

the added benefit of potentially reducing exposure due to scattered gamma photons, which can 

increase the shielding requirements. 

Caution is needed in this approach, since it assumes a low occupancy factor for the unshielded 

parts of the work area. As with such consideration in storage areas, discussed above, 

incorporating low occupancy factors in the determination of shielding requirements should be 

approved by the laboratory’s Radiation Safety Officer or Health Physicist.

Figure 3 – Alternate Shielding Configurations

3a.

3b.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

54 

5. SUMMARY

A laboratory preparing to support the response to a radiological or nuclear incident will 

anticipate a dramatic increase in the number of samples received, the range of activity levels in 

those samples, and the associated analytical and human health risks of radiological laboratory 

contamination and increased radiation. 

To minimize those risks, the laboratory should consider taking a number of tangible preliminary 

steps that may help prevent, identify, and control potential contamination and exposure 

challenges when the samples arrive at the laboratory. 

• The laboratory should plan and prepare for the arrival of the incident samples and the 

associated analytical work by deciding what type of work will be performed in the 

different laboratory areas and what operational constraints will apply to that work. These 

decisions should take into consideration the physical layout of the laboratory facilities, 

the expected flow of work through the facility, the levels of radioactivity and radiation 

that can be expected to be safely and properly handled in each area, and the resources that 

will be required to maintain those operations.

• The laboratory should establish operational protocols for the new and different 

procedures and situations that are likely to be encountered and provide training for 

personnel who will be affected by the change in laboratory operations. These protocols 

will necessarily be tailored to each individual laboratory and will depend greatly on the 

specific circumstances of each laboratory.

These preliminary steps can be taken by any laboratory, regardless of size, resources, 

organizational affiliation, or type of work currently performed. If these preliminary steps are 

properly addressed, it simply remains to execute the established protocols and remain vigilant 

against laboratory contamination and exposure problems. By carefully considering the measures 

recommended in this guide, the laboratory will be better able to participate in the incident 

response, preserve the ongoing analytical integrity of the laboratory, and resume normal 

operations after the event.

The intention of this guide is not to prescribe specific practices for the laboratory to follow, but 

to provide pertinent topics for the laboratory to consider in its own efforts to preserve and 

enhance its analytical capabilities, to preserve the health and well-being of its personnel, and to 

assist in a significant national effort to protect the public health. 
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

55 

6. REFERENCES

U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). 1994. Radiological Control Manual. DOE/EH-0256T. April. 

Available at http://www.hss.energy.gov/publications/rcm/rcm.html.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2008. Radiological Laboratory Sample Analysis 

Guide for Incidents of National Significance – Radionuclides in Water. Revision 0. Office of 

Air and Radiation, Washington, DC. EPA 402-R-07-007, January. Available at: 

www.epa.gov/narel/incident_guides.html. 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2009a. Radiological Laboratory Sample Analysis 

Guide for Incidents of National Significance – Radionuclides in Air. Revision 0. Office of 

Air and Radiation, Washington, DC. EPA 402-R-09-007, June. Available at: 

www.epa.gov/narel/incident_guides.html. 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2009b. Radiological Laboratory Sample 

Screening Analysis Guide for Incidents of National Significance. Revision 0. Office of Air 

and Radiation, Washington, DC. EPA 402-R-09-008, June. Available at: 

www.epa.gov/narel/incident_guides.html. 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2010. Guide for Laboratories – Identification, 

Preparation, and Implementation of Core Operations for Radiological or Nuclear Incident 

Response. Revision 0. Office of Air and Radiation, Washington, DC. EPA 402-R-10-002, 

June. Available at: www.epa.gov/narel/incident_guides.html.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2011. A Performance-Based Approach to the Use 

of Swipe Samples in Response to a Radiological or Nuclear Incident. Revision 0. Office of 

Research and Development, Cincinnati, OH, and Office of Radiation and Indoor Air, 

Washington, DC. EPA 600-R-11-122, October. Available at: http://oaspub.epa.gov/eims/

eimscomm.getfile?p_download_id=504097 and www.epa.gov/narel/incident_guides.html. 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2012. Uses of Field and Laboratory 

Measurements During a Radiological or Nuclear Incident. Revision 0. Office of Air and 

Radiation, Washington, DC. EPA 402-R-12-007, August. Available at: 

www.epa.gov/narel/incident_guides.html. 

Multi-Agency Radiological Laboratory Analytical Protocols [Manual] (MARLAP). 2004. Vols. 

I (EPA 402-B-04-001A), II (EPA 402-B-04-001), and III (EPA 402-B-04-001C), July. 

Available at: www.epa.gov/radiation/marlap/manual.html.

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). 1999. Consolidated Guidance About Materials 

Licenses: Program-Specific Guidance About Licenses of Broad Scope. Washington, DC. 

NUREG-1556, Volume 11, April. Available at: www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/

nuregs/staff/sr1556/v11/.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

56

APPENDIX A: PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS FOR LABORATORY LAYOUT AND 

PROCESS FLOW

Once the acceptable activity levels and required PPE for the various types of work areas have 

been defined by the laboratory, as discussed in Section 2, the physical areas in the laboratory 

corresponding to the area types should be delineated. A plan view or map of the facility may be a 

useful planning tool, as shown in the following example. 

The proposed layout of the laboratory should take into consideration the flow of work and the 

paths that various radioactive materials will take through the laboratory. The physical constraints 

of the building and the likely need to establish controlled entrance and egress points to specific 

areas should also be considered.

Figure 4 depicts a simplified example for a suggested layout of laboratory and administrative 

areas in a laboratory operation. Discussion of the flow of work through these areas follows the 

diagram. It is important to note that every laboratory has a different physical design, performs 

different types of analytical work, and uses different systems to perform the necessary work. 

Each laboratory must evaluate its own operation and determine the best work area layout and 

work flow for its facility. 

UNOCCUPIED/RESTRICTED BUFFER ZONE

UNOCCUPIED/RESTRICTED BUFFER ZONE

INCOMING

TRAFFIC

EMPLOYEE/

VISITOR 

ENTRANCE

RECEIVING

SCREENING

HIGH LEVEL

ROUTINE 

LEVEL

& LOW LEVEL

INSTRUMENT

NON

ADMIN. & 

-LAB 

UNRESTRICTED PUBLIC ACCESS

UNRESTRICTED PUBLIC ACCESS

UNRESTRICTED PUBLIC ACCESS

UNRESTRICTED PUBLIC ACCESS

= PROCESS FLOW FOR RAD MATERIALS OR PERSONNEL

= BUILDING PERIMETER

= PROPERTY BOUNDARY

Figure 4 – Conceptual Layout of the Laboratory and Associated Areas
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

57 

Incoming Traffic Buffer Zone

Samples entering the laboratory generally arrive via courier or public delivery service and are 

brought to the designated sample receiving area through the incoming traffic buffer zone. The 

laboratory should recognize that this zone may become contaminated and should be surveyed 

periodically.

Outgoing packages should be screened prior to release, and processed in a segregated staging 

area, to minimize the risk of contamination from incoming packages. Ideally, the shipment of 

material out of the facility should occur from a location other than that used for receiving 

samples.

Receiving Area for Incoming Radioactive Materials Packages

Incoming radioactive materials packages are delivered directly to the designated sample 

receiving area. No other area of the laboratory should be used to accept delivery of potentially 

radioactive materials. Instead, such deliveries should be redirected to the appropriate receiving 

area. Incoming packages will contain a variety of samples, with potentially unknown physical 

and chemical characteristics, and a broad range of radioactivity concentrations from very low to 

very high levels. It may be useful for the laboratory to employ high-level gamma monitors in the 

sample receiving area, which may automatically sound an alarm when pre-set gamma exposure 

levels are exceeded, thereby providing the laboratory with an early warning of high gamma 

activity samples. 

The physical flow of samples within the receiving area should be organized logically so that 

initial processes, such as acceptance of delivery, collection of external swipes, and exposure 

measurements, are performed nearer to the delivery entrance than later processes. Packages 

should then be moved into subsequent processing areas, such as a fume hood designated for 

unpacking, to physically separate the different receiving steps as much as possible. The 

laboratory’s processes should be designed to create a linear, one-way path for material through 

the various areas. In the event of a contamination issue, this will help the laboratory to isolate the 

potentially contaminated work surfaces and equipment. Figure 5, Process Flow in the Sample 

Receiving Area, shows a generalized view of one possibility for the one-way flow of radioactive 

materials through the area.

In the sample receiving areas and all subsequent areas, the laboratory should consider identifying 

specific decontamination areas (labeled “Decon Area” in Figure 5) for sequestering and isolating 

material identified as potentially contaminated. These areas should be separate from those used 

for the regular flow of samples, i.e., in no case should material identified as contaminated be 

returned to the process flow where it could potentially contaminate otherwise uncompromised 

material, until the contamination issue has been addressed. Additional information regarding 

radiological decontamination is provided in Appendix I, Decontamination of Laboratory 

Surfaces and Equipment.

Necessary materials and supplies for the work being performed in an area should be situated 

close at hand, but preferably out of the direct flow of sample traffic. After being properly 
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

58 

screened for external exposure rates19 and removable surface contamination,

20

Incoming Materials

Rad Non-Rad

Package 

Inspection & 

Survey

Staging 

Area for 

Unpacking

Fume Hood

Decon

Area

Sample Receiving and 

Additional Supplies

To Screening

To Routine Area

Package Processing

Rad waste receptacle Frisker Step-off Pad

the unopened 

contents of the radioactive materials packages should be routed directly to the sample screening 

lab. Consequently, the receiving area should have direct access to the Sample Screening Area

whenever possible. This will minimize the risk of contamination associated with moving 

uncharacterized samples through the laboratory.

Certain equipment and supplies may need to be routed directly between the receiving area and 

the various work areas, and it may be both unnecessary and undesirable to move these materials 

through the Sample Screening Area. It may, therefore, also be desirable to enable ready access to 

the routine laboratory areas from the receiving area. Clear protocols should be established that 

define the acceptable movement of materials, supplies, and samples.

Figure 5 – Process Flow in the Sample Receiving Area

Screening Areas for Incoming Samples

As with the Sample Receiving Areas, Screening Areas for Incoming Samples will process a 

variety of sample types, with a wide range of activity concentrations. Whenever possible, it may 

 19 See Radiological Laboratory Sample Screening Analysis Guide for Incidents of National Significance (EPA 402-

R-09-008, June 2009) 20 See A Performance-Based Approach to the Use of Swipe Samples in Response to a Radiological or Nuclear 

Incident (EPA 2011)
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

59 

be useful for the laboratory to consider establishing separate screening areas, or separate 

workstations within a single area, for samples of known or expected activity ranges. For 

example, samples that exceed preset decision levels for external exposure readings or for which 

reliable field screening data indicate elevated activity may be processed for screening in one area 

while samples that fall below those decision levels, or samples that are not expected to contain 

elevated activity levels, may be processed in another. This may reduce the risk of sample crosscontamination.

In any case, the screening areas should be set up to accommodate the flow of work, moving the 

samples from the receiving area entrance in a linear path toward the exit to sample storage and 

processing areas whenever possible. Figure 6a shows a generalized view of the one-way flow of 

radioactive materials through this area. In this view, the incoming samples are initially processed 

near the entrance and then moved to the instrumentation areas, which are close to the exits. 

Reagents and supplies that must remain clean and uncontaminated are stored close at hand but 

out of the flow of the samples.

In some laboratory areas, there may be either a single entrance to the room or other conditions 

that prevent the linear flow of materials through the laboratory area. In these cases, the path into 

and out of a work area may be through the same doorway or aisle-way. In these situations, the 

flow of work might be organized with the preliminary steps closer to the entrance and the later 

steps, such as screening measurements, further inside the room. During a contamination event, 

which is most likely to occur in the earlier handling steps, this configuration may minimize the 

spread of contamination to the analytical areas by restricting traffic to the necessary cleanup 

areas near the door. Again, the consumable supplies, etc., should be stored out of the flow of the 

samples but still readily available. In this type of situation, the layout shown in Figure 6a is still 

applicable with the separate exits to the High Level and Routine areas removed, as shown in 

Figure 6b, so that entrance to and egress from the area is through Sample Receiving. From Receiving

Sample Prep & 

Fume Hood

Sample Prep & 

Fume Hood

Inst.

