Water Resources of 

Southeastern Fklrida 

B·y GARALD G. PARKER, G. E. FERGUSON, S. K. LOVE, and others 

WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE GEOLOGY AND GROUND 

WATER OF THE MIAMI AREA 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 1255 

Prepared in cooperation C(Vith the Florida 

Geological Survey, Dade County, cities 

of Miami and Miami Beach, and other 

agenctes 

Library 

770399 

North Florida Subdistrict Dm'el 

.u.s. Geological Surve~ 

UNITED STATES. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON : 1955 
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

Douglas McKay, Secretary 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

W. E. Wrather, Director 

For eale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Prtntlna Oftlce 

Washin{lton 25, D. C. (paper cover) 
PREFACE 

The research incident to the preparation of this report was performed by the Water Resources ~>i.vision of the U.~ Geolq_gical 

Survey under the general supervtston of N. C. Grover {retlred, 

1940), G-. L. Parker (died, 1946), and C. G. Paulsen, all of whom 

successively held the position of chief hydraulic engineer. 

The geologic and ground-water investigations were made under 

the general administrative supervision of the late 0. E. Meinzer, 

geologist in charge, Ground Water Branch (retired, 1946), and 

A. N. Sayre, present geologist in charge. V. T. Stringfield, geologist, exercised ,general technical supervision of the project, 

and the general field and office work in southern Florida was under 

the direct supervision of W. P. Cross, hydraulic engineer (Oct. 

1939-May 1942), R. H. Brown, hydraulic engineer (June 1942-

June 1943), and Garald G. Parker, district geologist (June 1943-

April 1949). Geologic research and test-well drilling was under 

the direction of Garald G. Parker beginning in February 1940. 

The surface -water investigations were made under the general 

administrative supervision of R. G. Kasel, chief of the Surface 

Water Branch (died, 1946), and J. V. B. Wells, present chief. 

The field and office work in Florida was under the direct supervision of D. S. Wallace (until 1941), G. E. Ferguson (1941-47), and 

A. 0. Patterson (after 1947), all of whom successively held the 

position of district engineer. C. C. Yonker~ hydraulic engineer, 

developed field methods and supervised the computation of records for· stream-gaging fitations. D. B. Bogart, hydraulic engineer, supervised the surface -water activities of the Miami suboffice from 1942 to 1949. 

Quality of water investigations were made under the general 

administrative direction of W. D. Collins, chief of the Quality of 

Water Branch (retired, 1946), and S •. K. Love, present chief. 

Technical supervision of quality of water ·studies, including chemical analyses of water samples, was exercised by S. K. Love, 

assisted by H. A. Swenson, chemist. 

From field tabulations, R. W. Davenport, chief of the Technical 

Coordination Branch, and W. B. Langbein, hydraulic engineer, 

prepared the section on quantitative surface-water studies. 

Acknowledgment is made to all who have aided in this investigation. So many individuals and organizations have helped that it is 

impossible to name and give credit to each in this report. 

III 
IV 

Chief credit for starting the investigation is due to Alexander 

Orr, Jr., former city commissioner and former mayor of Miami. 

Others who materially aided in the early planning of the project 

included Malcolm Pirnfe, consulting engineer of New York City; 

Dr. Abel W~an and G. W. Simons, Jr., Water-Resources Committee of the National Resources Planning Board; A. B. Hale and 

Dr. A. P. Black, Penhisular Fiorida Basin Committee; G. W. 

Simons, Jr., Florida State Planning Board; C. A. Renshaw, city 

manager of Miami .Beach; U. S. Senators Charles 0. Andrews and 

Claude Pepper; U. S. 'Representative Pat Cannon; and other public 

officials and private citizens. As a result of their effortsparticularly Mr. Orr•s-Miami, Miami Beach, Coral Gables andDade County, jointly with the U. S. Geological Survey, furnished 

the financial support for the major part of the investigation. 

The city of Miami furnished office, laboratory, drafting room, 

and storage space for tl!e survey from 1939 through 1946; since 

1946, the city of Miami and Dade County have jointly contributed 

one -half and the U. S. Geological Survey and the Florida Geolog-

.ical Survey have contributed the other half of the cost of rented 

quarters. Personnel of the Miami city manager's office, of the 

Department of Public Service, andof the Department of Water and 

S~wers have been especially helpful; officials of Miami Beach, 

Coral Gables and Dade County generously contributed of their time 

and efforts. 

Thanks are extended to the municipalities of Fort Myers, Fort 

Lauderdale, Fort Pierce, Lake Worth, Delray Beach, and Dania 

for the use of data, equipment, materials and labor in cooperative 

investigations of the geology and water resources during and since 

World War II. 

Water-resources investigations that began in 1930 in cooperation with the Florida Geological Survey, the Corps of Engineers, 

and other agencies, made it possible to anticipate some of the· 

problems and conditions to be encountered, and intensive work 

started in the Miami area as soon as funds became available. Special acknowledgment is due Dr. Herman Gunter, director of the 

Florida Geological Survey, and his staff (particularly Dr. Robert 0. 

Vernon, assistant director), for their very considerable assistance 

in this investigation. 

State agencies, in addition to the Florida Geological Survey~ who 

have contributed va!uable aid in.clude the trustees of the Florida 

Internal Improvement Fund, Florida Division of Water Surveys 

and Research, Florida State Board of Health, Everglades Drainage District, Okeechobee Flood Control District, Lake Worth 

Drainage District, Univer-sity of Florida Agricultural Experiment 

Station_s, and the Florida State Road Department. 
v 

The Department of Agriculture~ Soil Conservation Service~ Everglades Project~ and Farm Security Administration; Department 

of the Army, Corps of Engineers~ Jacksonville District; and the 

U. S. Weather Bureau have been of help, either through cooperative investigations that required financial support~ fll by furnishing data~ machinery~ and equipment. 

Consulting engineers practicl.ng in Florida have been ins trumental in starting the southeastern Florida water-resources investigation as well as later cooperative investigations~ and they have 

given their full support to all these investigations. The following 

consulting engineers and chemists .have f"'rnished data~ loaned 

equipment.Aand assisted with field investigation,s: Alvin P. Black, 

head of the Department of Chemistry~ University of Florida; C. K. 

Dodd~ city engineer, Sarasota; Prof. N. C. Ebaugh, head of the 

Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Florida; 

H. M. Freeborn~ engineer, Philadelphia; Wylie W. Gillespie~ 

Jacksonville; Elson T. Killam, engineer, New York; Harvey F. 

Pierce, engineer, and Edmund Friedman, Maurice H. Connell & 

,Associates~ Miami; Malcolm Pirnie, engineer! Malcolm Pirnie 

Engineers, New York; Charle:..; A. Pohl~ engineer, Bogart and 

Pohl, New York; 0. J. Seiplein~ chemist, Miami; George W. 

Simons, Jr.~ engineer~ Jacksonville; Leslie B. Taylor, engineer~ 

Miami; Joseph Weil, Dean of the Ccl:Pge of Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville; Claudt i•~. Wertz, engineer~ Day & 

Zimmermann, Inc., Philadelphia; Joe 'Williamson, Jr., engineer, 

Russell & Axon, Daytona Beach; George E. Wingerter, engineer, 

H. C. Nutting Co., Miami; and Abel Wolman, engineer, Johns 

Hopkins University, Baltimore. 

Appreciation is expressed for the support and cooperation of the 

Florida Well Drillers Contractors Association, the. Southeastern 

Florida Drillers Association~ and the many well-drilling contractors operating in Florida. Those who have actively aided these investigations, either by furnishing file data or other information, 

or by collecting ·and saving rock cuttings and water samples from 

wells, are: Edwin Anderson, Hallandale; J. P. Carroll, West 

Palm Beach; L. C. Coe, Miami; J. E. Cousins, Layne-Atlantic 

Co., Orlando; E. W. Dansby, Wauchula; J. C. Dibble, Kissimmee; F. Clyde Freeman, Libby and Freeman Drilling Co., Orlando; A. C. Gray, Gray Well & Pump Co., Jacksonville; H. Clay 

Gardenhire, Jr., Gardenhire Bros., Bartow; John B. Hurst~ Hurst 

Drilling and Equipment Co., Miami; Oliver Kelly, No'rthwest Pump 

Co., Miami; C. P. Leverett, Miami~ Paul, Donald, and Harry 

Kiser, Kiser Drilling Co., Miami; J. L. Knight, Knight & King, 

Vero Beach; R. H. Magruder, Magruder Well Drilling Co., Coco• 

nut Grove; Joe P. Maharrey and Joe P. Maharrey, Jr.~ Fort 

Myers; Harold and Douglas May, May Brothers Drilling Co .. , 

Tampa; R. J. Maxson, Miami; E. P. Maxson, Oakland Park; 

Robert and Emory Meredith, Libby & Freeman Drilling Co. , Or-
VI 

lando; Richard L. Smith, formerly with Libby & Freeman,' now 

with Gardenhire Bros., Bartow; A. F. Stevens, Stevens-Southern 

Co., Jacksonville; W. Guy Tanner, Miami; R. M. Vickers, Miami; L. N. Williams, Fort Myers; and C. R. Wright, Hurst Drilling & Eq~ent Co., Miami. Without the active and wholehearted assiBnce of these drillers the comprehensive results obtained in these investigations could not have been achieved. 

Others who have been especially helpful were H. H. Hyman, 

engineer, Florida Power & Light Go., who furnished data on the 

historical development of the Miami water supply, and other engineers of the same company who supplied information on test 

wells, including logs, water levels, quality of water results, and 

reports of pumping tests. R. Y. Patterson, ·H. A. Bestor, and 

others of the U. S. Sugar Corporation at Clewiston, furnished data 

on wells and water levels and contributed information on the historical development of drainage and industries in the Everglades. 

J. M. McBride, Agricultural Agent of the Seaboard Air Line R. R. 

Co., gave detailed data on the geology and ground water of the 

Indian Town area. St~mley B. Wright, Na'tional Resources Planning 

Board, who served as coordinator of the Southeastern Florida 

Joint Investigation during 1940-41. 

Many persons have helped in the geologic studies, and appreciation is expressed to each of t~em. Particular acknowledgment 

is made of the work of these geologists of the U. S. Geological 

Survey: Nevin D. Hoy, whose unfailing assistance from 1929 

through the present, 'contributed immeasurably to the progress on 

the ground-water studies; C. Wythe Cooke, who spent several 

weeks in the field with Garald G. Parker studying areal geology; 

and J. B. Reeside, Jr., Julia A. Gardner, J. A. Cushman, Ruth 

Todd, Remington Kellogg, F. Stearns MacNeil, and Lloyd B. Henbest, who aided by identifying fossils. Other scientists, not connected with either the Florida or the U. S. Geological Survey, 

have been of great help, including Horace G. Richards of the Philadelphia Academy of Sciences, who directly aided this investigation by his identification of fossils from several test wells; Robert 

B. Campbell, petroleum geologist, who furnished data on the geology and ground water of the deeper formations; and Richard F. 

Flint, of Yale University, who aided in the study of Pleistocene 

geology. 
CONTENTS 

..( ,Abstract. ......................•...•.•.•..••...•.••..•.•...•...•...•.•...•.........•...•...•...•.•.....•...•.....•.....•...•.•••...••.... 

Introduction, by Garald G. Parker .•...•.....•.•...•.•...•...•.....•.•...•...•....••.•..••.•...•.•...•.•.•.•.•.•.......• 

; Area of investigation. ..................................................................................................... .. 

Purpose of the investigation .......................................................................................... . 

Development of the area. ............................................................................................ . Problems resulting from development ...................................................................... . 

~~=~o:~ ti~~!:;i~:~~~~~~::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::··:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: . Climate, by G. E. Ferguson. .............................................................................................. . Introduction ...................................................................................................................... .. 

The hydrologic cycle ....................................................................................................... . 

Precipitation ..................................................................................................................... . 

Rainfall records .......................................................................................................... .. 

. -.Avai1~lty:$nd pul»Ucation.of records. .................................................................... . 

Characteristics of rainfall ......................................................................................... . 

Annual rainfall ........................................................................................................ . 

Areal distribution.. .................................................................................................. .. 

Seasonal distribution. ............................................................................................. .. 

Storm rainfall ............................................................................................................ . Drought rainfall ........................................................................................................ . 

Temperature. ..................................................................................................................... . 

Wind. ................................................................................................................................. .. Evaporation and transpiration. ....................................................................................... . 

General statement ........................................................................................................ . 

Evaporation .................................................................................................................. .. 

Evapotranspiration ..................................................................... ; .................................. . 

Conclusion. ................................................................. : ................................................ .. Geology, by Garald G. Parker, N. D. Hoy, and M. C. _Schroeder ................................... . 

Relationship of geology to study of ground-water resources .................................... .. 

Methods of investigation ................................................................................................. . 

General statement. ....................................................................................................... . Geologic studies from outcrop data. ......................................................................... .. 

Exploratory test-well drilling. ................................................................................... .. The Floridan Plateau. ..................................................................................................... . The Ocala anticline .................................................................................................... .. Stratigraphy and water-bearing characteristics of the formations. ........ ;; ................. .. 

General statement ....................................................................................................... . Pre-Tertiary rocks ...................................................................................................... .. 

Tertiary system ............................................................................................................ . 

~::~ :!~t=·~·~::·::.:·::.::·:::::.::::::·:::.:::·.:·.:·.:·:::::::.::·.:::·:::.:·:::.:·.:·.:::·::.:·::.:·.:::::::·.:·.:·:.::·.:·::.::·::. Lake City and Avon Park limestones. .............................................................. . 

Ocala limestone. .................................................................................................. . 

Oligocene series. ..................................................................................................... . Suwannee limestone. ........................................................................................... .. 

Miocene series. ....................................................................................................... .. 

General considerations. ..................................................................................... .. 

Tampa limestone .................................................................................................. . 

Hawthorn formation .............................................................................................. . Tamiami formation .............................................................................................. .. Pliocene series. ....................................................................................................... . Caloosahatchee marl ........................................................................................... . 

Quaternary system. .................................................................................................. . 

Pleistocene series. .............................................................................................. . 

General statement ........................................................................................... . Fort Thompson formation ................................................................................ . 

VII 

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VIII CONri:NTS 

Page 

Geology-Continued 

Stratigraphy and water-bearing characteristics of the formations-Continued 

Quaternary system-Continued 

Pleistocene series-Continued 

::~~i!i.:~~~~~~~·:::::~·:·:::::·::::~::·::::::::::::::::::~:::::::::::~·~~::::::.·~·::~·::.·~·~::~·:~::~~:::::~~~::~·~·~·~·~~·~·:::~~·: ~gg ~a~lit;~r=~:d~~:.~.~.~~.~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ig~ Late Pleistocene and Recent deposits.................................................................... 107 

Lake Flirt marl........................................................................................................ 107 

Organic soils........................................................................................................... 109 

Laterite of the Redlands district.......................................................................... 110 

Beach sand............................................................................................................. 110 

Late Cenozoic history ................................................................................................. 111 

General statement................................................................................................... 111 

The Pleistocene or "Great Ice Age".................................................................. 112 

General effect of glacial control of sea level.................................................... 113 

Effects of changing sea levels in southern Florida.......................................... 114 

Nebraskan glacial age....................................................................................... 118 

Aftonian interglacial ag~................................................................................... 119 

Kansan glacial age .. -.......................................................................................... 120 

Yarmouth interglacial age ............................................ ;.................................... 120 

Illinoian glacial age.. .................................... .................................................... 121 

Sangamon interglacial age................................................................................. 121 

Wisconsin glacial age... .................................................................................... 122 

Recent epoch....................................................................................................... 124 

Geomorphology, by Garald G. Parker.................................................................................... 127 

Factors affecting land ·forms............................................................................................. 127 

Materials composing the land....................................................................................... 127 

Fluctuating sea level..................................................................................................... 129 

Shoreline processes ......................................................................................................... 129 

Climate and vegetation .................................................................................................. · · 132 

Solution............................................................................................................................ 132 

Erosion ............................................................................................................................. • 134 

Marine terraces ................. ~.................................................................................................. 135 

General statement........................................................................................................... 135 

Wicomico terrace............................................................................................................. 136 

Penholoway terrace ........................................................................................................ , 137 

Kissimmee River ba:sin................................................................................................. 138 

Fisheating Creek valley............................................................................................ 138 

Talbot terrace.................................................................................................................. 138 

Painlico terrace............................................................................................................... 140 

The sandy flatlands ....................................................................................................... 141 

The Okaloacoochee Slough and Devil 's Garden ...................................................... .142 

Allapattah Marsh, Loxahatchee Marsh, and Hungryland Slough ............................ 143 

Sandy flatlands south of Loxahatchee Marsh.......................................................... 143 

The Big Cypress Swamp ............................. ~ .............................................................. ,-144 

The Atlantic Coastal Ridge...................................................................................... 145 

Silver Bluff terrace......................................................................................................... .146 

The Everglades........................................................................................................... 147 

Floor of the Everglades .......................................................................................... 149 

Drainage pattern of the Everglades...................................................................... 152 

Lake Okeechobee.................................................................................................... 153 

Hillsboro Lakes Marsh........................................................................................... 154 

Coastal marshes and mangrove swamps.................................................................. 154 

The Florida Keys................................................................................................................ 155 

Ground water, by Garald G. Parker ..................................................... ~................................ 157 

Occurrence........................................................................................................................... 157 

Introduction and general principles.............................................................................. 157 

Definition of ground water......................................................................................... 157 

Nonartesian water and the water table.................................................................... 157 

Artesian water and ·the piezometric surface............................................................ 158 

Methods of investigation............................................................................................ 160 
Ground water-Continued 

Occurrence-Continued 

CONTENTS 

Nonartesian water ........................................................ ; ................................................. . 

The Biscayne aquifer ................................................................................................ . 

Greater Miami area .................................................................................................. .. 

~;l~O:u~;rite~~-~.~. .~~::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~:::::::::::::::::::: Effects of drainage ................................................................................................ . 

Present supplies .................................................................................................... . 

Atlantic Coastal Ridge south of Greater Miami in Dade County ....................... .. 

The aquifer and ground water ......... ; ...................... ;~ ........................................... .. 

Development of wells ............................................................................................ . Atlantic Coastal Ridge north of Greater Miami to, and including, Dania in 

IX 

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167 

Broward County............................................................................................... 168 

The aquifer an·d ground water ................................................... ; .................. ,........ 168 

Development of wells............................................................................................. 169 

Atlantic Coastal Ridge in Broward County north of Dania.................................. 169 

The aquifer and ground water ............................................. :................................. 169 

Effects of drainage................................................................................................. 171 

Development of wells............................................................................................. 172 

Atlantic Coastal Ridge in Palm Beach County ................................................ ,..... 172 

The aquifer an~ ground water............................................................................... 172 

Effects of drainage................................................................................................. 173 

Development of wells ................................................................. ~........................... 174 

Atlantic Coastal Ridge in Martin County................................................................. -174 

The aquifer and ground-water............................................................................... 174 

Effects of drainage................................................................................................. 175 

De\lelopment of wells............................................................................................. 175 

Atlantic Coastal Ridge in St. Lucie County........................................................... 176 

The aquifer, ground water, and development of wells ........................ ~.............. 176 

The Florida Keys....................................................................................................... 176 

The aquifer, ground water, and development of wells. .. ,................................... 176 

The Everglades National Park area........................................................................ 178 

Area defined........................................................................................................... 178 

The aquifer and ground water............................................................................... 178 

Development of wells............................................................................................. 178 

The lower Everglades................................................................................................ 179 

Area defined........................................................................................................... 179 

The aquifer and ground water ............ ;.................................................................. 179 

Development of wells .............................................................................................. 180 

The area west of Hialeah...................................................................................... 180 

Seepage ............................................................................................ -........................ 183 

The central Everglades............................................................................................. 183 

Area defined ....... ;................................................................................................... 183 

The aquifer and ground water ............................... ; .............. :................................ 183 

Development of wells............................................................................................. 184 

Seepage; ............................................................................... ,................................... 184 

The upper Everglades................................................................................................ 184 

Area defined........................................................................................................... 184 

The aquifer and ground water............................................................................... 184 

Development of .wells............................................................................................. 185 

Seepage...................................................................................................................... 185 

The Big Cypress-Devil 's Garden area .................................................................. , · 186 

Area defined ............................................................................................................ .~ 186 

The aquifer and ground water............................................................................... 186 

Development of wells............................................................................................ 186 

The Kissimmee valley............................................................................................... 186 

Area defined........................................................................................................... 186 

The aquifer and ground water .............................................. ,................................ 187 

Development of wells ......................................................... ,.................................. 187 

The high marine terraces east of Kissimmee valley............................................. 187 

Area defined ........................................................................................................... - 187 

The aquifer and ground water............................................................................... 187 

Development of wells........................................................................................... 188 
X CONTENTS 

Page 

Ground water-Continued 

Occurrence-Continued 

Artesian water................................................................................................................ 188 

General statement...................................................................................................... 188 

The Floridan aquifer and aquiclude........................................................................ -188 

~~:i~:!Sf:~;~:::::::::;::;.::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: : '.~~ Utility...................................................................................................................... 191 

Contamination of nonartesian aquifers by leaky or flowing artesian wells... 192 

Shallow artesian aquifers .•.• :.................................................................................... 193 

Pleistocene artesian aquifer at Indian Town..................................................... 193 

Pliocene and Miocene aquifers at Fort Pierce, St. Lucie County, and in 

the Kissimmee valley........................................................................................ 194 

Miocene aquifer at Everglades, Collier County................................................. 196 

Quantitative studies in the Miami area, by M. A. Warren and Garald G. Parker....... 197 

Introduction.................................................................................................................... 197 

General statement ....................... :.............................................................................. 197 

Ground-water inventory............................................................................................. 197 

The Biscayne aquifer................................................................................................ 198 

Response to sudden pressure changes............................................................... '198 

Pumpage.............................................................................................................. 198 

Earthquake shocks and passing trains........................................................... 199, 

Variable hydrologic factors affecting the aquifer .................... :........................ 199 

Salt-water encroachment....................................................................................... 7.200 

Perennial yield ................................................................. _ ....................................... 200 

The water table.............................................................................................................. 201 

General statement...................................................................................................... 201 

Effect of canals on the water table......................................................................... -203 

Water-table studies of the Miami area..................................................................... 205 

Water table at low stage, February 3, 1942...................................................... 11>6 

Water table at medium stage, July 26, 1941....................................................... 206 

Water table at high stage, September 30, 1940.................................................. 210 

Water-table studies of Dade County........................................................................ 210 

Water table at low stage, May 19, 1945.............................................................. 210 

Water table at medium stage, March 17, 1941.................................................... 210 

Water table at high stage, Septem her 23, 194'0.................................................. 211 

Ground-water recharge................................................................................................... 212 

General statement...................................................................................................... 212 

Definitions.............................................................................................................. 214 

Water table and rainfall correlations................................................................... 215 

Rainfalt and. the water table in muck of the Everglades.............................. 215 

Rainfall and the water table in sand of the Atlantic Coastal Ridge ........... 216 

Rainfall and the water table in the oolite of the Atlantic Coastal Ridge.. 218 

Ground-water discharge................................................................................................. 221 

General statement ... ,.................................................................................................. 221 

Evapor.ation and transpiration.................................................................................. 222 

Evapotranspiration and discharge studies in Dade County................................. 222 

Ground-water discharge studies in the Atlantic Coastal Ridge south of 

Kendall.................................................................................................................... 228 

Water-level decline in selected wells of the Atlantic Coastal Ridge................ 232 

Ground-water discharge studies in the Atlantic Coastal Ridge north of 

Kendall.................................................................................................................... 234 

Estimated ground-water pumpage in Dade County................................................ 236 

Hydrologic properties of water-bearing materials..................................................... -,236 

' Coefficient of-permeability ....... ·............................................................................... 236 

Coefficient of transmissibility................................................................................ 237 

Coefficient of storage............................................................................................... 237 

Solving for T and S by use of the Theis nonequilibrium formula........................ 238 

Large-scale pumping tests........................................................................................... 239 

S 1 pumping test........................................................................................................ 239 

G 551, G 552, and G 553 pumping tests................................................................. 249 

G 551 pumping test................................................................................................ 252 

G 552 pumping test ................................................................................................ · 258 

G 553 pumping test. .............................................................. :................................ 263 
CONTENTS 

Ground water-Continued 

Quantitative studies in the Miami\~a....-Continued 

Large-scale pumping tests-Continued 

Conclusions regarding T and S from data obtained from large-scale pumping 

Quan~7~~~~~·~t·~·di~~·~t¥;;;·th·~·~··i~~·g;~~~i~··p~~pi·~·g··t~~t·~::::::::::~·.::::::::::::::::: . 

F 85 pumping test ..................................................................................................... . 

G 218 pumping test ................................................................................................... . 

Studies of cone of depression in Miami well field .............................................. . 

Canal inflow studies ................................................................................................. . Factors to be considered regarding the proposed well field in the Miami area .. .. 

General analysis ....................................................................................................... .. 

Theoretical drawdowns in an infinite aquifer ........................................................ . 

Cone of depression in an area in which the aquifer is uniformly recharged .... .. 

Evapotranspiration salvage ..................................................................................... .. 

Infiltration from canals ............................................................................................. . 

Conclusions. ............................................................................................................... . 

Surface water, by D. B. Bogart and G. E. Ferguson.: ...................................................... . 

Characteristics of drainage basins and summaries of gaging-station records .......... . 

Methods of investigation and explanation of data. .............................................. ~ .. .. 

Collection of field data ........................................................................................... .. 

Interpretation of data. ............................................................................................... . 

Stage records ........................................................................................................ .. 

Definition of terms ............................................................................................... .. 

Index of gaging stations .......................................................................................... .. 

Basins tributary to Lake Okeechobee ....................................................................... .. 

General drainage system ......................................................................................... .. 

Kissimmee River ....................................................................................................... .. 

Upper Kissimmee basin ........................................................................................ . 

Flood frequency ................................................................................................. . 

Reedy Creek ....................................................................................................... . 

Lower Kissimmee basin ....................................................................................... . 

Flood frequency ................................................................................................. . 

Arbuckle Creek .................................................................................................. . 

Istokpoga Canal. ................................................................................................ . 

Fisheating Creek. ...................................................................................................... . 

Minor tributaries ....................................... ~ ................................................................ . 

Indian Prairie Canal. ............................................................................................ . 

Harney Pond Canal. .............................................................................................. . 

Taylor Creek. ........................................................................................................ .. 

Lake Okeechobee and principal outflow canals ........................................................ . 

Physical features ................................................................................ ;; .................... . 

Lake-regulation program ........................................................................................... . 

Caloosahatchee Canal. ............................................................................................ .. 

St. Lucie Canal ......................................................................................................... .. 

The Everglades and the Atlantic Coastal Ridge ..... : ............................................... .. 

General drainage features ....................................................................................... .. 

Everglades hydrologic unit .................................................................................. . 

Water control facilities ......................................................................................... . 

Factors affecting canal capacity ....................................................................... .. 

Soil subsidence ................................................................................................ .. 

Bars and shoals ................................................................................................. . 

Aquatic weeds ................................................................................................... . 

Topographic and geologic factors of water control. ............................................ .. 

The combined natural and artificial control regimen ........................................... . 

West Palm Beach Canal. ............................................................................................. .. 

Physical description ................................................................................................. . 

Records available ..................................................................................................... . 

Flow characteri sties ................................................................................................. . 

Special studies ......................................................................................................... .. 

Inflow and profile ................................................................................................. .. 

Discharge at range line 41-42 ........................ ; ................................................. .. 

Hillsboro Canal. ........................................................................................................... .. 

Physical description ................................................................................................ .. 

Records available ..................................................................................................... . 

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XII CONTENTS 

Page 

Surface water-Continued 

Characteristics of drainage basins and summaries of gaging-station records-Con. 

Hillsboro Canal-Continued 

Flow characteristics................................................................................................... 369 

Sp~~i;~i:•e~~;;_~·;·;~~~h~~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ~~~ ·seepage in tidal reach............................................................................................ 374 

North New River Canal. .................................................................................................. 375 

Physical description................................................................................................... 375 

Records available........................................................................................................ 378 

Flow characteristics................................................................................................... 382 

Seepage rates............................................................................................................... 386 

South New River Canal................................................................................................... 389 

Physical description................................................................................................... 389 

Records available:....................................................................................................... 391 

Flow characteristics................................................................................................... 3W 

Lower New River basin:................................................................................................. 399 

Physical description................................................................................................... 399 

Flow characteristics................................................................................................... 400 

Special studies............................................................................................................. 402 

General flow distribution. ....................................................................................... 402 

Tide stage and discharge relationships............................................................... 404 

Miami Canal-'upper and middle reaches.................................................................... 406 

Physical description................................................................................................... 406 

Records available........................................................................................................ 408 

Flow characteristics .................................................................................................... 411 

Lower Miami Canal.......................................................................................................... 412 

Physical description................................................................................................... 413 

Records available ........................................................................................................ · 421 

Hydraulic characteristics of headwaters.................................................................. 435 

Reservoir area.......................................................................................................... 435 

Storage inflow reach ................................................................................................ · 438 

Tidal reaches............................................................................................................... 439 

The fundamental tide.............................................................................................. 439 

Tide levels ..................................... :......................................................................... 441 

Tidal characteristics of sea-level canals ............................................. ;.............. 444 

Tidal fluctuations in Miami Canal........................................................................ 448 

Flow characteristics of Miami Canal........................................................................ 458 

Computation of discharge by tide-correction method, by C. C. Yonker ............... 471 

Physical characteristics of stream....................................................................... 471 

Measurements of discharge .............................. :..................................................... 472 

Development of rating curve................................................................................... 475 

Special studie8................. ............................. ......................... ................................... 476 

Storage capacity of reservoir................................................................................. '476 

Seepage rates and profiles in tidal reaches ........................................................ · 478 

Backwater effect in tidal reaches .... ·..................................................................... 481 

Well-field area.......................................................................................................... 482 

Tidal storage_of Miami River ........................................................................ ~._....... 484 

Tamiami Canal ....... ~......................................................................................................... 486 

Physical description ........................................................................... ·........................ 487 

Records available........................................................................................................ 489 

Flow characteristics .................... ; .............................................................................. · 495 

Seepage rates and profile in lower reaches............................................................. 501 

Secondary canals ........................................................................................ ~.................... 502 

~~~~:~~ g::~··c:~~~i·.:~::·.~~·.::·.·.~:~~:·.~·.·.~~~·:.:::~·.::~:::~:~~~:~~·.·:.·.-.~~~~:~:~:~~~:·.·.:·::.·.·.·.~::::~~~:~:·.:·.:~·.~·::.~:::· .. ~g~ Tidal canals in the Miami area.................................................................................. 508 

Areal studies .................................................................................................................... 509 

General study of Everglades ...................................................................... ;................ 510 

Area west of Hialeah .................................................................... ;............................. 510 

Hydrologic studies, by W. B. Langbein.: .......................................................................... 511 

Introduction ............................................................................ :......................................... 511 

General hydrology of the area........................................................................................ 512 

Analysis of climatologic data. ....................................................................................... ·516 

Kissimmee River basin ................................................................................................... 524 
CONTENTS 

Surface water-Continued 

Hydrologic studies-Continued 

Kissimmee River basin-Continued 

XIII 

Page 

Explanation of methods............................................................................................... 524 

Separation of direct and base flow........................................................................ 524 

~~~t~~~~1~·~t~·;;g~::.::·.·::::.:·.:·::.:·.·.·:::.:·::::.:·:::. :::·::.·:.:·:.~:::::::::::::::::.·::·::.~:::.:·::.·:::::.·::::.·: ~~~ Annual runoff an.alyses............................................................................................... 531 

Monthly rainfall-runoff relations................................................................................ ·540 

Water losses and storage............................................................................................ 544 

Lake Okeechobee............................................................................................................ 551 

Everglades area .................................................. ·............................................................. 560 

Salt-water encroachment, by Garald G. Parker, R. H. Brown, D. B. Bogart, and 

S. K. Love .............. :.......................................................................................................... 571 

Source of salt-water contamination................................................................................... 571 

General statement............................................................................................................ 571 

Atlantic Ocean ........................................................... ~..................................................... 572 

Chemical composition of sea water near Miami....................................................... 572 

Specific gravity of sea water ................................... : ................................................. · 573 

Biscayne Bay .............. ~.................................................................................................... 574 

Chloride concentrations ................................. ;............................................................ 574 

Chemical composition of salt-contaminated waters ...................................................... ;. 577 

Surface waters.................................................................................................................. 577 

Ground waters.................................................................................................................. 577 

Historical review of encroachment in the Miami area..................................................... 580 

Early conditions............................................................................................................... 580 

Changes between 1907 and 193Q................................................................................... 584 

Conditions since 1939.................................................................................................... 587 

Encroachment in the aquifer directly from the ocean..................................................... 591 

Historical review of literature on coastal ground water............................................ 591 

Studies in the Silver Bluff area of Miami ....................................... ,............................. 593 

Selection of the site for st••dy.................................................................................... 593 

Preliminary work .......................................................................................................... · 594 

Objectives.................................................................................................................... 596 

Procedures.................................................................................................................... 596 

Specific gravity of sea and ground water................................................................. 598 

Silver·Bluff studies..................................................................................................... 600 

Effect of rainfall on the isochlor pattern................................................................. 608 

Characteristics and changes in position of the salt-water wedge ........................ · 610 

Tidal-storage changes.................................................................................................... 617 

Encroachment in the tidal canals, by D. B. Bogart...................................................... 618 

Salinity investigations ............................................................................. ::.................... 619 

Areas studied............................................................................................................. 619 

Sampling procedure..................................................................................................... 619 

Density currents and hydraulic relationships ................................ :............................ 620 

Divided flow and shape of density currents............................................................ 620 

The mechanics of salt contamination....................................................................... 621 

Variation of chloride concentration with tides....................................................... 626 

Location of salt front................................................................................................. 628 

Residual contamination. ............................................................................................ , 630 

Miami area........................................................................................................................ 631 

Miami Canal................................................................................................................. 631 

Location of salt front............................................................................................. 636 

Palmer Lake ............................................................. ;.............................................. 640 

"'Twin· Lakes.............................................................................................................. 641 

Snake Creek Canal ............................................................... ;...................................... 641 

Biscayne CanaL.......................................................................................................... 645 

Little River Canal...................................................................................................... 652 

Tamiami Canal............................................................................................................ 659 

Seminole Lake......................................................................................................... 666 

Coral Gables Canal.................................................................................................... 667 

Snapper .Creek Canal.................................................................................................. 67 4 

Fort Lauderdale area. ....................... ,............................................................................. 677 

Lower New River basin.............................................................................................. 677 

Middle River basin...................................................................................................... 679 

Homestead area............................................................................................................... 679 
XIV CONTENTS 

Salt-water encroachment-Continued 

Salt-water contamination of the aquifer from tidal canals, by Garald G. Parker ...... . 

Contamination of canals by residual salty ground water ............................................. . 

Salt-water encroachment in the Miami well fields ....................................................... .. 

Spring Gardens well field ........................................................................................... .. 

Miami Sprin~Hia~eah :-vell fiel.d ............................................................................... . 

Salt-water Intrusions In the Miami Canal. .............................................................. . 

Contamination of wells ............................................................................................ .. 

Coconut Grove well field ............................................................................................ .. 

Salt-water encroachment along the Dade County shoreline other than at Silver 

Bluff. ............................................................................................................................... . 

Electrical-resistivity studies, by H. Cecil Spicer ....................................................... .. 

Introduction. ................................................................................................................... . 

Electric conduction ...................................................................................................... .. 

Field measurements ...................................................................................................... . 

Interpretation of the resistivity curves ..................................................................... ,. 

Measurements at Miami.. .............................................................................................. .. 

Silver Bluff area ....................................................................................................... .. 

Cutler area. .................................................................................................... -.......... .. 

Measurements at Fort Lauderdale ............................................................................... . 

Evaluation of the·method ......................................................................... : ................... . 

Quality of ground and surface waters, by S. K. Love ...................................................... . 

Introduction ........................................................................................................................ . 

Earlier reports on quality of water .................................................................................. . 

Methods of investigation .................................................................................................. . 

Collection and examination of samples ..................................................................... .. 

Expression of results ................................................................................................... .. 

Constituents and properties of natural waters .......................................................... . 

Color ............................................................................................................................ . 

Specific conductance ............................................................................................... .. 

Silica. ......................................................................................................................... .. 

Iron .............................................................................................................................. . 

Calcium ....................................................................................................................... . 

Magnesium ................................................................................................................. .. 

Sodium and potassium .............................................................................................. .. 

Bicarbonate ................................................................................................................ . 

Sulfate ......................................................................................................................... . 

Chloride ...................................................................................................................... . 

Fluoride ..................................................................................................................... .. 

Nitrate ........................................................................................................................ .. 

Dissolved solids ....................................................................................................... .. 

Hardness ..................................................................................................................... . 

Hydrogen sulfide ....................................................................................................... .. 

Hydrogen-ion concentration (pH) ........................................................................... .. 

Corrosiveness ............................................................................................................ . 

Chemical character of surface waters ........................................................................... .. 

Kissimmee River ............................................................................................................ . 

Other streams contributing to Lake Okeechobee ..................................................... .. 

Lake Okeechobee and principal outflow canals ....................................................... .. 

Lake Okeechobee ...................................................................................................... . 

St. Lucie Canal. ........................................................................................................ . 

Caloosahatchee Canal ............................................................................................. .. 

Major Everglades drainage canals ............................................................................. .. 

West Palm Beach Canal. .......................................................................................... .. 

Hillsboro Canal ......................................................................................................... .. 

North New River Canal. ............................................................................................ . 

South New River Canal ............................................................................................ .. 

Miami Canal. ............................................................................................................... . 

Cypress Creek Canal. ............................................................................................... . 

Tamiami Canal. .......................................................................................................... . 

Miscellaneous sampling~ ............................................................................................... . 

Effect of drought conditions on chemical quality of Everglades canals .............. .. 

Chemical character of nonartesian ground waters ........................................................ . 

Metropolitan area of Miami .......................................................................................... .. 

Coastal areas south of Miami ..................................................................................... .. 

Page 

682 

. ·686 

687 

687 

691 

691 

·692 

705 

708 

712 

712· 

712 

714 

715 

715 

715" 

718 

'721 

·72s-· 

72'1 

'127 

727 

728 

728 

:729 

729 

730 

730 

731 

731 

731 

732 

732 

733 

733 

733 

734 

734 

735 

735 

736 

736 

737 

737 

738 

1

741 

741 

741 

747 

751 

755 

755 

758 

759 

766 

767 

'776 

777 

779 

784 

784 

785 

792 
CONTENTS 'XV 

Quality of ground and surface waters-Continued 

Page 

Chemical character of nonartesian ground waters-Continued 

Coastal areas north of Miami.......................................................................................... '197 

Broward County ............................................................................................................ 797 

Palm Beach County .......................................................................... ,:a .. ••••• .. ••"'"''''" 801 

Areas surrounding Lake Okeechobee ................................................. ~...................... 806 

Glades County ................................ :.............................................................................. 806 

Hendry County ............................................................................................................... · 809 

Palm Beach County ........................... : ................................................................ ~ ......... 811 

Martin County............................................................................................................... 814 

Okeechobee County..................................................................................................... 816 

Sum;nary of quality of ground water in Lake Okeechobee area............................. 818 

The Everglades............................................................................................................ 818 

Source of mineralization of ground waters in the Everglades............................... 821' 

Collier County.................................................................................................................. 822 

Chemical character of artesian waters ............................................................................. '· 826 

Public water supplies......................................................................................................... 8ZJ 

Appendix................................................................................................................................... 835 

Well records........................................................................................................................... 835 

Well logs ............. : ................................................................................................. :................ 859 

Municipal water supplies.~ .......... -......................................................................................... '919 

Interpretation of apparent resistivity curves ................................................................... · · 941 

Selected bibliography: .......................................... :.................................................................. 949 

Index. .................................................................................................................. ,...................... 957 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

[All plates in box] 

Plate 1. Map of southern Florida, showing locations of meteorological and 

stream-gaging stations. 

2. Maps of southern Florida, showing annual rainfall: 1932-46, in percent of normal. · 

3. Graph, showing climatological data for southeastern Florida •. 

4. Geologic map of southern Florida. 

5. Index map, showing location of geologic cross sections A-A', B-B', 

C-C', D-D', E-E', F-F', G-G', II-G', 1-1', and]-]', Dade 

County. 

6. Geologic cross section A-A', Dade County. 

7. Geologic cross section ll-lJ', Dade County. 

8. Geologic cross sections C-C', D-D', E-E', G-G', ll-G', and 

1-1', Dade County. 

9. Geologic cross sections F-F' and]-]', Dade County •. 

10. Hypsometric map of southern Florida. 

11. Map of southeastern Florida showing directions of surficial drainage 

r and trends of bar-and-swale toi?ography ••. 

12. Topographic-ecologic map of southern Florida. 

13. Map, showing the Silver Bluff Pleistocene shoreline and marine 

terrace, Dade County. · 

14. Map of Everglades and Atlantic Coastal Ridge, showing canals and 

their levels and discharges in a drought period, March 30 to 

April 2, 1943. 

15. Map of area west of Hialeah, showing discharges and water levels in 

a wet period, June 29 to July 1, 1942. 

16. Map of area west of Hialeah, showing discharges and water levels in 

a dry period, April 24-26, 1946. 

17. Map of Miami area, Florida, showing isochlors for ground water in 

. wells at depths of 40-60 feet and 80-130 feet, January 1947. 

18. Chart, showing comparison of driller's logs and chloride logs with 

resistivity interpretations, Fort Lauderdale. 
XVI CONTENTS 

Page 

Plate 19. Well index map of southern Florida. 

20. Well index map.of southeastern Broward County. 

21. Well index map of Miami metropolitan area. 

22. Well index map of Miami well-field area. 

23. Well index map of eastern Dade County. 

24. Well i4x map of southeastern Palm Beach County •. 

Figure 1. Map of southern Florida showing areas of investigation. ............................... ~ 6 

2. Schematic representation of the hydrologic cycle............................................ 16 

3. Map showing average annual precipitation, in inches, for southern 

Florida................................................................................................................ 23 

4, Graph showing seasonal distribution of rainfall. 91t selected locations 

in southern Florida........................................................................................... 29 

5. Chart showing relation of amount of precipitation to duration of storms 

in southern Florida.l~·....................................................................................... .31 

6. Graph showing characteristics of evaporation from selected pans in 

southeastern Florida........................................................................................ 50 

7. Study of pan evaporation in relation to temperatur; and wind movement 

at Belle Glade.................................................................................................... 53 

8. The Floridan Plateau........................................................................................... 60 

9. Generalized NNW-SSE geologic cross section from vicinity of Ocala 

to Florida City .. ;............................................................................................... 63 

10. East-west cross section along North New River Canal from 20-Mile Bend 

to Fort Lauderdale........................................................................................... 91 

11. Dredge-cut in Caloosahatchee River showing small undulation~ in Fort 

Thompson formation.......................................................................................... 91 

12. Vie~ of contact of Miami oolite and Fort Thompson formation.................... 92 

13. Block diagram of the Miami area........................................................................ 93 

14, Cores from test wells in Dade County ........................ :...................................... 97 

15. Cores from test well S 394 at Delray Beach..................................................... 98 

16. Anastasia formation in road cut at south side of West Palm Beach golf 

course ................................................................................................................. 101 

17. Details in the Miami oolite, Dade County......................................................... 103 

18. Lake Flirt marl..................................................................................................... 108 

19. Miami oolite in cut at Florida Power and Light Company's Cutler plant..... 110 

20. Idealized geologic cross secHon at type locality of the Fort Thompson 

formation............................................................................................................ 117 

21. Natural limestone bridge ov,er Arch Creek........................................................ 127 

22. Rock pinnacles resulting ftom solution of Miami oolite................................. 128 

23. Silver Bluff, a Climatic O~timum sea cliff....................................................... 130 

24. Sea undercuttingcoralline~mestone of Key Vaca. ........................................... 131 

25. Close-up view of one of the..J.~rger solution holes in Dade County.............. · 133 

26. Borrow pit in Miami oolite at Fait Lauderdale................................................ 134 

27. Typical view of western part of the Everglades showing tree islands........ 148 

28. Contour map of rock floor of Everglades.......................................................... 150 

29. Idealized block diagram showing relationship of water table to land 

surface............................................................................................................... 157 

30. Idealized cross section showing relationship between water table and 

piezometric surface of artesian water in an area With geologic structure similar to that of Kissimmee valley...................................................... 158 

31. Index map of southern Florida showing areas for which information on 

shallow nonartesian aquifers is given.......................................................... 161 

32. Map of area west of Hialeah showing water table at high level on 

July 1, 1942...................................................................................................... 180 

33. Map of area west of Hialeah showing water table at intermediate level 

on April 26, 1946 ............................................................................................... 181 

34. Map of area west of Hialeah showing water table at low level on 

May 19, 1945 ................ ;.................................................................................... 182 

35. Piezometric map of the Floridan aquifer in 1944 ............................................ 190 

36. Generalized east-west cross section through Fort Pierce municipal 

. well field showing shallow strata and water table on August 3, 1944..... 19S 

37. Generalized north-south cross section through Fort Pierce municipal 

well field showing shallow strata and ground-water levels on 

June 6, 1944 ...................................................................................................... 196 

38. Hydrographs showing average monthly water levels in key observation 

wells G 3, G 10, and G 72.............................................................................. 202 

39. Hydrographs showing average monthly water levels in key observation 

wells F 179, F 210, and S 182 ....................................................................... 203 
CONTENTS XVII 

Page 

Figure 40. Hydrographs showing average monthly water levels in key observation 

wells S 18, S 19, and S 329 ............................................................................. 204 

41. Hydrograph showing average monthly water levels in well S 196, Univ. 

of Florida Expt. Sta., Homestead, 1932-46 ................................................... 205 

42. Wa!~~::,b~e=a~f ~~;:;~~~:.~~-~~:~.~~~ .. ~~-~-~~-·~-~~:.~.~~~.:.~:~,~~-~-~.:..... 207 

43. Water-table map of the Biscayne aquifer in the Miami area showing -

medium stage, July 26, 1941. ........................................................................... 208 

44. Water-table map of the Biscayne aquifer in the Miami area showing 

high stage, September .30, 1940 ................................... ~ ............ -.................... _209 

45. Water-table map of the Biscayne aquifer in southeastern Dade County 

showing low stage, May 19, 1945 ................................................................... ,211 

46. Water-table map of the Biscayne aquifer in southeastern Dade County 

showing medium stage, March 17, 1941. ........................................................ 212 

47. Water-table map of the Biscayne aquifer in southeastern Dade County 

showing high stage, September 23, 1940 ........................................................ 213 

48, Graph showing fluctuations of water level in well G 72 following 

periods of heavy rainfall. .................................................................................. 215 

49, Graph showing fluctuations of water level in· well G 86 following 

periods of heavy rainfall.................................................................................. 216 

SO. Graph showing fluctuations of water level in well S 182 following 

period!:i of heavy rainfall .................................................................................. 218 

51. Graph showing total yearly rise of water level in well S 182 compared 

with precipitation at Peters for 1943-46...................................................... 220 

52. Typical fluctuations of water levels in wells G 72 and G 218 during 

rainless periods................................................................................................ 22·3 

53. Graph showing rate of decline of water level in well S 182 versus 

stage of water table correlated with average evaporation rate for 

preceding 5 days............................................................................................... 225 

54. Recession curves for five wells in the coastal Tidge...................................... 232 

55. Pumpage from Miami well field at Hialeah, 1925-46 .... ~ ................................. ;235 

56. Map of the Miami well-field area. ....................................................................... 1240 

57. Generalized cross section through wells S 1 to S 68 in the lower Miami 

well field ............................................................................................................ 241 

58. Graph showing transmissibility coefficient as detennined by distancedrawdown relationships from S 1 pumping test .............................................. 243 

59~ Time-drawdown graphs for pumping test of S 1, for wells 75 and 

150 feet distant ................................................................................................. , 244 

60. Time-drawdown graphs for pumping test of S 1, for wells 300, 500, 

.and 900 feet distant......................................................................................... 245 

61. Index map showing general location of ·wells G 551, G 5!?2, and G 553. ....... 250. 

62. Reading the mercury manometer of the pitometer used to measure discharge from the pumped well........................................................................... 251 

63. Sketch showing locations of well G 551 and observation wells.................... ,253 

64. Drawing showing method of construction of G 551, and logs of G 551 

and observation wells....................................................................................... 254 

65. Pump used in aquifer tests ........................................................ ,......................... 254 

66. Water discharging at a rate of 5 mgd from G 551 at the end of the 

2,000-ft Transite line ................................................................ : ....................... 255 

67. Time-drawdown graph for pumping test of G 551... ........................................... 256 

68. Distance-drawdown graph for pumping test of G 551...................................... 257 

69. Sketch showing location of well G 552 and observation wells...................... 259 

70. Drawing showing method of construction of G 552, and logs of G 552 

and observation wells...................................................................................... 260 

71. Time-drawdown graph for pumping test of G 552............................................. 261 

72. Distance-drawdown graph for pumping test of G 552....................................... 262 

73. Sketch showing location of G 553 and observation wells............................... 264 

74. Drawing showing method of construction of G 553, and logs of G 553 

and observation wells...................................................................................... 265 

75. Time-drawdown graphs for pumping tests of G 553.......................................... 266 

76. Distance-drawdown graphs for pumping tests of G 553 ................................... · ... 268 

77. Map of Opa Locka and vicinity showing water-table contours and 

ground-water drainage areas on August 29, 1940......................................... ZTS 

78. Stabilized profiles of water table between shoreline and center of · 

proposed well field. ........................................................................................ .!. 279 

346881 0-55--2 
XVIII CONTENTS 

Page 

Figure 79. Theoretical drawdowns in relation to distance from pumped well and 

time after start of pumping........................................................................... 282 

80. Graph showing drawdowns resulting from pumpage within and beyond 

a circle of 7-mile radius............................................................................... 284 

81. Map of proposed well-field area showing theoretical cone of depressiob 

a,ter drawdowns for a uniformly recharged circleof7-mile radius are 

superimposed on the average water table.................................................. 286 

82. Curve showing estimated evapotranspiration salvage resulting from 

lowering the watet: table............................................................................... 287 

83. Profiles of the water table and plan of the stabilized cone of depression in an ideal aquifer of semi-infinite extent with.reduced recharge from a canal....................................................................................... 288 

84. Recording gage at stream-gaging station on Miami Canal at Water 

Plant, Hialeah ................. : ..................................................... ~....................... 292 

85. Staff gage graduated in feet and hundredths of a foot at stream• 

gaging station on Miami Canal at Water Plant, Hialeah.......................... 292 

86. Graph of discharge of Kissimmee River near Okeechobee, 1928-46......... 310 

87. Stage-area, and storage capacity curves for Lake Okeechobee.................. 322 

88. Graph showing stages of Lake Okeechobee, 1915-46 ............................ :.... 324 

89. Protective levee around Lake Okeechobee................................................... 325 

90. Hurricane gate no. 6, located at the mouth of Taylor Creek near 

Okeechobee.................................................................................................... 326 

91. Control and lock in Hillsboro Canal near Deerfield Beach, a typical 

Everglades installation................................................................................ 335 

92. Water control facilities in the upper Everglades.......................................... 338 

93. Diagram of water relationships in typical farmed area of the upper · 

Everglades during dry and wet periods...................................................... 339 

94. Top of wall of lock in South New River Canal at South Bay...................... 340 

95. Aquatic growth in Everglades canals............................................................. 343 

96. Graphs showing stage and discharge of West Palm Beach Canal, 

1939-42.......................................................................................................... 352 

97. Graphs showing stage and discharge of West Palm Beach Canal, 

1943-46.......................................................................................................... 353 

98. Runoff pattern and stage profile of West Palm Beach (;anal on 

September 22, 1945........................................................................................ 359 

99. Graph of stage and discharge in the· eastern one-third of West Palm 

Beach Canal, October-December 1946 ............................ ,......................... 361 

100. Graphs of stage and discharge of Hillsboro Canal, 1939-42 .................... .' . 366 

101. Graphs of stage and discharge of Hillsboro Canal, 1943-46..................... 367 

102. Graph of monthly mean stage of Hillsboro Canal at Shawano,-1929-46... 372 

103. Graph showing discharge of Hillsboro Canal at Dixie Highway, D~:ierfield Beach, December 10, 1941 ........................... ~.................................... 374 

104. GrapP,s showing stage and discharge of North New River Canal, 

1939-42.......................................................................................................... 380 

105. Graphs showing stage and discharge of North New River Canal, 

1943-46.......................................................................................................... 381 

106. Graph of discharge and seepage rates of North New River Canal on 

May 1 and November 2, 3, 1944.................................................................... 388 

107. Graph of stage of South New River Canal about 8 miles west of 

Snake Creek Canal, 1941-46 ......................... ;............................................. 392 

108. Graph of stage and discharge of South New River Canal near Davie, 

1939-41. ............................................................................. :........................... 393 

109. Map of lower New River basin showing principal discharges on 

February 15, 1941. ............................. :........................................................... 403 

110. Graphs of stage and discharge in lower New River basin on 

February 15, 1941.......................................................................................... 405 

111. Graphs of stage and discharge of Miami Canal at Lake Harbor, 

1939-43.......................................................................................................... 410 

112. View of Miami Canal upstream from junction with South New River 

Canal ........................................................................................... ;................... 413 

113. View upstream in bed of Miami Canal; shallow excavation above 

head of deep channel.................................................................................... 414 

114. Lower Miami Canal above County Line Dam................................................ 414 

115. Upstream side of County Line Dam showing top of control gates, 

temporary irrigation-pump installation, and diversion to the 

borrow pit along the west side of Dade-Broward Levee.......................... .415 
CONTENTS XIX 

Page 

Figure 116. Miami Canal at Broken Dam.............................................................................. 416 

117. Graphs of stage and dischar~ of lower Miami Canal, 1939-40................... 428 

118. Graph of stage and discharge of lower Miami Canal, 1941.......................... 429 

119. Graph of stage and discharge of lower Miami Canal, 1942........................... 430 

120. Graph of stage and .discharge of lower Miami Canal, 1943........................... 431 

121. Graph of stage and discharge of lower Miami Canal, 1944 ....... ~................ 432 

122. Graph of stage and discharge of lower Miami Canal, 1945........................... 433 

123. Graph of stage and discharge of lower Miami Canal, 1946 .. ;........................ 434 

124. Map of Miami Canal reservoir area showing the flow pattern and w~ter 

conditions in a wet period, June 24, 1942.................................................. 436 

125. Graph of actual tidal variation in Biscayne Bay for a short period and 

predicted tidal variation for 1948................................................................. 440 

126. Graph of annual mean elevation and range of Atlantic Ocean at 

Miami Beach, 1931-46................................................................................... 442 

127. Diagram of tidal backwater in a canal and progressive changes of 

slope, directions of flow, and changes in storage of a tidal canal......... 447 

128, Hydrographs of stages at selected locations along Miami Canal, 

April 10-17, 1942 ............................................................................................ ·,449 

129. Graph of tidal variation in stage and discharge at stations along 

Miami River and Canal, February 17, 1941................................................. 452 

130. Graph of tidal variation in stage and discharge of Miami Canal at 

Water Plant; Hialeah, December 7, 1942, ':ltld June 23, 1943................... 455' 

131. Graph of stage of Miami Canal at Pennsuco, 1926-46.................................. 459 

132. Graph of annual maximum stage of Miami Canal at Pennsuco, 1926-46 .... -'··462 

133. Graphs of stage profiles of Miami Canal for selected dates and map 

of lower reaches of canal ...................................................... : ....................... · '468 

134. Profile of Miami Canal during hurricane of September 15, 1945, and 

stage graphs for stations along the canal for the storm period................ 470 

135. Graphical determination of the tide-corrected gage height of Miami 

Canal at Water Plant, Hialeah. ..................................................................... ·'4·~ 

136. Graph of relationship between tide-corrected gage height and discharge for Miami Canal at Water Plant, Hialeah........................................ 475 

137. Graph of available storage in reservoir area of Miami Canal above 

County Line Dam and rating of control gates in dam ................................ ~ 477 

138, Graph of cumulative discharge, seepage rates, and profiles of 

Miami Canal from County Line Dam to Water Plant, Hialeah, 

on selected dates........................................................................................... · '479 

139. Graph of stages, tidal fluctuations, and profiles along lower Miami 

Canal, November and December, 1945......................................................... 480 

140. Map of Miami well-field area showing distribution of canal flow on 

March 28, 1946................................................................................................ 483 

141. Graph of tidal variation in stage and discharge at two locations on 

Miami River, June 28, 1946........................................................................... 485 

142. Graphs of stage and discharge of Tamiami Canal, 1939-42....................... 491 

143. Graphs of stage and discharge of Tamiami Canal, 1943-46........................ 492 

144. Graph and map of flow distribution and profiles of Tamiami Canal 

outlets during a wet period, October 5, 1945............................................ 496 

145. Middle reaches of Tamiami Canal near 40-Mile Bend in severe 

drought period, April 1944............................................................................. 497 

146. Graph of cumulative discharge, seepage rates, and profile of 

Tamiami Canal from Dade-Broward Levee to Red Road, September 16, 1941.............................................................................................. 502 

147. Graph of discharge of Boynton Canal at Boynton Beach, 1941-43............ 503 

148. Graph of stage and discharge of Cypress Creek Canal at Pompano, 

1940-43........................................................................................................... 506 

149. Map of drainage basins of southern Florida showing mean annual 

runoff in inches, 1935-46 .......................................... :.................................. 514 

150. Hydrograph of Kissimmee River near Okeechobee, 1937.............................. 525 

151. Lower part of depletion rating curve, Kissimmee River near 

Okeechobee..................................................................................................... 526 

152. Average depletion hydrograph, Kissimmee River near Okeechobee............ 5Zl 

153. Relation between rate of base flow and base storage, Kissimmee 

River near Okeechobee ....................................... ,......................................... 528 

154. Recession rating curve of direct runoff, Kissimmee River near 

Okeechobee..................................................................................................... 529 

155. Direct-runoff storage, Kissimmee River near Okeechobee........................... 530 
XX CONTENTS 

Page 

Figure 156, Annual rainfall-runoff relation, Kissimmee River near Okeechobee............ 532' 

157. Monthly rainfall-runoff relations, Kissimmee River near Okeechobee ......... '542 

158. Monthly change in base flow, Kissimmee River near Okeechobee ............... 543 

159. Study of the relation between base flow and total storage, Kissimmee 

River basin ........................................................................................................ 547 

160. Stcnilge and cumulative precipitation and runoff during average year, · . 

· Kissimmee River near Okeechobee ............................................................... 549 

161. Study of the relation between rate of outflow and storage in the 

Everglades area, 1940-46 ............................................................................. 567 

162. Rainfall-runoff diagram, Everglades area. ....................................................... 568 

163. Location of sampling stations in Biscayne Bay ........................................... ~. 575' 

164. Analyses of uncontaminated and contaminated ground water ........................ 5.78 

165. Deviation of cation concentrations in contaminated ground water 

from computed cation concentrations ........................................ ,.................. 579 

166. Rapids of the Miami River before dredging of Miami Canal .......................... 581 

'167. Looking upstream from the mouth of the Miami River before dredging 

of Miami Canal. ..................................................... ~.......................................... 583 

168. Map of metropolitan Miami area showing isochlors for 1928-29, based 

'on samples of ground water from drainage wells ........................................ 586 

169. Maps showing progressive salt-water encroachment in the Miami area, . 

1904-50............................................................................................................ 589 

170. Map of Silver Bluff area, Miami, showing the location of wells used in 

studies of salt-water encroachment ............................................................. 595 

171. Graph showing relation between specific gravity and chloride concentration in artificial mixtures of ground water and sea water.................... 599 

172. Composite profile for salt-water encroachment study of July 26, 1941, 

Silver Bluff.area, Miami ................................................................................. · 600 

173. Composite profile for salt-water encroachment study of February 4, 

1942, Silver Bluff area, Miami .................................................................. , ... 601 

174. Composite profiles for salt-water encroachment .studies of July 26, 

1941, and February 4, 1942, Silver Bluff area, Miami.. ............................. 605 

175. Graph showing correlation between fluctuation .of water level in well 

F 179 and chloride content in 12 wells of the Silver Bluff area; , 

Miami, 1940-46 ........................................................... :................................... 607 

176. Generalized cross section showing isochlor pattern in the Silver 

Bluff area, October 1940 and December 1.946............................................ 609 

177. Variation of chloride with depth in selected wells in Silver Bluff . 

area, Miami, February 4, 1942 ..................................................................... 615 

178. Schematic profile to illustrate method of computing theoretical bulk 

change in ground-water storage due to tides .............................................. 617 

179. Profile of Miami Canal above NW. :36th Street Dam showing chloride 

concentratioqs on May 15, 1945................................................................... 623 

180. Cross sections of Miami Canal at NW. 36th Street and at the Miami 

Springs-Hialeah bridge showing approxi!llate horizontal layering 

of salty water on May 15, 1945 ....... ~............................................................. 625 

181. Graph of vertical variations of chlori~e concentration in Biscayne 

Canal at four phases of a tide cycle ........................................................... 626 

182. Variations of stage, velocity, and chloride concentration in Snapper 

Creek Canal during one tidal cycle............................................................. 621 

183. Profile of Biscayne Canal showing isochlors at high and low tide on 

March 24, 1948 ................................................................................................ · 629 

184. Map of Miami area showing maximum observed chloride concentrations 

in the tidal canals, May-July 1945 ............................................................. 633 

185. Graph of chloride concentrations in lower Miami Canal during drought 

period of 1939 ................................................................................................ .- 635 

186. Graph of location of 1,000~pm chloride concentration and discharge 

of Miami Canal, 1940-46.............................................................................. 637 

187. Map showing chloride concentrations at sampling stations in lower 

New River basin, April 30, 1946................................................................. 678 

188. Map of Homestead area, showing chloride concentrations in canals, 

February 22, 23, 1941, and June and July 1945........................................ 680 

189. Map of Miami well-field area showing shape of typical cones of depression in the water table ................................ ,.......................................... 68"4 

190. Geologic cross section near the Miami well field: A, prior to saltwater intrusion; n, the beginning of the intrusion; C, several 

months later; D, a late stage ....................................................................... · 1685 
CONTENTS XXI 

Page 

Figure 191. Geologic cross section under North New River Canal showing residual salty ground water contaminating fresh canal water .....................• 687 

192, Graph showing variation of chloride in:A,l\1iami Canal at NW. 54th 

Street; E,wells F 1, F 2, F 3, and S 68, Miami well-field area. .............. 690 

193. Isochlor map of the Miami well-field area: A, December 1939; 

D, June 1940; C, January 1941; D, February 1942 ................ !: ................. 693 

194. Isochlor map of the Miami well-field area: A, January 1943; 

B, March 1943; C, May 1943; D, September 1943 ....................................... 696 

195. Isochlor map of the Miami well-field area: A, May 1944; n, July 

1944; C, September 1944; and D, November 1944 ...................................... 697 

196, lsochlor map of the Miami well-field area: A, December 1944; 

B, May 1945; C, July 1945; D, August 1945 ............................................... 699' 

197. lsochlor map of the Miami well-field area: A, September 1945; 

B, November 1945; C, January 1946; and D, April 1946 ............................ 701 

198. lsochlor map of the Miami well-field area: A, May 1946; E, June 

1946; C, September 1946; and D, December 1946 ...................................... '703 

199. Map and cross section of the Coconut Grove well-field area showing 

location and depth of wells and infiltration gallery, isochlor 

pattern, and water-table profile for June 20, 1940 ..................................... 706 

200. Map of eastern Dade County showing the area bounded by the 1,000-

ppm isochlor of salty ground water in the Biscayne aquifer .................... 709 

201; Topographic map and cross section of the Cutler area, Dade County, 

showing locations and depths o.f wells, isochlor pattern, and 

water-table profile.......................................................................................... 710 

202. Specific conductance of salty water for low ranges of chloride content.... 713 

203. Specific conductance of salty water for high and low ranges of 

chloride content.............................................................................................. 713 

204. Resistivity curves obtained in the Cutler area.............................................. 714' 

205, Location of resistivity lines and related wells, Silver Bluff area,· 

Miami ................................................................................................................ 716 

206. Comparison of driller's logs and chloride logs with resistivity interpretations, Silver Bluff area, Miami ............................................................. 717 

207, Location of resistivity lines and related wells, Cutler area. ....................... 718 

208, Comparison of driller's logs and chloride logs with resistivity interpretations, Cutler area................................................................................... 719 

209. Comparison of driller's logs and chloride logs with resistivity interpretations, Cutler area................................................................................... ·720 

210. Comparison of driller's logs and c]lloride logs with resistivity interpretations, Cutler area and near Goulds ...................................................... 721 

211. Location of resistivity lines and related wells, Fort Lauderdale area...... 722 

212. Correlation of resistivity layers near Fort Lauderdale ................................. 723 

213. Graph showing discharge and dissolved solids in the Kissimmee 

River near Okeechobee, 1940-41. ................................................................ 738 

214. Location of sampling stations in Lake Okeechobee..................................... 742 

215. Graph showing ~nalyses of waters of the Kissimmee River, Fisheating Creek, and Lake Okeechobee........................................................... 747 

216. Graph showing analyses of water from Caloosahatchee and St. Lucie 

Canals ............................................................ :................................................. 755 

217. Graph showing discharge and dissolved solids in North New River 

Canal at 26-Mile Bend and near Fort Lauderdale, 1941-42. .................... 759 

218. Graph showing chloride concentrations in North New River Canal 

between South Bay and State Highway 7 ..................................................... 764 

219. Graph of discharge and dissolved solids in Miami Canal at Water 

Plant, Hialeah, 1941-42 ................................................... ~-.................... 767 

220. Graph showing analyses of waters of Miami and North N'~w River 

. Canals.............................................................................................................. 775 

221. Maps showing chloride concentrations in ground water at different 

depths in the Everglades: A, wells less than 20-ft deep; D, wells 

21-50 ft deep; C, wells 51-100 ft deep..................................................... 820 

222. l\1ap showing hardness of public water supplies in southeastern 

Florida, .1941................................................................................................... 832 

223. Index map showing municipal water supplies in southern Florida.............. 920 
XXII CONTENTS 

TABLES 

Page 

Table 1. Population of 12 counties in area of investigation............................................ 8 

2. List of rain gages in southern Florida showing locations and periods 

of record ............................................................................................................. 18 

3. Annual precipitation (in inches) in vicinity of Kissimmee-Everglades 

drainage basin, 1932-46.................................................................................... 24 

4. Amounts of 24-hour rainfall to be expected at rare intervals........................... 32 

5. Precipitation deficiency and temperature in relation to normal during 

periods of drought at Miami and Kissimmee.................................................... 36 

6. Precipitation deficiency and temperature in relation to normal during 

periods of drought in southern Florida............................................................ 38 

7. Location, description, and period of record of selected evaporation 

pans operated in southeastern Florida ............................................................. 45 

8. Monthly and annual evaporation, in inches, for ven_tilated pan at 

Belle Glade .................................................................................... :..................... 47 

9. Monthly and annual evaporation, in inches, for sunken pan at Moore 

Haven, Glades County........................................................................................ 48 

10. Monthly and annual evaporation, in inches, .for floating pan at West 

Palm Beach, Palm Beach County..................................................................... 49 

11. Geologic formations of southeastern Florida...................................................... .:-66 

12. Macrofaunas from U. S. Geological Survey Station 15112 (USGS test well 

G 188), Krome Road and the Tamiami Trail, 19 miles west of Miami......... 72 

13. Cenozoic time correlations .................................................................................... 111 

14. Tentative correlation of Pleistocene and Pliocene formations in 

southern Florida.................................................................................................. 115 

15. Pleistocene terraces of Southeastern United States .......................................... 117 

16. Values of S computed from drawdowns in deep wells ........................................ ·248 

17. Values of S computed from drawdowns in shallow wells .................................. 248 

18. Drawdown, in feet, for well G 553 and observation wells at end of 5-

hour pumping test..: ......................................... : ................................................... 267 

19. Computed values of S based on drawdowns after 5 hours of pumping 

and a value of T equal to 3,5 mgd per ft. ........................................................ 1268 

20. Principal datum planes used in the Everglades and in the Miami area .......... ~ 294 

21. Index of discharge and stage records in Lake Okeechobee and Everglades basins as of Jan. 1, 1947 ..................................................................... ·297 

22. Runoff of Kissimmee River at outlet of, and below, Lake Kissimmee ............ ·303 

23. Summary of discharge and water-level data at stations in Kissimmee 

River basin for selected periods ...................................................................... 304 

24. Runoff of Reedy Creek near Loughman ................................................................ 306 

25. Runoff of Kissimmee River near Okeechobee ..................................................... 308 

26. Runoff from lower Kissimmee River basin .......................................................... 309 

27. Runoff of Arbuckle Creek near DeSoto City ........................................................ 312 

28. Runof( of lstokpoga Canal near Cornwell ............................................................ 314 

29. Runoff of Fisheating Creek at Palmdale ............................................................. 316 

30 •• Runoff of Indian Prairie Canal riear Okeechobee............................................... 318 

