Phreatophyte Research 

in the Western States 

March 1959 to July 1964

 Ml

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

CIRCULAR 495

PREPARED IN COOPERATION WITH THE PHREATOPHYTE SUBCOMMITTEE, PACIFIC SOUTHWEST INTER-AGENCY COMMITTEE
Phreatophyte Research in the Western States 

March 1959 to July 1964

By T.W.Robinson

CONTENTS

Introduction ________________________

Surveying phreatophyte vegetation ____

Recommended procedure __________

Glossary of Terms _________________

Proj ects ___________________________

Arizona _________________________

California _______________________

Colorado ________________________

INTRODUCTION

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In the arid and semiarid regions of the 

Western States phreatophytes waste more 

than 25 million acre-feet of water into the 

atmosphere annually (Robinson, 1952). Phreatophytes, plants that depend upon ground water 

for their water supply, have a direct root 

connection with the water table. During the 

growing season they satisfy their needs for 

water by drawing on the ground-water reservoir, somewhat like a pump. In fact each 

plant may be considered as a miniature pumping plant operating at varying rates according 

to the needs of the plants. The withdrawals 

of water deplete the ground-water reservoir, 

with the result that ground-water levels are 

lowered.

Phreatophytes grow largely, although not 

entirely, along the banks of streams, in their 

flood plains, and in the delta areas at the 

heads of reservoirs. Here the ground-water 

reservoir has a direct connection with the 

water in the stream, such that streamflow 

reflects the effect of the draft on the groundwater reservoir. As the draft increases , 

there is a reduction in the streamflow, and, 

as a consequence, in the water that is readily 

available for man's use.

Proj ects continued 

Kansas __________

Nevada. _ ________

New Mexico _____

Wyoming _____ 

References cited

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31

The economic value of most phreatophytes 

is low, and the water used by them is largely 

wasted. Water use in this way is known as 

noribeneficial consumptive use and more recently has been referred to as consumptive 

waste (Robinson, 1958). Ground water that 

is consumptively wasted by phreatophytes is 

available for salvage. Salvage, as applied to 

the phreatophyte problem, is converting consumptive waste to beneficial consumptive use.

In order to plan a salvage project, information is needed concerning (1) the magnitude 

of the consumptive waste, (2) the method of 

effecting salvage, and (3) the economic feasibility. Determination of the magnitude of the 

consumptive waste involves a knowledge of 

the species growing in the project area, their 

cover density and height, and the climatic and 

hydrologic conditions. The methods of salvage must be evaluated in order to select the 

one with the greatest promise. The three 

general methods are: (1) Taking the plants 

away from the water (eradication, of which 

there are several ways), (2) taking the water 

away from the plants (here again there are 

several ways), and (3) substituting plants of 

higher beneficial use in the project area.
PHREATOPHYTE RESEARCH IN THE WESTERN STATES

In the final analysis salvage is an economic 

problem. Thus, any salvage project should 

have a favorable cost-benefit ratio. Each of 

the research and control projects described 

in this report is concerned with one or more 

of the many facets that make up the phreatophyte problem.

In early 1958, the Phreatophyte Subcommittee of the Pacific Southwest Inter-Agency 

Committee recognized the need for assembling information on current research studies 

and making this information public. As a result U.S. Geological Survey Circular 413, 

"Phreatophyte Research in Western United 

States, October 1958 to March 1959," was 

prepared (Robinson, 1959). In the 5 years 

that have elapsed since the publication of this 

report, therehavebeen many changes. A few 

projects have been completed, a number of 

new ones started, and some are still in progress. As it is the subcommittee's responsibility to keep abreast of developments that 

concern phreatophytes and to keep the parent 

committee informed of these developments, 

the subcommittee at its 63 4 meeting decided 

to bring the information up to date. The responsibility for this updating, as well as the 

original report, was assigned to the author as 

chairman of the task force on research and 

coordination.

The phreatophyte problem is being studied 

by different Federal and State agencies and 

by departments in some universities, T&e 

scope and objectives of most studies are known 

to the subcommitte, but only in a general 

way. In order to have more comprehensive 

coverage, the representatives and project 

leaders of all agencies or departments known 

or believed to be studying the phreatophyte 

problem were contacted and asked to supply 

a description, the status, and plans for publication for projects in progress in the period 

March 1959 to July 1964.

The phreatophyte problem has many facets. 

Basically the research necessary to solve the 

problem may be divided into three general 

categories: Hydrologic and ecologic, eradication and control, and water salvage. These 

fields of research cover such a wide spectrum 

that it would be difficult for one individual to 

pursue all of them. Fortunately, they may be 

treated separately even though in the final 

analysis and solution they are dependent one 

on the other (Pacific Southwest Inter-Agency 

Committee, 1961).

SURVEYING PHREATOPHYTE VEGETATION

As noted earlier, a knowledge of the kinds 

and amounts of vegetation is a prerequisite 

to the preparation of plans for any water - 

salvage undertaking. In this connection, it is 

highly desirable to standardize procedures 

for surveying and mapping phreatophytes. In 

recognition of these facts, the Phreatophyte 

Subcommittee of the Pacific Southwest InterAgency Committee organized a task force to 

to develop standard methods. The work of 

the task force, which began in 1956, was completed in May 1964 with the publication of a 

handbook entitled "Guide for Surveying Phreatophyte Vegetation" (Horton, Robinson, and 

McDonald, 1964).

RECOMMENDED PROCEDURE

The handbook presents a survey procedure, 

based upon random sampling, that can be 

tested for statistical reliability. It is concerned principally with surveys designed to 

collect information that can be used as a basis 

for project planning in connection with watersalvage operations.

The procedure outlined for phreatophyte 

surveys is based upon determination of crown 

cover, height of trees and shrubs, and depth 

of crown by use of randomly selected sampling lines. The statistical procedures are 

based upon estimation of crown cover within 

prescribed limits of precision. Height of 

trees and shrubs and depth of crown are 

obtained from survey data, but no estimates 

of precision for these data are attempted.

Seven steps suggested for a survey of 

phreatophyte vegetation are:

1. Determine the area to be surveyed and 

the necessary area breakdowns. Assemble 

aerial photographs for the entire survey area, 

and familiarize all workers with the species 

and vegetation types involved.

2. Prepare, in the office, preliminary vegetation maps of the survey area from aerial 

photographs, with later refinements of type 

boundaries by observation from aircraft.

3. Determine number of sampling lines 

needed to achieve desired precision by a 

preliminary field survey and by applying the 

data to a nomograph.

4. Develop a sampling system with randopj 

selection of the sampling lines.
PROJECTS

5. Collect field data from, the randomly 

selected sampling lines, and permanently 

mark these lines for future surveys.

6. Determine reliability of the field data 

by use of standard statistical methods.

7. Summarize the data in a form best 

suited to achieve the purposes of the study.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Members of the Phreatophyte Subcommittee, in considering phreatophyte problems, 

gradually became aware that there were differences of opinions as to the meaning of 

terms used in discussing the problems. In 

order to avoid misunderstanding and to provide a standard of reference, the subcommittee appointed a task force, of which the author was chairman, to develop a glossary of 

terms that would be applicable.

After !_ years of study and work by the 

task force and three reviews by the subcommittee as a whole, such a glossary was developed. In November 1962, a report entitled 

"Glossary of Terms Relating to the Phreatophyte Problem" was mimeographed and distributed to members of the subcommittee 

and to others interested in the problem. It 

is tentatively planned that the glossary will 

be published in one of the numbered series 

of reports by the Geological Survey in 1964 

or 1965.

PROJECTS

In order that the information may be uniform and comparable, each project description follows the outline used in Circular 413 

(Robinson, 1959), which is:

Title of project.

Agency or department; if a cooperative 

project, all cooperating parties are shown.

Project leader; the person actively and 

directly in charge of project.

Description of project; a brief and concise 

summary, giving the general work plan and 

objectives.

Present status.

Results.

Publication plans.

The author is indebted to project leaders 

and agency representatives who prepared the 

project descriptions. Without their cooperation and wholehearted support the coverage 

of this report would not have been possible.

Each project in this report has been assigned a number, identifying it with the State 

in which the project is located. These numbers, preceded by the abbreviation for the 

State, run consecutively. They have no identifying relation to the project and are for 

reference only. In order to provide a cross 

reference for those projects that were given 

in Circular 413 also, the number in the circular is shown in parentheses below the project number thus:

Ariz-1 

(I, Circ. 413)

The projects are grouped by States in alphabetical order. Every effort was made to 

include all projects currently underway; but 

if any have been omitted, it is because they 

were not brought to the author's attention.

A total of 48 projects is described. This 

is an increase of 100 percent over the 24 

described in Circular 413. Following is their 

distribution by States:

Arizona______15

California__. 2 

Colorado.._. 3 

Kansas _____ 2

Nevada ________ 6

New Mexico. ___! 5 

Utah _______ 3 

Wyoming _____ 2

Of the 24 projects listed in Circular 413, 

10 have been completed, 6 are inactive, and 

8 were active as of July 1, 1964. Eighteen 

agencies participated in the 24 projects. 

Several agencies were concerned with two or 

more projects, so that in all there were 48 

agency-project participations.

Of the 48 projects listed in this report, 6 

were inactive as of July 1, 1964. Here also 

there was participation by two or more agencies in most of the projects, with an overall 

total of 90 agency-project participations. The 

following tabulation shows the participation 

in projects by agencies.

Number of participating agencies 

1 _ ___ _ .. _ _ ____ ......

2 

3 

4_ _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___..

5 --- 

6. .. _ 

Number of 

projects

18

16

8

2

3

1

48

Nine agencies with a total of 60 agencyproject participations were Federal, and 21
BHREATOPHYTE RESEARCH IN THE WESTERN STATES

agencies with 33 agency-project participations were State or local agencies or an individual. The names of the agencies, together with the number of projects in which 

they were participating, are given in the following listing.

List of agencies and their project participations 

FEDERAL AGENCIES

Agricultural Research. Service. _ __________._ 18

Corps of Engineers ... _ 2 

Bureau of Indian Affairs _-___.______________ 1

Bureau of Reclamation -____.________________ 16

Bureau of Sport Fisheries ____.______________ 1

Forest Service __.___________________________ 9

Geological Survey __- - ____________ 10

Soil Conservation Service -- __________________ 2

Weather Bureau.. ___________________________ 1

STATE AND LOCAL AGENCIES AND INDIVIDUALS

Arizona Land and Water Department 1

Salt River Water Users Association -_ ._..____ 1

San Carlos Apache Tribe _____ _ __ _ 1

University of Arizona _____ _ _____ 3

California Department of Water Resources.__________ 1

Colorado State University _______________________ 1

Colorado Water Conservation Board _ .-_____ 1

Fort Hays Kansas State College -_-_________ 2

Nevada Agricultural Experiment Station -_ 2

Nevada Department of Conservation and Natural Resources-- 2

New Mexico Agricultural Experiment Station______ ___ 4

New Mexico State Engineer __ _______ 3

New Mexico State University _________ ___ 1

A. P. Atkins, rancher _______________________ 1

Pecos River Commission _-__________________ 1

Red Bluff Water District________________....____ 1

Utah Agricultural Experiment Station __ _ _____ _ 1

Utah State Engineer .__ .-__.______ 3

Utah Water and Power Board ____________________ 1

Wyoming Agricultural Experiment Station _._________ 2

The findings that result from a research 

project are commonly described in a report 

or, in some cases, a series of reports covering different phases of the project. The number and quality of the reports are a measure 

of the progress and of the importance of the 

study. From a review of the 48 project descriptions that follow, it was found that 61 

reports have been prepared in one form or 

another. A few reports are primarily for internal use of the agency sponsoring the study, 

some are mimographed or duplicated reports, others are articles published in technical journals, and still others are published 

separately in book or pamphlet form as part 

of a numbered series. Copies of most of the 

reports may be obtained from the project 

leader.

ARIZONA

Ariz-1 

(1, Circ. 413)

Title

Effects of clearing phreatophytes from 

stream channels.

Agencies

University of Arizona, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, and U.S. Corps of Engineers.

Leaders

K. R. Frost and K. C. Hamilton, University 

of Arizona.