Area

Inst.

Area

Reagents & 

Supplies

Reagents & 

Supplies

Decon. Area

Rad waste receptacle Frisker Step-off Pad

To Routine 

Area

To High 

Activity Area

Figure 6a – Process Flow in the Screening Areas
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

60 

Rad waste receptacle Frisker Step-off Pad

Sample Prep & 

Fume Hood

Sample Prep & 

Fume Hood

Inst.

Area

Inst.

Area

Reagents & 

Supplies

Reagents & 

Supplies

Decon. Area

Figure 6b – Process Flow in the Screening Area with a Single Entryway

Other Laboratory and Storage Areas 

As in the Sample Receiving and Screening Areas, the flow of radioactive materials through the 

general laboratory areas, including the High-Level, Routine, and Low-Level Areas, should 

follow a path that closely matches the flow of work.

Figure 7 demonstrates one possible layout for a typical laboratory area. For clarity, Figure 7

shows only the Routine-Level Work Areas in the example laboratory. Work flow may be routed 

into other types of laboratory areas, such as the High-Level and Low-Level work areas, and the 

following suggestions are generally applicable to all types of laboratory areas:

• Storage of large numbers of samples or samples with elevated activity should be located near 

the entrance of the area, furthest away from instrumentation or personnel activities. This 

configuration will minimize exposure to the workers and provide lower and more stable 

background radiation levels for the instruments. 

• Areas for the initial gross preparation (such as drying, grinding, filtering, etc.) and 

aliquanting of the sample material are established next.

• In some cases, it may be helpful to then establish an area for the digestion of solid materials. 

After this point, the sample material will be in a liquid form, which is generally easier to 

contain and handle, may be further sub-sampled, and is much less likely to cause a laboratory 

contamination issue. Undigested solid materials, other than those in a sealed container that 

will remain unopened (such as for gamma spectrometry), should not be brought further into 

the laboratory than this point.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

61 

RECEIVING

SCREENING

HIGH LEVEL

INSTRUMENT

& LOW LEVEL

Sample 

Storage 

Area

Waste 

Accumulation 

Area

Rad waste receptacle Frisker Step-off Pad

Sample 

Staging 

Area

Gross Prep 

and 

Aliquanting

Sub- Sample 

Staging Area

Decon Area

Decon Area

Chemical 

Separations

Sample 

Digestions

Plating,

Planchetting, 

etc.

Chemical 

Separations

Plating,

Planchetting, 

etc. 

Storage for 

Reagents, 

Supplies, 

Other 

Consumables

Computer & 

Desk Areas, 

etc.

Rad 

Standards 

Storage

PPE Donning Station PPE Doffing Station

• Samples are then moved further along the preparation process and, consequently, further into 

the laboratory areas. The final steps of chemical purification and preparation of the sample to 

be presented to the instrumentation area are performed in closer proximity to the 

instrumentation area than the previous steps.

• Ancillary areas for storage of (non-radioactive) supplies and equipment should be 

strategically located between potential sources of radiation and the instrumentation and 

administrative areas, in order to provide an additional buffer zone and to separate people as 

much as possible from the High-Level Work Areas.

Figure 7 – Process Flow in the Routine Work Areas
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

62 

Administrative and Public Areas

Personnel exiting the laboratory areas should carefully follow the laboratory’s exit protocols. An 

example of laboratory egress protocols is given in Appendix F: Egress Into a Lower-Activity 

Area. There should be absolutely no flow of sample material or potentially contaminated 

equipment or materials from the laboratory into the administrative or public areas.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

63 

APPENDIX B: INITIAL RECEIPT OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS

The following is a suggestion for a protocol that might be used for the general receipt of 

radiological material. Appropriate PPE is required for all steps. 

EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS

• Exposure rate meter

• Removable surface contamination swipes

• Spill kit

• Secondary containment bins

• Plastic-backed laboratory bench paper

• Laboratory trays and carts for staging samples and supplies

• Radioactive Materials Shipment Initial Survey Results form

PROCEDURE

1. Immediately upon receipt, inspect the package for visible signs of damage or leakage of the 

contents. DO NOT OPEN THE PACKAGE until preliminary administrative, visual, and 

radiological checks have been completed (Steps 1.1 through 3).

1.1. If the package appears to be undamaged and intact, place it in the staging area for 

incoming radioactive materials and proceed to Step 2.

1.2. If the package appears to be damaged or leaking, immediately contain the package in a 

durable plastic bag, secondary containment bin, or other suitable containment material to 

prevent the spread of radioactive material. If it is possible to move the contained package 

into a fume hood without risking the spread of radioactive material, do so, then 

immediately contact the RSO and wait for further instructions. 

1.3. Take a preliminary measurement of the package exposure rate, in μR/h, near the package 

surface. If the measurement of the package dose rate exceeds 2,600 μR/h,

21

2. Initiate a Radioactive Materials Shipment Incoming Survey Results form, completing the 

first section and noting the date and time of receipt of the shipment. See Figure 8, Example of 

Radioactive Materials Shipments Initial Survey Results.

shield 

personnel, notify the RSO, and wait for further instructions. 

3. Perform external surveys of the package.

3.1. Measure the instrument background response and record that value on the survey results 

form. Be sure to perform this initial measurement in an area that is well removed from 

potential sources of radiation exposure, in order to obtain an accurate background 

reading.

3.2. Measure the exposure rate, in μR/h, at a distance of 30 cm from the surface of the 

package and record the value on the survey results form.22

 21 Referring to the example in Section 2.2., Table 2, 2,600 μR/h is the ADL for exposure rate measurements in 

Routine-Level work areas. The ADL described the measurement result that should trigger a decision that the 5,000 

μR/h AAL may have been exceeded and that additional steps should be taken, such as those described in Step 1.3, 

above. 
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

64 

3.3. Measure the exposure rate, in μR/h, at the external surfaces of the package and record 

the highest measured value on the survey results form.

3.4. Perform a swipe survey of 300 cm2 of the outside surface of the package. Count the 

swipe on the appropriate instrumentation and record the alpha and beta activity values on 

the survey results form.

3.5. Record the date and time that the surveys were completed on the results form.

3.6. If any of the ADLs23 shown on the form are exceeded, initiate the appropriate corrective 

action, as described on the survey results form. If all results are below the prescribed 

ADLs, proceed to the Step 4.

 22 While the characterization of the exposure rate at a distance of 30 cm from the surface of the package is consistent 

with the requirements of 10 CFR 20 for the establishment of a Radiation Area, the laboratory may select other 

internal requirements that address the specific needs and operational conditions of the work area.

23 As in other places in this guide and the various companion documents, these ADLs describe the measurement 

result that should trigger a decision in the laboratory to take additional steps. In this example, the hypothetical 

laboratory ADLs correspond to AALs that are based on federal regulations, such as 40 CFR 173.421 and 173.403.

Note that the ADLs shown on the form in Figure 8 are taken from Table 2, in Section 2.2., and 

are derived from the example AALs for contamination and exposure control in Routine-Level 

Work Areas. 
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

65 

XYZ Laboratories, Inc.

RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS SHIPMENTS

INITIAL SURVEY RESULTS

Shipper: Client:

CoC ID: Project:

Delivery Date & Time: Cooler ID:

Nuclide(s): (check if unknown)

Other Info:

Instrument Background Exposure Rate μR/h

Exposure Rate @ 30 cm from package surface

ADL* = 1,000 μR/h μR/h

 If ADL is exceeded, report to Radiation Safety Officer.

Max. Exposure Rate @ package surface

ADL = 2,600 μR/h μR/h

 If ADL is exceeded, report to HazMat Shippng Officer and Radiation Safety Officer

External Removable Contamination Survey alpha dpm/swipe

beta dpm/swipe

Perform 300 cm2 swipe on outside of package.

ADL = 1.1 dpm/cm2

 (330 dpm total) alpha

11 dpm/cm2 (3300 dpm total) beta

 If Action Level is exceeded, report to HazMat Shippng Officer and Radiation Safety Officer.

External Survey Completion Date & Time:

Removable Contamination Survey of Contents

Item # Description alpha dpm/swipe beta dpm/swipe

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

Perform 100 cm2

 swipe on inner container of source.

ADL = 0.1 dpm/cm2 (10 dpm total) alpha, per Lab Radiation Protection Plan.

1 dpm/cm2 (100 dpm total) beta, per Lab Radiation Protection Plan.

 If ADL is exceeded, secure the package and the receipt area and report to Radiation Safety Officer.

Approved By:

Date:

*ADL = Analytical Decision Level

Figure 8 – Example of Radioactive Materials Shipments Initial Survey Results
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

66 

In this section and elsewhere in this guide, certain 

techniques may suggest the use of one hand (or one side 

of a work surface) over the other. This preference is 

generally arbitrary, or in some cases indicated by the 

“handed-ness” of the person performing the task. The 

primary purpose of such techniques is to maintain a 

“clean” hand (or work area), considering the other to be 

“potentially contaminated.” In all cases, the specific 

configuration should be determined by the most effective 

contamination-control practices, which may include 

consideration of individuals involved. 

4. Unpack the shipping container.

4.1. Prepare a clean laboratory fume 

hood by lining the bottom with 

plastic-backed absorbent laboratory paper. The fume hood, 

similar to most work areas for 

radiological materials, will have 

a “hot” zone on one side, a 

“warm” zone in the middle, and 

a “cool” zone on the other side. 

In the example shown in Figure 

9, the “hot” zone is to the left 

and the “cool” zone is to the right.

Wor

Sample 

Package

Sample 

Bottles in 

Containment Bins

Swipes, 

misc.

Work Space

Flow of Work

FUME HOOD

FUME HOOD

FUME HOOD

Figure 9 – Work Flow Inside Fume Hood; Unpacking Samples

4.2. On the right side of the hood, preferably on a laboratory tray, lay out enough swipes to 

survey each sample container expected in the shipment and enough supplies to mount 

and label each swipe.

4.3. Move the shipping container to the far left side of the fume hood.

4.4. Carefully open the container. Treat all packing material, enclosed paper work, and any 

other contents as potentially contaminated until verified to be below the release limits 

designated in the RPP. Before removing the contents, inspect the inside of the container 

for signs of spilled material or other damage to the contents. If a sample container has 

broken, or sample material has spilled inside the shipping container, immediately close 

the shipping container, notify the RSO, and wait for further instructions.

4.5. If the samples appear intact, carefully remove them one at a time, swipe them, and place 

them in a secondary containment bin. Other control checks, such as sample temperature, 
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

67 

are not described here but may be incorporated into individual laboratory procedures, as 

necessary.

4.5.1. Remove the sample from the shipping container with the left hand. This hand 

will be used only to handle the individual sample containers, if possible. 

4.5.2. Take a new swipe in the right hand (it may be useful to have another person hand 

the swipes over, in such a way as to avoid transferring contamination to the 

helper), swipe the sample container, and place the swipe on a pre-labeled 

planchet.

4.5.3. Place the sample container in a secondary containment bin or other suitable 

laboratory storage container.

4.5.4. As each sample container is placed in the secondary containment bin, record the 

field ID and other appropriate information on a laboratory chain-of-custody or 

other suitable form. The laboratory’s internal ID labels may be affixed to the 

samples at this time, if necessary.

4.5.5. Cover the containment bin and move it, along with the shipping container, to a 

suitable holding area until the swipes are analyzed.

4.6. Survey the shipping container, enclosed documentation, packing material, hood liner, 

hood surfaces, and personnel, following the prescribed ADLs for the area, as shown in 

the example in Section 2.2., Table 2.

4.7. Count the swipes. The instrument and count parameters should be carefully chosen to 

address the laboratory’s predetermined contamination limits. Record the results and 

transfer the samples to the designated storage area.

4.7.1. If the results of the removable surface contamination surveys of the sample 

containers are below the established limits, the samples may be transferred to the 

appropriate sample storage area. The shipping container and packing materials 

may be disposed in the sanitary trash or returned to service if the project allows.

4.7.2. If any of the results of the removable surface-contamination surveys are above the 

AAL, the samples, packing material, and shipping container must be returned to 

the fume hood or other appropriate location, and decontaminated. Following 

decontamination, return to Step 4.5 and re-survey the containers to verify that the 

decontamination was successful. If decontamination is not feasible, the RSO 

should be notified and the material disposed according to the laboratory’s 

Radioactive Waste Management Plan.