31. Runoff of Taylor Creek at Okeechobee ................................................................ ·320 

32. Runoff of Caloosahatchee Canal .................................................................... ;.; ... ' 329 

33. Runoff of St. Lucie Canal at Lake Okeechobee ................................................. 331 

34, Runoff of West Palm Beach Canal at Canal Point. ................ : ............................ ~54 

35. Runoff of West Palm Beach Canal at West Palm Beach .................................... );354 

36. Runoff of Hillsboro Canal at Belle Glade ............................................................ 368 

37. Runoff of Hillsboro Canal near Deerfield Beach ................................................ 368 

38. Runoff of North' New River Canal at South Bay .................................................. 379 

39. Runoff of North New River Canal near Fort Lauderdale ................................... 379 

40. Discharge measurements, in cubic feet per second, and elevations, in 

feet above mean sea level, of South New River, Flamingo, and Snake 

Creek Canals at intersection............................................................................. 394 

41. Runoff of South New River Canal near Davie ..................................................... 396 

42. Runoff of Miami Canal at Lake Harbor ............................................................... : .. ·409 
CONTENTS 

Table 43. Discharge, in cubic feet per second, and elevation, in feet above mean , 

sea level, at selected points principally in headwater storage area 

XXIII 

Page 

of lower Miami Canal and the upper South New River Canal... ..................... 422 

44. Discharge, seepage, and water-level -:lata on Miami Canal in storage 

inflow reach, County Line Dam to Pennsuco .................................................. 423 

45. Runoff of Miami Canal at Pennsuco, near Miami ............................. :':': ................ c425 

46. Discharge measurements of Pennsuco Lateral at Pennsuco, near Miami ....... 426 

47. Runoff of Miami Canal at Water Plant, Hialeah. ................................................. 427 

48. Comparison of discharges for Miami Canal at Pennsuco and Water Plant 

gaging stations ....... ; ............................................................................................ 467 

49. Runoff of Tamiami Canal outlets (between Monroe and the DadeBroward Levee) west of Miami ......... .-................................................................ "'~493 

SO. Annual summary of discharges, in cubic feet per second, for gaging 

stations on Tamiami Canal. ............................................................................... 493 

51. Runoff of Tamiami Canal near Coral Gables...................................................... 494 

52. Runoff of Tamiami Canal at Red Road, Miami .................................................... 494 

53. Runoff of Boynton Canal at Boynton Beach ........................................................ 504 

54. Cypress Creek Canal at Pompano ........................................................................ · 507 

55. Annual summary of hydrologic data for southeastern Florida ......................... : 512 

56. Summary of runoff, in inches, for selected drainage basins in southern 

Florida for calendar years 1930-46 ................................................................. 515 

57. Weighted average precipitation in Kissimmee River basin above Okeechobee, by months, computed by the Thiessen method from rainfallstation records .................................................................................................... 517 

58. Numb~r of rain gages used to determine precipitation in given drain'a~e 

bastns ................................................................................................................... 524 

59. Monthly runoff analyses, Kissimmee River near Okeechobee, 1930-46 ......... 533 

60. Average monthly and annual hydrologic data, Kissimmee River near 

Okeechobee, 1931-46 ........................................................................................ ·540 

61. Annual summary of hydrologic data, Kissimmee River basin .......................... 550 

62. Hydrologic summary of Lake Okeechobee, 1940-46 ................................ : ........ 552 

63. Hydrologic summary of Everglades area south and east of Lake 

Okeechobee .......................................................................................................... 562 

64. Annual summary of hydrologic data, Everglades area. ...................................... 570 

65. Analyses of sea water ........................................................................ .' .................. ~ 572 

66. Chloride concentrations at sampling stations in Biscayne Bay, May 1940 .... 576 

67. Canals in the Miami area and periods of their construction ............................. 587 

68. Specific gravity of sea water samples diluted with uncontaminated 

ground water .............................................................................. : ......................... - 599 

69. Salt-water encroachment data for Silver Bluff area, Miami; July 25, 26, 

1941, and February 3, 4, 1942 .......................................................................... : 602 

70. Data and computations for adjusting water-table elevations at two 

selected sites in Silver Bluff area, February 4, 1942 .................................. '616 

71. Chloride in Miami Canal during spring and summer of 1939 ............................. 634 

72. Chloride concentrations in Snake Creek Canal, Miami ..................................... 642-

73. Chloride concentrations in Biscayne Canal, Miami. ......................................... '646 

74. Chloride concentrations in Little River Canal, Miami.. .................................... 653 

75. Chloride concentrations in Tamiami Canal, Miami............................................ 660 

76. Chloride concentrations in Coral Gable> Canal, Miami... ................................. 668 

77. Chloride concentrations in Snapper Creek Canal, Miami .................................. 674 

78. Analyses of ground and surface water at Miami, January 21, 1919 ................. '689 

79. Analyses of water from infiltration gallery and shallow wells in the 

Coconut Grove well field. ................. : ................................................................ 707 

80. Resistivities of layers in the Silver Bluff area, Miami... .................................. 718 

81. Resistivities of layers in the Cutler area ......................... : ................................. 720 

82. Analyses, in parts per million, of water from the Kissimmee River near 

Okeechobee .......................................................................................................... 739 

-83. Analyses, in parts per million, of water from Lake Okeechobee. .................... 744 

84. Analyses, in parts per million, of water from St. Lucie Canal at lock 1, 

Lake Okeechobee ................................................................................................ 7 48 

85. Analyses, in parts per million, of water from Caloosahatchee Canal at 

Moore Haven. ....................................................................................................... 752 

86. Analyses of water from Lake Okeechobee floodway channel near Moore 

Haven, October 27, 1941 ............................................ ·....................................... 754 

87. Analyses, in parts per million, of water from West Palm Beach Canal 

at West Palm Beach ........................................................................................... 756 
XXIV 

Table 

CONTENTS 

Page 

88. Analyses, in parts per million, of water from West Palm Beach Canal 

from Canal Point to West Palm Beach ............................................................ 757 

89. Analyses, in parts per million, of water from Hillsboro Canal near 

Deerfield Beach................................................................................................ 758 

90. Analyses, in parts per million, of 10-day composite samples of water 

from North New River Canal near Fort Lauderdale .... , ................................. 760 

91. Analyses, in parts per million, of water from North River Canal near 

Fort Lauderdale ................................................................................................ 762 

92. Analyses, in parts per million, of water from North New River Canal 

from South Bay to State Highway 7 near Fort Lauderdale.......................... 763 

93. Analyses, in parts_per million, of water from South New River Canal 

west of bridge on State Highway 25 ................................................................ 766 

94. Analyses, in parts per million, of 10-day composite samples of water 

from Miami Canal at Water Plant, Hialeah.................................................... 768 

95. Analyses, in parts per million, of water from Miami Canal at Water 

Plant, Hialeah. ................................................................................................... 770 

96. Analyses, in parts per million, of water from Miami Canal north of dam 

at Dade-Broward County line.......................................................................... 77·2 

97. Analyses, in parts per million, of water from Miami Canal between 

Royal Palm Dock in Biscayne Bay and Pennsuco, near Hialeah.............. 774 

98. Analyses,· in parts per million, of water from Cypress Creek Canal, 

at Pompano........................................................................................................ 776 

99. Analyses, in parts per million, of water from Tamiami Canal at Krome 

Road, near Miami.............................................................................................. 777 

100. Analyses, in parts per million, of water from Tamiami Canal, near 

Co'ral Gables .. · .................................................................................................... 778 

101. Analyses, in parts per million, of miscellaneous surface waters in 

· southeastern Florida, 1939-42 ....................................................................... 780 

102. Analyses, in parts per million, of miscellaneous surface waters in 

southeastern Florida, May and September 1945 ............................................ 782 

103. Analyses, in parts per million, of nonartesian waters in the Miami 

metropolitan area............................................................................................... 786 

104. Analyses, in parts per million, of nonartesian waters in Dade County, 

outside Miami metropolitan area. ..................................................................... 793 

105. Analyses, in parts per million, of nonartesian waters in Broward 

County ................................................................................................................ 798 

106. Analyses, in parts per million, of nonartesian waters in eastern 

Palm Beach County.......................................................................................... 802 

107. Analyses, in parts per million, of nonartesian waters in Glades County ...... 807 

108. Analyses, in parts per million, of nonartesian waters in Hendry County ...... 810 

109. Analyses, in parts per million, of nonartesian waters in western Palm 

Beach County ................................................ ~·····································,············· 812 

110. Analyses, in parts per million, of nonartesian waters in Martin County...... 815 

111. Analyses, in parts per million, of nonartesian waters in Okeechobee 

County ................................................................................................................ 817 

112. Analyses, in parts per million, of nonartesian waters in Collier County ...... 823 

113. Analyses, in parts per million, of artesian waters in southeastern 

Florida ................................................................................................................ 824 

114. Analyses, in parts per million, of public water supplies in southern 

Florida, 1941-42 .......... ;.................................................................................. 828 

115. Analyses, in parts per million, of public water supplies in southern 

Florida, 1948 ...................................................................................................... 830 

116. Records of wells in Broward County .................................................................. 836 

117. Records of wells in Collier County .................................................................... 838 

118. Records of wells in Dade County........................................................................ 839 

119. Records of wells in Glades County .................................................................... 849 

120. Records of wells in Hendry County..................................................................... 850 

121. Records of wells in Highlands County.............................................................. 851 

122. Records of wells in Martin County ...................................................................... 852 

123. Records of wells in Okeechobee County ............................................................ 853 

124. Records of wells in Palm Beach County ............................................................ 854 

125. Record of well in St. Lucie County.................................................................... 858 

126. Logs of wells in Broward County ........................................................................ 859 

127. Logs of wells in Dade County ......................................................... ,.................. 871 

128. Logs'of wells in Glades County .................... , ..................................................... 902 

129. Logs of wells in Hendry County ...................................................... : ................... 904 
CONTENTS 

Page 

Table 130. Logs of wells in Highlands County................................................................... 906 

131. Logs of wells in Martin County ................................................................. ~ ....... 90S 

132. Logs of wells in Okeechobee County·................................................................ 909 

133. Logs of wells in Palm Beach County................................................................ 911 

134. Log of well in St •. Lucie County........................................................................ 917 

135. Municipal water supplies in Broward County ............................... ~.................. 919 

136. Municipal water supply in Collier County........................................................ 923 

137. Municipal water supplies in Dade County ........................................................ 924 

138. Municipal water supply in Glades County........................................................ 928 

139. Municipal water supplies in Hendry County..................................................... 929 

140. Municipal water supplies in Martin County...................................................... 930 

141. Municipal water supply in Monroe County........................................................ 932 

142. Municipal water supply in Okeechobee County............................................... 933 

143. Municipal water supplies in Palm Beach County............................................ 934 

144. Municipal water supply in St. Lucie County.................................................... 940 

145. Interpretations of apparent resistivity curves at Silver Bluff....................... 94l 

146. Interpretations of apparent resistivity curves at Cutler................................. 942. 

147. Interpretations of apparent resistivity curves at Fort Lauderdale .......... ~ ..... 946 
WATER RESOURCES OF SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE GEOLOGY AND 

GROUND WATER OF THE MIAMI AREA 

By Garald G. Parker, G. E. Ferguson, S. K. Love, and others 

AilS TRACT 

The circulation of water, in any form, from the surface of the earth to the atmosphere 

and back again is called the hydrologic cycle. A comprehensive study of the water resources of any area must, therefore, include data on the climate of the area. 

The humid subtropical climate of southeastern Florida is characterized ?Y relatively 

high temperatures, alternating semi-annual wet and dry seasons, and usually hght but persistent winds. 

The recurrence of drvught in an area having relatively large rainfall such as southeastern Florida indicates that the agencies that remove water are especially effective. 

Two of the most important of the agencies associated with climate are evaporation and 

transpiration, or "evapotranspiration "• Evaporation losses from permanent water areas 

are believed to average between about 40 and 45 inches per year. Over land areas indirect methods must be used to determine losses by evapotranspiration; necessarily, 

these values are not precise, 

Because of their importance in the occurrence and movement of both surface and ground 

waters, detailed studies were made of the geology and geomorphology of southern Florida. 

As a result of widespread crustal movements, southern Florida emerged from the sea 

in late Pliocene time and probably was slightly tilted to the west. At the beginning of 

the Pleistocene the continent emerged still farther as a result of the lowering of sea 

level attending the first widespread glaciation. During this epoch, southern Florida may 

have stood several hundred feet above sea level. 

During the interglacial ages the sea repeatedly flooded southern Florida. The marine 

members of the Fort Thompson formation in the Lake Okeechobee-Everglades depression 

and the Caloosahatchee River Valley apparently are the deposits of these interglacial 

invasions by the sea. The fresh-water marls, sands, and organic deposits of the Fort 

Thompson formation appear to have accumulated during glacial ages when sea level was 

low and the area was a land surface partly occupied by fresh-water lakes and marshes. 

Elsewhere in southern Florida the deposits are mainly marine limestones and sandy terrace deposits,· 

The Pliocene surface upon which these Pleistocene sediments were deposited was 

highest to the north and west of the present Everglades and Kissimmee River basin, and 

it sloped gently to the south, southeast, and east, On this slightly sloping floor, alternately submerged and emerged, the later materials were built; these materials, modified 

by wind, rain, and surface and ground waters, have-largely determined the present topographic and ecologic character of southern Florida. 

The most important aquifer in southern Florida, and the one in which most of the wells 

are developed, is the Biscayne aquifer, It is composed of parts of the Tamiami fonnation 

(Miocene), Caloosahatchee marl (Pliocene), Fort Thompson formation, Anastasia formation, Key Largo limestone, Miami oolite, and Pamlico sand (Pleistocene), In some parts 

of southern Florida, the Pamlico sand and the Anastasia formation are not a part of the 

Biscayne aquifer; however, they are ~tilized in the development of small water supplies, 

Most of the Caloosahatchee marl and the Fort Thompson formation in the Lake Okeecho-. 

bee area is of very low permeability. In the northern Everglades their less permea_ble 

1 
2 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

parts contain highly mineralized waters, whi~h appear to have been trapped since the invasions by the Pleistocene seas. These waters have been modified by dilution with 

fresh ground water and by chemical reactions with surrounding materials. 

Sea-level fluctuations, starting at the close of the Pliocene with highest levels and 

progressing tciward the Recent with successively lower levels, have built a series of 

nearly flat marine terraces abutting against one another much like a series of broad 

stairsteps. Erosion and solution have defaced and, in places, have obliterated the 

original surficial forms of these old sea bottoms, shores, and shoreline features, but 

their remnants today are widespread and, in some places, ·are easily recognizable. 

Ice-age terraces higher than 100 feet above present sea level are not present in south• 

eastern Florida. The terraces recognized and their approximate shoreline elevations are 

as follows: Wicomico, 100 feet; Penholoway, 70 feet; Talbot, 42 feet; Pamlico, 25 feet; 

and Silver Bluff, 5 feet. 

Southeastern Florida contains few major streams;· the two largest are the Kissimmee, 

which empties into Lake Okeechobee, and the Caloosahatchee, which empties into the 

Gulf of Mexico •. The flow in these streams is maintained largely by ground-water seepage from the aquifers underlying the higher terrace lands. Most of the rainfall in southeastern Florida evaporates or is utilized by plant transpiration; most of the remainder 

enters the permeable soils and percolates downward to the water table where it joins in 

a slow seaward or streamward underground flow. 

The action of downward and laterally moving ground water has modified land forms and 

has produced sinkholes, vertical solution pipes (natural wells), and innumerable small 

rounded ponds aligned with the tr~nd of underground sol uti on channels. Intermingling 

,channels and honeycomb-like holes in the underlying rocks cause extremely high permeabilities in some of the limestone aquifers and produce conditions favor'able for the 

development of wells with exceptionally high yields and extremely low drawdowns. 

Ground water occurs under both artesian and nonartesian conditions in southeastern 

Florida. Nonartesian water is. by far the most important because it occurs at shallow 

depths and is therefore more economical to develop; also, except in the upper Everglades, the quality of this water is the best obtainable for domestic use. 

The Biscayne aquifer is composed mainly of sandy limestone and calcareous sandstone with beds and pockets of quartz sand. The aquifer is riddled with solution holes 

generally filled with the sand, b~t numerous cavities of considerable size and extent 

occur. It is one of the most permeable aquifers ever investigated by the U. S. Geological Survey, and ranks with clean, well-sorted gravel in its capacity to transmit 

water. North o.f Dania, in Broward County, the aquifer contains considerable amounts of 

fine sand; this causes a lower coefficient of transmissibility. In the Fort Lauderdale 

well-field area the transmissibility is about 1,200,000 gpd per ft, but nearer the coast it 

is probably higher. : 

The Biscayne aquifer underlies eastern Dade County to depths ranging from about 70 

to 125 feet, but it becomes thinner tothewest,andisoflower transmissibility beginning 

about 15 miles west of Biscayne Bay. In the Everglades, in the latitude of Fort Lauderdale, and along the coastal ridge near Delray Beach, the Fort Thompson formation is 

finally displaced as the major unit of the aquifer by the Anastasia formation and the 

Caloosahatchee marl. 

Wells developed in the Biscayne aquifer are usually of open-hole, rock-wall construction, having from 1 foot to about 15 feet of open hole below the bottom of the casing. 

An average well, 6 inches in diameter and 50 feet deep, will yield 1,000 to 1,500 gpm 

with a drawdown of less than 4 feet, and it will recover almost immediately. Small wells, 

10 to 30 feet deep, are commonly obtained by manually driving a pipe 17~ to 2Ya inches in 

diameter into the ground and developing. either an open-hole, a rock-wall, or a sandpoint well. 
WATER RESOURCES IN SOUnn:AST£RN fiORIDA 3 

The principal ~esian aquifer of Florida is here named the Floridan aquifer. :It in· 

cludes most or all of the middle Eo_cene (Avon Park limestone), upper Eocene (Ocala 

limestone), Oligocene (Suwannee limestone), and Miocene (Tampa limestone,_but only a 

minor part of the Hawthorn J~~_ati~n).:' It is found at depths of 800 to 1,200 feet in the 

southern part of the State where it yields water that is sulfurous, saline, hard, and corrosive. ·The water in wells penetrating the Floridan aquifer will rise as "11\Uch as 40 feet 

"Bbove sea level. The typical well yields about 750 gpm by natural flow. 

In the past, water from the Floridan aquifer has had very limited use in southern 

Florida. It is expensive to develop, and it generally is of poorer quality than shallow 

ground water. Recently a few artesian wells have been used for cooling purposes; the 

water is circulated through special corrosion-resistant systems. :Also, some wells have 

been used for irrigation. 

In addition to the Floridan aquifer, there are several shallow artesian aquifers in some 

areas of southern Florida. Chief among these are the Miocene aquifer at Everglades, 

Collier County, and the Miocene and Pliocene aquifers at Fort Pierce, St. Lucie County, 

in the Kissimmee River :valfey·. Locally, these are very important aquifers and have not 

been fully explored and evaluated. 

Detailed quantitative studies of the Biscayne aquifer have resulted in the following 

conclusions: 

1. In the Miami area, the aquifer averages about 100 to 125 feet in thickness and is 

wedge shaped with the blade inland. Around Miami and to the south under the. Atlantic 

Coastal Ridge, the coefficient oftransmissibility ranges from about 3,000,000 to 20,000,000 

gpd per ft and has a median value of about ,5,000,000 gpd per ft. The transmissibility 

becomes smaller to the north and to the west of Miami because of larger quantities of 

fine sand in the aquif~r. The storage coefficient of the aquifer ranges from about 0.10 to 

0.35 and averages about 0.20. 

2 Recharge to the aquifer is chiefly from rainfall, which at times is so localized that 

ephemeral ground-water mounds often build up under the Atlantic Coastal Ridge·to heights 

considerably above the water level in the Everglades. Under these conditions, ground 

water flows outward in all directions from the mounds and large quantities of water flow 

westward into the Eveiglades as well as eastward into Biscayne Ba_y. 

Studies in the coastal ridge south of Miami indicate that of the average annual rainfall 

(approximately 60 inches) about 38 inches reach the water table directly, and about ·22 

inches is lost through evapotranspiration; direct runoff is quite small in relation to these 

quantities. In general, the canal system in southeastern Florida is not effective in recharging the aquifer; instead, it is highly effective in draining away ground water stored 

in the aquifer. Only in areas of localized lowering of the water table adjacent to a canal 

(as in a cone of depression around a well field) do canals contribute a large amount of. 

recharge to the aquifer. In such places recharge from canals may account for a_ considerable 

portion of the total amount pumped from the well field. 

3 •. Discharge from the aquifer is by ground-water flow into drainage canals and Biscayne 

Bay, evapotranspiration loss to the atmosphere, and pu_!!lpage.~Qf tl!ese, c!!scharge into 

canals and the bay ac~ount for about 15 to 25 inches of'the rainfall, and the total evap~. 

transpiration loss accounts for about 35 inches. Total pumpage fJX)m wells in Dade County .. 

is very difficult to estimate, but in 1945 it amounted t~ about 58.4 mgd or 21,300'm11Hon 

·gallons a year. : 

The-limits of the southeastern Florida drainage unit art: notcfearTY defin-able "because . 

the land is so nearly flat, but the total area drained covers about 9,000 square miles. The 

physical features and flow characteristics of the drainage system from the Kissimmee 

River basin to the Miami area are described in detail from north to south. Records of stage 

and dischar&e for the period 1940.1946 are presented in tabular and graphical form. 
4 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

The northernmost drainage basin in the area is the Kissimmee River valley. Many lakes 

occupy the northern and western parts of the basin, but generally it is characterized by 

low undulating hills and flat, wide, swampy valleys. The altitude varies from about 16 to 

325 feet, although most of the basin is below 100 feet. · 

Lake Okeechobee, south of the Kissimmee River basin, receives natural runoff _from the 

north and northwest and also functions as a disposal reservoir for natural and artificial 

drainage of excess water from the farm lands to the south and east. Prior to development 

of the Everglades, Lake Okeechobee overflowed its south shores at high stages, and 

water moved overland across the Everglades in broad sheets. At present, runoff from the 

Everglades is largely through the canal system, which serves generally both for irrigation 

and drainage. 

During the period 1940-1946, rainfall over the entire southeastern Florida drainage unit 

averaged about 50 inches. Runoff, as measured in the canals draining to the !?ea, was 

equivalent to 7.5 inches over the area. The difference between rainfall and runoff averaged 

42.6 inches; this loss was caused by evapotranspiration and changes in storl[lge. There is 

also an unknown amount of subsurface percofation·'·.(ground-water flow) out of the Everglades. However, evapotranspiration is by far the most important factor in the removal of 

water from the area. 

Effective drainage of the coastal ridge, which started. about 1909, lowered the freshwater head of the Biscayne aquifer in the Miami area and permitted a wedge of salt water. 

to move inland at depth in the aquifer. It advanced on a broad front all along the shore 

zone, with tongue-like extensions pushing inland from the wedge under and along each of 

the tidal drainage canals. The most extensive and most rapid movement occurred in the 

Silver Bluff area because of the more effective drainage provided by the Miami', Tamiami, 

and Coral Gables Canals, which surround it on the landward side. :This salt wedge may 

continue to move slowly inland, interrupted by periods of high water conditions, and it 

may gradually contaminate new areas. If the Ghyben-Herzberg principle is the governing 

factor, the inland movement may be expected to continue un.til the wedge reaches a place, 

determined by ~he average height of the water table, where the weight of fresh water above 

mean sea level will prevent the salt water from rising above the bottom of the Biscayne 

aquifer. This limiting height of the water table will probably be about 2~ feet above the 

average level of Biscayne Bay or about 3 feet above U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey 

mean sea level datum. ·Salt-water encroachment via the canals can be rather effectively 

controlled by installing lock-and-dam structures as far downstream as is feasible. · 

In the coastal areas near Miami and Fort Lauderdale it is possible to map the approximate extent of sp.bsurface salt-water encroachment by making surface electrical resistivity 

surveys. However, in· urban areas some difficulty is caused by interference from power 

lines, buried pipes, and cables. 

The surface waters that dis~harge into Lake Okeechobee from the north and west are 

soft, low in dissolved mineral matter, and rather highly colored. The surface waters to the 

south and east of Lake Okeechobee, which usually flow away from the lake, are variable 

in chemical character but are usually hard, contain moderate to large amounts of dissolved 

mineral matter, and are rather highly colored. :The amount of dissolved matter in Lake 

Okeechobee is intermediate between the soft inflowing waters of the north and west and 

the hard water flowing seaward to the south and east. 

Nonartesian waters along the Atlantic Coastal Ridge in Dade and Broward Counties are 

generally moderately hard, the dissolved mineral matter consisting largely of calcium and 

bicarbonate, Hardness ranges from about 150. to 300 ppm. Usually, the waters are colored 

by organic mate-rfai.S.-Iron is frequently pre:sent in objectiooabfe--amountsand, when in 

combination with organic substances, contributes to the color of the water. The temperature averages 76°-F. Shallow ground water in the--Ever-glades is generally harder and -

more concentrated than the ground water along the coast because of the presence of saline 

residues left from former invasions of the sea. The high concentrations of bicarbonate 

found in some of the shallow ground water may be explained by the phenomenon of cation 

exchange, largely through the medium of organic matter, which colors practically all the 

waters in the area. 

Artesian water in southeastern Florida is brackish, and general!~ it is unfit for domestic use and most other purposes. The average temperature is 72° to 73 F. 

Of 32 public water supplies sampled, 26 had a hardness o.f less than 201 ppm and 13 had 

a hardness of less than 121 ppm. 
INTRODUCTION 

By Garald G. Parker 

AREA OF IJIIVEST!GATION 

The afore-mentioned water-resources and geologic investigations 

cover most of southern Florida in a general way. However, it is 

those parts of southeastern Florida considered to be a present or 

future source of water supply for Dade County and the cities of 

Miami, Miami Beach, and Coral Gables that is the principal area of 

investigation covered by this report. It includes most of Dade 

County, the Everglades, Lake Okeechobee, and parts of Kissimmee 

River basin and Big Cypress Swamp (see fig. 1). 

Investigations of surface-water supply were most intensive in 

Kissimmee River basin, around Lake Okeechobee, and along the 

drainage canals because the well-defined surface channels were 

limited mostly to those areas. Likewise, the investigations of 

ground-water supplies, with their attendant geologic studies, were 

concentrated in the Miami area where the promising Biscayne aquifer was found early in the investigationto ~e of prime importance. 

As a result of the war emergency, water-resources investigations 

(including comprehensive geologic studies) were made in other areas 

in southern Florida extending along the Atlantic Coastal Ridge from 

Cocoa on the north to Key West on the south and along the Gulf coast 

north to and beyond Sarasota. The cooperative studies with the cities 

of Fort Pierce, Lake Worth, Delray Beach, Fort Lauderdale, 

Dania, and Fort Myers were of considerable help in filling in local 

details of the investigation. 

PURPOSE OF THE INVESTIGATION 

The rapid increase in population of southern Florida during the 

past two decades has been phenomenal. As a concomitant of this 

large population .growth there has been increased usage of the natural resources of the area, and various attempts have been made 

to develop these resources. · 

The result has been a radical change in the natural hydrologic 

J:?alance; some changes, which were not anticipated, have had deleterious effects. To study these changes, present conditions, and 

possible future changes, the U. S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the cities of Miami, Miami Beach, Coral Gables, and Dade 

County, began an investigation of the water resources of southe~stern 

Florida in the fall of 1939(some records of stage and discharge of 

streams were started in 1930). Particular emphasis was placed on 

the geology and ground water of the Miami area. 

5 
Table 1.-Popuiation of 12 eout:~ties in area ot ~nvestigation 

[From United States Census and Florida,State CeDIUI} 

1935 

County 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 State 

CeDSUS 

Broward 

(Created in 1915 from Dade and Palm Beach) 5,135 20,094 23,042 

Collier 

(Created in 1923 from Lee) 2,883 4,'190 

Dade 

(Created in 1836) 861 4,955 11,933 42,,53 142,955 180,998 

Glades 

(Created in 1921 from DeSoto) 2,'162 2,6'13 

Hendry 

(Created in 1923 from Lee) S,492 3,'111 

Highlands 

(Created in 1921 from DeSoto} 9,192 10,912 

Lee 

(Created in 18M from Monroe} 1,414 3,on 6,294 9,540 14,900 16,351 

Martill 

(Created in 1925 from St Lucie and Palm Beach} 5,111 5,214 

MOIU'Oe 

(Created in 1824) 18,'186 18,006 21,563 19,550 13,624 13,354 

Okeechobee 

(Created in 191'1 from Osceola, Palm Beach, St. Lucie} 2,132 4,129 3,484 

Palm Beach 

(Created in 1909 from Dade} I 5,5'1'1 18,654 51,'181 53,194 

St. Lucie ~ 

(1905 recreated) 4,05'1 ,,886 '1,05'1 9,044 

Total of the 12 counties 21,061 2.6,032 49,424 105,650 2'1'1,980 326,'16, 

State of Florida 391,442 528,542 '152,619 968,4,0 1,468,211 1,606,842 

Proportion of the 12 counties to the State total, 

in percent 5.4 4.9 6.6 10.9 18.9 20.3 

Metropolitan Miami area 1,681 5,4'11 30,215 126,588 154,411 

1Metropolitan .Mia·mi area has grown at expense of rural areas. 

1945 

1940 State 1950 census 

39,,94 50,44~ 83,933 

5,102 4,9M 6,48_S 

26'1,'139 315,138 495,084 

2,'145 2,281 2,199 

5,23'1 5,066 6,051 

9,246 16,224 13,636 

1'1,488 23,593 23,404 

6,295 6,!l94 '1,80'1 

14,0,8 19,018 29. 95, 

3,000 2,919 3,454 

'19,989 112,311 114,688 

u,sn 12,958 20,180 

462,584 5'11,001 806,881 

1,89'1,414 2,250,061 2,'1'11,305 

24.4 25.4 29.1 

218,000 254,154 l.l58,64'1 
INTRODUCTION 9 

Prior to the entrance of the United States into World War II, the 

coastal ridge was principally a resort area, with agricultural; 

commercial, and business interests of only secondary importance; 

very little manufacturing was done, However, war-time activities 

created a tremendous stimulus to air, rail, and water transportation, and to agriculture, business, and commerce, Light manufacturing, shipbuilding and repairing, and service industries became important. As a result of these activities the once marked 

seasonal fluctuation of the popUlation has noticeably diminished, 

West of the coastal ridge, and on the 'southern end of the ridge 

beyond. South Miami, the principal development is agriculture; on 

the higher limestone areas, citrus fruits, avocados, mangoes, 

guavas, and other subtropical fruits are grown, The lower lands 

of the coastal marshes and the Everglades produce truck vegetables 

and sugarcane. 

The principal soils of the Everglades are organic (peats and 

mucks) and cover 1, 900, 000 acres (Jones, 1948, p. 63) of which 

about 100, 000 acres (Allison, 1939, p. 37) was intensively cultivated 

in 1939. Under the stimulus of World War II, low-water conditions for several years, and 'the refinancing of Everglades Drainage District, this acreage was about doubled by 1946. The largest 

development is in the northern part of the Everglades- where the 

soil is thickest (about 8 feet) and where water control can be most 

effectively practiced. The important crops are sugarcane and truck 

vegetables; ramie, a fiber plant, shows promise of becoming a val• 

uable crop in the Everglades organic soils, and the fattening of beef 

cattle is becoming increasingly important. 

PROBLEMS RESULTING FROM DEVELOPMENT 

Among the most serious problems resulting from the development 

of southern Florida are those that arose in part, at least, from the 

_superimposed hydrologic effects of the drainage canals, first constructed about the 'turn of the century in the interest of reclamation 

of the Everglades. The construction of the drainage canals has 

lowered the average water level several feet, not only in the Everglades but also in the coastal ri<:lge. As a result, during times of 

drought the organic soils dry out almost to the water table, which 

may fall several feet below the land surface (see figs. 127a and 

152); in places beneath the coastal ridge the water table may even 

fall below sea level, especially during a protracted drought (see 

figs. 42 and 45). 

Among the effects of this network of drainage canals on the land, 

crops, and wildlife of the Everglades have been the following: 

1. Shrinkage, compaction, oxidation, burning, and general subsidence of the organic soils. This loss' is reported by Jones (1948, p. 
10 WATER RESOURCES IN SOlJTHEASTERN noJUDA 

79) to be much as 5 feet over extensive areas of the cultivated or• 

ganic soils; the soil has disappeared in some areas where it was 

thin. 

2. Development of shallow "subsidence valleys• along each major 

canal extending laterally for 3 to 4 miles (Evans and Alliso_n,1942#1 

p: 34-46). 

3. Increase in damage due to frosts, which formerly had been 

held in check by the large body of water in the Everglades (Clayton, 

Neller, and Allison, 1942, p. 5). 

4, Reduction of much of the original capacity of the canals, owing 

to loss of vertical section. This condition results from lowering 

of the land surface; sedimentation of the canal bottoms; slumping 

of canal banks especially in sand cuts; and blocking by water weeds 

(such as water hyacinths), fallen trees, and other debris. 

5. Cessation of deposition of the organic material that has built 

the peat and muck soils, 

6. Changed ecologic conditions seriously affecting wildlife of the 

drained areas. This has brought about the migration of some species 

and the extinction, or near extinction, of others--one of these is 

the Everglades kite, now almost extinct because of the drainage of 

the swamps and the destruction of a certain species of fresh-water 

snails upon which the kite feeds solely (O'Reilly, 1940, p. 129 

131-134). 

Water problems have become of prime importance. Among these 

are: 

1. The development and protection from salt-water contamination 

of adequate perennial water supplies for the populous cities and 

·agricultural areas along the coast. It was noted in 1940 that the 

consumption was about 50 mgd during the winter season for ,the 

communities from West Palm Beach to Key West, and that Miami 

consumed a maximum the previous year of about 33 mgd. It was 

estimated that in 1946, because of the greatly increased population, 

approximately 50 percent more water was used. ~n Miami alone, 

monthly consumption during the last 6 months of 1946 averaged 56 

mgd; this is 171 percent of the monthly consumption for the same 

period in 1940, 

2. Unregulated flow in the canals during droughts, which allows 

salty water to move inland in and along the canals (even beyond the 

coastal ridge in some places), thus contaminating the fresh ground 

water in adjacent areas. Salty water was observed 11 miles inland 

in the Miami Canal in 1939. 
INTRCI)UCnON 11 

3. Changing the naturally established equilibrium that had existed 

between fresh- and salt-water bodies, by a lowering of the freshwater head in the Biscayne aquifer, which brought about general· 

encroachment of salt water at depth in the aquifer all along the 

coastal strip. In the Silver Bluff area of Miami this salt-water 

movement extended1inland for a -distance of more than 2 miles from 

Biscayne Bay in 1946, 

4. Regulation of the water level in Lake Okeechobee and the canals 

leading oceanward from it. The St. Lucie and Caloosahatchee Canals 

form links of the cross-state waterway between Stuart and Fort 

Myers, on which the Federal Government maintains navigation. 

The lake is usually held at levels between 12. 6 and 15. 6 feet above 

mean sea level, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey datum, or 14 and 17 

feet, Okeechobee datum. This regulation has beEm deemed necessary in order to supply adequate water for transportation and, 

at the same time, to maintain the lake level at a point low enough 

to prevent hurricane waves from overtopping the flood levee and 

inundating the adjacent lands. In normal years such control is not 

difficult, but following a prolonged drought, or a series of exceedingly wet months, it is much more difficult. Regulation to meet the 

needs of navigation alone would not be too difficult, but the additional consideration of agricultural needs complicates the regulation 

considerably. 

, 5. Shortage of water for irrigation, municipal supplies, and all 

other needs in drought periods. Distribution of rainfall is uneven, 

and means have not been found to store excess water in wet periods. 

6. Overloading of the main canals because of added drainage 

works that facilitate rapid runoff. 

7. Flooding of urban developments that have been built in natural 

floodways during extended periods of low water levels. 

SCOPE OF THE INVESTIGATION 

The general scope and objectives of the investigations by the 

U. S. Geological Survey were largely determined during conferences 

with representatives of cooperating agencies prior to the beginning 

of work in the fall of 1939. The local motivating interest was the 

need for one or more sources of water supply sufficient for present 

and future municipal needs of the metropolitan area of Miami and 

for agricultural and industrial purposes of Dade County. These interests were stimulated by the loss to salt-water encroachment of 

two former well fields of the city of Miami and thousands of private 

well supplies along the coast of Dade County, and by the recurring 

threats to the principal existing source of municipal supply. Accordingly, U. S. Geological Survey activities throughout the period 
12 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTiiEASTERN fl.ORIDA 

of study have included the investigation of factors pertinent to an 

evaluation of all significant sources of water supply that could 

possibly be utilized by the residents of the cooperating county and 

m unici palitie s. 

As originally planned however, this cooperative program with 

the above objectives was only a part of a broader concurrent activity by other Federal and State agencies and was known as The 

Southeastern Florida Joint Investigation, This investigation, initially sponsored and coordinated by the National Resources Planning 

Board in cooperation with the Florida State Planning Board, also 

included work programs for the Soil Conservation Service, the 

Bureau of Agricultural Economics, and the Fish and Wildlife Service. The Corps of Engineers agreed to supply data from its files 

as needed by the other agencies during the period of investigation, 

The main objective of the joint investigation was a general study of 

the natural resources of southeastern Florida for the benefit of 

future development in the area, 

Prior to the termination of its activities on April 1, 1941, the 

National Resources· Planning Board, cooperating with the Florida 

State Planning Board, coordinated the operations of the several 

participating agencies through its local representative, Stanley B. 

Wright. Therefore • although the Southeastern Florida Joint Investigation did not continue as such beyond this date, the several 

agencies have continued to work together in the interests of greatest 

benefit to the citizens of the area, 

It was recognized that an evaluation of possible development of 

water supply would require the collection of basic geologic, hydrologic, hydraulic, and chemical data over a wide area in southern 

Florida. For example, the study of existing and possible future 

ground-water sources in Dade County necessarily included an investigation of the rock structure, not only in the immediate vicinity 

but over most of southern Florida, to determine an<;tevaluate basic 

geologic controls and general characteristics of recharge and 

ground-water movement. Likewise, studies of possible surfacewater sources necessarily included the evaluation of such fairly 

distant supplies as Kissimmee River and Lake Okeechobee~ the 

nature of recharge to and discharge from the lake, and the hydraulic 

and geologic characteristics of all major waterways in the Everglades and the coastal. ridge, Determinations of chemical quality 

of water were made of samples from all water sources investigated. 

This report therefore is a compilation of basic information re· 

lating to the quantity, chemical quality, and availability of the water 

resources, and the method of utilization most practicable for de· 

velopment by the cooperating county and municipalities. Most of 

the data wel'e collected from field observations and research in 
INTRODUCTION 13 

geology ana hydrology made during the period of investigation. beginning in the fall of 1939 and extending through the fall of 1946. 

Considerable additional data were collected either by the U. S. 

Geological Survey during other programs of observation. including 

war-service-connected work. or furnished by other interested parties. A minor amount of information collected by the Survey as late 

as 1950 has been incorporated into the report. 

No attempt is made herein to recommend or specify the details 

of development of any water supply. because this is not within the 

Survey's authorized activities. Instead. it is intended that the report should serve as a comprehensive and convenient reference for 

those charged with the responsibility of both developing and protecting water supplies and for those who use or control water in 

significant quantities. The data are such as to be useful not only 

in municipal water-supply development but also in all developments 

in the southern Florida area that are in any way dependent upon or 

affected by water. 

PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS 

Information concerning the geology and water resources of southern Florida is contained in numerQus published and unpublished reports. Prior to the present investigation no intensive study of the 

water resources of southern Florida had been made; Matson and 

Sanford's 1913 report and Stringfield's 1933 and 1936 reports are 

among the most important contributions. Significant reports az:e 

included in the selected bibliography which appears at the end of 

this report. 
CLIMATE 

,By G. E. Ferguson 

INTRODUCTION 

The climate of southern Florida reflects strongly the influence 

of dominant features of its geographical position. This area is 

nearer to the equator than any other part of continental United 

States, and all parts of it are within 60 miles of the coast on either 

the Gulf of Mexico or the Atlantic Ocean side. The effects of this 

low latitude and marine exposure make the general climatic conditions markedly dissimilar from other areas in the United States. 

Its distinctive climate is a major contributing factor to development 

of both the coastal and inland areas of southeastern Florida. Both 

tourists and more permanent residents are attracted to the coastal 

areas by the comparatively warm sunny weather that prevails during 

the winter months. This weather also favors the successful growing 

of off-season truck produce and semitropical crops in the interio.r 

agricultural areas. 

This climate is characterized by warm weather, usually ample 

rainfall, and usually light but persistent winds. Each of these climatic elements has a distinct influence on the hydrology and water 

resources of the area and is treated separately below. Climatic 

data for areas adjacent to, as well as within, the area of study are 

presented for the purpose of better definition and understanding. 

THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE 

Water evaporating into the atmosphere as vapor from the oceans 

and other ·open bodies of water, or from the land surface, is joined 

with water that is transpired (breathed) into the air from plants, 

and ascends to form clouds, which, when conditions are right, release the moisture as precipitation upon the earth below. This 

circulation of water from the surface of the earth to the atmosphere 

and back again is called the hydrologic cycle •. Figure 2 is a schematic representation of this cycle. 

The permeable nature of the geologic materials in most of southern Florida allows the rainfall to sink into the ground and become 

stored in the aquifer. However, not all of the rain contributes to 

these underground reservoirs, Some of the rain is evaporated again. 

before it sinks into the ground, some reaches the sea through river 

and canal flows, some remains temporarily in storage in lake 

basins, some that has entered the ground is caught by plant rootlets 

and returned to the atmosphere through the leaves of plants as 

transpired water; the remainder of the rainfall may eventually per15 
16 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Figure 2, -Schematic representati011 of the hydrologic cycle. 

colate through the soil and contribute to the ground water. Thus, 

the hydrologic cycle is rather complex, because although some 

water returns to the clouds very soon after precipitation, some 

returns again only after long periods spent in geologic formations, 

or in the ocean, and some, through chemical combination with 

minerals, may never return, 

PREPPITATION 

Of all the climatic elements, precipitation has the greatest and 

most direct effect upon the water resources of southeastern Florida, 

Figure 2 illustrates the importance of the role that precipitation 

plays in the hydrologic cycle. The characteristics of the water 

supplies in the area are dependent to a large degree on recharge 

from rainfall during the preceding few weeks or months. Successful 

evaluation and further development of water supplies, therefore, 

necessitate a knowledge of the characteristics and amounts of 

rainfall that are llkely to occur. 
CUMATE 17 

In southeastern Florida, the study of precipitation is restricted 

to rain only, because snow is practically unknown, and light hail 

occurs only at rare intervals. 

RAINFALL RECORDS 

The characteristics of rainfall of a place or region are largely 

determined from actual measurements at rain gages established 

at points within and adjacent to the area in question. 

The locations of rain gages in southern Florida are shown on 

plate 1. The recording and nonrecording types are shown by different ·symbols. An index number shown for those gages in and 

adjacent to the areas under direct :study, facilitates reference to 

a description of that gage given in table 2. This table gives the 

location, length of record, and operating agency for each gage, 

In the fall of 1939 the United States Geological Survey established 

and started operating 18 recording-type rain gages in areas (principally in the Everglades) without adequate means of investigating 

water resources. 

AVAILABILITY AND PUBLICATION OF RECORDS 

Nearly all of the records of rainfall collected in the area under 

study were published by the U, S. Weather Bureau in its current 

reports. For this reason, no complete rainfall tabulations are included in this report. The U.S. Weather Bureau's "Climatological 

Data, Florida section," which is published monthly, includes daily 

and monthly precipitation at all gages in the area except at a few 

privately operated stations. A special annual issue of "Climatological Data" contains a summary of monthly and annual totals. 

Temperature, evaporation, wind, and other current climatic data 

are included in this publication. 

Daily and hourly rainfall at recording rain-gage stations are 

listed for Florida in the monthly "Hydrologic Bulletin" by the Weather Bureau which are open for inspection at Weather Bureau offices, 

The "Climatic summary of the United States, section 105, southern 

Florida 1930" (Martin, 1930) contains valuable compilations and 

average values of monthly and annual precipitation for the period 

prior to 1931. 
18 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 2.- List of rain gages in soutflem Florida. showing locations and periods 

of record 

[Includes stations pertinent to study of water resotllces of southeastern Florida, Refer to U. S. 

Weather Bllleau pubHcations for names of observers or parties furnishing current records published therein. S<>e reference notes for parties collecting unpublished records and for governmental agencies operating gages as part of their research programs, Type of. data collected as of Dec, 31, 1946. is explained on pl, 1. Records for many older stations are not continuous, but breaks in record of 2 years, or less, are not Indicated herein, Absence of ter- mination date Indicates station was in operation at end of 1946. HGS is abbreviation for 

Hurricane Gate Structure) 

Number 

on plate 1 

Location 

(by counties) 

BREVARD COUNTY 

1 ·Malabar 

2 · Melbourne1 

3 Melboume2 

4 Mertitt Island 

5 Micco 

6 Rockledge 

7 Titusville 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

BROWARD COUNTY 

Danta.' 

Dania (Wacico Grove) 

Flamingo Groves' 

Fort Lauderdale 

Griffin 

Hillsboro Canal near Deerfield Beach 5 

North New River Canal at Lock No. '! 

North New River Calllll at 20-Mile Bend2 

Pompano 

Period of record 

1902-26 

1937-

1941-

1878-

1893 

1908-12 

1887-95, 1901-

1939-

1913-

1932-

1912-

1913-23 

1921-23 

1913-26, 1939-44 

1940-

1940-

CHARLOTTE COUNTY 

17 Punta Gorda 1914-

COlliER COUNTY 

18 Deep Lake2 1940-42 

19 Everglades 1926-

20 lmmokalee2 1940-45 

21 Lake Trafford~ 1942-

22 Marco 1900-06, 1942-43 

23 Monroe2 1940-43 

24 Naples 1942-

DADE COUNTY 

25 Coconut Grove (Chapman Field Gardens) 1923-

26 Coral Gables 1927-33 

27 Dinner Ker6 1939-44 

28 Hialeah 2• 1940-

29 HOmestead 1910-

30 Homestead 2•8 1940-

31 Matheson Hammock~ 1939-

32 Miami 1855-58, 1872-80, 1895-

33 Miami (Airport) 1939-

34 Miami (Allapattah) 1921-25, 1927-33 

35 Miami Beach 1926-31, '1941-

36 Pennaucoto 1926-

37 Pennsucdl ( 4 miles northwest) 1940-

38 Peters 1942-

39 Tamlami Trail at Dade·Broward 

Levee 2 •11 1940-

40 Tamiarn! Trail at 40·Mile Ben~ 1940-
CUMATE 

Table 2,-List of rtrin tates in southern Florida ehowinA locations Md periods 

ofreconi--continued 

DE SOTO COUNTY 

41 Arcadia 11899-

42 Nocatee 1899-1906 

GLADES COUNTY 

43 Bellbowl-2 1929-

44 Lakeport IS 1928-

45 Uberty Potztt'-2 1929-

48 Moore Haven 1918-

47 Moore Haven (HGS No, 1)14 1940-

48 Ortona14 1940-

HARDEE COUNTY 

49 Wauchula 11933-

HENDRY COUNTY 

50 Bare Beacb12 1929 

51 Big Cypress Indian Reoervation· 2,1s 1940-43 

52 Clewiston *

6 1925-

53 Cle~on14 1940· 

54 Felda. 1940-

55 UDelle 1929-

56 LaBelle14 1940-

57 Townsite12 1929-

HIGHLANDS COUNTY 

58 Avon Park 

59 Avon Park"' 

60 DeSoto City 

61 Lake Placid 

62 Venus"' 

HILLSBOROUGH COUNTY 

63 Mullet Key 

64 Plant City 

65 Tampa 

66 Tampa (MacDill Field) 

67 Temple Terrace 

1892-96, 1902 

1940-

1925-33 

1933 

1928-32, 1940-

1892-97 

1892-

1890·1942 

1942· 

1922-26 

INDIAN RIVER COUNTY 

68 Fellsmere 

69 Sebastian 

70 VeroBeach 

71 Vero Beach1 

LAKE COUNTY 

72 Clermont 

LEE COUNTY 

73 Bonita Springsz 

74 Captiva 

75 Fort Myers 

76 Fort Myers 

MANATEE COUNTY 

77 Bradenton 

MARTIN COUNTY 

78 Indian Town 

79 Pert Mayaca14 

80 Saint Lucie Lock No, 214 

81 Stuart 

1911-

1897-1901 

1923-26 

1940-

11892-

1942 

1939-

1851-58, 1871-83, 1886-1940 

1940-

11869-

1929-34 

1940 

1940-

1935-

19 
20 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 2-List of rain &a&es in oouthem Florida showing locations Eltld periods 

of record- Continued 

MONROE COUNTY 

82 Flamingo 1901-08 

83 Key West 1832-38, 1843-45, 1849-65, 1870-

84 Key WerK 1941-

85 Lignumvitae Key 1941-

86 Long Key 1916-35 

87 Pinecrest 1928"30 

88 Sand Key 1903-25 

89 Tavernier 1936-

OKEECHOBEE COUNTY 

90 Bassenger 1913·17 

91 Fort Drum2 1942-

92 Kissimmee River at State Route 702 1931-

93 Okeechobee 1913-

94 Okeechobee (HGS N>, 6)u. 1940-

ORANGE COUNTY 

95 Hart Lake2 1942-

96 Isle worth 1916~ 

97 Lake Hiawassee 17 1939-

98 Orlando 1892-1944 

99 Orlando (Airport) 1940-

OSCEOLA COUNTY 

100 Hatchineha Lake2 1942-

101 Holopaw 1941-

102 Kissimmee 1888-89, 1892-

103 KissimmeeU. 1940· 

104 Nittaw2 1942-

105 St. Cloud 1913-33 

PALM BEACH COUNTY 

106 Belle Glade a 1924-

107 Belle Clade (HCSNo. 4)u. 1940-

108 Belle Glade State Prison Farm 1936-

109 Belvedere Road at Military Traili8 1940-42 

110 Boca Raton 1941-

111 Boca Raton at E-2 18 1928-

112 Boca Raton Road at Ra~e Line 18 1940-

113 Boynton Control No. 10 (also Boyton 

Beach) 1928-

114 BoYnton Road at E-218 1928-

115 Boynton Road at Military Trai1 18 1940-

116 Bryant'-2 (nearJ (Azucar) 1929-

117 Canal Point 1 1922-

118 Canal Point (HGSNo, 5)U. 1940~ 

119 Canal Point (6 miles SE)/.!0 Pump station 

No. 1 1939-

120 Canal Point (9 miles SE) 20 Pump station 

N;,, 2 1941-

121 Delray Road at E-2 '

18 1928-

122 Delray Road at Military Trai1 18 1940-

123 Greenacres City 1s 1928-

124 Hypoluxo 1890-96, 1900-

125 Jupiter 1888-1911, 1920-29 

126 Lake flarbor12 1929-

127 Lake Worth Road at E-1 18 1940-

128 Loxahatchee2, 21 1940-

129 North Dyke, Auxiers l8 1928-

130 North New River Canal at bend south of 

Okeelanta2 1940-

131 North New River 'canal at County Line2 1940-

132 Pahokee Section 3412 1939-

133 Pelican Section 2312 1931-

134 R=gi Line at Lateral 28 18 1940-

135 Ritta 1913-32, 1937-

136 Runyon11 1942-
CLIMATE 

Table 2.- List of rain /Za8es in southern Florida showing locations md periods 

of record-·- Continued · 

PALM BEACH COUNTY -continued 

137 Shawano Planta.tlcm23 1929~ 

138 South Ba.y12 1929~ 

139 South Shore12 . 1940~ 

140 Wen Palm Beach S 1920~32 

141 West Palm BeachZl 1927~ 

142 West Palm Beach 1929~ 

143 West Palm Beach1 1938~ 

l44 St. Leo 

PASCO COUNTY l895~ 

PINELLAS COUNTY 

145 Clearwater 1931~ 

146 Pinellas Park 1911-37 

147 St. Petersburg 1891-94, 1914• 

148 Tarpon Springs 1891-

POLK COUNTY 

'· 

149 Bartow 1887-

150 Davenport 1923-45 

151 Fort Meade 1851-54, 1885-1920 

152 FrostprOof 1895-97 

153 Grape Ha~~W4 1940-

154 Haines City· 1942-

155 Homeland 1893-'95 

156 Kissimmee River at State Route 60z 1932-43 

157 Lake Alfred B 1924-

158 Lake Wales 1921-37 

159 Lakeland 1915-

160 Mammoth Groves 1921-32 

161 Mountain Lake 1935-

162 Winter Haven 1941-

SAINT LUCIE COUNTY 

163 Fort Pierce 11852-58, 1901-

164 

165 

Sarasota 

Venice 

SARASOTA COUNTY 

1

0peratred by U, s. Civil Aeronautics Authority, ~Operated by U, S. Geological Survty • . Operated by Florida Power & Light Co. 

"'Operated by Flamingo Groves, Inc, S Operated by Everglades Drainage District, 6 0perated by Pan American Airways. 7 Operated by city of Miami, 8 Operated by State Agricultural Experiment Station, 9 0perated by Dade County. 

tO Operated by Graham Dairy, 

11Pfior to July 1942 located 2 miles west, 120perated by U, S, Sugar Corp, ' 

180perated by J, L. Beck, 

"Operated by Corps of Engineers. 

Is O,serva.tions by Bureau of Indian Affairs, 

160perated by Clewiston Drainage District, 

170perated by Soil Conservation Service. 

lBOperated by Lake Worth Drainage District, 

1930-

1941-

IK)perated by Department of AgricultUre and U, S. Sugar Corp. 

aOOperated by Pahokee Drainage District. 

21Also Lo:xahatchee Groves record from 1929, 

uFrom 1937, location 1 mile west and operation changed to U, S, Sugar CCll'P. 

DOperated by Shawano Plantation, Inc. 

Z&Operated by West Palm Beach Water Co. 

21 
22 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLOlUDA 

CHARACTERISTICS OF RAINFALL 

ANNUAL RAINFALL 

The average annual rainfall in southeastern Florida varies from 

a maximum of more than 60 inches along the east coast in the 

vicinity of Miami and Fort Lauderdale to less than 50 inches in 

the interior areas in the vicinity or' Lake Okeechobee, and along 

the Florida Keys off the southern end of the peninsula, The areal 

. distribution for the State is shown in figure 3, on which is plotted 

average annual rainfall at the several stations for the number of 

years of record indicated, Isohyetallines were not drawn, because 

it is believed that additional years of record will be needed to define the areal distribution of rainfall in the Everglades. There are 

wide areas in the Everglades where rainfall is as yet unmeasured, 

Even without isohyetal lines figure 3 can provide a satisfactory 

illustration of the general areal dis~ribution of rainfall in southern 

Florida by. scanning the annual averages shown in their respective 

positions, as qualified by the indicated period or number of years 

of record, A study of this map indicates that the mean rainfall 

over the southeastern Florida area is somewhat greater than the 

53-inch average for the entire State and that it is nearly twice as 

great as the 29-inch average for the entire continental United 

States, 

The variations in annual values from the mean or average for 

the period of record can be illustrated from a study of the rainfall 

records, for Miami, where the record since 1901 shows .a. mean 

deviation from average of 12, 1 inches (equal to 21 percent of the 

57, 3"-inch average), The minimum annual rainfall was 28. 66 inches 

in 1944, and the maximum rainfall was 85, 36 inches in 1908, During 

the past 7 calendar years of study (1940-46) the average annual rainfall was 46. 7 inches (about 11 inches below the lon~-term average). 

An examination of the 51-year continuous record of rainfall at 

Miami reveals two 6-year below-normal sequenc~s (1913-1918 and 

1941-46) and a 6-year sequence above normal (1929-1934), These 

sequences may encourage inquiry in regard to the persistence of 

rainfall to continue an above-normal or below-normal trend, A 

count of the rainfall of the 51-year Miami record indicates that 

the rainfall for 28 years continued the same in relation to normal 

as the preceding year. The ratio 28/50 '= 0, 56 is slightly above 

the Ot . .SO ratio for simple chance, A count of total precipitation 

in 2-year successive groups (e. g., 1896 + 1897; 1897 + 1898, etc.) 

gives a persistence ratio of 26/48"' 0. 54, and of 3-year groups 

26/46"' 0, 57; the tendency for rainfall to continue the same in relation to normal is probably not significant, 

There is a record of rainfall at Okeechobee near the mouJ;h of 

the Kissimmee River that began in 1913 (there is no _recor9. for 
26• 

25• 

,5'f'1 Local 1on of ra~n goqe 

U[lper number 1s averogl!: Qr'll'lvOI fOinfall, 

1n inches 

Lower number shawl> only number of 

years in record, except where !Motion 

was d1:sconhnu0d Wllt-"1 leS$ than 10 

yeors of record, in wh1ch cose the 

acfual yCOfS a(e shown 

1

P ...... .2 ___ L__ __ I 40 Miles 

'-~ 

___ ....1...__ ___ _ 

. ,. 

CUMATE 

0 

.... ------L..__ __ ., . 

80' ---T 

Figure 3. -Map showing av..,..age annual precipltatiGD, in inches, for southern Florida, 

23 
24 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 3.-Annual precipitation (in inches) in vicinity -~ - 'Statton 1932 I Length Average 

N<il. County of annual Percent 

l.oc:ation on rec~~ preclpt- Depth of plate 1 (years tation2 normal 

Arcadia .......................... 41 De Soto ••••••••••••••••••• 47 50,30 33,52 67 

Avon Park. ...................... 59 Highlands •••••••••••••••• 50 52,12 38,67 74 

Bartow ••••••••••••••••••••••• ,. ••• 149 Polk ........................ 60 55,78 52.74 95 

Braden.toa.. ••••••••••••••••••••••• 77 Ma:aatee •••••••••••••••••• 64 54,00 46,32 86 

Belle Glade ..................... 106 Palm Beach .............. 23 56,70 65,09 115 

Clerm.Olit. ••••••••••••••••••••••• 72 Lake••••••••••••••··~~~·• ... ••..; 54 50,20 38.16 76 

Coconut Grove .................. 25 Dade•••••••••••••••••••• .... • 23 455,11} 

Davenport. !i:i~· ······as· •••••••••••••••••••••• 150 Polk. ••••••••••••••••••••••• 23 49,63 

Everglades ••••••••••••••••••••••• 19 Collier •••••••••••••••••••• 21 55.05 60.20 109 

FeU.mere •• ; ••••••••••••••• , ••••• 68 Indian River ............. 35 55.75 50,26 90 

Fort l.auderda.le ................ 11 Btoward. •••••••••• ,. ••••••• 34 62.98 64,97 103 

Fart Myers •••••••••••••••••••••• 75 Lee ••••••••••••••••••••••••• 63 52.06 52,85 101 

Fort Pierce •••••••••••••••••••••• 163 St. Lucie ••••••••••••••••• 52 51,06 49,91 98 

HoDJ.estead. ••••• ,. ••••••••••••••• 29 Dade ........................ ~ 37 61,88 69.75 113 

Hyp,oluxo. ••••••••••••••••••••••• 124 Palm Beach. ••••••••••••• 54 58,75 69.85 119 

Key Wert. ........................ 83 Momoe ........................ 99 38,36 40.42 105 

,JCissimmee•••••••••••••••a•••••• 103 Osc::eola ••••••••••••••••••• 56 50.24 47.11 94 

La Belle ............................ 55 Hen.dry •••••••••••••••••••• 16 "46,87 51.57 110 

Lake Alfred. .................... 157 Polk. ........................ 24· 51,14 38.90 76 

·Lakeland. ••••••••• ~ •••••••••••••• 159 Polk ............................ ' 32 52,70 41.32 78 

Merritt Idand. .................. 4 Brevard. ..................... 68 51.20 56,27 110 

Miam.i ............................... 32 Dade ......................... 55 59.18 79.90 135 

Moore Haven. ............... ~ ••• 46 Glades,. •••••••••••••••••••• 29 49,52 54.97 111 

Okeechobee ..................... 93 ·Okeechobee .............. 28 48,61 45.78 94 

Oolando ........................... 98, 99 Clrange•••••••••••••••••••• 55 52,45 39.90 76 

Plant City ....................... 64 Hilbborough. ............ 50 54,24 42.64 "19 

Punta Gorda ....................... 17 Charlotte ................. 33 49,98 43,69 87 

St. Leo .............................. 144 Pasc:o ....................... 54 56,12 40.49 72 

St. Petersburg .................. 147 Pinellas ••••••••••••••••••• 36 50,90 50.19 99 

Suuou ............................. 164 Sarasota .................... 17 454,89 46.56 85 

Tatnpa ........................... 1111 •• 65, 66 Hillsborough. ............ 57 48.35 44.72 92 

Tarpotl. Springs .................. 148 Pinellas .................... 56 51.18 45,85 89 

Titusville ......................... 7 Brevard. ..................... 54 52.31 47,19 90 

West Palm Beach. ••••••••••••• 142 Pa.bn Beac::h.,..' •• ~•••••••• 17 4

63.03 63,38 101 

See footnotes at end of table. 
CLIMATE 25 

of [(issimmee-Everglades dTain<file ba1sin, 1932-46 -· --'· --- 1933 1934 1 35 1936 H37 l~~R 

Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent 

Depth of Depth of Depth of Depth of Depth of Depth of 

normal nQl'mal normal nama! normal normal 

47.71 95 42,27 84 50.08 100 56.29 112 61,16 121 42,78 . 85 

57.42 110 44.95 86 53.47 102 65.7'1 126 53.02 102 37.12 71 

68.02 122 65.64 118 52.35 94 51.'73 93 59,38 106 44.77 80 

50.93 94 56.23 104 54.28 101 57.32 106 52.04 96 46,11 85 

65,26 115 62.24 110 48.81 86 64,57 114 58.44 103 40.,99 72 

65,12 130 54,43 108 54.89 109 48.88 97 53.34 106 37,06 74 

51.28 ........... 55,45 .......... 50.82 . ........ 79.09 ......... 55.16 . ........ 47.39 

;~·37 126 59.15 119 38.84 78 47.88 96 48.92 99 84.57 70 

9.68 90 56.88 103 55.36 101 65.52 119 51.68 94 48.89 89 

62.66 112 65.85 118 62,72 112 67.00 120 60.88 109 41.00 74 

~~-28 119 64.78 108 52.85 84 76.49 121 ......... ······ers 41.05 65 

6.36 89 46.20 89 50,21 96 67.18 129 44.22 42.00 81 

69,92 137 41.32 81 46.44 91 73.86 145 69.17 135 38.22 75 

70.33 113 65.18 105 69.73 118 84.12 186 65.10 105 40.42 65 

67,48 115 52,45 89 54.39 98 57.01 97 43.00 73 40.32 69 

52.02 136 81,50 82 39.62 103 50.46 181 44.29 116 22.58 59 

65,44 180 58.50 116 40,45 81 45,59 91 54.88 109 33.03 66 

~~·55 97 43.86 93 44.63 95 53.64 114 43.83 93 _41.26 88 

4.52 107 64,43 126 42.11 82 53,97 106 53.32 104 37.50 73 

58.89 112 58.89 112 55.23 105 49.78 94 51.52 98 44.70 85 .--

56.01 109 52.84 108 48,40 95 58.33 114 -M.98 88 42.79 84 

66,05 111 68.79 116 47.91 a1 77.80 131 57.50 97 43.74 74 

41.45 84 48.20 97 40.87 83 57.30 116 60,33 122 33,78 68 

54.42 112 49.16 101 51.46 106 55,46 114 50.96 105 43.31 89 

57.42 109 50.30 96 49.27 94 52.18 99 59.10 118 84,55 66 ~ 

71.76 132 56.37 104 49.49 91 55.21 102 56,19 104 44,41 82 

51.96 104 52.61 106 47.86 95 56,55 113 so. 27 101 43,98 68 

64.97 116 69.85 125 57.55 103 55.85 100 60.73 108 49.16 88 

51.10 100 52.37 103 45.75 90 52.87 104 58,91 116 39.93 78 

64.66 118 47.61 87 57.18 104 65,48 119 46.99 86 57.41 105 

;r·07 103 56,48 117 53,'71 111 49.35 102 55.00 114 41.93 87 

8,81 95 52,22 102 48.25 94 55.90 109 64,25. 125 46,81 91 ~8.67 112 47.79 91 66.36 127 53,91 103 49.31 94 35,18 67 

86,46 187 53,72 85 59.13 94 71.48 113 62.98 100 44.34 69 
26 WATER RESOUR.CES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 3.-Annual precipitation (in inches) in vicinity 

Station 1939 1940 1

Length Averag 

Location 

No. 

plate 

on 

1 Co1mty recQI'd 

of 

Pl'ec:ipi 

U111ual 

Depth 

Percent 

of Depth p~ 

(yean)l tatioaZ IUlrmal llOI'IDII.l 

Arcadia,, ................ 41 DeSoto •••••••••• 47 50.80 59.32 118 57.55 114 

Avon Park. .............. 59 Highlands ....... 50 52,12 62,51 120 57.27 110 

Bartow .................... 149 Polk. ••••••••••••• 60 55,78 54.21 97 45.83 82 

Bradenton,, .............. 77 Manatee ......... 64 54,00 54.63 lOi 48.05 89 

Belle Glade ............. 106 Palm Beach. •••• 23 56,70 55.49 98 54,94 97 

Clermont ................ 72 Lake•••••••••••••• 54 50.20 51,30 102 47,83 Jl5 

Coconut Grove., ....... 25 Dade •••••••••••••• 23 -'55.10 5},87 . ......... 56.15 . ....... Davenport. .............. 150 Polk. ............. 23 49.63 61,77 124 49.32 99 

Everglades ••••••••••••••• 19 Collier ........... 21 55.05 50,70 92 54.69 99 

Fellsmere •••••••••••••••• 68 Indian River .... 35 55.75 60,23 108 58,58 105" 

Fort Lauderdale, ....... 11 Broward. ......... 34 62.98 48,46 77 70.75 112 

Fort Myers ............... 75 Leo •••• ~~~~···~~~~·•••••• 63 52.06 65,33 125 56,55 109 

Fort Pierce .............. 163 -St. Lucie,..,., .. 52 51.06 44.13 86 50.29 . 99 

Homestead. ............. 29 Dade,.., ......... 37 61.88 64.04 103 70.37 113 

Hyp<!lwco ................ 124 Palm Beach ..... 54 58.75 49,53 84 62.42 106 

Key West. ............... 83 Monroe.· .......... 99 38.36 42,12 110 41.50 lOB 

Ki .. immee .............. 103 Osce<!la .......... 56 50.24 54,85 109 49.58 99 

La Belle .................. 55 Hendry ........... 16 46,87 43.10 92 50.49 108 

Lake Alfred. ............. 157 P<~lk. .............. 24 51,14 58.91 115 40.03 78 

Lakeland. ................ 159 Polk. .............. 32 52.70 57.98 110 44.22 84 

Merritt Island. .......... 4 Brevard. .......... 68 51.20 ....... ·········· 

54.31 106 

Miami .................... 32 Dade .. ., .......... 55· 59,18 57.39 97 71.65 121 

Mo<!re Haven. .......... 46 Glades,. .......... 29 49.52 49.74 100 58.50 118 

Okeechobee .............. 93 Okeechobee,. ... 28 48,61 56.20 116 52,97 109 Orlat~do ................... 98, 99 Orange ....... ; ... 55 52,45 52.42 100 54,02 103 

Plant City ................ 64 Hillsb<~rough •••• 50 54.24 60.64 112 43.61 80 

P=ta Gorda ............. 17 Charlotte ........ 33 49.98 55.79 112 55.-50 111 

St. Leo ................... 144 Pasco ............. 54 56.12 50,90 91 43.87 78 

St. Petersburg ........... 147 Pinellas .......... 36 50.90 61,41 121 43.49 85 

Sarasota .................. 164 Sarasota .......... 17 -'54.89 62.81 114 44.05 80 

Tampa .................... 65, 66 Hillsborough .... 57 48,35 51.'11 107 42.98 89 

Tarpon Sprbtgs .......... 148 Pinellas .......... 56 51.18 55.05 108 46.67 91 

Titusville ................ 7 Brevazd. ......... 54 452.31 48.42 93 55.68 106 

West Palm Beach ...... 142 Palm Beach. .... 17 63.03 46.57 72 87.52 139 

lThrough 1946. · 2

Except as noted, n<~rmals givet~ are as published in "Climate and Man, • Yearb<!C!k of Dept: 

of Ap. 1941. · · "November'and December 1945 ramfall estimated, 4

Computedfrom 1943 "Climatological Data.~' U. S. Weather Bureau. 5December 1941 rainfall estimated. 6Record incomplete, 

7February 1938 rainfall estimated. 8 April 1941 rainfall estimated, g Station relocated. 10November aftd December 1942 rainfall estimated. 
CUMATE 27 

of lGssimme&-Everglades drainage basin, 1932-46-Continued _ .. ·-· 

1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 

Petcent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent 

!Depth of Depth of Depth of Depth of Depth of Depth of 

normal normal nonnal normal normal nCII'ma1 

,§§. 68 111 53.82 107 57.08 113 41.57 83 53.55 106 49.55 99 

.55.53 106 '53,67 103 51,01 98 47,68 91 54,66 105 50.70 97 

56.13; 101 56,30 101 53,61 96 -48.99 88 58,08 104 50,22 90 

48.01 89 47,81 89 68,52 127 29,45 55 53.89 100 42.04 78 

63.53 112 65,82 116 43,20 76 52,12 92 50,65 89 70,94 125 

' 52.66 105 47.11 94 49.20 98 56.11 112 59,6 119 49.00 98 

59;32 108 54.90 100 50.77 92 43.34 79 55,15 100 62.64 114 

$62.09 125 50.72 102 47.78 96 55.36 112 67.74 136 ........ 51,6 94 36.50 66 40.64 74 42.24 77 57.42 104 56.27 102 

78.83 141 60.60 109 61.20 110 64,70 116 52,44 94 56,44 101 

55.01 87 53.05 84 47.38 75 41,61 66 ~6) ......... ~6) 62.92 121 53,92 103 62.45 120 34.17 66 5 ,58 101 4 ,45 82 

73.43 144 47.46 93 49.63 97 48,34 95 51,88 102 43.59 85 

876.47 . 124 63,31 102 56.80 90 51,15 83 54.28 88 64,27 104 

64.87' 110 67.45 115 46.37 79 34,70 59 56,41 96 53,34 91 

52.01 136 29,03 76 36.53 95 31.93 83 40,93 107 31,68 83 

63,10 125 45,50 91 41.50 83 43,34 86 50,13 100 48.75 97 

55.97 119 43.88 94 47.65 102 48.60 104 62.74 134 50,40 108 

57.30 112 44.99 88 53.64 105 58.02 113 60,55 118 51,89 101 

59.76 113 39.57 75 49,40 94 40.70 77 52.24 99 47.05 89 

59.79' 117 39.10 76 40.09 78 47,34 92 49.61 97 51.55 101 

51.34' 87 56.80 96 44.82 76 28,66 48 34,54 58 39,04 66 

61.64 124 44.74 90 39.54 80 42.70 86 45.48 92 40,88 83 

53.42 110 44.03 91 39.81 82 36,38 75 43,41 89 37.45 77 

59.65: 114 41.29 79 49,40 94 ' 948, 85 93 55.95 107 50.13 96 

61.20 113 48.82 90 57.98 107 _45,41 84 59.78 110 44.89 83 

45.44 91 51.77 104 48,90 98 38,89 78 56.54 113 50.07 100 

60.051 107 60.09 107 63,30 113 54.3<l 97 81.93 146 51.79 92 

,45.77 90 44,64 88 56.20 110 38.40 75 62.66 123 45.75 90 

55.83 102 46,14 84 75,93 138 35.75 65 55,38 101 39,03 71 

54.25! 112 -~8.66 80 44.89 93 34.87 72 66.65 138 59.12 122 

62.46 122 ,10168.8 124 59,59 116 (6) ""i25' 58.75 115 61.53 120 

66,38 127 48.63 93 47,57 91 65.57 60.55 116 51.21 98 

66.64 106 '66.36 105 50.69 80 44.91 71 73.02 116 66.93 106 
28 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

1923). Average rainfall at Okeechobee for a 33-year period is 

47,9 inches. The average deviation is 6. 8 inches, or 14 percent 

of the average, indicating a slightly less variable rainfall regimen 

than at Miami. During the 7-year study period, rainfall averaged 

43. 9 inches, 4 inches less than the long-term average. Persistence 

of precipitation trends is about the same as at Miami; 18 I 31 (:0, 58) 

for 1-year period, 9 I 14 (= 0. 64) for 2 -year groups, and 418 ( :Q, 50) 

for 3-year groups, indicating little, if any, persistence in rainfall 

trends at Okeechobee. 