Description

In the interest of water conservation and 

flood protection, a 400-foot-wide strip of 

river-bottom vegetation was cleared by the 

Wellton-Mohawk Irrigation and Drainage District along the- channel of the Gila River from 

Texas Hill to Dome, Ariz., a distance of 55 

miles. The vegetation consisted largely of 

saltcedar, with lesser amounts of mesquite, 

saltbush, and baccharis. Clearing operations, 

using bulldozers equipped with a cutter knife 

for cutting below the root crown, were begun 

in the spring of 1958 and completed that 

growing season.

The objectives of the project are to obtain 

data and information on: (1) the effectiveness 

of mechanical methods for controlling saltcedar and other river-bottom vegetation, (2) 

cost of clearing, (3) plant succession following 

clearing, (4) effect of clearing on the quantity 

and quality of the ground water, and (5) effectiveness of methods for maintaining cleared 

channels.

In order to obtain the desired information, 

96 plots, each 20 feet by 100 feet, were established in or adjacent to the cleared area 

for the purpose of measuring the tree cover 

and density, and the height, basal diameter, 

and spread of the trees. Eleven wells were 

constructed for use in obtaining ground-water 

levels and water samples. Clearing cost 

data were obtained for various locations of 

different plant density.

Status

Completed. 

Results

Plant density was found to range from 24 

to 63 percent. Clearing operations reduced 

plant density 90 percent and plant cover 99 

percent. Operation costs for undercutting 

ranged from $6 per acre for densities of 20 

to 30 percent to $30 per acre for densities of 

80 to 90 percent; average, about $15 per acre.
PROJECTS

Water levels rose slightly following clearing, 

and there was an increase in the electrical 

conductivity of the ground water.

Publications

Progress report in Pacific Southwest InterAgency Committee minutes of 58 4 meeting 

at Las Vegas, Nev., Dec. 3, 1958, as Attachment K of the Phreatophyte Subcommittee 

minutes.

Report on the Wellton-Mohawk salt cedar 

clearing studies, by K. R. Frost and K. C. 

Hamilton: Agr. Exp. Sta., Univ. of Arizona, 

Tucson, Rept. 193, Nov. 1960.

Ariz-2 

(2, Circ. 413)

Title

Use of water by riparian vegetation in 

Cottonwood Wash, Arizona.

Agencies

U.S. Geological Survey, Arizona State Land 

Department, Salt River Valley Water Users' 

Association.

Leader

James E. Bowie, U.S. Geological Survey. 

Description

Water savings by modification of riparian 

vegetation were measured in Cottonwood 

Wash, Mohave County, Ariz. A 4.1-mile reach 

of the channel was selected and divided into a 

2.6-mile upper reach and a 1.5-mile lower 

reach. Measurements of streamflow, groundwater levels, vegetation, and meteorological 

phenomena obtained in the entire reach defined the use of water by riparian vegetation 

under natural hydrologic conditions. Subsequent defoliation and eradication of the vegetation in the lower reach permitted the determination of the change in water use as a result of the modification.

The principal types of vegetation include 

Fremont cottonwood, red willow, velvet ash, 

and seep willow. The total volume of foliage 

in both reaches was 154.8 acre-feet. The 

volume of foliage in the lower reach was 

about 69.8 acre-feet. The defoliation of this 

reach was accomplished by spraying with 

magesium chlorate. The eradication was accomplished by either cutting or frilling the 

trees and then poisoning with Animate X in 

crystal form. Brush was cut or poisoned. 

The poison used for this phase was Animate 

X in solution.

Status

Completed. 

Results

The computed average loss in the lower 

reach before modification was 80 acre-feet 

per growing season, which represented about 

18 percent of the average flow entering the 

reach. The average loss after, modification 

was 42 acre-feet per growing season, which 

represented about 12 percent of the average 

flow entering the reach.

Publication

U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 

(manuscript to go to colleague review).

Ariz-3 

(3, Circ. 413)

Title

Life history of tamarisk andrelated phreatophytes.

Agency

U.S. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest 

and Range Experiment Station.

Leader

Jerome S. Horton. 

Description

A careful management of vegetation will be 

necessary to salvage additional water from 

the phreatophyte zone. Basic information 

concerning the life history of the principal 

species is necessary before a management 

practice can be applied with any assurance 

that the desiredvegetation can be maintained 

and that undesirable species will not reinvade. Project covers the taxonomy and anatomy of the principal species and the influence of site and climatic factors upon seed 

germination, seedling establishment, phenological response, and individual growth and 

development (including roots).
PHREATOPHYTE RESEARCH IN THE WESTERN STATES

Status

Some phases, such as the seed-germination 

and anatomy studies, are nearing completion; 

others will require several more years.

Results

Tamarisk seeds germinate very readily 

when moist, but the surviving seedlings require continuously wet soil for several weeks. 

This fact indicates that control of overflow 

would prevent invasion of tamarisk. Cuttings 

of tamarisk sprout vigorously when partially 

covered with warm moist soil but lose 

sprouting ability very quickly when dried for 

short periods of time. Thus, mechanical 

clearing should be accomplished when the 

soils are dry and the weather warm.

Studies have shown that Tamarix pentandra 

Pall, is the abundant species in the Southwest 

and that T. gallica L. has become aggressively 

naturalized only in the humid areas around 

the Gulf of Mexico.

Publications

Seed germination and seedling establishment of phreatophyte species, by J. S. Horton, 

F. C. Mounts and J. M. Kraft: Rocky Mtn, Forest and Range Expt. Sta. Paper 48, 26 p., 

illus., 1960.

The problem of phreatophytes, by J. S. 

Horton: Symposium of Hannoversch-Munden, 

Internat. Sci. Hydrol. Assoc. Pub. 48(1), p. 

76-83, 1959.

Salt secretion by Tamarix pentandrcuby J. P. 

Decker: Forest Sci. 7(3), p. 214-217, 1961.

Root distribution of five-stamen tamarisk, 

seepwillow, and arrowweed, by H. L. Gary: 

Forest Sci. 9(3), p. 311-314, 1963.

Notes on the introduction of deciduous tamarisk, by J. S. Horton: Rocky Mtn. Forest and 

Range Expt. Sta., Forest Service Research 

Note RM-16, 7 p., 1964.

Taxonomic notes on Tamarix pentandra in Arizona, by J. S. Horton and J. E. Flood: Southwestern Naturalist 7, p. 23-28, 1962.

Ariz-4 

(4, Circ. 413)

Title

Development of survey methods for phreatophyte and riparian associations.

Agency

U.S. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station.

Leaders

C. J. Campbell and J. S. Horton.

Description

A survey of the occurrence and characteristics of the phreatophyte zone is needed in 

the Southwest, both for the phreatophyte - 

dominated flood plains and the riparian vegetation along mountain streams. Methods for 

surveying vegetation of these types are not 

well developed. Through the auspices of the 

Phreatophyte Subcommittee, existing methods 

of measuring woody vegetation were evaluated.

A method of field reconnaissance survey is 

being developed to provide a relatively fast 

and accurate sampling technique for measuring riparian vegetation. The survey is designed to test the value of aerial photography 

in mapping inaccessible riparian vegetation.

Status

An extensive ground survey is being made 

with the intention of later comparing the survey data with information obtained from largescale aerial photographs (to be taken in the 

summer of 1964). The ground survey is about 

three-fourths completed.

Results

Total cover based on the average of ocular 

estimates in Sycamore Creek in Arizona tends 

to increase with elevation from 37 percent at 

the lowest 5-mile reach to 29, 56, 45, and 66 

percent, respectively, in the next four 5-mile 

reaches. Some species exist only at the lower 

elevations, while others are limited to the 

middle or upper reaches.

Publication

Guide for surveying phreatophyte vegetation, by J. S. Horton, T. W. Robinson, and H. 

R. McDonald; U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Agriculture Handb. 266, 37 p., 

illus., 1964.

Ariz-5 

(5, Circ. 413)

Title

Development of equipment for measuring 

evapotranspiration of undisturbed vegetation.
PROJECTS

Agency

U.S. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station.

Leader

Richard Lee. 

Description

As a basis for management of streanibanks 

and flood plains to reduce water losses by 

phreatophytes, information is needed as to 

the amount of water that would be lost from a 

given area of land if it were occupied by different types of plant communities. This requires an apparatus that can measure accurately water losses from individual plants or 

segments of plant cover.

Status

Inactive. 

Results

An evapotranspiration tent apparatus has 

been developed by J. P. Decker and has been 

successfully used to measure vapor changes 

from transpiring shrubs up to 10 feet in 

height. Correlation exists between the heat 

pulse velocity meter (sap flow) and the evapotranspiration tent data.

Publications

Transpiration surges in Tamarix and Eucalyp 

tus as measured with infrared gas analyzer, 

by J. P. Decker and J. D. Wien: Plant Physiology 35(3), p. 340-343, 1960.

Simultaneous studies of transpiration rate 

and sap velocity in trees, by J. P. Decker 

and C. M. Skau: Plant Physiology 39(2), p. 

213-215, 1964.

Ariz-6 

(6, Circ. 413)

Title

Measurement of evapotranspiration. 

Agency

U.S. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station.

Leader

Richard Lee. 

Description

In order to determine water losses from 

the different phreatophyte covers and, therefore, to determine which are desirable to 

maintain or to establish, evapotranspiration 

losses must be measured over a wide variety 

of conditions. These measurements should 

be made precisely, to determine losses from 

individual plants or small areas, by evapotranspiration tents and lysjmeters or by 

gross measurements such as those from 

transpiration wells and stream-gaging stations.

Status

Transpiration wells have been established 

in an experimental area along the Salt River 

above Granite Reef Dam. The evapotranspiration tent's effect on the microclimate is 

being studied with close cooperation between 

the U.S. Forest Service, University of Arizona, and the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation.

Results

The indications are that tamarisk uses 

more water than a bermudagrass sod. Transpiration wells did not give reliable data and, 

therefore, have been discontinued.

Publications

Measuring transpiration of undisturbed 

tamarisk shrubs, by J. P. Decker, W. G. Gaylord, and F. D. Cole: Plant Physiology 37(3), 

p. 393-397, 1962.

Removal of tamarisk reduced water-table 

fluctuations in central Arizona, byH. L. Gary: 

Rocky Mtn. Forest and Range Expt. Sta. Research Note 81, 1962.

An analysis and simplification of the 

Blaney-Criddle method for estimating evapotranspiration, by J. P. Decker: U.S. Forest 

Service, Rocky Mtn. Forest and Range Expt. 

Sta. Research Note RM-2, 2 p., 1963.

Ariz-7 

(7, Circ. 413)

Title

Replacement of undesirable vegetation. 

Agency

U.S. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station.

Leader

J, S. Horton.
8 PHREATOPHYTE RESEARCH IN THE WESTERN STATES

Description

After it is determined that an existing 

phreatophyte stand is undesirable, a more 

desirable type of cover must be selected and 

methods of converting to and maintaining that 

cover developed. For this purpose fenced 

areas have been established on the Salt River 

experimental area above Granite Reef Dam to 

evaluate the effect of grazing on a tamariskbermudagrass association. In order to evaluate the Fleco root plow as a means of removing a heavy stand of tamarisk, experimental sites have been established along the 

Gila River near Gillespie Dam. Survival and 

regrowth counts will be made after treatment 

by the plow.

Status

Inactive. 

Results

Grazing slows down the development of 

tamarisk seedlings and sprouts. Root plowing 

in June killed all but about 15 tamarisk shrubs 

per acre.

Publications

Utilization of five-stamen tamarisk by cattle, by H. L. Gary: Rocky Mtn. Forest and 

Range Expt. Sta. Research Note 51, 4 p., 1960.

Use of a root plow in clearing tamarisk 

stands, by J. S. Horton: Rocky Mtn. Forest 

and Range Expt. Sta. Research Note 50, 6 p., 

1960.

Ariz-8

Title

Controlled clipping and regrowth study of 

Tamarix pentandra.

Agency

U.S. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station.

Leader

C. J. Campbell.

Description

Repeated clipping of tamarisk by removing 

all photosynthetic tissue at intervals of 2, 4, 

8, and 24 weeks was carried on in the summers of 1962 and 1963. Simulated mowing 

treatment at the same intervals was begun in 

1963.