4.8. Review and approval of the survey results should be performed by qualified personnel. 

If any AALs are exceeded, the RSO should review and approve of the decontamination 

process and the final survey results.

4.9. Upon completion of the survey, the survey results form should be included with the 

sample chain of custody and other laboratory documentation of the sample receipt.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

68 

APPENDIX C: OPENING, TRANSFERRING, AND ALIQUANTING SAMPLE 

MATERIAL

This protocol is generally applicable for the opening of sample containers and the removal of 

either the entire sample or a fraction of the sample, from the perspective of minimizing the risk

of laboratory contamination. This may be applicable to samples arriving in the screening area as 

well as samples being processed in the radiochemistry laboratory areas. 

In this example protocol, samples are staged outside the hood, waiting for processing. Single 

samples are brought into the hood, opened, and an aliquant removed. If further processing is to 

immediately follow in the hood, as may be the case in the screening lab, the sample aliquants are 

staged inside the hood for further processing. If sample aliquants are to be returned to the storage 

area for processing at a later time, the aliquant is sealed in an appropriate container, the outside 

of the container is cleaned, and both fractions of the sample (the original and the new aliquant) 

are returned to storage. A generalized view of the work area for this procedure is shown in 

Figure 10.

This appendix also provides an example in which multiple aliquants are removed simultaneously 

in anticipation of multiple analyses being performed on the sample. In this example, one aliquant 

is removed for a primary analysis and the other “reserve” aliquant is held for contingent analysis. 

Careful planning will determine the number and size of the sample aliquants that may ultimately 

be needed, including any additional aliquants required for further screening or for reserve/

contingent analyses. In some cases, this approach may minimize handling and the associated risk 

of laboratory contamination, and may also optimize sample throughput. While the example uses 

a soil sample, analogous procedures could be used for other types of samples. The laboratory 

may also consider that, while the process of aliquanting a sample and preparing the aliquant for 

screening may be amenable to a single laboratory hood space, it may still be advisable to break 

up the process into stages (e.g., aliquanting all samples, then digesting all sample aliquants, then 

planchetting all samples), rather than trying to perform the complete cycle on each sample in 

turn. This approach may facilitate the rapid handling of large numbers of samples and minimize 

the amount of equipment and supplies in the work area at one time, thereby reducing the risk of 

accidents and other potential contamination issues. These are all issues for the individual 

laboratory to decide. 

1. Prepare a clean laboratory fume hood for the sample handling process by lining the bottom 

with an underlayment of plastic-backed, absorbent laboratory paper and assembling the 

necessary equipment, which will be dependent on the type of samples and the sub-sampling 

technique. 

2. Establish a staging area for samples to be processed outside of the hood, but in close 

proximity to the “hot” side of the hood. Establish another staging area outside the hood, but 

in close proximity to the “cool” side of the hood, for necessary supplies. 
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

69 

Figure 10 – Opening, Transferring, and Aliquanting Sample Material

3. Determine what supplies will be needed for processing each sample and assemble those 

supplies in the hood, as needed. The use of disposable or single-use laboratory supplies is 

strongly encouraged to minimize the risk of cross-contamination. Examples of supplies 

needed to aliquant a soil sample would be: 

• Single sheet of plastic-backed laboratory bench paper (approximately 45cm × 45cm), 

spread out on the center work area;

• Disposable spatulas;

• Disposable vessels, with lids, or other suitable, sealable containers, pre-weighed (with 

lid) and labeled;

• Containment bin or tray for processed samples;

• Spray bottle of decon solution;

• Paper towels or disposable wipes;

24

• Survey meters to periodically monitor hands, sample containers, work areas, and 

swipes during the process.

and

4. Bring one sealed sample container from the staging area outside the hood into the “hot” area 

of the hood. Only one sample should be processed at a time.

5. Open the sample container, remove the aliquant(s), then close the sample container and the 

new aliquant container.

5.1. Open the sample container carefully, holding the sample container in one hand and 

removing the lid with the other. 

 24 The distinction is made here between “wipes,” which are used for cleaning purposes and which may be surveyed 

prior to disposal as an indication of contamination, and “swipes,” which are used solely to measure removable 

surface contamination. 
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

70 

5.2. Keep the sample container in the one hand and put the lid down, top side down, to the 

left side of the bench paper square.

5.3. Survey the gloved right hand and the inside of the container lid and for indications of 

unexpected levels of activity, or levels that would require segregation of the sample in 

the high activity work areas.

5.4. Place two pre-weighed, labeled disposable vessels on the bench paper, one designated 

for the primary analysis and the other designated as a “reserve” aliquant. 

5.5. Using a disposable spatula and working over the bench paper, carefully transfer the 

desired representative aliquants from the sample container to the aliquant vessels. 

Minimize the agitation of the sample or any aggressive motions that may cause dust, 

splashing, or other loss of the sample material to the work area.

5.6. Place the spatula in the waste receptacle inside the hood.

5.7. Replace the cover on the original sample container and put the sample down in the 

hood. Survey gloved hands before proceeding.

5.8. Carefully seal the aliquant vessels. Place the sample aliquant designated for screening 

in the aliquant staging area inside the hood, designated for further processing. 

5.9. Place the sample aliquant to be reserved for future testing on the other side of the hood, 

with the original sample. This aliquant will be returned to storage with the original 

sample container.

6. Clean the containers with a damp disposable wipe before moving them.

6.1. Pick up sample/aliquant containers in one hand only. 

6.2. Use the other (clean) hand to spray containers and wipe them clean. 

6.3. After cleaning, place the damp wipe on the bench paper square, to be surveyed in the 

next step, grasp the container with a clean wipe and move it to the staging location. The 

staging location may be outside the hood, for samples to be returned to storage, or inside 

the hood, for samples to be further processed.

6.4. Survey the gloved hands and the wipes to determine removable surface contamination 

levels on the sample container.

6.5. Where multiple containers are provided for a sample, repeat for each container.

7. Dispose of consumables and prepare the work area for another sample.

7.1. Gather any potentially contaminated consumables and other waste (spatulas, etc.) onto 

the bench paper square, fold the waste up into the paper, and place the bundle of 

contained waste into the designated waste receptacle inside the hood.

7.2. Replace gloves.

Although removal of “representative” aliquants of the sample is important, and effort to 

homogenize the sample should be taken prior to removing an aliquant, aggressive 

agitation of open material increases the risk of laboratory contamination. The 

requirements for sample homogenization and representative sub-sampling should be 

clearly stated in the project DQOs and should be reflected in the laboratory’s sample 

handling and contamination control protocols.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

71 

7.3. Replace the bench paper square and consumable supplies and proceed with the next 

sample, from Step 3.

8. Continue sample processing.

8.1. The original sample container and the reserve aliquant are sealed and cleaned and may 

be returned to the appropriate sample storage area. The reserve aliquant may be taken, 

en route, to a balance station to obtain a gross container weight for use in the anticipated 

analysis.

8.2. Likewise, the aliquant designated for the screening analysis may also be weighed. The 

sample preparation process can then proceed, according to the laboratory’s SOP.

9. After appropriate aliquants have been removed from all samples, and the samples have been 

removed from the hood, the plastic-backed bench paper should be removed, and the hood 

should be cleaned and surveyed in preparation for processing other samples.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

72 

APPENDIX D: ISOLATING REDUCED FRACTIONS FOR TRANSFER TO LOWERLEVEL AREAS

This protocol provides a strategy for isolating a very small, yet representative amount of highactivity sample material when it is necessary to bring that material into a lower-activity-level 

work area for processing or analysis. This is particularly applicable to laboratories without 

separate low-level and high-level facilities for all processes.

The laboratory should first recognize the inherent challenges in obtaining representative 

subsamples from any field sample, particularly from solid matrices such as soil, debris, or 

particulate air filters. The project DQOs and the laboratory’s sample handling protocols should 

clearly address the requirements and specific techniques for sample homogenization and 

representative sub-sampling, including minimum allowable aliquant sizes that may be considered 

representative and acceptable practices and equipment for measuring sample aliquants. In 

addition to these established protocols, unusual or difficult samples or samples that might be 

expected to be heterogeneous should be evaluated by qualified laboratory personnel to determine 

the limitations of direct sub-sampling techniques.

The examples provided here are not intended to give specific guidance on the aliquant sizes to be 

used or the acceptable techniques for sample homogenization, but are simply intended to 

illustrate a possible technique for reducing a representative aliquant to a manageable size, with 

particular emphasis on controlling radioactive contamination in the laboratory. The actual 

aliquant sizes used by the laboratory will be determined by the sample screening results, the 

analytical method to be performed, the analytical requirements for homogeneity and subsampling, and the laboratory’s specific contamination control practices. 

Once the laboratory’s protocols for sample homogenization and representative sub-sampling are 

addressed, an “intermediate” aliquant is taken from the sample material and the aliquant size is 

measured. Liquid samples may be initially measured volumetrically, if volumetric reporting units 

are required. Solid samples may be weighed, then digested to facilitate further sub-sampling. 

Gravimetric dilutions of all samples are then performed, in series if necessary, to minimize 

laboratory contamination and to allow accurate measurement of very small aliquants.

The selection of equipment for volumetric and gravimetric measurements should reflect the 

incident response analytical requirements; the uncertainty of the measurement should be 

controlled at a level that is consistent with the project MQOs and should be reflected in the 

combined standard uncertainty that is reported with the analytical results. In the following 

procedure, the inclusion of specific equipment, such as volumetric pipettes and analytical 

balances, is for illustrative purposes only.

1. Before proceeding, estimated target aliquants should be determined based on the sample 

screening results and the ultimate “target activity” that should be isolated. The target activity 

is the amount of activity that is desired for subsequent procedures. These values are based on 

the established limits for sample activity, determined in Section 2.2., Establishing Acceptable 

Levels of Radioactivity and Radiation.

2. Remove an “intermediate” aliquant, s, by the same technique described in Appendix C, 

Opening, Transferring, and Aliquanting Sample Material, and place the aliquant in a pre-
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

73 

weighed, labeled vessel, such as a specimen cup, beaker, crucible, etc., that can be tightly 

covered or sealed to appropriately contain the sample. The type of vessel used will depend on 

the sample material, the target radionuclides for which the sample is to be analyzed, and the 

digestion or dilution technique used. 

2.1 For liquids that are to be analyzed on a volumetric basis (results reported as activity per 

volume of sample), remove the intermediate aliquant with a calibrated pipette and record 

the volume, v, of the aliquant.

2.2. For filters and swipes, record the fraction, f, of the sample taken, such as 0.5 filter or 

0.25 filter. It is preferable, whenever possible and without compromising the requested 

analyses, to digest the entire filter, in which case the intermediate aliquant sample size is 

1.0 filter. Where the filter is physically cut or split, a preliminary survey may provide 

early indication of inhomogeneity or “hot particle” activity.

2.3. For solids that are to be analyzed on a gravimetric basis (results reported as activity per 

mass of sample):

2.3.1. Seal the samples to allow transport outside the hood.

2.3.2. Where indicated by the sample screening results or other laboratory 

contamination control protocols, perform a removable surface contamination 

swipe survey on the container prior to removing it from the fume hood.25

2.3.3. Transport the samples to the weighing station, record the gross mass of the sample 

and the container, and determine and record the net mass, m, of the intermediate 

aliquant. 

This 

step should be performed for all samples, where necessary, whenever the sample 

container is removed from the fume hood.

2.3.4. Return the sealed samples to the fume hood.

2.4. Perform the required digestion or dilution of the sample material. Quantitatively transfer 

each solution to a new pre-weighed container. Seal the containers and transport them to 

the weighing station to determine the net total mass, mt, of the solution. Return the 

samples to the fume hood.

2.5. Before proceeding, it may be desirable to perform another screening measurement on the 

sample solution to confirm the appropriate aliquant size for analysis.

26

2.6. With a disposable transfer pipette, remove an approximate aliquant that is representative 

of the final target aliquant and transfer it to another pre-weighed, labeled container.

2.7. Seal the sample containers to allow transport outside the hood. 

2.8. Weigh the container with the final aliquant for analysis and determine the net weight, 

ma, of the final target aliquant of the solution.