AREAL DISTRIBUTION 

Annual rainfall variations in southern Florida during the 15-year 

period 1932-46 are shown by figures in table 3 ana are indicated 

on the maps in plate 2, Every year shows areas of above-normal 

rainfall and are us of below-normal rainfall. Although quite definite 

areas of above- and below-normal precipitation may be delineated, 

it seems unusual that factors producing rainfall in Florida would 

not have beensufficiently uniform, in any of the 15 years, to produce rainfall either entirely above, or entirely below, normal for 

the entire southern part of the peninsula. Some examples of great 

contrast between stations can be noted. In 1932, precipitation at 

Miami totaled 135 percent of normal (third highest of the record),. 

whereas at Arcadia it totaled only 67 percent of normal (lowest of 

record). 

In 1945 the difference in annual precipitation between two stations 

(Coconut Grove and Miami), only about 11 miles apart, was 20.61 

inches. The difference in rainfall between Miami and two nearby 

stations (with short records and therefore not listed in table 3) is 

even more pronounced, In 1944 it was 27. 8 inches in Pennsuco 

(about 19 miles distant), and in 1946 it was 27.95 inches in Peters 

(15. 5 miles distant). 

There are also considerable variations in the monthly rainfall 

for stations only a few miles apart. For example, Miami and Miami 

Airport gages are about 5 miles apart, yet some of the monthly 

rainfalls have differed by more than 11 in.ches, and it is not uncommon for the daily rainfall at these two stations to differ by more 

than 2 inches. 

No detailed studies of rainfall patterns have been made, but it 

is apparent that there is usually a considerable variation in both 

daily and annual rainfall within distances of a few miles; most of 

the precipitation occurs as local showers, which have a high intensity over only a few square miles or over a few city blocks. 
CUMATE 29 

SEASONAL DIS'l'RIBU'I10N 

The seasonal distribution of rainfall at selected stations in south'" 

ern Florida is shown in figure 4. The concentration of a large part 

of the annual rainfall during the summer months is a characteristic 

common to all of the Florida peninsula; this rainfall distribution 

coincides to some extent with the demands of evapotranspiration, 

and therefore it tends to maintain a more nearly uniform moisture 

condition. During the 5-month period, June to October, southern 

Florida usually receives more rain than any other section of the 

country. Aside from this general characteristic, monthly distributionof rainfall over southern Florida is not uniform; rather, the 

contrasts that occur in short distances are remarkable when compared with the coastal plain of the country immediately to .the north. 

On the west coast of the peninsula June and July are the rainiest 

months. On the lower east coast (illustrated by Miami and Key 

West} there are two high points, one in spring and the other in 

fall--september and October are the rainiest months of the year. 

At inla,nd stations there is an intermediate distribution (see graph 

for Kissimmee, fig. 4). 

The contrast between the distribution of rainfall during July and 

during October is of special interest. During July, the average 

rainfall exceeds 9 inches in the region about Tampa Bay. In the 

Miami region, July precipitation is about 6 inches. Normal October 

precipitation exceeds 9 inches along a narrow coastal fringe between 

10~----~~-- -~--~--~---~-----.--~---.-------,----, 

--+--------lr 1 •• ··-. - --~--+,_.-==..t-----1-- ---~ 

•o•r MVE""/ ··· •. , ··········· ., I 1\ ---+---1 - ' -+------1.-1 

:z 1--+-'t'l..-/ / ... , '•, ! /".::--~--- ~ 7>-- ~'------- l-~------1~- - . ~\... -~ - . --\ -·-

d ·'------ ---~----~- I _ //1 \ ; ~;~_~ .. ~- . __ _ ::! ~j :II \V )' \ .. \ \ z MIAMI- I i/ /'TAMPA ./ \~ \ \ 

: ·>-------- .. -+-- 7 )}' . .. / \ \ . \"" t---

~ If I .......... . , . . \\ \ \ - I , /./ -., L.. \ \ ' \._ ~ •1-------1------- -------ll--1--/-"+ >1 ·---,;;-f---· -----T--"f-:---· -+l----1 

w 1/ /,:;>/ ., V/\.v WEST \ \~\ \ 

: KISSIMMEE',._ / l/r ' \ \ 

~. x_,.;~=--.:z.: /7 ·-f--------f------ ·-- --- t--, \\ "-

- ........._ -· -.,_,.-- : I ' ._' \,.. 2 .....::. ' ' ~~·---~/ --- ,.;>b--.·~~~-

.. ___ ·-·-· r----- . '\ --::::::.. __ 

0 

JAN. FEB. MAY JUNE 

.o.u bo~l,l~~ s~r:.:.~;r·~~t~~·~~r<~9«~$ 

JUI,..V AUG. SEPT. OCT. ~NOV OEC. 

Figure 4, -Graph showing seasonal distribution of rainfa.ll at selected locations in southern · Florida, 
30 WATER RESOURCE~ IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Homestead and Jupiter. Thirty miles inland, October rainfall averages a.bout 5 inches, and on the west coast, notably in the Tampa 

Bay region, it is only about 3 inches. The high July rainfall on the 

west coast probably reflects the activity of convectional or airmass thunderstorms, which are common over the Gulf during that 

month, The high October rainfall on the east coast doubtless arises 

from the influence of the West Indian hurricanes that are particularly active in the early fall, The rainfall regimen at Miami 

seemingly has more in common with that at Nassau in the Bahamas 

(about 150 miles to the east) than it has with the regimen at Fort 

Myers (about 115 miles to the northwest on the Gulf coast of the 

peninsula). 

The usual long dry winter and spring seasons, as clearly illustrated by all graphs on figure 4, are closely associated with the 

recurring droughts in the area. Little recharge to water supplies 

can be expected after the end of October; therefore, the lowest water 

levels generally occur in the spring and following a year in which 

the precipitation of both the summer and fall seasons was below 

average. Successful development of water supplies and operation 

of water-control projects require careful consideration of this 

seasonal distribution of rainfall. 

Actual seasonal behavior in rainfall at the water plant at Hialeah 

durin;J the 7 years of this investigation is illustrated in plate 3, 

The graph illustrates the vagaries in seasonal distribution that may 

take place from year to year and suggests that normal distribution 

of rain among the months rarely occurs at a given place in any one 

year. See pages 215-221 for a discussion of rainfall characteristics 

in the Miami area and pages 511-569 for a discussion of the relationship between rainfall and runoff. 

STORM RAINFALL 

Periods of storm rainfall are. usually associated with the tropical 

disturbances that generally occur during the fall months. Not all 

of these disturbances produce heavy rainfall, but some produce 

rainfall amounts that approach, if not equal, the greatest recorded 

anywhere in continental United States. The 24-hour rainfall recorded at Canal Point, Palm Beach County, on November 6-7, 

1932, as 21.92 inches (Clayton, Neller, and Allison, 1942, p. 27) 

is believed to be the heaviest on record in southeastern Florida. 

This compares with a 24-hour recorded maximum for Florida of 

23. 22 inches--at New Smyrna Beach on October 10-11, 1924 (Theaman, 1943)-and for the continental United States of 38~ 2 inches at 

Thrall, Tex., Sept. 9-10, 1921 (U, S. Corps of Engineers, 1945), 

The Gulf coast is noted for its frequency of thunderstorms, which 

occur on the average on 80 to 90 days annually, a greater number t~an 
{/) 

w 

r 

0 

z 

z 

z 

0 

f-

"' fa.. 

<..) 

w 

0:: 

a.. 

10<1 

50 

40 

30 

~0 

10 

5.0 

4.0 

3.0 

2.0 

1.0 

0.5 

0.4 

0.3 

0.2 

0.\ 

i 11241 '9'2 1----------t----+--- ENVELOPING, OR --+--+---t--+--t-+---t-+ 11241 >9l0 1

------t 

MAXI MUM CURVE------....' . _I_ I f32} L908 1 )-... rt!7~ 1932. 

!---------+----+-"BI"'"'"''oy=~"·z'a~7</ "1321 !933 

~--~-~0~61~·9~3+6~-+---+--+--t-+---t-t----+----~-l----t---+--+------l / ----:1321 !933-

/ • .11251 1827 / 132} 1933 

/_~132} 1933 

Numbers in par-ent ~es es r-ef i r to tcble 2 

I MINUTE 5 10 30 I HOUR 3 8 8 lO 12 lB I DAY 2 5 7 10 20 30 I MONTH 

DURATION 

Figure 5. -chart showing relation of amount of precipitation to duration of storJ;DS in southern Florida. 

n 

t: 

-~ 
Table 4.-Amormts of 24-hour rainfall ro be expected at rare intervals 

Years Average of 

Average annual 24-hour rainfall, in inches , which Maximum 

annual of record maximum urobably will be equaled or recorded 

Station County precipi- used for 24-hour exceeded once in: 24-hour tationl frequency rainfalls rainfall 

(inches) array (inches) 5 years 10 years 25 years (inches) 

Miami Dade 59.18. 42 6.20 8.3 10.0 12.1 15.10 

Belle Glade Palm Beach 56.70 19 4.26 5.4 6.8 9.2 10.90 

Orlando Orange 52.45. 43 3.57 4.3 5.3 6.8 8.02 

Okeechobee Okeechobee 48.61 23 3.32 4.2 4.7 5.4 6.02 

Avon Park Highlands 52.12 40 3.'10 4.5 5.6 '1.1 8.52 

Kissimmee Osceola 50.24 42 3.64 4.3 5.5 '1.3 11.60 

1Climate and Man, Yearbook of Agriculture: U. S. Department of Agriculture, p. 809-810, 1941. 
CLIMATE 33 

at any other place in the country. Thunderstorms are most frequent 

in July and August when they occur on the average of about 20 days 

each month on the Gulf coast. Graphic records of rainfall from the 

automatic recording rain gages verify casual visual observations 

that the greatest part of the rain falls during heavy showers of a 

few minutes' duration, The exception is the prolonged and generally 

widespread rainfall during the disturbances of tropical origin. Fallseason hurricanes in particular bring torrential rainfalls over the 

relatively n;arrow bands they traverse. 

The outstanding torrential rainstorms in southern Florida are 

plotted in figure 5 to show the depth of rainfall in relation to its 

duration. A curve has been drawn showing the highest limits of 

intensity on record as defined by the plotted points, Rainfall shown 

by this enveloping curve has occurred but rarely in southern 

Florida; the record on which it is based is equivalent to a great 

many station years. No estimate can be given of the frequency with 

which rainfall of the extraordinary depths shown can be expected 

at any given place. Nevertheless, the recurrence of such rainfall 

is a distinct possibility. 

The frequency of 24-hour rainfall at several of the long-term 

stations in southeastern Florida was studied to find the depth of 

24-hour rainfall expected to be equaled or exceeded once in 5, 10, 

and 25 years on the average, The results are given in table 4 for 

six stations, 

The data in table 4 indicate somewhat greater depths of 24-hour 

rainfall at Miami and at Belle Glade (possibly the same is true in 

the intervening Everglades) than at any of the other stations listed, 

which are in the Kissimmee basin. This difference in intensity is 

associated with corresponding differences in annual rainfall, 

The reliability of the frequency data in table 4, especially for 

the 25-year interval, is open to speculation because of the errors 

arising from the relative shortness of the record as well as deficiencies in the statistical theory available. The data in the table. 

however, probably are a fair appraisal of the frequency of storm 

rainf'all to be expected in southeastern Florida, 

DROUGHT RAINFALL 

The sufficiency of water supplies in southeastern Florida depends 

as much on the nature and frequency of droughts as on the average 

or normal supply, In general, an economy (agricultural or urban) 

is adapted most easily to a climatic regimen that remains fairly 

uniform from year to year. Wide fluctuations from the normal result in stress, and unless facilities are available to store supplies, 

droughts may impose a limit to possible development. 
34 WATER RESOURCES IN SOtn'HEASTERN Fl.ORlDA 

In a general sense, a drought may be defined as a period in which 

rainfall has been so deficient as to hinder the growth of native ve getation and to affect water supplies adversely. It is difficult to 

define a drought precisely because various things are affected to 

different degrees by any given deficiency in rainfall. This is true 

even with respect to native vegetation (a drought, in this case, 

exists when vegetation wilts or defoliates unseasonally), because 

vegetation may be situated variously with respect to available water 

supplies. Shallow-rooted plants may be affected by even ephemeral 

shortages, whereas deep-rooted species in the same area may be 

affected adversely only after months of sustained deficiency. Water 

supplies, too, are variable in 'their response to deficiencies in 

rainfall. Deep ground water, especially in artesian aquifers, responds only to changes in rainfall over long periods, and it is almost unaffected by month to month variations. Headwater streams,. 

on the other hand, vary frequently in rate of discharge and respond 

to vagaries in daily or even hourly rainfall. F\arthermere, during 

development of a region, if unreasonable demands are made for 

water, a situation will be created that may simulate drought. 

Although deficiency in precipitation is the prime cause of drought, 

its effects may be aggravated or ameliorated by variations of tem .. 

perature. Above-normal temperature would tend to increase transpiration of vegetation and evaporation from the land and so accelerate the loss in soil moisture. Below-normal temperature would 

tend to conserve soil moisture. 

Degree of drought is best measured by the effect upon activities 

directly concerned; for example, soil moisture with respect to 

agriculture, and streamflow and ground-water levels with respect 

to water supplies. However, there are no records of soil moisture, 

and records of streamflow and ground water are relatively short 

in comparison with the available records of rainfall. Even though 

it is difficult to measure a drought in terms of precipitation deficiencies alone, for the purpose of this discussion it may be presumed that the intensity of a drought would be proportional to the 

amount and duration of the deficiency. 

Table 5 lists cumulative deficiency in precipitation at Miami and 

at Kissimmee during outstanding periods of subnormal rainfall. 

There are 18 periods listed for Miami and 14 for Kissimmee, but 

the variability between these stations is such that only about half 

are common to both. Deficiencies during the other periods were 

apparently local in extent. For example, the drought of 1944-45 

was worse in the record at Miami, but its influence was rather 

localized (see also pl. 2). Large deficiency in rainfall at one station 

does not necessarily indicate a drought, because its areal effects 

may be mitigated by a smaller deficiency or even by a normal rainfall at a nearby station; therefore, table 6 has been prepared to show 

the cumulative deficiency of average rainfall at all stations in the 

southern part of the State. 
CLIMATE 35 

Mean-temperature deviation from normal during the indicated 

periods is also shown in tables 5 and 6. Plus and minus signs are 

about equally numerous, thus suggesting that there is no tendency 

for periods of droughts to be associated with either above- or belownormal temperatures. 

At Miami, droughts listed in approximate order of magnitude 

occu~red in 1944-45, 1906-07, 1927-28, 1897-98, and 1913-14. 

At Kissimmee, the five most severe droughts of record were respectively 1897-98, 1942-43,1906-07, 1931-32, and 1938-39. The 

ranking five droughts in southern Florida as a whole are 1931-2, 

1906-07, 1942-43, 1897-98, and 1927-28. Three ranking droughts 

(1931-32, 1942-43, and 1944-45) have occurred since some records 

of lake and river stages are available. It is fortunate indeed that 

the intensive study of the water resources of the area was under 

way during the droughts of 1942-43 and 1944-45 (two of the five 

most severe droughts in more than 40 years). Significant conditions 

were recorded, which might otherwise have been unavailable for 

future guidance. 

Climatic analyses by some means that will evaluate the effectiveness of precipitation in terms of the temperature with which it is 

associated are helpful in a study of droughts. Thornthwaite (1931, 

p. 635-655) has devised aformula for suchan evaluation. Briefly, 

Thornthwaite has assumed that the rate of evaporation from freewater surfaces is a measure of the characteristics of a region with 

respect to the natural water loss, or consumption of water through 

evaporation from land, and through the transpiration of vegetation. 

He then expresses the effectiveness of the precipitation as a ratio 

of precipitation to evaporation; his findings are based on anem., · 

pirical formula which involves precipitation and temperature as 

factors. Using the results of his formula, he also devised a system 

of climatic classification and later published a series of maps, one 

for each calendar year from 1900 to 19 39 • showing the distribution 

of the climatic types in the United States (Thornthwaite, 1941). 

Normally, southeast Florida, like most of the eastern United 

States, has a humid climate and adequate rainfall for tree growth. 

However, the precipitation effectiveness falls toward the lower 

boundary of the humid classification; therefore, the moist-subhumid 

type is of frequent occurrence (between 25 and 50 percent of the 

years), and indeed, much of the central peninsula (including the 

upper Kissimmee River basin) normally falls within the moistsubhumid classification. The moist-subhumid climate is typical 

of a lush grassland vegetation (such as the prairies of east Texas). 

Dry-subhumid, the next lower classification, is typical of a shortgrass region (as in central Texas) and would correspond to serious 

drought in Florida. Thornthwaite demonstrates that this type occurred over scattered and limited areas 10 times in 40 years (1900-

1939), but only in 1907 and in 1938 were large areas affected. During 
36 WATER RESOURCES 'IN SOUTHEASTERN Fl.OIUDA 

Table 5.-Precipitation deficiency and temperature zn relation 

12 months 

Peri.od 

Aug. 1875-July 1876 

Oct. 1897 •Sept. 1898 

Nov. 1901-0ct. 1902 

Dec. 1906-Nov. 1907 

Sept. 1913-Aug. 1914 

June 1916-May 1917 

Oct. 1917 ·Sept. 1918 

July 1919-June 1920 

July 1923-June 1924 

May 1927-Apr. 1928 

1928-29 

1931 

Aug. 1934-July 1935 

Oct. 1937 ·Sept. 1938 

Oct. '1937 ·Sept. 1938 

July 1942· June 1943 

Aug. 1944-July 1945 

May 1945-April 1946 

Oct. 18~ ·Sept. 1898 

Oct. 19 1-Sept. 1902 

July 1906-June 1907 

Nov. 1910-0ct. 1911 

Nov. 1913-0ct. 1914 

Jan. ·Dec, 1917 

June 1921-May 1922 

Dec, l92ti·Nov. 1927 

Feb, 1929-Jan. 1930 

May 1931·Apr, 1932 

Nov. 1934-0ct. 1935 

Apr. 1938-Mat. 1939 

~uly 1942gJune 1943 

ept. 194 -Aug. 1944 

~o record, 2 Above normal. 

!1942. 

,1944. 

.1945, 

f =>- ., g~ .S!j-;: a·c § ~ -~;) 

-~ u1 !!~ > 

-~ 

(l.•ll"t, ll ~~N 

~.,:.:::. ~-SB !-< 

16.28 (1) 

25.19 ·0.4 

22.78 ········ 28.42 +,5 

23,13 -1.2 

22.27 -. 8 

22,77 -1.6 

18.54 -. 5 

19,11 ·1.0 

30,61 -.1 

(2) ......... (2) 

22.72 ········ +.4 

20.68 +.1 

20.68 +,2 

20.61 +.2 

35.28 -,'7 

23,85 -. 8 

12.40 (1) 

12,00 (1) 

22.93 ~1) 15.83 + • 3 

9,89 +2.4 

12.54 +1.9 

11.48 T •3, 6 

6, 09 .~5.4 12.95 +5.0 

19.76 ~2.9 

12.82 -3.3 

17.84 +2.3 

2o.~a ~1. 

+2,1 

~~ 6 .. 

1914. 

:November and December missing. 

Four months' record missing, 9

Five months' record missing, 

6 months 

g~ 

Period <'5 .... ~ -~ lJ .... u~ 

.9-~ g ~"tS:.:.. 

d:: 

MIA Nil 

Aug. ·Jan. 13.44 

Jan. ·June 16,70 

Mar. ·Aug, 15.08 

May·Oct. 19,31 

May·Oct. 18,86 

Sept. •Feb. 15,39 

Oct. ·Mar, 12.55 

July• Dec. 13.29 

July·Dec. 14.43 

Mat. ·Aug. 17,90 

ect. -Mat. 9.63 

Mat. ·Aug. 9.74 

Oct. ·Mar. 13.98 

Oct. ·Mar, 11,56 

Mar. •Aug. 13,39 

July-Dec. 15.44 

June·Nov,4 22,90 

Mar,·Aug! 17,67 

KISSIMMEE 

Jan, ·June 14.76 

Mar. ·Aug. 9,08 

Oct. ·Mat, 13,86 

Feb. -July. 10.75 June-Nov;~ U.05 

Feb, ·July 11.68 

June-Nov, 6.74 

Dec. ·May 8.41 

Aug. ·Jan. 8,44 

May·<Oct. 13,40 

Mar. ·Aug, 9,63 

Apr. ·Sept. 9,96 

July• Dec, 1~.59 Am. ·SeJ>t • 79 

4 months 

c' !" ~ 

"'6~ 6i7 ., g';, a., i Period ~ e-;;; ad~ 

Sl "' Ql "' > !!~~ 

14~ ~ .... ~ffll 

~-!l B ·~ .8. ~ .SB 

!-< d:: !-< 

(t) Sept. ·Dec;, 12.01 (1) 

-1.0 Apr. ·July' 14.52 -0.6 

+,9 Apr. ·July 11.31 +1. 6 

+.5 July-Oct. 17.02 +.3 

-.7 May· Aug, 14,06 . ........ -. 6 Sept. ~Dec 11.17 -. 6 

-2,1 Oct, ·Jan. 11.89 -4.0 

+,4 July-Oct. 13,89 +.3 

·1.1 Sept. •Dec 13,40 ·1.3 

+.6 May·AJlg, 14,26 +1. 0 

+1.0 Oc.t. ·Jan, 10,73 +.2 

-1.1 May· Aug, 14.68 +.4 

'+. 2 Oct. ·Jan. 9.83 +.3 

+.1 Oct, ·Jan. 8.40 -1.1 

+.6 May-Aug. 8,21 +.1 

+1.5 July-Oct. 14.85 +1,4 

-. 8 Aug, ·Nov. 17.77 -1.3 .o May-Aug. 14.77 -1.0 

(1~ Feb. ·May 11.69 (1) 

(1 Mar. ·June 7,34 (t) 

~1) Dec. ·Mar, 10,20 (1) 

+ ,4 Apr. ·July 8,52 +3.0 

-.4 June·Sept, 6.83 -. 3 

+5.2 Mar. ·June 9.33 +5.2 ......... June·Sept, 10.46 -. 2 

+7.5 Dec. ·Mar. 5. 95 +8,3 -. 7 Aug, ·Nov. 6.31 -1,2 

-.9 May-Aug. 8,50 -1.2 

+3.5 May-Aug, 8.11 +.8 

+.2 June-Sept. 8.73 -1,9 

+,9 July-Oct, 12.02 -.4 

tP••••·••• .. ......... •••t••·• ....... 
CUMATE 37 

to normal during periods of drought at .lfiami and [(issimmee 

3months 2 months 1 month 

F F .... 

1"' ... ..... ..... g~ ~]~ €(> " € " g~ " € " Period ·;: ~- Period ·~ ij ..... ~ ·c I? Period :Pij-;;;- s..: ~ 

·~<I 

l! ·~] i!.l! ~ E.<l :a tL~ ~ l! .,.; " C!~ ~ ~2!~ ·~ .0: ...... u ..c: 0...•1""1 r.J .2-iJll ~f<'l Q...•.-1 u ~:!~ 

·2~! ~·~ 2 ~~;:.. E <= o ·u~ .s E <= o 

.t cu· ... ~ " ..... (!)" ......... 

It !-< .t !-< 

MIAJ\.11 

Sept. -Nov. 10.49 (1) Sept. -Oct. 8,30 (1) Sept. 4.06 (1) 

Apr. -June 14.40 -0.8 May-June 11.82 -0.4 June 6. 52 +0.7 

Apr. -June 8,55 +1.8 Apr. -May 7,34 +1. 6 May 6.01 +2.7 

Aug. ·Oct. 14.76 +.3 Sept, -Oct. 11.83 +.25 Oct, 6.27 -. 8 

May-July 11.30 +.1 May-June 9.78 +. 5 May 5.13 +.1 

Sept, -Nov, 9.50 -.8 Sept. -Oct. 88.56 -1.0 Sept. 4.45 ~· -1.5 

Oct. -Dec, 10.04 -3.6 Oct. -Nov, 9.58 -2.9 Oct. 7.03 -. 3 

Aug. -Oct, 13.75 +.7 Sept. -Oct. 10.95 +.8 Sept. 5.54 -. 7 

Sept. -Nov. 11.94 -2.4 Sept, -Oct, 9.42 -1.5 Oct. 6,37 -1,9 

May-July 12.13 +1.1 May-June 11,09 +1, 5 May 6.27 +1, 0 

Oct. -Dec. 9,06 -. 5 Oct. -.Nov. 7.88 -.1 Oct. 5.51 +. 5 

May-July 13.17 +.2 June-July 10.56 +.6 June 7,15 +.2 

Oct. -Dec, 7,48 +.6 Oct, -Nov. 6. 53 +1. 0 Oct. 6. 00 +2, 0 

Oct. -Dec, 8.12 -1.3 Oct. -Nov. 6, 60 -1.1 Oct, 4,14 -. 7 

June-Aug. 6,84 -.1 July-Aug. 5.27 +.2 Aug. 5.38 +1,1 

~uly-Sept. 10. 9,8 +1.7 July-Aug, 7,97 +1.9 May!' 5.21 +, 8 ~ug. -Oct, 14,74 -1,0 Sept. -Oct, 10.34 -1,4 Sept. 5.77 +.2 ~ay-July 13.04 -1,0 May-June 11,45 -. 8 May 6,33 -1,4 

KISSIMMEE 

!Mar. -May 9,93 (1) Apr. -May 6,83 (1) May 4.33 (1) 

!Mar. -Mav 6,45 (1) Apr. -May 5,23 (1) May 4,34 (1) 

an. -Mar. 8,14 (1) Feb. -Mar. 5.93 (1) Mar. 3,10 (1) 

!May-July 7.62 +1. 0 June-July 4.86 +.2 July 3,40 -3.3 

une-Aug. 6.31 -. 2 July-Aug. 5,10 -1.5 July 3.44 -3.5 

~pr. -June 7,42 +3,1 May• June 5. 74 +1, 8 June 4,29 +.8 

uly-Sept. 8.62 -. 8 Aug, -Sept. 7.06 +.6 Sept. 5,03 +.8 

pee. -Feb, 5,30 +12. 5 Dec. ·Jan, 3.82 +3.2 Jan. 2.11 +7.3 ~ug. -Oct. 5. 62 -1.5 Aug. -Sept. 4.97 -1.2 Aug. 3,98 -. 7 ~ay·July 8,29 -. 7 May-June 6,56 -.1 June 4.17 -. 4 

~ay-July 5,52 +,6 May-June 5.27 +3,3 June 3.36 +1. 6 ~ug. -Oct. 6. 73 -1.3 Aug. -Sept. 7,09 -1.0 Sept. 3.72 +1. 6 

uly-Sept, 8.45 +.7 July-Aug. 7.04 +.8 July 5.95 +1.7 ~pr. -June 5,73 Mav-June 5.77 +1 0 !June 4 31 +1 2 
38 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

12 months 

Period 

Dec. 1891-Nov. 1892 

June 1895-May 1896 

Oct. 1897 -Sept. 1898 

Oct. 1901-Sept. 1902 

Dec. 1906-Nov. 1907 

Dec. 1910-Nov, 1911 

Apr. 1913-Mar. 1914 

Nov. 1915-0ct. 1916 

Jan.-Dec, 1917 

May 1921-April 1922 

Mar. 1927 -Feb, 1928 

May 1931-Apr. 1932 

July 1934-June 1935 

Apr. 1938-Mar. 1939 

July 1942-June 1943 

June 1944-May 1945 

11906, 

21938. 

11937-1938. 

Table 6.- Precipitation deficiency and temperature in relation 

6 months 4 months 

;:;; " ;:;; :.... :.... :.... 

!l1i ~.n Period §1) ;.n Period §1) ., !l" 

·5.~i ......... N .~ "i' ... ...... ~e-;; s·~~ e~ (&J 

·- (j ..ci ., ., > •1""1 ()~ ~~ ~ ~'f) Jj " .. ~ P.."'"" u ['tcu ll-"" tl."""' u ll-"" ~·""" u ..... ~a •.-I'Q) t:: •.-t <M IO;l 

~~L E " o ~r-oC ~ .s .s ~~:::: E =o Q.l"'"" ~ <U"".pl 

0:: f- 0:: f- .o:: fSOUTHERN 

6,5 -1. 0 Dec. -May 6,07 -0,5 Feb. -May 5.25 -0.7 

9,20 -8.0 June-Nov. 5,72 ~. 8 June-Sept. 6. 51 -.1 

10.~~ +.1 Jan, -June 13.97 -. 1 Mar, -June 10,59 +.5 

11.0 -1.6 Mar. -Aug. 8,85 -. 2 May-Aug. 7. 06 +1, 9 

14.08 +.1 Nov. -Apr. 9,71 +.3 Dec, -Mar. 7,99 -. 6 

11. 6~ +,3 Nov. -Apr. 7,60 -. 8 Dec, -Mar. 6.20 -. 7 

8. 58 -1.4 Apr. -Sept. 6,92 -1, 1 Apr. -July 5,43 -1.1 

8.71 -.4 Jan, -June 6.07 -. 2 Jan. -Apr. 5,02 -. 3 

8,95 -. 6 Jan. -June 7.87 +.6 Jan, -Apr. 4. 68 +1. 2 

7,38 +1.3 Nov. -Apr. 5. 59 +2.8 June-Sept. 11.62 +.2 

14.51 +.8 Apr. -Sept. 8,67 +1.3 Mar. -June 6,40 +1.6 

15.90 +1. 5 May-Oct. 10,29 +.1 May-Aug. 8.84 .. ....... 12.67 +. 8 Oct, -Mar, 8,79 +1. 0 Oct. -Jan. 5,80 +.8 

11,53 +.9 Dec, -Maya 7. 29 +1. 0 Jan. -Apr. 2 5.85 +1.7 

11.76 +1. 0 July-Dec. 10,14 +1,6 July-Oct. 9.54 +.8 

12.22 +1,1 Dec.-May 8.92 -1.6 Feb. -May 7.81 +3.2 
CUMATE 39 

to normal during periods of drougl!t in southern Florida 

3 months 2 months 1 month 

~ E F :... ....... 

Period 81) .. 8 ~ Period 81) .. 6 .. ,:.., .. 8 .. Period 0 u 

~ m-;;- ih:J"' ~ ~-;- a-;~ r:> ·~ ~ .-. !'!.~: ......... ...., .... IU ~,!!!~ -~ ·u ll t~ ~ E .... ~ !:!.!!! .. ·a-~~ " .. > .... O..cl , ..... 0.."""' u .. " > """" .e-~ g ·~~£ s = 0 -~~! "'""' ll.l .... ol-d ~-U irl"ts~ ~ .5 B 

.t (-< .t (-< .t (-< 

FLORIDA 

Mar. ~May 4.55 -0.9 Apr. -May 3.62 +.4 July 3,69 +0.5 

Mar. -May 4.78 ~- 3 Apr. -May 3.68 +.7 June 3.17 +,1 

Apr. ·June 8. 96 +.1 May-June 6.88 +.8 June 4.12 +1. 0 

une-Aug. 5 .. 14 +.7 Oct. -Nov. 4.21 -2.6 Oct. 2.99 +.3 an. -Mar. 6.07 +2.4 Sept. -Ocd 5.04 +.1 Oct. 2.99 -1.4 

~~c. -Feb. 5. 31 -1.2 June-July 4,18 +.1 June 2.60 +.8 

ay·July 5.24 ~1. 0 June-July 4.70 -. 9 July 2,44 ~.1 

~~n. -Mar. 4.82 +.4 Feb. -Mar. 3.42 -2.2 Mar. 1.93 -3.7 an. -Mar. 3,73 +2,1 Jan. -Feb. 2.88 +1. 7 Jan. 1.71 :t-4.4 ~uly-Sept. 7.82 +.1 Aug. -Sept. 8.21 +.6 Sept. 4.95 +1.4 

!Apr, -June 6. 07 +2.0 May-June 5,16 +2.0 May 3,18 +1. 7 ~e-Aug. 8.19 +.5 June-July 7.09 +.5 June 5,3ti -. 2 t. -Dec. 4.47 +.9 Oct. -Nov. 3.16 +1.4 

~·· 2.03 +3.3 ~eb. -Apr.2 4.94 +2.4 Aug. -Sept. 5.29 +,1 ug. 4.08 +.5 ~y-sept. 6.33 +1.4 July-Aug. 5.21 +1. 5 Oct. 3.21 +,2 r. -May 5. 91 +3.0 Apr. -May 3,81 +2.1 May 2.88 -. 3 

346881 0-55--5 
40 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

such years, the maintenance of a state of development predicated 

on a humid or moist-subhumid climate can be accomplished only 

by a withdrawal of water stored from previous years. 

TEMPERATURE 

A knowledge of temperature conditions in southeastern Florida 

is pertinent to a study of its water resources because of the dominating influence of temperature on rates of water losses throughout the area by evaporation and transpiration. This relationship 

is discussed in more detail under •Evaporation and transpiration." 

The modifying effect of the marine exposure on Florida temperatures can be seen by comparing the area under study with the only 

other area in continental United States of similar latitude, the 

extreme southern part of Texas. With similar average annual temperature existing in both areas, in Florida the mean July average 

is about 2" to 3" F cooler, and the January average is 3" to 5° F 

warmer than in Texas. 

The mean annual temperatures increase gradually southward 

from 72 ° F in the upper Kissimmee River basin to about 75 ° F at 

the southern tip of the peninsula and 77 ° F at Key West. This 

variation is apparent in a north-south direction only; in an eastwest direction there is little difference between points on the Gulf 

and Atlantic coasts or between coastal and inland stations. 

Mean January temperatures average about 10° F below the annual 

mean in the Kissimmee basin. The variation from the mean is less 

along the lower east and west coasts; January temperatures are 

generally somewhat higher along the coasts than at inland stations. 

The areal variation in mean July temperatures is only about onehalf that for January and does not conform to any definite trend 

over the area. This variation seems to be part of the general temperature gradation in the East, where the contrast between north 

and south is great in winter and small in midsummer. 

Record-low temperatures vary from 18° Fin the upper Kissimmee 

River basin to from 26° to 28" F along the southern tip of the peninsula and approximately 40" along the Florida Keys. Frost conditions sufficiently severe to kill vegetation have been observed 

over the entire mainland of the peninsula, but not along the keys. 

These killing frosts are rare, and the 'damage to vegetation, although severe from the standpoint of agriculture, seldom is great 

enough to affect hydrologic factors pertinent to water supplies. On 

the contrary, the presence of sizeable supplies of water on, or 

near the surface, has the effect of limiting damage by low temperatures on the vegetation in the immediate locality. 
CLIMATE 41 

On the basis of normal monthly temperatures, August is the 

warmest month of the year in southern Florida, July is a close 

second, and September and June follow in order. January is the 

coldest month, and December and February are almost as cold 

(see pl. 3). 

WIND 

The wind plays a part in the hydrologic processes as a factor in 

the determination of evaporation from lake or stream surfaces, 

from the soil, and from the surfaces of vegetation. Other factors 

remaining the same, the rate of evaporation increases with the 

rate of movement of the air or wind. Wind movement is commonly 

expressed as a rate in miles per hour or as an accumulated quantity 

in a longer unit of time, as miles per month, and ordinarily it is 

measured by an anemometer, either the revolving-cup type or the 

orifice type. Variations of the former type are commonly used, 

although the Corps of Engineers operates several of the pitot or 

orifice type in the vicinity of Lake Okeechobee to obtain accurate 

recording of the high hurricane winds. A simple weather vane 

operated as a part of, or in conjunction with, the anemometers, 

indicates wind direction by compass bearing. 

To be of greatest value in hydrologic studies, records of wind 

should be observed at or near the ground, and these records should 

be representative of the general area. Unfortunately, few wind 

records satisfy both requirements because in urban or wellsettled areas, where most of the gages are installed, wind velocities 

near the ground usually are affected by nearby buildings or trees, 

and they do not accurately represent the general area, To avoid 

this difficulty, anemometers are commonly placed high above the 

ground. The resulting wind-movement records effectively show 

variations and trends that are usable in hydrologic studies, but 

these records may not be representative of the slower movement 

of winds at plant height and at ground and water surfaces where 

evaporation and transpiration take place, 

On the basis of a 30-year record at Miami (Carson, 1940)-

anemometer 168 feet above ground surface-the monthly average 

air speeds varied from 8. 1 miles per hour (mph) in July to 10. 8 

mph in November, with an average for October to March of 9. 9 

mph as compared to 8. 8 mph for April to September. The general 

average speed of 9. 3 mph is more than twice the general average 

speed inland at Belle Glade. The anemometer at Miami is 19 

feet higher than the anemometer at Belle Glade, 

Monthly averages for stations at Belle Glade (Palm Beach County) 

and at Lake Hiawassee (Orange County), as shown graphically in 
42 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

plate 3, illustrate the seasonal variation shown by the Miami records above. It is significant that the season of greatest wind movement coincides with the usual period of greatest water-supply deficiencies. According to the record at Belle Glade, wind movement 

is greatest in March (when it averages 6. 1 mph) and least in August 

(2. 9 mph). 

Other older wind records are available in U. S. Weather Bureau 

records for Key West (since 1871), Jupiter (1907), and Tampa 

(1890). 

Because of the variations in types, elevations, and exposures 

of the few anemometer stations in southeastern Florida, it is not 

practicable to attempt to define areal variation in wind movement. 

On the basis of the comparison between the Miami and Belle Glade 

records, it is logical to assume, however, that average wind movement decreases from coastal to inland areas. 

The prevailing winds are easterly, especially during the summer 

and fall; direction of wind movement varies during the rest of the 

year. Winds of high intensity, which usually accompany the tropical 

storms in this area, are usually confined to th,e storm paths, and 

although they probably have an effect on evapotranspiration losses 

at that time, they are not important to hydrologic studies of water 

problems in the area. 

EVAPORATION AND TRANSPIRATION 

GENERAL STATEMENT 

The frequent recurrence of drought in the heavy rainfall area of 

southeastern Florida indicates that the agencies for removal of 

water are especially effective. In addition to runoff and deep seepage, these agencies include the evaporation of water into the atmosphere from open water surfaces, from the soil, and from the 

surfaces of plants. The last named, which involves the escape of 

water from plant organisms into the air, is known as transpiration. 

The total of these losses over land areas is usually designated as 

total evaporation or evapotranspiration, and its role in the hydrologic cycle is important. Unlike rainfall, over which man has little 

or no control, the natural losses from evapotranspiration may be 

susceptible to change, especially by drainage developments in the 

almost level Everglades. Removal of water in the Everglades by 

evaporation can be either beneficial or detrimental depending upon 

whether the loss is from excess water during wet periods or from 

much needed and perhaps deficient supplies during drought periods. 

Studies of the characteristics and magnitude of these losses have 

been a pertinent part of the study of the water resources of the area. 

See pages 222-231 for a discussion of ground-water discharge in 

relation to evapotranspiration in Dade County. 
CLIMATE 43 

Temperature, wind, relative humidity, and solar-radiation determine the rate at which the air at a given point takes up water 

from a wet or moist surface. Temperature generally is regarded 

as the most important factor, On the basis of data (Williams, 1940, 

p. 53) from representative river basins over the Eastern and 

Central United States, a general relationship is indicated between 

the water loss by evaporation from an area and its mean annual 

temperature, Because mean annual temperature is generally higher 

in southern Florida than in other parts of the United States, it 

follows that evaporation should also be comparatively large. 

The effect of wind on evaporation is in the replacing of the 

moisture-laden air at the water ground, or plant surface with 

usually drier air capable of continuing the evaporation process and 

inducing vertical mixing. Therefore, total evaporation from any 

given surface increases with the air movement or wind. 

The relative humidity of the atmosphere is likewise a factor to 

be considered because it is a measure of the extent to which the 

air can hold additional water. Because the relative humidity is 

usually high during, before, and after periods of rainfall, the 

evaporation losses are decreased during these times. 

Solar radiation increases the evaporation processes principally 

through its effect in raising the temperatures of bodies of water, 

of the soil, and of vegetation. Direct radiation is especially effective when the temperatures of water-surfaces are raised above 

that of the surrounding air. 

Evapotranspiration from land areas is a more complex process 

than evaporation from open-water surfaces, Total loss from the 

former is the sum of losses both from vegetation (transpiration) 

and from the ground (or water surface when the ground is inundated). 

Furthermore, the losses over longer periods of time from evaporation pans and open-water areas are fairly uniform because of 

the continuous supply of water. Losses from land areas, however, 

may vary more widely because of the greater variations in the 

amount of water available for evaporation. 

To illustrate the complexities and the characteristics of total 

evaporation losses in southeastern Florida, the process of evapotranspiration in a typical section of the open Everglades will be 

analyzed. This area is assumed to be covered with a growth of 

sawgrass and other vegetation rooted in several feet of peat or 

muck over a rock floor. During the summer months the heavy 

rains usually cover the surface of the muck with several inches of 

water. The temperatures are high, the sun is bright, and the shallow, standing water warms rapidly. Water vapor moves from the 

water surface into the air which circulates, perhaps by convection 
44 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

currents, to the top of the vegetation, and then it is carried away 

by a gentle wind to be replaced by the drier air. Air turbulence 

produced by the wind serves to diffuse the vapor towards higher 

levels. At the same time, the processes of transpiration are active. 

Water absorbed through the roots of the vegetation is also being 

given to the atmosphere, both from the moist outer membranes 

and from the pores of the plants. This combination of conditions 

is conducive to large water losses. 

As a rain storm approaches, the relative humidity of the air increases, and its evaporative capacity is correspondingly decreased. The direct solar radiation is intercepted by clouds, and 

the air and standing water become cooler. The rate of water loss 

is greatly reduced as a result of this change. During the period of 

rainfall it may stop entirely. The rate of loss is likewise lessened 

at night when somewhat similar conditions of lower temperature, 

lack of direct solar energy, and increased relative humidity 

prevail. 

As summer passes a lowering of the levels of the standing water 

takes place during the drier fall and winter months, but because of 

lower temperatures and shorter periods of sunlight, the evaporation 

qualities of the atmosphere likewise decrease. The water level 

then declines below the surface of the ground. Transpiration continues as long as adequate water remains available to the root 

systems, but the loss from the soil now moistened by capillarity 

from the lower water level is less than that from free water surfaces. Still later, in some areas the water declines to a level 

where it can no longer be drawn to the surface and lost by evaporation, and all or part of the vegetation approaches a dormant condition with arrested transpiration losses. Thus, the opportunity 

for evaporation varies greatly even under natural conditions. Total 

loss depends as much upon availability of water for evapotranspiration as it does upon weather and air conditions. 

EVAPORATION 

The direct measurement of evaporation from land and water surfaces meets fundamental obstacles and is subject to many practical 

limitations (Thornthwaite and Holzman, 1942). The measurement 

of evaporation losses from small water areas can be made much 

more rapidly in open tanks called evaporation pans, but it is also 

beset with difficulties in practical application. Coefficients deter'" 

mined experimentally may be applied to these losses to indicate 

approximately the losses over natural water surfaces of varying 

size, depth, and exposure. A list of some of the evaporation pans 

operated in southeastern Florida is given in table 7. These pans 

are of three general types, the ventilated pan, the sunken pan, and 
Table 7.-Location, description, and period of record of selected eVEI:Joration pms operated in sor.rtheBstem Florida 

Location County Latitude Longitude I Operator 

Standard U. S. Weather Bureau Class A ventilated laud pans,48 inches in diameter and 10 inches deep 

Lake Hiawassee Orange 28'32' 81"29' U. S. Bureau of Plant Industry 

Belle Glade Palm Beach 26'40' 80'38' U. S. Soil Conservation Service and 

Florida Experiment Station 

Loxahatchee Palm Beach 26'41' 80"16' U. S. Geological Survey 

Big Cypress Indian Reservation Hendry 26"19' 81'00' U. S. Geological Survey 

Hialeah Dade 25'50' 80"18' City of Miami water plant in cooperation with U. S. Geological Survey 

Tamiami Canal (40-Mile Bend) Dade 25'45' 80"49' U. S. Geological Survey 

Colorado type sunken pans, 3 feet square and 18 inches deep with bottoms abont 1 foot below ground surface 

Moore Haven Glades 26'50' 81'05' Corps of Engineers 

Clewiston Hendry 26'45' 80"55' do 

Belle Glade Palm Beach 26'42' 80'43' do 

Canal Point Palm Beach 26"52' 80'38' do 

Port Mayaca Martin 26'59' 80'37' do 

Okeechobee Okeechobee 27'13' 80"48' do 

U. S. Weather Bureau Class A floating pan 

West Palm Beach Palm Beach 26'42' 80'04' Everglades Drainage District 

1Records prior to 1926 destroyed. Prior to 1937 operation by Everglades Drainage District (about 1918 to 1930) and Fred A. Flanders (1930-37), 

2Subject to change when additional data are available. 30riginal records available only from 1920-28, 

I Years of Record 

1939-

1924-

1940-

1940-43 

1940-

1940-

19261 -

193'12 -

19371-

193'1;-

1937 -

19372

-

1916-31' 
46 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

the floating pan. The water temperatures in the first type are 

approximately those of the surrounding air; in the second and third 

types the water temperatures are approximately those of the soil 

and water surfaces, respectively. 

The only other evaporation pans in the area were operated by the 

Everglades Drainage District in the vicinity of West Palm Beach 

and Lake Okeechobee for varying periods between 1915 and 1932. 

Original records for these pans are not available. 

The evaporation loss in pans is determined by differences be· 

tween successive water-level readings with corrections for rainfall as measured in an adjacent rain gage. Readings are us1,1ally 

made daily to the nearest thousandth of an inch. Surplus water from 

rainfall is removed from the pan, and water lost by evaporation is 

replaced at intervals as necessary to maintain the surface within 

operational limits. 

Values as determined from the ventilated standard U. S. Weather 

Bureau pans would be representative of evaporation losses from 

natural, small isolated shallow pools of water in the general vicinity 

of the pan, where similar exposure conditions prevailed. Studies 

extending over a long period of time have shown that coefficients, 

if carefully chosen, may be applied to pan values to give approximate natural losses in large bodies of water. According to Harding 

(1942, p. 75-76), coefficients of 0. 70 and 0. 78 are generally recommended to be applied to measured evaporation from ventilated 

and sunken pans, respectively, in order to obtain values of evaporation from extensive water areas. 

Such coefficients represent the results of comparison of evaporation from large water bodies as deduced from records of inflow 

and outflow with evaporation from pans nearby. Even cursory 

examination of these comparisons will reveal wide variations in the 

ratios, which approach the above values only when evaporations 

over long periods of time are considered. For individual months, 

estimates of evaporation based on reference to a pan may be in 

error as much as 100 percent, and for days the error may be even 

greater. Assigning reasons for such variations is beyond the scope 

of this report; possibly, however, much of the difference may arise 

from differences in exposure and water temperatures. 

For methods used in the evaluation of total evaporation losses 

from several areas by subtracting runoff from rainfall, see pages 

524-531. 

Records from three of the listed evaporation pans (ventilated pan 

at Belle Glade, a sunken pan at Moore Haven, and a floating pan 

at West Palm Beach) are sufficiently long to permit a determination 

of seasonal and other characteristics. The fact that each of these 
Table S.-:1fontfJ/y and annual evaporation (in ind1es) for ventilated pan at Belle Glade, Palm Bear:h County 

[Standard U. S. Weather Bureau 48-inch diameter ventilated pan operated at the Everglades Experiment Station, Belle Glade, by Florida Agricultural Experiment 

Stations in cooperation with U. S. Soil Conservation Service. Records published in annual reports of Everglades Experiment Station. Mean annual value shown 

is sum of monthly averagesJ 

Year Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. 

Annual Deviation 

Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. total (inches) 

1925 2. 98 3.42 5.08 6.4& 5.69 5.83 6.10 5.75 5,49 5.53 3,41 3.30 59.04 -5.29 1926 3.14 4.69 5. 62 6.35 6.74 5. 97 6. 37 6. 38 5. 33 5.22 3,86 3,57 63.24 -1.09 1927 3.89 3,96 5.51 6,40 7.79 6.38 5.97 5.90 6.07 5.31 4.60 3.51 65.29 +.96 1928 3.72 4.59 6.98 7.21 8.17 6.63 5.80 5.88 ................ ··········- ................. ................. .................... 1929 ··~ ··~'F······ 4.31 5.88 6.66 7.65 5.86 6.61 6.86 5.21 4.41 3.93 3.22 ..................... 1930 4.25 4.01 5.41 5.62 7.04 5.53 7.12 7.01 5.12 4,89 3.64 3.37 63,01 -1.32 1931 3.21 3,46 4.72 4. 91 6.59 7,05 7.49 6.32 5.30 4.54 3,78 3.32 60.69 -3.64 1932 3,55 4.02 5.60 6.72 7.15 5.13 7,09 6.22 5.14 5.34 3.42 3.47 62.85 -1.48 1933 3.24 4,46 6.11 6.18 7.15 6.13 5.82 5.03 5.97 4.78 3,86 3.48 62.21 -2.12 1934 3.63 3,69 5.56 6,96 6.40 6.19 7.12 6.70 5. 77 5.73 4.03 3.49 65,27 +.94 1935 3,81 4.25 6.52 7.50 8.84 6,55 7.38 7.02 5.54 5,37 4.32 3.50 70.60 +6.27 1936 4.18 3.81 6.22 7.68 7.40 5,94 7.37 6.54 4.92 5.15 4.28 3,14 66.63 +2.30 1937 4.44 3.86 5.30 6.30 7.'17 6.70 6.66 6.02 5,58 4.93 3.76 3.12 64.44 +.11 1938 3,69 4.22 5.85 6.78 6.66 6.50 6.64 6.75 5.92 5,34 4,08 3,36 65.79 +)..46 1939 3,88 4,98 6,12 7,46 7,48 6.97 6,62 5.26 5,76 5.09 3.94 3,31 66,87 +Z,54 1940 3,16 4,42 5.52 6,55 8.08 6.38 6,'78 6,31 4.84 5. 71 4,21 2,90 64.86 +.53 1941 3.08 3,73 5.50 6.48 8,04 7.36 6,09 6,74 5.62 5,54 3.55 2,59 64,32 -.01 1942 2.93 3.70 5,80 6.61 7,32 5.90 7.61 6,31 5.25 5.63 4.08 3,05 64.19 -.14 1943 3. 53 4.40 5, 91 6,53 7.18 5.99 6. 62 6.46 5. 80 5.16 3.45 2.92 63.95 -. 38 1944 3.22 4.68 5.58 6.47 6.87 7,12 6.77 6.20 5.68 4.89 3.'74 3.07 64.29 -.04 1945 3.67 3.89 6.17 7.06 7.42 6.09 5,73 6.38 5.44 4.37 4.25 3.04 63,51 -.82 1946 3.20 4.56 5.61 7.60 6.34 5. 77 6. 74 6.35 5.31 5,33 3:29 3.38 63.48 -.85 Mean 3.54 4.14 5.75 6.66 7.26 6.27 6.66 6.29 5.48 5,16 3.88 3.24 64.33 Percent of 

annual 5.5 6.4 8.9 10.4 11.3 9.7 10.4 9.8 8.5 8.0 6.0 5.0 100 

Max. 4.44 4.98 6.98 7.68 8.84 7.36 '7.61 7.02 6.07 5.73 4,60 3.57 70.60 Min 2. 93 3.42 4.72 4.91 5.69 5.13 5.73 5.03 4.84 4.37 3.29 2.59 59.04 
Table 9,-Monthly and annual evaporation (in ind>esJ foe sunken pan at Moore ilaven, Glades Cormty 

[Colorado type sunken pan, 3 feet square and 18 inches deep with bottom 15 inches below ground surface, Station operated by Everglades Drainage District (about 

1918 to November 1930), by Fred A. Flanders (November 1930 to January 1937) and by Corps of Engiiieers, U. S. Army (beginning January 1937). Records, December 1926 to December 1940,furnished by Fred A. Flanders (observer since 1921); those beginning January 1941 published in U. S, Weather Bureau Climatological Data-Florida section. Mean annual value shown is sum of monthly aver .. gesJ 

Annual Deviation 

Year Jan, Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept, Oct. Nov. Dec, total (inches) 

1926 .................. ••••• 2."35' ""'4."69" ""'6."i'6" ................ ............ "'4.'93"' """4':;.p;: ............... "'"ii.'33' 2.67 

1927 ....... 54.'6'0'' 2,67 6,14 7,00 5, 91 4,03 2.67 +2.76 

1928 2,58 2.81 4.86 5,92 6,83 5.43 5,23 4,92 3,76 4,08 2.92 2.70 52.04 + . 20 

1929 2,11 2,58 4.04 5,10 5.54 4,20 4. 74 5,24 3,54 3,20 3,53 3,13 46,95 -4.89 

1930 2,91 2,93 3.59 4,35 6,01 4.40 5,54 5,15 4,06 4, 29 3.12 2.26 48.61 -3.23 

1931 1,92 2,34 3,56 4.12 5,52 6,27 6,06 4,79 4,27 4,00 3,17 2.57 48,61 -3.23 

1932 2.98 3,56 3.88 4, 74 5, 95 4,73 6,00 4.93 4.81 4,04 3, 75 2.64 52,01 +.17 

1933 3,22 3,10 5,12 4,95 6,17 4. 75 4,97 4,82 4,64 4.64 3,62 2.97 52,97 +1.13 

1934 3.07 2.76 4,18 5,96 4,86 5,91 5,01 5,04 4,78 4.36 2.92 2.66 51.51 -.33 

i935 3.07 3,20 4.78 5,72 6,84 5,17 4,80 4.83 4,47 3,94 3,12 2. 74 52,68 +. 84 

1936 2.01 2,63 4.97 5.17 7,16 5,48 6,S9 6,46 4.39 4,19 4,13 2,56 56.74 +4.~0 

1937 3,00 3,11 4.02 4.11 5.45 4,97 4.94 6,32 4,72 3,83 3.27 2.59 50,33 -1.51 

1938 2. 82 3,28 4,33 5,68 5,34 4.85 4,62 5.'70 3,45 4.5'7 3,45 2.67 50.76 -1.08 

1939 2,88 3.34 5,01 4,'79 4,98 4.67 3,'76 3,51 4,50 4,10 3,75 2.47 47.'76 -4.08 

1940 2.63 3,00 3,67 5.15 5,83 4,32 4,95 3,98 3, 29 4.71 3,'72 2.27 47,52 -4.32 

1941 2.50 2,38 3. 90 4,45 6.03 5,4'7 4,86 5,34 4.33 4,54 3,16 2.55 49,51 -2.33 

1942 3.0'7 3.1'7 4,56 4.93 5.72 4.25 6,36 5.98 4,'70 5,65 3,62 2.80 54,81 +2.97 

1943 3.18 3,93 5,35 6,28 6,83 5,40 4.76 5.47 4,60 4,91 3,66 3.04 57.41 +5.57 

1944 2,91 4,08 5,1'7 5.'79 6.00 5.55 5,40 4,31 5,18 4,50 3.61 3,11 55.61 +3,77 1945 3,13 3,31 5,46 6,64 7.28 5.13 4,38 4,59 3,76 3,86 3,83 2,58 53.95 +2.11 

1946 2.72 3,'71 4.87 6,50 5.30 4. 73 4,'72 4,49 4,52 4.67 2,92 2.99 52,14 +.30 

Mean 2,77 3.0~ 4.50 5,36 5,99 5,13 5,21 5.04 4,33 4.31 3,43 2.69 51,84 

Percent of 

annual 5,3 5,9 8.'7 10.3 11.6 9,9 10.1 9,7 8,4 8,3 6,6 5.2 100,0 Max, 3,22 4,08 5,46 6,64 '7,28 7.00 6.99 6,46 5,18 5,65 4,13 3.13 57,41 Min, 1,92 2,34 3,56 4.11 4. 86 4,20 3,76 3,51 3,29 3,20 2,92 2.26 46,95 
Table 10.- Monthly and mnuBl evaporation (in inches) for floating pan at West PBlm IJeach, PBlm IJeach County 

[U. S. Weather Bureau Class A floating pan operated by Everglades Drainage District on side channel of West Palm Beach Canal at West Palm Beach. Records taken 

from Biennial Report, 1927-28, Everglades Drainage District, p. 36-38. Mean annual value shown is sum of monthly averages] 

Annual Deviation 

Year Jan. Feb. Mar, Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov, Dec. total (inches) 

1920 3. 7 4,0 4.5 5. 3 6,6 6.2 6,0 6.9 4.3 5.8 3.9 3.5 60.7 +6.5 

1921 4.2 4.5 4.3 7. 7 8,3 8.9 5.2 6.4 5.5 3,8 3.7 3.6 66.1 +11,9 

1922 3.3 4.0 5.6 6,3 4,2 3.6 3.8 2.6 2.6 2.2 3.3 3.9 45.4 -8.8 

1923 3.7 3.8 4.7 4.9 5,6 6,4 2.4 4.9 3,8 4.9 2.6 2.9 50,6 -3.6 

1924 1.9 2.9 4,6 5,0 5.1 4.9 4.7 5.9 3.9 2.9 4. 7 2.3 48.8 -5.4 

1925 2.7 3.6 2,8 5.2 3.4 4.6 4.7 3.8 4.8 3. 7 3,4 2.1 44.8 -9.4 

1926 2.4 3.2 3,6 3.5 4.9 3,4 3.0 4,9 5.6 5.5 4.5 4.8 49.3 -4.9 

1927 3,8 4.0 5.6 6.2 7.8 6.4 5.8 5.8 6.0 5.5 4.7 3.6 65.2 +11.0 

1928 2. 9 2,9 4.5 5. 8 6.2 5.6 6.0 5.8 4.8 4,9 3.7 3.2 56.3 +2.1 

Mean 3,2 3.7 4.5 5.5 5.8 5.6 4.6 5.2 4.6 4.4 3.8 3.3 54.2 

Percent of 

annual 5.9 6.8 8,3 10.2 10.7 10.3 8.5 9,6 8.5 8.1 7.0 6,1 100.0 

Max. 4.2 4.5 5,6 7.7 8.3 8.9 6.0 6.9 6.0 5.8 4. 7 4,8 66.1 

Min. 1.9 2.9 2.8 3.5 3.4 3,4 2.4 2.6 2.6 2.2 2.6 2,1 44.8 
50 

en 

"' :I: 

~ 70 

!1; 

z 

0 

!;i 60 a: 

0 

D.. 

:!! 

w 

_..]50 

<t 

:;;l 

z 

z 

<t 

~ 40 

WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Floating 

pan, West ~:'~Roch / 

1\ '-, k" -· v ':iJd~:~.l~d-

\ 1/ 

\ 

;' 1\ " " " ' ... .. \ .. ' .. .... ... ... I 

I f\ v ' ... - .J.:., -.-" 

SUnken pan, Moore Haven 

I I I I I I I 

1- ....... ·-

r-.... .... .... 

b 1920 

1-

1925 1930 1935 1940 1945 

12 

z 

0 

!;i 

a:: 

0 

D.. 

§ 10 

"' _..] 

<t 

:;;l 

z 

z 

<t 

_..] 8 j5 

f2 

IL 

0 

1-

z 

w 

0 6 a: 

"' D.. 

~ 

z 

0 6 

~ a: 

0 

D.. 

~ w 

~ 4 1-

z 

0 

::E 

z 

<( 

"' :::;: 2 

.. \ // \ 

ventilated 

Belle Glade 

pan, 

---- ~ ~ \". -~ ~ ...... 

I \r\ "" 

//. / f\ ~;~Floating . 

pan, West Palm Beach !.~ v ~ 7'-:;:; 

J! Sunken pan, Moore Haven 

I~ 

.............: 

'!,' \\ I \ ~ v ..... ---- ~----

,,, 

'~ 

/r"-. .--....- .... , .................. ----.... ..(Ventilated pan, Belle Glade / ., / ~/ / ~ ", / /. ' ~--t---2' ~ --- / ~, 

/// Floating pan, West Palm~~ ~ ~ ~' ' ... y ,.,....., /', ...... 

" 

I 

.. Sunken pan, Moore Hoven/ ' 

~ ---- ........ 

Jon. Feb. Mar. Apnl May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 

Figure 6. -Graph showing characteristics of evaporation from selected pans in southeastern 

Florida. 
CLIMATE 51 

records is for a different type of evaporation pan permits comparative studies of the losses from each pan. Monthly values for each · 

pan for the period of available record are given in tables 8-10, 

and from these records the mean, maximum, and minimum monthly 

values and total annual. values were computed. Beginning with 

January 1941, nearly all current evaporation records in the area 

are published in U. S. Weather Bureau Climatological Data, Florida 

section. The source of the earlier records is indicated in a note 

with each tabulation, 

It will be noted that the periods of record for the sunken pan at 

Moore Haven are nearly the same as for the Belle Glade ventilated 

pan, As a test of the local applicability of the coefficients cited 

above for determining losses over large bodies of water from records for ventilated (coefficient, 0. 70) and sunken (coefficient, 0. 78) 

pans, the mean annual values for the similar years of record 

(1927, 1930-43) for each pan were calculated. The mean evaporation 

from the ventilated pan was about 25 percent greater than from the 

sunken pan. However, after application of the coefficients, the 

calculated annual loss from Lake Okeechobee would be about 11 

percent greater on the basis of ventilated-pan values (64. 7 x • 70= 

45. 3 inches) than for the sunken-pan values (51. 7 x • 78•40, 4 

inches). The generally recommended coefficient for a floating pan, 

such as the one at West Palm Beach, is 0! 80, which, multiplied 

by the average annual evaporation fo·r the 1920-28 period of record 

(54. 2 inches) equals 43.4 inches. This is believed to be a reasonably 

close agreement, and it indicates an average annual loss over Lake 

Okeechobee of 40 to 45 inches. 

Figure 6 illustrates graphically certain characteristics of the 

losses from these pans and permits ready comparison between 

them. The values plotted are taken from tables 8, 9 and 10, The 

most outstanding evaporation characteristics, important because 

of their relationship to natural evaporation losses over the area, 

are shown by figure 6 to be as follows: 

1. Seasonal variation: May is the month of greatest loss for all 

pans. Averages show April and June to be next in that order. The 

total monthly values for the floating and sunken pans generally 

agree closely; those for the ventilated pan are larger throughout 

the year and greater differences exist during the summer than durthe winter months. 

An average of mean monthly values for the three types of pans 

shows the evaporation to be lowest for December, followed closely 

by January, and with February and November next lowest in that 

order, The evaporation during the months of December, January, 

and February average about 0. 55 of the evaporation during the three 

months of April, May, and June. 
52 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

2. Annual variation: The range in total annual values throughout 

the period of record is approximately 10 inches for both the ventilated and sunken pans. The range for the values for the floating 

pan is about twice ?-S great, but direct comparison is difficult because this record covers an earlier period, The annual values for 

the ventilated and sunken pans have only a slight similarity. 

The deviations of annual evaporation from the average annual 

are listed in tables 8, 9, and 10. The average of these deviations 

(signs disregarded) is a statistical measure of the year-to-year 

tendency of evaporation to vary. For Belle Glade the average 

deviation is 1. 80 inches, or 2. 8 percent of the average annual; at 

Moore Haven, 2. 55 inches, or 5 percent of the average annual; 

and at West Palm Beach, 7. 1 inches, or 13 percent of the average 

annual evaporation. The average deviations vary greatly for the 

three sets of observations. It is not clear whether these deviations 

are caused by differences in the three pans and their exposures or 

whether they are caused by differences in climatic factors. 

However, it may be noted that, in general, the variability is less 

than that of rainfall (for which the mean deviation at Miami has 

been reported as 19 percent and at Okeechobee, 13 percent). 

Total monthly losses from the ventilated pan at the Hialeah Water 

Plant, operated by the U, S. Geological Survey during the period 

of study, are shown in graphical form on plate 3, which also includes other climatological data helpful to a better understanding 

of the reasons for the seasonal trend of evaporation values. The 

seasonal distribution of evaporation and the effect of temperature 

and wind is further illustrated in figure 7, where the observed 

evaporation has been adjusted as a result of a correlation analysis 

to a constant value of wind movement so as to bring out the relation 

of evaporation to temperature, The rate of evaporation reaches a 

seasonal minimum in December and January. Increases, until about 

March, are associated with increases in wind movement and temperature; thereafter, although the wind decreases, evaporation 

losses continue to increase until rising temperatures reach a peak 

in May. During the summer, evaporation decreases moderately 

mostly because of a decrease in wind movement, The tendency towards lower relative humidity in April and May and higher relative 

humidity in September and October may also be an influence, but 

the seasonal variation in relative humidity is not marked. After 

the end of the summer rainy season the rate of evaporation continues to decrease with lowering temperatures until the end of the 

calendar year. 

From January until May, as shown on figure 7, the observed 

evaporation exceeds the amount of evaporation due to temperature 

alone. During this period, it may be noted that wind movement is 

about average (3, 000 miles per month). From June to December 
"' w 

J: 

<.> 

z 

z 

z 

0 

9 

8 

7 

~ 6 

0:: 

~ 

~ w 

~ J: 

1-

z 

0 

5 

::E 4 

WIND 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

l 

I 

MOVEMENT\ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

L~~ 

I 

I 

I 

I 

\ 

\ // \ ' I 

\ 

\ v' 

,A 

/ 

/ 'X 

I '/ 

I / 

---~fl'"'""~ '"' ,' ""'"'i"" L I { Wind co nstont o t 3 ODD miles per ~nth) 

' 

5000 

v 

"" ~._;· \. 

1 

_......oesERVED EVAPORATION v\ r--.....__1 \ .,.,......,....,..... ·-..['. 