Status

Fieldwork completed after two growing 

seasons.

Results

Controlled clipping of Tamarix pentandra in 

dicates that increased frequency of treatments 

increased mortality and decreased foliage 

production. Significantly decreased carbohydrate root reserves resulted from increasing frequency of treatments. Clipping every 

2 weeks was more effective in killing tamarisk than the 4-week, 8-week, -or biyearly 

clipping. No mortality resulted from simulated mowing treatments.

Publication

Eventually, research note.

Ariz-9

Title

Successional studies of tamarisk and related phreatophytes.

Agency

U.S. Forest Service. Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station.

Leaders

C. J. Campbell and J. S. Horton.

Description

Tamarisk has spread widely throughout 

flood plains and along streams in the Southwestern United States. Observations are being taken to observe changes in tamarisk 

distribution. Effect of submergence upon 

Tamarix pentandra is being determined on a reservoir delta. Permanent transects and quadrats at known elevations have been installed 

and will be read at yearly intervals to determine growth and survival before and after 

submergence.

Status

Active. 

Results

Established stands of tamarisk on the Tonto 

delta or Roosevelt Lake were inundated in 

1960. A few large tamarisk shrubs, 8 16 feet 

high, survived root and partial crown inundation for a period of 12 months, but most
PROJECTS

plants in the area were killed. Tamarisk and 

scattered mesquite seedlings now have reinvaded much of the killed area.

Observations in many areas indicate that 

tamarisk may sometimes be decreasing. For 

instance, on the Pecos River in southwest 

Texas, because of lower water tables, fire, 

and grazing, tamarisk is being killed over 

large areas. Along the Gila River, west of 

Safford, Ariz., clearing by farming removed 

approximately 16 percent of tamarisk during 

the period 1944-58.

Publication

No definite plans for publication have been 

made.

Ariz-10 

(8, Circ. 413)

Title

Saltcedar control. 

Agencies

U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Crops 

Research Division, and U.S. Bureau of Reclamation.

Leaders

H. Fred Arle, U.S. Agricultural Research 

Service; C. W. Bowser, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation.

Description

A joint investigation of the means for the 

control of phreatophytes, particularly saltcedar, through chemical and mechanical methods is being undertaken. The effectiveness 

of various herbicides is tested by varying the 

rate, time, method, and number of applications on replicated plots of saltcedar regrowth of different ages. At the start of the 

study, all mature saltcedar plants were cut 

off at the land surface by a bulldozer, and the 

area was divided into 100 quarter-acre plots, 

separated by 12-foot access lanes. Age of 

the regrowth is from the date of cutting of the 

mature plants. Application of the herbicides 

is by ground-operated equipment.

Status

Tests were completed (May 1964) on an 

area south of Buckeye, Ariz-., where experimental work was designed to test the effectiveness of several herbicides when applications were repeated as annual spring of fall 

treatments.

Results

1. Saltcedar is more difficult to kill in 

flood plains than along irrigation channels 

and streams.

2. Single-spray ope rations have frequently 

given 90-percent kill of saltcedar when Silvex 

was applied at 5 to 10 pounds per acre, the 

applications being made during spring months 

after foliage had become fully reestablished.

3. Periodic spraying of infested areas with 

2, 4-D and 2, 4, 5-T will defoliate saltcedar 

and in this manner reduce transpiration 

losses.

4. Applications of 2, 4 D and related materials appear more effective on young regrowth following mechanical destruction than 

on adult saltcedars.

5. Application rates of less than 2 pounds 

per acre have generally given poor results.

6. Low-volatile esters of 2, 4 D or combination of 2, 4 D and 2, 4, 5-T have been 

consistently more effective than amine or 

sodium salts of 2, 4 D.

7. Mechanical means^ although expensive, 

are useful in the eradication of saltcedar, 

especially in areas near cotton or other 

crops susceptible to 2, 4 D. Mechanical control must be exercised at least yearly to 

eliminate regrowth from root sprouts and 

seedlings,

8. Mechanical clearing followed by spraying of young regrowth with 2, 4, 5 TP (Silvex) 

at 4 pounds or more per acre repeated annually during spring months appears to be the 

most effective and practical method now 

known for controlling saltcedar. First applications have generally resulted in 80-percent 

plant kill.

Publications

Results of first 2 years published in "Progress Report on Cooperative Saltcedar Control Investigation" prepared for presentation 

March 11 13, 1958, to Phreatophyte Subcommittee, Pacific Southwest Inter-Agency Committee. Periodic reports will be issued from 

time to time.

Ariz-11 

(9, Circ. 413)

Title

Use of water by saltcedar grown in evapotranspirometers with a controlled water level 

and evaluation of the energy budget and mass 

transfer methods of computing water use.
10 PHREATOPHYTE RESEARCH IN THE WESTERN STATES

Agencies

U.S. Geological Survey and U.S. Bureau of 

Reclamation.

Leader

T. E. A. van Hylckama, U.S. Geological Survey.

Description

Six evapotranspirometers of plastic membrane construction, having about 1000 square 

feet of surface area and being 12 to 14 feet 

deep, were installed in 1959 and planted to 

saltcedar. Water level in the tanks is maintained at three different levels in pairs of 

tanks. The water level is controlled by magnetic valves, and water use is measured by 

water meters.

Instrumentation for measuring incoming 

and outgoing radiative and sensible heat, 

wind movement, vapor pressure, and air and 

soil temperature at several different levels 

have been in operation since 1960. The data 

are recorded automatically on electronic 

recorders.

Five additional tanks were installed in 1962 

to measure water loss from bare soil, and 

differences in the use of water of different 

salinities by saltcedar.

Status

Active. 

Results

Publications

Buckeye project water use by saltcedar, 

by T. W. Robinson and C. W. Bowser: U.S. 

Geol. Survey and U. S. Bur. Reclamation, 59 

63 Phreatophyte Subcommitte mtg,, Pacific 

Southwest Inter-Agency Comm., 26 p., 1959.

Measuring water use by saltcedar, byT. E. 

A. van Hylckama: Arizona Water Resources 

Comm. and State Land Dept., Proc. 4th Ann. 

Arizona Watershed Symposium, p. 22 26, 

1960.

Use of water by saltcedar (Tamarix pe«ta«dra) 

as measured by the water-budget method (a 

preliminary report) [abs.], by T. E. A. van 

Hylckama: Jour. Geophys. Research, v. 67, 

p. 3535, 1962 [rept. is 23 p.].

Growth, development and water use by saltcedar (Tamarix pentandra) under different conditions of weather and access to water, by T. E. 

van Hylckama: Internat. Assoc. of Sci. Hydrology, Comm. for Evaporation, Pub. 62, p. 75 

86, 1963.

Ariz-12

Title

Gila River Phreatophyte Project. 

Agency

U.S. Geological Survey. 

Leader

R. C. Culler. 

Description

A water budget for a 15-mile reach of the 

Gila River flood plain on the San Carlos 

Indian Reservation is being used to determine 

the changes in evapotranspiration produced 

by the removal of existing phreatophytes. 

The study reach, which has been divided into 

three subreaches for comparative evaluation, 

contains 8,300 acres of saltcedar and mesquite. The water budget will include inflow 

and outflow of surface and ground water, 

precipitation, and change in storage of ground 

water and soil moisture. The budget will be 

evaluated for the period 1963 66 with phreatophytes undisturbed. During the winter of 

1966 67, the phreatophytes will be removed, 

and a beneficial vegetation, probably bermudagrass, will be substituted. The water-budget evaluation for the substitution vegetation 

will be continued through 1968. The energy 

budget for the flood plain will be sampled 

during the study period and related to evaporation from San Carlos Reservoir. Sediment 

studies will be made to measure the effect of 

vegetation alteration on erosion and deposition in the reach. Chemical quality of both 

surface and ground water will be studied.

Status

Instrumentation for basic coverage is complete.

Results

No results at present. 

Publications

Annual op en-file reports, progress reports 

as Water-Supply Papers at 3-year intervals.
PROJECTS 11

Final report as a Water-Supply Paper by 

1969.

Ariz-13 

Title

Use of water by phreatophytes.

Agencies

U.S. Geological Survey and U.S. Bureau of 

Reclamation.

Leader

G. H. Hughes, U.S. Geological Survey.

Description

Evapotranspirometers are being used to 

determine water use by arrowweed, saltbush, 

cattail, and carrizo and to determine evaporation from the soil surface. The results 

will provide a basis for estimating consumptive use by native vegetation in the lower 

Colorado River basin and the potential water 

salvage which could be attained by eradication of the vegetation. The study began with 

the construction of the evapotranspirometers 

in 1961, and data collection will continue 

through 1964.

Status

Nine tanks each 1000 square feet in area 

were successfully operated during 1962 and 

1963 near Imperial Camp, Calif., and about 

20 miles north of Yuma, Ariz. Three of the 

tanks were planted to arrowweed, three 

planted to saltbush, and three left unplanted. 

Growth of the vegetation was substantial during 1963, but full development will not be attained in all the tanks until the end of the 

1964 growing season.

Three tanks (each 100 square feet in area) 

of cattail were operated successfully at nearby Mittry Lake, Ariz., during 1962 and 1963. 

The cattail first reached full growth in 1962 

and reached heights of between 6 and 7 feet 

each year. Development of carrizo growth 

in two similar tanks at Mittry Lake has been 

only partially successful.

Results

In 1963 water use from the tanks averaged 

about 8 acre-feet per acre by cattail, 6 acrefeet per acre by arrowweed, and 4-acre feet 

per acre by saltbush. Depth to water was 5 

feet in saltbush and arrowweed tanks the 

cattail grew in standing water.

Annual water use by arrowweed and saltbush should be greater in 1964 due to the 

greater amount of vegetation in the tanks.

Annual evaporation from bare-soil tanks in 

1963 was about 6 inches with depth to water 

at 3 feet and about 3 inches with depth to water increasing uniformly from 3 to 4 feet 

during the year (rainfall, 5.21 inches, not included). Data for part of a year indicated 

that evaporation for depth to water of 2 feet 

was twice that occurring at 3 feet.

Publications

Progress reports are issued annually beginning in 1963, and a final report will be 

published.

Ariz-14

Title

A study of the effects of phreatophyte removal on water, soil, and vegetation relations.

Agencies

University of Arizona, sponsored by the 

U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. Cooperators: 

U.S. Forest Service, U.S. Geological Survey, 

U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs, and the San 

Carlos Apache Tribe.

Leaders

P. B. Rowe, Arnett C. Mace, Jr., and John 

M. Tromble, University of Arizona.

Description

The objectives of this project, located in 

the flood plain of the Gila River on the San 

Carlos Indian Reservation, are to (1) evaluate effects of phreatophytes (particularly 

saltcedar and mesquite)onstreamflow, evapotranspiration, and water yields, (2) determine effects of phreatophyte removal on water yields, channel erosion, water flows and 

water quality, and develop methods of predicting these effects, and (3) select and test 

replacement vegetation (principally grasses) 

and develop methods of establishing and 

maintaining an effective and desirable vegetation following phreatophyte removal.

Three 200-foot cross sections have been 

established to evaluate water use by saltcedar, mesquite, and replacement vegetation. 

Evapotranspiration will be determined by the 

"Decker tent", soil moisture by the neutron 

scattering technique, and ground-water
12 PHREATOPHYTE RESEARCH IN THE WESTERN STATES

changes by wells and recorders. A wellequipped climatic station is in operation and 

will be used to measure air and soil temperature, precipitation, net radiation, relative 

humidity, and wind speed and direction. This 

study should provide a basis for predicting 

potential amounts of water salvage resulting 

from eradication and replacement vegetation 

for given climatic and physiographic conditions.

Status 

Active.

Results

None as yet.

Publications 

None.

Ariz-15

Title

Feasibility of establishing replacement 

type vegetation in cleared floodways in Arizona.

Agencies

U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, U.S. Corps of 

Engineers, and Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Arizona.

Leaders

Bruce Powers, K. C. Hamilton, and John M. 

Tromble, University of Arizona.