2.9. The final sample aliquant, a, is calculated as 

 25 See Appendix H, Surveillance of Laboratory Surfaces and Equipment, and Section 2.2., Establishing Acceptable 

Levels of Radioactivity and Radiation. 26 See Radiological Laboratory Sample Screening Analysis Guide for Incidents of National Significance (EPA 

2009b).
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

74 

t

a

m

m

a = s ×

where s = the intermediate sample size, v, f, or m, depending on the sample type, from 

Step 2.1, 2.2, or 2.3, above.

2.10. Where very small aliquant sizes are required, additional serial dilutions may be 

necessary. These may be performed by repeating steps 2.6 through 2.9, above. In this 

case, the final dilution factor, 

t

a

m

m in the previous step, is replaced with 

tn

an

t

a

t

a

m

m

m

m

m

m

× ×...×

2

2

1

1

where 

ti

ai

m

m is the dilution factor for each serial dilution performed.

In this relatively simple manner, an aliquant that is equivalent to very small amounts of the 

original sample (e.g., μg, μL, etc.) may be sequestered from the bulk sample. The reduced 

aliquant, and the reduced activity level that results, may be brought into lower-level work areas 

for processing.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

75 

APPENDIX E: ENTRY INTO A HIGHER-ACTIVITY AREA

1. Plan all work in advance to help minimize the movement of materials and the number of trips 

into and out of the room. In many cases, pre-job planning meetings will help to ensure the 

involvement of all affected personnel and facilitate planning for various contingencies.

2. Evaluate the materials being moved into the higher level areas and remove all non-essential 

items.

2.1 Personal items, such as jewelry, watches, etc., should be removed. These items may be 

difficult to decontaminate and may need to be discarded if a significant contamination 

event occurs.

2.2. Common items (such as pens, notepads, etc.) should be available in the destination area 

and should not be transported back and forth between the areas.

2.3. The movement of paperwork or other documentation from higher-activity areas should 

be minimized, as these items are difficult and time consuming to assess for 

contamination. The use of fax machines and document scanning technology and the 

electronic management of information may significantly reduce the risk of laboratory 

contamination.

2.4. Extraneous packaging materials that will simply be discarded should not be moved into 

the higher-activity area. Otherwise, these materials must be surveyed, and potentially 

decontaminated or classified as radioactive waste, prior to removal. This presents an 

additional burden to personnel and additional contamination risk to the laboratory. 

3. Secure/seal materials, if appropriate.

3.1 Some materials, such as necessary documents, exposure meters, and samples that are 

only transiting the area en route to another processing area, should be effectively sealed 

against contamination in a locking plastic bag or other container.

4. Remove PPE designated for use only in the lower-level area. For example, a laboratory coat 

designated for use in the “routine-level” areas should not be worn in the “high-level” areas. 

5. Don the required PPE. The laboratory SOP should provide the explicit list and the order in 

which it must be donned. For example:

• Scrubs;

• Head cover;

• Nitrile gloves;

• Tyvek coveralls;

• Shoe covers; and

• Second pair of Nitrile gloves.

6. Gather any materials being brought into the area and enter.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

76 

APPENDIX F: EGRESS INTO A LOWER-ACTIVITY AREA

The following egress protocol is provided only as an example. Each laboratory must specify the 

egress protocol for each area, which will depend greatly on how the area types are defined, what 

activity levels are specified, and what type of PPE is required. 

In this protocol, the egress area consists of two step-off pads, with a buffer zone between them. 

The first, or “primary,” step-off pad is used for the removal of PPE that was worn in the higheractivity level area. Once that PPE is removed, the worker moves to the buffer zone and proceeds 

to don any PPE necessary to enter the lower-activity level area. The worker then surveys the 

materials being transferred to the lower-activity level area and enters that area after using the 

“secondary” step-off pad as an additional precaution against the migration of radioactive 

contamination through the laboratory.

Disposable PPE and other consumable supplies that exceed the pre-determined survey limits for 

a given area are placed in the “Rad Waste Container” for disposal as radioactive contaminated 

waste. Otherwise, the item is placed in the “Potentially Contaminated Waste Container” for 

further characterization prior to final disposal.

27

• A primary step-off pad;

In this protocol, the egress area is equipped with the following items:

• A table or other appropriate surface for staging materials;

• Adequate decontamination supplies;

• A frisking station with the appropriate survey instrument for the types of radiation being 

processed in the area28

• A receptacle for positively contaminated PPE;

; the survey meter probe should be positioned face-up and 

ready to perform an initial survey of the worker’s gloved hand, without the need to 

handle the probe before the initial survey is complete; 

• A receptacle for potentially contaminated PPE;

• A supply of any PPE that is required to enter the lower-activity area;

• Ready access to a phone, intercom, or other means of summoning assistance, if needed;

• Ready access to a personnel decontamination station; and

• A secondary step-off pad.

 27 The laboratory should have a detailed Waste Management Plan, or similar document, that clearly identifies the 

accumulation, characterization, and ultimate disposal of laboratory waste.

28 Stationary hand and foot monitors are useful for monitoring personnel contamination, and they may facilitate the 

rapid movement of personnel through controlled egress points. They are not, however, a complete replacement for 

hand-held survey equipment, which is useful for surveying clothing and other items.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

77 

Disposable PPE and other consumable supplies that exceed pre-determined survey limits are placed in 

the “Rad Waste Container.” Otherwise, the item is placed in the “Potentially Contaminated Waste 

Container.” All laboratory waste and related materials should be characterized and disposed of 

according to the laboratory’s Radiation Protection Program and Waste Management Protocols. Exit to Lower Level Area

1

Surveyed 

materials.

Primary 

Step-off 

Pad.

Secondary 

Step-off 

Pad.

Flow of Work

Frisking Station.

1 = Rad Waste Container

2 = Potentially Contaminated Waste Container

2

Decon. 

Supplies.

Materials 

to be 

surveyed.

Figure 11 – Example Layout of the Egress Area

1. Stage the items to be removed from the higher level work area.

All items to be moved into the lower-activity area should be initially placed on a table, or 

other suitable staging area, adjacent to the frisking station. Any tools or equipment that are 

potentially contaminated should be thoroughly cleaned and surveyed/swiped before being 

placed in the staging area. 

2. Step on to the primary step-off pad.

Enter the egress area by stepping onto the primary step-off pad. While standing on the 

primary step-off pad, remove the PPE as described below, starting at the head and working 

down to the feet.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

78 

At each step, the item to be removed is surveyed prior to removal and is placed in the 

appropriate waste receptacle. Particular attention should be paid to the areas that are prone to 

contamination, such as the front and cuffs of the laboratory coat or coveralls, and the bottom 

of the shoes and shoe coverings.

3. Survey and remove outer gloves.

When removing outer gloves, the exposed side of the outer layer is considered “dirty” and 

the inner glove is considered “clean.” Contact of a clean surface should be made only by 

another clean surface. 

3.1 As discussed above, the survey meter probe should be positioned face-up, ready to allow 

the worker to perform an initial survey of the gloved hands without picking up the probe. 

Survey both gloved hands. 

3.2. Grasp the outside of one glove, near the wrist, using the other gloved hand.

3.3. Peel the glove away from the hand, turning it inside out as it is removed.

3.4. While holding the removed glove with the remaining “dirty” gloved hand, insert the 

“clean” tip of one finger underneath the edge of the remaining “dirty” glove at the wrist 

opening.

3.5. Peel the second outer glove off, turning it inside out as it is removed. 

3.6. Keep holding the first glove until the second glove envelopes the first and both are 

contained in a single package, with both gloves inside out, one inside the other.

3.7. Place the gloves into the appropriate waste receptacle.

3.8. Survey the inner gloves before proceeding to ensure that they have not been 

contaminated and that the survey probe may now be handled without becoming 

contaminated.

4. Survey and remove disposable coveralls.

4.1 After surveying the coveralls, push the hood back off the head, taking care not to allow 

contact between the gloved hand and the face or head. 

4.2. Unzip the coveralls.

4.3. Peel the coveralls away from the body, starting at the top and turning them inside out as 

they are removed. During this step, minimize contact between the gloved hands and the 

outside of the suit, and do not allow the outside of the suit to contact the inner layer of 

protective clothing (e.g., scrubs).

4.4. With the coveralls rolled inside out, place them in the appropriate waste receptacle.

5. Survey and remove shoe covers.

5.1 After surveying the bottom of each shoe cover, place the survey probe on the table, face 

up.

5.2. Grasp the outside of the shoe cover, at the back, above the heel, with one gloved hand.

5.3. With the other gloved hand, grasp the outside of the same shoe cover, on the top side, 

near the toe.

5.4. Slide the shoe cover off the shoe and step the exposed shoe down on the floor past the 

primary step-off pad, not back onto the primary step-off pad.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

79 

5.5. Place the shoe cover into the appropriate waste receptacle.

5.6. Survey the gloved hands before proceeding.

5.7. Remove and discard the second shoe cover in the same manner, stepping completely off 

the primary step-off pad when the second shoe cover is removed.

6. Don a laboratory coat or other required PPE indicated for the area being entered.

7. Survey the materials being removed from the area. Decontaminate, if necessary. Place items 

that pass the survey acceptance criteria into the staging area for survey materials. Instructions 

for performing the surveys and decontamination are provided in Appendix I, 

Decontamination of Laboratory Surfaces and Equipment.

8. Survey the gloved hands, bottom of shoes, the laboratory coat, pant legs, and any other 

exposed surfaces of the employees clothing. 

9. Put the survey probe down, face up. The instrument should be ready to perform a new survey 

without being handled.

10. Remove inner gloves using the same procedure described in Step 3, survey the hands, and 

don a new pair of gloves, if required for the new area or for subsequent work.

11. Collect surveyed items and proceed into the lower level area, using the secondary step-off 

pad on the way.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

80 

APPENDIX G: ACTIVE RADIOLOGICAL MONITORING PROGRAM FOR 

CONTAMINATION CONTROL

In order to detect and prevent the spread of radioactive contamination from a higher-level sample 

processing area to lower-level sample processing and administrative areas, a fully functional 

radiological monitoring program for the laboratory facilities should be implemented. In some

cases, the spread of contamination with activity as low as 0.25–1 pCi for beta/gamma-emitting 

nuclides and 0.1 pCi for alpha-emitting nuclides29

• Personnel responsible for developing and implementing the program;

could lead to cross-contamination of samples 

and the reporting of erroneous results for low-level environmental samples. Detecting 

contamination at these low levels cannot be accomplished with typical health physics 

contamination control program applications. A survey meter may be useful for the detection of 

higher levels of contamination in the high-level processing and sample storage areas, and as a 

“go/no-go” measurement when moving materials from the high-level areas to the routine-level 

areas, for example. Other more sensitive techniques will be required to detect lower levels of 

contamination that may cause radioanalytical problems for the laboratory.

The first element that should be considered is the development of a contamination control plan, 

followed by a contamination control implementation program. The following elements should be 

considered in developing a plan:

• Suggested changes to the laboratory layout;

• Laboratory/building areas to monitor;

• Methods and frequency of monitoring;

• Action levels and corresponding analytical decision levels30

• Documentation.

for each type of 

contamination and monitored area; and

Personnel Responsible for Developing and Implementing the Program

Generally, key radiochemistry, quality assurance, and radiation protection personnel have 

different concerns and perspectives and should therefore all be involved in the development and 

implementation of the contamination control plan. Certain work functions needed for the 

implementation of the program (swipes, surveys, sample analysis, floor mopping, etc.) can be 

carried out by technicians, analytical staff, and other appropriately trained support personnel. 

 29 These values are examples only, based on experience in specific laboratory settings with specific MQOs. Each 

laboratory should determine its own AAL(C), uMR(C), and ADL(C) values, based on the individual laboratory 

environment and the project MQOs being addressed. See section 2.2, Establishing Acceptable Levels of 

Radioactivity and Radiation, for more detail.

30 See Appendix VI in Radiological Laboratory Sample Analysis Guide for Incidents of National Significance –

Radionuclides in Water (EPA 2008), “Establishing DQOs and MQOs for Incident Response Analysis.”
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

81 

Suggested Changes to the Laboratory Layout for Radiological or Nuclear Incident

Response Operations

Appendix A of this guide, Planning Considerations for Laboratory Layout and Process Flow,

provides general guidance for establishing the physical layout of the laboratory, with 

consideration for the type of work being done and the levels of radioactivity being handled. 