'\. ' I 

4000 

'"' G I 

/ 

-- / 

' 

/ 

'\ 

'\, 

'\, \~\~---v __....-- \~ I '\ _,-" 

' 

3000 

; / \. ........... 

-' 

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b 

1- / 

// 

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v ', 

/ ....... ' 

/ 

~'-, ~ ....... .- 1---- ---- ~, 

2000 

;----v 

I . 2 

Jon. Feb~ 

! Average for I 

I I I I co lend[' years 1940-43 inclusive I 1 I Mar. Apr. May June- July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. 

Figure '1. -Study of pan evaporation in relation to temperature and wind movement at Belle Glade. 

'-I.,.,__.. "\· 

Dec. Jon. 

"' w 

-' 

::E 

z 

-

....-

z 

w 

::E 

w 

> 

0 

::E n 0 c: z ~ ~ .., 

1"1 

::; 

J: 

1-

z 

0 

::E 

-' <( 

b 

1-
54 WATER RESOURCES IN SOtrrHE.ASTERN FLORIDA 

(the period of less-than-average wind movement) observed evaporation is below that due to temperature. The high wind movement 

during the January-May period of low rainfall creates a condition 

that tends to intensify loss of soil moisture during this critical 

period. 

Unlike precipitation, evaporation in the Everglades appears, 

from a study of the records collected so far, to have no appreciable 

areal variation. Any observed differences may be due partly to 

variations in the equipment, its exposure, the method of taking 

observations, or other causes, 

Although the characteristics of seasonal variation in evaporation 

from natural bodies of water are thought to be somewhat similar 

to those shown for the pans, it cannot be inferred that such is 

generally true for evaporation over land areas, where the water 

supplies vary widely during the year and where the seasonal variation in evaporation may be quite different. The months of greatest 

evaporation normally would be during the usually wet summer 

season, when water stands over extensive areas. 

EVAPOTRANSPIRATION 

Experiments on evapotranspiration were conducted and reported 

(Clayton, Neller, and Allison, 1942, p. 35) by soil scientists of 

the University of Florida and the U. S. Department of Agriculture, 

in 1937 and 1938, at the Everglades Experiment Station near Belle 

Glade, Fla. The station is· southeast of Lake Okeechobee a:nd about 

75 miles north-northwest of Miami, The experimenters attempted 

to determine values for evapotranspiration losses from sawgrass 

lands, The tanks used were 4 feet wide, 12 feet long, and 4 feet 

deep; they contained 3 feet of muck soil placed on a 3-inch layer 

of crushed limestone in the bottom of the tanks. The tanks were 

set into the ground to a depth of 3t feet. 

After making due allowance for differences between conditions 

in the tanks and those in the Everglades near Belle Glade, the 

experimenters estimated the mean annual evapotranspiration from 

sawgrass land to be about 60 inches, This estimate assumed a 

water table ranging throughout the year from the land surface to 

4 feet or more below the surface and averaging about 2 feet below. 

For the 2 complete years that the experiment was conducted, the 

average evapotranspiration loss during the months of May, June, 

and July was about twice as great as the loss for the months of 

December, January, and February. 

The sawgrass in the glades near Belle Glade has a denser and 

more vigorous growth than the vegetation in the glades west of 
CUMATE 55 

Miami, owing largely to the greater thickness of muck overlying 

the limestone in the lake area, The muck is approximately 8 feet 

thick there, whereas it ranges from a few inches to about 3 feet 

in thickness in the glade areas near Miami. Because of drainage 

of the glades and recurring muck fires, the saw grass in the southern 

glades and near the coastal ridge has been stunted, and in some 

areas it has been and is being replaced by several species of 

grasses, sedges, and reeds. These factors probably make the 

transpiration losses in the glades near Miami and in southern Dade 

County appreciably less than losses in the glades near Belle Glade. 

See p. 229 for additional information on evapotranspiration from 

pine- and grass-land areas south of Miami, obtained from groundwater investigative methods,, which indicate approximately 35 

inches of annual evapotranspiration, and to pages 544 and 545 which 

indicate about 42. 4 inches average annual evapotranspiration from 

the Kissimmee River basin. 

Experiments were also conducted in a tank at Bel~e Glade during 

1934-36 to determine the amount of evaporation from bare muck 

soil. The evaporation rates for the 3 years were, respectively, 

42. 65, 39. 21, and 35.97 inches of water; the average yearly depths 

to the water table were 1. 76, 1. 33 and 1·. 43 feet below the muck 

surface in the tank. 

During 1937 and 1938, experiments were conducted with the bare 

soil in a tank.covered with 3 to 4 inches of cane trash. The evaporation rates were, respectively, 12. 2 and 9. 1 inches of water; the 

average yearly depth to the water in the tank was 1. 4 feet. This 

shows that the addition to the bare soil of a 3-inch layer of dead cane 

trash reduced the annual evaporation approximately 30 inches, 

The rate of decline of the water table in tanks containing saw grass 

was reported not appreciably affected by the depth to water betow 

the land surface so long as the water level .remained in the 3-foot 

thickness of muck. This indicates that the depth to the water table, 

within this range, did not have a noticeable effect on the total evapotranspiration loss. 

The Everglades Drainage District·conducted experiments on rates 

of evapotranspiration loss from tanks operated at West Palm Beach. 

Of these, Fred M. Elliot, former chief drainage engineer of the 

District, states that large differences were found in annual total 

evaporation losses from similar types of vegetation under different 

water levels,_. Losses were measured concurrently from two tanks 

having stands of Para grass growing in muck carefully transplanted 

from the Everglades. In one of the tanks, water levels were maintained between the top and 12 inches below the top of the muck, In 

the- other, Jhe water was held at considerably lower levels from 

30 to 36 inches below the top of the muck. The total evaporation 

for a year from the former tank was about 110 inches, but during 

. 346881 0-55--6 
56 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

the same period the tank containing the lower water levels showed 

a loss of 50 to 60 inches. Elliot states further that under comparable water levels the stands of Para grass showed the greatest 

total evaporation of all types of vegetation under observation. The 

rate of water loss from corn during its growing season was next 

highest, with a stand of sawgrass somewhat below that for corn. 

CONCLUSION 

Because of their great magnitude, a thorough knowledge of the 

characteristics of evaporation and transpiration losses is highly 

desirable for the successful study of the water resources of southeastern Florida. Evaporation losses from permanent water areas 

can be determined with a fair degree of accuracy and are believed 

to average about 40 to 45 inches per year. Over land areas, however, less-direct methods must be used to determine evaporation 

and transpiration values, and it has been found practicable to 

attempt this only for the total rather than for the individual losses. 
GEOLOGY 

Dy Garald G. Parker, N. D. Hoy, IU!d M. C. Schroeder 

RELATIONSHIP OF GEOLOGY TO STUDY OF GROUND·WATER RESOURCES 

The occurrence of ground water is governed by the geology, 

and any attempt toward its evaluation is therefore dependent upon 

a thorough knowledge of the structure, stratigraphy, and lithology 

of the area. Studies of outcrops aid in the correlation of the formations and give clues concerning their stratigraphic relations. 

In areas where the rocks are hidden, exploratory test-well 

drilling must be done in order to determine formations present at 

any given depth and to determine the lithologic, hydrologic, and 

paleontologic characteristics of the formations. With this information the geologist can then prepare maps and cross sections 

showing graphically the relationships of the formations, the aquifers, and the aquicludes. Thus, the width, thickness, and general 

distribution of all formations and water-bearing rocks can be determined, and by constructing water-table maps the movement of 

water can be traced from the time it enters the rocks until it is 

finally discharged. 

METHODS OF INVESTIGATION 

GENERAL STATEMENT 

The study of geology in southern Florida is not only difficult to 

perform, but it is slow and costly. This is because of the combination of low-lying land with little relief; the thick cover of mantling sands, marls, and soft organic soils; the thick growth ofvegetative cover; and the large area of swamps and marshes. 

These conditions were almost insurmountable to early geologists, whose work was necessarily confined to observation of outcrops around the margins of the peninsula and along the low banks 

of the few shallow rivers. Only a few water wells had been drilled, 

and few cuttings had been saved; therefore, adequate studies of the 

underlying rocks were impossible. 

Later, the building of roads, railroads, canals, and cities 

brought about conditions that made geological research easier. 

Cuts for roads and railroads in southern Florida are practically 

nonexistent, but the excavation of borrow pits, ditches, and 

57 
58 WATER RESOURCES m SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

quarries, and the drilling of thousands of wells have helped. The 

miles of spoil banks have revealed the surficial distribution of the 

formations, and the fine state of preservation of the fossils found 

therein has aided greatly in working out the stratigraphy and 

paleontology. 

The construction of roads, which crisscross hitherto inaccessible portions of the area, has been of inestimable value, and the 

development of new means of .transportation, such as the "gladesbuggy," "air-boat," wide-cleated tractor, helicopter, and airplane, has made it possible to explore these trackless wilds. 

Then, too, thA development of efficient drilling machinery has been 

a relatively recent accomplishment. Light portable drilling equipment can now be utilized in areas where previously only Seminoles 

or white hunters ventured, and heavy equipment can be hauled 

over roads to' sites where deep exploratory test wells are needed. 

The present investigation has been conducted along two main 

lines of research: 1. study of outcrops and tracing of formations 

in the field, and 2. study of subsurface conditions by means of 

samples from exploratory .test wells. 

GEOLOGIC STUDIES FROM OUTCROP DATA 

Natural rock outcrops are very limited in southeastern Florida. 

Only a few occur in the 4, 000 square miles of the Everglades and 

these are principally lacy solution remnants, which are isolated 

and widely scattered in the southwestern parts. North and west of 

the Everglades, except in parts of the Big Cypress Swamp, the 

rocks are generally covered by sandy marine terrace deposits, 

and to the east the rocks of the Atlantic Coastal Ridge crop out in 

a narrow strip bordering the ocean. This strip is likewise largely 

covered by sand north of Miami, but the sand gradually thins out 

to the south, and beyond Coral Gables the rocks form the land 

surface almost everywhere. In the Caloosahatchee River banks 

west ofOrtona the rock exposures (since the dredging of the river 

and the installation of Ortona Lock) are better than ever before. 

Recent widening, straightening, and deepening of the river have 

made fresh cuts through the strata, and the installation of the lock 

at Ortona has lowered the water level several feet in the stretch 

of the river west of the locks. 

The present areal geologic map (pl. 4) has been worked out 

largely by tracing formational contacts along canal and borrow 

excavations during extreme low water of the dry season; it checks 

fairly closely with that of earlier workers (Cooke and Mossom, 

1928). This work has been described in part by Parker (Cross, 

Love, Parker, and Wallace, 1940; Parker, 1942, p. 47~76; Parker 

and Hoy, 1943, p .. 77~94; Parker and Cooke, 1944) in previous 

reports. 
GEOLOGY 59 

EXPLORATORY TEST-WELL DRILLING 

Various methods of gathering subsurface geologic and hydrologic data were used in this investigation; these methods depended 

·upon the funds available, -the -data required, and the ·area in which 

the data were to be collected. For example, in instances where 

the area was not directly accessible by road, light portable equipment was transported by special vehicles adapted to that particular 

area. If a shallow well was installed principally to test the quality 

of ground water (as were the wells through the heart of the Everglades along Miami Canal), a well It inches in diameter was put 

down manually. If the purpose was to gather more complete data, 

portable mechanical drilling equipment was moved in, and wells 

2t to 4 inches in diameter were drilled (a good sampling of the 

rocks, fossils, and waters can be obtainedfromwellsofthistype). 

If the area was directly accessible by good road, any kind of 

equipment, from light to very heavy, could be used, and in most 

instances wells 6 inches in diameter were put down. From an exploratory test well of this size, good to excellent cuttings, fossils, 

and hydrologic data can be obtained, and it was this kind of well 

that was principally used in this investigation. Occasionally, where 

conditions permitted, 2!-inch wells were jetted down; the main 

advantage of such wells is their relative inexpensiveness. Rock 

and water samples are satisfactory, butmacrofossildata are likely 

to be poor, and hydrologic data are not so good as from wells of 

larger diameter. 

Most of the test wells were installed by the standard cable-tool 

method and were drilled in such a manner that the bit was clqsely 

followed by the casing, thus shutting off the upper rock and water 

that had been passed through and assuring the collection of valid 

samples for any given depth. Samples of the cuttings were collected every few feet, stored in containers, and taken to the laboratory·for study. Macrofossils were screened out of the cuttings 

'at the drilling site; later, in the laboratory, microfossils were separated and mounted on faunal slides for identification. Water 

samples were collected for analysis as often as practicable, although sometimes the formations were essentially without recoverable water and no sample could be obtained. 

In drilling by the cable-tool method it is necessary to have 

enough water in the hole to keep the cuttings continuously immersed. This makes it easier to remove the cuttings, it speeds up 

drilling, and when the hole is nearly full of water, it helps prevent 

caving of the soft, unconsolidated materials by maintaining nearly 

equal hydrostatic pressure inside and outside the well. 

Often, however, the deeper formations lacked enough water to 

supply the well ~ith sufficient drilling water, and it was necessary 
60 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

to add water from the surface. Before collecting a water sample, 

tl;lerefore, it was necessary to bail out all this added water to insure the collection of a sample truly representative of the ground 

water at that depth. In the relatively impervious materials it required many hours for enough water to seep into the test well for 

sampling purposes. All samples were collected in 12-ounce bottles and were taken to the laboratory for analysis. 

In all, 167 exploratory test wells were drilled in southeastern 

Florida during the 1940-46 period. Of these, 30 were installed 

jointly by the U. S. Geological Survey and the Soil Conservation 

Service. TQ.e rest were installed either by the U. S. Geological 

Survey or, under its supervision, by the Army, Navy, or Defense 

Plant Corporation. Logs for many of these wells are given in 

tables 126-134. 

THE FLORlDAN PLATEAU 

The peninsula of Florida is the emerged part of a much wider 

projection from the continental mass of North America, called by 

Vaughan (1910, p. 99-185) the Floridan Plateau (fig. 8). 1 The 

!Vaughan spelled it "Floridian,·· but the simpler and etymologically correct spelling is 

"Floridan, " the spelling herein adopted. 

Figure 8. -The Floridan Plateau. 
GEOLOGY 61 

plateau has the appearance of a huge horst, and it separates the 

deep water of the Atlantic Ocean from the deep parts of the Gulf 

of Mexico. Its core is composed of metamorphic and igneous 

rocks similar to those underlying the Piedmont region of the eastevn United States, of which, according to Mossom (1926, p. 

174-256), it seems to be a southern extension. Campbell (1939c, 

p. 87-105) has suggested that Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks may 

underlie the sedimentary formations and comprise a part of the 

core of the plateau. The steep submarine slopes that mark its 

boundaries on the east, south, and west presumably represent 

fault scarps or monoclinal folds in the original basement rocks, 

though their outlines may have been modified by solution and erosion and the accumulation of sediments upon them. Pressler (1947) 

mapped the faults involved in the structure on the east and south, 

and he suggested that downwarping caused the form of the plateau. 

The core or bedrock of the Floridan Plateau is covered with 

sediments that range in thickness from about 4, 000 feet in northcentral Florida to more than 15, 000 feet in southern Florida, The 

deepest well drilled in Florida before 1942, located in Monroe 

County, was started in calcareous sandstone of the Tamiami formation of Miocene age and ended, at a depth of 10, 000 feet, in 

limestone and anhydrite assigned by Campbell (1939b, p. 1713-1714) 

to the Lower Cretaceous. Cole (1941, p. 16-17) agreed that the 

rocks are Cretaceous but found- no evidence that they are Lower 

Cretaceous. The rocks penetrated were dominantly limestone and 

marl. No sand or clay is reported below the Hawthorn formation 

of Miocene age-an indication that southern Florida was for a long 

time remote from sources of such sediments. 

Since 1942 several deep wells have been drilled in southern 

Florida in an attempt to discover new oil fields. The deepest of 

these wells, drilled at Big Pine Key in Monroe County, (about 30 

miles east-northeast of Key West) is reported by Campbell (personal communication) to have penetrated more than 15, 000 feet 

and to have ended in undoubted Lower Cretaceous sediments. The 

materials penetrated were dominantly limestones, dolomites, 

and anhydrite. 

Only the eastern part of the plateau stands above sea level; the 

western half slopes gently out beneath the waters of the Gulf of 

Mexico, where it plunges to greater depths. This suggests tilting 

to the west. Moreover, the trend of the boundaries between successive geological formations is to extend farther out beneath the 

Gulf. This, however, might indicate merely that the western half 

of the plateau was eroded more deeply than the eastern half when 

the sea stood lower with respect to land surface than it does now. 

More likely, however, it represents tilting that took place largely 

at the close of the Pliocene epoch and possibly during the early 
62 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

part of the Pleistocene epoch. The sloping surface of the plateau 

may, in some degree, reflect the contour of the ancient core, or 

it may be the result of the deposition of a greater thickness of 

sediments on the eastern side. Since early Pleistocene time no 

noticeable tilting has taken place-Pleistocene shorelines apparently remain horizontal throughout their distribution in Florida, 

Cooke (1931, p. 503-515) has traced discontinuous and eroded 

shore lines from New Jersey into Florida and finds that they are 

approximately level, thus indicating that this area has been relatively stable for a considerable length of time. 

Southern Florida occupies the southeastern corner of the 

Floridan Plateau. The edge of the plateau lies only a few miles 

off the Atlantic coast and sweeps closely around the crescent of 

the Florida Keys, but it lies many miles to the west off the Gulf 

coast. The shallow waters ofthe Florida Baylie upon the plateau. 

THE OCALA ANTICLINE 

In his geologic cross section, extending from Alabama through 

Florida to Cuba, Pressler (1947, p. 1851-1862) shows the Ocala 

uplift underlain by a dome of schist and granite constituting the 

principal geologic structure of the State, and high-angle faults 

bounding the southern tip of the Floridan Plateau. The Straits of 

Florida is shown as a huge graben. He also says that "on the basis 

of present data, anticlines are probably the most prevalent 

structure * * * though faulting is undoubtedly present, and conditions are favorable for the formation of stratigraphic traps * * *~,. 

Overlying the crystalline rocks at the crest of the Ocala uplift 

are rocks of Late Cretaceous, Tertiary, and Quaternary age. 

Lower, off the flanks of the uplift, rocks of Early Cretaceous age 

occur. The Tertiary and Quaternary rocks form a broad elongate 

dome, or anticline, t'hat trends in a southeastern direction and 

plunges to the southeast in southern Florida. On its crest, in 

northwestern peninsular Florida, this huge arch is breached by 

erosion (see fig. 9), and Ocala limestone of Jackson age (upper 

Eocene) is exposed at altitudes as much as 150 feet above sea 

level. In northeastern Monroe County the top of the Ocala limestone lies 1, ioo feet below sea level, indicating an average dip 

southward of about 5 feet per mile. However, because the surface 

of the Ocala limes tone has been modified by faulting, eros ion, and 

solution, this slope probably is not uniform throughout. A slope 

of 5 feet per mile is less than the slope of many sea bottoms on 

the continental shelves; nonetheless; it is believed that some deformation is involved. 
GEOLCX;Y 63 

>-

,._ 

;:; 

:§ 

ii' 

0' "'"' z.., 20' ~~ 

BO' 

U:::> 

<llo 

i'i'i<! 

200' ~~ o"' -_j 

<>:U 

05 

_jo 

"""' 

eso· 

"' w 

"-

900' 5 

0 

"' 

z 

<! 

Q 

0:: 1200' Q _j 

lL 

·----- ·- ··------ 300 MILES --

Figure 9. --(;enerali<ed NNW-SSE geologic cross section from vicinity of Ocala to Florida City. 

Younger geologic formations of Oligocene and Miocene age flank 

the Ocala anticline and slope away in all directions from the crest 

of the dome, thickening seaward. Because of their structure 

and the capacity of some of them for transmitting water, the 

water-bearing formations constitute notable artesian aquifers. 

They crop out near the shoreline along Citrus, Levy, and Dixie 

Counties on the Gulf coast, and at the edge of the continental shelf 

on the Atlantic coast. Some of their ground-water discharge takes 

place through submarine springs, such as the one near Saint 

Augustine, about 2} miles east of Crescent Beach {Stringfield, 

1936, p. 157; Ferguson, Lingham, Love, and Vernon, 1947, 

p. 9-10), but most of the natural discharge is probably accomplished through unnoticed submarine seepage. 

The younger formations of Pliocene, Pleistocene, and Recent 

age lie more nearly flat. They do not carry artesian water under 

high pressure as do the older Tertiary formations, but in local 

instances water is carried under low artesian head, especially in 

the Pliocene rocks. 
64 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTiiEASTERN FLORIDA 

STRATIGRAPHY AND WATER-BEARING CHARACTERISTICS OF THE 

FORMATIONS 

GENERAL STATEMENT 

The stratigraphic succession of formations in southern Florida 

was formed, with few exceptions, under a marine environment. 

The exceptions occur in the lacustrine and swamp deposits of the 

Lake Okeechobee-Everglades depression and ihe connecting Kissimmee River valley. These deposits include the fresh-water beds 

of the Fort Thompson formation, the fresh-water Lake Flirt marl, 

andorganic soils, mostlypeatsand mucks. Inwest-central Florida 

there are deltaic, lacustrine, and alluvial deposits that are believed to be contemporaneous with certain of the Pliocene marine 

beds (Parker and Cooke, 1944, p. 21, 60, 61). 

Most of the geologic materials of southern Florida are limestones, marls,t silts, clays, shells, sand, gravel, and various 

mixtures of these materials; very deep wells penetrate great 

thicknesses of limestone, anhydrite, and gypsum, with minor 

amounts of halite. Generally the coarser materials, such as 

coarse sand and gravel, are scarce, but some occur in the 

Hawthorn and Tamiami formations (Miocene) and in the Caloosahatchee marl (Pliocene). The clays of southern Florida (except 

the laterite of the Redlands district-seep. 110) are commonly 

greenish and calcareous, of marine origin, they usually contain a 

shallow-water fossil fauna indicative of warm subtropical seas. 

This area has long been one of shallow-water conditions with an 

adjacent low-lying land mass whose usually sluggish streams 

carried relatively small amounts of suspended or bed-load materials to the sea. Shoreline processes were the major factors in 

dispersing detrital materials. Conditions such as these have been 

generally operative at least since the opening of the Tertiary 

period. Whether they were operative prior to this time, also, 

remains to be seen from the research now being made by oilcompany geologists engaged in deep-well drilling programs. 

In the southeastern Florida ground-water investigations no 

wells were drilled deeper than 812 feet, and very little original 

2Marl is generally ccmsidered to be an unconsolidated earthy material consisting of particles of 

clay size with considerable calcium carbonate included. In Florida almost any unconsolidated 

material containing variable quantitles of calcium carbonate is called a marl, although the term 

may be qualified by use of an appropriate adjective. Deposits consisting largely of shells plus 

detrital materials are called "shell marls": mixtures of peat and calcareous silt or clay are called 

•peaty marls•; those composed of sand and calcareous silt or clay are called "sandy marl"; and 

there are many other possible variations, depending upon the character of the dominant 

constituents. 
GEOLOGY 65 

data have been obtained on formations deeper than the Hawthorn. 

Therefore, in this report the major emphasis will be placed on 

the late Cenozoic strata {from the Miocene through the Recent 

epoch). 

PRE--TERTIARY ROCKS 

Rocks of pre-Tertiary age are not penetrated for water supplies in southern Florida for two principal reasons: ( 1) they are 

deeply buried and thus costly to reach, and (2) they contain only 

highly mineralized water. Campbell (1939a) gives the following 

laboratory analysis of water from a depth of 3, 000 feet in well 

S 396 (Cory No. 1). 

Constituents Ppm Constituents Ppm 

Sodium ........................................................ 7,646 Bicarbonate ................................................ 439 

Calcium ...................................................... 1,552 Total. ............................................... 25,755 

Magnesium .................................................... 268 

Chloride .................................................... l4,200 Dis<>olved sqlids ................................ 29,460 

Sulfate ........................................................ l,650 

Comparison data Percent Comparison data Percent 

Primary salinity ........................................ 76.94 Secondary alkalinity ................................ 1.66 

Secondary salinity .................................... 21.40 Chloride salinity .................................... 91,91 

Primary alkalinity ...................................... 0.00 Sulfate salinity ........................................ 8,09 

Constituents Ratio Constituents Ratio 

Cl:HC(\ ..................................................... .54.4 Ca:Mg. ....................................................... 3.52 

liC~:S04 .................................................... 0.21 Na:Ca & Mg. .............................................. 3.34 

Chloride analyses of deeper water from this same well, made 

by the U. S. Geological Survey, are as follows: 

l)epth 

(feet) Chloride 

(ppm) 

9,500 .................................................... 11,200 

9. 550 .................................................... 24,600 

9, 772. ................................................... 15,000 

9,987 .................................................... 17,100 

Cooke (1945, p. 21-32), Applin and Applin (1944, p. 1673-1753), 

and Pressler (1947, p. 1851-1862) have amply discussed the structure and stratigraphy of these deeper rocks, most of which are 

limestones, dolomites, anhydrite with minor amounts of gypsum, 

· and some halite; therefore, it is believed unnecessary to give 

another description in this report. 
66 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

TERTIARY SYSTEM 

GENERAL STATEMENT 

In southeastern Florida, water wells do not penetrate rocks 

deeper than those of Eocene age, and most of the' deep wells end 

in the Ocala limestone of upper Eocene (Jackson) age. Some of 

the deep wells terminate in middle Eocene rocks, some in Oligo~ 

cene, and 'others in lower Miocene. All, however, produce only 

mineralized artesian water too salty and too corrosive for most 

uses (see section on Quality of ground and surface waters, 

p. 824-826). 

The following table lists formations encountered in drilling water wells in southeastern Florida. 

Table 11.-Geologic formations of southeastern Florida 

Age 

Recent 

and 

Formation 

Soils 

Pleisto- Lake Flirt marl cene 

Plei~to- Pamlico sand 

cene 

(Contemporane 

ous in 

part) 

High terrace deposits (includ· 

ing Penholoway 

and Talbot 

formations) 

Miami oolite 

Anastasia 

formation 

Key Largo 

limestone 

Fort Thompson 

formation 

·Characteristics 

Peat and muck, all Recent ia. age; laterite. 

White to l>l;ay calcareous mud rich with shells of 

.l!•JI,i soma sp. , a fresh- water gastropod. In places 

case-hardened to a dense limestone. Relatively 

impermeable. 

Quartz sand. white to black or red, depending upon 

nature of staining materials, very fine to coarse., averaging medium. Mantles large areas underlain 

by oolite and the Anastasia formation. Occurs in 

sand dunes and old beach ridges in elevations up to 

about 60 feet. Yields water to sand-point wells. 

Principally unconsolidated quartz sand with intercalated clay and silt beds in places, especially the 

Kissimmee River area, Locally consolidated to 

scabby ferric sandstone. Generally permeable. 

Yields water to sand-point wells. 

Limestone, soft, white to yellowish. containing 

streaks or thin layers of calcite, massive to cross• 

bedded and stratified; generally perforated with 

vertical solution holes. Fair to very high 

permeability. 

Coquina, sand, calcareous sandstone, sandy lime• 

stone, and shell marl. Composed of deposits equiv 

alent in age ,to the marine members of Fort 

Thompson formation. Fair to high permeability. 

Coralline reef rock, ranging from hatd and dense to 

soft and cavernous. Probably contemporaneous with 

the marine members of the Fort Thompson forma• 

tion. Outcrops along southeastern coastline of 

Florida from Soldier Key In Biscayne Bay to Bahia 

Honda. Highly permeable. 

Alternating marine, brackish, and fresh-water marls, 

limestones, and sandstones. Very low permeability 

in the upper Everglades-Lake Okeechobee area, but 

it is the major component of the highly permeable 

Biscayne aquifer (see p. 160) of coastal Dade, 

Broward, and Palm Beach Counties, which yields 

copious supplies of ground water. 

~hlckness 

(feet) 

0-12 

0-6 

0-60 

0-100 

0-40 

0-100 

0-60 

0-200 
Age 

Pliocene 

Mioc:iene 

67 

Table H.-Geologic formatioos of southeastem Ftorida--Cootimed 

Formation 

Caloosabatchee 

marl 

Tarniami 

formation 

Hawthorn 

form_ation 

Tampa 

limestone 

Characteristics 

Sandy marl, clay, sHt, sand, and shell beds, Yields 

some water, in places under low artesian head, but 

is little used because of low permeability and generally poor quality of water, especially in the 

Everglades-Lake Okeechobee area, Not nearly so 

widely spread as was once believed but occurs chiefly as erosion· remnants, 

Creamy-white limestone, and greenish-gray clayey and 

calcareous marl locally hardened to limestone, silty 

and shelly sands, and shell marl, Upper part, where 

permeability is high, is only a few feet thick, and, 

forms the lower part of Biscayne aquifer, Lower, and 

major part of the formation, is of low to very low 

permeability and forms the upper part of the Floridan 

aquiclude, · 

Sandy·, phosphatic marl, interbedded with clay, shell 

marl, silt, and sand, Greenish colors predominate, 

rrmckness 

(feet) 

0-50 

0-150 

Contains beds of flattened, well-worn quartnte and 50-500 

phosphate pebbles up to half an inch in greatest diarno;-

ter. Waterisgenerallyscarce, ofpoorquality, andin . 

the permeable beds is confined under low pressure head, 

Comprises the rna jor part of the Floridan aquiclude, 

'White to tan, soft to bard, often partially recrystallized 

limestone, Yields artesian water but not so freely as 150--250 

lower parts of the Floridan aquifer, 

Suwannee 

Oligocene limestone 

Creamy, soft to hard limestone, similar lithologically 

to underlying Ocala limestone and often included 

with it in some earlier reports, With the Ocala, is 

part of the Floridan aquifer. 

0-450 

Eocene <kala 

limestone 

Avon Park 

limestone 

Lake City 

limestone 

White to cream. potous a.nd cavernous to dense, in 

part cherty, in part highly foraminiferal, limestone. 

An excellent water-bearing formation, although the 100-350 water is saline in large areas, especially south of 

Lake Okeechobee and along the Atlantic and Gulf 

coasts some distance northward, Principal component of the Floridan aquifer, 

White to cream, foraminiferal limestone, with dark 

brown to tan crystalline to saccharoidal dolomite, 150-350 

Generally an excellent water-bearing formation and 

a part of the Floridan aquifer. 

Dark-brown dolomite and chalky lime~tone. Hydrologic 

characteristics imperfectly known, Probably a part 200-250 

of the Fieri dan aquifer. 

EOCENE SERIES 

LAKE CITY AND AVON PARK LIMESTONES 

In the last few years, older Eocene rocks have been differentiated from the late Eocene Ocala limestones mainly on the basis 

of the microfossils. In 1937, Stubbs (1937, p. 24-36) tentatively 

assigned a middle Eocene age to those rocks which underlie typical Qcala limestone but which lack typical Ocala fossils and contain an. abundance of the foraminifer Dietyoconus cookei (Moberg), 

misti:tkenlyidentified by Stubbs as Coskinolina sp. Stubbs gave these 

roc.ks the name "Coskinolina Zone. " Since then, Cole (1941) has 
68 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN Fl.ORlDA 

divided the entire middle Eocene into seven zones, the youngest 

of which he calls the Dictyoconus cookei zone; and the Applins (1944, 

p. 1673-1753) have divided the middle Eocene into two parts, late 

middle and early middle, and have assigned several geologic formational names to these units. 

The Avon Park limestone of the Applins includes the Dictyoconus 

cookei zone of Cole, and their Lake City limestone includes his 

Dictyoconus americanus zone. 

On the basis of subsurface data, Cole (1944, p. 25-26) has referred the Avon Park limestone to the Lisbon formation; Erickson 

(1945, p. 234) has correlated surficial outcrops of a limestone in 

southern Levy and northern Citrus Counties with the Avon Park 

and has proposed the new name "Gulf Hammock formation, • to 

replace "Avon Park limestone." 

The Eocene rocks older than the Ocala limestone contain a large 

amount of dolomite and dolomitic limestone with colors ranging 

from cream through tan to dark brown. Solution activity by circulating ground water in these calcareous rocks has developed caverns and a network of smaller channels, thus giving these formations a high coefficient of transmissibility (see section on Ground 

water, Quantitative studies, p, 237). Until more deep wells are 

drilled in southeastern Florida and the data therefrom studied, the 

thickness of middle and lower Eocene rocks in this area will remain unknown. 

OCALA LIMESTONe 

The Ocala limestone,s of Eocene (Jackson) age, is the oldest 

and most deeply buried of all formations ordinarily penetrated for 

water in southern Florida. It was present in the Campbell well, 

S 396 at 1, 220 feet below land surface. (See pl. 19.) According 

to Mossom (1926, p. 236-237) it was penetrated at about 900 feet 

below land surface in well S 353 at Belle Glade (about 60 miles 

north of S 396) and at about 600 feet below land surface in well 

S 432, at Okeechobee City. The Ocala limestone is exposed at 

the land surface about 150 miles north of Okeechobee City in 

Citrus, Sumter, and Marion Counties. From these data it is apparent that the Ocala limestone, within a distance of 250 miles, 

dips about 1, 220 feet. This is at a rate of about 5 feet to the mile. 

However, it is believed that this rate is not uniform because the 

upper surface of the Ocala limestone is eroded by weathering and 

solution processes, and according to R. 0. Vernon (personal communication), it is faulted in numerous places; thus, the few control points may be somewhat misleading. The Ocala limestone is 

not present everywhere in southern Florida. Evidence obtained 

from study of deep wells in this area by the Applins (1944, 

SAccording to Robert 0. Vernon, Florida Ceological Survey (oral communication), the Ocala 

limestone can be differentiated into two formations. 
GEOLOGY 69 

p. 1684-1685) indicates that the Ocala limestone is missing in a 

part of eastern Dade and Broward Counties and in Monroe County 

at Key West. 

The Ocala is essentially a soft, white, foraminiferal limestone, 

in places a coquina, and, in addition to the Forminifera, it also 

contains a varied fauna of other marine fossils. In places, beds 

of chert are present. The formation generally thickens in all directions away from the outcrop area and attains a maximum thickness of 350 feet. In southeastern Florida it averages about 100 feet, 

but in places, as noted above, it seems to be missing entirely. 

The Ocala limestone is an excellent water-bearing formation, 

widely used, and well kn9wn. It is the principal component of the 

Floridan aquifer (see p. 188-189). Large springs, such as Silver 

Springs in north-central Florida, and Wakulla Spring in northwestern Florida, issue from the cavernous rocks of the Ocala 

limestone. Silver Springs alone, as measured by the U. S. Geological Survey (Ferguson, Lingham, Love, and Vernon, 1947, p. 

124-125; Stringfield, 1936, p. 155), flows at times more than 31 

million gallons per hour, or 756 mgd, and averages 500 mgd; by 

comparison, a city the size of Miami used about 40 mgd in 1946. 

Rainwater enters the Ocala limestone both in the outcrop area 

and in areas where permeable 'llaterials overlie it and permit 

downward percolation. The part of the water that does not return 

to the surface as a spring or seep, or is lost by evapotranspiration 

or by some other means (pumping from wells etc.), flows slowly 

through the aquifer and becomes highly mineralized. By the time 

the water has progressed to southern Florida, some of it is so 

highly mineralized that it is unsatisfactory for most uses. All 

wells penetrating the Ocala limestone in southern Florida are 

artesian. 

OLIGOCENE SERIES 

SUWANNEE LIMESTONE 

The southernmost known exposure of the Suwannee limestone is 

in the northeastern part of Hillsborough County, in the banks of 

Blackwater Creek. Mansfield (1937, p. 46) describes the rock as 

.. ***a granular to dense, compact, usually cre~m-colored, 

ratherpurelimestone ... The Applins(1944, p. 1681-1683) describe 

the Suwannee: "Throughout most of its underground extent, the 

Oligocene has a rather uniform lithologic character: white, finely 

porous limestone composed chiefly of fragmental tests of Bryozoa 

and miliolid Foraminifera.*** In southern Florida the Oligocene 

thickens gradually toward the south and southwest from its updip 

limits, attaining a thickness of about 350 feet in wells near the 

coast and 450 feet in a well at Key West * * *~ 
70 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

The Suwannee unconformably overlies the Ocala limestone and, 

in turn, is overlain and generally overlapped by younger geologic 

formations, so that it has a relatively small outcrop area, Its relation with the underlying Ocala limestone in southern Florida is 

such that artesian water occurs in both formations under essentially the same conditions. Thus, they are components of a single 

hydrologic underground unit-the Floridan aquifer. 

MIOCENE SERIES 

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 

In peninsular Florida, Cooke (1945, p. 109-111) recognizes deposits of early Miocene time (Tampa limestone), middle Miocerie 

time (Hawthorn formation), and late Miocene time (Duplin marl). 

The Tampa and Hawthorn formations have long been recognized in 

Florida." but •only rece~tly has the naine Duplin been extended to 

Florida. Cooke (1945, p. 181) discontinued the use of the name 

"Choctawhatchee marl" and regards the four Choctawb,atchee zones 

as parts of two other formations: the Yoldia and Area zones (the 

lower two) are part of the Shoal River formation, and the Ecphoca 

and ;Cancell.!!ria zones are part of the extended Duplin marl. 

Recently, . F. Stearns MacNeil and C. Wythe Cooke (personal 

communications) have stated that studies of fossils (gathered by 

themselves, Parker, Schroeder, and others) show that the 

Tamiam i formation, previously regarded as of Pliocene age 

(Mansfield, 1939~ is actually of upper Miocene age. 

In southern and southeastern Florida the great bulk of the Miocene formations are buried and can be studied only through the 

medium of well cuttings and their enclosed fossils. Although 

numerous wells have penetrated geologic materials (mainly silts, 

clays, fine sands, or limestones) that are, on the basis of fossil 

assemblage, Miocene, it has been exceedingly difficult to separate 

the sediments into the units recognized farther north and west. 

In Cooke's correlation chart (1945, p. 110) an erosion interval 

is indicated between the middle Miocene Hawthorn formation and 

the late Miocene Duplin marl. This is based on field relationships 

in northern Florida. There are no significa'nt changes in either 

lithology or fossil faunas in southern Florida to indicate such an 

interval. However, without a decided change in lithology such a 

break would be difficult to detect in well cuttings, and fossils often 

are of little help; in many instances both microfossil and macrofossil assemblages, collected from carefully controlled test wells, 

seem to indicate that. in this area little reliance can be placed on 

them for precise age and stratigraphic correlations. It ,,{s quite 

apparent that ecologic conditions are a prime factor in these 

studies and that the reworking of previous sediments and their 
GEOLOGY 71 

enclosed fossils by an encroaching sea and the filling of deep sink 

holes and solution cavities with younger deposits may be the main 

reasons for the diffit;Oulty in definitely separating the Miocene formations that probably are present in this area, either from one 

another or from the Pliocene. 

There is no doubt that some geologic materials of southeastern 

Florida, which in the past have been called Miocene (Hawthorn) 

or Pliocene {Caloosahatchee marl and Tamiami limestone), are 

in reality of Duplin age and are present beneath the Caloosahatchee 

marl and younger formations everywhere in southeastern Florida. 

This belief is based largely upon lithologic correlation of cuttings 

from numerous wells of this ·area (in which indeterminate faunas, 

possibly of Pliocene or Miocene age, occur) with .that of test well 

G 188, 19 miles west of Miami at Krome Road (State Route 27) 

and Tamiami Trail (U. S. Rout~ 41), where upper Miocene (Duplin) 

faunas undoubtedly occur. (See pls. 8 and 9, index map, and geologic cross sections for correlation interpretations.) 

According to Julia Gardner, who studied the larger fossils from 

this well, "No age determinations could be made upon the faunas 

from the four upper levels, -26.21 , -32. 11, -46.6 1, and -51. 0' (all 

depths refer to mean sea leve 1). '.fhe faunas from -57. 3' and 

-61. 8~' are referred to the lower Pliocene, and they more closely 

resemble the mollusca from eastern Florida than they do from the 

Caloosahatchee region, All the shells from -67, 8' are small; they 

have much \ess in common with the Pliocene faunas aboye 

than with the Miocene below. The finest, the most abundant, and 

the best characterized assemblages are those from -71. 11 and 

-76. 71 • These include several species which characterize the 

Cancellaria zone of the Duolia marl. The collections from -80, 21 

through -136 1 are meager and there is nothing new in them, The 

lower faunas, -140. 31, -144. 91, and the lowest of all, -155. 3', are 

much better but only in the lowest is there a new element of any 

significance anti that indicates nothing more than a slightly lower 

horizon in the Duplin [upper Miocene]. The resemblance of· the 

faunas from the Miocene section of the well to those of the Duplin 

marl of North and South Carolina is marked, and there. is no 

reason to suppose· that any fauna older than that of the Duplin is 

represented. The faunas from top to bottom of the well are conspicuously shallow water faunas with no evidence of marked ecologic changes. This is indicated by the wide distribution of the 

limpets and barnacles, inter-tidal groups such as Oliva and 

Olivella, and reef-making forms such as the oysters, pectens, 

and anemias. The temperature in the late Miocene was probably 

not unlike that of the Recent Floridian seas. 

The faunal assemblages upon which Dr. Gardner based the 

above interpretation are given in table 12. 

~46881 0-55--7 
72 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTIIEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 12.-Macrofarmas from U. S. Geological Survey Station 15112 (USGS test well 

G 188), Krome Road md the Tamiami Treil. 19 miles west of Miami, Dade County 

Collection Depth 

(feet) 

15112 ·26.2 

15112·b ·32.1 

15112-c ·46.6 

15112-d ·SLO 

15 112·e ·57.3 

Macrofauna 

Chl.,ys sp. Ind. Chione sp. Ind. 

Indeterminate gastropod 

Age: Indeterminate. 

Indeterminate bi Vel ve Planorbid~ 

Age: Indeterminate. 

Bryozoa 

"Pecten, sp, ind. 

Ostt"era sp. ind. 

Age: Indeterminate. 

"Pecten" sp, ind. 

Age: Indeterminate. 

Bryozoa 

Echinoid spine Nucu/a pJOxima Say 

Ate a (Fossul tJtca) sdsmsi (Shuttleworth) Da11 Anadara impJOcera (Conrad) Eontta sp. cf. E. trlfiintinsria (Conrad) Pecten (Piafiioctenium) sp. 

Chlsmys ( Aequipecten) comparilis (Tuomey and llolmes) P/1 catu/8 mar(ilnata Say 

Anomia simple" D'Orbigny Ostrea sp. incl. 

Crassineiia hmulala (Conrad) Cardill! (Carditameta) arata Conrad 

Glans (Pieutometis) lridentata decemcostats Conrad Phacoides (Lucinisca) ctibarius (Say) 

Phacoides (Parvl/ucina) mulli/lneatus (Tuomey and llolmes) 

Trachycardium sp. cf. T. oedslium harveyense Mansfield Metis sp. <:f. M. mallnoliana Dall Macoms sp. 

Abra aequs/is Say? 

Mactra (Macltotoma) sp. ef. M. (M.) irafil/ls Gmelin Mulinia con11,es:ta Conrad 

Mu/lnia latera/Is Say? 

Dosinia (Dolilinidta) sp. cf. D. (D.) elesans Conrad Transetl>l./a eatolinens/$ Dall 

Maeroca/lisla (Patadione) tl!f>osta (Conrad) s.l. Gou/ di a mel aslrl st a KConrad) 

Pit sri a (Hyphadosoma) sp. near P. (H.) opislhollrsmmata Dall Chione (Chione) cancel/ala (Linnaeus) Chione (Chione) sp. 

Chione (Timoclea) firus (Ilolmes) 1...-enus sp. i.nd. 

V emus sp. ind. 

Corbu/s ('Varicotl:lula) sp. 

Corbula (Csryocorbula) nucleata deadanenlilis Mansfield 

Cotl:lula (Csryocotbula) barrattians leonensis Mansfield 

Corbu/ a (Caryocotl:lu/ a) bartattiana leonensis Mansfield? Teflula (Omphali us) e><ol eta Conrad 

Tuttii,.II a sp. cf. T. cookei Mansfield Serpulorbi s (it ani fer a Say 

Cerithium sp. cf. c. ilotldanum Dall and c. flotidsnum leonense hlansfield l:!.Pitonium sp. 

Cs/yptraea centrali s (Conrad) 

Crucibulum auricu/um (Gmelln) s. 1. Cruclbulum multi/lneaturn (Conrad) 

Ctepi du.J a fomicata (Lifinaeus) 

Crl!f>l du/ a aesop Dall Trl vi 11 sp. ind. 

Nat/ cold fragments 

Uroaalpinx ttoasulus Conrad? 

.4.nachis s.vara subsp. near A. avata catoosaensi s: Dall Anachis canax coeni.s Mansfield? Nassarlus bidtr1tatus Emmons Nassarius sp. n. Na8sarius sp. D. 

Nassarius comallianus (Olsson) 

Nassarius sp. probably near N. _vibe" (Say) 

Olive/Is mutica Say including o. l'ilidula Dillwyn 0/i vel/ a mull ca Say 

Mitra (Tiara) n. sp. near IV/. (Tiara) caJO/inensis Conrad and M. {T.) 

lineolata Ileilprin. 
GEOL<X;Y 73 

Table 12.-Macrofaunas from '1. S. Geological Survey Station 15112 (USGS test well 

G 188), !~rome Road and the Tamiami Trail, 19 miles west of Miami, Dade County-Con. 

Collection 

15112-e 

15112-f 

15112-g 

Depth Macrofauna (feet) 

-57,3 M"tlllne/1 a sp. 

Crassispira ? el~s EmmonsM 

Tetebts (Sttlol«ebrum) sp. 

IJu/1 a n, sp. A.cteocine canaliculata Say Barnacle plates. 

Age: Early Pliocene. The faunas from •57. 31 and ·61.8 1 include Chione 

(Chione) cancellata {Linnaeus), a species not recognized before 

the opening of the Pliocene. Four other spec lest Phacoldes 

(Lucinisca) catibtatius Say, Mulinia con~esta Conrad which seems 

to be typical, Tegu/s (Omphalius) eXQieta Conrad, end Ctt~clbulum 

mulli/lneatum Conrad have not hitherto been reported from preMiocene heds. However, because of an apparent break between 

·61.8 1 and -67.8 1 , indicated by the introduction of forms as Astarte 

( Aslltamtha) bella Conrad, Chione (Limphota), and several species 

of 7\.rttlte//s which are common at lower levels, the rather arbitrary 

line between the Miocene and Pliocene sho! ld probabli be drawn 

between those two depths. 

·61,8 Anadara tmprocara (Conrad) 

Chlamys (Aa<pipecten) eborea darlint,llonensis (Dall) Anomia simplex D'Orbigny 

Phacoldes (8elluclna) tuomeyl Dall 

Ttschycardium oedalium harveyenae Mansfield Mulinis con11esta Conrad 

Macrocsllista sp~ ind. 

Chione (Chione) cencellata (Linnaeus) 

Chione (Timoclea) t,lru.s (Holmes) 

Calyptraes centra/is (Conrad) 

Ctuclbulum multlllnealum (Conrad) 

Crept dula fornicata (Linnaeus) 

Muticidea? sp. 

Vto&s.lpinx sp. 

Matt,linel/s sp. near M. floridana Dall 

Mart#nella bella (Conrad) 

Oarnaele plates 

Age: Early Pliocene, The fauna from ·61.8 1 is similar to that from ·57,31 

·67.8 !Jryozoa 

Nucula proxima Say 

Glycymetls americana quin<petufllta (Tuomey and Holmes)? 

Chlamys sp. d. P, (Aequlpecten) compatills (Tuomey and Holmes) PII CIIUtul a sp, 

Astarte ( Ashtamtha) bella Conrad 

Glans (Pieummetis) ltidentata decemco01tata (Conrad) 

Phacoldes (Cardio/uclna) mulllsttiatus (Conrad) Ph a col des (Lucini sea) ctlbtBtius (Say) 

Phscoides (Patvllucins)multllineatus (Tuomey lind Holmes) 

Phscoi(ies (Belluctns) luomeyi Dall Knot typical) Dlplodonta ? sp. 

Alit,lens sp. 

Mactra (Micmmactra) unci!/ a Dall Mulinia conQesta Conrad 

Transenel/a caro/lnenlilis Dall? 

Chione (L/rophora) lat/1/rata athleta Conrad 

Corbuls (Vatlcotbultl) calooase Dall 

Cadulus thallus (Conrad) 

7\.rrtite//s csrolinoms/s Conrad 

7\.rrtlte/la sp, near T. burden Tuomey and Holmes and T. cool<ei Manstield 

7\.rrtlle//a subannulata Heilprin, subop,? · Vetmlculatia spirals (Philippi) Turbo nil/ a sp. 

CalyPtrae" centre/Is KConrad) 

Crudbulum mu/tl/lneatum (Conrad) 

Crepi <!II a sesop Dall Naticoid fragment 

Mutlcidea? 

Muriel des sp, cf. M, flotidsna /ibetliensls Mansfield 

Stmmb/na fluntetl Mansfield 

Buaycon sp. ind. 

Nassstius ap,. B. 

NasBatius consenll(l/de• (Oluon) 

Nusatlulll sp, E. 

Oliva sp, 

Olive// a mulica Stay 

Matfllnel/a sp. ind. 

Marllinel/a sp, ind, 

Matflinella ...,reocincla Steams 

Eumeladril/ia sp. near E. lunata porrecta (Mansfield) 
74 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 12.-Mactofauna.s from U. S. Geological Survey Station 1'U12 (USGS test well 

G 188), Krome Road and. the Tami.:r.U Tt~l, 19 miles west of Miami, Dade County-Con. 

Collection 

15112-g 

15112-h 

Depth 

(feet) 

-67.8 

-71.1 

Macrofauna 

Eumetadrillls sp. near E. !unata potrecls (Mansfield) 

..-Drillia." n. sp. near "D" . . anmons:i (Olsson) 11Drillia'' sp. near uvu. am:nonsi (Olsson) Te.rebra (Sttloter.,brum) dialocata (Say) Tarabra (Sitloletebrum) concave (Say) 

Barnacle 

Age: Late Miocene. Chione (Chione) cencellsta (Linnaeus), the cha,.. 

acteristic·PHoeene species, present in the faunas from ·57.3' and 

-61.8 1 , -is absent in the fauna from -67.81 , and of probably greater 

significance is the first appearance of a number of forms including A'llarle (Ashlan>lha) bella Conrad, Chione (Lin>phots) /stili rata Conrad, Csdulus thallus (Conrad), TurritiJ/Ja caro/inensis Conrad, and Turri lei/a aubJnnu/st~ lleilprin, subsp. ?, which are common at the three next lower levels from which fauna• have been · 

taken. To .be sure, C. (C.) cane ell at a has not" been reported from 

th" lower bed of the CSioosahatchee marl in Volusia County, Florida, snd is presumably absent, but so are tte characteristic Mio- cene Species recorded from •6'/'.!1 1 

Nucul s sp. ind. 

Atcs (Omestca) sp. cf, A. (C). scslstls Conrad Ansdara tmprocets Conrad 

Glycyrneris americana q.~.inqueru~ata (Tuomey and llolmes) 

Mylllus ccntadlnu« D'Orbigny 

Peel.., (Pecten) sp. cf. f'. (P.) ochlockoneensls Mausfield "Feet~" sp. 

Ohlamys (AeQilipecten) compsri/is (TUomey aud Holmes) 

.Anoml a simp! ex D'Orbigny Ostres sculpturats Conrad 

Astarte (Aahtsrotha) biJ/Ia Conrad 

Crsssste/Jiles (Crassatel/ltea) sp. ct. C. fllbbesll (TUomey and Holmes) 

Catdlla (Csrdltamera) arata Conrad 

uchsma•i sp. 

Pllacoides (Cstdlolucina) sp. cf. P. (C). f'lUltisttlstus (Conrad) Phacoides (l..ucinisca) ctlbatius (Say) Phscoides (Cslli.Jcina) raciiatis.Conrad 

Phscolde:. (Piirviluclns) multilineatus (Tuorney and iiolrnes) Phacoides (BIJ/luclna) 1:!1omeyi Dall 

Divartcel/a sp, cf. D. _q.,sdrisulcsts (D'Orbigny) 

Trachycardlun oedalium harveyen"e Mansfield 

'•cardium" sP,. ind. 

Mulini s CO"':lesta Conrad 

Mactoca/11-sls (Paradione) repoota (Conrad) 

Callocsrdi a (Afltiopoms) Conrad s. 1. AniiQOna sp. lnd, 

Chione (Chione) procsttciJ/Jatl!l Mansfield? 

Chione (Chione) n. sp, ?near c. (C,).proc.,;,ciJ/Ista Mansfield 

Chione (Lirophots) latiJ/rala athleta Conrad 

Venus (Mere.., art a) cBmpechieneis rileyi Conrad 

Ootbula (Vadcotbula) waltonen$ls tubi'llnlsna Mansfield 

Corbu/a (Caryocotbula) bsttsttiana leonensi.s Mansfield 

Csdulus ths/lua Conrad 

Calllostoma n. sp.? group of C. philanthropum (Conrad) and c. _willco:U ... num Dall 

Aslraes n. sp.? group of A. precursor Dall 

Turtlte/1 a carolinensts Conrad 

·'1btrilelli,-·etlwenenai_!' __ ');:uorney and "ncilmes 

Turrite/Js sp, near T. burdllfll Tuomey and Holmes and T .. cookei Mansfield Turri tel/a aubannul st s lleilprin subsp.? 

Turri tel/a sp. near T •. subennul at.o lleilprin and the subsp. J sck sonensi s Mansfield in apical sculoture 

Ssrpulorbi s ljrsnifera Say 

Petaloccnchus sculpturatus l!, C. Lea 

Cetithlum flotldsttum !eonenae Mansfield 

Stromblformi a sp. poulbly n, &p. 

Ni so sp. ind, 

Calyptraea centra/Is (Conrad) 

Crep/dulll aesop Dall 

Pollnices (Neverila) dJ.p/lcalus Say Mure>< (Chicoresus) rufus Lamarck 

Muricidea sp. cf, M. _flotldena llbertiensis Mansfield 

Un>as/pinx ln>ssu/us Conrad? Anachis Climax Dall subsp.? Anachi.o stylio/s Dall subsp • .Anachi.S sp. 

Sltoml:>lns sp. 

Antil/opluH• sloenia (Gardner and Aldrich) 

Busycon sp. cf. B. perversum (Linnaeus) 

Busycon sp. ind. 
GEOLOGY 75 

Table 12.-Macrofmna.s from U. S. Geological Survey Station 1"i112 (USGS test well 

G 188), lirome Rooo and the Tamiami Trail, 19 miles west of Miami, Dooe County-Con. 

Collection 

15ll2·h 

15112-i 

Depth Macrofauna (feet) 

·71. 1 Nssuril's sp. near N. l>ldentalus Emmons Nasaarius consensoldes (Olsson) 

Nasssrius n. "P·? Na.ssarius ap. 

Oliva sayan a Ravenel 

Olive/Is mutica (Say) 

Mitra (Tiara) sp. in d. 

Maculopeplum ltenholmi (Tuomey and Holmes) 

Mart<im•Il a sp, cf, M. _vir/Oini ana (Conrad) and M. ,contracts (Conrad) 

Marf<lne/la gravida Dell Cancellaria- tabulata Gardner and Aldrich Cancellaria sp. cf. C. reticulate 1aonensi5 Mansfield 

Conus sp. ind. 

Eumeladrl/1ia lunata porrecta (Mansfield)? 

Crass/ spira antealesldota Mansfield "Drillia" n. sp. A. 

Terebra (Pstaterebra) unilinsata Conrad 

Tetebra (Strioterebtum) n<>t<lecla Emmons Torabra (Strioletebrum) sp. near T •. dis/ocala Say but axlals not bisected 

Terebra (Striotetebrum) dis/ocala Say 

Acteocina canaliculata (Say) 

Crab remains 

Darnacle plates 

Age: Upper Miocene, Duplin marl, probably the Cancellaria zone. The three faunas from the depths •71.1 1 are the most prolific of those takenffrom the well and obviously are to be included within a 

single uni.t. Th@y are characterized by large pectens, Astarte 

(Ashtatotha) bella Conrad, common Mulinia con~esta and Chione 

(Litophora Jatilirata athleta. Conrad~ and by two of the cha.racterlstlc species of the Cancellaria zon<'. Chione (Chione) proeancel· 

lata Mansfield, The diversified Turritella fauna, first recorded 

at 67,8 1

, is best developed at this level and at the two lmmedJ. 

ately succeeding. 

-75.1 Nuculs proxima Say 

Area (Cunea.rca.) scala.ri,s Conrad 

4.nadata lienQsa (Say) 

Anad,.ra improc~;~ra (Conrad) 

G/ycymeris americans q.;inquerugata (Tuomey and Holmes) 

Glycymeris pectlnata (Gmelin) 

Glycymerfs sp. ind. 

Pe:oten (Pecten) sp. cf •. P. (P,) och/ockoneanansi s Mansfield 

Chlamys (Aequip<Oclart) eborea datlinQtonensis (Dall)? Ostrea sculptursta Conrad 

Astarte ( Ashlarolha) bell a Conrad 

Crassatellites (Crassatellites) Qibbesll (Tuomey and Holmes) Catdila (Cardilamera)" arata Conrad 

Glans (Piruromeris) lridentala decemcostata Conrad Venericatdla (Cyclocardia) grsnulata Say 

PhacoidtJs (Cardioluci.na) sp. cf. C. (C.) multistrlalus (Conrad) Phacoides (Lucinl8ca) cribarius (Say) 

Phacoides (Callucina) radians (Conrad) 

Phacoldss "(Parvilucina) multilineatus (Tuomey and llolmes) Phacoides (B<>IIucina) tuomey/ Dall 

Phacoi des (Bellucina) sp. cf. P. (B.)_ tuomeyl Dall and P. (B) waccama- wsnia Dall 

Cerasloderma spl near c. _taprium Dall 

Cerastoderma? sp. cf. c. _aculllaqu.eatum Conrad 

Ttachycardi.um oedallum ha.rveyense Mansfield 111Cardiumu sp. ind: 

Tell ina (Eurytellina) allemata Say 

Tel/ina (M<>Mella) possibly n. sp. near T. (M.)_ r:Jupliniana Dall . Tellln!d 

Metis sp~ 

Ensis sp. Ind. 

Mullnia congesla Conrad 

Doslnia (Dosinidla) sp, cf, D. (D.)_ acetabulum blount ana Mansfield Goul di a n, sp,? 

Macrocal/ista ? sp, 

Ca/Iocardla? sp. 

Ohione (Chione) procsncel/ata Mansfield 

Cilions(Lirophora) latilirata alhleta Conrad Venus sp. 

Corbula (Varicorbu/a) sp. ct. C. (V.) csloosae Dall Corbul a (Vari cotbul a) sp. 

Corbula (Caryocorbu/a) i:Juc/eata Dall? Cadulus thal1us Co.nrad 

'Calliostoma? sp. 
76 WATER RESOURCES IN SOU1HEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 12.-Macrofmnas from u. s. Geological Survey Station H112 (USGS test well 

G 188), Krome Road and the Tamiami Trail, 19 miles west of Miami, Dade County-Con. 

Collection 

15112-i 

15112-j 

Depth 

(feet) 

-75.1 

-76,7 

Macrofauna 

Thttitella csrolinen"i" Conrad Thrritelta etJwsnensls Tuomey and Holmes? 

Thrritells op, near T, burden! Tuomey and Holmes and T, cookei Mansfield 

Thrrltel/s aubannulsts Heilprin subsp.? 

Cerithium Uoridanum leonense Manelield 

Cruclbulum sp. 

Crepi dul a pi sns Say 

Crepl dul a aesop Dall 

Nstica (Tectonallcs) puail/a Say Nstlcs canrenS·(Linnaeua) Polinice.. (Neverita) dupllcstus (Say) Trivia pediculs (Linnaeuo) 

Cyprsea eMO/Inensis Conrad 

Scon,.i a hodA.ii (Conr'l!i)? 

Columbe/Is sp. near C. rustlccidN Heilprin 

Stromblna ~unlet/ Mansfield 

Nsssarlus consensolde" (Olsson) Naesarlus ccmel/1 snus (Olsson) 

Fascio/atls sp. 

Fusinus sp, near F, carolln<m'lls (Dall) and F. dalli Mansfield 

Oliva sayans Ravenel 

0/lvellamutlca Say includingO. nltidula (Dillwyn) 

Oil vella lllllica Say Vssum sp. ind. 

Xancus ap. near refPnl s (BeUprin) 

Mal'/tlnella sp, 

Mar~lnella zp. ef, M, precursor Dall 

Maf111nel/a vir~ini<lns (Conrad)? 

CyPraeolina dacria (Dall) 

Conus adveraaeius Conrad? 

Cras8/Sp/rs anlealesidols Mansfield "'Dtillia" sp. cf. "D.u tticatenatia. (Conrad) 

Terebra di10/ocata Say? 

Barnacle plates 

Age: Upper Miocene, Duplin marl, probably the CBIIcellatla zone, The 

fauna is similar to those from -71. 11 and -76.71 

Doring sponge 

Coral 

Bryozoa 

Nucula proxima Say Nucula taphrla Dall 

Sa cell a troch/11 a coensi s (Mansfield) 

Sacel/atrochilia hamlinensi" (Mansfield) 

Area (Fossularcs) adamai (Shuttleworth) Dall 

Area (Cunesrcs) sp. near A. (C.) el cima Dall Anadars improceta (Conrad) 

Gl ycymerl s pectinata (Gmeiln) Pecten (Pecten) sp. 

Chi 8tnYB ( Aefl.lipecten) eborea (Conrad) ? 

Chlamys (Aefl.llpecten) sbores dart/~tonen.,;s (DaU) 

P/1 caiu/ a marfPnsla Say Anomls simp/ ex D'Orbigny Ostrea sculpturats Conrad 

Pondota (Kenner/is) srenoss Conrad Astarte (Aehlatoths) bella Conrad 

Crsuatellitas (Ctassatellttea) sp. 

Ctsss,.tellitu (Crl!lssatel/ltes) sp, 

Cardits (Carditameta) sp, ind. 

Glans (Pietomerls) perplana Conrad Anodontia sp. Ind. 

Phaccldes (Luelnlsea} crlbrarlus (Say) 

Phaco/d"" (Calluclns) radians (Conrad) 

Phaccides (Parvilucina) mult/llneatus (Tuoney and Holme,.) Phaccides (Bsllucina) tuomey/ Dall 

Divar/cel/a fi.IBdisulcata (D'Orbigny)? Pseudochama str11Us (Emmons) 

Cerastodetma sp. incl. 

Ttachycardium oedellum harvayense Mansfield 

Tel/Ina (Mer/sea) seq.,lstrlsts Say 

Tellina (Eurytellina) slternata (Say) Tellinid 

Tel/ins (Moerella) poseibly n. sp. near T, (M,) duplinians Dall 

Semele petfstn'!lloss Heilprin Mullnia ccn~esta Conrad Enais directus Conrad? Dosinia sp. 

Doslnla (Doalnidia) sp. 

Trsns<mella carolinensls Dall 
GEOLOGY 77 

Table 12.-Macrof81.111as from U. S. Geolo~ical Survey Station 1'i112 (USGS test well 

G 188), Krome Road snd the Tamiami Trail, 19 miles west of Miami, Dade County-Con, 

Collection 

15112-j 

15112-k 

15112·1 

Depth 

(feet) 

·76,7 

·80,2 

-86.0 

Macrofauna 

Cal/ocardis (ASrlopoma) op. cr. c. (A.) sayana (Conrad) 

Gouldis melastrlsla (Conrad) 

Chione (Chione) pmcmcellsts Mansfield 

Chione (Chione) n, sp. near C. (C.) pmcsrrcellats Mansfield 

Chione (Timocles) llrus (Holmes) 

Chione (Limphota) latilirsts slhleta Conrad 

Cotbuls (Vsricotbuls) sp. cf, C. (V,). celooue Dall 

Corbula (C.uyocorbula) sp. group of C. (C.).In,.equell" Say 

Corbul a sp. ind. 

Cadu/us thBI/us (Conrad) Diodota csmlinmals (Conrad)? 

Teflu/s (Omphallus) <Jltt>lets (Conrad) Turbo sp. group of T. caslsneu" Gmelin 

Opercula, possibly of Turbo sp. 

Tuttllo/ls csro/lnenlilis Conrad? 

Turri tells Sp. near T. alum ansi s Mansfield Thttllells etlwanensis Tuomey and llolmes 

Turrilella etlwansnsis Tuomey and Holmes; very slender and simple 

shells. 

Turllella sp, near T. burdeni Tuomey snd Holmo:>s and T •. cookei Mansfield. Turitells sp. near T. cookei clatksvll/ensia Mansfield Petaloconchus sculpturatus H. C, Lea uvennetus" s. 1. 

Cetlthium flotldanum /eonense Mansfield 

N i so sp. in d. 

Turboni/la sp, 

Turbonllla sp, 

Cslyptrsea ""''trails Conrad Crucibulum multilineatum Conrad 

Crepidu/s fomicats (Linnaeus) 

Crepl dul a aeeop Dall 

N ati ca canrens (Linnaeus) 

Trivia sp. ind, 

Favartia celluloss (Conrad) 

Murlcldes llotld~~na Ilbertianlilis Mansfield? Anachi s sp, near A •. avara. (Say) 

Anachis camax Da11? Anschi.s? sp, 

Strombina sp. nea.r S.. Sunteti Mansfield Nassstlus bidentatus (Emmons) 

Nassoids 

Dorsanum? plicatilum (Bose) 

Oliva sayans Ravenel 

Olivell a mullca Say including 0. "itidul a (Dillwyn) 

0/Jvel/amatlca Say 

Matfllnella sp. Marllinells vltfliniana (Conrad) 

IVIBrllinella llravlda (Dall) 

Cypraeolins dacria (Dall) 

Cance/laris tabulata Gardner and Aldrich 

Conus noridiJIIUS Gabb 

I3rachycythara turrits Mansfield? 

Manlle/la sp, cf, M, coensi" Mansfield Eumetsdriilia lunata porrecta (Mansfield)? 

Crassuepirs? sp. group of C.? elellsns (Emmons) 11Drilli a" n. s.p. A 

Terebra (Sitioterebrum) di"locata Say 

Acteocina canBliculata Say? 

ActeocinB mynnecoon Dall Crab remains 

Barnacle plates 

Age: Upper !Uocene; Duplin marl, prcbably the Cancellatls zone. The 

fauna is similar to those from •71, 11 and 75. 11 , 

Anomia sp. ind, 

0 sires sp. ind. Ostrea.? sp. ind, 

AsiStte sp. 

Turri tell a sp, cf, T •. eli wan enal s Tuomey and llolmes 

Caecum floti danum compsctum Dall 

Urosalpinx sp. cf. U •. tmasulus Conrad 

Oliva sp. 

Terebr{J (Sttloterebrum) di slo cats Say? 

Age: Probably upper Miocene because of the character o£ the gastropod fauna. 

Ansdara sp. ind. Anomia simp I a" D'Orbigny? 

() strea sp. in d. 
78 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTiiEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 12.-Macrofaunas from U. S •. Geological Survey Station !f'i112 (USGS test well 

G 188), r:r<:Jme R<:Jad and the Tamiami Trail, 19 miles west <:Ji Miami, Dade County-Con. 

Collection 

15112·1 

15112-m 

15112-n 

15112-o 

15112-p 

115112-q 

15112-r 

15112-~ 

Depth 

(feet) 

·86,0 

-91 

·98 

Macrofauna 

Mu/lnl a cons est a Conrad 

t'utritel/a cookeJ clarksvillenais Mansfield Cslyptraea centrslis (Cokrad) 

"Drillia" aphanltoma ox/a Dall? Ilarnade plates 

Age: Probably upper Miocene but there is not sufficient evidence to place it more accurately. 

"Pecten" sp. ind.. 

Plicatula? sp. 

Anomia simple" D'Orbigny 

0 strea sp. in d. 

Mulinla con~$sta Conrad 

Chi on" (L/ rophora) sp. Turtitella sp. cf. T. _eti wan en sis Tuomey and Holmes 

"Vennetus" s~ 1. 

Age; Probably upper Miocene but the evidence is slight, 

''Pecten.H sp. 

Ostrea sp. ind. 

Chione (Chione) sp, 

Age: Indeterminate. 

-194.7 "Pecten" sp. 

ChlBmys sp. cf. C. (Aequipecten) comparills (Tuomey and llolmes) 0 strea sp. in d. Lucinoids 

Corbu/a sp. ;'Vetmetus" s. 1. 

Barnacle plates 

Age: Indeterminate. 

·110. 9 Echinoid spine 

Nucula proxima Say 

Chlamys (Ae<pipecten) comparilis (Tuomey and Holmes) 0 strea sp. ln<L . Glans (Pleuromeris) tridentsta decemcostata Conrad 

Phacoides (Parvilucina) multilineatu« (Tuomey and Holmes) Muli ni a conQ S5tD Conrad 

Transenella. catolinensis Da:ll 

t'utritella sut..nnulata Heilprin subsp. 

Serpulorbis? sp. Nassarius bidMIIStus (Emmons)? 

Brachycythara sp. cf. lJ. turrita Mansfield 

"Drilli a" n. sp. A. 

Age: Upper Miocene, probably the Duplin matl. 