Description

The feasibility of revegetating cleared 

floodway channels as a means of controlling 

phreatophytes, reducing annual maintenance 

costs, and reducing erosion was investigated 

over a 3-year period. The study area consisted of three 150-foot by 100-foot plots in 

the Snyder floodway near Wellton, Ariz. One 

of the objectives was to find suitable plants 

that could be grown following clearing. To 

this end 15 species of forage grasses were 

planted and replicated in the three plots. 

Plantings were by seed or propagated plants. 

Tolerance of the various species to salty 

water was tested by wetting one plot with 

salty water and another with fresh water before planting.

Status

Study completed in 1963.

Results

No germinations were observed in plants 

irrigated with water containing 5,170 ppm 

(parts per million) total salts. Grass species 

irrigated with fresh water that established 

the best stands were blue panic, giant bermudagrass, coastal bermudagrass, creeping 

dropseed, and common bermudagrass. Volunteer establishment of bermudagrasses and 

blue panic grasses in the cleared floodway 

indicates that under certain conditions these 

grasses can be used to revegetate floodways 

at lower elevations in the Southwest.

Publication

Revegetation of a cleared section of a floodway, by Bruce Powers and K. C. Hamilton: 

Univ. of Arizona, Rept. 198, Apr. 1961.

CALIFORNIA

Calif-1 

(10, Circ. 413)

Jitle

Phreatophyte research. 

Agency

U.S. Geological Survey. 

Leader

T. W. Robinson.

Description

A comprehensive and coordinated research 

program on the phreatophyte problem is 

needed to estimate the quantity of the ground 

water consumptively wasted by nonbeneficial 

phreatophytes and to evaluate the quantity that 

can be salvaged. The effect of consumptive 

waste on the quality of the ground water is 

also under investigation. The fields of study 

involved in these objectives are: (1) a knowledge of the habitats and characteristics of 

nonbeneficial phreatophytes, (2) the factors 

that control their occurrence, (3) the factors 

that control evapotranspiration of ground 

water by them, and (4) economic methods for 

salvaging the consumptive waste. In these 

hydrologic and ecologic fields of study, information is needed on the occurrence of phreatophytes by species, the relation of their 

occurrence to the depth and quality of the 

ground water, areas of growth, their cover 

density and plant size, depth of root penetration, and annual water use by species for
PROJECTS 13

different depth to the water table and different climatic conditions.

Status 

Active.

Results

A survey of areas of saltcedar growth 

shows that, as of 1961, there was about 900,000 

acres of saltcedar in the Western States. Texas had the largest area of saltcedar growth, 

followed by New Mexico, and next by Arizona. 

In 1920 saltcedar was estimated to cover only 

about 10,000 acres. By 1961 saltcedar was 

found to occur in all of the Southwestern States 

and to be infesting stream and reservoir areas 

as far north as central Wyoming.

A handbook for surveying phreatophyte 

vegetation was prepared and published in cooperation with the U.S. Forest Service and 

the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation.

Publications

Phreatophytes, by T. W. Robinson: U. S. 

Geol. Survey, Water-Supply Paper 1423, 1958.

Selected bibliography of evaporation and 

transpiration, by T. W. Robinson and A. I. 

Johnson: U.S. Geol. Survey, Water-Supply 

Paper 1539-R, 1961.

Glossary of terms relating to the phreatophyte problem, by T. W. Robinson: Mimeo. 

rept. for the Subcommittee on Phreatophytes, 

Pacific Southwest Inter-Agency Comm., 1962.

Guide for surveying phreatophyte vegetation, by J. S. Horton, T. W. Robinson, and H. 

R. McDonald: U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Agriculture Handb. 266, 37 p., 

illus., 1964.

Introduction, spread, and areal extent of 

saltcedar (Tamarix) in the Western States, by 

T. W. Robinson: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 491 A, 1964. (In press.)

Calif-2 

Title

Vegetative water use studies.

Agency

California State Department of Water Resources.

Leader

R. E. Merrill, Associate Land and Water 

Use Analyst, Northern Branch.

Description

Two evapotranspirometers at the AlturasDorris Ranch, near Alturas Calif., 36 inches 

in diameter and 30 inches deep, were installed 

in 1956 to measure evapotranspiration during 

the growing season from pasture with a high 

water table. Water is supplied to the tanks 

by means of a steady, small flow at a rate 

calculated to exceed evapotranspiration. The 

water level is maintained 6 inches below the 

ground surface, and excess water not consumed in the evapotranspirometer spills into 

a buried sump tank. Continuous records are 

kept of both the inflow and outflow, and the 

difference provides a measurement of the 

rate and quantity of evapotranspiration. Measurements are also being made of various 

climatic factors by means of a pyrheliometer, 

evaporation pan, atmometers, and a precipitation gage. It is anticipated that the study 

shall continue through 1965.

Status

Active and operating satisfactorily. There 

were numerous mechanical problems during 

the first few years.

Results

The ratio of evapotranspiration to evaporation from a U.S. Weather Bureau standard 

class A pan is approximately 1.0 for the period April 1 to October 31.

Publications

California Department of Water Resources 

Bulletin 113, Vegetative Water Use Studies 

1954-60, included the results of 1959 and 

1960. Results of 1961, 1962, and 1963 are 

presently being summarized for publication 

during this fiscal year.

COLORADO

Colo-1 

(12, Circ. 413)

Title

Carbohydrate reserve in tamarisk (saltcedar).

Agencies

U.S. Bureau of Reclamation and U.S. Agricultural Research Service cooperating with 

the U.S. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, and the 

New Mexico State Engineer's Office.
14 PHREATOPHYTE RESEARCH IN THE WESTERN STATES

Leader

T. R. Bartley, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation.

Description

A study to determine the annual cycle of 

carbohydrate reserves in tamarisk stems and 

roots. The amount of carbohydrate reserve 

is frequently associated with growth, vigor, 

and susceptibility to injury. Thus, information 

concerning the low point in the carbohydrate 

root reserves may be useful in timing a control program. Studies of tamarisk plants in 

greenhouses have shown that applications of 

various formulations of 2, 4 D and 2, 4, 5 T 

cause a reduction of carbohydrate food reserves present in the stem, crown, and root.

Two collection sites were selected to learn 

the effect of different ecologic conditions on 

the seasonal trend of reserves. One site was 

on the delta of the Caballo Reservoir on the 

Rio Grande in New Mexico, the other on the 

Salt River in Arizona. The samples from New 

Mexico were collected by personnel of the 

State Engineer's Office and from Arizona by 

the Rocky Mountain Fore stand Range Experiment Station.

Status

Completed.

Results

The data indicate that carbohydrate food reserves of roots and stems of tamarisk have 

well-defined periods of low carbohydrate content. The annual low carbohydrate content of 

the Arizona specimens occurred during the 

latter part of April, and in the New Mexico 

specimens it occurred in June. This difference 

in time could be due to differences in altitude, 

as the New Mexico site was about 3,000 feet 

higher. In the Arizona specimens the average 

carbohydrate content in roots was 5 to 6 percent greater than in the stems.

Publications

Carbohydrate reserves in tamarisk (saltcedar) Progress report no. 1, July 1957 

through July 1958: U.S. Bur. of Reclamation. 

Commissioner's Office, Denver, Colo., Chem. 

Eng. Lab. Rept. SI-19, Oct. 17, 1958.

Carbohydrate reserves in tamarisk (saltcedar) Progress report no. 2, August 1958 

through August 1959: Chem. Eng. Lab. Rept. 

SI 25, Jan. 29, 1960.

Carbohydrate reserves, in tamarisk (saltcedar) Progress report no. 3, September

1959 through July 1960: Chem. Eng. Lab. 

Rept. SI-28, Dec. 19, 1960.

Carbohydrate reserves in tamarisk (saltcedar) Progress report no. 4, August 1960 

through July 1961: Chem. Eng. Lab. Rept. 

W-3, Nov. 30, 1961.

Carbohydrate reserves in tamarisk (saltcedar) Progress report no. 5, August 1961 

through July 1962 (final report): Water Conserv. Rept. W-7, April 15, 1963.

Annual cycle of carbohydrates in saltcedar 

(Tamarix pentandra Pall.), by T. R. Bartley and N. 

E. Otto, Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, 

Colo., paper presented at Western Weed Control Conference at Salt Lake City, Utah, Mar. 

21 and 22, 1961.

Colo-2

Title

Control and eradication of saltcedar and 

other phreatophytes.

Agency

U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Devision of 

Research.

Leader

P. M.Turner, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation.

Description

Studies are conducted in greenhouse and 

nursery to determine effective and economical 

means of controlling saltcedar and other phreatophytes. Saltcedar and other phreatophytes 

are propagated and cultured for greenhouse 

and nursery study purposes. In the study of 

chemical methods of control, systemic herbicides are foliar applied at different rates and 

are timed with phenological growth stage. Effects of different herbicidal additives on improving translocation of materials within the 

plant will be studied. Evaluation of mechanical and combined mechanical and chemical 

methods of control will be included in the study. 

Carbohydrate content of treated and untreated 

plants is analyzed to determine the relationship of this factor to phreatophyte control.

Status

These studies have been in progress since 

1961, and they will continue.

Results

Techniques for propagating and culturing 

suitable plants for greenhouse and nursery
PROJECTS 15

studies have been developed. Methods are 

being developed for evaluating effectiveness 

of control treatments. Greenhouse evaluation techniques reflect gross differences in 

the potential effectiveness of herbicide treatments.

Publications

Annual report of phreatophyte activities, 

1961: U.S. Bur. of Reclamation, Office of 

Assistant Commissioner and Chief Engineer, 

Denver, Colo., Water Conserv. Kept. W 5, 

April 27, 1962.

Annual report of phreatophyte activities, 

1962: U.S. Bur. of Reclamation, Office of 

Chief Engineer, Denver, Colo., Water Conserv. Rept. WC-3, June 20, 1963.

Colo-3

Title

Phreatophyte growth in the Arkansas River 

valley of Colorado.

Agencies

Colorado State University, Civil Engineering Section, in cooperation with the Ground 

Water Branch of the U.S. Geological Survey, 

funded in part by the Colorado Water Conservation Board.

Leader

Morton W. Bittinger, Colorado State University.

Description

The reach of the Arkansas River valley 

lying between La Junta and Las Animas was 

chosen for a field study. Aerial photographs 

taken in 1957 were used to make a general 

classification of areas on the basis of density 

and type of vegetation. Field determinations 

of species and densities were made at 211 

sampling points. Aerial photographs taken 

in 1936, 1947, and 1957 were used to estimate 

the changes in vegetative growth since 1936. 

Results in the La Junta to Las Animas study 

area were extended to the entire valley from 

Pueblo to the Colorado State line through use 

of aerial photographs.

Status

The phreatophyte portion of the over-all 

study has been terminated.

Results

Approximately 3,660 acres of phreatophyt® 

trees and shrubs are growing in the Arkansas 

River valley between La Junta and Las Animas. 

Over 83 percent of this growth isbenefited by 

a water table at less than 5 feet below the 

ground surface. Another 2,000 acres of grass 

and weeds also occupy land in which the water 

table is less than 5 feet below the land surface. Cottonwoods are the predominant species of trees, whereas saltcedars are the predominant shrub. Willows constitute a small 

part of the total tree and shrub growth. An 

increase in acreage of tree and shrub growth 

occurred between 1936 and 1957, averaging approximately 50 acres per year. An increase of 

density in growth also occurred during this 

period. Approximately 15,000 acre-feet of water is now being consumed annually by phreatophytes in this reach of the river. This has 

increased at least 4,000 acre-feet since 1936.

Publication

A study of phreatophyte growth in the lower 

Arkansas River valley of Colorado, by M. W. 

Bittinger and G. E. Stringham: Civil Eng. 

Sec., Colorado Agr. Expt. Sta., CER63MWBGES6, April 1963.

KANSAS

Kans-1 

(13, Circ. 413)

Title

Ecologic research on saltcedar.

Agencies

Fort Hays Kansas State College, Division 

of Biological Science, cooperating with U.S. 

Bureau of Reclamation.

Leaders

Gerald W. Tomanek and Robert L. Ziegler, 

Fort Hays Kansas State College.