Appendix A shows only a simplified, conceptual layout of laboratory areas to be considered for 

general planning purposes. 

In this appendix, a different, more detailed example of a laboratory configuration is considered, 

in which a variety of analytical functions may be performed, both radiological and nonradiological. In this case, activities related to a radiological or nuclear incident response may 

require the laboratory to make temporary changes to specific radiochemistry, sample receiving, 

and storage areas to accommodate the potential influx of higher-activity samples.

Figures 12 and 13 provide specific examples of how laboratory and facility contamination and 

radiation monitoring controls might change from normal operation to the incident response 

situation. The suggested changes should be considered only as examples, and a laboratory may 

have to come up with its own solutions to specific problems. For example, if it is not feasible to 

install an additional hood (see hood #3 in Figure 13b) in the sample prep area, perhaps a portable 

fume hood can be purchased and reserved for handling of high-activity samples.

Figure 12a describes a hypothetical environmental laboratory, with the radiochemistry laboratory 

and the nuclear instrumentation area (the counting room) expanded in Figure 12b. Figure 13

represents the same laboratory modified for radiological or nuclear incident response. Figure 13a 

includes modifications to the whole laboratory, such as the creation of High-Level Work Areas, 

additional area monitoring thermoluminescent dosimeters (AMTLDs) in areas normally not 

monitored for exposure to radiation, and creation of long-term radioactive sample and 

radioactive waste storage in a remote area of the facility. Figure 13b represents the expanded 

view of the radiochemistry laboratory and the nuclear instrumentation area modified for incident 

response. Table 4 summarizes the major changes suggested for this hypothetical laboratory when 

a radiological or nuclear incident response is taking place and the rationale for each. Once again, 

these modifications are provided only as examples. They may be examined and subsequently 

included in the laboratory contamination control plan only after careful consideration of the 

laboratory’s individual needs.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

82 

Microbiology

Laboratory

Inorganic Analysis

Laboratory

Lunchroom

Restrooms

Shipping

Dock

Nuclear

Instrumentation

Room 

Organic Analysis

Laboratory

Lobby/

Reception

Staff Offices

Supplies

`

Staff and Visitor Parking

Staff & 

Handicap 

Entrance

Main 

Entrance

Storeroom

Receiving

Area

AM

TLD

Area Monitoring TLD

Radiochemistry

Laboratory

Figure 12a – Hypothetical Environmental Laboratory Operating Under Normal Conditions
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

83 

Radiochemistry Laboratory (Expanded View)

Lab Bench

Lab Bench

S

a

mple S

ot rage Chemical &

Supply

S

ot rage

RMA

Radioactive Materials Area

W

W

Radioactive Waste 

Receptacle

Nuclear Instrumentation Area (Expanded View)

Sample Staging

(Shielded)

GPC Stack GPC Drawer LSC Unit B LSC Unit A

NaI γ

HPGe Gamma 

Spectrometry

Alpha

Spectro

metry

H

o

od #1 H

o

od #

2

Sample Storage

Centrifuge

Centrifuge

Figure 12b – Hypothetical Environmental Laboratory Operating Under Normal Conditions
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

84 

Figure 13a – Hypothetical Environmental Laboratory Operating Under Incident-Response 

Conditions

Organic Analysis

Laboratory

Staff Offices Microbiology

Laboratory

Inorganic Analysis

Laboratory

Lunchroom

R

e

stro

o

m

s

S

hip

pin

g

D

o

c

k

Lobby/

Reception

`

Staff and Visitor Parking

Staff & 

Handicap 

Entrance

Main 

Entrance

Receiving

Area

Rad Screen

Prep

LSC 

Unit B NaI γ

Dosimetry

Storage

“Controlled Area : Authorized 

Personnel Only”

Rad-Waste

Storage

(Modular)

Rad. Sample

Archive

(Modular)

AM

TLD

AM

TLD

AM

TLD

AM

TLD

AM

TLD

AM

TLD

W

Area Monitoring TLD

Radioactive waste receptacle Restricted access area

Frisker (survey meter)

Step-off pad (required) 

AM

TLD

W

No Access: Emergency Only

Radiochemistry

Laboratory

AM

TLD

Nuclear

Inst.

Room 

High-Level Work Area

Routine-Level Work Area
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

85 

Figure 13b – Hypothetical Environmental Laboratory Operating Under IncidentResponse Conditions: Radiochemistry Laboratory Expanded View 

Radiochemistry Laboratory (Expanded View)

Lab Bench

Lab Bench

Sample S ot rage Chemical &

Supply S ot rage

Radioactive Materials Area

RMA W

W

Radioactive Waste 

Receptacle

Nuclear Instrumentation Area (Expanded View)

Sample Staging

(Shielded)

GPC Stack GPC Drawer LSC Unit A

HPGe Gamma 

Spectrometry

Alpha Spectrometry

Hood #1 Hood #2

Sample Storage

Rad

Centrifuge

Centrifuge

No Access: Emergency Only

“Controlled Area: Authorized Personnel Only”

AM

TLD

W

W

Note that LSC Unit B and NaI γ

analyzer are moved from the Nuclear

Instrumentation Room to the facility’s 

Receiving Room (Fig 13a).

Hood #3
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

86 

Table 4 – Summary of Major Changes Suggested for Radiological or Nuclear Incident 

Response Operations

Programmatic 

Issue Change from Normal Operation Rationale

Controlled access 

areas

Access to laboratory areas is limited to 

authorized personnel only. 

The laboratory limits access to work areas to 

only those persons possessing appropriate, 

documented training. This will prevent 

exposure of members of the general public to 

radioactivity and help ensure use of safe work 

practices in the laboratory and, thereby, 

protection of workers.

Isolated 

preparation area 

for radiological 

screening upon 

receipt

Gross α/β and gross γ screening has been 

instituted for all incident-related samples 

that might contain elevated levels of 

radioactivity. A fully functional preparation area (including a hood and all other 

necessary equipment, safety equipment, 

waste containers, step-off pad, etc.) has 

been set up adjacent to receipt area.

Expanded screening beyond the DOT 

radiological screens routinely performed 

supports the contamination control program and 

permits prioritization of sample analysis 

according to different activity levels. Isolating 

the handling of elevated activity samples from 

routine low-level work minimizes the risk of 

cross-contamination.

Isolated 

instrumentation 

area for rad 

screening upon 

receipt

NaI-γ detector and liquid scintillation 

counters (LSCs) have been transferred 

from the routine counting area to an anteroom in the receipt area to identify and 

segregate samples with the elevated 

activity.

The size of the facility and limited amount of 

instrumentation prevent identifying a more 

remote area for sample counting. However, rad 

screening in a separate area minimizes impact 

of radioactive samples on low-level counting 

operations. The laboratory also should institute 

measures to minimize impact of transient 

sources of radiation on counting. 

Isolated radioactive 

sample preparation 

area

A discrete area has been designated for 

preparing, splitting and screening, and 

aliquanting samples prior to release to 

radiochemistry laboratory for chemical 

separations and source preparation.

Although use of separate areas for handling rad 

and non-rad samples would be most ideal, due 

to the small size of the laboratory and limited 

instrumentation, contamination will be 

controlled by preparing aliquants of limited 

known gross activity prior to release to the 

radiochemistry laboratory.

Designated zones 

for radioactive 

sample handling 

within the 

radiochemistry 

area

The laboratory has designated two zones 

in its radiochemistry laboratory for 

processing samples containing different 

activity levels.

Complete segregation is preferable, but facility 

size precludes multiple areas for chemical 

separations of samples containing different 

activity levels. Screened aliquants of limited 

known gross activity will be prepared and 

released to the appropriate zone of the 

radiochemistry laboratory for processing to 

minimize the risk of cross-contamination.

Step-off pads Added step-off pads at egress points in 

areas handling rad samples.

To control personnel contamination and limit 

the spread of contamination through the 

laboratory.

Survey meters

Survey meters have been located where 

significant quantities of radioactive 

materials are in use.

Survey meters, while limited in their sensitivity, 

may permit real-time detection of activity and 

radioactive contamination before it spreads and 

compromises health and safety or data quality.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

87 

Programmatic 

Issue Change from Normal Operation Rationale

Radioactive waste 

receptacles

Receptacles have been added where 

incident-related processes will produce rad 

waste (or potential rad waste, including 

step-off pads). This is only a temporary 

waste receptacle and should be emptied 

daily to a more remote waste storage 

location.

To capture incident-related wastes per prior 

evaluation of incident-related procedures.

Dosimetry Laboratory has instituted use of personnel 

dosimetry (e.g., TLDs and bioassay). 

Personal dosimetry provides measurements of 

exposure to workers and allows exposures to be 

kept as low as reasonably achievable. Where 

high levels of activity are handled, more 

frequent or even real-time dosimetry may be 

required.

AMTLDs Installed AMTLDs wherever significant 

activity is stored or in use. 

To measure highest potential external dose to 

workers.

AMTLDs Installed AMTLDs in areas accessible to 

public.

To measure highest potential external dose to

public.

Remote storage of 

radioactive samples

Storage of samples is limited to inprogress samples. Remote, secure, 

climate-controlled sample storage and 

archiving areas are established (e.g., 

parking lot).

Personnel exposures will be minimized, the risk

of contamination reduced, and impact on 

instrument backgrounds minimized by 

maintaining only in-process samples in sample 

storage, laboratory processing, and 

instrumentation areas. 

Remote storage of 

radioactive waste

Storage of radioactive waste in work areas 

is limited and radioactive waste is moved 

to remote storage area on a frequent basis 

(e.g., daily or weekly) to prevent 

accumulation of significant amounts of 

material.

Personnel exposures will be minimized, the risk 

of contamination reduced, and impact on 

instrument backgrounds minimized by 

maintaining only in-process waste in sample 

storage, laboratory processing, and 

instrumentation areas. 

Areas to Monitor During a Radiological Event

Areas in a laboratory where radioactive materials are used, stored, or transported should be

subjected to the most frequent monitoring. The laboratory should carefully consider the physical 

configuration of the work areas, the flow of work through those areas, and the level of 

radioactivity being handled in those areas when deciding what areas should be surveyed and with 

what frequency. Generally, the more activity in use, the more frequent monitoring is required. 

Areas where radioactive materials are used in an open or uncontained form generally are 

associated with the highest likelihood of contamination and would require the highest frequency 

of monitoring. Office areas, lunch areas, and the like are much less likely to be contaminated 

(generally by transport of contamination from another area) and thus would generally be 

monitored with the least frequency. 

The following laboratory areas are examples of areas that are typically considered for 

monitoring:
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

88 

• Sample receiving areas

The monitoring program for sample receiving areas should be sure to consider any area 

or surface that is used to process uncharacterized samples, including shipping containers, 

as well as any surfaces that receiving personnel may come into contact with during 

sample receipt operations. Other surfaces that may not have direct contact, but may

become indirectly contaminated, such as air foils or sink drains, should be carefully and 

critically evaluated to determine a level of monitoring and control that is appropriate to 

the specific conditions in that area.

An abbreviated example of the types of items and surfaces to be considered includes:

o Incoming samples;

o Shipping containers and packing materials;

o Bench tops;

o Hood surfaces;

o Floors and loading docks;

o Keyboards, phones, and other office equipment; and

o Light switches and doorknobs.

In this, and in the following examples, the list is provided only to illustrate the types of 

items and surfaces to be considered. These examples should in no way be considered to 

be prescriptive or complete. Each laboratory must evaluate its own activities, procedures, 

and levels of radioactive materials to determine the appropriate items and surfaces, 

monitoring frequency, action levels, and other content of a radiological monitoring 

program that is specific to the area being evaluated. 

• Sample preparation areas

This area should include the same types of surfaces and work areas discussed above for 

the sample receiving areas, but would also incorporate items that are specific to the 

handling and preparation of open sample material, with consideration of the activity

levels, sample matrices, and types of tasks being performed. This includes areas such as 

the Sample Screening Areas, High-, Routine-, and Low-Level Work Areas. Additional 

items to consider may include:

o Labware;

o Sample and waste storage areas, shelves, etc.;

o Egress area equipment;

o Step-off pads;

o Instrument control panels; and

o Sinks, floor drains, and traps.