·115.2 Pectftn (Pia~ioctenium) sp. Ostrea sp. lnd. 

Ano clonti a sp. cf, A. ,chry so stoma (Meuschen) Dosinia (Dosinidia) sp. 

Chione (Chione?) sp. 

t'utriteJia sp. cf, T • .cookeJ clarksvii/MIJ;/s Mansfield Anachis? sp, cf. 15112-j Ma~lnella sp. Oarnac!e plate 

Age: Probably the Duplin marl. 

·120.3 Bryozoa 

·125 

Glycymeris pectinate (GmeUn) 11Pecten" sp. 

0 st res s.p. in d. 

Catclila (Catditamera) sp. ln<L Ceraetodetm.B sp. ind. 

Mulini a confieata Conrad? 

TurrlteJia <Jiiwanensls Tuomey and Holmes? Cal yP trea sp. Crab claw Barnacle plate 

Age; Probably upper Miocene, 

Chlamys sp, in<L 

Anoml s sp. in<L Phacoides (Belluc/na) tuomeyi Dall 

Macroca/1/sta (Patadion") t<•posta (Conrad) n. aubsp.? 

Corbula sp. Nat/ ca cantena (Llnnaeus) 

Olive// a mutica Say 

Barnacle plates 

Age: Probably upper Miocene, 
GEOLOGY 79 

Table 12.-Mscrofoonas from U. S. Geological Survey Station 15112 (USGS test well 

G 188), Krome Road and tie Tamiami Trail, 19 miles west of Miami, Dade County-Con. 

Collection 

15112-u 

15112-v 

15112-w 

Depth 

(feet) 

·130. l Echinoid 

Bryozoa 

Macrofauna 

Anadara improcera (Conrad) 

"Pecten" improcera (Conrad) Pecten (PI B~<ioctenium) op. 

Ostrea sp. ind. Anomia sp. Lucinoid 

"Cardium" sp. Mulinis conQesta CoiU'ad 

Cl10ine (Chione) sp,? Corbula sp. Turritella subennulata llellprin subsp. 

Calyptraea centrBli s (Conrad) Oliva sp. ind. 

13arna<:le plate 

Age; Probably upper Miocene. 

·136 Echinoid spines P/icstu/a sp. Anomia sp. 

Ostrea sp. Ind. Pan r;hra (Kenn erli B) Conrad 

Ctassatellites sp. Mulinia con~e11ta Conrad 

Turrltel/a sp. ind. 

13arnacle plates 

Age; Probably upper Miocene. The faunas from ·80. 21 through ·136 1 

are all meager, but most of them include fragmentary mactroi4s 

which seem to be typical Mulinia conQesla, a characteristic upper Miocene species not recorded from the Alum Bluff group nor from 

the St. Marys formation. The Turrltellas, though fragmentary, seem seem also to be referable to the groups common in the Duplin marl~ 

·149.3 Anadara improcara (Conrad) 

Glycymerls americana quincperu~ata (Tuomey and Holmes) 

Pecten (PIB~<ioctenium) llibbus (Linnaeus) subsp.? Ostrea sp. ind. Anomia sp. Astarte (Ashtarotha) bella Conrad Crassatel/ite5 sp. Ind. Clitdila (CardittJm.era) sp. ind. Phacoides (Parvlluclna) mult/1/neatus (Tuomey and Holmes) Phacoides (8e//ucina) luomeyi Dall 

D_lp/or:hnta acc/inis (CoiU'ad) 

'Trachyca"rdium sp, cf, T • .l'''ll acum Pall Mulinia con,esta Coni-ad Gou/dia mstat#riata (Conrad)? Chione (Chione) pro cancel/ala Mansfield? Chione (Lirophora) sp. 

Corbula (Caryocorbula) nuc/eata Dall? possibly a subsp. Tutti tell a molds Turrite//a cooke/ Mansfield? 

Crepidula plana Say? Murl cidea sp, near M. ,Uoridans Dall Olive// a mut/cs Say 

Mar,aine/la bella (CoiU'ad)? 

Barnacle plate 

Age: Upper Miocene, Duplin marl. The fauna is larger than any of those 

recovered from depths intennedia.te between ·76. 71 and -140. 3•. ;but there is no indication of a change in formation. Not only are species 

Species common between -71.1 1 and ·76. 71 , such as Anadara improcera (Conrad), G/ycymeris B1l1ericana quinqueru!lala (Tuomeya 

and Holmes), Astarte ( Ashtsrotha) bella Conrad, Phacoi des (Del• 

lucins) tyomeyi Dall, Mulinl a cons est a Conrad, Chione (Lirophora) 

latilirata ath/eta·conrad still persisting, but there is no indication 

of the introduction of a new fauna. 

·144.9 Anadara improcera (Conrad) 

G/ycymerls subovata (Say) 

Glycymerls americana qu/nqueru~ata (Tuomey and Holmes) 

Pecten (PIB~<Ioclenium) sp. cf. P. (P.) choctawhalcheen"/s Mansfield Plicatula sp. . 

Anomia simplex D'Orbigny 

Ostr·ea sp. ind. 

Astarte ( Ashtsrotha) be// a Conrad CBtc/i ta (Cardi tam era) sp, 

Vanericardia (Cyc/ocardia) IJtanulata Say? 

Phacoidea (Parvi/ucina) multilineatus (Tuomey and llolnies) Phacoid<l6 (Be//ucina) luomeyi Dall 

Diplodonta? sp. 
80 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 12.-Macrofaunas from U. S. Geclo~ical Survey Station 15112 (USGS test well 

G 188), !:rome Road and the Tamiami Trail, 19 miles west of Miami, Dade County-Con. 

Collection 

15112-w 

15112-x 

15112-y 

Depth 

(feet) 

·144.9 

-150.3 

-155.3 

Macrofauna 

Tellina (Moerel/a) o:ayi deadanensls Mansfield? 

Mulini a cons eats Conrad Chione (Chione) sp. 

Chione (Lirophora) / atilirata athlete Conrad Venus sp, ind. 

Panope sp. Ind. 

TetJu/ a (Oznphali11a) exc/ eta (Conrad) Turritells etiwanensis Tuomey and Holmes Turri lei/a sub8nnul at a lleilprln subsp. 

Setpulorbia? sp. 

Calyptraea centralia (Conrad) 

Crepidula plana Say Oliva sp. 

Olive/Is mutlca Say including 0. nllidu/a (Dillwyn) Olivella mutica Say 

Mar/line// a virjjiniana (Conrad) Ma~inel/a b1111/a (Conrad)? Conus sp. Ind. 

13arnacle plates 

Age: Upper Miocene, Duplin marl. The fauna is similar to that from 

-149,31 but carries more Turritellas. These Turritellas are identical with or closely resemble species common in the Duplin 

marl of northern Florida and North and South Carolina. 

Pecten (P/atJioctenium) choclawhatcheenais Mansfield? Pecten (Pia~ioctenlum) sp, cf. C. (P,) choctawhatch<><>nsls Mansfield Plica lui a? sp, ind, 

4nomi a simplex D'Orbigny? 0 sires sp. ind, 

Crass at e/1 it<>s sp. ind. 

Barnacle plates 

Age: Upper Miocene, probably the Duplin marl. 

Echinoid fragments 

Anadara improcera (Conrad) Anadata improcera (Conrad)? 

Glycymar:.s ameticsna (deFrance) 

Glycymetls peclinata (Gmelin) 

Crassine/ls lunulsta Conrad Cardits (Cardil-era) sp. ind, 

Glans (Plw.romeris) tridentala decemcoatata Conrad Phacoides (P·arvilucina) mu/lilineatua (Tuomey and Holmes) Phacoidea (Be/lucina) tuomeyl Dall Mulinia conjjesta Conrad Tran sen ell a ca.mli nen sis Dall Gouldia sp. c£. G. !lJetastriata (Conrad) 

Chione (Chione) n, sp. near C. (C.) procancellata Mansfield 

Chione (Chione) sp. Chiom• (Lirophora) sp. 

Co mula (Csryocorbu/ a) sp. cf, C. (C.) cuneata Say Auctores Te~ula (Oznphaliulil) ap. 

Setpulorbis? sp. 

Ca/yPtraea centra/is Conrad Crucibu/um multtlineatum Conrad 

Ctepidula fornicata (Linnaeus) 

Turtilel/s sp. cf. T. alumensls tJardn<>tae Ms.nsfield 

Turrite/la sp. cf, T. cookei clatlcavi/lensia Mansfield Turritells sp .. 

Natt ca canrena (Linnaeus) 

Urosa/plnx? sp. 

Cora//iophila? sp. Ana chis caznax Dall subsp.? 

Bu sycon sp. ind. 

01/va sp. 

Matginella Qravida Dal! 

Crassisplra? el<>iJans Emmons? Crab remains 

l3arnac!e plates 

Age: Upper Miocene1 Duplin marl. The launa is similar to those from 

-140.3', -144.9, and -150.31 but, in addition to many species 

common to the higher levels and to the Cance/1 at/ a zone o£ the 

Duplin marl, it includes a Turrilella ofT, Vatlabilis group, a 

species closely related to T. a/umensi s ~ardnetae Mansfield described from the Ecphota zone. Probably, however, the zonal 

separations made in north Florida can not be carried far to the 

south, Indeed, Robert 0, Vernon, of the Florida Geological Survey, was unable to trace them into Holmes and Washington Counties~ 
GEOLOGY 81 

Microfossils from this well (G 188) were studied by Lloyd G. 

Henbest and Joseph A. Cushman. Henbest, reporting in 1942 upon 

a sample from -51 to -57. 3 ft (relative to mean sea level), says; 

Amqng the Foraminifera in this sample I find the following species: 

Pcneroplis aff. P, protens D'Orbigny. Lower Miocene, Chipola (western Florida) is 

the only record so far as I know for this particular form, 

Elphidium paeysnum D'Orbigny. Miocene to Recent. 

Quinquelaculins costata? D'Orbigny. Miocene and Pliocene. 

Q. lamwckiana D'Orbigny. Oligocene to Pliocene, 

Rotslia beccarii var, tepidB Cushman. Pliocene to Pleistocene. 

Amphisorus sp.,. fragments, Very closely resembles the form called "Sorites" by 

Cushman from the Chipola. Range above the lower Miocene is unknown to me, 

R. beoarii var, parkinsoniana Cushman. Miocene to Pliocene. 

Discorbis orbicularis? Miocene to Recent, 

Cibicides americanus (Cushman), Oligocene to Miocene. The specimen at hand re- sembles the variety reported by Cushman in 1918 (U. S. Geol, Surv, Bull. 676) from 

the Duplin marl at Mayesville, South Carolina, 

Amphistegina chipolensis Cushman. Lower Miocene. 

As the stratigraphic notes after each species indicate, the sample includes Miocene 

and Pliocene forms and appears to contain mixed faunas ***If the method of determining ~he age by the oldest faun.a, which i~ used where drill cuttings are contaminated or mixed, IS followed here, the age IS lower Mwcene, Inasmuch as the evidence is not extensive 

the determination as lower Miocetle must be qualified with corresponding reservations,' 

Thus, in the same well and at the same depth, Henbest finds a 

fauna of Foraminifera that, from limited data, appears to be lower 

Miocene where Gardner finds a macrofauna of probably lower 

Pliocene age. This rather anomalo~s situation is not at all unusual 

in southern Florida. Cushman found the foraminiferal faunas so 

baffling that in many instances, including well G 188, he could not, 

with any degree of certainty, separate the Pleistocene and Pliocene 

from the Miocene. 

After detailed and painstaking study of microfauna! slides from 

various test wells in southern Florida, Cushman stated in 1942: 

"The material from well G 188 is apparently the most nearly complete and therefore has been taken as the basis for the shallower 

part of the section in all the wells, As the faunas change with increasing depth of the well, ten zones may be recognized*** The 

tops or first occurrences of the (key) species downward in the well 

are taken as the indication that the particular zone has been 

reached. The various species may have long or short vertical 

ranges, but the first occurrence is an important factor in the correlation. Gaps in the occurrence of many of the species as plotted 

are probably due to loss of specimens or failur.e to find them by 

the person picking out the material*** The relative abundance of 

certain species is often a very excellent indicator of certain zones 

but it is evident that, except in well G 188, this can be little used 

here (in southeastern Florida)*** It is also evident from a study 

of the samples that changes in ecologic conditions are definite 

factors to be reckoned with in such work. The great abundance of 

Rotstia beccarii (possible var.tepida) might indicate very shallow, 

almost brackish water, especially where accompanied as it is by 
82 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUnmASTERN FLORIDA 

other species known also to have similar preferred habits. Even 

a short distance away the constituents of this fauna might be decidedly changed. This must be allowed for in all such work with 

samples of shallow origin. • 

Despite all the. study given these samples from well G 188, 

Cushman did not feel justified in marking the boundaries between 

Miocene, Pliocene, and Pleistocene but, instead, marked off the 

10 faunal zones. As later studies showed, these zones could not 

be used successfully because they seldom could be recognized in 

other wells. 

The list of specimens, prepared by Cushman from samples of 

the formation that Gardner identified as being of Duplin age, contains species that have either, or both~Miocene and Pliocene 

ranges. This evidence, along with that of Henbest (p. 1:14-115), and 

the overwhelming evidence of the macrofossils as listed by 

Gardner (table 12), leads the writers to the conclusion that Duplin 

deposits of upper Miocene age, herein assigned to the Tamiami 

formation, are present at a relatively shallow depth in G 188, 

probably at 51 feet below mean sea level or, .at the most, at 62 

feet (pls. 8 and 9). 

Similar data, though· sometimes with the foraminiferal evidence 

stronger than the macrofauna! evidence, have been found in other 

wells of southeastern Florida. All this, together with the great 

similarity in the lithologic character of the materials in question, 

is evidence pointing to a Duplin age for some of the materials 

heretofore called Caloosahatchee marl and for a part of the sediments called Hawthorn (silty and sandy phase) in southeastern 

Florida. The deeper Miocene clays and marls that lie between the 

Tamiamiformation and the Tampa limestone belong to the Hawthorn 

formation, but it is practically impossible to separate them. For 

the study of the occurrence of ground water this is not necessary, 

because in southeastern Florida all these deeper Miocene matew 

rials are of low to very low permeability; they act as a thick, relatively impervious layer (the Floridan aquiclude, p. 188-189), 

which separates the deep, saline artesian water in the Floridan 

aquifer from the permeable Pliocene and Pleistocene rocks that 

comprise the Biscayne aquifer in southeastern Florida (p. 160 

et seq. ). 

TAMPA LIMESTONE 

The oldest Miocene formation in southeastern Florida is the 

Tampa limestone. Surficial deposits of thatformationoccur in 

west-central Florida, 40 to 50 miles west of the upper Kissimmee 

River valley, in Hillsborough, Pinellas, and Pasco Counties. In 

its outcrop area, the Tampa formation is a yellow to cream lime-
GEOLOGY 83 

stone, hard to soft, and in some places (as at Ballast Point in 

Tampa Bay) siliceous. In the outcrop area and along the Gulf 

coast it is permeable and a component of the Floridan aquifer 

(p. 188-189). 

In southeastern Florida the Tampa limestone is present in most 

areas, underlying the Hawthorn formation and overlying the 

Suwannee limestone. Parker and Hoy, and others (Parker and 

Hoy, in press; Stringfield, 1933a; Mossom, 1926) have found the 

Tampa limestone as far north as the Lake Okeechobee area but 

have not found it in the Kissimmee valley. In table 2 of their publication Parker and Hoy show correlation studies made on the 

basis of paleontologic and lithologic data from well cuttings. Cooke 

(1945, fig. 14, p.-·112) shows the probable position of the shoreline of the 'rampa (early Miocene) sea. and indicates the area of known 

Tampa deposits. All southeastern Florida except the Kissimmee 

River valley, is thus shown to contain Tampa deposits at depth. 

Much remains to be learned of the water-bearing characteristics of the Tampa limestone. It is believed that in southeastern 

Florida, as in upstate areas, the Tampa is a part of the Floridan 

aquifer, but the yield and artesian pressure are both somewhat 

lower than in the underlying Ocala limestone; the quality of the water, however, is essentially the same-hard, saline, and corrosive. 

HAWTHORN FORMATION 

Parker and Cooke (1944, p. 96-112) referred to the Hawthorn 

formation as greenish marine clay marls, and silty, shelly sands 

underlying the highly permeable limestones of the Biscayne aquifer 

(p. 160 etseq. ). The bulk of the limestones of the Biscayne aquifer 

are now considered to be of Pleistocene age and are assigned to 

the. Fort . Thompson formation. They were formerly correlated 

with the Tamiami limestone, whichMansfield (193·9) referred to 

the Pliocene. Materials of upper Miocene "lge had never been 

recognized in southern Florida, and because of the lithologic 

similarity between the Hawthorn formation in outcrop areas and 

the sediments underlying the Biscayne aquifer, and the Miocene 

appearance of the faunas, the correlation with the Hawthorn formation was made. These materials are here referred to the upper 

Miocene and to the Tamiami formation. 

Separation of the greenish clays, silts, and marls of 'the 

Tamiami formation (upper Miocene) and those of the Hawthorn 

formation (lower and middle Miocene) is impossible unless an 

adequate macrofossil collection can be gathered from each well 

penetrating the boundary. Because faunal collections are inadequate, no attempt has been made to. place the separating boundary. 

However, the fauna from several wells was studied by Julia 

Gardner and later examined by F. Stearns MacNeil, who states 
84 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

(in a personal communication): •1 agree essentially with Miss 

Gardner's determinations. The wells4 in which the middle Miocene 

appears to be penetrated are: 

G 190 Probably middle Miocene at 190 feet 

G 220 Possibly middle Miocene at 189 feet 

G 101 Probably middle Miocene at 206-220 feet 

Wells with good samples that did not penetrate the middle Miocene 

are: 

G 219 Still in upper Miocene at 180 feet (lower sample) 

G 188 Still in upper Miocene at 155 feet (lowest sample). • 

In general, the Hawthorn formation contains more clay than 

does the Tamiami formation. Both are characterized by greenish 

marine sediments: clay, silt, sand, (all more or less marly and 

phosphatic, and having a large and varied fauna); the permeability 

is generally low to very low and is controlled by the finer rather 

than by the coarser detritals. 

Quartzite and phosphate pebbles, some as much as half an inch 

in greatest diameter, are not uncommon in the Hawthorn formation and were distributed throughout a vertical range of 52 feet in 

G 223 (from 214 to 266 ft below mean sea level). In well HE 4, 

near Clewiston, the top of the zone bearing these pebbles was 

76 feet below mean sea level, and the bottom was 127 feet; thus, 

this zone had a total thickness of 51 feet. The thickness is almost 

identical in these two wells, which are 63 miles apart. Based on 

this zone, the dip in the Hawthorn formation between Lake 

Okeechobee and the Tamiami Trail is 2. 2 feet per mile. 

In southeastern Florida, the Hawthorn formation is generally 

relatively impermeable. Except in shell beds, occasional "shoestring deposits of coarser sand, and some of the limestone 

layers, water either is not available, or it is obtainable only in 

very limited quantities. Most of the available water occurs under 

low artesian pressure. In southwestern Florida, in coastal 

Collier County, some of the artesian wells of the Hawthorn formation have piezometric heads similar to those found in the Ocala 

limestone, which are as much as 25 feetabove mean sea level and 

yield as much as 150 gpm, Although the water is hard and somewhat saline, it is usable and far superior to that of the Floridan 

aquifer (see section on Quality of ground and surface waters, p. 

823, table of analysis of water for Collier County). 

TAMIAMI FORMATION 

The name Tamiami limestone was proposedbyMansfield {1939, 

p. 8) for "a limestone penetrated in digging shallow ditches to 

4

All depths referred to mean sea level. 
GEOLOGY 85 

form the road of the Tamiami Trail over a distance of about 34 

miles in Collier and Monroe Counties, Florida. " Mansfield considered that the faunas, which include 6 genera of gastropods, 15 

genera of pelecypods and 2 genera of echinoids collected mainly from spoil banks, were possibly of Pliocene age (older than 

that of the Caloosahatchee marl). Parker and Cooke (1 944, p. 62) 

traced the surficial outcreips of the non-oolitic, permeable, sandy 

limestone eastward from the type locality into western Dade 

County, where the formation gently dips eastward beneath younger 

materials (pl. 9, sec. f-f'). From this area, near the EvergladesBig Cypress Swamp border, they correlated the Tamiami limestone by subsurface data obtained from test wells, drilled by 

cabletool or jet rigs (percussion-type drills), with the highly 

permeable rocks that unconformably underlie the Miami oolite 

(of Pleistocene age) in the Miami area (see p. 94), Core borings, unavailable until 1947 and later, have since revealed thin 

(a few inches to severalfeet), fresh-water, Pleistocene, limestone 

beds intercalated with marine limestone to depths of 55 feet below 

sea level. Such limestones are unrecognizable in the comminuted 

cuttings from percussion-type drilling. Most of this section --of 

permeable rocks in the Miami area is tentatively assigned to the 

Pleistocene Fort Thompson formation, and the remainder, the 

Tamiamilimestone ofMansfield, was restricted by Parker(1951), 

and by Hoy and Schroeder (1 95 2), to the basal part of the highly 

permeable rocks below the lowest fresh-water bed, The total 

thickness of the restricted Tamiami limestone is probably less 

than 15 feet. 

Beds of hard, cream to tan, sandy limestones and calcareous 

sandstone (1 to 3 feet in thickness, which in many instances contain abundant Chione canceJlata) ov8rlie and fill d<3press ions in the 

Tamiami formation in the areas along, and adjacent to, the 

Tamiam i Trail (U. S. Route 94), One such bed, as described by 

Mansfield (1931, p. 2), overlies a sand containing shells of upper 

Miocene age. A similar cream, calcareous sandstone overlies 

the Tamiami formation unconformably in a pit 1! miles south of 

Sunniland, Collier County. Obviously, these sandstones and limestones are not a part of the Tamiami formation and are here assigned to the Anastasia formation of Pleistocene age. 

The Tamiami formation, as seen at the type locality along the 

Tamiami Trail, unfortunately is not typical of the formation as a 

whole. As here defined, the formation is composed of the thin 

Tamiami limestone of Mansfield and of a thick section underlying 

the Biscayne aquifer (consisting chiefly of greenish clay marl, 

silty, and generally very shelly sand, and calcareous marl locally 

indurated to impure limestone). The formation includes all the 

upper Miocene materials in southern Florida and has a maximum 

thickness of about 150 feet. The detritals are characterized by 

greenish colors. 
86 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

F. Stearns MacNeil reports (personal commun~cation) the accumulated macrofossil collection from two Tamiami formation 

localities as follows: 

Locality 1. Borrow pit at junction of U. S. Route- 41 and Florida 

Route 29 (Carnestown), about 4 miles north of Everglades, 

Collier County, 

Mollusc": 

Ostrea tamiamiensis Mansfield 

Ostrea Iochlini Gardner 

Pecten (Nodipecten) pittieri collierensis Mansfield 

Pecten (Plagioctengium) evergladensis Mansfield 

Modiolus sp. (large) 

Eucrassateiia sp. 

Catdita (Carditamera) cf. C. tamiamiensis Mansfield 

Chione ulocyma Oall 

Chione aff. C. cortimaria Rogers 

Echinodennata; 

Encope macrophora tamiamiensis Mansfield 

Cassidulua evergladensis Mansfield 

Locality 2. Two borrow pits west of Florida Route 29, respectively lt miles south and t mile north of Sunniland, Collier 

County. 

Mollusca;. 

Turriteiia pontoni Mansfield . . Turri tell a aff. T. ~erattenuata Heil(Jnn Cerithium n. sp. aff. C. floridanum Morch 

Calyptraea sp. Strombrrs sp. Cypraee sp. 

Busy con -mazzmum Conrad v ar.? 

Dorsanum? aff. D. plicatilum (l3ose) 

Fasciolaria sp. 

Conus adversarius Conrad 

Glycymeris sp. aff. G. subovata Say 

Glycymeris cf. G. quinquirugata Conrad 

Glycymeris sp. aff. G. Pectinatus (Gmelin) 

Area (Area) sp. 

Anadara d. A. improcera Conrad 

Anadara sp. aff. A. lienosa Say 

Anadara (Cunearca) sp. 

Cailoarca sp. 

Modiolus sp. (large) 

Plicatula aff. P. marginata Say 

Amusirm mottoni (Ravenel) 

Pecten (Pecten} ochlochomeensis violae Tucker 

Pecten (Plagioctenium) evergladensis Mansfield4 

Pecten (Plagioctenium) eboreus Conrad · · 

Pecten (Nodipecten) pittieri coiiierensis Mansfield 

Cblamys (Chlamys) cxffi!peratus (Sowerby) 

Anomia simplex d'Orbigny 

Ostrea Iochlini Gardner 

Ostr<M! disparilis Conrad 

Ostcea tamiamiensis Mansfield 

Placunanomia plicata Tuomey and Holmes (P. aclinica Tucker and Wilson) 

Cardita (Carditamera) arata Conrad · Miltha sp. (large) 

Ctltdium (Trachycardium) sp. aff. C. daiii Heilprin 

Cardium (Trachycardium) sp. aff. C. lsocardia Linne 

Dosinia so. -
GEOLCX>Y 

Chione sp. aff. C. cancellata Linne 

Chione athleta Conrad 

Chione ulocyma .Oall 

Semele sp. aff. $;-Ieana Dall 

Large tellened or semilid with Quidnipagus·like sculpture 

Cyatholdonta sp. 

Echinodermata: 

Encope m.'lcrophora temi9llliensis Mansfield 

Cassidulus ever~ladensis Mansfield 

Cirri pedia; 

_Balanus concavus Bronn 

87 

MacNeil states that:" * * * the faunas contained in the beds at 

these two localities are of upper Miocene age" and that "Ostrea 

disparilis, Chione ulocyma, and Turritclla pontoni are not only characteristic 

upper Miocene species, but they represent groups that have no 

known post-Miocene relatives, at least in this part of the world. 

The two echinoids are not known outside of the Tamiamiformation. • 

The Caloosahatchee marl, the Buckingham marl, and the 

Tamiami formation when they were all referred to the Pliocene 

were considered by Parker and Cooke (1944, p. 56-65) to be 

equivalent and to grade one into another. There is a striking 

similarity of the macrofauna of the Buckingham formation in Lee 

and Hendry Counties as described by Mansfield (1939, p. 11-12) 

to that of the Tamiamiformation in Collier County. Lithologically, 

the white, silty marl locally hardened to a soft limestone near 

Sunniland, Collier County, and the cream, clayey marl at 

Buckingham, Lee County, are nearly identical. It is concluded 

that the Buckingham marl is merely a facies of the Tamiami 

formation. 

Exposures observed during traverses along the Caloosahatchee 

River suggested a transition of Buckingham marl to Caloosahatchee 

marl. The typical shell beds of the Caloosahatchee marl with their 

characteristic Pliocene fauna were not noted at any place in contact 

with clay marls containing a characteristic Buckingham fauna; 

therefore, the exact relationship could not be established. 

The recent discovery by Parker of a key gastropod, and further 

detailed checking of the stratigraphic section in southern and 

southwestern Florida, indicates that beds formerly called the 

Buckingham marl do not grade into the Caloosahatchee marl but 

probably underlie it with a masked unconformity, The gastropod, 

Ecphora quadricostata umbilicata (Wagner), is from beds formerly known 

as the Buckingham marl, 2 feet above low tide at station 24 of 

Parker and Cooke (1944, p. 84). F. Stearns MacNeil states (personal communication) concerning this fossil: 

"Upper Miocene; The genus Ecphora is not known in beds younger than Miocene. The 

species Ecphor/1 quadricostm11 is known from the St. Marys formation to the Duplin forma· 

tion in Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina, and from the Ecphora zone of the 

346881 0-55--8 
88 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTifEASTERN FLORIDA 

Choctawhatchee formation of western Florida, As far as is known, the variety umbilicata 

has no stratigraphic significance, but merely includes those individuals with low non· 

overhanging spiral ribs, 

"I suggested [to Mr. N. D. Hoy] recently that even though the Buckingham limestone is 

older than the Caloosahatchee, it still might be younger than the Duplin formation of North 

Carolina and possibly, therefore, of "lower Pliocene" age, In view of the fossil herein reported on, I am inclined to concur in Mansfield's earlier determination of an uppermost 

Miocene age for the Buckingham- and for the equivalent Tamiami limestone," 

The permeability of the thick detrital section of the Tamiami 

formation is generally very low, but the thin, upper, solutionriddled limestone (the Tamiami limestone of Mansfield) part of 

the formation is extremely permeable. The lower and major part 

of the formation is generally very silty and clayey and comprises 

the upper part of the Floridan aquiclude (see p. 189). 

PLIOCENE SERIES 

CALOOSAHATCHEE MARL 

The Caloosahatchee marl discontinuously underlies much of the 

Everglades and the Big Cypress Swamp and , extends northward 

beneath the Pleistocene terraces of the Kissimmee River area 

(see pl. 4). Its distribution at the north end of the Kissimmee 

valley, in the Orlando area, caused Unklesbay (1944, p. 11-12) 

some concern. He was attempting to work out the stratigraphy of 

the Miocene to Recentformations in the Orlando area, but he concluded that because of the lack of data it was not possible to do so. 

He says; "A few of the wells in the County (Orange) penetrate 30 

to 40 feet of shell marl immediately under the surficial sand. This 

marl contains mollusks and foraminifera which appear to be contemporaneous with Choctawhatchee forms, but proof of this age 

relationship will require detailed examination of many well cuttings. The shell marl may represent highly fossiliferous portions 

of the Hawthorn, or it may actually be a deposit of Choctawhatchee 

time. As the shell marl has been reported in only a few wells, its 

areal extent is not known. " 

Unklesbay tentatively assigned this marl to the Hawthorn 

formation. 

From the outcrop area in the Caloosahatchee River and Lake 

Okeechobee region the Caloosahatchee marl gently dips to the 

south and southeast under the Everglades and Atlantic Coastal 

Ridge. It probably never was a thick deposit, possibly not more 

than a maximum of 50 feet, and now it is considerably thinner because of erosion and solution. In fact, in many places in southeastern Florida the Caloosahatchee marl is absent, and in others 

it appears only as isolated reefs, or as lenticular bodies preserved in depressions in the underlying Tamiamiformation (upper 

Miocene). 
GEOLOGY 89 

The Caloosahatchee marl is dominantly a grayish-green or 

greenish-gray silty, sandy, shell marl with interbedded layers 

and lenses of sand, silt, clay, and marl. In some areas of the 

Everglades it includes carbonaceous zones containing remnants 

of roots, stems, and other organic debris that suggest former 

mangrove swamps. In some places the Caloosahatchee marl is 

composed of cemented shells or sandy shell marl that has been 

changed to a sandy, shelly limestone which, by solution of percolating ground water, has been made highly permeable. 

Generally, however, the Caloosahatchee marl is of low to very 

low permeability, and often it is difficult to develop small wells 

finished with a sand point. However, wells that end in the sandy 

limestone may have a high yield when the loose sand is cleared 

from the aquifer in the area surrounding the intake portion of the 

wells. 

In some parts of the northern Everglades, south of Lake 

Okeechobee, there are shallowly buried Pliocene reefs and "shoestring• deposits of permeable sand. These ancient reefs are 

composed of calcareous sandstone or sandy shelly limestone and 

were carved out of the Caloosahatchee marl by erosion during 

early Pleistocene time. Although now overlain and hidden by 

younger and denser materials, these reefs and "shoe-string• 

sands are permeable and yield water freely to wells. 

Where the Caloosahatchee marl is more permeable, and near 

the coast, it contains hard, but potable, water; inland, around 

Lake Okeechobee and in the upper part of the Everglades, the water is hard, in places highly colored, and often it is so highly 

mineralized that it is unfit for use. These variously mineralized 

bodies of ground water near the lake are probably the result of 

Pleistocene (Ice Age) invasions of the Everglades area by the sea 

during the several interglacial ages. Partial flushings or dilution by fresh percolating ground water occurred during subsequent glacial ages, and various chemical reactions, especially 

the cation-exchange variety (Love, 1945, p, 951-955 ), took place 

with the surrounding rock materials-this action is still taking 

place, 

QUATERNARY SYSTEM 

PLEISTOCENE SERIES 

GENERAL STATEMENT 

The Pleistocene rocks of southern Florida are of particular interest because they record several oscilliations of sea level, due 

in part to continental glaciation and deglaciation during the 

Pleistocene or "Great Ice Age. • This record appears to be most 
90 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

nearly complete in the Fort Thompson formation along the upper 

Caloosahatchee River, but rocks of this epoch are widespreadin 

southern Florida. They include marine, brackish, and freshwater marls, limestones, sandstones, coquinas, and sands, as 

well as a fringing coral reef {bioherm) that grew along the southern edge of the Floridan Plateau from Miami at least as far south 

as Big Pine Key, and possibly farther. These formations have 

been most difficult to correlate, but during the ground-water 

geology investigation a working hypothesis was reached and published by Parker and Cooke {1944). 

FORT THOMPSON FORMATION 

The Fort Thompson formation takes its name from the type locality at Fort Thompson, the site of an army outpost of the Seminole Indian Wars, about 1~ miles east of La Belle on the Caloosahatchee River. The formation there is about 6 feet thick and is 

composed of alternating fresh-water, marine, and brackish-water 

marls, limestones, shell beds, and sand (see fig. 11). The beds 

differ in thickness. from place to place as the formation is traced 

out into the Lake Okeechobee-Everglades depression or westward 

toward the Gulf of Mexico, and in some places individual beds may 

be missing entirely or preserved only in solution holes or cavities 

in lower beds. lh the Lake Okeechobee area its thickness averages 

less than 10 feet, whereas in the Miami area it averages about 80 

feet, and the maximum thickness there may be about 200 feet (pl. 

8, sect. G-G'). 

The Fort Thompson formation forms the floor of the Lake 

Okeechobee-Everglades depression as far east as the Atlantic 

Coastal Ridge, where its marine beds merge with, and appear to 

be extensions of, the main mass of the Anastasia formation. This 

relationship has been well demonstrated by subsurface studies in 

the vicinity of Fort La!:.lderdale _(see fig. 10). 

The Fort T:·wmpson formation appears to have suffered little 

deformation although many small undulations in the beds are 

pr13sent. Many of these probably represent almost equal deposition over the uneven floor on which the formation lies; some, 

however, appear to be due to sp.gging where solution by percolating ground water has removed the soft calcareous· marl from 

beneath the hard limestone layers (see fig. 11). 

The Fort Thompson formation can be separated into two parts 

on the basis of its hydrologic characteristics. The northern part 

of the formation underlies the upper Everglades area, which includes northwestern Broward County; its rocks are generally of 

low permeability, and it averages less than 10 feet in thickness. 

The southern part of the formation is extremely permeable and 

forms the major part of the Biscayne aquifer (p. 160). 
z 

"' "' "' 

o.o 

•50 

~ -100 

"' 

,.: " 

w 

w 

Y.- •150 

z 

0 

;:: 

<i 

~ ·zoo- ..J 

"' 

PC 

GEOLOGY 

Qf (chiefly o thick mar1ne section 

with a few th1n fresh-water 

beds J 

-- - - -- -- =- ~-:?.. __ 

Mt EXPLANATION 

QUATERNARY 

Qo ~ Recent orqon1c 

Ql Lake Fl1rt marl 

Qp • Pomllco sond 

Qm' Miami oolite 

Qf Fort Thompson 

soils 

formation 

Qo ;: Anostosio formation 

TERTIARY 

Pc· Coloosohotchee marl 

Qo 

?-=-::: __ :._-=--:-:.:...=-:.,.....? 

?---~ .:_-~.:.. .... -? 

?---~~~~~-:.; - -- --?-

Mt 

Qo 

(entirely mornil!l 

beds) 

Mt· 

91 

Mt ~ Tom1om1 format1on 0 5 Miles 

'-------'----'-----' ··------'-

.Figure 10. -East-west cross section along North New River Canal from 20·Mile Bend to 

Fort Lauderdale. 

The southern part of the Fort Thompson formation is composed 

principally of white to cream sandy limestone, calcareous sandstone, beds and pockets of quartz sand and thin beds of dense, 

nard, fresh-water limestone, ·perforated by numerous solution 

holes, many of which are filled with younger materials. Where 

Figure 11. -Dredge-cut in Caloosahatchee River showing small undulations in Fort Thompson 

formation. 
92 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

exposed on the surface in eastern Collier County, the Fort 

Thompson formation is a grayish-white to tan calcareous 

sandstone containing an abundance of Chione- cancellats shells. It is 

riddled with solution holes commonly filled with marly soil. To 

the east and south of the outcrop area (see pl. 4), beds of the Fort 

Thompson formation slope gradually under the Miami oolite, and 

for several miles the contact of these two formations is visible in 

big pieces of rock dredged from the Tamiami Canal. Similar 

pieces of rock are visible along the banks of the South New River 

Canal (see fig. 12) where at times of extreme low water this contact can be seen along the banks west of State Route 25 in western 

Broward County. 

Figure 12. -View of contact of Miami oolite and Fort Thompson, formation, 

The southern part of the Fort Thompson formation is, in general, a wedge-shaped deposit that thickens toward the Atlantic 

Ocean. This is graphically shown in some of the following geologic 

cross sections, especially those trending in an east-west direction. 

Plate 5 is an index map showing the location of the sections, and 

plate 8, section c,..u•·, and plate 9, sections l"·P' and J·J', are most 

illustrative of this eastward thickening. 

Three strike sections, 4·A' (pl. 6), B-B' (pl. 7) and /·!' (pl. 8) 

trend in a direction generally parallel to the coast, These indicate 

that the Fort Thompson formation thickens som€'what toward the 

northeast (about 80 feet thick in the Miami area but only about 60 

feet thick near Homestead). The block diagram of the Miami area 

(fig. 13) presents a three-dimensional picture of the Fort 
Miami oolite 

Fort Thompson 

MLle-s 5 4 3 2 

Figure 13. -Block diagram of the Miami area. 
94 . WATER RFSOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Thompson and associated formations, which together comprise 

the Biscayne aquifer. 

This wedge of Pleistocene marine limestones and intercalated 

fresh-water limestones was deposited in a topographic depression, 

which was in all probability, bounded on the east by a slightly 

higher offshore bar and fringing reef composed of the Anastasia 

formation to the north of Fort Lauderdale, and the coral reefs 

and their wastage, which now comprise the Key Largo limestone 

to the south of that area. During the low sea levels of the glacial 

ages this depression was a land area having one or more large, 

shallow, fresh-water lakes in which fresh-water deposits, chiefly 

soft limy muds, were deposited. During the high sea levels of the 

interglacial ages the depression was flooded with sea water, 

and marine limestone, sand, and shells were deposited. At the 

same time, with adjustment to changed sea level, the offshore 

bars and the Key Largo reefs continued to grow. This concept of 

Pleistocene sedimentation in southeastern Florida is supported 

by the occurrence of the fresh-water limestones and by the interfingering of the Anastasia formation and the Key Largo limestone with the Fort Thompson formation along the coastal areas. 

The filling of this shallow trough and the contemporaneous development of the bars and reefs along the shore produced a unit 

of rocks underlying the lower Everglades and the coastal area of 

southeastern Florida that- now forms the major part of the highly 

permeable part of the Biscayne aquifer. This part of the aquifer 

was previously correlated with the Tamiam i formation by Parker 

and Cooke (1944), largely on the basis of lithology as interpreted 

from cable-tool drill cuttings, and partly on the basis of an inconclusive fauna of both microfossils and macrofossils. The comminuted . condition of the cuttings prevented the discernment of 

fresh-water limestones in which most of the fossils are preserved 

by casts and molds. Recent core borings, which have been reported by Hoy and Schroeder (1952), indicate that there are several beds, a few inches to a foot or more in thickness, of freshwater limestone intercalated with the very permeable, sandy, 

marine limesto,Je. Some of these fresh-water limestones come 

from depths as great as 55 feet below present sea level. They are 

probably the correlatives of the fresh-water beds in the Fort 

Thompson formation that may be seen in its outcrop area along 

the Caloosahatchee River east of La Belle and as part of the 

North New River Canal spoil banks from Lake Okeechobee to 

20-Mile Bend. 

The fresh-;water limestone beds occur in many places at or 

near the base of the highly permeable limestones and sandstones 

of the Biscayne aquifer. Only rocks containing upper Miocene 

fossils occur immediately below this boundary. This knowledge 

has been used in establishing the boundary between deposits of 
GEOLOGY 95 

Pleistocene and upper Miocene ages (see pls. 6-9), although it is 

recognized that possibly there are places where upper Miocene 

(Tamiami formation) has been included in the base of the Fort 

Thompson formation. A comparable situation exists in the Kendall 

area west of U. S. Route 1, where Pliocene materials (Caloosahatchee marl) may be included above the inferred base of the Fort 

Thompsonformation. A collection ofmacrofossilsfrom test wells 

in the interval of 50 to 90 feet below sea level in the Biscayne 

aquifer west of Kendall includes the following fossils: 

Mollusca; 

Turbo? 

Turritella cf, T. suoormulata Ileilprin 

E;>itonium sp. 

Strombus sp. (internal mold) 

Fasciolaria? sp. (internal mold) 

Ostrea frons Linne (mangr-;,ve oyster) 

Pecten ziczac Linne 

Pecten (Plagioctenium) gibbus var. cf. P. evergladensis Mansfield 

Chalmys iuscopuroureus Conrad 

Chalmys n. sp. aff. C. eboreus buckinghamensis Mansfield 

Plicatella aff. P. marginata Say 

Pseudomiltha iloridana (Conrad) 

Cardium (Fragum) medium Linne 

Chionne cancellata Linne 

Cirripedia; 

Pyrgoma sp. (a coral-boring barnacle) 

Dalanus sp. 

Echinodermata: 

Metalis cf, M. pectoralis Lamark 

Other: 

Unidentified head coral 

Bryozoa (2 genera) 

Shark teeth 

Concerning this fauna F. Stearns MacNeil (personal communication) states: "There is nothing to indicate an age older than 

Pliocene. Turritellasumnntlata Heilprin is believed to be restricted 

to the Pliocene. If any of this interval is Pleistocene, it is not 

possible to say so definitely on the basis of this material. The 

presence of reef-building corals may indicate a Pleistocene age 

for part of this interval, but we have no information that would 

eliminate Pliocene reefs." 

A fragment of an Encope was recovered between 59 and 63 feet 

below mean sea level in this same area. MacNeil further reports 

that: "It is not identifiable, but the absence of a depressed area 

between the petals and the margin suggests that it is not the upper 

Miocene species. Age - Post Miocene?" 

The paleontological data suggest that in the Kendall area (see 

cross section E-E;, pl. 8) there may be some Pliocene (Caloosahatchee marl) included in the rocks mapped as belonging to the 
96 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

lower part of the Fort Thompson formation. Scattered and relatively thin Pliocene materials may also be present elsewhere in 

sou the astern Florida. 

Stringfield (1933a) first reported on the water-bearing characteristics of the Fort Thompson formation in the Lake Okeechobee 

area. As mentioned above, this part of the formation makes a 

very poor aquifer; its limestones are dense and hard, and the intercalated calcareous mud and fine-sand layers have very low 

coefficients of permeability. The freest movement of water is in 

the sand and shell beds, but these commonly are of relatively low 

permeability because of the admixture affine sand, silt, and clay. 

The water is likely to be of poor quality because of residual mineralization from the several in vas ions of this area by the sea 

duringPleistocene interglacial ages. (Seep. 106-107, and p. 184-

185of thesectiononGroundwateroccurrence and p. 821-822of the 

section on Quality of ground and surface waters. ) Chloride ranging from 16 to 3, 150 ppm has been found in test wells in the 

Everglades. As means of comparison, the U. S. Public Health 

Service standards allow a maximum chloride concentration of 250 

ppm in public supplies for common c_arriers in interstate traffic, 

and mast people can definitely taste 400 to 500 ppm of chloride. 

The fact that some wells in the Fort Thompson formation of the 

Lake Okeechobee area supply usable water is due to their having 

been drilled in more permeable beds that have been flushed of 

their highly mineralized waters. Heavy or long-continued pumping of certain of these wells, however, fias caused mineralized 

water to be drawn in from adjacent shallow zones, and some wells 

have been abandoned. 

The Fort Thompson formation in Dade County is the major part 

of one of the most permeable aquifers (Biscayne aquifer) ever investigated by the U. S. Geological Survey, and it ranks with clean, 

well-sorted gravel in its ability to transmi.t water. (See the section 

on Ground water [Quantitative studies].) This high permeability is 

due to the solution-riddled nature of the limestone and calcareous 

sandstone. The development of the cavities is caused by the solvent activity of percolating ground water. Note in the geologic 

cross sections (pls. 6-9) the numerous cavities found during exploratory test-well drilling. Such cavities are usually partly filled, 

and sometines are entirely filled, with quartz sand. The sand is 

of two origins: (1) Residual, left behind when the calcareous materials are removed by solution of either sandy limestone or calcareous sandstone, and (2) introduced from above through connecting vertical cavities. The presence of sand in the cavities 

diminishes the permeability of the formation. 

Numerous cores were taken during late phases of the test-well 

drilling program. ThesP. help greatly in visualizing the reason for 

the extremely high permeability of calcareous rocks of southeastern Florida. Photographs of a few of these cores are reproduced 
Figure 14. --cores from test wells in Dade County. Numbers 1-3 are from the Miami oolite; numbers 4-7 are from the Fort Thompson formation. 
Figure 15. -cores from test wellS 394 at Delray Beach. 
GEOLOGY 99 

in figures 14 and 15. In figure 14, core Nos. 4 to 7 are from the 

Fort Thompson formation in Dade County and were selected as 

being typical of the formation; they were not selected to illustrate 

extreme or special conditions. Core Nos. 4 and 5 are mediumhard sandy limestone. Each core shows, by a ragged and irregular outline, that it was cut through a part of the formation containing relatively large solution holes. No. 6 is a dense, hard, 

once fossiliferous limy sandstone from which fossil shells have 

been removed by solution, thus leaving numerous small cavities. 

No. 7 is taken from a part of the formation that shows some evidence of bedding planes, and it is along the softer of these planes 

that solution has been most active. The dark color of the solution 

channels of this core is caused by a deposit of iron oxide. Core 

Nos. 1 to 3 are from the Miami oolite and will be discussed later. 

Without exception, all of the cores in figure 15 are from the 

Biscayne aquifer at Delray Beach, in Palm Beach County, which 

is very near the northernmost extent of the aquifer. The cores 

are chiefly sandy limestone and calcareous sandstone of the 

Anastasia formation and show by the alinement of solution channels evidence of the solvent activity of percolating ground wate;r 

moving principally in one direction. Although no means of obtaining oriented cores were available, it is believed that the solution channels developed principally in a west-east direction, becauseground-watP\' movement is now, and probably always has 

been, directPd r ,.dnly toward the Atlantic Ocean on the east. 

As in Dade County, the Fort Thompson forma.tion in coastal 

Broward and Palm Beach Counties is highly permeable, and 

where thick enough, it yields large quantities of water with very 

little lowering of the water level. 

KEY LAJ:lGO LIMESTONE 

The Florida Keys, from Soldier Key, off Miami, to and including Bahia Honda, are parts of a dead coral reef. This reef is 

about 90 miles long, has a maximum width at sea level of about 3 

miles, and is known to be at least 60 feet thick; its base, however, is much wider and possibly much longer. 

The Key Largo limestone interfingers in some places with the 

Miami oolite, and in the Silver Bluff area of Miami it underlies 

the oolite. It is partly contemporaneous with the oolite, but its 

lower portion is older and interfingers with the Fort Thompson 

formation. 

This latter relationship is shown by the occurrence of coralline 

limestone as deep as 48 feet below sea level in well G 189 (see 

pl. 9), and byfragments ofsimilarmarinelimestone in the cuttings 

from wells G 101 and G 224 as deep as 55 feet below mean sea level. 
100 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN Fl.ORlDA 

Rec.ent core boring in the Kendall area, west of U. S. Route 1, 

contained similar limestone {largely reef detrital materials). 

F. S. MacNeil examined a length of core from about 39 feet below 

mean sea level that contained a bed of fresh-water limestone. 

MacNeil states: "The marine limestone with which the freshwater limestone is interbedded is highly coralline and contains 

Chione cancellata and some other unidentifiable mollusks. Chione 

cancellata occurs in both the Pliocene and Pleistocene, but the 

semi-crystalline, coralline nature of this rock does not suggest 

any Pliocene deposits with which I am familiar. I am inclined to 

believe that Hoy's assignment (Hoy and Schroeder, 1951)ofit 

(limestone of the Fort Thompson formation formerly referred to 

the Tamiami formation) to the Pleistocene is correct. The similarity of it to the Key Largo limestone suggests the presence of 

one or several tongues of the formation. • 

The Key Largo limestone contains a large amount of coral, and 

the spaces between and around the coral heads are filled with 

amorphous limestone or detritus from wastage of the reef. Much 

limestone breccia is present on the surface of the Keys and is incorporated within former caverns or crevices of the reef. The 

breccia on the surface is of the same origin as that described on 

page 102. 

On the Florida Keys fresh-water supplies from the Key Largo 

limestone cannot be obtained except in extremely limited quantities 

from just above sea level. The formation is so open and permeable that· fresh water readily escapes laterally to the sea, and 

ocean water finds access to the interstices, caverns, and crevices 

of the rock just as easily. Substantial Ghyben-Herzerg lenses (see 

section on salt-water encroachment, p, 591-593) of fresh water 

do not occur in these keys. Wells in the Key Largo limestone of 

the Florida Keys yield unlimited quantities of salty water with 

practically no measurable drawdown, but this water is used only 

for fire -fighting or flushing purposes. 

ANASTASIA FORMATION 

On the eastern coast of southern Florida the Anastasia formation comprises the backbone of the Atlantic Coastal Ridge north of 

Boca Raton, and extends westward into the Lake OkeechobeeEverglades depression, where it forms . the marine members of 

the Fort Thompson formation. Near Boca Raton the upper part of 

the Anastasiaformation grades into the Miami oolite, which forms 

the southern portion of the Atlantic Coastal Ridge. (See Miami 

oolite, below.) 

The Anastasia formation may exceed 100 feet in thickness and 

is composed chiefly of sandy limestone, calcareous, sandstone, 

sand, shells, and coquina. It, ~.ike the Miami oolite, is wedge-
GEOLOOY 101 

shaped, thick toward the coast and thin toward the interior. Like 

the oolite, it was formed in a marine environment largely as an 

offshore bar during times when the Lake Okeechobee-Everglades 

depression was a wide marine shoal. Many, if not most, of the 

materials composing these two formations were deposited under 

water, but at times, and in places, low dunes of calcareous, sandy, 

and shelly materials were heaped on the surface of the bar above 

high-tide level. There are many exposures of both the marine 

and aeolian types of deposits. 

One of the thickest outcrops of the Anastasia formation is in a 

road cut in Palm Beach at the south end of the Palm Beach golf 

course, one block north of Ridgeview Avenue, where 18 feet is exposed (see fig. 16). Here, an unconformity exists within the Anastasia, separating sediments of two different ages in Pleistocene 

time. 

Figure 16. -Anastasia formation in road cut at south side of West Palm Beach.golf course. 

It is possible that the Anastasia formation cont<J.ins deposits 

laid down during most, if not all, of the Pleistocene interglacial 

ages. Subsurface studies indicate that each of the several marine 

beds of the Fort Thompson formation, which are possibly representative of the high sea levels of Pleistocene time (Parker and 

Cooke, 1944, p. 20, 73-74, 89-90), is an extension of the main 

mass of the Anastasia formation. 

Throughout most of its distribution in southern Florida the 

Anastasia formation yields potable water to wells and may be 

considered a fair to good aquifer. In the consolidated portions of 

the formaHon, open-hole (uns•eened) wells of exceedingly high 
102 WATER RESOURCES IN SOU1HEASTERN FLORIDA 

yield and low drawdown may be developed. In the sandier portions, wells must be finished with screens, well points, or gravel 

packs. The yield varies with the lithologic character and can be 

ascertained locally only by construction of wells. 

In those zones within the Anastasia formation that contain old 

mangrove-swamp or salt-marsh deposits, there is usually so 

much fine sand, silt, and clay along with black silty muck and 

organic remains that the yield is very low and the quality of the 

water is poor. The Anastasia formation along the coast, from 

southern Palm Beach County to central St. Lucie County, has a 

considerable amount of these old swamp deposits. To date, not 

enough exploration has been done to map their boundaries,. either 

areally or·vertically. 

MIAMI OOLITE 

From a transition zone near Boca Raton, the Miami oolite 

underlies the Atlantic Coastal Ridge south to, and beyond, Florida 

City; it floors the Bay of Florida and reappears above water level 

in the lower Florida Keys from Big Pine Key to Key West. It is 

thickest along the coast, possibly reaching a maximum thickness 

of 40 feet, but its base seldom is lower than 20 feet below sea 

level. Inland from the ocean the oolite thins out, and on the 

eastern margin of the Big Cypress Swamp it finally disappears 

entirely. (See geologic map, pl. 4, ) 

The Miami oolite makes visible contact with the underlying 

Fort Thompson formation along .some of the Everglades canals, 

as evidenced by rocks in the spoil banks (figs. 11, 12) and in the 

canal walls, The contact is often on a clean, solution-riddled 

surface of calcareous sandstone, but in many places a limestone 

breccia or conglomerate separates the two formations. At first 

glance this breccia appears to be the result of erosion with later 

sedimentation and consolidation. Closer examination, however, 

shows it to be the product of differential chemical deposition of 

water-borne minerals (principally iron oxide and silica) in the 

limestone. These secondary minerals penetrate the original limestone irregularly, often producing angular boundaries within the 

matrix. Later, solvent action may remove the softer matrix 

between these harder mineralized areas and leave a rough, irregular surface similar to breccia. Proof that this interpretation is 

correct is shown by numerous examples of fossils, or original 

structures, in the limestone that are traceable across boundaries 

between the angular, hard "fragments• and the matrix. 

The oolite is crossbedded to massive, white to yellow, and often 

contains considerable fine to medium quartz sand that fills solution 

holes and channels. These solution holes occupy so much of the 

• 
GEOLOGY 103 

total volume of the oolite (figs. 14, 26) that they give it an exceedingly high permeability in a vertical direction. The horizontal permeability, however, is considerably lower. 

In some places along the western shore of Biscayne Bay, as at 

SW. 13th Street and First Avenue and in the adjacent Florida East 

Coast Railway cut, large angular blocks and rounded cobbles of 

oolite, as much as 2 feet long, are embedded in both structureless and crossbedded oolite and lie on old erosion planes (see 

fig. 17). These erosion planes were formed by wave planation, and 

Figure 17. -Details in the Miami oolite, Dade County. 

the cobbles are part of the beach shingle that washed back and 

forth with the tides and waves, aiding the erosion of the previously 

formed oolite deposit. 

There are a. number of such erosion planes in the oolite at this 

locality and elsewhere in southern Florida, some of which are 

overlain by a coquina composed mainly of immature forms of 

shore.- or near-shore-dwelling marine pelecypods and gastropods. 

Commonest among these are Don~ vanabilis, Chione cMcellata, Crassat~llites 

sp., VeiJUS morcenaria, Corbula sp,, FasciolBTa sp., Ceritbiu" 'sp., Potamidw gp., Cardium 

.sp., and others. 

The evidence at this locality indicates interrupted deposition of 

oolite by changing levels of the· sea, At times, these changes 

brought about conditions favorable for the d~velopment of a 

shallow-water, near-shore- marine fauna; at other times, beachshingle development occurred and a wave-planed bench was developed in the older part of the deposit; at still other times, dunetype and marine-bar deposits of cross bedded oolite were laid down . 

. 346881 0-55--9 
104 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

These changing· levels all may have occurred witli.in one interglacial age, bur they also may have occurred during.other interglacial ages at times when sea level was at the proper elevation. 

It is likely that conditions that were responsible for development 

of the oolite at any one time (as during the Sangamon interglacial 

age) could have been duplicated again and again during the Ple istocene as the sea. level slowly rose and fell, ranging through the 

altitude at which the oolite is now found; therefore, the problem 

of dating the oolite is considerably complicated. 

The writers are inclined to believe that the Miami oolite, like 

the Anastasia, Fort Thompson, and Key Largo, formations, may 

not be entirely the product of one interglacial age, though most of 

its development may have so occurred. 

Core Nos. 1, 2, and 3, of figure 14, were taken from the Miami 

oolite. Core No. 1 is typical of the crossbedded rock where, for 

one reason or another, solution by percolating acidic ground water 

has had little effect. The alternating slanting layers are of hard 

crystalline limes tone containing ool iths, and of soft · . .mconsolidated oolitic sand. The origin of these alternating hard and soft 

layers, ordinarily developed in crossbedded structure, is not 

understood. The layers occur both in deposits that appear to be 

of marine origin (shallow, offshore bar, as judged by the enclosed 

fossil assemblage) and in those of aeolian (dune) origin. 

Core Nos. 2 and 3 are from a part of the formation where solution has been very active and where a large percentage of the 

original rock material has been leached away, thus altering both 

the appearance and the water-bearing properties of the oolite. 

This solvent activity is not confined to the. production of small 

cavities as shown in the cores; instead, it often produces underground cavities of considerable size and extent. Biggest of the 

solution channels found in the Miami area is in well G 189, in the 

Silver Bluff area of Miami (see pl. 9 section F~F' ), where a vertical cavity 11 feet deep was measured. The length, width, and continuity of these solution channels are not known; however, some 

probably are of considerable extent and are the cause of foundation 

failures of many structures-including buildings, houses, roadways, dams, and airplane runways. In certain areas of Miami, 

for example near SW. 12th Avenue and the Tamiami Trail, apparently solid foundations have been known to give way beneath bu!.ldings. The area is one of very active underground solution and 

erosion. In such a place, after rainstorms,· water may be heard 

trickling underground, and rain water vanishes quickly into the 

underground channels, sometimes carrying away cubic yards of 

soil and other surface materials. 

Water supplies are often developed in the Miami oolite either 

by driving an "open-hole• well into the limestone, or by driving 
GEOLOGY 105 

casing equipped with a well point into the sandier portions. Such 

a screened well driven into the soft limy oolite itself soon becomes clogged, and open-hole wells developed in it often produce 

impractical yields. However, in most instances, high yields of 

water are obtained by driving or drilling through the oolite into 

the underlying Fort Thompson formation. 

HIGH TERRACE DEPOSITS (PENHOLOWAY AND TALBOT FORMATIONS) 

Cooke (1945, p. 286), in describing the character of· the Penholoway terrace deposits, says: "~he Penholoway formation is 

supposed to consist chiefly of sand, but little is really known 

about its actual composition. The muck and peat associated with 

the many lakes and swamps on it do not logically form part of the 

Penholoway but are younger. The formation may, however, include considerable bodies of salt-marsh ;le.posits, for some of it 

accumulated in lagoons nearly . surrounded by islands, where 

marshes might be expected to prevail. • In his description of the 

Talbotformation, Cooke (1945, p. 292) remarks: "Little is known 

about the detailed composition of the Talbot formation, Presumably it consists chiefly of fine sand except in former estuaries, 

where clay or silt may prevaiL It probably exceeds 20 feet in 

thickness only in northwestern Florida, where there was an abundant supply of sand. • 

In the geologic map accompanying his report, Cooke (1945) does 

not attempt to map these two "formations• in Florida; instead, he 

groups them, with deposits of several other -Pleistocene terraces, 

under the heading "Late Pleistocene deposits. • This seems to be 

a more practical thing to do, because in the field it is impossible 

to separate these high marine terrace deposits except on the basis 

of the altitude of their respective shorelines. Parker and Hays 

(in press), working 1fith these sands of the Kissimmee River-Lake 

Okeechobee area in\1943-1944, discovered the futility of attempting to separate these higher terrace deposits and stated: "Since 

these terrace sands are all so similar it is believed best to group 

them together under one heading and consider them as one formation, realizing, however, that several interglacial ages are 

represented. " 

Generally, the sands are white to gray at the surface and grade 

into tan, orange, and red below. In some places enough organic 

materials are admixed to make a mucky sand, and in other places 

enough iron oxide (limonite) is deposited around the sand grains 

to form a scabby ferric sandstone. 

Although diligent search has been made in terrace deposits of 

southern Florida that lie at altitudes higher than the Pamlico ter5 Parker, Garald G. and Hoy, N. D., Geology and ground water of the Kissim.,.;ee River-Lake 

Okeechobee area, Florida: Florida Soil Sci, Soc. Proc., 7-A, (now with publisher). 
106 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTiiEASTERN FLORIDA 

race (see p, 140-145), no fossils ever have been 'found, The 

sand grains are quartz, sharp to subrounded, generally nonfrosted, very fine to coarse in size but averaging less than 

medium, and have the usual characteristics of marine (not aeolian) sand. If fossils ever were present in these higher ter-

:r:ace deposits-and it seems likely that they were-it is probable that they were leached out by percolating acidic ground 

water (pH values as low as 6 are not uncommon in these siliceous 

materials today). 

In some places, notably the northern end of the Kissimmee 

River watershed, the terrace deposits contain varying amounts of 

silt and clay. This reduces the permeability and in some areas 

makes it difficult to develop shallow wells, Generally, however, 

small-diam~;ter wells finished with a sand point driven deep 

enough to be considerably below dry-season low levels of the water table will furnish potable water for domestic use throughout 

the year. Batteries of such shallow wells will yield water for 

public supply systems of small communities-Indian Town, Martin 

County, is a good example, although the Indian Town wells are developed in a semiconsolidated permeable sandstone and thus require no screens. 

The permeability of these terrace sands has not been intensively 

investigated. Permeameter tests made in the southern part of the 

Kissimmee River watershed indicate that coefficients of permeability (P) ranging from 800 to 10 are about average (see footnote, 

p. 107), Some of the better-sorted sands, however, may exceed 

the average high value (800) by 3 or 4 times. (See p. 236-237 of 

section on Ground water [Quantitative studies] for the definition of 

coefficient of permeability. ) 

PAMLICO SANO 

The Pamlico sand is composed chiefly of gray-white to black 

or brown carbonaceous quartz sand locally consolidated to sandstone, and in many places it is highly fossiliferous. It mantles 

the underlying rocks of southern Florida along the Atlantic Coastal 

Ridge and along the Gulf coast to about the latitude of Miami. It 

does not extend far out into the Lake Okeechobee-Everglades depression and seldom is found higher than 25 feet above present sea 

level, the altitude of the Pamlico seashore (Cooke, 1930, p. 389-

395). Locally, however, Pamlico sand is heaped into beach ridge 

and dune deposits at altitudes higher than 25 feet, Pine Island (a 

dune deposit on the edge of the Everglades southwest of Fort 

Lauderdale) and Marco Island (northernmost of the Ten Thousan(jl 

Islands on the Gulf coast) are examples of high dune deposits of 

Pamlico sand in southern Florida. 
GEOLOGY 107 

The Pamlico sand is generally of medium to low permeability. 

Where the sand is clean and well sorted the coefficient of permeability is high; usually, however, the sorting is poor, and the 

interstices between larger sand grains are filled either with finer 

grains, or with silt and organic materials inte.rmixed with the 

sand, thus reducing permeability. A striking example of the effect 

oflow permeability on ground-water flow is shown by studies made 

in the Lake Okeechobee area. 

It had long been a local belief that a considerable amount of water in Lake Okeechobee and the Everglades is derived from 

ground-water seepage from geologic formations underlying the 

Kissimmee River watershed. However, Wallace (Cross, Love, 

Parker, and Wallace, 1940) came to the tentative conclusion, as a 

result of ·a brief study of Lake Okeechobee, that there could be no 

substantial gain or loss by the lake through underground flow. 

Furthermore, detailed studies in 1942 and 1943 (Parker and Hoy, 

in press) in cooperation with the Soil Conservation Service bear 

out Wallace's conclusions. 6 

The majority of wells develop"!d in the Pamlico sand are smalldiameter driven wells equipped with well points. In some places 

relativelylarge supplies are made available by driving numerous 

wells of this kind as part of a single water-supply system. 

LATE PLEISTOCENE AND RECENT DEPOSITS 

LAKE FLIRT MARL 

The Lake Flirt marl, principally a light-gray, fresh-water, 

calcareous mud deposit, has its thickest and most typical development in the basin of now-drained Lake Flirt, between old 

Fort Thompson and Coffee Mill Hammock on the Caloosahatchee 

River east of La Belle. There, the formation ranges in thickness 

from a feather edge to 6 feet. The formation was first namedand 

described by Sellards (1919, p. 73-74) who thoughttha,tit "may be 

quite recent in age. • Sellards did not describe it as occurring 

6The U. S. Geological Survey-Soil Conservation Service studies were designed to check on 

Wallace's conclusions. Fourteen test wells were sunk in the area of investigation and valuable 

geologic and hydrologic data were obtained. Coefficients of permeability ranging from about 

800 to 10 were common. These were not field coefficients established by pumping tests; instead, 

they were made with a perrneameter on typical samples of the sandy materials. 

The nonconsolidated terrace sand borders Lake Okeechobee on the east, west, andnorthfor a 

total shoreline distance of about 60 miles. Assuming that the coefficient of permeability of the 

sand bordering Lake Okeechobee is 800 (a generous figure), that the length of the permeable 

section contributing ground-waterflow around the lake is 60 miles (measuredfrom a point about 

6 miles south of Lakeport on the west shore to a point about opposite Lakeport un the east shore), 

that the average saturated thickness of the permeable sand is 10 feet (based ontest-welldata), 

and that the slope of the water table is 1, S feet to the mile (about equivalent to land-surface 

slope to the northwest as measured along Indian Prairie Canal), the amount of ground water 

seeping into Lake Okeechobee was computed by Parker to be about 720, 000 gpd or 1.1 ds per 

day, This is equivalent tp about 730 acre-feet per year-arelativelynegligibleamount-and 

bears out Wallace's conclusions. 
108 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

outside the Lake Flirt basin, which is about 8 miles long. The 

formation is widely distributed in the Everglades, however, and 

usually lies in direct contact with the surficial rocks of the underlying Fort Thompson formation; it fills and rather effectively seals 

the solution holes of these rocks. 

Over large areas of southern Florida, particularly in the lower 

Everglades and in the coastal marshes, deposits of this light-gray 

calcareous mud, rich in the remains of fresh-water gastropod 

shells (principally ?Ianobis and Ameria ), are present; their thickness 

ranges from a feather edge to several feet. These marl deposits, 

valuable as agricultural lands where more than 2 feet thick, are 

here classed as part of the Lake Flirt marl. 

Generally, in its occurrence in the Everglades, the Lake Flirt 

marl lies between the organic soils and the rock floor, but layers 

of it often are intercalated with layers of organic material, peat 

or muck. These marl layers pinch out or grade into the organic 

layers both horizontally and vertically, thus indicating an origin 

closely related to the deposition of the peat and muck (see fig. 18). 

Figure 18. -Lake Flirt marl. 

The Lake Flirt marl is relatively impermeable and acts as a 

seal that prevents movement of water through it to underlying 

more permeable rock. Where present in thicknesses of a foot or 

. more, it is an important aid in controlling water levels, especially 
GEOLOGY 109 

above the highly perm -:able parts of the Fort Thompson formation 

and the Miami oolite. · 

ORGANIC SOILS 

The peats and mucks of the Everglades range in thickness from 

a feather edge around the borders and in the south to 8 or 10 feet 

in the north near Lake Okeechobee. 

These organic deposits were formed since the last high-level 

sea of the Climatic Optimum (see p. 124-125) in marshy areas 

where large amounts of vegetative matter were annually growing; 

dying, and sinking below the water surface. Under such conditions 

the organic material did not decay and dissipate but underwent 

change slowly. Where little or no inorganic matter was incorporated into the deposit, it became a pe.at; where considerable 

amounts of mineral matter were deposited with the organic materials, it became a muck. In the Everglades all types .are foundfrom purely aquatic and semiaquatic peats to highly .inorganic. 

mucks. 

In order to determine the age of the peat deposits, three samples 

from the upper Everglades were checked by the Carbon 14 method 

by J. L. Culp, of Lamont Laboratories, with results given in the 

following table: 

Survey Lamont Description Age 

No. No. (years) 

WR 3-4a 141-A 

Peat, south pasture line of Everglades Exp. Sta. , 2f miles 

southeast of Belle Glade, Fla. Depth, 5. 5 to 6. 0 ft 4900 t 200 

below land surface. Peaty muck. 

WR 3-4b 141-B Peat, as above area, but north line. Fibrous peat. 3800 t 200 

WR 2-7 141-C Peat 10 miles south of Lake Okeechobee, Fla. 5, o to 5050 t 200 5. 5 ft below land surface, 

In the past, under normal conditions, these organic materials 

we:-e accumulating slowly and building up the body of Everglades 

soils. At present, with the drainage canals in operation (since· 

about 1909), the organic soils are being lost rapidly. This dissipation takes place principally because of drainage that allows 

fires, natural oxidation, shrinkage, and compaction. As a result 

of compaction, "subsidence valleys• (Evans and Allison, 1942, 

p; 38) have developed along all major Everglades drainage canals. 