Description

An ecologic study of saltcedar at Cedar 

Bluff Reservoir, Kanopolis Reservoir, Smoky 

Hill River and tributaries, Kirwin and Webster Reservoirs, and Solomon River in Kansas and in selected areas in Texas and New 

Mexico. A description of vegetation as a 

whole, saltcedar infestations, and a description of saltcedar communities as to density,
16 PHREATOPHYTE RESEARCH IN THE WESTERN STATES

age classes, variations in growth, and seedling counts. Studies of life history, reproduction, water usage, and competition are 

also being considered.

The primary goal of this study is to describe the life history of the plant and its 

development in Kansas.

Status

Work has been completed and final report 

has been mimeographed and distributed by 

U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. A few copies 

are still available.

Results

The viability of saltcedar as such is not a 

limiting factor in the spread of the plant. Viability was found to range from 19.0 to 51.4 

percent, with an average of 32.5 percent. 

Each mature plant produces nearly half a 

million seeds annually. The highest germination occurred with solutions that had a pH 

of between 5.6 and 7.0 and were weakly saline. Seeds stored at low temperatures had 

a higher rate of germination than those 

stored at high temperatures.

Transpiration studies of three phreatophytes saltcedar, cottonwood, and willow 

showed that total water loss for plants of the 

same size was greatest for saltcedar. On the 

basis of loss per square decimeter of leaf 

area per day, the loss was least for saltcedar, 3.80 grams, while for cottonwood it 

was 5.80 grams, and for willow 8.23 grams. 

The greater total loss for saltcedar was due 

to the greater leaf area.

Seedling survival and growth was greatest 

in sodium chloride solutions of 0 to 3,000 

ppm. The seedlings withstood concentrations 

of up to4,000 ppm, but at 5,000 ppm allseedings died.

Other studies made include community relationships, vegetative reproduction, anatomical studies, root development, carbohydrate 

analysis of roots, effects of clipping, competition and replacement, inundation effects, 

and distribution.

Publications

Life history of saltcedar (TamariJt gallica L.): 

Kansas Acad. Sci. Trans., v. 60, no. 4, 1957.

A study of the woody vegetation at Cedar 

Bluff Reservoir: Kansas Acad. Sci. Trans., 

v. 60, no. 4, 1957.

Annual report on ecological research of 

saltcedar and other vegetation primarily at 

Cedar Bluff Reservoir, Kansas: Fort Hays 

Kansas State Coll., Dept. of Biology, Div. of 

Biol. Sci., 1956, 1957, 1958, 1959. [Mimeo.]

Ecological studies of salt cedar: Fort Hays 

Kansas State Coll., Div. of Biol. ^Sci., 1960. 

[Lithographed]

Kans-2

Title

The effects of saltcedar on the saline subirrigated range along the Cimarron River in 

Clark County, Kansas.

Agency

Fort Hays Kansas State College, Division 

of Biological Science (student research project).

Leader

SamE. Stranathan, student, Fort Hays Kansas State College.

Description

Evaluation of the effects of saltcedar upon 

the herbaceous vegetation normally comprising the total composition of the very 

productive subirrigated range site. Comparison of composition and production of native vegetation as affected by open and dense 

stands of saltcedar. Comparisons were also 

made between treated and untreated dense 

stands.

Status

Special research problem in botany worked 

out by a student. Completed in 1963.

Results

Dense stands of saltcedar greatly retard 

growth of herbaceous vegetation on a productive range site along the Cimarron River. 

Basal cover of vegetation was reduced 50 

percent by competition, and many desirable 

forage grasses have completely disappeared. 

Production of herbaceous vegetation in a 

dense stand of saltcedar was only 24 percent 

of that on an area without saltcedar. A 

treated dense stand compared favorably with 

an uninfested area. The open stand of saltcedar did not greatly affect the herbaceous 

vegetation except that it influenced the distribution of grazing animals. Certain native 

herbaceous plants were more tolerant of
RROJECTS 17

saltcedar than others and are indicated below:

Limited Tolerance

Alkali sacaton 

Vine mesquite 

Western wheatgrass 

Inland saltgrass 

Bermudagrass

Intolerant

Prairie cordgrass 

Switchgrass 

Sand love grass 

American licorice 

Yellow sweetclover

Considerable infestation of saltcedar stands 

in this area by the shothole borer (Amphicerus 

hematus ) was noted. This might be a good organism to investigate as a possible biological 

control.

Publication

The effects of saltcedar on saline subirrigated range along the Cimarron River in 

Clark County, Kansas, by Sam E. Stranathan: 

Fort Hays Kansas State Coll., Div. of Biol. 

Sci., 1963. [Mimeo.]

NEVADA

Nev-1 

(14, Circ. 413)

Title

The effect of water-table depth on irrigation requirements and yield of Lahontan alfalfa.

Agency

U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Soil 

and Water Conservation Research Division.

Leader

Rhys Tovey, U.S. Agricultural Research 

Service.

Description

To determine surface-irrigation requirements of Lahontan alfalfa grown on three 

soil textures with constant water tables at 

various depths and on well-drained soil in 

the absence of a water table; to determine 

the effect of plant-growth stage on the rate of 

water use by Lahontan alfalfa; to determine 

the relation between the use of water by alfalfa under various water-table conditions, 

evaporation from porous atmometer bulbs, 

and evaporation from a Weather Bureau evaporation pan; and to evaluate the effects of a 

fluctuating water table on the yield and 

growth rate of Alfalfa.

Status

Completed. 

Results

Static water tables

1. A three-season average of consumptive 

use and yield of alfalfa, disregarding soil 

textures, shows an almost straight-line relationship with water-table depth for the nonirrigated treatment.

2. The nonirrigated alfalfa definitely shows 

the effects of static water-table depth on the 

consumptive use and yield of alfalfa, as no 

error is introduced by surface-water application.

3. Peak consumptive use occurred when 

the alfalfa was at or approaching the onetenth bloom stage and temperatures were 

high.

4. Only minor differences in the growth of 

alfalfa were found for the various watertable, soil, and irrigated treatments.

5. The alfalfa plants in the lysimeters 

showed good root development, with roots in 

the capillary zone and enlarged white rootlets extending below the water-table level.

Fluctuating water tables

Significant results of the fluctuating watertable study are:

1. Excess water must be removed from 

the root zone of alfalfa plants adapted to 2- 

foot static water tables within 3 days to insure optimum crop production.

2. Alfalfa root system deterioration became progressively worse as the fluctuation 

or submergence intervals exceeded 4 days.

Publications

Consumptive use and yield of alfalfa grown 

in the presence of static water tables, by 

Rhys Tovey: Univ. of Nevada Agr. Expt. Sta. 

Tech. Bull. 232, June 1963.

Water table fluctuation effects on alfalfa 

production, by Rhys Tovey. Will be published 

as University of Nevada Agricultural Experiment Station Technical Bulletin 1 in the near 

future.
18 PHREATOPHYTE RESEARCH IN THE WESTERN STATES

Alfalfa growth as influenced by static and 

fluctuating water tables, by Rhys Tovey. Paper presented at 1963 ASAE winter meeting 

in Chicago, 111., and accepted for publication 

by ASAE Steering Committee.

Nev-2 

(15, Circ. 413)

Title

Utilization of available water supplies in 

the Colorado River basin of Nevada.

Agencies

U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Soil 

and Water Conservation Research Division, 

cooperating with University of Nevada, Nevada Agricultural Experiment Station; U.S. 

Soil Conservation Service; Nevada Department of Conservation and Natural Resources; 

and U.S. Weather Bureau.

Leader

V. I. Myers, 

Service.

Description

U.S. Agricultural Research

Saltgrass was grown in tanks, with a 2-foot 

water table, at 3 locations: Logandale, Caliente, and Mesquite. Records of weather and 

evapotranspiration have been gathered for 2 

years. Correlations and regression equations that relate evapotranspiration to weather records have been computed.

Status

Discontinued.

Results

At one location the saltgrass yield was 

nearly 10 times greater and the evapotranspiration nearly 4 times greater than that occurring at another location having almost 

identical climatic conditions during the growing season. This fact demonstrates the importance of relating the consumptive use of 

phreatophytes to stand densities or yields.

Publication 

None.

Nev-3 

(16, Circ. 413)

Title

Increased streamflow and forage production through eradication of undesirable vegetation, reseeding, and grazing management.

Agencies

University of Nevada, Nevada Agricultural 

Experiment Station, U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Soil and Water Conservation 

Research Division.

Leader

J. H. Robertson, University of Nevada.

Description

Numerous ranches in Nevada rely on small 

creeks for their irrigation water. The success of the operation quite often is limited 

by the streamflow after snowmelt. Usually 

there is a dense growth of shrubs and trees 

along the streams. Transpiration by this 

vegetation causes large diurnal fluctuations 

in the streamflow, especially during the latter part of the irrigation season. Clearing 

this vegetation should increase the streamflow and reduce the amplitude of the diurnal 

fluctuation. To this end, the feasibility of 

using herbicides and controlled burning to 

eradicate the vegetation were being studied. 

Reseeding of the cleared areas with grasses 

should increase forage production and also 

prevent gullying in the cleared areas.

Changes in streamflow were measured by 

Par shall flumes, equipped with 8-day waterlevel recorder. Changes in ground-water 

levels also were measured by water-level 

recorders. With the start of the project on 

July 1, 1958, streamflow measurements were 

made on two streams. However, during the 

dry years of 1959, 1960, and 1961, the 

streams ceased to flow. Even after the wet 

years of 1962 and 1963, the streams flowed 

only briefly and erratically; nor did normal 

flow resume in 1964.

Since 1962 fairly continuous records have 

been obtained with water-level recorders on 

two sets of paired wells one well in sagebrush growth, the other in seeded grass 

cover.

Status

The study is continuing, but owing to the 

lack of streamflow it was modified to study 

use of ground water by the vegetation.

Results

During the periods of flow in the streams, 

the peaks occurred in early morning and the 

minimum flow about 12 hours later. Daily 

loss in early September 1958 was estimated 

as 1,370 gallons in 1 mile of a small tributary stream.
PROJECTS 19

Indications are that grass, in a .good stand 

in the canyon bottom, will use as much water 

during the season as does the big brush. The 

grass begins to use water more rapidly earlier in the spring than does the brush, whereas the brush continues to use it a little later 

in the summer. An attempt is being made to 

quantify water usage.

Publications

The flow of small springs and creeks during a drought year, in Range management research progress report, 1959 60: Circ. 25, 

p. 20-21, Dec. 1959.

Water requirement of big sagebrush, in 

Range management research progress report, 1960-61: Circ. 33, p. 15, Mar. 1961.

Water table and vegetation in a canyon bottom, in Progress report Research in range 

management and entomology, 1961 62: Circ. 

36, p. 23.

Estimated evapotranspiration as reflected 

by fluctuations in water tables under big 

sagebrush and grass, in Progress report 

Research in range .management and entomology, 1962-63: Circ. 41, p. 26-28.

Transpiration by big sagebrush under controlled temperature, in Progress report 

Research in range .management and entomology, 1962-63: Circ. 41, p. 29-30.

These are all published by the Max C. 

Fleischmann College of Agriculture, University of Nevada, Division of Plant Science.

Nev-4

Title

Evapotranspiration studies on native meadowgrasses in Humboldt River basin, Nevada.

Agencies

U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Soil 

and Water Conservation Research Division.

Leaders

A. S. Dylla and Dean C. Muckel, Agricultural Research Service.

Description

To determine the evapotranspiration of 

native meadowgrasses growing in areas of 

shallow water tables of the Humboldt River

basin. Grasses predominantly sedges, bluestem, and saltgrass are grown in polyvinyl 

plastic-lined tanks called evapotranspirometers that are 10 feet square and 7 feet 

deep. These evapotranspirometers have a 

controlled water supply which permits the 

accurate measurement of all water consumed 

by the plants.

The records of water use are checked 

against water use at seven locations on 

meadowlands as determined by daily watertable fluctuations and soil moisture changes 

above the water table. The soil moisture 

changes are measured with a neutron scattering meter. Climatic data, including temperature, humidity, wind, and evaporation 

rate are obtained at each location, and attempts are being made to correlate water 

use with these data.