• Nuclear instrumentation rooms, whether they are in High-, Routine-, or Low-Level Work 

Areas, should also incorporate the ongoing evaluation of analytical equipment, as well as 

those surfaces and areas listed above that might be applicable:
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

89 

o Detectors, instrument housing surfaces, shields; and

o Desiccators or other sample storage cabinets.

In addition, the laboratory may wish to incorporate into the Radiological Monitoring Program a 

real-time evaluation of instrument performance checks and QC control charts, as an indication of 

emerging low-level laboratory contamination issues.

• General and administrative areas 

Although perhaps less frequently, these areas should be evaluated periodically to ensure 

that laboratory contamination is contained and controlled, and has not migrated out of the 

designated radiological areas. These evaluations may include areas and surfaces such as:

o Hallways and floors;

o Administrative areas – desks, doorknobs, telephones/switchboards, keyboards;

o Break room and restroom fixtures;

o Sinks, traps, and floor drains; and

o Door handles at the building exits.

While the frequency for these monitoring activities may be less than for the general laboratory 

areas, the MQOs for the survey measurements should be carefully considered and should be 

appropriate for the lower levels of acceptable exposure to non-radiological workers and to the 

general public. 

Monitoring Method and Frequency of Monitoring

Once the laboratory has determined what changes may be appropriate to the layout of the 

laboratory and which areas and items require increased contamination surveillance, the 

laboratory should then determine which contamination monitoring techniques will be appropriate 

and how frequently they should be performed. 

Ambient exposure and dose rate measurements, fixed and removable contamination surveys, and 

the analysis of process by-products such as mop water or HVAC air filters all provide 

information about the various laboratory activities and the specific contamination risks 

associated with different areas. In all cases, the contamination surveillance measurements should 

support the laboratory’s ability to make decisions regarding the potential for radioanalytical 

contamination that interferes with the MQOs of the incident response.

An example of target areas to be monitored, techniques used, and minimum frequency 

recommended is summarized in Table 5.31

 31 For all of these measurements, baseline values representing normal routine operations should be established

before any incident-related samples are received. General guidance is provided in NUREG 1556, vol. 11, but each 

laboratory should develop its own program. The approach should also keep in mind that the NUREG document is 

focused primarily on human health concerns, although much lower levels of radioactive contamination may be of 

concern in radioanalytical facilities where measurements of low-level radioactivity are being performed.

Additional information on the contamination 
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

90 

monitoring of laboratory surfaces and equipment is provided in Appendix H, Surveillance of 

Laboratory Surfaces and Equipment. 

Table 5 – Target Areas, Techniques, and Frequency of Radiological Monitoring

Laboratory Area Item Monitored Type of Monitoring Frequency [1]

Sample Receipt Samples received Survey meter, swipe Upon receipt

Bench top Survey meter, swipe Weekly

Floor Mop water, swipes Every two weeks 

composite

High-Level Screening 

and Processing Areas Bench tops, doorknobs Survey meter, swipe Daily

Hoods Survey meter, swipe Daily

Floor Mop water Daily

Labware (non-disposable) Rinse water Weekly 

composite

Sample and waste storage 

areas, shelves, etc. Survey meter, swipe Weekly

Entry area Sticky pad Weekly

Egress area Survey meter – hand 

and foot monitoring

Upon leaving 

area

Sticky pads Gamma spectrometer Weekly

Routine-Level

Processing Areas Bench tops, doorknobs Survey meter, swipe Every two weeks

Hoods Survey meter, swipe Every two weeks

Floor Mop water Every two weeks

Labware Rinse water Weekly 

composite

Sample and waste storage 

areas, shelves, etc. Survey meter, swipe Every two weeks

Long-Term Sample or 

Waste Storage – HighLevel

Shelves Survey meter, swipe Weekly

Floor Mop water Weekly

Nuclear Instrumentation 

Room – High-Level

Detectors, instruments, 

shields Swipes Weekly

Bench and work areas Swipes Weekly

Computer keyboards Swipes Weekly

Floor Mop water Weekly

Nuclear Instrumentation 

Room – Routine-Level

Detectors, instruments, 

shields Swipes Weekly

Bench and work areas Swipes Every two weeks

Computer keyboards Swipes Every two weeks

Floor Mop water Every two weeks

Hallways Floors Mop water Every two weeks

Administrative Desks, doorknobs Swipes Monthly

Sinks, Traps, and Floor 

Drains

Sink surfaces, drain 

elbows, beneath sinks

Swipes and “oncontact” dose rate 

measurements

Monthly

External Radiation 

Monitoring

One TLD in areas of highlevel samples Environmental TLDs Monthly

[1] Monitoring frequencies during the first several days of an incident response may need to be increased until the 

effectiveness of the laboratory’s contamination control measures can be assessed.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

91 

Investigation and Action Levels for Each Monitored Area

Within the contamination control plan and program, action levels should be specified which, 

when exceeded, require some type of intervention.

• For certain analytical methods, such as gamma spectrometry or gas proportional 

counting, in which the total number of radiation events is integrated over a measurable 

counting period, each action level should have an associated ADL based on the 

probability of committing Type I and II errors.

32

• Alternately, for survey techniques such as exposure rate meters or Geiger-Müller (G-M)

probes that simply provide an instantaneous dose- or count-rate, an “investigation level” 

should be established, which would trigger further action when exceeded. This further 

action may include additional swipe surveys or other definitive analytical techniques. In 

some cases, these investigation and action levels may correlate to the level of 

radioactivity typically encountered in the laboratory under routine conditions. In this 

case, a change in laboratory radioactivity levels can be determined only if an accurate 

baseline measurement has been previously performed for the specific method being 

evaluated. 

When the contamination measurement 

result is above the ADL, it is assumed that the action level has been exceeded.

Table 6 provides examples of the types of investigation and action levels that might be 

considered for the laboratory. These will necessarily vary by the type of area and the specific 

operations performed in that area. 

Table 6 – Example Contamination Investigation and Action Levels

Instrument Item

Investigation Levels (for survey 

meters) and Action Levels (for 

instrumentation)

Survey meters (e.g.,

exposure rate meters, GM probes, etc.)

Bench tops, instrument 

surfaces

3 times ambient background33

Gross alpha / beta - GPC Swipes 1 pCi beta

0.1 pCi alpha

Gamma Spectrometry Swipes, mats

Mop and rinse water

15 pCi gross gamma 

(ref. 137Cs)

The type of actions triggered by exceeding investigation levels or ADLs may vary from 

increased monitoring to process stoppage and decontamination of the area to acceptable levels. 

The investigation and action levels will vary according to laboratory area. A certain amount of 

contamination that may be tolerable in the high-level sample processing area would not be 

permissible in the low-level nuclear instrumentation area. The results of the monitoring activities 

 32 See Appendix VI in Radiological Laboratory Sample Analysis Guide for Incidents of National Significance –

Radionuclides in Water for the determination of an ADL as a function of Type I and Type II decision errors. 33 See the companion documents, Guide for Laboratories – Identification, Preparation, and Implementation of Core 

Operations for Radiological or Nuclear Incident Response (EPA 2010) and Radiological Laboratory Sample 

Screening Analysis Guide for Incidents of National Significance (EPA 2009b) for additional discussion regarding 

considerations in the appropriate determination of instrument background count rates. 
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

92 

in Table 5 should be compared on a periodic (e.g., weekly) basis to the established investigation 

and action levels to determine whether an action is needed, and to identify trends that might 

indicate a developing problem. Action items from the contamination control program should be 

entered into the laboratory’s corrective action program, indicating the date, cause of the action, 

action to be taken, person responsible for implementation of the action, and the due date for 

completion of the corrective action.

Documentation

A summary of the results of the contamination control program should be incorporated, as a 

separate section, into the laboratory’s quality assurance program reports and documentation. In 

addition, the results of the contamination control program should be discussed at quality 

assurance and safety program staff meetings.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

93 

APPENDIX H: SURVEILLANCE OF LABORATORY SURFACES AND EQUIPMENT

1. Fixed Contamination Surveys

1.1 Fixed contamination surveys should be performed:

• On any object or material being transferred from a higher-activity area to a loweractivity area.

• On any surface that has been potentially contaminated by the handling of radioactive 

material.

• On the hands, feet, and outer garments of any employee exiting a radiological 

processing area. This includes any employee moving from a higher-activity area to a 

lower-activity area.

1.2. Survey instrument readings should be recorded in a logbook or on a standardized form to 

ensure a record of the survey activities, and to allow for supervisory/management review 

of the survey results. An example form is shown in Figures 14 and 15, which may also 

be used to record swipe surveys discussed in Section 2 of this appendix. When 

developing such a form, it is useful for the laboratory to include a map of the facility or 

area to aid in the survey description. The map should be sufficiently detailed to allow the 

survey technicians to indicate specific items, such as bench tops and fume hoods.

1.3. Measure and record the instrument background reading.

• Where survey results and/or action levels are referenced to a background level, an 

appropriate measurement of the instrument background readings must be taken prior 

to measuring the surfaces.

• Activity measurements (e.g., dpm, pCi, Bq, etc.) are, by definition, net results and 

should always be appropriately background corrected, which requires a 

representative measurement of the instrument background readings for the particular 

measurement geometry.

• For general measurements of surfaces of a variable or unpredictable composition, 

the background readings for instruments measuring alpha and beta activity can be 

made by simply removing the survey probe to an acceptable distance from possible 

sources of contamination. 

• When the surfaces being measured are consistent or predictable, such as when 

measuring swipe samples or direct measurements of walls or floors, the background 

measurement should be made against an appropriate control surface, such as a clean 

swipe or a similarly constructed wall or floor outside the work area.

• When measuring the background readings for gamma activity, including exposure 

and dose rate meters, great care should be taken to ensure that the background 

reading is performed well away from potential sources of gamma activity, which can 

travel significant distances in the laboratory. 

• The technicians should be aware of their proximity to radioactive materials storage 

areas, waste collection areas, and any other potential sources of gamma activity. In 

some cases, the background reading may have to be taken in advance, in another 

area of the laboratory, to ensure that the determination of net instrument response is 

accurate.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

94 

XYZ Laboratories, Inc.

RADIOACTIVE CONTAMINATION SURVEY REPORT

Date and Time:

Technician:

Instrument ID:

Calibration Date:

Check all that apply:

_____ Routine scheduled surveillance _____ Hand-held survey meter

_____ Response to spill or other incident. _____ Swipe samples

_____ If response to spill or other incident, the RSO has been notified.

Other notes and comments:

Action Levels (specific to area and type of survey - see Radiation Protection Plan):

Action Level Units

Alpha μR/h cpm

Beta mrem/h dpm

Gamma Other: 

 If Action Level is exceeded, report to Radiation Safety Officer.

Survey Results: Indicate location on back of form, if necessary.

Item # Description Units

Type of 

Radiation

0 Background Measurement (Gross Only)

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

Approved By:

Date:

gross net (circle one) 

Survey Result

Circle Type of Radiation/Reading and 

Measurement Units

Figure 14 – Example Survey Report Form, Front
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

95 

RECEIVING

SCREENING HIGH LEVEL

INSTRUMENT

& LOW LEVEL

Sample 

Storage 

Area

Waste 

Accumulation 

Area

Sample 

Staging 

Area

Gross Prep 

and 

Aliquanting

Sub- Sample 

Staging Area

Decon Area

Decon Area

Chemical 

Separations

Sample 

Digestions

Plating,

Planchetting, 

etc.

Chemical 

Separations

Plating,

Planchetting, 

etc. 

(Final 

Presentation 

to Instrument)

Storage for 

Reagents, 

Supplies, 

Other 

Consumables

Computer & 

Desk Areas, 

etc.

Rad 

Standards 

Storage

Gross Prep and Aliquanting Sample Staging Area

Sample 

Digestions

Chemical 

Separations

Plating,

Planchetting, 

etc.

ADMINISTRATIVE & OFFICES

Break Area

Men Women

Dashed lines denote work area boundaries and partitions Solid lines denote walls

Figure 15 – Example Survey Report Form, Back 
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

96 

1.4. Measurements are made of the potentially affected surfaces. The probe of the survey 

instrument should be moved across the surface to be surveyed slowly (2-3 inches per 

second is a customary scan rate) and deliberately to enable detection of discreet areas of 

contamination. Typically, hand-held probes may be held approximately one inch from 

the surface and moved approximately 2–3 inches per second. In the event that “hot 

particles” are suspected, slower scan rates are advisable, as the scanning instrument 

response may otherwise be too slow to react. Great care should be taken to protect the 

hand-held survey equipment from contamination by the items being surveyed. 