The organic soils of the Everglades have a comparatively low 

coefficient of permeability. Water moves through them very 

slowly under the low gradients existing there. In a test pit 5 feet 

square and 3 feet deep, with the water table standing only about 1 

foot bela~ land surface, the ground water seeped in so slowly that 

the pit could be emptied by slow bailing with a pint can, 
110 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

LATERITE OF THE REDLANDS DISTRICT 

Harper (1927, p. 57-58) was the first to mention these clayey 

soils, apparently residually derived from weathering of the Miami 

oolite. The soil is reddish, contains only a minor amount of quartz 

sand, and usually fills solution holes and crevices in the oolite 

(see fig. 19). It is mostcommon on thatpart ofthe Atlantic Coastal 

Ridge near Homestead, in southern Dade County, but it occurs at 

least as far north as the Miami River. Harper tentatively classified 

the deposit as a laterite, an interpretation with which the present 

writers concur. 

Figute 19. -Miami oolite in cut at Florida Power and Light Company's Cutler plant. 

The laterite is not a continuous bedded deposit, nor does it have 

a wide areal extent; it probably has little effect on ground water, 

inasmuch as there is an ample amount of bare limestone surface 

through which rainwater can readily percolate to the water table 

below. Agriculturally, it is valuable and is used especially for the 

growing of citrus fruits, avocados, mangoes, papayas, and .other 

subtropical fruits. 

BEACH SAND 

Recent sand is confined almost solely to the modern beaches, 

although in some instances hurricane tides have deposited present-
GEOLOGY 111 

day beach and shallow ocean or bay-bottom sand inland beyond 

the beache.s. 

Recent sand in southeastern Florida is generally tan to brown 

and is composed principally of· shell particles, possibly derived 

largely from reworking of coquina deposits (Anastasia formation) 

near Boca Raton, Jupiter, and elsewhere along the P.resent shore 

to the north. Generally, the farther south in Florida that beach 

sands are traced the calcareous content is greater and the silica 

content is smaller. Beach 'sand varies in mechanical and chemical 

character from time to time and from place to place. There is 

relatively little quartz sand at or south of Miami Beach; and Cape 

Florida, on Key Biscayne, marks the southern terminus of migrating quartz sand in notable quantities. 

Considerable sand is present along the beaches of the Florida 

Keys, but it is almost entirely calcareous; in many instances it is 

composed of 75 percent or more of foraminiferal tests. Only 

minor amounts of true coral sand have been noted on the Florida 

Keys, though the term is commonly used by local residents in 

speaking of foraminiferal and shell-fragment sand deposits. 

LATE CENOZOIC HISTORY 

GENERAL STATEMENT 

In southern Florida only relatively young rocks are penetrated 

in the drilling of the deepest water wells, and the oldest of these 

rocks does not antedate the Eocene, which was deposited possibly 

50 to 60 million years ago. A minor number of wells reach into 

the Miocene rocks, some into the Pliocene, but most are developed in the ·Pleistocene formations. 

The following table gives the approximate dates that have been 

derived from the epoches of the Cenozoic era (National Research 

Council, 1949-1950), 

Table 13.-Cenozoic time correlations 

Duration Time since beginning 

Era Period Epoch in millions of each epoch in 

of years. millions of years 

Recent 0,01 o. 01 

Quaternary 

Pleistocene 1 1 

Pliocene 11 12 

Cenozoic Miocene 16 28 

Tertiary Oligocene 12 40 

Eocene and 

Paleocene 20 60 
112 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

111E PLEISTOCENE OR "GREAT ICE AGE'' 

At the close of the Pliocene epoch a marked change took place 

in the earth's climate-a change that brought about the development 

of great systems of continental and alpine glaciers. The continental 

glacial sheets covered about one-third of the land area in the northern hemisphere and a somewhat smaller area in the southern 

hemisphere. The North American glacial sheets, including the 

Cordilleran complex, reached from Labrador to Alaska and pushed 

down from Canada until they covered the part of the northern 

United States that extends south to an irregular Jine stretching, 

roughly, from Long Island, N. Y., through Cairo, Ill. , to the 

southern tip of Puget Sound in western Washington. The Scandinavian sheet extended across the BaltiC Sea into the plains of 

northern Germany and western Russia and covered all of Holland 

and Belgium and most of the British Isles-an area about half as 

great as the glaciated region in North America. The extent of the 

glaciation in the southern hemisphere is not yet well known; at 

least it covered Patagonia and parts of Australia and New Zealand. 

In addition to the continental ice sheets, extensive and welldeveloped alpine glacial systems existed. Valley glaciers often 

extended far beyond the termini of modern glaciers and even 

spread beyond the foothills to coalesce into piedmont glaciers, 

often of considerable extent. 

The continental ice sheets were tremendously thick. Schuchert 

and Dunbar (1933, p. 422) estimate the North American sheet to 

have been "at least 5, 000 or 6, 000 feet thick at the center of dispersal and it may have been as much as 10, 000 feet. It has been 

found (Wegener, 193 3) that the Greenland ice sheet reaches a 

thickness of 8, 800 feet near its center in latitude 72° north, and 

averages over 4, 500 feet thick over a large area." The North 

American glacial sheets stripped a large part of Canada to bedrock, and deposited much of Canada's surficial materials as rich 

soil in north-central United States. 

The Pleistocene epoch, however, was not a time of continuous 

glaciation; rather, it was a time of alternate glaciation and deglaciation as the climate repeatedly changed from ccld to warm. 

The times of glaciation are called glacial ages, and the times of 

deglaciation are called interglacial ages. The last major change 

in climate that brought about withdrawal of the major continental 

ice sheets marks the beginning of the Recent epoch. However, as 

a matter of fact, it is probable that our Recent epoch should not 

be ranked in this manner; instead, it should be regarded as another 

of the interglacial ages of the Pleistocene, even though large 

masses of ice on a continental scale {such as the Greenland sheet 

and the Antarctic sheet) still exist. Lobeck (1939, p. 299) has 

reckoned the extent of these sheets as totaling approximately 

6, 000, 000 square miles, and he has stated that enough water is 

stored in this ice to raise the sea level about 150 feet if it were to 
GEOLOGY 113 

be released to the ocean. Although all geologists do not agree on 

this figure, it is generally conceded that the amount is significant. 

Longwell, Knopf, and Flint (1932, p. 153) conservatively estimate 

that "the complete wastage of the polar ice sheets existing today 

would return enough water to the sea to raise its level about 

80 feet. , , , " 

The causes for the waxing and waning of the great ice sheets 

are not definitely known, but the existence of the several great 

glacial sheets cannot be doubted. Their distribution of rocks 

foreign to the regions where they are now found, their terminal 

and ground moraines, their gouging of deep lake basins, their rearrangement of stream patterns, and many other evidences are 

excellent proof of their existence. Furthermore, their effect on 

the life of man today, through control of topography, soil types, 

ground water, surface water, and certain mineral deposits, is of 

utmost importance. Their influence extended far beyond the confines of the glacial sheets themselves; even tropical areas of the 

world were influenced, principally as a result of glacial control of 

sea level. Daly (1934, p. 271) has pointed out that the occurrence 

of many coral re~fs may thus be accounted for. 

GENERAL EFFECT OF GLACIAL CONTROL OF SEA LEVEL 

The sea level fell during times of glaciation because of the huge 

draft on the ocean waters needed to produce the massive continental glaciers; it rose again as the glaciers retreated during the 

warm interglacial stages and the water formerly stored on the 

land as ice returned to the sea. This fall and rise occurred several times with worldwide effects. 

With each succeeding glacial age the ice front in North America 

did not advance as far to the south as it had previously; also, with 

each succeeding interglacial age the high-water mark of the ocean 

was lower. Whether the difference of ocean level in each succeeding interglacial age is due to successive enlargements in the capacity of the oceanic basins brought about by crustal movements 

in some distant parts of the earth, or whether it is due to more ice 

remaining locked on land during each subsequent interglacial age, 

or both, is not known. However, the changing ocean levels resulted in the formation of shorelines with their characteristic 

features wherever the ocean halted long enough for their 

development. 

Some of these ancient shorelines are now beneath the surface of 

the ocean, and therefore they are very difficult to recognize; in 

some places, however, they have been detected and mapped (Cooke, 

1939, p. 33-58; Stearns and Macdonald, 1942, p. 54-55, lr53-154; 

Veatch and Smith, 1939; Upson, J., E., 1951 ) .. Where the shorelines lie above present ocean level they often may be located by 
114 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUnn:ASTERN FLORIDA 

those familiar with shorelines and shoreline processes despite 

subsequent modification by weathering, erosion, and solution. 

Eight such shorelines along the Atlantic seaboard alone have been 

described (Cooke, 1931, p. 503-515; Parker and Cooke, 1944, p. 

21-27); and in Hawaii and the South Pacific, Stearns (Stearns and 

Macdonald, 1942, p. 54), has detected four corresponding ones and 

six others that are not apparent in southeastern United States. In 

Cuba, Meinzer (1933, p. 256-258) noted and described the occurrence of seven Pleistocene marine terraces, of which the one 

whose shoreline is about 40 feet above present sea level is the 

"most persistent and best-preserved throughout the region. • 

Meinzer noted that •the terraces consist largely of benches cut 

into the older rocks and are mantled with soft; massive, cora! 

limestone 

As long ago as 1913 Matson (Matson and Sanford, 1913, p. 31-35) 

described and named three marine terraces in Florida with shorelines at elevations of approximately 100, 70, and 40 feet, respectively, above present sea level. In the lowest of these terraces, 

which he called the Pensacola, Matson recognized a second division with a shoreline at about 20 feet. He did not have adequate 

field data, however, to map this lowest shoreline, so he did little 

more than mention it. Many other geologists likewise have noted 

the occurrence of terraces in Florida, and a controversy has developed over whether or not their shorelines reflect westward 

tilting of the Florida peninsula (Leverett, 1931). Cooke, who has 

given much time to the study of the Pleistocene shorelines and 

their associated seafloors (the terraces) along the Atlantic coast, 

has traced ·the eroded remnants of the shorelines from New Jersey 

southward into Florida, has checked their elevations, and finds 

that they are approximately level. He therefore arrives at the 

conclusion that no great movements of land with respect to sea 

level have taken place in this area since the close of the Pliocene 

epoch. In addition, work of the ·writers on the younger Pleistocene 

shorelines in Florida south of Orange County has indicated that 

they are approximately horizontal, and if any late Pleistocene 

tilting of the Floridan Plateau is involved, it is of a very minor 

amount. 

I!:FFECTS OF CHANGING SI!:A LEVELS IN SOlJnlll:RN FLORIDA· 

Geologists have established, by their work in the glaciated parts 

of North America, that there were at least four major glacial ages 

(time units) and stages (rock units) separated by three major interglacial ages and stages, and possibly five major glacial ages 

ahd stages separated by four major interglacial ages and stages 

(Flint, 1941, p. 22-25). The writers adopt the former view and 

list them in table 14. In this interpretation the Iowan is regarded 

as a subage of the Wisconsin glacial age. 
Epoch Age 

t-< 

~ 

j ., 

ffi " 1'1 "" 

~ ~~ ~ 

H .::., t-< ' "' .. § ~ 

"" .s 

s::_ 

E- 0 " 

~~ s:: .. 

" "' 

Table 14.- Tentative correlation of Pleistocene and Pliocene ionnations in southern Florida 

Shoreline Upper Caloosahatchee Central Everglades area Southeastern coastal area altitude (feet) River valley area 

0 In places no deposits (solution Organic soils of Everglades. In places no deposits (solution and erosion). 

and erosion). Lake Flirt marl (upper part). Formation of beach ridges, organic soils, 

and marl beds (Lake Flirt marl). 

5 Sand bars, dunes and old chan- Local dunes. 

nel fills. Lake Flirt marl Laterite of the Red! ands district. 

and organic soils of Ever- Development of Silver Bluff terrace. glades. 

In places no deposits (solution In places no deposits (solution In places no deposits (solution and erosion). 

-25 and erosion). and erosion). Laterite of the Redlands disaict. 

River cuts and fills. 

25 Pamlico sand. I?:BtJ_gi. a cuneat a beds. PamUco sand. 

-? In places no deposits (solution No deposits (solution and In places no deposits (solution and erosion; 

and erosion). erosion). especially deep cuts in Miami oolite). 

Laterite of the Redlands di11aict, 

.§ Coffee Mill Ham- .§ Undifferentiated marine .§ Miami oolite and upper parts of 

mock marl mem- limestone, sand" an~ Anastasia formation. 

42 a her (marine shell 5 shell marl. 5 Key Largo limestone. 

70 B. bed). B. B. 

100 § E E 0 0 ..s:: ..s:: t-< t-< ~ 

i; g § 

""' "' "' 

.... 

,_. 

(.11 
Table 14.-Tentative correlation of Pleistocene and Pliocene formations in southern Florida-Continued 

Epoch Age Shoreline Upper Caloosahatchee Central Everglades Southeastern coastal 

altitude (feet) Rivervalley area area area 

~..;... -? Highest fresh-water lime- Hard fresh -water Solution and erosion of 

~g.~ stone ledge, merging limestone. coastal ridge. Depositi 

<:<;) into soft fresh -water of fresh -water limestone -~ .$ St-o marl below, behind coastal ridge. 

<: 6 6 0 Marine shell marl, Undifferentiated marine Undifferentiated, possibly .;i,_ "C "C .. 'lJ .cr~e~ten horizon. " " limestone, sand, and middle and lower parts 5 Jl.~ E E " 170 shell marl, E of the Miami oolite, Etl:i J! J! J! ,.. __ 2lfi Anastasia formation, " bD 

ffi 

>< 0:: 6 6 Key Largo limestone. g 

,. ~ ~ 

g .:- -? E Lowest fresh-water marl, Hard, fresh-water E Solution and erosion of .... 0 locally indurated, mak~ 0 limestone. 0 coastal ridge, Depositi 1-< ~<I !:! !:! ,.<: 

~ ing a sheH, 1-< of fresh-water limestone 

~.a t: 'g '& behind coastal ridge. 0 

"' "' "' = - Marine shells (local, often Undifferentiated marine Undifferentiated. "I <0 mixed with basal part of limestone, sand, and Basal part of Anastasia - l-1• ... 

= "' u 270 over-lying fresh -water shell marl. formation, 0 ... " <-... =- shells). Basal part of Key Largo ~ limestone, 

on 

on 

I -

~:s::~ 

.§~M -? No deposits (solution and erosion). z .. .ffi Caloosahatchee marl. Caloosahatchee marl, Caloosahatchee marl, In 

9u places no deposits. 

~ 
GEOLOGY 117 

The following correlation of deposits in southern Florida with 

these glacial and interglacial ages is tentative and is to be regarded as a working hypothesis only. In part it is based upon the 

work of Cooke (1935, p. 331-333), who previously has assigned 

tentative ages Southeastern 

United States. 

to the Pleistocene shorelines in 

Table 15.-PZeistocene terrace.s of Southeastern United State.s 

Approximate altitude 

Terrace of shoreline Tentative age 

(feet) 

Brandywine 270 Aftonian interglacial 

Coharie 215 Yarmouth interglacial 

Sunderland 170 

Wicomico 100 

Penholoway 70 Sangamon inTalbot 42 terglacial 

fPamlico 25 Interglacial subage of Wisconsin 

Silver Bluff 5 Climatic 

Spoil 

Dredgtld out in deepening and 

stt~lghtrJning Caloos~hatcherJ River 

Lake Flirt m~;~rl 

Black carbonaceotJ$ t;;J.nd 

Pamlico 

~ sand 

Gr;:wc;:~:h~:a~e~vs"h~il:.aH~~~~~~ i!fnd Amerla sp. w1.sht!d In from ne~.rby l1.nd ttrMs 

Optimum 

E:.XPLANA 

Geology by Garald G. Parker and c. Wythe Cooke 

I 0 N 

Coffee Mill Hammock n'li!lrl Marin~ shell bi!d, Sangamon interglacial age 

Fort Thompson formation Fresh-Wilt~Jr, gray m~rl (5a) con.solidatti!d in upper part to ma/(e a hard, fresh~ 

water t;mestonrJ (5b). Helisoma tJnd Amerla sp. most common {ruslls. 

Illinoian lnt•rglar:iirl a(Jt! 

Fort Thompson for"matlon Marine :shell bMi with mixtur~ of fresh-wtJter shell 1.1 but. Yarmouth lntergl~ci"l agfJ 

Fort Thompson formation 

FtfJSh·water r gf~y I cttiCIJffJOIJS marl r lacl.lly 

hardened in up~r part to a hard gtl.y limestone. Helisome and Amerla sp. 

most common {ossi/5. Kans1.n (}ltJclal age 

C~;~loosahatcllee marl MarJnfJ shttll marl 

Note: Correlations tentative (see textl 

Figure 20. ~Idealized geologic cross section at type locality of the Fort Thompson formanon. 
118 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTIIEASTERN FLORIDA 

Inasmuch as the topography of southern Florida offers no opportunity to work on terraces having shorelines higher than 100 

feet, the writers offer no suggestions for amending or changing 

Cooke's age assignment, except to add the Silver Bluff terrace 

and shoreline and to tentatively assign their development to the 

Climatic Optimum of Recent time-the lower shorelines and deposits appear to fit into Cooke's chronology. If the higher shorelines outside southern Florida are actually the product of Pleistocene marine environments, much of the earlier Pleistocene 

shoreline record is missing here; therefore, a sequence based 

on a complete set of Pleistocene shorelines cannot be made from 

evidence in southern Florida. 

However, at Fort Thompson on the Caloosahatchee River, 1~ 

miles east of La Belle, there is a sequence of Pleistocene deposits that records the effects of fluctuating sea level, and it is 

upon this occurrence and upon the tracing of related marine beds 

elsewhere in southern Florida that much of the correlation is 

based (see fig. 20). 

The Caloosahatchee River section (illustrated in fig. 20) includes four Pleistocene marine beds (three in the Fort Thompson 

formation and one in the Pamlico sand) separated from one another by erosional unconformities and fresh-water deposits. If 

each of these marine beds represents an interglacial age and if 

the erosional unconformities and fresh-water deposits represent 

glacial ages, then the sequence of major ocean-level changes, 

postulated as a result of the several glaciations and deglaciations 

during the Pleistocene, is accounted for. However, there is 

nothing about these deposits to indicate, with any degree of certainty, the height of the ocean at its maximum altitude when the 

deposits were being formed. As a matter of fact, these marine 

beds may well have been laid down when the ocean level was 

comparatively low, either during advancing or retreating phases 

in the slow fluctuations of the ocean level at any time during the 

Pleistocene. Therefore, the marine beds of the Fort Thompson 

formation throw no light on the problem of the altitude of the shorelines of the higher terraces of the Southeastern United Sta~es •. 

Likewise, the other low-lying Pleistocene marine deposits offer 

rio aid in solving the problem of the altitude of the higher shorelines. Their stratigraphic relationships have been the bases for 

tentatively assigning them to the several interglacial ages listed 

in this report. 

NEBRASKAN GLACIAL AGE 

When the sea withdrew· at the beginning of Nebraskan time, a 

gently southeastward-sloping area existed under the central and 
CEOLOOY 119 

southern part of the present Everglades. Higher land lay to the 

west in the present area of the DeviPs Garden and the Big Cypress 

Swamp, and to the north about in the latitude of Tampa Bay (see 

pl. 12). The deposits of the Pliocene sea were generally shelly, 

sandy, and silty, although in some places· calcareous deposits 

were laid down. 

This Pliocene surface became exposed to weathering and to the 

attacks of running surface water and percolating ground water. 

The latter was an especially important faCtor because it created 

a network of solution holes in the ·calcareous deposits and started 

the action which, repeated in subsequent glacial ages, has produced the best water-yielding parts of the Caloosahatchee marl. 

The shelly, sandy, and silty parts of the Caloosahatchee marl,. 

however, were not so affected; instead, they were eroded, and in 

many places the Pliocene deposits were completely stripped away. 

Ancestral Lake Okeechobee made its first appearance at this 

time, and in all probability other smaller lakes existed in the 

lower parts of the area to· the south. If any fresh-water limestones were deposited in these early Everglades lakes they are 

not recognized as such, 

AFTONI~ INTERGLACIAL AGE 

After the dose of Nebraskan time, there ensued a warm period 

called the Aftonian interglacial age, during which the great continental glaciers retreated, and the sea level may have risen to 

about 270 feet above its present level, forming the Brandywine 

terrace and associated deposits (Cooke, 1939, p. 33-35), 

Only a few scattered local patches of marine shells, generally 

found in depressions in the underlying Caloosahatchee marl and 

often mixed with the basal part of the overlying bed of fresh-water 

marl, may be seen at Fort Thompson (bed 2, fig. 20). Elsewhere 

in southern Florida, extensive deposits of the Aftonian stage possibly are included in the lower part of the Fort Thompson and 

Anastasia formations. These deposits probably were once much 

thicker than they are now, but they have been thinned and in most 

places entirely removed by erosion and solution. The fact that the 

ocean probably was fairly deep here at its maximum during this 

age and that the sources of detritus were far distant, may be additional reasons in this area for a scarcity of deposits possibly 

assignable to the Aftonian interglacial stage. 

This invasion of southern Florida by the sea during the Aftonian 

interglacial age probably distributed sand southward along the 

Atlantic coast, thus building up the early Pleistocene deposits 

(basal part of Anastasia formation) under the present area of the 

Atlantic Coastal Ridge. Also, it is likely that the basal portions 

of the Key Largo limestone were being formed by coral growth as 
120 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUniEASTERN FLORIDA 

a reef at or near the site of the present Florida Keys. The ocean 

water displaced the fresh ground water in much of the Pliocene 

and Miocene rocks, and it probably washed enough sand into many 

of the solution holes (developed during Nebraskan time) to partly 

or completely fill them. 

KANSAN GLACIAL AGE 

The cold Kansan glacial age succeeded the warm Aftonian interval, and again the sea fell below its present level. Once more, 

southern Florida became a wide land area with rivers; lakes, 

trees, grass, and strange animals (Simpson, 1929, p. 229-279). 

The sand, which had been washed southward in the vicinity of the 

present coastal ridge during Aftonian time, formed a low barrier 

and allowed a large shallow fresh-water marsh and lake to exist 

in the upper Everglades and the present Caloosahatchee River 

Valley. Fresh-water marl accumulated in this marsh. 

Once again, fresh percolating ground water was at work flushing 

out the salt water and creating a network of solution holes in the 

calcareous marine rocks which were deposited during the Afton ian 

interval. The Caloosahatchee marl deposits may also have been 

flushed of salt water, but owing to the low permeability of these 

sediments and the very slow rate of ground-water movement 

through them, this flushing may not have been complete. 

YARMOUTH INTERGLACIAL AGE 

The Kansan glacial age was succeeded by the warm Yarmouth 

interglacial age. Cooke (1935, p. 331-333) has postulated that 

during this time the sea level may have risen to 215 feet above 

present sea level, that it stood there long enough to establish a 

definite shoreline and then fell to 170 feet, where it remained until the end of the age. None of these higher (270-, 215-, and 

170-foot) shorelines or terraces are present in southern Florida, 

but Cooke describes them as occurring along the Atlantic coast 

from central Florida northward to New Jersey. 

In the area of the Fort Thompson type locality the sea laid down. 

a shell marl containing the shPlls of many scallops fF,.<?cten sp.), 

marine jet-propelled pelecypods. Without doubt, this deposit was 

once much thicker than it is now, but, like earlier deposits, it was 

largely removed by subsequent erosion. In other areas of southeastern Florida the coral reef (Key Largo limestone) once more 

was being built upon; a very shelly limestone was deposited in the 

central and lower Everglades area; basal parts of the Miami oolite 

were probably being formed as a limy shore and bar deposit; and 

sand, a principal component of the Anastasia formation, continued 

to work southward, building up the present east-coast ridge, and 
GEOLOGY 121 

together with the oolite bar and coral reef deposits it enclosed 

enough of the present Lake Okeechobee-Everglades depression to 

allow a large shallow lake and marsh to exist there in the succeeding interglacial age. This invasion by the sea once again filled 

the rocks with salt water and displaced the fresh water of the 

preceding age. 

ILLINOIAN _GLAOAL AGE 

As the climate cooled again and the Illinoian glaciers spread 

far to the south of the dispersal centers, the ocean once more 

withdrew from the land and fell below present sea level. Land 

conditions again existed in southern Florida, ·and once more a 

wide, shallow lake and marsh came into existence in the Lake 

Okeechobee-Everglades depression. .A widespread fresh-water 

limestone and marl deposit was laid down, which today is the most 

easily recognized member of the Fort Thompson formation. Solution and erosion took place on the higher land, and rivers wended 

their way from this shallow interior lake to the ocean. Fresh 

ground water again began displacing the salt water; it dissolved 

the more soluble limy rocks and extended the already existing solution network, thus making the Fort Thompson formation in the 

lower 'Everglades and coastal Broward and Dade Counties still 

more permeable. 

SANGAMON INTERGLACIAL AGE 

With the melting of the Illinoian ice the ocean slowly rose during 

the Sangamon interglacial age. Cooke (1935, p. 331-333) postu.,. 

lates that it reached an elevation of 100 feet above present sea 

level, then fell to 70 feet, and finally to about 42 feet by the end 

of the age. In each instance it remained long enough to produce 

marine terraces with well-preserved shorelines at those elevations. In southern Florida these shorelines show plainly on 

aerial photographs taken at 14, 000 feet. They usually are difficult to see on the ground, but some features along these old shorelines are so little changed by erosion, that they are unmistakable 

when viewed even at close range. Best preserved of the three 

shorelines are those at 42 and 70 feet, and least well preserved is 

the one at 100 feet (the oldest). This is to be expected, because 

weathering has had more time to efface the features of the 

older ones. 

At the beginning of the Sangamon age and again near its close 

(when sea level may have ranged between about -20 and +20 feet 

with reference to present mean sea level), conditions were very 

similar to those of the Yarmouth age, and an extensive bar of 

oolite (Miami oolite) was being built up along the eastern shore to 
122 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

the south of Boca Raton. North of this place the bar was sandy 

and shelly, and deposits of coquina, sand, and sandy limestone 

(the upper part of the Anastasia formation) were laid down (pl. 4). 

Outside this bar, southward from the latitude of Miami, the coral 

reef that. makE:s up U~e present Upper Keys vy-as once again growing (Key Largo limestone), and behind this bar and reef, in 

the Lake Okeechobee-Everglades depress ion, myriads of marine 

and brackish-water shells were accumulating, which today compose the uppermost member of the Fort Thompson formation 

(the Coffee Mill Hammock marl). Salt water again gained access 

to the rocks and displaced the fresh water, and sand worked into 

the solution holes. 

On the higher terraces referred to the Sangamon interglacial 

age, especially on those that surround and underlie the Kissimmee 

River basin, the development of sand bars, beach ridges, and 

dunes took place. These features today dictate land usage through 

their control of drainage, ground water, vegetation, and soil types. 

When the sea withdrew at the close of this interval it left many 

original depressions which today contain such consequent lakes 

as Istokpoga, Kissimmee, and the Tohopekaligas. The Kissimmee 

River is a consequent stream making use of the abandoned late 

Sangamon sea bottom north of Lake Okeechobee, which, itself, 

occupies a slightly modified original depression in the Pliocene 

sea bottom. 

It is postulated that the deposits formed during Sangamon time 

largely gave southern Florida its modern appearance by building 

up the htgher lands north, west, and east of the Lake OkeechobeeEverglades depression, and by constructing the major part of the 

coastal ridge along the Atlantic shore. 

WISCONSIN GLACIAL AGE 

Following Sangamon time, the Wisconsin glacial age occurred, 

consisting of early (Iowan) and late Wisconsin glacial subages, 

and an intermediate interglacial subage. The results, though much 

more complicated than here outlined, were about as follows: In the 

Iowan, or first glacial subage, the sea fell below its present level, 

and solution and erosion were common on the higher land. From 

the lakes that existed in the interior, cuts were made through low 

areas and abandoned tidal channels in the newly formed Atlantic 

Coastal Ridge, especially through the soft oolite between Miami 

and Fort Lauderdale. Dune building was common along the 

sandier shore areas, especially in St. Lucie, Martin, Palm 

Beach, and Collier Counties. Fresh water began to flush out the 

salt water left from the Sangamon invasion, but the interval was 

short, and the action may not have progressed very far, especially 
GEOLOGY 123 

in the rocks of low permeability inland from the shore where very 

low water-table gradients probably existed. 

Then, during the mid-Wisconsin interglacial subage, there followed a time of warm weather; the ocean rose to 25 feet above 

present sea level and remained long enough to produce the Pamlico 

terrace and formation (Pamlico sand), which, in southern Florida, 

is mainly quartz sand locally hardened into sandstone. This is the 

sand that mantles the Atlantic Coastal Ridge as far south as Coral 

Gables, often completelyfilling the channels cut through the oolite 

during the previous glacial subage. West of the Everglades this 

sand mantles the higher land that underlies the Big CypressDevil's Garden area (to as high as 25 feet above mean sea level, 

and higher where it was heaped into beach-ridge and dune deposits), and to the north it surrounds the higher terraces and generally encloses Lake Okeechobee--except on the southern and 

southeastern sides where the wide expanse of the Everglades 

meets the lake shore. Only a minor amount of the Pamlico sand 

found its way out into the present basin of the Everglades proper., 

because the longshore current::. that carried it south were not effective in the quieter water of this great shoal area. Again, salt 

water displaced the fresh ground water, and sand worked its way 

down into solution holes. · 

Remnants of this Pleistocene salt water are still left in isolated 

patches in southern Florida; some of the patches are of considerable size, especially in the northern Everglades and around the 

southeastern stde of Lake Okeechobee [see p, 183~185 in the section on Ground water (Occurrence)·and p. 818-822 of the section 

on Quality of ground and surface waters]. This mid-Wiscpnsin invasion by the sea is believed to be largely responsible for salt 

water found in other plfbes on the Pamlico terrace ·in Florida, 

notably in the St. Johns River valley and along the coast, as at 

Cocoa and Titusville, in Brevard County. Although these residual 

bodies of trapped sea water are still quite salty, the waters donot 

now have the characteristics of modern sea water. This is probably the result of modification by dilution with fresh water and by 

chemical reactions (mainly of the cation-exchange variety) with 

organic soils and enclosing calcareous rocks. 

This mid-Wisconsin (Pamlico) stand of the sea over southern 

Florida was the last extensive one, and its marks are very evident 

today. The old bars a:nd current-marked sand deposits are still 

noticeable and are being only partially obliterated by surficial 

drainage mainly in the vicinity of larger streams, where a dendritic drainage pattern is being imposed on the parallel pattern of 

old beach ridges, offshore bars, and intervening lagoons that 

characterizes some areas in the sandy flatlands ·in southern 

Florida, especially in St. Lucie, Palm Beach, and Martin Counties. The trend of the bars and swales parallels the present 
124. . WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTiiEASTERN FLORIDA 

Atlantic shoreline and is entirely confined to the sand land; it does 

not affect the surficial drainage in the organic soils of the Everglades, where one can see, from aerial photographs, a similar ar .. -

rangement of the drainage pattern. This latter pattern is entirely 

confined to the peat and muck soils, and has no apparent relationship to the underlying floor of the Everglades. 

As this warm mid-Wisconsin interglacial subage waned and as 

the continentalglaciers made a relatively short but significant advance, the ocean level began to fall again. Probably it did notrecede uniformly with respect to time but receded by halting stages. 

It may have remained long enough at 5 feet above present sea level 

in southern Florida to begin the development of a marine terrace 

and its associated shoreline, which in places in Dade County presently is marked by a low, wave"'cut sea cliff in the Miami oolite. 

However it is more likely that these topographic features were developed in Recent time, during the Climatic Optimum. This will 

be considered subsequently. 

In any event, the sea level fell at the close of the Wisconsin, to 

approximately 25 feetbelow present sea level (Cooke, 1937, p. 5), 

and a fresh-water regimen became dominant once again in southern Florida. Once again solution of the calcareous rocks and erosion of channels through the Atlantic Coastal Ridge became active, 

and it is quite likely that the re-excavation of former channels that 

had been choked with Pamlico sand was furthered. Fresh ground 

water began displacing the newly formed salt water body concentrated especially in the Lake Okeechobee-Everglades depression 

and may have cleared the more permeable and shoreward parts of 

the Biscayne aquifer of its saline water rather effectively. 

During this time of lowered sea level it is likely that there was 

renewed sand-dune growA:h along both the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, 

and the major wind-blown sand deposits assumed in general their 

modern topographic expression. 

RECENT EPOCH 

The beginning of Recent time was marked by the climatic 

changes that brought about the withdrawal, through melting back, 

of the great Wisconsin ice sheets. The melt-water released from 

the continental glaciers partly refilled the ·oceanic basins, .. and sea 

level gradually rose. The rise must not be construed to have been 

uniform, for the climate is known to have been not uniform. Minor, 

but none-the-less effective, climatic fluctuations occurred that are 

revealed in several lines of evidence. Flint {1947, p, .487-535) and 

Brooks (194B, p. 359-378) have presented especially lucid and 

comprehensive accounts of the evidence and descriptions of postglacial climates and their general geologic effects. 
GEOLOOY 125 

In southern Florida the sea level rose to, or very near, its 

present level and stood there until the interval known as the 

Climatic Optimum, which is believed to have occurred about 5000 

B. C. (Brooks, 1949, p. 364). During the warm period, of which 

the Climatic Optimum was the peak, the sea rose to 5, and perhaps 8 feet, above its present level, and remained at this range 

of elevated stage for about 2, 000 or 3, 000 years, long enough to 

complete the carving of the wave -planed Silver Bluff Terrace (see 

pl. 13 and fig. 23 ), and to choke with sand the discharge channels 

through the Coastal Ridge as far south as Miami. During this time 

the entire present floor of the Everglades was a shoals area, situated between the low-lying Big Cypress-Devil's Garden area on the 

west and the Coastal Ridge to the east that stood out as a low 

series of islands and disconnected bars, as indicated by the Silver 

Bluff shoreline in pl. 13; Lake Okeechobee itself was an extension 

and slightly deeper part of this great shoal. The semi-diurnal 

sweep of the tides kept the floor of the shoal swept practically 

clean of what little sediment occurred there. The lack of marine 

sediment in such an environment is not at all surprising, because 

the surrounding low-lying limestone and quartz-sand terrain, under climatic conditions then existing, simply did not provide much 

detritus. 

About 3, 000 years ago, as the warm weather of the Climatic 

Optimum waned, the sea level began falling, and receded to its 

approximate present level, near which it has remained ever since. 

This resulted in the establishment, in essence, of our modern 

shoreline and its related topotraphic features. 

In the great shoal area of the present Everglades, a fresh-water 

regimen replaced the salt and brackish water regimen of the 

Climatic Optimum, and in the deeper parts of the area, where the 

land was always submerged, plant remains accumulated until finally the peat and muck deposits of today were developed (p. 109). 

Gradually these materials accumulated over a greater and greater 

area, and as the basin became nearly filled, the water level rose, 

and some of the higher of the old tidal channels across the Coastal 

Ridge came into use as discharge channels; thus, modern natural 

drainage was effected. Short streams such as the Miami River, 

Arch Creek, New River, and many others established their modern 

form. The surface waters in the Everglades, slowly moving more 

or less as a sheet in high-water times and still more slowly in 

shallow channels in low-water times, came to flow toward these 

outlets. ·As they moved, the waters imposed a linearly arranged 

drainage pattern on the soft organic soils and flotant masses. 

Trees chose the higher of the areas between the "swales." and the 

"bays" or "tree islands" began to take form; sawgrass and the 

more aquatic plants chose the swales. (See the section on Geomorphology, p. 152-153). 
GEOMORPHOLOGY 

By Garald G. Parker 

FACTORS AFFECTING LAND FORMS 

The factors that have most to do with .shaping land forms in 

southern Florida are: (1) Materials comprising the land, (2) fluctuating sea level, (3) shoreline processes, (4) climate and vegetation, (5) solution, and (6) erosion. 

No attempt has been made to list these factors in the order of 

their importance; obviously that would be difficult to decide. In 

the following account they are discussed separately but, as will be 

noticed, it is impossible to separate them entirely. In nature they 

are mutually operative and effective. 

MATERIALS COMPOSING THE LAND 

The principal geologic materials in southern Florida are limestones, calcareous sandstones, marls, shell marls, sands, silts, 

and clays. All these are rocks that offer comparatively weak resistance to degradational forces acting in a warm, moist climate· 

such 'as that of southern Florida. 

Figure 21. .-Natural limestone bridge over Arch Creek. 

127 
128 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

The calcareous materials are especially likely to be attacked 

by percolating ground waters charged with humic or other acids 

occurring in nature. A terrain developed on calcareous materials 

is characterized by solution forms, and southern Florida is no exception; solution holes and sinks are common, even a natural 

bridge is found (fig. 21), and a drowned karst topography is largely 

responsible for the topographic expression of the Ten Thousand 

Islands area. Solutional features predominate over erosional 

features. (See figs. 22 and 25.) 

Figure 22. -Rock pinnacles resulting from solution of the Miami oolite, 

The sands of southern Florida are principally siliceous (quartz). 

but present-day beach sands are quite shelly and calcareous. Sand 

is an exqellent absorbent of rainfall, and in areas mantled with 

fairly thick deposits of sand there is comparatively little surface 

runoff following storms. This lack of runoff tends to prevent 

erosion and thus to preserve land forms, such as ancient beaches, 

beach ridges, or dunes; at the present time, their identity is fairly 

well preserved in many places. 

Where sands are uncemented and unaffected by vegetation they 

tend to drift and to form dunes in areas where wind action is 

strong. Loose sand will not stand in steep banks, but instead it 

tends to maintain slopes of low angle with subdued, rounded outlines. The effect of the weathering agents (wind and rain), combined with gravity and animal activities, is to round off and reduce 

the once steep beach bars, ridges, or dunes to low, flattish heaps. 
GEOMORPHOLCGY 129 

The permeable sand of southern Florida permits large amounts 

of rainfall to be stored as ground water; this water reacts chemically upon the underlyiqg r"ocks and produces great change~ over a 

long period of time. 

Marls are variously defined, both by geologist and laymen. 

Common usage in southern Florida designates a marl as any unconsolidated rock that contains considerable amounts of carbonate. 

Most common, perhaps, are the "shell marls" of the Caloosahatchee marland the Tamiamiformation. These are usually sandy 

shell deposits and may contain little or no silt or clay. However, 

silty and clayey marls are common in southeastern Florida, although they seldom are found very near the surface and therefore 

exert little topographic control. 

Shell marls are much more permeable than clayey marls, and 

where exposed to rainfall they are attacked by solution, which increases their permeability and reduces surface runoff. On the 

other hand, clay marls are relatively impermeabie, and where they 

lie near the surface they prevent absorption of rainfall and promote surface runoff. 

FLUCTUA'l'ING SEA LEVEL 

A fluctuating sea level has been an important factor in shaping 

the topography of southern Florida. (Seep. 111-125.) The principal topographic effects of the fluctuating sea over the Floridan 

Plateau were the terracing of the landscape with a veneer of marine 

sands, the alternate cutting and filling of shallow river valleys, 

and the development in the underlying calcareous rocks of a 

system of deep solution passages and sinkholes, many of which 

later became filled with sediment when the sea rose high -enough to 

cover them. Also, marine features were lef.t, such as spits, bay 

bars, offshore bars, lagoons, beaches, beach ridges, and flat shallow sea bottoms. These features abound on the marine terraces 

at the present time, especially on the younger terraces which have 

not yet been destroyed by solution and erosion. They may be 

readily observed from the air or studied on aerial photographs, 

Primarily, they control the natural drainage, and therefore they 

are important factors in water-resources studies. 

SHORELINE l>ROCESSES 

Waves, tides, and currents along the shoreline are actively engaged in modifying the adjacent land and the shallow sea bottom, 

and wind-blown spray etches rocks, especially the calcareous 

ones, beyond the ·reach of the waves. 
130 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUlliEASTERN FLORIDA 

In southern Florida, as the sea has fluctuated over the relatively 

flat surface of the Floridan Plateau, the shoreline has- migrated 

many miles; each time that the sea halted long enough, it left some 

present land features as marks of its stand. These features are 

Figure 23. -Silver Bluff, a late Pleistocene sea cliff. 

usually beach ridges, inner lagoons, and offshore bars, but they 

·may be wave -cut notches in sea cliffs or wave -cut benches at the 

bases of sea cliffs. (See figs. 23 and 24.) Because consolidated 

rocks are rare in southern Florida, sea cliffs are scarce, but old 

beaches, with their associated bars, ridges, and dunes, are common and widely scattered. 

One of the principal effects of shoreline processes in southern 

Florida has been the building up of the land along the coast. Sand 

is constantly being fed to the ocean by streams of the Piedmont 

Region of Alabama, Georgia, the Carolinas, and Virginia, and 

some of it eventually finds its way along the shore to Florida. 

Ancient sand deposits formed along the coast in the geologic past 

are now attacked by waves, and the newly released sand is dragged 

south by longshore currents liJ.nd diagonally striking waves, to be 

it:J,cGrporated later in new deposits still farther south. 

Since the close of Miocene time, sand has not worked very far 

south ofMiami, Calcareous rocks contain progressivelyless sand 

as they are traced southward. Today, the southern· part of Biscayne Bay has much less sand in it than the northern end. In fact, 
GEOMORPHOLOGY 131 

Figure 24. -Sea undercutting coralline limestone o£ Key Vaca. 

Cape Florida, the extreme southern tip of Key Biscayne, off 

Miami, is now the principal southern terminus of the siliceous 

sands that wash down the coast. 

This lateral movement of sand along the beaches tends to fill in, 

on the north side, tidal runways that cut through the offshore bar; 

but the sweep of tides and tidal currents in and out tends to keep 

the cuts open. The result of these two actions is the down-beach 

{southward) migration of the tidal inlets, a phenomenon with which 

all coastal residents are familiar., 

Hurricanes may cause storm tides of as much as 16 or 18 feet 

(Congressional documents, p. 8-9). Waves of tremendous eroding 

power; which accompany hurricanes, are prime movers of loose 

materials along the shoreline and may accomplish greater changes 

during the course of one hurricane than normal shoreline processes would accomplish in many years. Sand bars, spits, and even 

small islands may be entirely washed away; new tidal cuts may 

appear across bars that formerly excluded the sea from direct 

access to inner lagoons; and a new set of bars, spits, and beaches 

may appear-all these changes are subsequently modified by. the 

usual shoreline processes. 

On a land as flat as southern Florida, these shoreline processes 

and the features they produce have a marked effect on subsequent 

drainage whiCh, in turn, has a direct effect upon storage of ground 

water, upon the vegetation, and consequently upon the use that man 

makes of the land. 
132 WATER RESOURCES IN SOU'IHEASTERN FLORIDA 

CLIMATE AND VEGETATION 

Climate is an important factor and has a profound effect on both 

organic and inorganic materials. Southern Florida has a semitropical climate. Rainfall is plentiful (50 to 60 inches per year), 

humidity is usually high, winds blow most of the time, and an occa,sional hurricane roars in from the tropical seas. (See section 

on Climate, p. 15-56,) 

The principal effects of climate upon topography in southern 

Florida are brought about by the' plentiful supply of rain that flows 

over or enters the rocks and attacks them both chemically and 

mechanically. Solution, a result of chemical attack on carbonate 

rocks, produces the characteristic karst topography of a limestone terrain. 

Running water has carved valleys but in southern Florida its 

principal effect is solution. (Note on the hypsometric map, pl. 10, 

the indentations partly brought about by streams working on the 

marine terraces.) 

On the flat terrace lands streams are sluggish and drainage is 

imperfect. The combination of physical conditions mentioned above 

has developed one of the largest areas of principally organic soils 

in the world-the Everglades. Outside the main body of the 

Everglades-extending up Kissimmee· River, Fisheating Creek, 

and in old lagoons and swales between ancient beach ridges-other 

smaller deposits of peat and muck have developed. 

These organic deposits would continue to build up even today, 

but they are prevented from doing so by drainage operations. This 

problem has been disau·ssed by Evans and Allison (1942, p. 34-46). 

Not only is the climate favorable to the growth of swamp plants, 

but it enables bunch grasses, pines, palmettos, and other semitropical-to-tropical vegetation to grow on the old beach sands and 

dunes. This vegetation helps to prevent continuous drifting of the 

sands before prevailing winds ahd, by preserving their forms, 

helps the immature drainage pattern to become better established. 

SOLUTION 

Southern Florida is underlain by limestone and other calcareous 

deposits and, because surface waters usually contain natural 

acids, solution plays a more important role than abrasion in the 

development of topographic features. At times in the past, when 

the Floridan Plateau stood high above the sea, few, if any, deep 

gorges were carved by running water. Instead, both surface and 

underground rocks were etched and made cavernous by the lateral 
GEOMORPHOLOOY 133 

Figure 25. -..Close-up view of one c. the larger solution i1oles in Dade County. 

and downward movement of corrosive waters. (See figs. 15, 25 

and 26.) 

Apparently, no original cavity is needed to start a solution hole, 

though the existence of a ready-made hole hastens the process. It 

has been suggested that many vertical solution holes begin to be 

dissolved along taproots of trees, and possibly some holes do 

originate in this fashion, but it is not the most common way. On 

the surface of hard limestone or soft calcareous clayey marl the 

first effects of solution appear as small surficial pits resembling 

raindrop marks in mud. These pits gradually deepen, many retaining their rounded outlines. Without visible outlet along the 

sides or bottom, they later become tubes which enlarge into holes 

ofvarious shapes and sizes, but generally they develop vertically. 

The work of solution is evident wherever outcrops of rock occur, 

as on the bare limestone surface south of Miami or in the Big 

Cypress Swamp, in canals and street cuts, in borrow ditches and 

rock quarries, or in river and creek banks. In large areas of 

southern Florida it is evident that at least one-fourth of the total 

volume of limestone, once more or less solid rock, is now occupied by solution holes, generally filled with sand. (See fig. 26.) 

Trees blown over by hurricanes rip up rock with their roots, thus 

leaving a new and localized depression for concentration of rain 

water and the start of active solution holes. Adjacent holes enlarge, coalesce, and become increasingly effective in draining 

surface water underground. Many solution depressions of this kind, 
134 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Figure 26. -Borrow pit in Miami oolite at Fort Lauderdale. 

some as much as 150 feet in diameter, can be seen in the pineland 

and wet prairies south and west of Miami. 

EROSION 

Erosion by running water has been more effective in the area 

north of Lake Okeechobee (especially on the higher terrace lands) 

than it has been to the south of the lake and on the lower terraces, 

partly because of difference in underlying materials and partly 

because stream erosion has "'had a longer time to work on the 

·older terraces. · 

The very flatness of the marine terraces, their mantle of relatively permeable sands, the soluble underlying rocks, and the 

rank growth of vegetation,. all play important roles in inhibiting 

surface flow. During glacial ages, when the surface of the Floridan 

Plateau stood relatively high above sea level, the water level in 

the ground dropped accordingly, and the principal flow of water 

was downward to the water table, where it moved laterally to the 

seas. As a result, shallow valleys usually were carved. 

On the higher sandy terraces with underlying shell mar.ls and 

clayey marls, small streams developed and meandered in their 

lower courses across the flat land, causing little abrasion.,. Of low 

gradient, they carried relatively clear water, but during seasonal 

floods they probably moved considerable quantities of loose sand 
GEOMORPHOLOGY 135 

seaward, as Fisheating Creek, the Kissimmee River, and other 

streams are doing today. Charac te ris tic ally, they developed broad, 

shallow valleys. 

During subsequent interglacial ages the lower reaches of these 

valleys were flooded by the sea to a lesser height with each successive age and the valleys then became embayments whose margins were modified by wave action and whose bottoms were leveled 

by planation and aggradation. 

During subsequent glacial ages these lower parts of the former 

stream courses were partly reexcavated, and the upper reaches 

continued to work headward, though very slowly and rather 

ineffectually. 

The net result has been the indented terr:ace pattern shown on 

the accompanying hypsometric map (pl. 10): Generally speaking, 

the inner boundaries of the terraces coincide with the shoreline of 

the ~!lea at the time the terrace was developed, and the almost flat, 

gradually sloping surface of the terrace was the shallow sea 

bottom. But these features have been modified by subsequent 

erosion and solution so that the old shorelines have been changed; 

the older the shoreline, the more it is modified. However, some 

of these old shorelines with associated offshore bars and inland 

dunes are remarkably well preserved and are readily recognized. 

Wind erosion, very effective in southern Florida during the 

Pleistocene glacial (low sea level) ages, has ceased to be a prominent factor. During the later glaCial ages, prominent dunes were 

built in present southern Florida, especially iri ·Palm Beach, 

Martin, and St. Lucie Counties, atop old beach ridges, and along 

the Gulf shore near Marco in an area of prominent karst topography; many of the Ten Thousand Islands owe their origin to these 

Pleistocene dunes, now partly drowned by rise of the sea to its 

prese11t leve 1. 

The old dunes are now held down by vegetation and are quiescent, and even when vegetation is cleared off they remain fixed. 

They were formed under climatic and sea level conditions that do 

not now prevail. 

MARINE TERRACES 

GENERAL STATEMENT 

Marine terraces are the former bottoms of shallow seas, usually 

floored with deposits of sand, clay, silt, and shells, and are 

bounded along their inner margin by shoreline features such as 

beach ridges, swales, offshore and bay bars, or, in rare instances, 

by low rocky sea cliffs notched by wave action. Landward, these 

346881 0-55--11 
136 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUnmASTERN FLORIDA 

deposits merge with estuarine and fluviatile deposits that were 

laid down in bays and in rivers emptying into the sea. 

The surfaces of the terraces are generally almost featureless, 

flat, gently sloping plains with an occasional old sand bar or island 

remaining as very slightly higher land. Old tidal runways are now 

the sites of rivers, creeks, or swamps, and the land surface is 

dissected by moving water or pocked by solution holes in underlying calcareous rocks. The wash of small waves, in the water of 

the shallow ponds that fill these depressions, or the circulation of 

currents due to prevailing winds tend to produce evenly curved 

shorelines. Swamps and lakes develop in the lower lying, poorly 

drained areas of the terraces. (See p. 113-114 for a discussion 

of the effect of glacial control of sea level. ) 

Table 15 lists eight Pleistocene terraces in southeastern United 

States. No description is given in this report for terraces higher 

than 100 feet. (See pl. 10,) 

WICOMICO TERRACE 

The inner boundary and Shore of the Wicomico terrace today 

stands approximately 100 feet above sea level, and its outer margin 

is bounded by the 70-foot shoreline of the next younger terrace. 

The Wicomico terrace forms a narrow fringing band surrounding 

the highe.r terrace lands that extend southward between the valleys 

of Fisheating Creek and the Kissimmee River. In Wicomico time, 

this high land was a long, comparatively narrow peninsula, called 

Highlands Peninsula in this report, after Highlands County in which 

it occurs. (See pl. 10,) 

The greater part of Kissimmee River valley is developed on the 

Penholoway terrace (the next terrace lower than the Wicomico), 

which supports two islands of Wicomico deposits. The smaller of 

these islands called Kissimmee Island in this report, is approximately 27 miles long and 8 miles wide. It separates the larger 

Kissimmee River valley from the smaller Arbuckle Creek valley, 

which drains southward into Lake Istokpoga and from there into 

the Kissimmee River. In Wicomico time, Kissimmee Island was 

separated from the mainland by a salt-water narrows, called 

Istokpoga Strait in this report, which is about 27 miles long and 

averages about 3 miles in width. 

The larger of the two islands of Wicomico deposits •. called 

.9scepia Island in this report, was an offshore bar during Wicomico 

time, and its highest parts probably were slightly submerged at 

high tide. It lay between deep water of the Atlantic Ocean and the 

shallow body of shoal water that extended about 20 miles west to 
CEOMORPHOLOGY 137 

the mainland. For this great Pleistocene shoal area the name 

"Kissimmee Sound" is here proposed. Osceola Island may have 

gained much of its modern shape during succeeding Penholoway 

time when it stood as an island about 70 miles long with an average 

width of about 6 miles. A long narrow spit, about 23 miles long 

and a mile wide, extended almost due north from the main body of 

Osceola Island to a point that is now almost midway between 

Orlando and Titusville. Osceola Island. is important today as the 

drainage divide that separates the upper St. Johns River basin 

from the Kissimmee River basin. 

PENHOLOWAY TERRACE 

The 70-foot shoreline of the Penholoway terrace is fairly well 

preserved in many places and is usually inarked by a scarp, or 

wave-steepened slope, at its inner boundary. The terrace itself is 

relatively broad, flat, little dissected, and slopes gently to its 

outer margin, where another terrace, the Talbot, with a shoreline 

at approximately 42 feet, borders it. 

A tongue of the Penholoway terrace extends northward along the 

west side of Highlands Peninsula in an embayment (called Fisheating 

Bay in this report), which in Penholoway time was about 20 miles 

long and 7 miles wide. It is now occupied by the upper reaches of 

Fisheating Creek. 

During Penholoway time, Highlands Peninsula was lengthened by 

longshore currents sweeping sand southward as far as Palmdale, 

in Glades County. Fisheating Creek now turns abruptly eastward 

around the southern terminus of this extensive Pleistocene sand 

spit. 

The Penholoway terrace narrowly fringes the east side of Highlands Peninsula as far north as the north shore of Lake Istokpoga; 

the southern boundary then turns eastward across Kissimmee 

River basin, with deep indentations along Kissimmee River and 

Taylor Creek. To the south of Osceola Island, the Penholoway 

terrace extends as a· long peninsula (here called Okeechobee 

Peninsula), northeast of Lake Okeechobee. 

From Okeechobee Peninsula the Penholoway terrace extends 

northward and fringes Osceola Island in a band about 7 miles wide 

and generally parallel to the modern Atlantic shore. Small 

headward-working streams, tributary to the upper St. Johns River 

basin, scallop its outer margin. 

.. 
138 WATER RESOURCES IN SOtrmEASTEl\N FLORIDA 

KISSIMMEE IUVER BASIN 

The present drainage system of the Kissimmee River, with its 

numerous large and small lakes, meandering connecting channels 

and swampy lowlands, occupies Pleistocene Kissimmee Sound. 

Rainfall that becomes ground-water storage in the adjacent 

higher terrace lands eventually reappears as ground-water discharge into Kissimmee River. The time lag is such that the flow 

of the river is maintained even during times of drought. (For details on the flow and the drainage-:-area characteristics of Kissimmee River, the principal tributary of Lake Okeechobee, see 

p. 301-314.) 

Four large consequent lakes, Kissimmee, Hatchineha, Tohopekaliga, and East Tohopekaliga, occupy shallow basins that apparently were original depressions on the floor of old Kissimmee 

Sound. To what extent they may be impounded because of shallow 

sand bars is not known, owing to lack of detailed topographic 

work. Some of the smaller lakes in the Kissimmee River valley 

result from the damming of the sluggish drainage ways by Recent 

organic material. 

At the extreme northern end of Kissimmee Sound there is a narrow strait connecting with the part of St. Johns drainage system 

that lies between the northern extremity of Osceola Island and the 

mainland. At present, surficial flow in this area is unpredictable. 

FlSIIEADNG CREEK VALI.EY 

Fisheating Creek heads on the Penholoway terrace and occupies 

Pleistocene Fisheating Bay, which lies just west of Highlands 

Peninsula; its v:alley is broad and flat. The stream, like the 

Kissimmee River, carries highly colored water with little sediment. Reeds, sedges, water hyacinths, and other aquatic and 

scmiaquaticolants chokeits.channeland reduce abrasionto a minimum. During extended droughts, streamflow in Fisheating 

Creek, especially along the upper reaches, dwindles to nothing. 

TALBOT TERRACE 

Following the stand of the sea at 70 feet and the formation of the 

Penholoway terrace, the sea level dropped to 42 feet and stayed 

at that level long enough to establish a definite terrace, which is 

named the Talbot. Its outer limit is the generally poorly marked 

25-foot shoreline of the next lower terrace, the Pamlico. 

The inner shoreline of the Talbot terrace is marvelously well 

preserved in some places and may be viewed to good advantage 
GEOMORPHOLOGY 139 

3 miles east of Childs on Florida Route 70. At that place, it lies 

at the foot of a noticeable scarp that separates it from the Penholoway terrace. A series of quiescent sand dunes lie inland from 

the old shore. Just east of the shoreline is a shallow offshore 

trench, and beyond rhe trench lies an offshore bar; both of these 

formations are comparable to those now being formed at the present time oft 1\/Jjq,mi Beach an.d else.wher~ along th~ Atlantic and Gulf 

coasts. The old offshore trench is now filled with a woody-peat 

deposit, and dense swamp vegetation grows there. The old offshore bar is not continuous, but like most offshore bars, it has 

the higher and lower parts separated by tidal scour channels. It 

is known locally as the Parker Sand Islands. 

The Talbot terrace is usually a narrow fringing area around 

the wider Penholoway terrace. South of DeSoto County itflares 

out into a wide lobe, called Glades Peninsula in this report, and 

a long tongue extends to form the floor of the southern part of 

Fisheating Bay. North of Lake Okeechobee a wide embayment, 

called Seminole Bay in this report, is largely floored with Talbot 

deposits. Seminole Bay lies between Highlands Peninsula on the 

west and Okeechobee Peninsula on the east. It was a very shallow 

bay, open to the ocean on the south, and it received the flow of 

ancestral Kissimmee River in its northern end when that river 

first came into existence. Lake lstokpoga appears to occupy an 

original depression on the floor of Seminole Bay. 

East and northeast of Lake Okeechobee is the wide projettion 

of the Okeechobee Peninsula, with a long narrow strip of Penholoway terrace as its cor_e. 0\_<~ecpobee Peninsula seems to have be!'!r.J. 

formed in the same manner as the rest of these old peninsulas; 

that is, by longshore currents dropping their load of sand in the 

form of a broad spit. 

Across Caloosahatchee Strait from the broad lobe of Glades 

Peninsula is roughly pear-shaped Immokalee Island, which is 

surmounted by a very small area that may possibly belong to the 

Penholoway formation. Immokalee Island still bears noticeable 

beach ridges in its southwestern quarter. These old beach ridges 

and intervening swales trend roughly west-northwest to eastsoutheast and parallel the southwestern shoreline of the island. 

See the map showing directions of surficial flow {pl. 11 ). 

In addition to these old shorelines features, the long north-south ... 

trending drainageway of the Okaloacoochee Slough and the eastwest-trending extension known· as the DeviPs Garden occur on 

Immokalee Island. They are probably inherited from old tidal 

runways and are largely original features on the bottom of the 

Talbot sea. They have been modified by subsequent erosion and 

possibly by solution in the underlying shell marl. In places they 

may be partly blocked by old sand bars. 
140 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

The Talbot terrace is remarkably flat, and drainage on it is 

very sluggish. Sloughs, shallow ponds, and swamps abound, and 

there are wide ·grassy plains with bunch grasses, palmettos, and 

pines. 

PAMLICO TERRACE 

All the land of southern Florida lying below the 25-foot contour, 

where it skirts the outer boundary o.f the Talbot terrace, and above 

the 5-foot contour which marks the inner boundary of the Silver Bluff 

terrace (p: 146-147), is a part of the Pamlico terrace. The 

Pamlico shoreline is generally very difficult to trace because of 

the nature of the materials and the slope of the land surface upon 

which the Pamlico sea encroached. 

In some places, notably west of the St. Lucie River in St. Lucie 

County, the shoreline becomes markedly steeper; probably this 

was caused by wave erosion. In others, southwest of Immokalee, 

Collier County, for example, the shoreline is marked by fring.ing 

swamps developed in the shallow offshore trench, and the shoreline itself can be plainly seen from high in the air. Lake Trafford 

lies in a re-entrant in the shoreline in this area. 

The shoreline of the Pamlico sea is roughly indicated on the 

hypsometric map, plate 10. It followed up river valleys developed 

in previous low stands (glacial stages) of the sea, especially up 

such streams as Myakka River, Peace Creek, Kissimmee River, 

and Caloosahatchee River. The Caloosahatchee valley was flooded 

by 10 to 15 feet of marine water and formed a strait about 7 to 10 

miles wide connecting the Gulf of Mexico with Pleistocene Okeechobee Bay (which was then a shallow spoal area similar to the 

present Bay of Florida)-this strait was deepest in the area now 

occupied by Lake Okeechobee. 

The Pamlico terrace is remarkably flat and even, except in 

certain areas where it was made uneven by beach-ridge, swale, 

and dune deposits. Over most of southern Florida it is so flat 

lying that the eye can detect no change in slope. 

The Pamlico terrace il:! poorly drained. Few well-established 

drainage·courses cross it, and these are sluggish streams usually 

choked with aquatic weeds. Most important of these rivers is the 

northward-flowing St. Johns, lying in an old inner lagoon and 

separated from the present ocean by beach ridges. Its headwaters 

lie on the wet prairies and in the marshes at about the latitude of 

Lake Kissimmee. 

Many small streams and canals drain water from the higher 

terrace lands surrounding Lake Okeechobee. Among them are 

Fisheating Creek, Harney Pond Canal, Indian Prairie Canal and 
GEOMORPHOLOGY 141 

Tayloor Creek. The lower courses of both Kissimmee River and 

Fisheating Creek cross the Pamlico terrace as extended consequent streams. 

The largest stream flowing oceanward from the Lake Okeechobee area is the Caloosahatchee River on the west. The St. 

Lucie River on the east drains an area of beach ridge and swale 

topography through an old lagoon separated from the ocean by 

high beach ridges. North of the estuary of the Caloosahatchee 

River are the estuaries of Peace Creek and Mya~ka River 

emptying into Charlotte Harbor. 

Numerous small rivers or creeks are on both the east' and west 

sides of the State. Rivers such as the Estero and Imperial flow 

from the higher parts of the terrace to the Gulf of Mexico. Streams 

such as the Jupiter, New, and Miami Rivers flow to the Atlantic 

Ocean. All these streams carry highly colored swamp waters and 

accomplish little mechanical erosion. 

Regions of special mention developed entirely or mainly on the 

Pamlico terrace of southern Florida are the sandy flatlands, the 

Big Cypress Swamp and the Atlantic Coastal Ridge. 

TilE SANDY FLATLANDS 

The sandy flatlands are developed over most of southern Florida 

and include deposits of all the Pleistocene marine terraces having 

shorelines of 100 feet or less above sea level. Most of this area 

is lower than 25 feet and generally is very flat; the remainder may 

be slightly rolling, and it is called by Sanford (1909, p. 185-186) 

the "Rolling Sand Plains. " 

The sandy flatlands floor most of the lowlands along the Atlantic 

coast and extend west around the north side of Lake Okeechobee, 

fringing the central highlands (developed mainly on Wicomico and 

higher terraces), to the Gulf coast. (See pl. 12.) 

They continue south in this western area beyond Naples, where 

coastal marshes begin. Along the Atlantic coast they are limited 

on the east by the narrow coastal ridge with its Pleistocene dunes, 

and on the southwest and west by the eastern border of the Everglades. This strip continues southward between the Everglades 

and the coastal ridge to Coral Gables, in the Miami area, with an 

occasional break through the ridge north of lV):iami, where they 

form the floor of old drainageways and tidal channels. 

Rainfall on the sandy flatlands either sinks directly into the 

surficial sand or is stored in shallow pools from which evapotranspiration removes most or all of it. The whole flatlands area 

is· dotted with these circular intermittent ponds, generally only a 
142 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

• foot or so deep and rarely over 4 feet deep. Diameters of the 

ponds may reach several hundred feet. Many of these ponds, as 

seen in aerial photographs, look remarkably like the Carolina 

bays. The ponds appear over areas' of deep sand as well as over 

areas where only a thin layer of sand mantles underlying limestones and shell marls. These ponds may be a result of solution 

of the underlying calcareous rocks, thus creating a local subsidence, or they may result from original inequalities on the sand 

floor, which were left when the sea withdrew, modified now by 

the wash of small waves and wind-impelled currents. Many definitely are in alinement, which was caused by underground solution 

along either horizontal passages or old bars and ridges. 

Transpiration and evaporation probably account for the disposal 

of almost all the rainfall on the sandy flatlands, as they do in the 

Everglades. Studies described in the section on Surface water 

(Quantitative studies) and material by Clayton, Neller, and Allison 

(1942, p. 27-35), have shown that for limited areas transpiration 

and evaporation may exceed rainfall, the deficiency being accounted for by seepage and runoff from contiguous areas. 

Drainage of the flatlands is sluggish and there is generally 

little or no surface flow, except in the rainy season when lower 

parts are inundated. Although the surficial sands a!'e permeable, 

the movement of ground water is very slow because the gradient 

is almostflat and because the immediately underlying shell marls, 

cal"careous marls, and clayey· marls are of low permeability. 

In some of the rather well marked areas on the sandy flatlands, 

drainageways inherited from the past and modified by present 

conditions are still used by surface waters. Most important of 

these are the Okaloacoochee Slough and Devil's Garden, the 

Loxahatchee Marsh, and the Allapattah Marsh. (See pl. 12.) 

·THE OKALOACOOCBEE SLOUGB AND DEVlL'S GA8DEN 

The Okaloacoochee Slough and Devil's Garden (pl. 12) form a 

marshy drainageway on the sandy flatlands south of the Caloosahatchee River, west of the Everglades, atid in general, north of 

the Big Cypress Swamp. The Okaloacoochee Slough extends southward about 50 miles from . the vicinity of La Belle into the Big 

Cypress Swamp. Its average width is little more than 2 miles, 

but a wide prong, called the Devil's Garden, extends northeastward from Immokalee. 

The northern end of the Okaloacoochee ·Slough, has a number of 

branches, most of which discharge into little creeks flowing into 

the Caloosahatchee River. The southern end branches out in a 

similar manner, but it is lost in the maze of intertwining courses 

in the Big Cypress Swamp. Fahkahatchee Slough is the southwestern branch of the Okaloacoochee Slough. 
GEOMORPHOLOGY 143 

The Okaloacoochee Slough drains both northward and southward 

from about the latitude of the Devil's Garden. The Devil's Garden 

itself drains westward most of the time to Okaloacoochee Slough, 

but in times of high water it may overflow in all directions-into 

the flatlands on the north, the Everglades on the east, and into the 

Big Cypress Swamp on the south. (See pl. 12; arrows indicate directions of surficial flow.) 

The Okaloacoochee Slough and Devil's Garden occupy poorly 

drained depressions on the former Pamlico and Talbot sea bottom. 

The depressions may have been inherited from an earlier age and 

are now partly obstructed by old beach bars. When the Pamlico 

sea was withdrawing from its high-water shoreline, 25 feet above 

present mean sea level, it left many low beach ridges and bars. 

These have since been modified by erosion, but many are still 

noticeable and show plainly on aerial photographs. 

Drainage from the Okaloacoochee Slough and Devil's Garden and 

from the Allapattah and Loxahatchee Marshes is retarded by a 

rank growth of vegetation and by an accumulation of organic peat 

and muck that clogs the channels; therefore, at times the movement of water is difficult to discern. Moreover, the direction of 

flow in the channels may be changed by local rains. "Spot 

showers, • which typify the rainfall in southern-Florida, may cover 

only a fraction of a square mile .or several square miles, but they 

may be so intense that surface -water gradients are temporarily 

reversed in the sluggish drainageways. 

ALLAPATTAJI MARSJI, LOXAJIATCIIEE MARSH, AND HUNGRYLAND SLOUGH 

The Allapattah Marsh occupies a P<JPrly drained depression on 

the sandy flatlands east- and northeast of Lake Okeechobee. To the 

south it splits into two prongs, one that discharges its water to 

Lake Okeechobee north and west of Indian Town, and another that 

drains almost due south of that city into the Everglades, 

The Loxahatchee Marsh and Hungryland Slough together form a 

wishbone -shaped marshy area with the apex pointed toward Jupiter 

Inlet and with prongs leading to the Everglades. Drainage is in 

both directions from a low divide in the middle of Hungryland 

Slough, and from a divide in Loxahatchee Marsh west of Kelsey 

City; Part of Loxahatchee Marsh drains directly into the Hillsboro 

Lakes Marsh at a point a few miles southeast of Loxahatchee. 

(See pl. 12.) 

SAND\' FLATLANDS SOUTII OF LOXAIIATCIIEE MARSH 

Southward from the Loxahatchee Marsh the sandy flatlands extend just past Coral Gables, where they abut against the coastal 
144 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

ridge of oolitic limestone and are overlapped by Everglades soils. 

Apparently the sand never extendedfarther south because the currents that swept the sand southward became ineffective there. 

Between Fort Lauderdale and Miami are several low, shallow 

valleys, floored with Pamlico sand, that reach to the present 

shore. These valleys are called transverse glades because of their 

orientation and their characteristic soils and vegetation. They 

occupy old drainage courses cut through the Miami oolite, probably in early Wisconsin time, and subsequently partly filled with 

sand during later Wisconsin and Recent time. 

Outside the Atlantic Coastal Ridge, a strip of Recent sand extends southward to Miami as beach, beach-bar, and lagoon areas. 

THE BIG CYPRESS SWAMP 

The Big Cypress Swamp (pl. 12) is an indefinitely defined area. 