Status 

Active.

Results

There are now 3 years of data available on 

use of water by native grasses, as measured 

in evapotranspirometers. Owing to establishment of grasses in the spring of 1961, 

records of water use for this year represent 

only a partial season. In 1962, records were 

obtained on use of water by grasses growing 

under constant shallow (4 feet) water-table 

conditions. In 1963, water-table depths in the 

evapotranspirometers were regulated to simulate the ground-water levels recorded in the 

adjacent meadows; that is, the water level 

was fluctuated between 1 and 2 feet from the 

ground surface through May and June and 

then allowed to decline below the 4 foot depth 

for the remainder of the season. Soil-moisture contents of the soil profile above the 

water table were measured with a neutronscattering meter.

Grasses subjected to a simulated wet 

meadow (fluctuated high water-table) condition, as in 1963, produced less hay per unit 

of water used than when grown under a constant shallow (4 feet) water table, as in 1962.

Publications

Plastic membrane tanks for evapotranspiration determinations, by A. S. Dylla and Rhys 

Tovey: Agr. Bug., v. 43, (10),, p, 584, 585, 

Oct. 1962.
20 PHREATOPHYTE RESEARCH IN THE WESTERN STATES

Phreatophytes How much water do they 

waste?, by Dean C. Muckel and A. S. Dylla: 

Nevada Ranch and Home Review, p. 12, 13, 

fall and winter, 1964.

Nev-5

Title

Establishment of replacement vegetation 

of higher economic value in phreatophyte 

areas of the Great Basin.

Agencies

U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Soil 

and Water Conservation Research Division, 

and Crops Research Division.

Leaders

A. S. Dylla and R. E. Eckert, U.S. Agricultural Research Service and Crops Research 

Division.

Description

An experimental field study, the purpose 

of which is to develop techniques for providing supplementary moisture to aid establishment of replacement species in the phreatophyte (primarily greasewood and rabbitbrush) areas; to evaluate methods of seedbed preparation: to evaluate species for 

stand establishment; and to determine sustained forage yields from established stands 

upon discontinuance of applying supplementary irrigations.

Status

Active project initiated in 1961.

Results

Tall wheatgrass (Agropyron elongotum) and 

Great Basin wildrye (Elymus cinereous) presently appear to be the two forage species adaptable to the saline-alkali soils of the greasewood-rabbitbrush sites. Sprinkler irrigation 

appears to be the most suitable method for 

applying supplemental moisture to the soil 

site without land farming or grading.

Publication

Plans for publishing experimental results 

following the 1964 season.

Nev-6

Title

Evapotranspiration studies of phreatophytes in the Humboldt River valley, Nevada.

Agencies

U.S. Geological Survey, Nevada Department 

of Conservation and Natural Resources, and 

U.S. Bureau of Reclamation.

Leader

T. W. Robinson, U.S. Geological Survey.

Description

The Humboldt River research project, begun in mid-1959 under a State-Federal cooperative program, sought information for 

evaluating the land and water resources of 

the Humboldt River basin and for developing 

programs for their effective utilization. One 

facet of the study was to determine the amountof water used bynonbeneficialphreatophytes.

For this purpose 12 evapotranspiration 

tanks, or evapotranspirometers, were constructed at a test site on and adjacent to the 

Humboldt River flood plain near Winnemucca, 

Nev. The tanks ranged in size from 10 feet 

square and 7 feet deep to 30 feet square and 

10.5 feet deep. Seedlings of four species of 

phreatophyte were transplanted in the tanks 

as follows: Greasewood in two tanks; rabbitbrush, willow, and wildrose each in three 

tanks: and nothing in one tank. After establishment of plant growth, water levels were 

maintained at 5 feet below the surface of the 

tanks, with the exception of the bare soil 

tank. Use by the plants is equal to the water, 

including rainfall, added to the tanks during 

the growing season, plus or minus differences in soil moisture at the beginning and 

end of the season.

During the 1962 growing season there was 

partial defoliation of the plants in the greasewood tanks as the result of toxic concentrations of salts, largely of boron, in the root zone. 

In order to correct this condition, and to prevent similar damage to the rabbitbrush plants 

in adjacent tanks, the greasewood and rabbitbrush tanks were leached by backwashing following the 1962,growing season.

In order to express water use in units of 

foliage volume, as well as in units of area, 

measurements of plant foliage in the tanks 

are made at the height of the growing season. Photographic records of the plant are 

made at periodic intervals during each growing season.

Status

The study is planned to continue for another 3 years while maintaining the water
PROJECTS 21

levels at different depths, beginning with a 

6-foot depth to water in the greasewood 

tanks in 1964.

Results

The use of water during the 1963 growing 

season by the various species, on a depth 

and a volume of foliage basis, is given in the 

tabulation that follows.

Species

Depth 

(feet)

Greasewood .________ 1.79

Rabbitbrush 1 ........... 2.22

Willow -. ______ a 4.0

Wildrose___________ *1.6

Volume of foliage 

(cubic feet of 

water per cubic 

loot of foliage)

1.72

2.75

2 .95

1 Young plants, not representative of mature growth.

2 Estimated in part. Tanks were flooded in early July.

Note. Loss of water from the bare soil tank, with the water 

level at 2.5 feet, was 0.75 feet.

Publications

Evapotranspiration tank installation for 

measuring the use of water by greasewood, 

by T. W. Robinson, in Progress report, Humboldt River research project: Nevada State 

Dept. Conserv. p. 14-18, 1960.

Research studies on the use of water by 

phreatophytes, by T. W. Robinson, in 2d Progress report, Humboldt River research project: Nevada State Dept. Conserv., p. 21 25,

1961.

Research studies on the use of water by 

phreatophytes, by T. W. Robinson, in 3d Progress report, Humboldt River research project: Nevada State Dept. Conserv., p. 17 23,

1962.

Research studies on the use of water by 

phreatophytes, by T. W. Robinson, in 5th Progress report, Humboldt River research project: Nevada State Dept. Conserv., p. 13 17, 

1964.

NEW MEXICO

N. Mex-1 

(17, Circ. 413)

Title

Water-conservation measures and control 

of vegetation in Caballo Reservoir area, New 

Mexico.

Agencies

New Mexico State Engineer's Office and U. 

S. Bureau of Reclamation.

Leader

James W. Kirby, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation.

Description

Much of the reservoir area of Caballo Reservoir, a storage facility below Elephant Butte 

Dam, was covered with a moderate to dense 

growth of phreatophytes largley saltcedar. 

Other phreatophytes were mesquite, cottonwood, willow, and baccharis. A high water 

table in the reservoir areas above seasonal 

storage levels offers a favorable environment for phreatophytes. Saltcedar, an aggressive and naturalizing plant, had spread 

throughout the reservoir area to the extent 

that it had covered over 6,000 acres. It can 

readily be seen that there would be a large 

attendant nonbeneficial consumptive use of 

water from this large infestation of phreatophytes. A program of conservation was undertaken in 1957 with the following objectives: 

(1) Conservation of water through the removal 

of saltcedar and other phreatophytic growth 

and control of regrowth, and (2) to evaluate 

the possibility of lowering the water table by 

rechanneling the Rio Grande through the reservoir delta area.

Status

Approximately 6,100 acres of phreatophytes 

has been cleared from the reservoir area by 

mechanical and chemical means. Only iso- , 

lated and inaccessible small areas of the original infestation remain, and phreatophytes in 

these areas will be eradicated shortly. To 

prevent regrowth of saltcedars from old root 

systems and to prevent new seedling growth, 

control measures have been provided on the 

cleared areas. Chemical spraying continues 

to be employed on test plot sin the inaccessible 

areas where mechanical methods cannot be 

used and in other general areas.

Results

The initial phreatophyte infestation has been 

cleared by mechanical and chemical means. 

The problem now is the control of regrowth 

and restoration of the reservoir areas into 

native grasses. Several mechanical methods 

have been employed for regrowth control. 

Probably the most effective method has been 

to sever the roots of the saltcedar about 10 

inches below ground surface with a root plow 

pulled by a crawler tractor. After two passes 

with the root plow an area may be retired from 

further control measures for an extended 

time. Rotary cutters and disking are two other
22 PHREATOPHYTE RESEARCH IN THE WESTERN STATES

mechanical methods employed for regrowth 

control. It is interesting to note that native 

grasses establish themselves rapidly after 

an area has been effectively cleared.

Publication 

None.

N. Mex-2 

(18, Circ. 413)

Title

Water salvage in the middle Rio Grande 

Project.

(This is not a research project but is an 

operating multipurpose project. It is reported 

because it has resulted in the development of 

new techniques and in the salvage of water.)

Agencies

U.S. Bureau of Reclamation and New Mexico 

State Engineer Office.

Leader

E. W. Elliott, Project Superintendent, Bureau of Reclamation.

Description

The water table in the middle Rio Grande 

valley above Elephant Butte Reservoir from 

Cochitionthe north to the narrows of Elephant 

Butte Reservoir on the south is such that it 

supports a dense growth of phreatophytes 

saltcedar, willows, and some cottonwoods. 

These plants consumptively waste many thousands of acre-feet of ground water that could 

otherwise be used for irrigation, and they also 

impede flood flows. The objective of the program is to increase available flow in the river 

by (1) eliminating or controlling water-consuming vegetation, (2) increasing the efficiency of existing drains by enlarging them and 

clearing them of vegetation, (3) constructing 

new drains, and (4) channeling side inflow directly to the river, thus lowering the water 

table.

Status

Active in 1964, with continuing eradication 

of phreatophyte growth and control of vegetation regrowth.

Results

Water table lowered and riverflows controlled, which resulted in water being salvaged 

from water-loving vegetation. Amount salvaged over the past 10 years is estimated at 

622,000 acre-feet.

Publication

Reports of maintenance activities are included in the annual "Report of Phreatophyte 

Activities," Division of Research, Office of 

Chief Engineer, Bureau of Reclamation.

N. Mex-3 

(19, Circ. 413)

Title

Appraisal of potential ground-water salvage 

along the Pecos River between Acme and Artesia.

Agencies

U.S. Geological Survey, and New Mexico 

State Engineer's Office.

Leader

R. W. Mower, U.S. Geological Survey.

Description

Phreatophytes such as saltcedar, grasses 

(saltgrass and sacaton), and mesquite grow 

in the bottom land of the Acme-Artesia reach 

of the Pecos River and consume tens of thousands of acre-feet of water each year. The 

increase in area and in growth density of saltcedar is continuing uncontrolled, and the water wasted by them increases yearly. The 

area covered by all phreatophytes in this 

reach amounted to 41,000 acres in both 1956 

and 1958. Saltcedar, which was growing on 

23,200 acres in 1956, had increased by 4,900 

acres to 28,100 acres in 1958. Coincident 

with the increase in area was an increase in 

growth density: the dense growth by 600 

acres, the moderately dense by 800 acres, the 

moderate by 1,000 acres, the sparse to moderate by 800 acres, and the sparse by 1,700 

acres. The increase in the area of saltcedar 

was at the expense of the grasses, which decreased from 14,700 acres in 1956 to 9,800 

acres in 1958. Areas and densities were obtained through interpretation of aerial photographs .

Status 

Completed.

Results

The use of water by phreatophytes in the 

reach was computed by four methods for the 

years 1956 and 1958, respectively. The use 

ranged from 54,000 acre-feet to 88,000 acrefeet (averaging 66,500 acre-feet) in 1956, and 

from 55,000 acre-feet to 107,000 acre-feet
PROJECTS 23

(averaging 81,000 acre-feet) in 1958. It is interesting to note that the increase in saltcedar 

growth in the period was 21.1 percent, while 

the average increase in use of water was 21.8 

percent.

If the saltcedar growth continues uncontrolled, the rate of evapotranspiration might 

rise to 170,000 acre-feet annually in a few 

years.

Publication

An appraisal of potential ground-water salvage along thePecos River between Acme and 

Artesia, New Mexico, by R. W. Mower, J. W. 

Hood, R. L. Cushman of the U.S. Geological 

Survey and R. L. Borton and S. E. Galloway 

of the New Mexico State Engineer's Office: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 1659, 

1964.