When performing the survey, it is not unusual for the instrument reading to fluctuate 

somewhat while traversing the areas to be measured. It is acceptable to simply record 

the highest observed reading. If the survey indicates unacceptable contamination levels 

on a specific part of the surface, a detailed note should be made accordingly.

1.5. Action levels for surveys should be based on the type of area and the acceptable levels of 

contamination, as discussed in Section 2.2. Any surface measurement that results in a 

survey reading above the associated action levels should be confirmed. Portable items 

should be sequestered until decontamination procedures are completed. Access and use 

of contaminated laboratory surfaces should be prevented until decontamination is 

completed. 

1.6. Note that the success of any decontamination activities must be confirmed with a new 

survey prior to releasing the surface or object for use in the laboratory. 

2. Removable Surface Contamination (Swipes) Surveys34

2.1 Surveys should be required on all potentially affected surfaces that present a risk of 

transferring contamination to laboratory workers, equipment, or other samples.

2.1.1 Sample containers should be surveyed before moving the containers from a 

high-activity level area to a lower activity level area.

2.1.2 Laboratory equipment that is being moved from a high-activity level area to a 

lower-activity level area should be surveyed.

2.1.3 Laboratory surfaces, such as hood interiors, bench tops, floors, etc., should 

receive regular, periodic surveys. In addition, these surfaces should be surveyed 

following operations with significantly elevated levels of radioactivity, or after a 

spill or other release of radiological material, to ensure that the decontamination 

efforts are successful. 

2.2 Swipe survey protocols, in addition to ensuring accurate results, should be developed to 

facilitate the sampling and rapid analysis of large numbers of swipes. Analysis of the 

swipes by direct reading instrumentation, without the need for significant preparation or 

handling, and the use of instrumentation with an automatic sample changer, should be 

considered whenever possible. 

2.3 The swipe material should be rugged enough to remove surficial contamination from the 

surface of the object being surveyed, without significantly damaging the swipe or 

leaving swipe material behind on the surface.

 34 Additional detailed information regarding the removable contamination surveys may be found in the companion 

document, A Performance-Based Approach to the Use of Swipe Samples in Response to a Radiological or Nuclear 

Incident (EPA 2011).
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

97 

2.4 The decision to wet the swipe, and the selection of a wetting agent, should take into

consideration the chemical form of the potential contamination and the degree to which 

the solution may be compatible with the analytical process.

2.5 As with the use of hand-held survey equipment, the collection of swipe samples may be 

greatly affected by the technique of the individual collecting the samples. If possible, the 

number of individuals who collect swipes should be limited to ensure consistency in the 

final results. 

2.6 The survey activities and results should be recorded on a standardized form, such as the 

one shown in Figure 14, to ensure complete documentation and to facilitate adequate 

supervisory review of the information. 

2.7 The area to be swiped should be as consistent as possible. In some cases, it may be 

helpful to include a diagram of the standard swipe area, on the form used to record the 

survey activities, as a reminder to the survey technician.

2.8 When collecting the swipe samples on larger surfaces, or objects on which the potential 

contamination is not expected to be consistent or homogeneous over the entire surface, 

multiple swipes may need to be taken to ensure that the final results provide accurate 

information about the level of contamination on the object.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

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APPENDIX I: DECONTAMINATION OF LABORATORY SURFACES AND 

EQUIPMENT

This example is intended to provide guidance for the decontamination of laboratory surfaces. If 

the contamination is the result of a spill or other release of radiological materials, this guidance is 

applicable after the general containment and removal of debris and gross materials from the spill. 

This is a generalized protocol, provided for example purposes only. The user should evaluate 

each situation and determine whether these or other measures will be more appropriate and 

effective. 

1. Selection of Decontamination Equipment and Materials

A ready supply of decontamination equipment and materials should be maintained and kept 

close at hand in the work areas. These items are separate from, and in addition to, spill 

response equipment and supplies. Decontamination supplies should be selected based on the 

surfaces to be cleaned and the type of radiological material being handled in the laboratory, 

but should include at a minimum:

• Disposable towels or absorbent wipes;

• Disposable scrubbing brushes;

• Spray bottles containing the appropriate decon solution; and

• Sealable plastic bags or other means of containing and disposing of used decontamination 

supplies.

Selection of the appropriate decontamination solution should consider the type of 

radiological material being handled in the laboratory. Most household cleaning solutions, 

such as window cleaner or multi-surface cleaners, will be quite effective in removing a wide 

variety of surficial contamination. The laboratory may also consider commercially available 

radiological decontamination solutions that contain chelating agents, which are useful in the 

removal of radionuclides present in ionic form. 

2. Decontamination Procedures

Decontamination procedures for laboratory surfaces are much like any other general cleaning 

task in the laboratory. Specific care should be taken, however, to deliberately contain and 

remove the contamination without spreading the radiological material to uncontaminated 

areas. The laboratory’s specific decontamination procedures must address the specific 

surfaces, type of radiological materials, levels of radioactivity present, potential exposure 

concerns, waste disposal practices, and release criteria. The following steps are intended only 

as an example:

2.1. Identify the area to be decontaminated. Previous surveys should have adequately defined 

the affected areas and identified the boundaries of the contamination.

2.2. Stage the decontamination supplies and disposal container within reach of the 

contaminated area, on top of a disposable piece of laboratory bench paper.

2.3. Spray the contaminated surface with the appropriate decontamination solution.

2.4. With a disposable towel or wipe, start at the outer edge of the contaminated area. 

Maintain a definite boundary between the cleaned and contaminated areas. 
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

99 

2.5. Avoid spreading contamination into the areas already cleaned by working in one 

direction and frequently disposing of and replacing the cleaning towels.

2.6. Any potentially contaminated supplies should be immediately transferred to a sealable

plastic bag, or other container, for disposal.

2.7. After the initial decontamination procedure, repeat from the beginning to ensure 

adequate removal of the contamination.

2.8. Finally, dispose of all potentially contaminated supplies, including the laboratory bench 

paper, and place the waste material in the proper waste collection container.

To minimize the risk of further contamination to the facility, the removal of potentially 

contaminated materials and decontamination supplies from the affected area should take place

only after the contamination event has been contained, the materials have been properly secured 

and surveyed, and not under the “crisis” or “emergency” conditions that may have been created 

by the contamination incident, if possible.

3. Re-Survey of the Contaminated Surfaces

After completing the decontamination process, the objects or surfaces must not be released 

for general use until a new survey has been performed to confirm that the decontamination 

procedure was successful.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

100 

APPENDIX J: ESTABLISHING MQOS FOR SAMPLE SCREENING 

MEASUREMENTS

Section 2.2 of this guide contains an example in which a hypothetical laboratory establishes 

contamination control MQOs by determining AAL(C), uMR(C), and ADL(C) values for alphaemitting radioactive contamination measurements in Routine-Level Work Areas in the 

laboratory. These contamination control MQOs were based on the AAL(S), uMR(S), and ADL(S) 

MQOs that the laboratory is required to meet for sample analyses. This appendix provides an 

additional example that illustrates how a laboratory might develop similar MQOs for sample 

screening measurements35

1. Determine AAL(C)

when those screening results are used to segregate samples into 

different types of work areas, depending on the sample activity levels. 

As in Section 2.2, incident response MQOs will be distinguished from the laboratory’s internal 

screening MQOs by the use of the parentheticals (S) for sample and (C) for potential crosscontamination from co-processed samples.

Consider an example scenario in which the laboratory wants to establish limits for beta 

activity in a Low-Level Work Area. As with the previous example, in Section 2.2, MQOs for 

sample screening results, which may be used as the basis of segregating samples by activity 

concentration levels, will be directly related to the MQOs for incident response sample 

analysis.

Developing MQOs for sample screening measurements in this scenario is very similar to the 

development of MQOs for removable surface contamination surveys, as discussed in Section 

2.2. In both cases, the potential activity from a source of contamination contributes to the 

uncertainty of the field sample measurement, and the estimate of the maximum tolerable 

level of contamination is the basis for the Analytical Action Level of the contamination 

control or sample screening measurement, i.e., AAL(C). 

In this example scenario:

• The laboratory area is used for the preparation of samples that are required to meet 

MQOs that cannot generally be supported by the “Routine-Level Work Area” 

contamination surveillance limits described in Table 2. In this scenario, the laboratory 

has established a “Low-Level Work Area” for the preparation of these samples.

• The incident response MQO for 90Sr analysis in water samples states that the required 

method uncertainty, uMR(S) is not to exceed 0.15 pCi/L at the specified AAL(S), 

which is 1.5 pCi/L.

• Sample activity measurements below 1.5 pCi/L are also limited to the required 

method uncertainty, uMR(S), of 0.15 pCi/L, and measurements above 1.5 pCi/L are 

limited to a relative required method uncertainty, φMR(S), of 10% of the measured 

activity.

 35 Additional detailed information regarding sample screening MQOs, sample processing for screening purposes, 

instrument calibration considerations, and other key recommendations is provided in the companion guide 

Radiological Laboratory Sample Screening Analysis Guide for Incidents of National Significance (EPA 402-R-09-

008, June 2009).
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

101 

• The current analytical method in use in the laboratory employs a sample aliquant of 

0.5 liter and has the capability to produce a CSU of 0.13 pCi/L (8.7%) at an activity 

concentration of 1.5 pCi/L, before potential sources of sample cross-contamination 

are considered. 

The laboratory, therefore, has a method that currently limits the CSU to 0.13 pCi/L at the 

prescribed AAL(S) of 1.5 pCi/L and wishes to determine what maximum level of potential 

sample cross-contamination would increase the method uncertainty, uMR(S), to 0.15 pCi/L.

The required method uncertainty for field sample analyses, uMR(S), may be estimated by the 

laboratory by the following equation:

2 2

MR u (S) = CSU + AAL(C)

or

2

2

AAL( ) L

0.13pCi

L

0.15pCi  + C 

 



 =

Solving for AAL(C) shows that the maximum tolerable level of potential 90Sr sample crosscontamination, AAL(C), would be equal to 0.075 pCi/L in the field sample analysis.

Since each sample analysis employs an aliquant of 0.5 L, the maximum tolerable level of 90Sr 

cross-contamination in each 0.5 L sample aliquant is:

0.075 pCi/L × 0.5 L = 0.0375 pCi.

The AAL(C), expressed in activity units of pCi, is therefore 0.0375 pCi beta activity from 

90Sr.

Following this assessment, the laboratory technical personnel are consulted, the sample 

preparation process is reviewed, and potential sources and mechanisms of sample crosscontamination are identified. The volume of sample that may be aerosolized due to vigorous 

boiling, or whether a technician inadvertently grasps the inside lip of a beaker during sample 

preparation might be considered. Based on the available information, and perhaps based in 

large part on the technical judgment of the staff, it is estimated that the 90Sr analysis of a field 

sample could potentially receive up to 0.5 mL as cross-contamination from other samples 

being processed concurrently. 

Note that the values in this example are for illustrative purposes 

only. Each laboratory will need to assess its own processes and 

situations on a case-by-case basis. In all cases, however, the 

potential sample cross-contamination should be limited to a level 

that does not significantly impact the required sample analysis 

method uncertainty, uMR(S).
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

102 

Limiting the potential activity from sample cross-contamination to 0.0375 pCi (as determined 

above) per 0.5 mL of sample volume gives the maximum allowable 90Sr activity 

concentration for samples being prepared in that Low-Level Work Area:

0.0375 pCi / 0.5 mL = 0.075 pCi/mL

= 75 pCi/L

The AAL(C), therefore, is 75 pCi/L. For screening analyses it is generally faster, more 

convenient, and analytically conservative to measure gross beta activity, rather than actual 

90Sr activity. The AAL(C), therefore, is 75 pCi gross beta activity per liter of sample. This 

value is shown in Table 1 of this guide, under “Maximum Screening Activity Concentrations 

per Matrix”, for “beta > 150 keV” in liquids.

2. Limiting the Screening Method Uncertainty, uMR(C)

As discussed in Section 2.2.3, the required method uncertainty, uMR(C), is calculated as:

1 α 1 β

MR

AAL- DL

− + −

≤

z z

u

Where

AAL = analytical action level

DL = discrimination level 

z1−α and z1−β are the 1−α and 1−β quantiles of the standard normal distribution function, 

where α and β are the respective probabilities of making a Type I or Type II error.