In general, it is bounded on the east and southeast by the Everglades, a region distinguished by its organic soils, sedges, and 

lower lying area. The sandy flatlands adjoin it on the north (where 

they are higher) and on the west (where they are lower). On the 

southwest and south, the Big Cypress Swamp merges into the lowlying coastal marshes :md mangrove swamps, In marked contrast 

to the surrounding areas of mucky, sandy, and marly soils with 

no outcropping rocks, the Big Cypress Swamp has large areas with 

solution-riddled limestone at the surface, or with thin marly soil 

lying in shallow pockets in the rock. This marly soil in old 

drainageways is suitable for truck farming if the water table is 

adequately controlled by ditches, dikes, dams, and pumps. 

Natural drainage is very defe-ctive, and ~n the rainy season the 

larger part of the Big Cypress Swamp usually is flooded; but even 

under flood conditions the only discernible movement of water is 

in shallow, poorly defined drainage courses, locally called 

sloughs, rivers, or creeks. Near the Gulf of Mexico these courses 

are better defined; however, they are so intricate that the service 

of a guide is required by a stranger traversing them . 

. T.he Big Cypress Swamp is not a vast morass of huge mossshrouded cypress trees, as is supposed by many people unfamiliar 

with the area. Instead, it is an area of alternating swampy and 

higher land (hammocks), with the former prevailing. Davis (1943) 

describes these relationships and .lists the principal components 

of the flora. The differences in the heights of aerated ground above 

the water table cause a marked diversification in the distribution 

of plants. The higher areas support bunch grasses, palmettos, and 

pines, whereas the lower areas are covered with cypress, much 

of it stunted, and with willow~ bay, reeds, sedges, and other marsh 

plants. This relationship is especially notiCeable near the borders, 
GEOMORPHOLOGY 145 

where strips of coastal marsh, of sandy flatland, or of Everglades 

may invade the Big Cypress Swamp for several miles. In general, 

there is no sharp line of demarcation between areas; instead, they 

merge into each other. 

UIE ATLANTIC COASTAL RIDGE 

The Atlantic _Coastal Ridge extends along the Atiantic shor_e 

as an irregularly shaped higher strip between the sandy flatlands 

and the Everglades on the west, ahd the ocean on the east. It has 

no sharp crest and appears to rise almost imperceptibly from the 

Everglades and descend gently to the ocean. Along several short 

stretches of shore (the most notable at Silver Bluff in Miami), 

there are several low sea cliffs. Silver Bluff is notched by wave 

action at a former higher stand of the sea, 5 feet above present 

mean sea level (fig. 23), 

The greatest altitudes on the coastal ridge (about 50 feet) are 

found on the summits of sand dunes formed during the Pleistocene 

epoch, These dunes lie in a series of nearly parallel and broken 

rows inland from the present shoreline, The most southern dunes 

are found in the region west of Fort Lauderdalel ·, but here the 

dunes are much lower and broader than in the vicinity of West 

Palm Beach, Jupiter, and Hobe Sound, Northward from Hobe Sound 

and extending into St. Lucie County, the belt of dunes surmounts 

old beach ridges and is better developed. These dunes are now 

quiescent and largely overgrown with bunch grasses, low shrubs, 

pines, and palmettos. 

South of the Fort Lauderdale area there are no dunes on the 

coastal ridge, although large amounts of sand are present as far 

south as Coral Gables. This veneer of Pamlico sand was spread 

out over the limestone bedrock by ocean currents during midWisconsin time. 

The coastal ridge almost everywhere has a rock foundation; 

north of Boca Raton it consists of sandy limestone and calcareous 

sandstone of the Anastasia formation, and south of Baca Raton it 

is the Miami oolite. The oolite lies at or near the surface almost 

everywhere from Miami southward to the point where the ridge 

finally dies out on the mainland southwest pf Florida City. The 

height of the coastal ridge south of Fort Lauderdale averages 

about 8 feet above sea level; maximum altitudes of about 21 feet 

occur on the western shore of Biscayne Bay at Coconut Grove, 

Miami. 

The coastal ridge disappears southwest of Florida City in a 

series of low "islands, • often called "Everglades Keys," sur1 Pine Island, so called from the fact that prior to drainage of the glades this large, pinecovered dune was entirely surrounded by water, is the best developed of these ice-age dunes, 
146 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

rounded by lowlands of Everglades soils. The coastal ridge reappears once again in the lower Florida Keys, from Big Pine Key 

to Key West, where Miami oolite is again the bedrock. Maximum 

altitude measured on Big Pine Key is less than 7 feet, and. on Key 

West it is about 13 feet. 

Marly or mucky strips, called by Harper (1927, p, 176) "transverse glades, • cut across the coastal ridge in several places. 

The plants of these glades are unlike those of the higher ridge 

land and are very distinctive. Some of the transverse glad.es, 

especially south of Miami, head on the ridge itself and merge 

seaward with the coastal prairie developed on the Silver Bluff 

terrace. They are generally floored with gray marl soils, and 

when the water table is properly controlled they form excellent 

agricultural lands. 

SILVER BLUFF TERRACE 

The Silver Bluff terrace has not previously been described in 

detail, although the shoreline that borders it has been partly described (Parker and Cooke, 1944, p. 22-44; Parker, 1945b, p. 

130, 138-139) and the terrace adjacent to Silver Bluff (a wave-cut 

bench) was called the "Miami bench. • 

Since then, this wave-cut bench and its bordering shoreline have 

been found to be quite extensive. They have been traced and 

mapped with considerable accuracy in Dade County, but with less 

accuracy in adjoining couqties .. The Silver Bluff terrace has been 

found to underlie most of the Everglades and the coastal marshes. 

A map, plate 13, shows the Silver Bluff terrace in Dade County, 

the approximate location of the old shoreline, and the areas 

that were dry land, mostly islands, in the time of Silver Bluff 

deposition. 

Not only are the islands and surrounding terraces now distinguishable by physiographic means; they support an' entirely different assemblage of plants (reeds, sedges, willows, wax myrtle, 

on the terrace, and pines, bunchgrasses, and saw palmetto, on the 

islands) and thus aid field mapping. The area shown in plate 13 

has been mapped by leveling and by studying aerial photographs. 

Modern shorelines are not uniformly level throughout their distribution, nor was that of the Silver Bluff in Pleistocene time. In 

Florida, along the open ocean this Pleistocene shoreline now averages about 5 feet above sea level, but in protected places and 

areas where the oolite is harder it may be several feet higher. 

Thus, it does not everywhere coincide with the 5-foot contour line. 

Nor does the terrace have a perfectly smooth surface. It shows 

shallow undulations, trenches, and low ridges caused by differen-
GEOMORPHOLOGY 147 

tial erosion of oolite varying in hardness and whose original depositional surface was not level. However, as a whole it is fairly 

uniform. It slopes gently seaward along the Atlantic Ocean; and 

inland, between the islands and the mainland that existed in the 

time of Silver Bluff deposition, the terrace slopes gently toward a 

broad, shallow groove that is oriented in a northeast-southwest 

direction and connects with outlets on the northeast at Miami and 

Fort Lauderdale, and on the southwest with the Bay of Florida. 

Most of the Everglades and coastal marshes in Dade County are 

developed on the Silver Bluff terrace. The shoreline is traceable 

in Broward County (northward from Dade County on the eastern 

side of the Atlantic Coastal Ridge), but it loses its identity near 

Pompano where the geologic materials that compose the Atlantic 

Coastal Ridge are not consolidated-sand, not limestone, oc.curs 

there. On the western side of the Coastal Ridge the Silver Bluff 

shoreline follows a sinuous path beneath the Everglades soils and 

connects with the Lake Okeechobee basin .. From here, the shoreline follows sou_thward in a line roughly parallel to the EvergladesBig Cypress Swamp border. 

Ma'cNeil (1950, p. 104) has recognized the Silver Bluff shoreline in northern Florida and Georgia. However, the fact that the 

Silver Bluff shoreline and terrace are. easily traceable only in 

southeastern Florida is not at all surprising: Elsewhere along the 

Atlantic and Gulf coasts there are: few areas of consolidated rocks 

in which the record of this latest Pleistocene shoreline could be 

either developed or preserved. 

Sands and other unconsolidated materials soon weather, creep, 

and slump, reducing a once-prominent sea-cut scarp to a mild 

change in slope of the land surface. Although very hard rocks may 

not even. be noticeably cut in a r~latively short stand of the sea at 

a given level, softlimestones develop a noticeable and lasting cut. 

At the present time, southeastern Florida presents an outstanding 

example of the development and preservation of the modern shoreline. If present sea level starts to recede, it would not be long, 

geologically speaking, until most recognizable features of the 

present shore elsewhere along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts would 

be so nearly obliterated thaf they would be recognizable only to 

the trained eye. 

THE EVERGLADES 

The Everglades, a region of organic soils (pl. 12), occupies an 

irregularly defined area of about 4, 000 square miles, lying between slightly higher areas on all sides, except on the south and 

southwest, and developed principally on the Silver Bluff terrace. 

(See p, 118-125 for the geologic history of the Everglades.) 
148 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

An arm of the Everglades borders the western side of Lake 

Okeechobee, and a narrow tapering arm extends northward along 

the eastern side, where it merges with the Allapattah Marsh and 

cypress swamps. The Everglades extends southward and southwestward from the lake in a vast sweep about 40 miles wide and 

100 miles long, merging near the Bay of Florida and the Gulf'of 

Mexico into salt-water marshes and mangrove swamps. The 

boundary between the Everglades and surrounding areas is very 

indefinite. It may be regarded as the place where the sedges of 

the Everglades give way to true grasses and pines or cypress, or 

to salt-marsh plants and mangroves. 

Large areas in the northern and eastern parts of the. Everglades 

are almost treeless expanses of sawgrass (Mariscus iamaicensis) 

-a sedge, growingas tall as 10 or 12feet. Lowshrubs ofwax 

myrtle, willow, bay, and custard apple appear on slightly higher 

areas, generally in isolated clumps called tree islands, which are 

generally in alinement with the general drainage pattern (fig. 27). 

Figure 27. -Typical view of western part of the Everglades showing tree Islands. 

Trees grow in the Everglades where there is enough height above 

the perennial water table to allow aeration of the soil. Conditions 

are very favorable along spoil banks, and trees and shrubs grow 

there in rank profusion. 

The accumulation of peat and muck is still continuing in certain 

undeveloped areas of the Everglades where each year's growth of 

plants dies and sinks below the surface of the shallow water and 

is incorporated in the organic mass below. And it would continue 
GEOMORPHOLOGY 149 

at a much faster rate except for man's interference by drainage 

and farming. 

FLOOR OF THE EVERGLADES 

The floor of the Everglades is chiefly comprised of rocks of the 

Fort Thompson formation, except in the south where the Miami 

oolite is prevalent, A thin gray blanket of relatively impermeable 

Lake Flirt marl covers vast areas of the rocky floor, and along 

the west and east margins of the Everglades (as far south as the 

latitude of Miami) a thin mantle of Pamlico sand occurs. Over 

these materials are several kinds of peat and muck (Evans and 

Allison, 1942, p. 34--46). 

Sanford (1909, p. 192-193) thought that the rock floor in the 

northern part of the Everglades slopes to the west more steeply 

than in the southern part, that depth to bedrock 5 miles west of 

the eastern rim back of Fort Lauderdale is probably not less than 

20 feet, and that the Everglades probably occupies a series of 

comparatively shallow rock hollows. He states, "Whether these 

hollows were as deep when the Everglades first occupied them as 

they now are, that is, whether they have been deepened by solution 

through underground drainage, whether they represent original 

inequalities of deposition of the lime rock, or whether they are 

buried shallow valleys cannot be determined from the evidence at 

hand. It is probable, however, that the deepening and enlarging 

effect of underground solution has been exaggerated. " 

Subsequent writers have added little to this concept because of 

lack of specific information. Of the rock floor, Fenneman (1938, 

p. 63) writes: "Under it (the organic soils) is a floor of limestone 

believed to be nearly level. Rarely, if ever, does it fall below sea 

level, and nowhere in the Everglades proper does it reach the 

surface. The fact that it reaches the surface on all margins, except along the shore to the southwest, suggests that the Everglades 

may owe their existence to an original rock basin. The rock floor 

is slightly more uneven "in the north than in the south, and various 

explanations have been offered, based on erosion, solution, and 

deformation. • 

Data gathered by the U. S, Geological Survey while drilling 

numerous exploratory test wells, and by the Soil Conservation 

Service while making soil surveys in the Everglades, show that 

Sanford's and Fenneman's observations were fairly accurate. Beginning along the eastern rim of the Everglades (fig. 28), from 

Lake Okeechobee to the latitude of the Palm Beach-Broward 

County boundary, there is a rapid descent from the Atlantic 

Coastal Ridge to the shallow basin that contains the Hillsboro 

Lakes Marsh in its southern end (pl. 12 and fig. 28). Elevations 

drop from about 10 feet to about 3 feet (mean sea level, u. s. 
150 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Figure 28. -contour map of rock floor of Everglades. 
. GEOMORPHOLOGY 151 

Coast and Geodetic Survey datum) within a distance of about 1 

mile-a change in elevation that is distinctly scarplike. There is 

a: shallow trough leading into the shallow basin of the Hillsboro 

Lake Marsh from the southeastern side of Lake Okeechobee. 

Southward from the Hillsboro Lakes Marsh this trough continues 

to connect with old spillways and tidal channels emptying into the 

Atlantic Ocean between Fort Lauderdale and Miami. Some of 

these old channels have been deeply eroded in the rock and later 

filled with sand; Sanford referred to these sand-filled channels 

when he said that depth to bedrock west of Fort Lauderdale is. not 

less than 20 feet. However, he did not know that these depths 

exist only in channels, because sufficient data were not available 

to him. 

West of this trough, which lies along the eastern margin of the 

Everglades, the rock floor forms a domelike surfa.ce (an erosion 

remnant) with its top about 10 feet above mean sea level. This 

"high• centers on the Palm Beach-Broward County line about 6 

or 7 miles east of the Palm Beach-Hendry County line, and due 

south of Lake Okeechobee. From the top of this low dome the 

floor slopes gently northward and southward. To the north the 

slope is quite gentJe until the basin of Lake Okeechobee is reached; 

then the drop is abrupt. To the south, also, the slope is slight. 

To the west the slope increases and the floor drops about 3 feet 

in 4 miles to where a narrow trough (with floor elevation about 8 

feet above mean sea level) lies along the eastern margin of the 

Big Cypress E?wamp and the sandy flatlands north of the Big 

Cypress. (See pl. 12 and fig. 28.) 

Farther south, beyond the domelike area and between the Big 

Cypress Swamp on the west and the Atlantic Coastal Ridge on the 

east, the floor of the Everglades slopes gently from the sides. 

toward the center where a low, broad, flat valley swings gently to 

the southwest. 

These major features of the floor of the Everglades are locally 

marked by smaller basins and higher areas. In general, the floor 

slopes from the Silver Bluff shorelines at the sides toward the 

middle, but the slope is interrupted by local ridges and basins, 

none higher than the lands surrounding the Everglades and few 

deeper than sea level. 

Solution is· actively engaged in etching out the floor of the Everglades at the present time, deepening the hollows and roughening 

the ridges. Deposition, too, is taking place in some parts, .especially in the soils of the hammocks where calcium carbonate is 

being deposited, making a carbonaceous marl that l,ocally hardens 

to friable, impure limestone. 

,346881 0-55--12 
152 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUlHF.ASTERN FLORIDA 

DRAINAGE PATI'ERN OF TilE EVERGLADES 

In the Everglades there are many elongate tree islands, arranged more or less in parallel rows and separated from one another by shallow "swales, • "runs, • •sloughs, • or "lakes, • as 

they ·are variously called locally. These tree islands and swales 

trend northwest-southeast in the upper part of the Everglades as 

far south as the old spillways through the coastal ridge between 

Miami and Fort Lauderdale, then they begin to bend to the south, 

and finally, about 18 miles south of Miami, they swing abruptly 

to the southwest. 

"The linear arrangement of this pattern is most noticeable from 

the air, from which, as Dickerson (1942, p. 136-139) says, "They 

reveal a decided 'grain' to a broad sweep of country*** as if a 

great coarse broom had been rudely brushed over the low-lying 

Everglades region. • Such an arrangement of alternate strips of 

tree islands and sawgrass is developed best toward the western 

side of the Everglades in the vicinity of the Tamiami Trail 

(fig. 27). 

Dickerson postulates that this "grain• may be the result of ocean 

currents during Pamlico time when this whole area was a shallow 

sea bottom·. He notes, •off the east coast of Florida a strong 

south-flowing inshore current prevails, and this current drags the 

quartz sands from the north and mixes them with the coral sands 

of the Florida Keys as it sweeps westward in a great arc. The 

marked parallelism between these Everglades groovings and the 

present east and south shorelines of Florida suggests that the 

same agents-ocean currents-s.haped both. • 

Dickerson's hypothesis, which is based entirely on photographs 

taken from an altitude of 14, 000 feet, fails on closer examination, 

The "grain• of the Everglades, interpreted by him as traces of 

ocean current, is believed to be developed entirely onfresh-water 

peat and muck and apparently does not reflect an underlyingpattern of marine bars. It merely represents a drainage pattern produced on a very gentle sloping surface of organic deposits. The 

"grain• is composed of tree islands and swales that trend parallel 

to the regional slope, just as on_e would expect in an area of consequent drainage. Streams flowing across the Sunderland terrace 

into Okefenokee Swamp in Clinch and Warren Counties, Ga., show 

a similai' pattern of parallel lines. On certain parts of the 

Pamlico terrace, especially in St. Lucie and Martin Counties, a 

parallel arrangement. of old dunes, beach ridges, bars, and lagoons is noticeable. This pattern is a direct product of the lowering of a sea level in a shoreline envii'onment but is n~t the same 

as that of the organic Everglades soils. 

The drainage pattern in the Everglades is gradually being 

changed by man's operations. "Subsidence valleys•, according to 
CEOMORPHOLOGY 153 

Evans and Allison (1942, p. 38), have developed along the principal drainage canals, and the flow in the northern end of the 

Everglades at certain times of the year is northward into the 

lake, exactly opposite to the original condition. 

LAKE OKEECHOBEE 

Lake Okeechobee occupies the northermost and largest of the 

interconnected series of basins and shallow troughs that comprise 

the Lake Okeechobee-Everglades lobe of the Silver Bluff terrace 

(fig. 28). The lake basin is an original hollow in the Pliocene sea 

floor that has been modified by solution, erosion, and deposition 

of sediments during the Pleistocene and Recent epochs. 

The lake averages a little less than 30 miles in diameter, and 

its area usually varies between 650 and 725 square miles, depending on the stage, (See section on Surface water for detailed 

information on the lake.) 

The lake is very shallow; the deepest parts are approximately 

at sea level (fig. 28). It is saucer-shaped, and because of its 

physical characteristics it is subject to violent wind tides and 

wave action during storms, According to House Document 469, 

76th Congress, 1st session, pages 8-9: •The hurricane of 1933, 

with a maximum wind velocity of about 80 mph, caused a hurricane tide of approximately 5. 6 feet. The hurricane of 1926, with 

a maximum wind velocity of about 90 mph, caused a hurricane 

tide of 6. 8 feet. The hurricane of 1928, with a maximum wind 

velocity of 135 to 150 mph, caused a hurricane tide of 13. 2 feet, 

This hurricane caused such great loss of life and property damage 

that it was the primary cause of the Federal Government undertaking the present flood-control project. Past records show that 

hurricanes with much greater wind velocity than that of 1928 have 

occurred, notably that of the Florida Keys in 1935, which had an 

estimated wind velocity of approximately 200 mph and a maximum 

hurricane tide of 16 to 18 feet. • 

From these data it is easily understood that the bottom of the 

lake is rather thoroughly scoured by the action of storm waves, 

and because these waves effectively cast out detrital material, 

loose sand is scarce on the bottom. Around portions of the lake, 

especially on the northeastern, eastern, and southeastern borders, a definite sand ridge has been built up. This is a beach 

ridge, probably built by storm waves, and it lies outside the 

hurricane levee. It is the dwelling place of most of the rural 

families who live around the eastern margin of the lake. Shallow 

sand-point wells driven into this deposit furnish domestic water 

supplies. For information on ground-water inflow into the lake 

see p. 106-107. 
154 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

HILLSBORO LAKES MARSH 

Hillsboro Lakes Marsh (pl. 12) is a boggy area of about 55 

square miles in Palm Beach County. It lies north of the Hillsboro 

Canal, south of the West Palm Beach Canal, west of the strip of 

s.andy flatlands that borders the Atlantic Coastal Ridge, and, in 

general, east of a north-south line through the junction of the 

Cross Canal and the West Palm Beach Canal. 

Itoccupies one of the large and deeper basins in the floor of the 

Everglades-a basin now nearly filled with peat and muck. These 

organic soils are being constantly built up over the greater part 

of this area by aquatic and semiaquatic vegetation. Expanses of 

open water, dotted with small tree islands on peat and muck 

and flotant masses of "floating islands, • exist over large areas. 

In shallower parts, sawgrass grows thickly; in deeper water, 

pond lilies and pickerel weed are the commonest plants. 

Since the excavation of the Hillsboro Canal and the resultant 

lowering of the water table, rejuvenation of the better-established 

drainage courses has occurred, and at the present time, some of 

them have become small streams in which the underlying organic 

deposit has been stripped away in their channels and the bedrock 

exposed. Indian Run is a good example. 

COI\STAL MARSHES AND MANGROVE SWAMPS 

The coastal marshes and mangrove swamps are developed on 

the seaward margin of the Silver Bluff terrace and along the border ofthe presentseashore. In southeastern Floridatheirgreatest 

development is in southern and eastern Dade County, but they 

continue as an irregular narrow band along much of the Atlantic 

coast behind the sandy beach ridge. 

The mangrove swamps are generally floored with a black peaty 

deposit, often with considerable inorganic material (quartz sand, 

chiefly) admixed. The coastal marshes are characterized by 

marly soils mixed locally with sand and muck. In the area bordering salt water the vegetation consists of the usual salt-marsh 

subtropical assemblage, which gives way to fresh-water marsh 

plants at the outer edge of the sandy flatlands, the Everglades, or 

the Atlantic Coastal Ridge. The general relationship of these 

plants has recently been presented by Davis (1943). The coastal 

marshes have yielded excellent .truck crops in areas where a· 

properly controlled water table has been maintained, 
GEOMO):tPHOL<XY 155 

THE FLORIDA KEYS 

The Florida Keys are low-lying islands that extend about 140 

miles to the southwest in a gently curving arc from Soldier Key 

(in Biscayne Bay) to and including Key West. 

The keys are divisible into two groups, distinguishable both by 

their difference in rock characteristics and by their shape. The 

"upper keys• include the group lying between Soldier Key and 

Bahia Honda. They are of coral-reef origin and are elongated in 

a direction paratlel to the coastline along which the reef grew 

during the Pleistocene epoch. They average about a quarter of a 

mile in width and range in length from a few hundred yards to 

many miles-Key Largo, the longest, is almost.30 miles long. All 

are low; land surface in excess of 5 feet above sea level is rare. 

The "lower keys" are merely an extension of the oolitic limestone reef or bar on which Miami and other mainland cities of 

southeastern Florida are built. These lower keys begin with Big 

Pine Key, and are generally elongated at right angles to the elongation of the. upper keys. This northwest-southeast elongation of 

the lower keys is caused largely by the direction of movement of 

the tidal scour produced by differences in time and height of the 

tides in the Gulf of Mexico and the Strait of Florida, but it is also 

influenced by the original shape and differences in altitude of the 

surface of ,the oolitic bar from which the rocks of the lower keys 

are formed. 

The shape of the keys is also modified by agencies other than 

the tides. The work of the waves along the shorelines (especially 

during hurricanes) is important, and solution of the limestone by 

percolating water is another vital factor. The latter is especially 

noticeabie in the so-called potholes or natural we lis which occupy 

a large part of the total volume of the rock. On both Big Pine Key 

and Key West these open vertical solution holes are commonly 

called springs, although they do not flow. Some· of the larger solution areas, produced by coalescense of a group of small, adjacent potholes, create ponds, or depressed areas reaching near the 

water table. These latter depressions become centers of extremely lush vegetation. 
GROUND WATER 

13y Garald G. Parker 

OCCURRENCE 

INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL PRINCIPLES 

DEF1NU110N o·F GROUND WATER 

Water that occurs beneath the surface of the earth in the zone 

of saturation where it fills the interstices, joints, crevices, fissures, solution holes, and any or all other voids, is called ground 

water (Meinzer, 1923a; 1923b, p. 5). It is the water that supplies 

springs and wells, and that seeps into lakes and streams to maintain their stages and flows between rains. The geologic formations 

whose interstices or openings are filled with water, and from which 

water is collectible for use, are called aquifers. 

• 

NONARTESIAN WATER AND 'IHE WATER TABLE 

The water that infiltrates the ground ,and fills the voids between 

rock particles makes a water-saturated zone whose upper surface 

is under atmospheric pressure; this surface is called the water 

table. To most laymen the term "water table" denotes a flat or 

plane surface; actually it seldom is that. A glance at figure 29 will 

show plainly what the term means. 

Figure 29. -Idealized block diagram showing relationship of water table to land surface. 

The water table is higher beneath uplands than beneath lowlands, 

and in general it reflects: the topography of the land in a subdued 

fashion. The water table is an unconfined air-water surface, acted 

upon mainly by gravity and atmospheric pressure; in a well that 

penetrates the water table, water ordinarily will not rise above the 

water level in the surrounding aquifer, which contrasts with the 

157 
158 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

water of artesian aquifers (see following section). Where the water table intersects the lancl surface, seeps or springs form~ and, 

ac'Cdrding to topography, a marsh, lake~ or stream results. 

Vadose water is water held in suspensionin the zone of aeration 

above the water table. In areas where the ground-water resources 

are carefully studied, maps of the water table may be prepared for 

selected times, Such maps show by contours the altitude of the 

water tabie with reference to a common datum plane (such as mean 

sea level) and indicate the direction of ground-water flow, which is 

normal to the contours. Such maps may indicate the source of water 

of a given well field, the area influenced by pumping from the well, 

and other valuable and pertinent data. Several water-table maps 

are given elsewhere in this report (see, for example, figs. 32, 

42, 46, 77, and 189). 

ARTlilllAN WATER AND THE PIEZOMETRIC SURFACE 

When water completely fills an aquifer whose upper surface is 

relatively impermeable, it is under pressure both from the water 

entering lt!.e aquifer at a higher level (where there is no confining 

upper surface) and from the weight of the overlying beds. A well 

drilled into such an artesian aquifer will relieve the p;r:essure, thus 

locally allowing the water to rise in the· well to a distance necessary 

to balance the pressure. Such a well is an artesian well regardless 

of whether or not it will flow, Figure 30 is a cross section of a 

ow 

c ·::; ; ; ~g . I . i·~ I 0 

f ~~ ~ ~ ~ -- ~ ~ . .!;! ; ~ 

; 

. 

·~ 

; i . .. 

.. ~ 

i ~ 

~ z 

Figure 30.-Idealized cross section showing relatiOilship between water table and piezometric 

surface of artesian water In an area with geologk structure similar to that ot Kissimmee valley. 
GROUND WATER 159 

hypothetical area with a geologic structure similar to that of the 

Kissimmee River valley. Aquifer A contains only nonartesian water 

or water that occurs under water-table conditions. Layer B, a 

bed of relatively impermeable marl or clayey material, separates 

aquifer A from aquifer C, which, down slope from the intake area, 

contains water under artesian pressure. 

In the highland area, where permeable beds c·rop out, aquifer C 

has a water table, and the water there is not confined. Such an 

area is termed a "recharge area", because it is there that the 

aquifer naturally receives its water. An artesian aquifer is both 

an underground reservoir and a conduit operating under natural 

pressures, and the water in it behaves in a manner similar to water 

in a city water-supply distribution system. 

When water is withdrawn from an artesian wel}, no unwatering of 

the aquifer occurs unless the water level is drawn down below the 

bottom of the overlying confining beds; instead, the space formerly 

occupied by the removed water is taken up by a combination of both 

the expansion of the water remaining,. and the compression of the 

aquifer resulting from the lowered pressure. Unwateringmay 

eventually occur in the recharge area where the water level declines 

when the effect of well-discharge reaches it, On the contrary, when 

water is withdrawn from an aquifer under water-table conditions 

an actual unwatering of the aquifer occurs in the area surrounding 

the well. 

The lowering of pressure in an artesian system, caused by discharge from a well, is somewhat comparable to that in a city watersupply system when a faucet is opened. In the city water-supply 

system the pipes are rigid and comparatively nonexpanding; thus, 

the pressure changes in the distribution system are readily transmitted to the elevated tank where the water level drops when faucets 

discharge. In artesian aquifers such rigidity is not known; most 

aquifers are more or less elastic and may eventually suffer some 

compaction and a certain amount of permanent loss of capacity 

through development. For further information on elasticity of 

artesian aquifers the reader is referred especially to two papers 

by Meinzer (1928, p. 263-291; 1937, p. 715). ' 

An imaginary surface indicating the height to which water will 

rise in tightly cased artesian wells represents the artesian head in 

any given artesian aquifer; it is called the piezometric surface, 

and is to an artesian (confined) aquifer what the water table is to 

a nonartesian aquifer. 

By mapping the piezometric surface much can be learned of the 

occurrence and behavior of water in an artesian aquifer. This was 

first done byStringfield (1936, p. 134) for the Floridan aquifer, the 

principal artesian aquifer of the State (see fig. 35 ). 
160 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

METIIODS OJ!' ll>;VESTIGATION 

The methods of investigating ground-water occurrence and behavior under varying conditions in southern Florida are those in 

general use by the U. S. Geol<:>gical Survey and were, in large 

part, developed by this Survey (Meinzer, 1931). 

Inasmuch as the occurrence and behavior of ground water is in 

large part dependent upon the geology of the area, many of the 

methods and procedures of investigation are geologic in nature. 

See pages 57-58, in the section on Geology. 

Behavior of the water in the aquifers is studied by a variety of 

means and methods; these include both qualitative and quantitative 

approaches. The latter are described in considerable detail later 

under Quantitative studies in the Miami area (p. 197-290). 

In addition to the problems of determining occurrence and behavior of water in the aquifers there have been other problems requiring special methods. Chief among these is the problem of saltwater encroachment. Test and observation wells were installed, 

water-table and isochlor maps were prepared periodically, and 

electrical resistivity studies were made (see the section on Saltwater encroachment, especially p. 712-725). Studies oft ides, rainfall, evaporation, transpiration, wind effects, and other conditions 

involved special methods, most of which are described later in the 

Quantitative studies in the Miami area. 

NON ARTESIAN wATER 

TilE WSCAl'NE AQUIFER 

The Biscayne aquifer, named after Biscayne Bay, is the source 

of the most important water supplies developed in southeastern 

Florida. It is the most productive of the shallow nonartesian 

aquifers in the area and is one of the most permeable in the world. 

The aquifer extends along the eastern coast from southern Dade 

County into coastal Palm Beach County as a wedge-shaped underground reservoir having the thin edge to the west. It underlies the 

Everglades as far north as northern Broward County, though in 

that area it is comparatively thin, and the permeability is not as 

high as it is farther east and south. 

The Biscayne aquifer is a hydrologic unit of water-bearing rocks 

ranging in age from upper Miocene through Pleistocene. The aquifer is comprised, from bottom to top, of parts or all of the following 
AREAL IN DE X 

I. Greater M lam I 

2- Coo!iitol ridQe south 

of Greoter Miomi 

3. coastal ridge north of 

Greater Miami to Donia 

4. Coastal ridge in Broward 

county north of oaniQ 

5. Coostol ridge in Palm Seoch Coul"!ty 

6. coastol ridge in Martlo County 

1. Coostol ridt;~e in St Lucil!l county 

a. Flodda Keys 

9. Evt!:rglodes National Park 

(general greo) 

10. LoVfer ~verQiode!io 

!!.Centro\ Everglades 

12.Upper Everglades 

13.Big Cypress.- Devll 1s Garden ~;~reo 

14. Ki!ii!iiimmee Volley 

15. High marine terrciC&:!'i e(ISf of 

:·ossimml!e Volley 

GROUND WATER 161 

N 

a 

F1 gure 31. -Index map of southern F1orida showing areas for which information on shallow 

· nonartesian aquifers is given. 
162 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

formations; (1) Tamiami formation (including only the uppermost 

part of. the formation-a thin layer of the highly permeable Tamiami 

limestone of Mansfield); (2) Caloosahatchee marl (relatively insignificant erosion remnants and isolated reefs); (3) Fort Thompson 

formation (the southern part); (4) Anastasia formation; (5) Key 

Largo limestone; and (6) Pamlico sand. 

The boundaries of the Biscayne aquifer seldom follow formational 

boundaries, but instead, they cut across according to the geehydrologic properties. Additional information on the geographic 

distribution of the aquifer and on the parts of the formation::? comprising the unit is presented throughout in the section on geology 

and in following sections. The Biscayne aquifer rests upon the 

Floridan aquiclude (p. 189). 

Several other shallow nonartesian aquifers exist in southern 

Florida, but they are of lesser importance. All aquifers will be 

discussed by areas in the sections that follow. (See fig. 31.) 

GREATER MIAMI AREA 

In a comprehensive report dealing with all aspects of the watersupply and related geologic factors, it is not possible to avoid some 

duplication of information; neither is it possible to bring together 

in one section all the data bearing on a particular subject. Thus, 

it will be noted that additional information on the early history and 

development of Miami's water supply will be found in the section 

on Salt-wa+er encroachment. 

DEVELOPMENT OF WELLS 

Generally, wells are easily developed in the Biscayne aquifer. 

They are either of open-hole, rock-wall construction, or they are 

finished with a sand point. Most wells are of the former type and 

are from 1:!- to 18 inches in diameter. They are used for domestic, 

industrial, and public supply, or for drainage. A common well in 

this area is 6 inches in diameter and from 50 to 65 feet deep (with 

3 to 10 feet of open hole in highly permeable sandy limestone below 

the bottom of the casing). The yield ranges from 1, 000 to 1, 500 

gpm with a drawdown during pumping of less than 4 feet; recovery 

occurs almost immediately after pumping ceases. Such wells can 

usually be· drilled in 1 or 2 days by a crew using a standard cable-. 

tool rig. 

The upper limestone of the Biscayne aquifer is ordinarily soft 

enough that pipe can be readily driven into it. Many people have 

installed their own wells for domestic or irrigation use simply by 

driving a piece ofl :!-- to 2-inch casing into the ground with a sledge 
GROUND WATER 163 

hammer, withdrawing it and emptying the included rock materials, 

then reinserting the casing in the same hole and driving it deeper, 

By repeating this process, such a well can be put down to depths 

of 20 to 40 feet in a day without undue hardship. Of course, this 

can be accomplished much more easily by machinery. Small drilling. rigs using the jet-percussion method can install such a well in 

an hour or so, 

In some parts of the Miami area, limestone is not present at 

shallow depths. Therefore it is necessary to use sand-point wells 

for development of supplies. Such wells can readily be driven 

either with a sledge hammer or with a light drilling rig. 

EARLY SUPPLIES 

Most early domestic supplies were obtained by driving casing 

by hand in the manner just described. As the population increased, 

wells of larger diameter were needed, and the first well-drilling 

rigs were built locally to do the work. The first drillers to operate 

permanently in this area were C. H. Perry, H. E, Kiser, and 

R. H. Magruder_ These three well drillers deserve much credit 

for furnishing information on early water supplies in Miami. In 

addition, an interesting, though not entir~ly correct (geologically 

and hydrologically), account of these early developments is given 

by John Sewell (1933), from whose memoirs the following is quoted, 

with the permission of JohnSewell, Jr. 

"In starting Miami as a city one of the great problems was getting 

good water. As the city lies 6 to 18 feet above sea level~ at the 

beginning everyone used a common pitcher pump hitched on a 2-

inch pipe driven into the rock 10 or 12 feet. The rock formation 

being limestone naturally gave us hard water, which made a great 

many sick when we first began using it. 

"Harry Tuttle put down the first big well, which was about 50 or 

60 feet deep, with 4-inch pipe and hitched a steam pump to it to 

furnish water for the Miami Hotel. [The Miami Hotel of which 

Mr. Sewell speaks is not the present one. The first Miami Hotel 

was built in 1896 on ,Avenue D at whatis now 235 South Miami Ave.) 

That was in the summer of 1896.' Then Mr. McDonald had a similar 

well put down to furnish the water supply for the construction of the 

Royal Palm Hotel. [Built in 1896 on the north bank of Miami River 

where it empties into Biscayne Bay.] But both these wells gave the 

hard limestone water, Later Mr. Tuttle arrangedwith Mr. Flagler 

to put a pump at a big sulfur spring near the head of the Miami 

River, which was then known as the rapids, about 4 miles above 

the city, and piped the water to the city through a 6-inch pipe. The 

power house was built and a station established with a gasoline 

engine. We would carry the drumsof gasoline up the Miami River 
164 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

on lighters, then put them on a little push car, and carry them about 

200 yards north of the river to the station over a little narrow gauged 

railroad that we had built for the purpose. The station was located 

near what is now (1921) the J. W. Watson orange grove. [Exact 

location cannot be determined but it was not far from what is now 

NW. 27th Avenue and 22nd Street.) This station was run by Tom 

Ryan, one of our engineers. of the Royal Palm construction force. 

This station remained for about one year, when it was decided to 

move the pumping station down to the city and suck the water the 

4 miles instead of pushing it and the present (1921) standpipe [located at what is now the Florida Power and Light Co.'s steamelectric plant at SW. Second Avenue and the Miami River] was built 

to store the water supply which made conditions much better. The 

water supply was limited to a 6-inch supply as that was the capacity 

of the spring. While the water was good, we had to have a greater 

supply to draw from. 

"Mr. Flagler sent a man here in the early part of 1898 to drill 

an artesian well near Avenue D and Sixth Street [now N. Miami Avenue 

and Sixth Street. Mr. Henry E. Kiser says that this well was abandoned at 65 feet and that he (Mr. Kiser) was the first driller ever 

to penetrate the artesian aquifer in 'this area], about where the 

Drake Lumber Company's office now stands. This well was put 

down about 800 feet. There was no flow-nothing but salt water-and 

this well was abandoned. 

"Dan Cosgrove, Mr. McDonald's chief engineer, had ideas of his 

own about a water supply. There was a spring in Wagner's Creek 

near 4th Street and Avenue L [Avenue Lis now NW. Seventh Avenue 

and Fourth Street is now NW. Eighth Street) which had a larger flow 

than the one in the Everglades, where we were getting our supply. 

He figured that there was a subterranean stream running from the 

spring in the Everglades and this 4th Street spring, making its way 

to the ocean. He never had an opportunity to experiment with his 

idea until 1899, when he was on construction of the Colonial House 

at Nassau, Bahama Islands, with Mr. McDonald. While he was 

constructing this hotel for Mr. Flagler, Mr. Cosgrove's health gave 

away and he was not able to continue the job. Mr. McDonald sent 

him back to Miami to let him experiment with his water investigation. I got him up a bunch of men and tools and helped him start. 

He got his lines and made his first experiment on what was then 

the golf grounds and where the present water reservoir now stands, 

at the east end of the Country Club Golf course (present NW. 11th 

Street and lOth Avenue]. He had an excavation made about 10 feet 

square and 5 feet deep, where he struck solid rock. Then he began 

drilling a 6-inch well and followed up with his iron pipe. He kept 

drilling until he got his pipe down between 50 and 60 feet in depth. 

I saw him every day and kept close track of the work. One night he 

came in and told me that he had struck flint rock, as he had not made 

an inch the whole day and had been drilling all the time, and he 
GROUND WATER 165 

seemed terribly worried. But the next day before noon he came 

rushing in to see me and said he had struck his river. As the roof 

of the river caved in the water had rushed through the pipe with 

such a flow that it came very near drowning all of his Negroes before they could get out of the hole in the ground. He was .highly 

elated at the flow of water, clear and pure. This proved that Cosgrove had the right theory. Cosgrove, to prove this theory was 

right, moved his plant down nearer the city on the same line and 

drilled a well between. 4th and 5th Streets near Avenue L. This 

water tested out pure also--just as the first. Then he moved his 

plant still nearer the standpipe, near Avenue G and 14th Street 

[at what is now SW. Second Avenue and SW. Second Street], where 

he drilled another well. This well tested out salty, which showed 

that he was near the outlet of the subterranean stream. He went 

back to the 4th Str.eet well and connected up his pipe with the pumping station and that was used for one year. When that well developed 

salt water from hard pumping it was abandoned and the permanent 

wells and reservoir were erected near the first well on the golf 

grounds and several additional wells put down, where we are still 

(1921) getting our water supply, only now we have a 30-inch supply 

line from the reservoir to the standpipe. 

"In the spring of 1919 some of the wells sprung salt leaks [actually 

not 'leaks' at all but inland encroachment of the salt-water wedge 

from Biscayne Bay. See the section on Salt-water encroachment, 

p. 580-584], which gave the water supply some heavy criticism 

and caused prosecution of the water company for selling salt water, 

which they could not help. This case was tried in Key West, where 

the case was decided in favor of the water company. When these 

wells were originally put down they [that is, the tops of the well 

casing] were put below the water level where they flowed in a reservoir, as a regular artesian well, but later they had to connect pumps 

to these wells to get enough water for the city, and this hard pumping caused the salt water to appear, which created so much trouble 

with our water supply. After this trouble the water company decided not to get caught again. They started west, putting down wells 

about 50 feet deep and connecting them up with electric pumps, and 

now (1921) they have gone back t mile farther west and have a number of wells with an eiectric pump for supply, which is, I think, 

the best system. Some claim the canal water filtered would be 

better, but in long dry spells the water gets very low in the canals 

and we would have to go back to our wells for a supply." 

EFFECTS OF DRAINAGE 

Effects of drainage will be rather thoroughly discussed in the 

section on Salt-water encroachment, p. 580-707, and are mentioned 

elsewhere in this report (see p. 9-11). The principal effect upon 

the water supply of the Miami area has been to set in motion a wedge 
166 WATER RESOURCES m SOUTiiEASTERN FLORIDA 

of salty water encroaching inland into the fresh-water of the Biscayne aquifer, which has resulted, to date, in the loss of thousands 

of private supply wells along the coastline in Dade County, and the 

loss of two of Miami's well fields (Spring Ga.rdens and Coconut 

Grove). See the section on Salt-water encroachment, p. 580 to 584. 

PRESENT SUPPLIES 

The Biscayne aquifer (see p. 160 and 162) is the chief source of 

present suppU.es. Most municipalities in the Greater Miami area 

are served by the city of Miami's supply, which at present (1946) 

is obtained from 20 wells, ranging in depth from about 60 to 95 

feet, in the Miami Springs-Hialeah area (see the section on Saltwater encroachment, fig. 189). The field was first put into service in 1925 and has been enlarged by the drilling of additional 

wells from time to time as occasion· demanded. The average daily 

pumpage from this well field in 1946 was 36, 600,000 gallons. 

This water is softened and the color is removed in a new and 

modern water-treatment plant. The water is used not only for 

domestic supply but also for industrial and commercial purposes, 

especially for industries and businesses located in areas where 

ground water was once fresh but is now contaminated by salty water. 

Many air-conditioning units and condenser coils of industrial 

plants are cooled by water from wells at the site; but because of the 

salt-water encroachment, which has spread under most of the 

business, commercial, and industrial areas of Miami (see the 

section on Salt-water encroachment, figs. 168 and 200), treated 

city water that is used over and over again is generally replacing 

the salty and corrosive ground water from the supply wells of the 

salt-contaminated zone. 

Some of the adjacent municipalities, such as Opa Locka, North 

Miami, and North Miami Beach, have their own public supplies. 

The wells are developed in the Biscayne aquifer and water is pumped 

from open-hole, rock-wall wells. Some neighboringcommunities, 

such as South Miami and Perrine, have no municipal water-supply 

systems. Instead, each family and building has its own private 

supply well. 

The Miami area makes considerable use of wells for fire-fighting 

purposes. The Greater Miami area grew so fast that city water 

mains could not keep pace with the widely scattered and rapidly 

expanding population. In order to obtain large quantities of water 

to fight fires, wells have been drilled or dug at strategic locations 

over most of the settled areas. These wells average 6 inches in 

diameter and about 65 feet in depth; each will supply a pumper with 

at least 1, 000 gpm, with a resulting drawdown that is usually less 

than 2 feet and rarely as great as 4 feet. 
GROVND WATER 167 

For detailed information o~a> municipal supplies of this area, for 

well logs, and for other pertinent data, see the Appendix~ 

A'ILANDC COASTAL RIDGE SOIJDI OF GREATER MIAMI IN DADE COUNTY 

THE AQUIFER AND GROUND WATER 

Ground water with the smallest amount of coloring matter, in 

Dade County, occurs in the Kendall-Florida City area. The Biscayne aquifer underlies the entire area; it ranges in thickness from 

60 to 100 feet and is composed principally of highly permeable sandy 

limestone that is very cavernous in. places (note especially cross 

sectionsA-A',B-S',C-C',D-D',and E-E', in pls. 5, 6, 7, and 8). The 

hardness of the wate.r is about equal to that of the Miami area, but the 

color of the untreated water (unless locally affected by iron oxide) 

compares favorably with the color of the treated water of the present 

(1946) Miami public supply. 

The ground water in the Miami area and to the north under the 

Atlantic Coastal Ridge usually contains organic color ranging from 

80 to 120 on the standard cobalt scale (see p. 730), but in the 

Kendall-Florida City area the color usually ranges from about 10 

to 30. The difference in color of the raw ground water of the two 

areas is apparently due to the difference of materials comprising 

the land surface. In the Everglades, south of the latitude of South 

Miami, th~re is a deposit of gray to white marl and very little muck 

on the underlying rock surface, whereas north of this line the muck 

(decomposed organic materials) becomes progressively thicker toward Lake Okeechobee, until at the south shore of the lake it averages about 8 feet in thickness. The surficial materials of the coastal 

ridge in both the Miami and the Kendall-Florida City areas are almost identical, and so are the materials that comprise the Biscayne 

aquifer at depth; it is only on the surface, in the area west of the 

coastal ridge, that the materials are much different. Rainwater 

seeping through the black muck becomes highly stained by organic 

materials, whereas rainwater seeping through the white to gray 

marl gains only a slight amount of organic color. This is one of 

the proofs of the local origin of the ground water. 

DEVELOPMENT OF WEt.:LS 

Homestead is the only incorporated municipality in the KendallFlorida City area that has a public water-supply system. The other 

communities (all small) and unincorporated areas are served by 

individually owned, private supplies. Most of the supply wells in 

this area are 1t to 2~ inches in diameter, and the majority of these 

were hand-driven. They do not exceed 15 to 20 feet in depth because 

throughout much of the southern part of the area very hard layers 

of limestone are encountered at these depths (see cross sections 

A-A', E-B', C-C', and D-D', pls. 5-8). 
168 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Most grove-irrigation and fire wells of the Kendall-Florida City 

area are 4 to 8 inches in diameter, but some are dug wells, and 

many are entirely uncased. Most of those put downprior to World 

War II were manually constructed and were only shallow wells because of the very hard limestone layers mentioned aqove. However, 

during the War labor became scarce and costly, a pair of drought 

years (1944-1945) reduced the water table in some parts of the area 

to sea level or below (figu,re 45, water-table map), and many of 

these shallow wells thus became dry. Inability to obtain manual 

laborers, inability to dig through the hard limestone layers, and 

a shortage of qualified well drillers necessary to drill the deeper 

wells so urgently needed, forced many of the grove owners to look 

helplessly on while groves, gardens,and field crops wilted and died, 

or were seriously damaged. 

For detailed information on well logs, pumpage, and other data 

from the Homestead public supply, the U. S. Navy supply for Key 

West and for other places in the area, see the Appendix. 

ATLAN'nC COASTAL RIDGE NORm OF GREATER MIAMI T01AND INCLUDING• DANIA 

IN BROWJ\RD COUNTY 

THE AQUIFER AND GROUND WATER 

The Biscayne aquifer is much ·sandier north of Miami than it is 

to the south, and in several places deep sand-filled channels cut 

entirely through the Miami oolite into the underlying Fort Thompson 

formation, These sand-filled cuts are called "transverse glades" 

because of their characteristic glades-type vegetation. They served 

as discharge channels for waters from the flooded Everglades prior 

to man-made drainage, and even yet, in times of heavy and longcontinued rains, they become occupied by shallow sluggish streams. 

The ground water of this area is chemically comparable to that 

in the Miami well-field area, with organic color ordinarily ranging 

from about 80 to 120 on the standard cobalt seale, but in some cases 

reaching as high as 220. In some parts of the area it is difficult 

to develop raw water that is free from iron oxide, which occurs 

erratically both horizontally .and vertically in the aquife~. Often, 

changing the depth of a well by about 10 feet, or moving its location from one side of a building to the other, may be all that is 

needed to obtain water of low iron content. 

Prior to drainage, the entire aquifer contained only fresh, potable 

ground water. Now, along the coastline, and in tongues extending 

inland varying distances along the tidal c'anals and streams, saltwater encroachment has taken place, This encroachment is not 

generally so extensive as in the Greater Miami area and southern 
GROUND WATER 169 

Dade County, where there are more drainage canals and where the 

water table has lowered to a greater depth {see the section on Saltwater encroachment, fig. 200, which maps the area of encroachment in Dade County). See also the section on Characteristics of 

drainage basins and summaries of gaging-station records for 

seepage studies along North New River Canal. 

DEVELOPMENT OF WELLS 

Most of the private supplies in this area are obtained from the 

Biscayne aquifer through shallow driven wells, 1t to 2t inches in 

diameter, equipped with sand points. Most of these wells end in 

sandy oolitic limestone or quartz sand at depths of only 15 to 30 

feet-most of these wells furnish copious supplies of water. 

Wells for larger suppli'es are usuallyofopen-hole, rock-,wall 

construction, with as much as 15 feet of uncased hole below the 

end of the casing. These wells are finished in sandy limestone or 

calcareous sandstone and are bailed, surged, and pumped· to free 

them of sand; then, as in the rest of southeastern Florida, they 

are usually equipped with centrifugal pumps. Depths of these wells 

range from about 45 to more than 200 feet (the deeper wells are 

in the northern part of the area). Data on well logs, public supplies, 

and other pertinent information are given in the Appengix. :For 

data on water analyses, see also the section on Quality of ground 

and surface waters. 

A'ILANDC COASTAL RIDGE IN BIIOWARD COUNTY NORTH OF DANIA 

In this ~rea, the coastal ridge averages about 7 miles in width. 

It is composed chiefly of sandy oolitic limestone (Miami oolite) 

riddled with vertical solution holes (see the section on Geology, 

figs. 22 and 26), and is mantled with white quartz sand of the Pamlice sand. In places the sand is heaped into low, broad dunes probably formed in latest Pleistocene and Recent time. 

The New River valley cuts through the coastal ridge between Dania 

and Fort Lauderdale. It is the widest and deepest of all the sandfilled Pleistocene cuts in southeastern Florida. The maximum depth 

to hard rock is about 100 feet. 

THE AQUIFER AND GROUND WATER 

The Biscayne aquifer in this area is composed chiefly of sandy 

limestone; beds of marly or clayey sand· are com~on in the western part, and shelly sand or shell marl lenses are common throughou.t the area. Cementation of the sediments is very irregular, thus 
170 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

leading to the occurrence of considerable rock at the site of one 

well whereas no consolidated materials may be found at corresponding depths at an adjacent site. 

The Fort Thompson formation grades into the Anastasia formation in this area (see section on Geology, p. 90-102, and figure 

10.) 

Because of the greater amount of unconsolidated materials (sand, 

silt, clay, marl, shells, etc,) in the Biscayne aquifer of this area 

than in the coastal ridge to the south, Wells are not so easily constructed, and yields ordinarily are lower and drawdowns are 

greater. In the Miami area the coefficient of transmissibility, 

(T), ranges from about 2 to 20 million gpd per ft, and averages 

about 5 million gpd per ft [see the section on Ground water (Quantitative studies), p. 270], whereas calculations of T for the Fort 

Lauderdale well-field area indicate a value of about 1. 2 million 

gpd per ft (Vorhis, 1948, p. 20-21). This value may not be valid 

for parts of this area nearer the ocean where the Biscayne aquifer 

is composed of a greater amount of permeable limestone and of a 

lesser amount of unconsolidated materials; values ofT approaching 

3 million gpd per ft may be more nearly correct there. 

See pages 373-374 in the section onSurface water for a study of 

ground-water inflow in Hillsboro Canal near Deerfield Beach. 

Water in the aquifer is generally similar in chemical characteristics 

to that in the coastal ridge from Palm Beach southward-that is, 

it is typical of limestone areas in southeastern Florida. In some 

parts of the area highly colored water is found. This color, which 

may exceed 200 on the standard cobalt scale, is caused by organic 

stain and is associated with the extensive muck and peat deposits 

of the vast Everglades. These organic soils lap upon the western 

shoulder of the coastal ridge and floor the transverse glades that 

cut into or through the coastal ridge in several places, The water 

from shallow depths and close to the muck deposits is usually more 

highly colored than the water from deeper parts of the aquifer and 

closer to the ocean, Iron oxide, which causes "red water,,. occurs 

erratically in the aquifer, and, as explained earlier (p. 168), may 

sometimes be avoided either by changing the depth of the well or 

by putting a well down on a different part of the property. 

In some places, such as the Fort Lauderdale well-field area, 

salty ground-water residual from the Pleistocene high-level seas 

(p. 112--125) occurs at depths as shallow' as 165 feet below land surface. There, the salinity increases with depth and is a serious hazard 

to water supplies because the saline water might be drawn upward into the well field by long..;continued and large-scale pumping. (See the 

Appendix for well logs and other data on supplies of this area; see 
GROUND WATER 171 

also the section on Quality of ground and surface waters for infor~ 

mation on the chemical qm~lity of the ground water.) 

EFFECTS OF DRAINAGE 

The only part of the coastal ridge between Dania and the northern 

border of Broward Countywhere effects of drainage on the ground 

water are noticeable is in the Fort Lauderdale area. There, the 

dredgingof the NorthNewRiver, South New River, arid Dania Cutoff Canals, as well as numerous smaller channels in the metropolitan area, has effectively lowered the average height of the water 

table and has, through changing the natural balance b.etween fresh 

and salt water, caused sea water to migrate inland on a broad front 

all along the coastal zone from Dania to and slightly beyond Fort 

Lauderdale. 

Also, during times of drought when flow in the canals is reduced, 

sea water is free to advance inland as far as the control dams in 

the North New River and South New River Canals. Respectively, 

these dams are located approximately 7t and 9 miles inland from 

the ocean. 

When sea water flows inland in these canals, it seeps out through 

their sides and bottoms. This action has resulted in the formation of an irregular tongue of salty ground water extending inland 

from the ocean for a distance of more than 6 miles. This is a different type of encroachment from that mentioned above, although 

both types are a direct result of the effects of drainage canals and 

reclamation work in the Everglades. 

This tongue of salty ground water is irregular with respect both 

to time and to place. It is caused by several factors, chief among 

them being: 1. Changes in salinity of the canal water itself, which 

may range from conc.entrations of sea-water during time of drought 

to almost no salinity during rainy seasons. 2 •. Unequal opportunities 

for salty water to escape from the canals. (This inequality is caused 

by variable sedimentation of the canal bottoms and sides with respect to both time and place; seepage is small in a section of a 

canal that has a heavy depo~it of sediment.) 3. Variations in permeability of the geologic materials through which the canals are 

dredged. (In a canal free of sediment, seepage of salty water outward into the aquifer will proceed rapidly in highly permeable 

materials, slowly in materials oflow permeability, and essentially 

not at all in impermeable materials. Although there are no truly 

impermeable beds in the upper part of the Biscayne aquifer in New 

River basin, there are, in places, lenses or layers of fine sand, 

silty or clayey sand of low permeability, and limestones and sands 

of high permeability. Thus, the geologic conditions in the aquifer 

are a controlling factor in the rate of movement of salty water into 

or out of the aquifer.) 
172 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

These several factors are involved in the explanation of irregular 

occurrence of saline water in the aquifer of New River basin, 

DEVELOPMENT OF WELLS 

For general household purposes, or for lawn and garden irrigation, driven sand-point wells, 1t to 2! inches in diameter and 

ranging in depth from about 15 to 40 feet, are the most common, 

Where rock occurs at these shallow depths, sand points are not 

needed and open-hole, rock-wall wells are constructed. The·rock 

is generally soft enough for well casings to be driven by hand. 

For larger supplies, such as for citrus grove or farm irrigation, 

air conditioning, and fire fighting, most wells are drilled by the 

standard cable-tool method. Such wells range in diameter from 4 

inches to as much as 18 inches and are usually· 6 to 8 inches; the 

depth of the wells depends upon the depth to rock, because most of 

these wells are of open-hole, rock-wall construction and have 1 to 

15 feet of uncased hole below the bottom of the casing. Yields in 

such wells compare favorably with those from similarly constructed 

wells in the Miami area-it is not unusual for a 6-inch diameter 

well to yield 1, 000 gpm. Drawdowns, however, are usually greater 

than in the Miami area, ranging from 2 to about 10 feet. 

Public-supply wells of Fort L"auderdale and the new municipalsupply well at Dania are of gravel-pack construction and have an 

average of about 40 feet of shutter-type screen placed in .an enveloping wall of gravel. For detailed data on these and other wells in 

the area see the Appendix, Details on the quality of water may be 

found in the section on Quality of ground and surface waters. 

ATLANTIC COASTAL RIDGE IN PALM BEACII COUNTY 

THE AQUIFER AND GROUND WATER 

The Fort Thompson formation, which is a :major unit of the Biscayne aquifer in Dade and Broward Counties, grades into the 

Anastasia formation in the area between Delray Beach and West 

Palm Beach. The northernmost important occurrence of the Fort 

Thompson formation has been noted in well cuttings from the Delrl:!-y 

Beach well .field, 

The areal and vertical distribution of limestone in this area is 

not uniform. Well logs for sites within 100 feet of each other may 

show entirely different figures for depth to rock and for thickness 

of rock-in fact, some wells may penetrate little or no rock at all. 

The absence of rock in some of the areas may be a result of original 
GROUND WATER 173 

lithologic differences, but generally this situation is caused by 

solution or erosion of the original limestone, and subsequent filling 

by sand. 

The rock ranges from coquina to dense, hard calcareous sandstone, but ordinarily, it is sandy limestone, Generally, it is riddled with solution holes of varying size and extent, but many of the 

holes· are definitely aligned, Core samples of the limestone from 

a test well (S 394) at Delray Beach are illustrated in figure 15· 

The sand that overlies the rock and fills solution holes in it, or 

that occurs in beus and pockets beneath the top layer of rock, is 

composed principally of quartz grains with some worn shell fragments. The grain size ranges from very fine to coarse and averages in most places fine to medium; the degree of sorting in different places ranges from good to poor. Generally the sand is 

permeable. 

In that part of the coastal ridge north of West Palm Beach the 

Fort Thompson formation disappears entirely, and materials of 

the Anastasia formation and the Caloosahatchee marl compose the 

deeper part of the aquifer. These materials range from sand to 

shell marl and in some places, where cementation has taken place, 

to irregular local lenses of sandy or shelly limestone. 

Water in the aquifer of this part of the coastal ridge is a typical 

calcium bicarbonate type water, and. is very similar to that described for the area immediately to the south. "Iron water" is not 

uncommon, but generally it can be avoided if care is taken in selecting the depth and location of the well, because it is not uniformly 

present in the aquifer. Color, other than iron, is of organic origin 

and usually ranges from about 20 to 110 and averages about 35 

(standard cobalt scale), 

EFFECTS OF DRAINAGE 

Whereas in Dade and Broward Counties the program of draining 

the Everglades has had a serious effect on the coastal ground water 

in the Biscayne aquifer, it has had little effect in Palm Beach 

County. This is largely because of the maintenance of ahigher 

water table in Palm Beach County through a system of carefully 

operated water-control districts, such as the Lake Worth Drainage 

District. Also, the geologic. materials composing the aquifer in 

Palm Beach County are generally of much lower permeability than 

in the Miami area, and salt-water encroachment would not be as 

rapid even if the water table were lowered enough to induce it. 

Thus, salt-water encroachment in Palm Beach County to date 

is not of major importance; wells 80 to 100 feet deep near the 
174 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

shoreline of Lake Worth (a salt-water lagoon) can still obtain potable water, as similar wells once did in Dade and Broward Counties, 

prior to drainage. 

DEVELOPMENT OF WELLS 

In the area from Delray Beach southward, wells 4 to 18 inches. 

in diameter are commonly of open-hole, rock-wall construction, 

with 1 foot or more of open hole in the rock below the bottom of the 

casing. However, in some places the solution-riddled character 

of this rock is a serious hazard to the development of such wells. 

Even though the casing is set and firmly seated in the rock, solution 

holes connecting (either directly or tortuously) with the overlying 

sand can funnel sand into the well. This will cause land-surface 

subsidence if the driller bails or pumps too much sand out of the 

well he is attempting to develop. This occurred in 1947 at the site 

of an 18-inch well being drilled for the city of Delray Beach by 

J. P. Carroll. The situation was remedied by installing a screen 

in the well, thus preventing the sand from entering. 

North of West Palm Beach most of the larger wells in the Biscayne aquifer are developed with screens and yield large quantities 

of water with relatively small drawdowns. Gravel-packed wells, 

which are really screened wells in an enveloping pocket of artificially placed gravel, have been developed in some places and produce excellent yields. Large-diameter, open-hole, rock-wall wells 

north of West Palm Beach are rare, but many smaller-diameter 

wells (45 to 100 feet deep) are in service and yield copious supplies 

of potable water. 

Shallow, driven or jetted wells, d- to 2! inches in diameter, 

furnish most rural family supplies and are commonly used in the 

urban areas for garden and lawn irrigation. These wells are generally less than 30 feet deep and can be put down manually, or by 

light drilling rigs, in a very short time. 

ATLAN'nC COASTAL IUDGE IN MARUN COUNlY 

THE AQUIFER AND GROUND WATER 

The aquifer of the coastal ridge area of Martin County is generally 

not so sandyas in the northern part of Palm Beach County. This 

is shown by the selected well logs for these areas, given in the 

Appendix. 

In some parts of the area Pamilico sand is heaped in Pleistocene 

dunes and beach ridges to heights of as much as 50 .feet above sea 

level. Materials of the Anastasia formation underlie these sands 
GROUND WATER 1'15 

and range from coquina and shelly limestone to shell and quartz 

sands. Beneath the Anastasia formation are irregularly cemented 

sands and shell marls or clayey marls, sand, and silt of the 

Caloosahatchee marl. Generally, these materials act as one waterbearing unit (aquifer), but locally, layers of hardpan (such as that 

at Indian Town, see p. 193) or dense marly material (such as that 

at Fort Pierce, seep.195-196), separate the uppermost part of the 

aquifer and create local low-pressure artesian aquifers, Where 

these low-pressure artesian aquifers extend seaward beneath 

Indian River or the Atlantic Ocean it is possible to develop shallow 

(35 to 100 feet) wells that furnish potable water, even though the 

water in the overlying materials may be as salty as sea water. 

Such areas are exemplified at Jensen Beach, Sewell's Point, and 

Salerno. 

The beach ridge and dune sands contain soft, slightly acidic water, 

as contrasted to the typically hard, alkaline, calcium bicarbonate 

water in the calcareous rocks of the lower part of the aquifer. The 

color of the ground water is usually low, ranging from about 10 to 

50 (cobalt scale). (See the section on Quality of ground and surface 

waters, for analyses of typical waters.) 

EFFECTS OF DRAINAGE 

Drainage of the Everglades has had no noticeable effect on the 

ground water of the coastal area of Martin County. 

DEVELOPMENT OF WELLS 

Most supplies for homes and for small business or commercial 

houses are usually obtained through 1 t -to 2!-inch driven wells 

finished with sand points at depths of 15 to 40 feet below land surface. Such wells are easily constructed, either manually or by 

light drilling rigs, and furnish plentiful supplies of potable water. 

Some of these small private wells are of ope·n-hole, rock-wall 

construction, finished with 1 foot or more of uncased hole below 

the bottom of the casing in the permeable rock. 

Larger supplies require bigger wells. Examples of these are the 

Hobe Sound public-supply wells, which are 12 inches in diameter 

and range in depth from 78 to 117 feet. They are of open-hole, 

rock-wall construction. The wells at nearby Camp Murphy are also 

12 inches in diameter and average about 100 feet in depth. These 

wells, however, are of gravel-pack construction. All are capable 

of yielding large supplies (in excess .of 1, 500 gpm). At Stuart, 

numerous open-hole, rock-wall wells, 4 to 6 inches in diameter, 

ranging in depthfrom 47 to 88 feet and averaging about 65 feet, are 

in use. There are three municipal public-supply wells at Stuart, 

ranging from 75 to 85 feet in depth. (See Appendix.) 
176 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

ATLANTIC COA!R'AL RIDGE IN ST. LUCIE COUNTY 

THE AQUIFER, GROUND WATER, AND DEVELOPMENT OF WELLS 

The coastal ridge south of Fort Pierce is generally much flatter, 

wider, and of lower altitude than the area of high sand dunes and 

parallel beach ridges north of the city. In this lower southern part 

a long, shallow, swampy, muck~bottomed swale, called the Sa~ 

vanna, parallels and lies west of the high, narrow beach ridge that 

borders Indian River. The Savanna is about 13 miles long, averages 

about t to i mile wide, and terminates to the north at the southern 

limits of Fort Pierce. There, the municipal water~supply plant has 

been built, and the well field has been developed. 

A shallow hardpan underlies much of the coastal ridge in St. Lucie 

County and prevents or retards free movement of Water from the 

land surface to the shallow aquifer. The uppermost part of the 

shallow aquifer at Fort Pierce is separated from the lower part by 

a relatively impermeable marly layer about 10 feet thick. This, 

together with the east-sloping structure of the geologic formations, 

gives rise to the development of a shallow, low-pressure artesian 

system (seep. 194-195 and figs. 36 and 37 ). A similar occurrence 

was described previously for the coastal area of Martin County 

(see p. 174-175). 

Above this shallow, low-pressure artesian aquifer the ground 

water occurs under water-table conditions in the pores and interstices between the sand grains, and it can be recovered through 

shallow, driven, screened we'l.ls. In that part of the area lying south 

of Fort Pierce and west of the Savanna, the water is soft but usually 

has an objectionably high color (around 200'on the standard platinumcobalt scale). North of Fort Pierce in the high dune area, and south 

along the narrow beach ridge that lies between the Savanna and 

Indian River, similar ground water, with organic color ranging. 

from 10 to 50, can commonly be obtained. To obtain this water, 

screened wells are usually driven to depths of about 15 to 50 feet, 

depending upon the elevation at the well site. 

THE FLORIDA KEYS 

THE AQUIFER, GROUND WATER, AND DEVELOPMENT OF WELLS 

The only fr~sh water that occurs in the rocks of the Florida Keys 

floats as a thin lens of varying thickness on the underlying salt water 

of each of the larger keys-the smaller keys usually lack this freshwater lens. During the rainy season the fresh-water lenses increase 

somewhat in thickness, but during the dry season, even with no 

pumping, the fresh water tends to disappear rapidly through seepage to the sea and by evapotranspirative processes. The rocks ·are 
CROUND WATER 177 

very permeable and the water table of each key undulates with the 

tides. Thus, rainwater escapes readily to the sea, and salt water 

finds free access to the permeable rocks. 

In order to obtain information about the effect of tides on the 

ground water of the larger keys, an automatic water-stage recorder was placed in operation during the last week of May 1941 on 

a fire well {F 628) located near the center and on one of the highest 

parts, of Key West, where the land is about 10. 5 feet above mean 

sea level. In this well, the maximum tidal fluctuation was o. 79 

foot, whereas in the nearby ocean the maximum fluctuation during 

the same tide was 1. 9 feet. During low tides, water in the well 

stood an average of 0. 69 foot above ocean level, but during high 

tides, the ocean level stood an average of 0. 04 foot above water 

level in the well, There was a lag of only a few minutes between 

the time that the maximum high or maximum low occurred in the 

well and the corresponding high or low occurred in the ocean. 

Similar results were obtained when a recorder was mounted on the 

CCC Camp well (S 701), on Big Pine Key. 

Samples of water from most wells in the Florida Keys were obtained and brought to the laboratory for analysis. This study showed 

that even though the sampling period closely followed _a period of 

heavy rains, no supply (even the shallowest) was entirely free of 

sea-water contamination and' some were heavily contaminated. 

Key West and Big Pine Key contain the largest quantities of fresh 

water; they have the greatest potential supplies of any of the Keys. 

However, these supplies are strictly limited, and pumpage of 

several thousands of gallons per day, even during the rainy season, 

would soon exhaust the fresh water, 

Deeper wells, including one more than 15,000 feet deep (see 

section on ·Geology, p. 61) have not encountered fresh water, nor 

should any be expected because the piezometric map of the Floridan 

aquifer (fig. 35 ) indicates that the artesian pressure in the area 

of the Florida Keys is too low to hold sea water out; or to state it 

another way, the artesian pressure is too low to force fresh water 

into the aquifer in this area. 

Fire wells can be easily and quickly made anywhere in the Florida 

Keys at d~pths ranging from a few feet to more than a hundred feet. 