N. Mex-4 

(20, Circ. 413)

Title

Use of water by phreatophytes in the McMillan Delta, Eddy County.

Agencies

U.S. Geological Survey and Pecos River 

Commission.

Leader 

J. S. Havens, U.S. Geological Survey.

Description

The bottom lands of the Pecos River between the Artesia gaging station and Lake 

McMillan contain about 25,000 acres of saltcedar and other phreatophytic plants. Between the Artesia gaging station and the Rio 

Penascothe water table is at or near the land 

surface and is above the level of the Pecos 

River. Between the Rio Penasco and Lake 

McMillan the water table is below the level 

of the river, which flows through a constructed low-flow channel. During periods 

of low flow in the river and low stage of Lake 

McMillan, water levels decline and the consumptive use of the saltcedar is small between the Rio Penasco and Lake McMillan. 

However, periodic flooding of the Rowlands by 

the Pecos River and the Rio Penasco and 

high stages of Lake McMillan recharge the 

water table in the lowlands south of the Rio 

Penasco, and the consumptive use by the saltcedars is large.

Studies were begun in 1956 to determine 

the amount of consumptive waste and the relation between the ground water in the postMcMillan deposits, the valley fill, and the 

Permian rocks in the area.

Status

Inactive. Tabulation of data may be resumed in 1964.

Results

No results to report as yet. 

Publication

Final report to be published by U.S. Geological Survey.

N. Mex-5

Title

Rio Grande basin water-salvage investigations, New Mexico Division.

(This is not a research project but is aplanning study which will develop a plan for optimum salvage of water in the Rio Grande basin 

above Caballo Reservoir. Some phases could 

be classed as applied research.)

Agencies

U.S. Bureau of Reclamation and New Mexico State Engineer Office.

Leader

Ralph Charles, Area Engineer, Bureau of 

Reclamation.

Description

All plans proposed in New Mexico for 

phreatophyte removal, containing evaluations 

of nonbeneficial waste, have been criticized 

for being entirely theoretical and having no 

actual proof of reality. To overcome such 

criticism, this study provides (1) the selection of a prototype area containing representative types of phreatophytes, (2) instrumentation of the prototype area and measurement of the water use for three growing seasons, (3) clearing the area of vegetation, and 

(4) continuing measurements of water use in 

the prototype area for at least 2 years while 

the area is maintained free of vegetation. 

The measured results would be extended 

over the middle Rio Grande and Espanola 

valleys in the development of the most feasible plan for phreatophyte control. Three 

methods of measurement were adopted: (1) 

The inflow-outflow method, (2) the transpiration well method, and (3) the evapotranspirometer method. Transpiration and observation wells were installed in the prototype
24 PHREATOPHYTE RESEARCH IN THE WESTERN STATES

area as well as at selected locations throughout the area over which the data will be extended. Soil-moisture tubes, in which readings are obtained with a neutron moisture 

meter, are installed at all transpiration 

wells.

The evapotranspirometer installation consists of nine large tanks, 1,000 square feet 

in surface area, and four small tanks. All 

are automatically controlled. A complete 

weather station is installed at the site. The 

location is near Bernardo, New Mex.

Status

Records of 3 years of operation were available at the end of the 1963 growing season, 

and clearing was underway during the winter 

of 1963-64.

Results

Pre-clearing conditions established in the 

prototype area.

Publication

The results will be published as a plan for 

water salvage in the Rio Grande basin, New 

Mexico, above Caballo Reservoir. It is 

scheduled for completion in 1968.

N. Mex-6

Title

Granular and soil-spray applied chemicals 

for control of saltcedar.

Agencies

Agricultural Research Service, Crops Research Division, in cooperation with New 

Mexico State University.

Leader

Eugene E. Hughes, 

search Service.

Description

U.S. Agricultural ReStudies initiated in 1961 were designed to 

evaluate granular and soil-spray applied 

herbicides on saltcedar which could be used 

in areas where foliage spray applications 

might be injurious to nearby susceptible 

crops and where stands are too large for individual tree treatments. Rates of 5 and 20 

pounds, on an active ingredient basis, of all 

granular and soil-spray applied herbicides 

available from chemical companies were 

used. Treatments were applied to uniform 

stands of mature saltcedar with 10-foot buffer zones established between plots. All 

treatments were replicated three times on 

plots 16.5 by 16.5 feet.

Status

This phase of control research will be terminated in 1964.

Results

To date, nine granular and five soil-spray 

applied herbicides have been used. Of the 

nine granular herbicides, only dicamba, 2- 

methoxy-3, 6-dichlorobenzoic acid, produced 

promising results. Another granular herbicide, 2, 3, 6 TEA, killed a low percentage 

of plants at the highest rate. Dicamba is 

very promising, even at the lowest (5 Ib active ingredients per acre) rate.

Of the soil-spray applied herbicides, none 

of the five tested killed saltcedar. Fenac defoliated the plants readily, but the effect was 

not permanent.

Publication

Results will be published late in 1964 or 

in 1965.

N. Mex-7

Title

Basal spray for control of saltcedar. 

Agencies

Agricultural Research Service, Crops Research Division, in cooperation with New 

Mexico State University.

Leader

Eugene E. Hughes, U.S. Agricultural Research Service.

Description

Because of drift of spray or fumes from 

herbicides applied to saltcedar growing on 

irrigation ditchbanks (in some places adjacent 

to cotton and other susceptible crops) and the 

danger of contaminating the water with granular herbicides, dormant basal-spray individual tree treatments seemed to be a possible alternative safe and effective method 

of control. The technique involves spraying 

around the base of the tree from the ground 

surface up 1 to 2 feet. Normally, the herbicides are oil soluble and applied in diesel 

oil. This project was initiated in the fall of 

1961.
PROJECTS 25

Status

This phase of control research will be terminated in 1964.

Results

Eighteen different herbicides and (or) formulations were applied as basal sprays to 

saltcedar. Of this group, two formulations of 

Silvex were superior to all other herbicides: 

the butoxy ethanol ester and an oil-soluble 

amine. Additional studies to determine the 

factors affecting basal-spray applications 

were carried out. From these studies, it was 

determined that 12Ib aehg (pounds acid equivalent per 100 gallons of diluent) of Silvex 

was more effective than 6 Ib aehg. It made 

no difference whether the lower 1 or 2 feet 

of the base of the plants were sprayed. The 

cut-stump treatments were superior to both, 

and the ester formulation was better than the 

oil-soluble amine. It made no difference 

whether plants were sprayed in December or 

in April.

In other studies, it was determined that 8 

Ib aehg was very effective, so the recommendation probably will be 8 Ib aehg of an ester 

of Silvex in diesel oil, applied any time in 

late winter to the lower 18 inches of the 

plants.

Publication

Results will be published in 1964.

N. Mex-8 

Title

Single treatments and combinations of 

mowing, burning, and spraying for control of 

saltcedar.

Agencies

U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Crops 

Research Division, U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries.

Leader

Eugene E. Hughes, U.S. Agricultural Research Service.

Description

In order to prevent flooding in the major 

rivers of the West, agencies not only must 

kill saltcedar but must remove the dead trees. 

This project, initiated in 1962, was designed 

to study various ways of mowing, burning,

spraying, and chemical mowing to get maximum kill and remove above-ground parts.

Status

Certain phases of the study will be terminated in 1964, but the more promising ones 

will be continued.

Results

Mowing or burning saltcedar stands in the 

winter and then spraying them with 4 Ib ae/A 

(pounds acid equivalent per acre) of an ester 

of Silvex in the spring increased the kill 

about threefold as compared with plants 

sprayed only. Mowing every 2 months during 

the growing season, for 2 years, failed to reduce the stand. Burning in the winter followed 

by mowing in June and then spraying in August with 4 Ib ae/A of the Silvex ester reduced the stand only about 8 percent.

Although plant-kill figures are not available at this time, spraying undisturbed stands 

in June with 2 Ib ae/A of a 2, 4 D amine followed by another application of the same in 

August appeared to be promising. Another 

method that appeared promising was spraying an undisturbed stand with 5 Ib ae/A of a 

Silvex e§ter and then mowing 2 to 4 days 

afterward.

Publication

Certain phases of this study will be published in 1964.

N. Mex-9

Title

Aerial and ground-applied herbicides for 

control of saltcedar.

Agencies

U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Crops 

Research Division, in cooperation with the 

U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Red Bluff Water 

District, U.S. Soil Conservation Service, and 

A. P. Atkins, a rancher near Hardesty, Okla.

Leader

Eugene E. Hughes, U.S. Agricultural Reserach Service.

Description

Herbicides are applied to plots with a helicopter or fixed-wing aircraft at volumes of 

10 and 5 gallons per acre, respectively.
26 PHREATOPHYTE RESEARCH IN THE WESTERN STATES

Ground-applied plots are treated at 20 gallons per acre. Various carriers and formulations of herbicides have been used. Aerialapplied foliage-spray treatments have been 

made in five States at the time of this writing.

Status

Project will continue as long as necessary 

to develop a reliable method of control.

Results

Results have been erratic with complete 

failures common. One series of helicopterapplied foliage-spray treatments in Arizona 

made in 1962 showed that an ester of Silvex 

at 4 Ib ae/A (pounds acid equivalent per acre) 

and of 2, 4-D plus 2, 4, 5-T (50:50) at 4 Ib ae/ 

A were very effective. A similar series 

made in Texas and New Mexico the same 

year gave poor results. Results of 1963 aerial treatments made in Oklahoma, Texas, 

Arizona, and Kansas are not known at this 

time. All treatments appeared to give poor 

results, however.

Ground-applied foliage-spray studies in 

New Mexico in 1962, using twelve different 

herbicides and (or) formulations, showed that 

the ester and the emulsifiable acid of Silvex 

were the most promising of those tested. 

Results of the 1963 ground-applied foliagespray treatments are not known at this time, 

but there appeared to be no new developments.

Publication

Preliminary results will be published in 

1964.

N. Mex-10

Title

Factors affecting growth, carbohydrate 

storage, and susceptibility to herbicides, of 

saltcedar.

Agencies

U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Crops 

Research Division, in cooperation with the 

U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Red Bluff Water 

District, U.S. Soil Conservation Service.

Leader

Eugene E. Hughes, Agricultural Research 

Service.

Description

In order to develop a reliable chemical 

control for a perennial plant, it is necessary 

to determine the factors affecting growth and 

response to herbicide applications. This 

project involves measuring the same shoots 

(fronds) of saltcedar each week, taking root 

samples for carbohydrate analysis, and collecting data on: evaporation from a freewater surface, wind movement, humidity, air 

temperature, solar radiation, soil temperature (6 inches), barometric pressure, moisture content of leaves, and salt content of 

ground water (analysis for calcium, sodium, 

magnesium, chloride, sulfate, conductivity).

Using a statistical technique, multiple regression analysis, the various factors are 

evaluated and related to growth, carbohydrate storage, and response to Silvex. It is 

hoped that an equation can be developed which 

can be used to estimate carbohydrate storage levels and weekly growth, using one or 

more of the factors being measured.

Status

The project is active and will continue at 

least 1 more year.

Results

After 2 years of work it appears that no 

one factor or combination of factors presently being measured is sufficiently related to 

carbohydrate storage and (or) to response to 

Silvex to develop an estimating equation. One 

possible explanation is the variability in results of analysis of carbohydrates within 

each sampling date. Four samples are being 

taken each week, although possibly 10 or 

more would give a better picture.

Numerous factors were closely related to 

shoot length, sodium content of the ground 

water being the closest single factor (r = 

-0.94).

Estimation of weekly growth was possible 

using minimum air temperature and depth to 

water table. These factors will be used in 

1964 to test their reliability.

Results of a biweekly spray study in 1962 

using two rates of Silvex ester (2 and 4 

pounds acid equivalent per acre) were inconclusive. The earliest spray date, May 23, 

was the best, but it gave poor results.
PROJECTS 27

Publication

Preliminary results will be published in 

1964.

N. Mex-11

Title

Effects of water stress on the growth of 

saltcedar and its response to herbicides.

Agencies

U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Crops 

Research Division, in cooperation with the 

New Mexico Agricultural Experiment Station, 

Middle Rio Grande Branch Station, Los Lunas, 

New Mexico, and the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Middle Rio Grande Project, Albuquerque, 

N. Mex.

Leader

Robt. E. Wilkinson, U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Crops Research Division.