In this example scenario, the AAL(C), has been established as 75 pCi/L. The DL is selected 

as zero because the screening results for samples being processed in a Low-Level Work Area 

should be distinguishable from uncontaminated, e.g., zero activity, measurements. The values 

for z1−α and z1−β are both set to 1.645, corresponding to 5% Type I and Type II error rates.

Under these conditions, the required method uncertainty for gross beta screening analyses, 

uMR(C), at the AAL will be:

23

1.645 1.645

AAL- DL 75 0 ( )

1 1

= +

− = + =

−α −β z z

uMR C pCi/L

The laboratory, therefore, must identify analysis conditions for sample gross beta screening 

that satisfy the required method uncertainty of 23 pCi/L.

3. Determining ADL(C) 

The ADL(C) is the screening result that is used to determine whether or not the actual gross 

beta activity in a sample is likely to exceed the AAL(C), determined above. The ADL(C) is 

calculated as:

ADL(C) = AAL(C) MR − z ×u 1−α (C)
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

103 

 = 75 − (1.645× 23) = 37 pCi/L

4. Summary 

In this example scenario, the laboratory determined the AAL(C) for gross beta activity in 

samples being processed in the Low-Level Work Area. The AAL(C) was determined by the 

MQOs associated with the field sample analyses being performed, and the laboratory’s 

estimate of tolerable levels of sample cross-contamination that would be unlikely to 

significantly impact the field sample MQOs.

Once the AAL(C) was determined, the laboratory then established constraints on the 

uncertainty, uMR(C), of the screening method to be employed, then used those values to 

determine what screening measurement result, ADL(C), would cause the laboratory to decide 

that the AAL(C) was likely to have been exceeded, given the screening method uncertainty 

and the laboratory’s tolerance for errors.

After determining the ADL(C) for gross beta sample screening analyses, the laboratory 

should calculate ADL(C) values for other contamination control measurements that will be 

necessary for that area, as shown in the example for Routine-Level Work Areas in Table 2.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

104 

APPENDIX K: ESTABLISHING MQOS FOR SAMPLE EXPOSURE RATES 

Section 2.2 of this guide contains an example in which a hypothetical laboratory establishes 

contamination control MQOs by determining AAL(C), uMR(C), and ADL(C) values for alphaemitting radioactive contamination measurements in Routine-Level Work Areas in the 

laboratory. These contamination control MQOs were based on the AAL(S), uMR(S), and ADL(S) 

MQOs that the laboratory is required to meet for sample analyses. This appendix provides an 

additional example that illustrates how a laboratory might develop analogous MQOs for 

exposure rate measurements when those results are used to segregate samples into different types 

of work areas.

As in Section 2.2, incident response MQOs will be distinguished from the laboratory’s internal 

exposure rate MQOs by the use of the parentheticals (S) and (C) for potential crosscontamination from co-processed samples.

1. Determine AAL(C)

Consider an example scenario in which the laboratory wants to establish exposure rate limits 

for individual samples in a Routine-Level Work Area. As with the previous example, in 

Appendix J, MQOs for sample exposure rates, which may be used as the basis for 

segregating samples to different work areas, should be related to the laboratory’s ability to 

achieve the required MQOs for incident response sample analysis.

Developing MQOs for exposure rate measurements in this scenario is similar to the 

development of MQOs for removable surface contamination surveys, as discussed in Section 

It should be carefully noted that there are significant differences between analytical methods 

for which the total number of radiation events is integrated over a measurable counting 

period (e.g., gamma spectrometry, gas proportional counting, etc.), and methods that simply 

provide an instantaneous dose- or count-rate (e.g., G-M probes, exposure rate meters, etc.). 

One primary difference is the statistical basis for decisionmaking based on the probability of 

committing Type I and Type II errors, which is readily employed in the former type of 

measurements, and only roughly approximated in the latter.

In this example scenario, MQOs for exposure rate measurements are developed in a manner 

that is analogous to the development of MQOs for integrated activity measurements. These 

MQOs may be useful to the laboratory in making decisions regarding the segregation of 

samples in order to minimize the impact of excessive or transient exposure on the analytical 

process. The laboratory is cautioned, however, against extending the concepts presented in 

this example to other applications, such as the measurement of sample radioactivity levels or 

the reliance on such measurements to support decisionmaking at a proposed statistical 

confidence interval.

A detailed discussion of the applicability and limitations of hand-held survey equipment is 

provided in the companion document Uses of Field and Laboratory Measurements During a 

Radiological or Nuclear Incident (EPA 2012).
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

105 

In this specific scenario, the sample exposure rate does not actually contribute to the radioactivity in 

the sample, but is manifested in the field sample analysis results through the transient impact that 

excess gamma radiation has on the gamma spectroscopy instrumentation in use in the lab. To assess 

the potential impact, the laboratory will need to have performed a basic empirical study to quantify 

that impact. In this example scenario, the laboratory is presumed to have determined a “worst-case” 

scenario in which samples containing 137Cs, delivered to the instrument room, and having an exposure 

rate of 1,000 μR/h, introduced an average positive bias of 0.72 pCi/filter in the gamma spectrometry 

analysis of 137Cs in air filters, under the analytical conditions being considered in this example. The 

impact of the hypothetical exposure rate on other analytical techniques, such as gross gamma activity 

analyses or the spectroscopic analysis of other gamma-emitting radionuclides, must be evaluated 

separately. For this example scenario, the resulting contribution to the bias is:

R filter

pCi h 7.2 10

h

1000 R

filter

0.72pCi 4

⋅

⋅ = × −

μ

μ

2.2, with some notable differences. In both cases, the potential contribution from a source of 

radioactive contamination or radiation exposure contributes to the uncertainty of the field 

sample measurement, and the estimate of the maximum tolerable level of that contribution, is 

the basis for the Analytical Action Level of the contamination control or exposure rate 

measurement, i.e., AAL(C). In this example, however, the estimate of the impact on the field 

sample MQOs is based on the transient effect of gamma radiation on the laboratory 

instrumentation, and the measurement uncertainty is empirically derived, rather than being 

calculated as a CSU. 

In this example scenario:

• The laboratory area is classified as a Routine-Level Work Area and is used for the 

preparation and analysis of samples that are required to meet MQOs that apply to the 

majority of sample analyses performed by the laboratory. 

• The incident response MQO for 137Cs analysis in air filters states that the required 

method uncertainty, uMR(S) is not to exceed 5 pCi/filter at the specified AAL(S), 

which is 40 pCi/filter.

• Sample activity measurements below 40 pCi/filter are also limited to the required 

method uncertainty, uMR(S), of 5 pCi/filter and measurements above 40 pCi/filter are 

limited to a relative required method uncertainty, φMR(S), of 12.5% of the measured 

activity.

• The current gamma spectroscopy method in use in the laboratory employs a sample 

aliquant of 1 filter and has the capability to produce a CSU of 3.5 pCi/filter (8.8%) at 

an activity concentration of 40 pCi/L, before potential sources of radioanalytical 

interference from sample exposure rates are considered. 

The laboratory, therefore, has a method that currently limits the CSU to 3.5 pCi/filter at the 

prescribed AAL(S) of 40 pCi/filter and wishes to determine what maximum level of sample 

exposure rate would potentially increase the method uncertainty, uMR(S), to 5 pCi/filter.
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

106 

As previously discussed, the required method uncertainty for field sample analyses, uMR(S),

may be estimated by the laboratory by the following equation:

36

2 2

MR u (S) = CSU + AAL(C)

or

2

2

AAL( ) f

3.5pCi

f

5pCi  + C 

 



 =

Solving for AAL(C) shows that the maximum tolerable potential bias to the 137Cs results, 

AAL(C), which is treated as an additional uncertainty factor in the field sample analysis, 

would be equal to 3.6 pCi/filter in the field sample analysis.

Converting this AAL(C) from an activity level to an external sample exposure rate,

h

R 5000

R f

pCi h 7.2 10

f

pCi 3.6 4 μ

μ = ⋅

⋅ × −

The AAL(C) for sample exposure rate measurements in this particular work area is therefore 

5,000 μR/h. This value is shown in Table 1 of this guide, under “Maximum Sample Exposure 

Rate (μR/h at surface of container)”.

2. Limiting the Survey Method Uncertainty, uMR(C)

As discussed in Section 2.2.3, the required method uncertainty, uMR(C), is calculated as:

1 α 1 β

MR

AAL- DL

− + −

≤

z z

u

Where

AAL = analytical action level

DL = discrimination level 

z1−α and z1−β are the 1−α and 1−β quantiles of the st andard normal distribution function, 

where α and β are the respective probabilities of making a Type I or Type II error.

In this example scenario, the AAL(C), has been established as 5,000 μR/h. The DL is 

selected as 100 μR/h, which is the AAL(C) for the Low-Level Work Areas. The values for 

z1−α and z1−β are both set to 1.645, corresponding to 5% Type I and Type II error rates.

 36 This equation, and others in this example scenario, make certain assumptions about the results of the empirical 

study performed by the laboratory, most notably, that the effects of external exposure on the analytical system are 

independent, normally distributed contributions to the uncertainty in the reported results of the field samples. This 

may be a simplification of the actual laboratory conditions, and other statistical treatments of the derivation of 

AAL(C) may be more appropriate in some cases. Additional information regarding the estimation of uncertainty in 

various measurement systems, including the treatment of non-normal distributions, is provided in MARLAP (2004), 

Chapter 19. 
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

107 

Under these scenario conditions, the required method uncertainty for exposure rate 

measurements, uMR(C), at the AAL will be:

1489

1.645 1.645

AAL- DL 5000 100 ( )

1 1

= +

− = + =

−α −β z z

uMR C μR/h

= 1.5 × 103 μR/h

The laboratory, therefore, must identify measurement conditions for exposure rate 

monitoring that satisfy the required method uncertainty of 1,500 μR/h at the AAL(C) of 

5,000 μR/h. 

It should be noted that the “method uncertainty” in this scenario, and for other hand-held 

survey instrument measurements, cannot be determined by calculating a CSU, as is done 

routinely with other laboratory instrumentation that integrates the total number of radiation 

events over a measurable counting period. In the case of instantaneous readout survey 

instruments, the laboratory may make estimates of the uncertainty of the measurement 

process by performing empirical studies that incorporate the various contributions to 

variability in a measured result. For example, multiple measurements of a source might be 

made under different conditions, by various technicians, and the relative standard deviation 

of those measurements might be used as an estimate of the “method uncertainty.” 

Measurements should be taken at the AAL(C) of 5,000 μR/h. 

3. Determining ADL(C) 

The ADL(C) is the screening result that is used to determine whether or not the actual sample 

exposure rate is likely to exceed the AAL(C), determined above. The ADL(C) is calculated 

as:

ADL(C) = AAL(C) MR − z ×u 1−α (C)

 = 5000 − (1.645×1489) = 2550 μR/h

= 2.6 x 103 μR/h

4. Summary 

In this example scenario, the laboratory determined the AAL(C) for sample exposure rates in 

samples being processed in the Routine-Level Work Area. The AAL(C) was determined by 

the MQOs associated with the field sample analyses being performed and the laboratory’s 

estimate of tolerable levels of instrument interference that would be unlikely to significantly 

impact the field sample MQOs.

Once the AAL(C) was determined, the laboratory then established constraints on the 

uncertainty, uMR(C), of the survey method to be employed, and then used those values to 

determine what survey measurement result, ADL(C), would cause the laboratory to decide 
Guide for Radiological Laboratories for the Control of Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure

108 

that the AAL(C) was likely to have been exceeded, given the screening method uncertainty 

and the laboratory’s tolerance for errors.

This example scenario makes assumptions about the laboratory’s radioanalytical systems and 

the direct impact of sample exposure rates on the analytical process. In some cases, the 

laboratory may use exposure rate measurements for other purposes, such as a rapid and easy 

technique for identifying high-activity samples transiting the laboratory, which may increase 

the risk of laboratory contamination. Each laboratory should develop its own survey 

measurement protocols based on the anticipated risks and concerns that may be unique to that 

laboratory and ensure that the development of AAL, uncertainty, and ADL values 

appropriately address those unique laboratory conditions.