Description

Measurement of growth and response to 

herbicides of greenhouse and field-grown 

saltcedar as affected by water stress.

Status

Initiated May 1, 1964. 

Results

None as of July 1, 1964. 

Publication

None as of July 1, 1964.

N. Mex-12 

Title

Anatomy of saltcedar. 

Agencies

U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Crops 

Research Division, in cooperation with the 

New Mexico Agricultural Experiment Station, 

Middle Rio Grande Branch Station, Los Lunas,

N. Mex

Leader

Robt. E. Wilkinson, U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Crops Research Division.

Description

Anatomical and histological studies on the 

"crown" zone and the frond cuticle of saltcedar.

Status

Studies begun in 1963 and will be continued 

several years.

Results

Publication

Eventually. Technical journal.

N. Mex-13 

Title

Evaluation of methods for the propagation 

of saltcedar by cuttings.

Agencies

U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Crops 

Research Division, in cooperation with the 

New Mexico Agricultural Experiment Station, 

Middle Rio Grande Branch Station, Los Lunas, 

N. Mex.

Leader

Robt. E. Wilkinson, U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Crops Research Division.

Description

Measurement of effects of seasonal conditions and root promoting compounds on the 

vegetative reproduction of saltcedar for use 

in developing an efficient program of producing an adequate continuous supply of uniform 

vigorous greenhouse-grown plants for chemical evaluation and physiological studies.

Status

Experiment initiated in 1962 and scheduled 

for completion in 1964.

Results

Seasonal variations in percentage rooting 

and shooting of cuttings occur. Response to a 

root-promoting compound was negative.
28 PHREATOPHYTE RESEARCH IN THE WESTERN STATES

Publication

Technical publication at completion of the 

study.

N. Mex-14

Title

An evaluation of the effectiveness of selected chemical as phreatophyte herbicides 

or herbicide additives.

Agencies

U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Crops 

Research Division, in cooperation with the 

New Mexico Agricultural Experiment Station, 

Middle Rio Grande Branch Station, Los Lunas, 

N. Mex.

Leader

Robt. E. Wilkinson, U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Crops Research Division.

Description

Greenhouse-grown saltcedar is treated 

with a concentration series of various herbicides and (or) additives for herbicidal effectiveness or enhancement of herbicidal effectiveness. Evaluations of results after 8 

weeks are corrected for the condition of the 

plant at time of treatment and (or) carrier 

effects.

Status

The study was initiated in 1963 and will be 

continued for an indefinite period.

Results

4-amino-3, 5, 6-trichloropicolinic acid was 

shown to be more effective than 2-(2, 4, 5- 

trichlorophenoxy) propionic acid (Silvex) in 

greenhouse tests.

Publications

Articles in a technical journal as justified 

by significant results.

N. Mex-15

Title

Correlation of the growth and physiological 

responses of saltcedar (Tamarix pentandVa Pall.) 

to variations in photoperiod.

Agencies

U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Crops 

Research Division, in cooperation with the 

New Mexico Agricultural Experiment Station, 

Middle Rio Grande Branch Station, Los Lunas, 

N. Mex.

Leader

Robt. E. Wilkinson, U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Crops Research Division.

Description

Cuttings are grown on a mist bed for 8 

hours during the day and in growth chambers 

during the night. Lights in the growth chambers are controlled by time clocks. Total 

hours of light are 11, 14, and 8+1 hours.

Status

Experiment initiated in 1963 and will be 

continued at least through 1964.

Results

Vegetative growth of saltcedar in New 

Mexico appears to be much greater at the 

14-hour photoperiod. Other primary or secondary photoperiod responses have been observed.

Publications

Technical publications at the completion of 

the study.

UTAH

Utah-1 

(21, Circ. 413)

Title

Utah phreatophyte survey. 

Agencies

Utah State Engineer, with assistance by individuals from several State and Federal 

Agencies.

Leader

R. Keith Higginson, Utah State Engineer's 

Office.

Description

The State has been-divided into hydrologic 

units, and each member of the survey group
PROJECTS 29

is responsible for the development of new 

data within his unit. Reconnaissance surveys 

will be made of the entire State to determine 

the location and density of phreatophytes and 

their effect upon the State's water supplies.

Status

Inactive. 

Results

The parts of the State covered show atotal 

of 700,000 acres covered by phreatophytic 

vegetation of various species and densities. 

This includes 6,000 acres of saltcedar which 

has been reported as far north as the Provo 

Bay area.

Publication

Progress report August 1958.

Utah-2 

(22, Circ. 413)

Title

Consumptive use of water by native vegetation and irrigated crops in the Virgin River 

area of Utah.

Agencies

Utah Agricultural Experiment Station; U.S. 

Agricultural Research Service, Soil and Water Conservation Branch, Western Soil and 

Water Management Section; Utah Water and 

Power Board; Utah State Engineer.

Leaders

Wayne D. Griddle, Utah State Engineer's 

Office, and Jay M. Bagley, Utah Agricultural 

Experiment Station.

Description

Several types of phreatophytes were grown 

in tanks at an experimental site near the Virgin River. Measurements were made of the 

rates of water consumption by the vegetation 

within the tanks. These measurements were 

compared with water-table fluctuations and 

with potential evapotranspiration as indicated by data from atmometers. Data were 

also obtained on rates of consumptive use by 

irrigated crops in the area. The project began in 1955, and the fieldwork was completed 

in 1957.

Status

Completed.

Results

Results show the general range of use 

rates by irrigated crops and native vegetation.

Publication

Draft copies of the final report are available at the office of the Utah State Engineer 

and at the Utah State University.

Utah-3

Title

The water resources of Salt Lake County, 

Utah.

Agencies

U.S. Geological Survey and Utah State Engineer.

Leaders

W. V. lorns and R. W. Mower, U.S. Geological Survey, and C. A. Horr, Utah State 

Engineer's Office.

Description

Many thousands of acres of phreatophytes 

in the lowlands around the southern end of 

Great Salt Lake and on the flood plains of the 

Jordan River and the lower reaches of tributaries consume several tens of thousands of 

acre-feet of ground water that may be put to 

higher use by man. The present study of the 

water resources of Salt Lake County will include a determination of the consumptive use 

by phreatophytes, as well as by irrigated 

crops to help estimate the perennial water 

supply of the county. The principal phreatophytes around the Great Salt Lake are 

greasewood, saltgrass, and pickleweed; and 

along the streams they are principally 

sedges and rushes. There are a few thickets 

and individual saltcedar plants throughout 

the valley; however, they are not a problem 

except that they present a threat to the infestation of all the lowlands and stream 

channels in the county.

Several weather stations have been established in the county, data from which are to 

be used in determining consumptive use by 

phreatophytes. The species, areal extent, 

and densities of phreatophytes will be mapped.
30 PHREATOPHYTE RESEARCH IN THE WESTERN STATES

Status

Study began July 196 3 and will run through 

June 1968. Early stages of basic-data collection period.

Results

No results to report as of July 1, 1964. 

Publications

Final report to be one of U.S. Geological 

Survey series of reports. Progress and 

journal reports may be published in applicable media.

WYOMING

Wyo-1 

(23, Circ. 413)

Title

Chemical control of saltcedar. 

Agencies

U.S. Agricultural Research Service, U.S. 

Bureau of Reclamation Region 6, and Wyoming Agricultural Experiment Station, cooperating.

Leaders

R. D. Comes and F. L. Timmons, U.S. Agricultural Research Service.

Description

Basal applications of butoxyethanol esters 

of 2, 4-D and 2, 4, 5-T and a 50-50 mixture 

of the two were made on mature saltcedar at 

concentrations of 2 and 8 percent in diesel 

oil at spring-dormant, summer, and falldormant stages of growth in 1956 and 1957. 

All treatments were replicated three times.

Another experiment was begun in April 

1958 comparing basal applications of butoxyethanol ester of 2, 4 D at concentrations of 

0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 percent with broadcast applications of fenuron pellets at 10, 20, and 

40 pounds active ingredient per acre and of 

monuron at 20 pounds active ingredient per 

acre.

Status

This study, initiated in 1956, has been 

completed except for final observations of 

results in Summer 1964 and preparation of a 

manuscript for a final publication.

Results

The basal applications of 2, 4 D and 2, 4, 

5-T made at full-leaf stage in 1956 gave 100- 

percent kill of saltcedar. Basal applications 

at the fall-dormant and spring-dormant stages 

were less effective, the survival being 18 to 

23 percent for the 2-percent concentration 

and 4.5 to 10 percent for the 8-percent concentration. Treatments made in April 1958 

showed complete defoliation by all rates of 

fenuron and monuron and complete kill by 

all rates of basally applied 2, 4 D. Some 

regrowth from saltcedar crowns developed 

in plots treated at the lowest concentration 

of 0.5-percent 2, 4-D.

Publications

Comparison of different methods of applying fenuron pellets for control of mature 

saltcedar, by R.D. Comes andF.L. Timmons, 

in Research Prog. Rept., Western Weed Control Conf., Salt Lake City, Utah, March 25- 

27, 1964.

Research in control of phreatophytes, by 

F. L. Timmons, unpub. paper presented at 

Soil Conserv. Service Hydraulic Engineers 

mtg., New York City, August 12-16, 1963. 

[Mimeo. copies available from the author.]

Chemical control of saltcedar, by F. L. 

Timmons and L. W. Weldon, in Research 

Prog. Rept., Western Weed Control Conf., 

Spokane, Washington, March 18-20, 1958: p. 

46.

Wyo-2 

(24, Circ. 413)

Title

Ecologic study of saltcedar. 

Agencies

U.S. Agricultural Research Service, U.S. 

Bureau of Reclamation, and Wyoming Agricultural Experiment Station, cooperating.

Leaders

R. D. Comes and F. L. Timmons, U.S. Agricultural Research Service.

Description

Eight plots, most of them 33 feet by 66 

feet, were permanently staked out in May 

1956 in typical saltcedar infestations ranging 

in age and size from seedlings less than 1 

inch tall to mature trees 10 feet tall. Four
REFERENCES CITED 31

additional plots were established in 1957 and 

1958 in new infestations or on areas subject 

to invasion by saltcedar. The 12 plots are 

distributed in representative situations along 

10 miles of Five Mile Creek from its juncture with Boysen Reservoir in central Wyoming. A total of 33 individual saltcedar 

plants within these plots was labeled for detailed study.

In May of each year measurements are 

made on number of living saltcedar plants 

per plot, number of shoots per plant, range 

and average in height of plants, range and 

average diameter of shoots, distance from 

edge of Five Mile Creek, height of plot above 

water surface in Five Mile Creek, and other 

ecologic measurements. A picture of each 

plot is taken from the same location in June 

of each year.

Supplementary phenological observations 

are made each year on dates of first leaf, 

full leaf, first bloom, full bloom, first seed 

maturity, and fall leaf drop. Amount of seed 

produced and seed viability are also determined.

Status

This study, initiated in 1956, has been completed except for final observations of results 

in the spring of 1964 and preparation of a 

manuscript for a final publication on saltcedar in Wyoming, ecology, distribution, and 

control.

Results

Publication

Ecological studies of saltcedar, by F. L. 

Timmons and L. W. Weldon, in Res. Prog. 

Rept., Western Weed Control Conf., Spokane, 

Washington, March 18-20, 1958: p. 47-48.

REFERENCES CITED

Horton, J. S., Robinson, T. W., and McDonald, 

H. R., 1964, Guide for surveying phreatophyte vegetation: U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 

Forest Service, Agriculture Handb. 266, 

37 p., illus.

Pacific Southwest Inter-Agency Committee, 

1961, Minutes of the 61 4 meeting, duplicated report, p. 4 58.

Robinson, T. W., 1952, Phreatophytes and 

their relation to water in Western United 

States: Am. Geophys. Union Trans., v. 33, 

no. 1, p. 57-61.

 1958, Phreatophytes: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Water-Supply Paper 1423, p. 24, 25.

 1959, Phreatophyte research in Western 

United States, October 1958 to March 1959: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Circ. 413.

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