Most fire wells on Key West are entirely uncased and are of openhole, rock-wall construction. These wells range in diameter from 

8 to 18 inches and are about 52 to 85 feet deep. Each well will supply 

several thousand gallons per minute of sea water, 
178 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

THE EVERGLADES NAUONAL PARK AREA 

AREA DEFINED 

The area included is approximately that. now within the Everglades 

National Park. It is shown as Area 9 on the index map (fig. 31 ) and 

includes the southwestern part of the lower Everglades and Big 

Cypress Swamp (see the section on Geomorphology, p. 144-145 and 

147-151) and parts of the Mangrove Swamps and coastal marshes 

(see section on Geomorphology, p, 154). It .is one of the last 

remaining areas of primitive tropical wilderness on the North 

American continent. 

THE AQUIFER AND GROUND W-'\TER 

Information on the artesian aquifers of this area is given on pages 

188-197. The Biscayne aquifer in which nonartesian water occurs 

is composed chiefly of rocks of the Miami oolite and Fort Thompson 

formation. These rocks a~e riddled with solution holes and are 

highly permeable. It is believed that a coefficient of permeability 

of about 50, 000 (see section on Quantitative ground-water studies, 

p. 236-237) would be proper for these rocks. The aquifer is not 

thick, however; at the Tamiami Trail it is only about 20 feet thick, 

and to the south, at the site of test well OS 30, 13 miles southwest 

of Royal Palm State Park (see AP.pendix) it is about 30 feet thick. 

No tests have been .made to determine its thickness at Cape Sable, 

but it is believed to be about the same thickness as at well GS 30. 

The quality of the water in the area several miles inland from the 

Bay of Florida or the Gulf of Mexico, or from tidal canals and 

ditches connecting with salt water, is good; it is·· a typical calcium 

bicarbonate type water~ But salt water occurs in the coastal area 

and in an indefinitely defined zone extending iriland along the tidal 

canals or ditches (such as that along Florida Route 27, the Florida 

City-cape Sable Road). S~mples from GS 30, taken in September 

1943, indicate that, even this far inland, salt-water encroachment 

has takenplace. At 16. 3 feetbelow land surface, the chloride content was 490 ppm;at 28 feet below land surface, it was 2, 920 ppm; 

and at 34 feet, it was 3, 750 ppm. 

DEVELOPMENT OF WELLS 

Satisfactory fire wells could be made anywhere in this area at 

depths of about 10 to 30 feet, and excellent wells for potable water 

could be developed at similar depths several miles inland from 

sources of sea water. These wells could be dug, drilled, or driven 

and finished as open-hole, rock-wall wells capable of yielding as 
GROUND WATER 179 

much as several thousand gallons per minute. However, if permanent supplies of this magnitude were developed it would be 

essential to stay as far away from salt-water sources as possible 

to prevent contamination by encroachment of sea water. 

TilE LOWER EVERGLADES 

AREA DEFINED 

The area included extends from the arbitrarily chosen southern 

line of Broward County on the north to the Everglades National 

Park area and the Bay of Florida on the west and south and to the 

Greater Miami area on the east. Its boundaries are approximately 

those shown.in Area 10, figure 31. 

THE AQUIFER AND GROUND WATER 

Principal components of the Biscayne aquifer in this. area are 

the Fort Thompson formation and the Miami oolite, Their relations to each other and to the "basement" or relatively impermeable 

floor of the aquifer are shown in the geologic cross sections of Dade 

County, especially on plates 8 and 9, sections Y-I"', C-G', and 

J-1'. In general, the aquifer is wedge-shaped and is thiimest toward the west. At the western boundary of Dade County the aquifer 

is about 15 feet thick; in the vicinity of the Dade-Broward levee it 

is nearly 50 feet thick; and in the area just west of Miami Springs 

it is about 90 feet thick. 

In approximately the eastern third of this area the aquifer is 

generally highly permeable. The data obtained from a pumping test 

made on well G 218 (see the section on Ground water, Q1,1antitative 

studies, p. 272-274) indicates a coefficient of transmissibility of 

about 4 million gpd per ft. Because the aquifer in this area is only 

about 50 feet thick, the coefficient of permeability is about 80, ooo. 

To the west, the Biscayne aquifer becomes thinner and generally 

less permeable because the rocks of the Fort Thompson formation 

are denser and the sandy sections are composed of finer grades of 

sand. ·The Miami oolite, however, is even more permeable to the 

west than to the east. It is through this thin layer of oolitic limestone that much of the ground-water flow to the east occurs, 

Although it is generally more highly colored, the ground water 

in this area is very similar in quality to water obtained from the 

Miami well-field area. 
180 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTIIEASTERN FLORIDA 

DEVELOPMENT OF WELLS 

Wells of open-hole, rock-wall construction can be easily made 

in this area and, if properly finished, will yield copious quantities 

of water with very slight drawdowns. 

THE AREA WEST OF HIALEAH 

Figures 32, 33, and 34 show contours on the water table representing periods of high, intermediate, and low water stages in the 

area. west of Hialeah, which is located in' the eastern part of the 

E:XPL..ANATION 

-=-==-

~ 

conals 

Barrier 1n canol 

-7.0-

Water-table eontour 

tntetiiOIIt. 0.5 toot 

1'1/fl/) IWAO 

-' ·o 

I 0 3 M'H.ES L....L.._ L....1...__..l. _ ______L_, --.1. ----I Df11um l!i metJh S/l'a /t!ll/!'1 

StSC'A>"N~ 

CANAL 

l 

Figure 32. -Map of ar.ea west of Hialeah showing water table at high level on July 1, 1942, 
EXPLANAliON 

~ 

~ 

conalt. 

Barril!!~ in conal 

-2.0-

Water-t(lble contour 

lntervol ie 0.5 foot 

8/RO 

GROUND WA TEl\ 

1.5 

0 3 MIL.ES 

/Jolum 1$ meon s~rJ /#~/ 

Figure 33. -Map of area west of Hialeah showing water table at intermediate level on April 26, 1946. 

181 

lower Everglades area. Lack of flow and stage data on some of the 

minor canals and ditches has made it necessary to interpolate the 

relationship of ground-water levels to the stage in the canal in these 

areas. 

Figure 32 shows water-table conditions approximately as they 

exist during times of high water levels in the area. The water-table 

contours show that the movement of the ground water is to the east 

and southeast, except in areas adjacent to the larger canals. During 

such a period of high water level (June-July 1942), approximately 
182 WATER RESOURCES lN SOUJHEASTERN Fl.ORlDA 

75 percent of the area was inundated and a small amount of overland flow occurred. 

Water-table conditions as they exist during times of intermediate 

water levels are depicted on figure 33. During these periods, water 

levels are about 3 feet lower than those shown on figure 32, and the 

effect of the Miami Canal on ground-water flow is much more pronounced and extends over a considerably larger area. At the time 

of this study (April 1946), the water table was below the land surface over the entire area. 

Figure 34 shows water-table conditions for a period of extremely 

low water levels, which occurred during the drt)ught in the early 

.. ·o 

I 

I " 

0 3 MILES 

·};at"'u"':;-';;c'"'::::'':::""-::',.;:-;:;'""':;;:;-,"-,---~ 

Figure 34.-Map of area west of Hialeah showing water table at low levet on May 19, 1945. 
GROUND WATER 183 

part of 1945. The water level in approximately half the area is 

less than a foot above mean sea level and the level in the remaining 

part is less than 2 feet above mean sea level. The dkection of 

ground-water flow is about the same as at higher stages, but owing 

to the low~ gradients of the water table, the rate of movement is 

low. It is readily apparent that because of the low water levels as 

shown on this map, the western boundary of which is 15 to 20 miles 

inland from Biscayne Bay, salt water has easy access into the 

aquifer along the coastal areas and uncontrolled tidal canals. 

SEEPAGE 

The rock at, or near, the surface in this area is highly permeable and permits a large amount of seepage through the aquifer 

beneath levees. The amount of seepage under the levees varies 

from time to time, and from place to place, and is determined by 

the difference in head of the water on either side of the levees and 

by the coefficient of transmissibility of the Biscayne aquifer in the 

immediate locality. 

THE CENTRAL EVERGLADES 

AREA DEFINED 

The area consists of Broward County west of the coastal ridge; 

its boundaries are roughly those shown in Area 11, figure 31. 

THE AQJIFER AND GROUND WATER 

The aquifer in this area represents a transition zone from very 

high permeability in the southern part of the area to low permeability 

in the northern part. The principal components of the Biscayne 

aquifer in the eastern and southern parts of the area are the Fort 

Thompson formation and the Miami oolite; in the western and northern sections the aquifer is composed of the Fort Thompson formation and the Caloosahatchee marl. The Fort Thompson formation 

grades into the Anastasia formation in the latitude of Fort Lauderdale (fig. 10). 

The quality of shallow ground water in the central Everglades 

follows about the same pattern as the areas of high and low permeability; that is, water of better quality is in the areas of higher 

permeability, and water of poorer quality is in the areas of lower 

permeability. The quality of water in the eastern and southern parts 

is similar to that of the coastal ridge; however, the color may be 

somewhat higher because of the overlying organic soils. In the remainder of the area the water is generally of higher mineral con346881 0-55--14 
184 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

tent and salinity. This is probably due to the fact that the aquifer, 

being of low permeability, has not beencompletelyflushed of water 

deposited there during Pleistocene high-level seas. Well logs and 

other pertinent information are given in the Appendix; data on water 

analyses are given in the section on Quality of ground and surface 

waters, 

DEVELOPMENT OF WELLS 

Wells of open-hole, rock-wall construction can easily be made 

in the area, except perhaps in the extreme northern and western 

parts where, owing to the lack of consolidated rocks, screened 

wells may be necessary. 

SEEPAGE 

The amount of seepage through the aquifer beneath levees in the 

area is controlled by head differential of the water on either side 

of the levees, and by the transmissibility of the aquifer in the 

immediate area involved. In areas underlain by porous oolitic 

limestone, or by quartz sand, the seepage rate is relatively high, 

and in areas underlain by the dense limestones of the Fort Thompson 

formation, or by marl (Lake Flirt Marl), it is comparatively low. 

In the eastern and southern parts of the area the rate of seepage 

through the aquifer beneath levees is relatively high, and toward 

the north and west it becomes progressively lower. (See pages 

291, 375-386, section on Characteristics of drainage basins and 

summaries of gaging-station records, for seepage studies along 

North New River Canal,) 

TilE UPPER EVERGLADE~~ 

AREA DEFINED 

The area included in this description extends from Broward 

County on the south to, and including, Lake Okeechobee on the 

north, and from the coastal ridge on the east to the Devil's Ga,_rden 

area on the west. It includes practically all areas of muck and peat 

soils under cultivation in the Everglades, and it also includes the 

Hillsboro Lakes Marsh area, The boundaries are roughly those 

shown in area 12, figure 31. 

THE AQUIFER AND GROUND WATER 

The principal components of the aquifer in this area are the 

Caloosahatchee marl and the Fort Thompson formation, except in 
GROUND WATER 185 

the extreme eastern part where the Fort Thompson grades into the 

Anastasia formation. 

The permeability of the Caloosahatchee marl and the Fort 

Thompson formation varies considerably but, as a whole, the formations in this area are of relatively low permeability, and some 

wells ending in them yield little or no water. In the upper Everglades area the yield to wells is usually small, and the water is 

always hard, colored, and often highly mineralized. The high 

mineralization of the water is probably the result of Pleistocene 

invasions by the sea during interglacial ages and subsequent partial 

flushings or dilutions by fresh percolating ground waters, Some 

wells developed in the more permeable sand and shell beds of the 

Fort Thompson formation yield usable water because the rocks have 

been flushed of sea water. However, long-continued pumping has 

been known to cause residual mineralized water to be drawn from 

adjacent unflushed zones of lower permeability, resulting in some 

instances in the abandonment of wells. (See the section on Quality 

of ground and surface waters, for data on water analyses; see also 

the Appendix for well logs and other pertinent information.) 

DEVELOPMENT OF WELLS, 

Both open-hole and screened wells are constructed in the area, 

However, most wells are of small diameter and are equipped with 

a sand point. The large-diameter wells also are usually screened, 

and sometimes they are gravel-packed, The yields from wells in 

this area are relatively small compared with yields f:rom wells 

along the coastalridge. 

SEEPAGE 

The amount of seepage through the aquifer underneath levees in 

the upper Everglades is small enough that effective and economical 

water control on p:roducing agricultural lands could be maintained. 

Likewise, according to preliminary studies, the amount of underground flow from Lake Okeechobee into the Everglades is very 

small. This fact is partly borne out by the presence of considerable 

chlodde in the ground water at shallow depths adjacent to the lake, 

while the chloride content of Lake Okeechobee is very low, (See 

pages 291, and 375-386, section on Characteristics of drainage 

basins and summaries of gaging-station records, for seepage 

studies along North New River Canal, ) 
186 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

mE BIG C\'PRESS-DEVIL'S GARDEN AREA 

AREA DEFINED 

The area included in this description extends from the Everglades on the east to the low sandy flatlands on the west and from 

Glades County on the north to the Tamiami Trail on the south. The 

Big Cypress Swamp is in the southern part of the area and the 

Devil's Garden, including Okaloacoochee Slough, is in the north+ 

ern part. 'l'ne boundaries are approximately those shown in Area 

13, figure 31. 

THE AQUIFER AND GROUND WATER 

The principal components of the aquifer are the Pamlico sand, 

the Anastasia formation, the Fort Thompson formation (northern 

part of the area), and the Tamiami formation (southern part of the 

area). Owing to the thinness of the aquifers and the type of material 

(usuall;9' sand, marl, shell marl, shell beds, and solution-riddled 

limestone filled with sand) the permeability and yield are generally 

low. The quality of water from wells varies considerably over the 

area but in general, although most wells yield potable·water, it is 

rather poor. (See the section on Quality of ground and surface 

waters; see also Appendix for well logs, and p. 810 for water 

analyses of wells GS 4 and 5.) · 

DEVELOPMENT OF WEI.l.S 

Because the area is very sparsely populated, only a limited 

number of wells have been developed. Practically all are shallow 

(10 to 30 feet), small-diameter, sand-point wells, which were 

developed for domestic use. Except in the southern and southwestern parts of the area, yields from the shallo~ aquifers are 

small. 

mE KISSIMMEE VALLEY 

AREA DEFINED 

The Kissimmee valley, as designated here, is principally the 

drainage basin of the Kissimmee River; it extends from Lake 

Okeechobee on the south to the town of Kissimmee on the north and 

is about 35 miles wide and 80 miles long. Its boundaries are approximately those shown in Area 14, figure 31. 
GROUND WATER 187 

THE AQUIFER AND GROUND WATER 

The principal shallow aquifer is composed of the marine-terrace 

sands of Pleistocene age which mantle the entire area and which 

range from 1 foot to about 25 feet in thickness. Wells, necessarily 

screened in these unconsolidated sands, yield potable water; however, in many instances a high color makes the water objectionable. 

It is possible to develop wells of small yield below tne surficial 

sand deposits in some areas, but usually the water is highly miner· 

alized. This mineralization is a result of low permeability of the 

materials, which has prevented complete flushing of the water that 

was left when the Pleistocene seas flooded this area. (See the 

section on Quality of ground and surface waters for water analyses; 

see also Appendix for well logs and other pertinent data.) 

DEVELOPMENT OF WELLS 

Where large yields are required, wells are usually developed 

in one of the deeper artesian aquifers. Generally, however, small· 

diameter sand-point wells, driven deep enough into the terrace 

sands to be below dry-season low levels of the water table, will· 

furnish potable water for domestic use. Batteries of such wells 

will yield water for public-supply systems of small communities. 

TilE HIGH MARINE TERRACES EAST OF KISSIMMEE VALLEY 

AREA DEFINED 

This area extends· from Palm Beach County on the south to the 

latitude of Melbourne on the ·north and from the Kissimmee valley 

area on the west to the coastal ridge and St. Johns valley on the: 

east. Its boundaries are approximately those shown in Area 15, 

figure 31. 

THE AQUIFER AND GROUND WATER 

The Pleistocene marine-terrace materials, the surfaces of which 

range 25. to 100 feet above mean sea level, are the principal components of the aquifer in this area. The aquifer is principally clean 

quartz sa:nd and sand containing varying amounts of marl and clay. 

In general, shallow wells, 10 to 30 feet deep will yield small amounts 

of potable water in areas where the sand does not contain too large 

a percentage of marl or clay. However, in some areas the water 

from shallow wells has a very high color, which is caused by organic 

materials. The materials under the terrace sands are· usually of 

such low permeability that satisfactory wells cannot be developed. 

(See the section on Quality of ground and surface waters, for water 

analyses; see also Appendix for well logs and other pertinent data.) 
188 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

DEVELOPMENT OF WELLS 

There are relatively few wells in the area, However, in .most 

parts of the permeable sand layers of the marine terraces,. screened 

wells could be developed that would yield potable water for domestic 

use, and in many instances fairlylarge supplies could probably be 

obtained. 

ARTESIAN WATER 

GENERAL STATEMENT 

At the present time, very little artesian water is used in southeastern Florida. This is because of the relatively poor quality of 

the water, and also because the artesian aquifer is deeply buried 

and therefore expensive to tap. (See the section on Quality of ground 

and surface waters, table ·of analyses of artesian waters. ) In 

general, the artesian water is saline, sulfurous, and corrosive, 

In southwestern Florida, especially in the area adjacent to the city 

of Everglades, in Collier County, one of the artesian aquifers 

supplies most of the water used. This is not because the water is 

of satisfactory quality, but because it is the best obtainable. 

In southeastern Florida there is only 0ne productive artesian 

formation, the Floridan aquifer, _but in most of the remainder of 

southern Florida there may be several productive shallow artesian 

aquifers, each with its own characteristics. They are described 

below in the section entitled Shallow artesian aquifers (see p.193-197). 

THE FLORIDAN AQVIFER AND AQlllCLUDE 

Th,e principal geologic formations carrying artesian water in the 

Florida peninsula, as described by Stringfield (1936), are the Ocala 

limestone of Eocene age and the Tampa limestone and Hawthorn 

formation of Miocene age. Earlier reports (Matson and Sanford, 

1913, p. 67) included the Ocala limestone as part of the Vicksburg 

group, which is of Oligocene age. In 1928, the Ocala limestone 

(Cooke and Mossom, 1928, p. 48) was regarded as having a-maximum 

thickness of about 500 feet, but according to more recent paleontological evidence the maximum thickness of the Ocala limestone 

is considerably less than that (see p. 69, and table, p. 67). 

However, the Avon Park, Lake City, and Suwannee limestones 

(formations formerly included in the Ocala) have_ hydrologic and 

lithologic properties similar to that of tlw Ocala limestone and, 

together with the Tampa limestone and the lower limestone part of 

the Hawthorn formation of Miocene age, act as a hydrologic unit. 

In discussing this hydrologic unit in northeastern Florida and the 
GROUND WATER 189 

coastal area of Georgia, Stringfield (Stringfield, Warren, and 

Cooper, 1941, p. 698-711)refers to it as the Ocala and associated 

limestones. Parker and Hoy (in press) called it the " principal 

artesian aquifer. " It is here designated the Floridap. aquifer and 

includes parts or all of the middle Eocene (Avon Park and Lake 

City limestones), upper Eocene (Ocala limestone), Oligocene 

(Suwannee limestone), and. Miocene (Tampa limestone, and permeable parts of the Hawthorn formation that are in hydrologic 

contact with the rest of the aquifer). 

Overlying the Floridan aquifer, and confining its water under 

artesian pressure, is a wedge-shaped blanket composed of one or 

more geologic formations of relatively low permeability. This confining unit, which is herein called the Floridan aquiclude, is nonexistent or very thin in the recharge areas of the Floridan aquifer, 

but it becomes very thick in all seaward directions and is about 

600 feet thick in the Miami area, 

The term "aquiclude" was proposed by Tolman (1937, p. 36) to 

describe a geologic unit that, although porous and capable of absorbingwater slowly, will not transmit it quickly enough to furnish 

an appreciable supply for a well or spring. 

The Floridan aquiclude, as here defined, is comprised chiefly 

of clays, silts, marls, dense limestones, and fine sediments with 

greater or lesser admixtures of sand, fine gravel, and shells-all 

these are materials of extremely low permeability, chiefly belonging to the Hawthorn and Tamiami formations of Miocene age. In 

southeastern Florida, the Floridan aquiclude not only caps the 

Floridan aquifer, it also forms the relatively watertight foundation 

upon which the Biscayne aquifer rests (p. 160 et seq.). 

01 STRI BUTION 

The Floridan aquifer underlies all of Florida and parts of the 

adjacent States of Georgia and Alabama. In southern F 1orida it is 

deeply buried, being about 900 feet below S!'!a level at Miami and 

800 feet at Everglades City. The Floridan aquiclude is less extensive because it is absent, or very thin, in the areas of recharge 

to the aquifer. 

ARTESIAN PRESSURE 

The piezometric surface of the Floridan aquifer in Florida was 

mapped by Stringfield (1936, p, 135; 1938, p. 457-458), and the 

surface in southeastern Georgia was mapped by Warren (1944, p. 

18-a). Later editions of the map were prepar1ed by Cooper (1944. 

p. 175; Cooper and Warren, 1945), The map in ~igure 35 is a product 
190 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

33' 88' 87' 86' 85' 

( 

' \ 

0 

n·r----r----+-----L 

EXF>LANATION 

Contour lines represent the approximate 

height, in feet, to which water will rise with reference to mean sea level in ti9hlly cased wells that penetrate lt\e 

Floridan aquifer, 1944 

Appro•imate scale 

25- 0 · 00 Miles 

Contour interval -20 feet 

Prepared by .the U.S, Geological 

Survey in cooperotion with the 

Florido Geological Survey 

Mopped by V. T. Stringfield,H.H. Cooper, Jr., and M.A. Warren 

87' 86' 85" 84' 83" 82' 81' 

Figure 35, ~Piezometric map of the Floridan aquifer in 1944, 

31' 

.. 

-1 

30" 

" 29' 

25' 

so· 

of their work and shows by contour lines on the piezometric surface 

the approximate height, in feet (mean sea level), to which water 

would rise in tightly cased wells that penetrate the Floridan aquifer. 

As described by Stringfield (1936), the domed areas of the piezometric surface, such as that in Polk County (central Florida), 

indicate places of recharge to the aquifer. and depressed areas indicate regions of discharge from it. In general, the water moves 

from high to low areas and follows along flow lines normal to the 

contours, because this course gives rise to the steepest gradients. 

The artesian pressure varies seasonally at all places: it varies 

momentarily with changes in atmospheric pressure; it changes in 

response to discharge from wells or to recharge in areas where 
GROUND WATER 191 

drainage wells function; in some places it varies with the passage 

of trains; in places near the seashore it varies with the tides; and 

it changes in accordance with several other minor variable factors. 

Obviously, because of fluctuations of the artesian pressure, the 

position of the piezometric surface is changing constantly. However, the piezometric map (see fig. 35) shows the major features, 

which do not change except in detail from time to time. For example, the major features of the i944 edition of the map are essentially the same as those of the 1934 edition. These retained 

major features indicate recharge, areas of discharge, and the 

direction of movement of the water. 

YIELD TO WELLS 

In reporting onyield of wells from the Floridan aquifer, Stringfield (1936, p. 158) states: "The yield of flowing artesian wells 

-under natural flow r.anges from a few gallons to more than 1, 000 

gallons a minute. The largest yields by natural flow are in the 

eastern and northeastern parts of the peninsula, where the. artesian 

pressure is relatively large and the surface of the ground is only 

a few feet above sea level. One of the largest yields observed was 

about 2, 000 gallons a minute from a well 8 inches in diameter at 

Crescent Beach [well20, St. Johns County (northeastern Florida)). 

The largest reported yield by natural flow is 6, 200 gallons a minute 

from well 2 in Brevard County, a 12-inch well." 

Flows from artesian wells ending in this aquifer in southern 

Florida depend upon the amount of penetration into the aquifer and 

upon the diameter of the well. Flows range from 75 gpm (well G 

101, Dade County) to an estimated 2, 300 gpm (well S 524, Dade 

County), and they average about 750 gpm. 

UTILITY 

All artesian water in southeastern Florida is hard, sulfurous, 

anri corrosive. Its temperature ranges from 71 ° to 78 o F but it 

averages about 72 ° or 7 3 ° F. (See the section on Quality of ground 

and surface waters. ) 

The temperature, which averages about 4 to 5 degrees lower than 

that of the shallow nonartesian ground water (average temperature 

77 ° F), and the· pressure, which causes the arte~ian water to rise 

to heights ranging between 20 and 40 feet above sea level in the 

Miami area, are advantages that industrialists, farmers, airconditioningengineers, and others would like to utilize. However, 

the salinity and corrosiveness of the water, and the much greater 

cost of obtaining it (as compared with the cost of a well tapping 

the shallow aquifer), have greatly limited its use. 
192 WATER RESOURCES IN SOU!HEASTERN FLORIDA 

Prior to 1939, about 20 artesian wells .had been drilled in the 

Miami area, but nearly a,ll had been abandoned because of the poor 

quality of the water. Now there are several such wells in use: two 

are us~d for· ornamental-fountain displays--one on Palm Island, 

Miami Beach, and the other is used at the Deering Estate off South 

Bayshore Drive, in Miami; three are used for limited irrigation of 

golf greens in Miami Beach, and one is used for lawn and garden 

irrigationinFortLauderda.le; one(formerlyin use, then abandoned) 

is used for cooling condenser tubes of an ice plant in Miami, and 

another was completed in 1948 for similar use. Formerly, condenser tubes were too vulnerable to the corrosive action of the 

artesian water, but now corrosion-resistant tubes are available, 

and it is possible that other industries will, in the future, make 

greater use of this flowing artesian water. 

CONTAMINATION OF NONARTESIAN AQUIFERS BY LEAKY OR FLO.WING ARTESIAN WELLS 

Leaky or uncontrolled-flowing artesian wells in an area where the 

nonartesian aquifers contain only fresh, potable water could do 

much damage by contaminating the fresh-water aquifers with saline 

water. At the present time artesian wells in the Miami area are, 

for the most part, in the downtown area of Miami or on Miami 

Beach, where the shallow ground water is already contaminated 

with sea water and is generally more saline than the artesian water. 

Thus, the Miami area has nothing to fear from these existing wells. 

The effec'ts of leaky or flowing artesian wells in southeastern 

Florida may be illustrated by two examples: (1) WellS 142 is an 

abandoned artesian well in the downtown area of Miami. The casing 

is so thoroughly corroded that, although it is capped, the well discharge is practically unhindered, and the volume discharged is 

great enough that a mappable ground-water mound is always 

present-as shown for the peninsular area north of the Miami River 

and just west of Biscayne Bay in figures 42, 43, and 44. (2) Flow 

through the corroded casing of an abandoned oil-exploratory well 

(the"GastonDrake well"), about 44miles westof Miaminear Pinecrest (northeast Monroe County) on Florida Route 94, has been 

taking place for many years. Over a radial distance of more than 

100 feet from the well this water has killed most of the native 

vegetation and is contaminatiqg fresh ground water for a much 

greater distance in the adjacent area. It is fortunate that this flowing 

well (chloride content is 18, 800 ppm) is not nearer Miami. If.it 

were nearer it could do serious damage to the potable water supply. 

In Dade, Broward, and Palm Beach Counties there are no intermediate aquifers of low pressure that might be contaminated by the 

escape of water from an artesian well with higher hydrostatic 

pressure. The only danger is to the shallow nonarte~ian aquifers. 
GROUND WATER 193 

SHALLOW ARTESIAN AQUIFERS 

In the past, little attention has been paid by well drillers and by 

the general populace to shallow artesian aquifers; inost of the 

attention has been given to the deep artesian aquifer. However, in 

southeastern Florida the deep (Floridan) aquifer has been of only 

limited use (or it is not usable at all), and in many places the 

shallow nonartesian water is undesirable because of objectionable 

color, odor, or taste, or because of contamination or pollution. 

This has led to a search, in some parts of southern Florida, for 

usable water at intermediate depths, and it has led to the development of more wells in these shallow artesian aquifers during the 

last few years, especially along the Gulf coast in Lee and Charlotte 

Counties, where numerous wells are being completed at depths of 

100, 200, and 400 feet in the Hawthorn formation of Miocene age. 

PLEISTOCENE ARTESIAN .AQUIFER AT INDIAN TOWN 

At Indian Town, in Martin County, the public supply has been 

developed in Pleistocene marine-terrace deposits at depths of only 

16 to 35 feet below land surface. A generalized geologic section 

follows: 

Deposits 

Sand, quartz, gray to white, fine to coarse (averaging medium); permeable,,,,, ••• , .............................................................. ,,,,,, .... . 

Clayey sand (hardpan); relatively imRermeable .............................. -.. Sandstone, calcareous, soft, friable, weakly cemented; permeable ...... . 

Thickness 

(feet) 

12 

4 

19 

Depth 

(feet) 

12 

16 

35 

The hardpan is not present everywhere in western Martin County, 

but it has sufficient areal extent near Indian Town to act as a confining layer to the water in the friable sandstone beneath. Prior 

to the pumping tests, the water level in sand-point wells ending 

above the hardpan stood at the same level as in the open-hole wells 

ending below the hardpan. When pumping began on the deeper wells, 

water levels immediately dropped (due to pressure relief), but the 

water levels in the shallow wells were unaffected. When pumping 

ceased, water levels in the pumped wells quickly recovered and 

again stood at the same level as in the shallow wells. If pumping 

had continued long enough, the water levels in the wells that were 

screened, above the hardpan, would eventually have been lowered 

because of the limited areal extent of the hardpan. 

It is probable that this shallow artesian aquifer at lndiaQ Town 

is largely replenished by local rainfall seeping down through discontinuities in the hardpan and that the system itself is compar-
194 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTiiEASTERN Fl.ORIDA 

atively local. There may be similar areas of local shallow artesian 

aquifers on the Pleistocene marine terraces bordering the Kissimmee valley. 

PLIOCENE AND MIOCENE AQUIFERS AT FORT PIERCE, ST. LUCIE COUNTY, AND IN 

THE "KISSIMMEE VALLE'( 

At the present time, only a small amount of field research has 

been made on the shallow artesian aquifers of the Kissimmee valley; 

however, in the northern.and central parts of the valley numerous 

shallow-flowing and some nonflowing artesian wells have been investigated. Many of these wells are developed in the Pliocene 

(Caloosahatchee marl), and it is likely that the rest are developed 

in the upper Miocene (Tamiami) formation. 

Geologic conditions in the Kissimmee valley in the shallow aquifers are idealized in figure 30. This illustration is greatly simplified; instead of only one confining layer (B in fig. 30) there actually 

are several (each of unknown, but probably different, areal extent), 

These confining layers (some are doubtless only lenticular bodies 

of relatively large areal extent) generally slope toward the center 

of the valley froin the higher lands on either side, Their irregular 

areal and vertical distribution accounts (or the fact that, whereas 

on one farm an artesian flow can be obtained through a well 100 feet 

deep, on an adjacent farm, with equal land-surface elevation, water 

can be obtained only at depths of 120 feet or more, Heads in these 

shallow artesian wells do not rise much above the land surfacethe average rise is about 3 to 4 feet during years of normal rainfall. Usually, flows can be obtained from similar sha.llow wells in 

all parts of the valley where the altitude above mean sea level does 

not exceed 70 feet. 

From the highland area (Pleistocene Osceola Island, pl. 10), 

which separates the Kissimmee valley from the Atlantic coastal 

strip, confining layers (similar to, and perhaps of similar origin 

as, the layers described above for the Kissimmee valley) slope 

eastward beneath permeable Pleistocene sands to, and beyond, the 

present shoreline. As a result of these geologic conditions, shallow 

artesian aquifers exist in most of the coastal zone lying between 

Melbourne, in Brevard County, and Stuart, in Martin County, and 

may extend somewhat farther, both north and south. 

As in the Kissimmee valley, very little research on the shallow 

artesian aquifers has been done in this coastal zone. However, an 

intensive, small-scale study made at Fort Pierce, St. Lucie County, 

has provided valuable data. 

Figures 36 and 37 are generalized cross sections through the 

Fort Pierce municipal well field showing the. shallow strata, the 

local ground-water conditions, and the arrangement of the wells. 
GROUND WATER 

~ I~~~ ~ ii '£ ;;l g~~: ~ :i:; u'l ~ ti;Z 5 (f) ~;g~ 0 

"' <t 

"' 

195 

~ ~ u a..rtl UJ 

~: ~:.::- ::~~;l~~ tN()IAN f RIVER ATLANTIC OCEAN 

t! -~iii s,;a-teWJr·~ -~~-'"'c::=====::;:~~====:::;:::=::==,..L-- -=...0;~ ""-~_=_~_-=-_-_""""_-=-_""::-

~20 Screon UPPER AQUIFER (NONARTESIAN) -...._ 

40 ~-- ~ - ---~-- -- = RELA1JYfi_I,_Y.~MEA!!hL.§JRATu~-~---=· -,==-=----=~=! 

S! 

'je<l LOWER AQUIFER (ARTESIAN) 

l

w 80 Sc.-.en '----'--~~-''-----________j MiiOO 

-~-00-----------------------------·-____j 

Figure 36. ~Generalized east-west cross sect;on through Fort Pierce municipal well Held 

showing shallow strata and water table on August 3, 1944. 

Figure 36 is a greatly foreshortened cross section normal to the 

shore, showing the principal topographic and geologic features and 

the location of one of the municipal wells. The upper (nonartesian) 

aquifer is composed chiefly of white quartz sand at the surface, 

grading through tan to brown below (see log of well St. L 4, ·in 

Appendix); it is separated from the lower (artesian) aquifer by a 

bed of dark-gray sandy and clayey marl which is relatively impermeable, The artesian aquifer is composed chiefly of various grades 

of quartt sand, shell marl, and shell beds. 

Figure 37 is a generalized cross section parallel to the shore 

and shows the heights of the water table and the piezometric surface during pumping of city wells on June 6, 1944. Note that the 

water table above the relatively impermeable stratum is unaffected 

by pumping, but that the piezometric surface is greatly affected. 

Drawdowns are greatest in the vicinity of each pumped well, The 

greatest drawdown is in well 3, in which the water level fell from 

10 feet above mean sea level, before t):le pumps were started, to 

43 feet below, during pumping; this is a total drawdown of 53 feet. 

It woqld ·apPear from figure 37 that pumping from city wells 1, 2, 

and 4 would draw the water table down; however, thin layers of 

relatively impermeable material in the upper aquifer prevent this 

action. 

In wells distant from the ocean, or distant from Indian River 

(which is really a salt-water lagoon with direct conneCtions to the 

open oce~n), no serious consequences arise from such depressions 

in the p~ezometric surface. However, where the wells are situated 

as clqse to salt water as they are in the Fort Pierce well field, Such 

drawdowns could eventually bring about the local ruination of the 

aquifer through salt-water encroachment, The fact that the municipal well field is not already ruined is due to a combination of 

· several factors: (1) The relatively impermeable stratum probably 
196 WATER RESOURCES IN SOU1HEASTERN FLORIDA ,--------~:..::..:::;;;.;_;;~=-==::......=_;__:__::_:_:..:=~:_=::_:_:=-=---c..:-;;,-·~---- .... -.. ~ 

•• 

25 

75 

100 

125 

,., 

>-

,_ 

, UPPER 

>-

... 

, AQUIFER 

INa fer 

., .. "' >- _j,...i)- .... 

, ._:r!:: 

""""' 

.. 

--~~~---

'~~~A'i'EE'I:~~ ~~~~~~ tffi~~:?:~~="~~~~.;:_1Hill~~~~~b~~~;.! Well 6 not pumpin9 whe!'l 

thi$ !J.tud)l wos modll!l 

Scre~tn 

S(;rflfn 

LOWER AOUIF£R SCrtl!ln 

Screen 

Screen 

Sc::reen 

100 0 

ereo~ in1 ca&mQ 

Screen 

I ARTESIAN) 

500 Feet 

Screen 

Figure 37. - Generalized north-south cross section through Fort Pierce municipal well field 

showing shallow strata and jp"Ound-water levels on June 6, 1944. 

extends beneath Indian River and the Atlantic Ocean, thus preventing direct transfer of overlying salt water into the underlying freshwater artesian aquifer; (2) both the piezometric surface and the 

water table between the Savanna and Indian River are usually relatively high--high enough that the weight of the fresh water above 

sea level overbalances any inland salt-water movement that would 

occur because of an upset equilibrium between sait and fresh water 

caused by pumping or drought conditions; and (3) the wells are not 

pumped at a very high rate. In fact, ·most of the Fort Pierce supply 

is obtained from the ponded water of the Savanna. If, however. it 

were necessary to pump large quantities of ground water from the 

existing wells over a period of several years, it is likely that such 

pull).ping would result in salt water being drawn into the;! aquifer. 

Geologic and hydrologic conditions of the shallow aquifers as discussed above for Fort Pierce probably prevail along the coastal 

zone from Brevard into Palm Beach County, and any proposed 

large-scale development should be preceded by adequate local 

ground-water studies to determine the importance of these factors 

that relate to the perennial yield of the aquifers and thus to the 

security of the proposed supply. 

MIOCENE AQUIFER AT EVERGLADES. COLLIER COUNTY 

Everglades, the county seat of Collier County, is a small fishing 

and vacationing resort on the shore~ of the Gulf of Mexico in the 

Ten Thousand Islands area. The town water supply is obtained from 
GROUND WATER 197 

three flowing wells, ranging in depth (reported) from 409 to 521 

feet, and believed to be developed in limestone of the Hawthorn 

formation. The water is hard and slightly saline (chloride content 

is about 250 ppm) but is of much better quality than either the deeper 

artesian water from the Floridan aquifer or the shallow unconfined 

ground water in the coastal area (for analyses see the section on 

Quality of ground and surface waters). 

The quantity of flow from these wells is reported to be 80 gpm 

from No. 1, 60 gpm from No. 2, and 120 gpm from No. 3. 

No detailed geologic or hydrologic investigation has been made 

at Everglades, as was done atFort Pierce(see p. 194-196). However, it is believed that if a heavy draft were placed upon the aquifer near the coast, salt water would soon be drawn into the aquifer 

and thus ruin the existing supply. Large quantities of usable water 

might be obtained from this aquifer several miles inland from the 

shore, but before any large-scale development is attempted a careful study should be made of all the geologic and hydrologic factors 

involved. 

QUANTITATIVE STUDIES IN THE MIAMI- AREA 

Uy ~1. A. \\arren and Garald G. Parker 

INTRODUCTION 

GENERAL STATEMENT 

Wherever it is proposed to develop large supplies of ground water 

it is wise to determine whether or not the project is possible or 

feasible, and whether or not the perennial yield of the formation will 

be exceeded by the demand. 

The perennial yield of an aquifer may be defined as the quantity 

of water that can be withdrawn from the aquifer year after year 

without exceeding the rate of replenishment or causing impairment 

to the quality of water in the aquifer. 

GROUND-WATER INVENTORY 

In making detailed studies of an aquifer it is essential to have 

thor:ough knowledge of the ground water. A complete inventory 

necessitates reliable knowledge of the quantity and quality of the 

water stored in the aquifer and the changes in storage that take 

place from time to time. Also it includes information regarding 

the quantity and quality of the water entering and leaving the aquifer 

in the area of investigation. 
198 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Water entering the area includes subsurface flow across its 

boundaries from other areas; surface flow that enters the aquifer 

in the area from adjacent areas; recharge by precipitation within 

the area; and recharge by artificial addition of water from other 

sources, either through drainage wells or galleries, or by application to the land surface from which it seeps to tne water table. 

Water leaving the area includes subsurface outflow, some of the 

water that is dischar·ged from wells or galleries, water that percolates into surface streams and canals and flows out of the area, 

and water that is withdrawn from the aquifer and discharged into 

the atmosphere by evapotranspiration, 

Several methods for estimating ground-water supplies have been 

used by various investigators (Meinzer 1931), However, some .of 

the methods used by investigators in other areas are not applicable 

to the Miami area. 

THE BISCA \'NE AQUIFER 

The Biscayne aquifer, its extent, and its thickness have been 

discussed in detail in the. sections on Geology and occurrence of 

ground water. Basically, it consists of. a permeable limestone, 

called the Fort Thompson formation, which increases in thickness 

toward the east and extends under .Biscayne Bay. It has an average 

effective thickness of about 100 feet under most of the coastal ridge. 

Recharge to the aquifer is mostly from local rainfall; and the 

natural outlet for the subsurface flow is Biscayne Bay. 

RESPONSE TO SUDDEN PRESSURE CHANGES 

PUMPAGE 

Ground water occurs in the Biscayne aquifer essentially under 

water-table conditions. In many places, however, there is a section 

of less permeable material intervening between the upper and lower 

parts of the aquifer. and when sudden changes in pressure occur 

in the lower part, such as the lowering caused by heavy pumping 

from a well that is cased throughout the upper part of the aquifer, 

the water levels in the nearby deeper wells respond very rapidly 

to these changes, while those in adjacent shallow wells show a more 

gradual decline. However, after a period of a few hours to a day 

or more, the· differential head between the upper and lower parts 

of the aquifer disappears. This difference in the response of the . 

water level in the deep and shallow wells ·becomes less noticeable 

as the distance from the pumped well increases, but it may be 

noticeable 1, 000 feet or more from the pumped wen. Thus, the 

deeper part of the aquifer may sometimes have artesian 

characteristics, 
GROUND WATER 199 

EARTHQUAKE SHOCKS AriD PASIIING TRAINS 

Sudden changes in pressure caused by earthquake shocks and 

passing trains are registered in some of the deeper wells, whereas 

usually no response is indicated in wells less than 20 feet deep 

(see Parker and Stringfield, 1950). The water table responds 

to heavy showers almost as quickly in the deep wells as in the 

shallow wells, because little transfer of water through the less 

permeable section of the aquifer is required to increase the pressure in the lower part. 

VARIABLE HYDROLOGIC FACTORS AFFECTING THE AQUIFER 

A quantitative accounting of ground water in the Miami area is 

made difficult by the great variation in hydrologic factors. The 

areas contributing to runoff of streams and canals cannot be determined with any degree of exactness. Neither can the areas of 

natural ground-water discharge be accurately outlined. This is 

largely because these areas are constant.J.y changing in size according to the intensity and duration of localized rainfall, the stage of 

the water table, the stage in cimals, and tidal and periodic changes 

in sea level. It is not unusual for the direction of flow of both ground 

and surface water to be reversed in some areas several times 

each year. Local rainfall (the source of recharge) varies widelyin a distance of 10 to 15 miles the annual rainfall may differ by 

20 to 25 inches (page 28), 

The coefficient of transmissibility of the aquifer, which is a 

measure of its ability to transmit water, is very great, but it varies 

as much as 500 percent or more within relatively short distances, 

The variability of the specific yield of the upper part of the aquifer, 

over which the water table fluctuates, makes it difficult to accurately 

compute the changes in ground-water storage in the aquifer as the 

water table rises or falls. 

The water table is near the surface over most of southeastern 

Florida, and it is within easy reach of plants, As a result, a large 

percentage of the precipitation that reaches the water table is returned to the atmosphere by evapotranspiration, The quantity thus 

returned varies widely with location, depth to the water table, · 

character of the vegetation, and weather conditions, 

The water surface in Biscayne Bay, the base level with regard 

to canal and ground-water flow, has an average daily tidal range 

of about 2. 0 feet, and the daily mean level in the Bay may vary a 

foot within a few days. The highest point on the water table during 

the rainy seasons rarely exceeds 10 feet above mean sea level. 

Thus, the variances in sea level are 20 percent or more of the 

total head affecting ground-water flow toward the sea, 

346881 0-55--15 
200 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

SAL T·WATER ENCROACHMENT 

The history, occurrence, and extent of salt-water encroachment 

in the Miami area are discussed in detail in the section on Saltwater encroachment (p. 580 et seq.), The contact between the fresh 

and salt water may be near the shore in some locations and several 

miles inland in others, In general, owing to the greater density of 

salt water, the encroaching body of salt water has advanced much 

farther inland along the bottom of the aquifer than near the top. 

Thus, there are zones, a mile or more wide, roughly paralleling 

the shoreline and major canals, in which the depth to the freshwater-salt-water contact varies, In these zones the shallower 

wells may obtain fresh water while the deeper wells furnish only 

salt water. As explained in the section on Salt-water encroachment, 

a delicate balance exists between the fresh-water head in the aquifer 

and the average stage in Biscayne Bay. The difference between 

these two elevations largely determines the extent and rate that 

salt water either will invade the aquifer or be flushed out by fresh 

water moving seaward. Because the fresh-water head and sea level 

are constantly fluctuating (each in a different manner), a condition 

of static equilibrium for the contact zone between fresh and salt 

water is never attained, 

PERENNIAL YIELD 

The question of primary importance in the Miami area, with 

reference to the ground-water resources, is the perennial yield. 

The Biscayne aquifer is known to be permeable enough to yield 

copious quantities of water without the pumping lift becoming excessive; but the perennial yield is determined by the level that must 

be maintained to keep salt water out of the wells. The amount of 

water that can be safely withdrawn under these conditions is determined by the several hydrologic factors previously discussed, each 

related to the other in a highly complex manner. These factors 

will be discussed and evaluated in the sections that follow. 

In working with this problem it is necessary to use average figures 

for the hydrologic data collected over a period of several years, 

and the longer the period of time, the better. Trying to integrate 

the effects of all the factors that enter the problem as they change, 

or as they go through their cycles or fluctuations, one finds the 

problem so complex that a strictly mathematical solution is virtually. 

impossible to achieve; however, a practical solution, accurate with· 

in allowable working error, is possible, 
GROUND WATER 201 

THE WATER TABLE 

GENERAL STATEMENT 

The water table, in materials permeable enough to permit circulation of ground water, is the upper surface of that body of free 

(unconfined) water that completely fills all opening and interconnected passages in 'the rock materials. Seep. 157-158. 

The water table is seldom stationary; instead, it is constantly 

changing shape, rising and faM.ing, sometimes so slowly as to be 

almost imperceptible, but at other times fluctuating very rapidly. 

The minor fluctuations, many of them being only of momentary 

duration, are ordinarily unobserved because they are detectable 

only by measuring and recording devices. Major fluctuations, 

usually of longer duration, are noticeable, and many of these fluctua.tions cause alarm when aquifers overfill and the land becomes 

flooded, or when, during a drought, wells become dry. 

All fluctuations of the water table, whether minor or' major, are 

of concern to the hydrologist. Determination of such fundamental 

hydrologic factors as the coefficients of permeability, transmissibility, and .storage; areas of recharge and discharge; direction 

of ground-water movement; perennial yield; and other pertinent, 

related factors are based wholly, or in part, upon water-level 

measurements in wells. But these water-level readings, if not 

properly understood and weighted, may be entirely misleading. 

Water levels fluctuate as a result of several factors other than 

recharge to, and discharge from, the aquifer (principal factors in 

a quantitative ground-water study). Chief among these other factors 

are: tides-both oceanic and earth, atmospheric pressure, winds, 

earthquakes, and passing trains. 

In the Biscayne aquifer, all these phenomena have been observed 

and reported by Parker and Stringfield (1950). It should be noted, 

however, that the effects of ocean tides, discussed subsequently in 

greater detail, were observed only in wells located within a relatively narrow coastal band. In well F 179, for example, in the 

Silver Bluff area at a distance of 6, 680 ft from the bay, the range 

of tidal fluctuations was 0. 01 ft. Farther inland, at well S 182 

(fig. 39) the water level is affected only remotely by fluctuations 

in Biscayne Bay. 

Figures 38-41 are hydrographs showing average monthly water 

levels in 10 key observation wells tapping the Biscayne aquifer in 

southern Florida. Because these hydrographs were derived by 

averaging the daily readings for each month, they do not show either 

the highest or lowest water levels recorded, and because the records for all wells exceptS 196 were obtained largely during a series 

of dry years, the hydrographs give a picture of low-level, instead 
202 WATER RESOURCES lN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

4 

,\ -\ If"' 

'J v \ 

M11an $et1 I~Vf/ 

0 

Land ~utfac:e is, 4.9 fe-e-t 

. t·T mi •. , ••• ,, .. j' 

1940 1941 

61- f!t' r£#1! vf\ ,LA ;£ 

V\- 1,.....,_ f\ 

N 

• L1;md e:urf(lce is 5.6 feet 

obove MI!IOr'l sea ler/ I I I I I 

0 Mean stt(l le~el 

1940 1941 

Land $1.irfoce is 5.6 feet 

above medn seo leTol I I I I I 

0 M~an seQ ll'vtl I 

1940 1941 

h N 

\_ V'J 

1942 

r- f- 1- tr- I IV 

I\. v 

1942 

1942 

\ (\, 

\ v j [\_ -'\ v V\ ,/'\ 

1'- f\-_ If 

1943 1944 

G·3 

t- 1- t- I' 1- I- f- 1- f- I1\ I ~ ~V\ 

\ II \ M v ~ u r\ 1 

f\ 1/ 

1943 1944 1945 

G·IO 

194:5 1944 1!;145 

G-72 

It .......... 

\ rv /\{ 

1946 J 

l--1- 1- fIt' ~ 

\ t-J 

fJ 

1946 

1946 

Figure 38. --Hydtographs showing average monthly water levels in key observation wells G 3, 

G 10, and G 72. 

of high-level, fluctuations of the 10 wells here recorded. Nine are 

in Dade County and one well, S 329, is in Broward County on the 

Atlantic Coastal Ridge, at the eastern margin of theFort Lauderdale 

well field. Unfortunately, well S 329 was out of commission during 

the drought of 1945, so no record is available for that time. Tables 

116 and 118 li.st well locations and other pertinent data. 

The fluctuations shown on these four figures are caused largely 

by changes in aquifer storage brought about by recharge to, and 

discharge from, the Biscayne aquifer. These factors are of sufficient importance to merit major sections being devoted to them 

(p. 212-236), 
.J 

w 

:> 

~ 

"' 

0 

4 

w 10 

~ 

"-0 

0 

~ v " Meo11 sea level 

1940 1941 

,I\ -Jv tn\ 1~ v M'UM sea level 

1940 1941 

\ 

\ j \/" ~\ tv ~ 

1\j I----

-•'\ I/ ... J '"\ 

Lond !;.urfoce is 11.1 feet 

above rneQn sea lt\lel 

I I I I I I 1940 1941 

GROUND WATER 203 

Lo1nd ~u<f~co l, 8~8 ,;.1 

cbOVl;! meon seo lev I V\ If\/ h K --, 

'- v / _..J 

~ l! !--"' ['\_ I) \..__ l---1 1'--- --- 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 

F -179 

Lone:! surface i~ e.a feet 

'A above meap !JeCI level 

'1 _..... '"" lv '\ v ~ \I'-f r f\ ) ~ vv 

r-- \..- !'-. ,-- _.../ 

1942 1943 1944 194!:1 1946 

F- 210 

'\ 1\ r-.,. 

I v \ I If'/ 

1\ 1\ 

\ 1\ II \ v \ \ i\ v 

1\ I\.! /\ IV 

1\ fl /\, [N 

__ / !---· \ I __ .. v-· --· ... /~ ! · ..... --·,.>- :-.,__ ['.--- . ........_ ~.l 

'•· 

T"i ... i'T I (T·1 'T l' Tar io' rl rcrl ('T /942 1943 1944 1945 1946 

S-182 

Figure 39. -Hydrographs showing average monthly water levels in key observation wells F 179, 

F 210, and S 182. 

EFFEct OF CANALS ON THE WATER TABLE 

Except when heavy and long-continued rainfall results in floods, 

the canal system of the Miami area is an effective outlet for discharge of ground water; it lowers the water table rapidly after a 

short, heavy rainfall. However, when the Everglades are flooded 

and the aquifer is filled to overflowing, the capacity of the canals 

is not great enough to remove flood waters in time to prevent 

damage to crops and structures on low lands. 

Ground water is free to discharge through the bottoms (provided 

there is not a thick layer of sediment) and through both sides of 

drainage canals cut into the aquifer, Ground water can readily discharge directly into Biscayne Bay only along one side of the Bay; 
204 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

~ 

"' u.. 

;; 

;;[ 

> 

"' _j 

5 

i 

u.. 

0 

z 

Q 

... 

§ 

~ 

"' 

I [ , I ! _I Land $urfoee is 9.1 feet 

obov~:t mean seo level 

4 

;\ I" 1\ 2 

'-, rv \II IV 0 Meun seo /t1Vt1/ 

1940 1941 

4 

1\ 'f.. • IV h v 

h 

0 

\ LJMt~an ... '~··' I _I I I I Lend !;lurface is 7,2. feet 

2 r'ovi iegnl set lerel 

1940 1941 

6 \ 

"' 4 ~ lr2 

Land surfoc::e is 9.2 feet 

obove mean seo lie I 

0 Meun !ieo let"el 

1940 1941 

\tt---

1/""\ 

I\ 

(\ 

~ 

,J I\ h ('\ I" 

[\ 1/ v v I\. lt \ 1/ f--.-

1942 1943 1944 1945 

s -18 

1\ )L\ 

IN \ v \ 

I\ lP It V\ 

I\.-. v ]'-._ ) 

l\1/ 

1942 1943 1944 1945 

s -19 

1/ 1\ 1\ ,\ lA 

\ If lJ i\ / I\ } 1\ 

I\ 

1942 1943 1944 1945 

s- 329 

II / !"\ 

"' v 

1946 

A h 

II 'V 

I\ N 

1946 

['I I\ 

1946 

Figure 40.-Hydrographs showing average monthly water levels in key observation wells S 18, 

S 19, and S 329. 

however, this movement is not as effective as discharge into the 

canals through their highly-permeable, cut-rock faces. As an outlet for ground-water flow, a mile of deepened canal appears to be 

more effective than 4 miles of bay shore. A study of the water-table 

maps, figures 42-44, will help make this clear. 
GROUND WATER 205 

Figure 41. -Hydrographs showing average monthly water levels in wellS 196, Univ. of Florida 

Expt. Sta. , Homestead, 1932-46, 

WA1'ER-TA8LE STUDIES OF THE MIAMI AREA 

Contour maps of the water table (also called water-table maps) 

are very helpful in depicting the shape and position of the water 

table. These features of the water table are constantly changing in 

response to several factors, including: the movement of water due 

to gravity; additions through recharge by rainfall or irrigation; 

losses due to pumpage, evaporation, and transpiration; and losses 

or gains due to flow into or out of streams. 

Mapping of the water table provides the most reliable method of 

locating areas of recharge and discharge and of determining the 

direction of flow. Contours are lines of equal elevations; therefore, 

the direction of flow is at right angles to the contours because the 

steepest gradients are in that direction, The fundamental law of 
206 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

laminar ground-water flow is that the velocity varies directly as 

the slope and inversely as the permeability. By application of this 

law, quantitative values for the amount of ground-water flow may 

be obtained, provided that reliable average values for permeability 

are known. The slope may be obtained from water-table maps or 

profiles. 

Figures 42-44 show the Miami area when the wat~r table is at 

low, medium, and high stages. Because the gradients are gentle, 

the area is dissected by a network of canals that radically modify 

the water table within several miles of the deeper canals, and because heavy local rains change the shape of the water table, it is 

necessary to have a large number of observation wells and staff 

gages to get enough points of access to the ground-water body to 

contour the water table accurately. For the same reason, it is 

necessary to determine the elevations of the reference points for 

the observation wells and staff gages by careful instrumental leveling with reference to a common datum plane. Datum used is U. S. 

Coast and Geodetic Survey mean sea level datum of 1929 • 

. WATER TABLE AT LOW STAGE, FEBRUARY 3, 1942 

February 3, 1942, was a time when the water table was relatively 

low (fig. 42). The general direction of ground-water flow. which 

is normal to the contours, is toward the east; but in the vicinity of 

the canals (particularly the deeper ones, not. controlled by locks or 

dams),the contours indicate a discharge of ground water into the 

canals (effluent condition), However, during some low stages the 

canals in places may be influent, thus raising the water table in 

the influent area. An example of this is the Miami Canal opposite 

the Hialeah well field. The 0. 5- and o. O-ft contours encircle the 

well field, whereas the canal stage opposite the well field is about 

1. 0 ft above sea level. Under these conditions, a considerable part 

of the water pumped from the well field was diverted from the canal. 

The 1. O-ft contour near Biscayne Bay, enclosing a large part of the 

Miami residential and business areas, indicates a low ground-water 

mound, which probably is maintained during dry periods by recharge from used municipal water being returned through the soil 

to the water table through septic tanks, drainage wells, and by the 

watering of lawns. 

WATER TABLE AT MEDIUM STAGE, JULY 26, 1941 

The map for July 26, 1941, shows the water table at an intermediate stage (fig. 43). The steeper gradients indicate greater 

discharge of ground water, but the discharge·areas have n.ot changed 

greatly from the time when the stage was low. 
--~-- -~ 

EXPLANATION 

---2.0---

Woter~ table contours 

Interval is 0.5 toot 

GROUND WATER 

--------~ 

S G 

\ 

0 

Datum is mean seo level, 

U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey 

207 

N 

5 Miles 

Figure 42. -Water-table map of the Biscayne aquifer in the Miami area showing low stage, 

February 3, 1942, 
208 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTIIEASTERN FLORIDA 

---2.0---

Water-table contours 

Interval is 0.5 toot 

0 

Datum is mean sea level, 

U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey 

N 

5 Miles 

Figure 43. -w ... ter·table m11.p of the Biscayne aqlllfer in the Miami area showing medium stage, 

Jlliy 26, 1941. 
GROUND WATER 

,.,. 

EXPLANATION 

w --2.0--

ater- tobl Interval is el contours, .0 foot 

Ootum is m U.S. Coast 0 d eon sea level n Geodet· •c Survey ' 

5 Miles 

Figure 44 ·-Water-tab! e map of the Septembe~ B' 1scayne :~uii9~cin the Miami are . • a shoWing high 

209 

stage, 
210 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

WATER TABLE AT HIGH STAGE, SEPTEMBER 30, 1940 

The water-table map for September 30, 1940, is for a time when 

the water levels were comparatively high (fig. 44). The flow pattern 

is similar to that for the intermediate and low stages, but the gradients are steeper. The ground-water mounds prove that the recharge is local and that the major part· of the ground water does 

not move in from distances of many miles to the west or north, as 

has been tl'\e popular belief; in fact, ground-water movement on the 

western sides of these mounds is to the west-toward the Ever-

. glades, not toward the ocean. 

WATER.TABLE STlJDIES OF DADE COUNTY 

WATER TABLE AT LOW STAGE, MAY 19, 1945 

Figure 45 shows the water table for May 19, 1945, which was 

almost the lowest stage that occurred during the period of investigation here reported (1939-1946). In the northern part of the county 

the water table slopes toward the east. If this low-stage condition 

were maintained for a long time, the water table would not have 

sufficient head above sea level to prevent salt water at depth in the 

Biscayne aquifer from encroaching several miles farther inland 

than it is at present. However, because of the low velocity of encroaching salt water, lateral movement over a period of a few 

months is very small. 

In the southern part of the county the water table sloped inland 

toward a low area in the vicinity of Royal Palm State Park, where 

evapotranspiration loss had lowered the water table to slightly more 

than 3 ft below average level in Biscayne Bay, which, during this 

investigatio~. was about 0. 6ft above U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey 

mean sea level datum. The exceedingly low water table developed 

here mainly because of its geographic location. Evapotranspiration 

rates are rather uniformly high over the glades area of Dade County. 

This particular area could not develop closer to the sea because of 

recharge from the sea, nor could it develop farther inland because 

of recharge from the normally higher water table in the area to the 

north and west. 

WATER TABLE AT MEDIUM STAGE, MARCH 17, 1941 

Figure 46 shows the water table as mapped for March 17, 1941, 

and it was selected because it shows the water table when it was 

very near medium stage for the period of record. At this stage, 

the water table slopes from the Everglades toward the east and 

southeast. 
EXPLANATION 

-2.0-

WOt!!'r•tohl~ conto1,1r 

Interval is 0.~ foot 

TAM/AMI 

I 0 5 MILES l-.J.~-~"'----'----'------'--_j 

Oatum is mean 5it0 ltvel, u.s. Coast 

ond Geodetic SurV@y 

GROUND WATER 211 

Figure 45. -Water•table map of the Biscayne aquifer in southeastern Dade COIUity showing low 

stage, May 19. 1945. 

WATER TABLE AT HIGH STAGE, SEPTEMBER 23, 1940 

Figure 47 shows the water table for September 23, 1940, which 

was almost the highest stage that occurred between 1939-46. At 

this stage, the water table in the western part of the coastal ridge 

south of Miami had been built up by recharge from rainfall until it 

was above the water level in the adjacent part of the Everglades. 

Therefore, ground water was flowing in all directions from this 

mound, part of it being discharged westward into the Everglades. 

This condition commonly occurred in this area prior to the construction of the drainage canals, as attested by the observations 

of Sanford (1913, p. 289) who reported that," * * *along the rock 

ridges of the Biscayne pineland are a number of springs, some of 

considerable size. The largest noted rises on the west side of the 
212 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

TAM/AMI 

\ 9 L \ I I ~ MILES 

0Qt1.1rn i:~; me~m S@() ~~~~.u.s. coost and Geodetle Survey 

N 

1 EXPLANATION 

-6.5-

FigiU'e 46. -Water-table map of tbe Biscayne aquifer in southeastern Dade County showing 

medium stage, March 17. 1941. 

crest of the ridges just north of Miami and flows into a swamp 

from Miami River. It is supplied by rainfall on the slightly higher 

ground of the pineland. " The occurrence of this large spring on the 

west side of the high land required a higher water table to the east, 

which probably reached a crest under the highest part of the coastal 

ridge. 

GROUND-WATER RECHARGE 

GENERAL STATEMENT 

Over most of the coastal ridge from Miami southwest to Homestead, the Miami oolite, which underlies the entire area, is at the 
TAM/AMI 

EXPI..ANATION 

--5.5-

WC.ter-toble contour 

ll'lterval 111 O.Sfoot 

LL .. L.---,-L-,--L,-~~!1 MH .. ES 

ootum i:11 meon 111!11 level, U.S, Coost 

and Geodeti~ Survey 

GROUND WATER 213 

Figure 4 7. - Water~table map of tbe Biscayne aquifer in southeastern Dade County showing high 

stage, September 23, 1940. 

surface or is covered with only a thin sandy soil mantle. The oolite 

has high vertical permeability; rain falling on the surface rapidly 

percolates downward to join the water table, which is seldom more 

than 10 ft below the land surface and which, at times of high watertable conditions, is at or near the surface over a considerable part 

of the area. Thus, there is little opportunity for rainfall to flow 

into surface drainage channels and reach the ocean without first 

entering the ground. 

Rain falling in the glades recharges the 'Biscayne aquifer until 

the water table reaches the surface. Additional rainfall floods the 

glades, and, as the stage increases, the flow into canals and overland to the south, through the glades, and to the east, through 

transverse glades, also increases proportionately (see the section 

on Geomorphology). 
214 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

A rapid rise of the water table occurs within a few hours after 

the rain begins if the rainfall is of sufficient magnitude and intensity 

to saturate the soil and rock above the water table, The rise of the 

water table, correlated with the rainfall, gives reliable information 

in some locations as to the amount of rainfall reaching the water 

table, and it may give information regarding the porosity and specific yield of the part of the aquifer through which the water table 

rises, 

DEFINITIONS 

Porosity,- According to Meinzer (1942, p, 387): "The porosity of 

a rock is its property of containing interstices, It is expressed 

quantitatively as the percentage of the total volume of the rock that 

is occupied by interstices or that is not occupied by solid rock 

material. A rock is said to be saturated when all its interstices 

are filled with water, In a saturated rock the porosity is practically 

the percentage of the total volume of the rock that is occupied by 

water." 

Specific yield.-The specific yield has been defined by Meinzer 

(1923b, p. 28) as the ratio, expressed as a percentage, of (1) the 

volume of water a rock or soil will yield by gravity to (2) its own 

volume. 

Specific retention.- Specific retention (Meinzer, 1923b, p. 29) has 

been called the ratio, expressed as a percentage, of (1) the volume 

of water which a rock or soil will retain against the pull of gravity 

to (2) its own volume. 

Under natural water-table conditions the sum of the percentages 

representing specific retention and specific yield should equal the 

percent porosity. It should be recognized, however, that during 

the period following drainage of a zone of saturation, the water 

retained by the rock or soil, against the pull of gravity, will gradually be dissipated by evaporation and transpiration. Thus, theoretically, in a rock or soil the actual air space available for receiving ground-water recharge can vary from the value given by 

the porosity minus the specific retention, immediately following 

complete gravity drainage of the zone of saturation, to the value 

given by the porosity alone after sufficient time has elapsed to permit complete evaporation and transpiration of all the retained water. 

Theref<;>re, in any discussion of quantitative analysis of groundwater storage and recharge, due consideration must be given to 

the elai?sed time between the antecedent climatic and hydraulic 

events. 
GROUND WATER 215 

WATER TABLE AND RAINFALL CORRELATIONS 

RAINFALL AIVD THB WATBR TABZ..B 11V ltiR/Ql{ OF THE BVBRGZ..ADBS 

Figure 18 shows rises of the water table in observation well G 72 

correlated with hourly precipitation data from a recording rain gage 

located about 1. 5 miles to the south. Well G 72 is near the DadeBroward County. line on the east side of State Highway 25, This well 

is in the glades about 12 miles west of the coastal ridge and 20 miles 

west of the Atlantic Ocean. The well is 4. 6 ft deep and the land 

surface is 6. 0 ft above U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey mean sea 

level datum. The upper 3 ft consists of muck overlying hard permeable limestone, 

Figure 48 shows a 2. 25-ft rise of the water table following 4. 50 

in. (0. 375ft) of rainfall between 12 m. and 6 p, m. on April 18, 

1943. On this date only a fraction of an inch of rainfall was recorded 

by gages at, and south of, Miami, Therefore, this was probably a 

local shower having a high intensity over only a relatively small 

--' w 

> 

w 

55 '"''"·-·· ... ··------·- , ...... --- "''" .. -.. -. ... --·---------~ 

Well G 72 located approximately 1.5 miles _.i.._ 

north of recording rain gage near Pennsuco I .____ 

I 

r-+-- 0.5 

w 

u 

--' 5.0 

<:( I ~-~·--,.-~ ~ ~ .. ··--·--- - I 

f I I 0 ~ 

w 

(f) 

z 

<:( 

w4.5 

::;:: 

w 

> 0 

o:J 

<:( 4.0 

1-

w 

w 

lL 

z 

-- ~.5 

--' w 

> 

w 

--' 

~ ~0 

!;! 

3: 

2.5 

I 

_.,,., __ , __ 1 I ____ 

I 

I 

I 

I 

! 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I --· -· ·f---.----

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

! J 

I I 

r'-- I 

~ I I 

I 

I I 

I I 

I I 

I 

: I 

! 

I 

I 

I : I I 

I I 

I 

I T--1 

I ~--·-~--. ,, ... 

~ zo~ .. ·-------~----~------~----~----~------~------r 

~(f) I 

~5 I ~~ 10~----+-----~----~~~--+---_.~----~~----~----~ 

:::;~ 

0:: 

::> 

0 

:r: OOL_ ____ ~ ____ i_ ____ _. 

17 18 19 20 

APRIL 1943 

::J 

(f) 

0 

z 

I .55 

2.0 

~ --' w 

0) 

1-

w 

w 

lL 

z 2 5 ::;-

w 

> 

w 

--' 

30~ 

~ 

3.5 

Figure 48. -Graph showing fluctuations of water level in well G 72 following periods of heavy 

rainfall, 
216 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUlHEASTERN FLORIDA 

area, and the rainfall recorded by the Pennsuco gage may even 

have been appreciably different from the actual rainfall at the well 

1. 5 miles distant. Another rainfall of 2. 70 in. (0. 225ft) between 

7 a. m. and 11 a. m. the following day, caused a rise of the water 

table of 0. 82 ft. These figures give a value of approximately o. 27 

for the ratio between precipitation and the water•level rise in the 

muck between depths of 0. 65 and 1. 47 ft below land surface. 

'RAI'NPAl.;L·JIIVl) T'HB WAl'BR TAaLB IN SAND OP TlfB A7l.ANT1C OOASTAL Rl.DOB 

Figure 49 shows the rise of the water level in well G 86 on April 

16 and 17, 1942, following very heavy rainfall. This well is 0. 4 

10 

65 

...J 

UJ 6.0 > UJ 

...J 5,5 ~ 

UJ 

(/) 5,0 

z 

~ 

UJ 4_5 ::;; 

UJ 

~ 4,0 

CD 

~ 

~5 

1-

UJ 

..._ 

UJ ~ 

z 

~- 2.5 

...J 

UJ 

> 20 UJ 

...J 

cr 1.5 

Well G 86 located approxim~~;-;:;-~~~---- ----r ~---

east of Municipal Airport. Rain gage..------

read every 6 hours I 

I !r-- I I v 

l I I I ! 

l I i_ 'I / 

i i I I I I 

I i l I I 

I 

I I I I 

i I 

I I l 

! I I l -~ 

! I ! : UJ 

~ ~ 10 

0.5 

0.0 

I I I ! 

I I 

I ! 

: 

I 

I I I 

14 

i I 15 i l1i 16 I lid 17 

APRIL 1942 

0.0 

05 

I. 0 UJ 

(,) 

I it .5 cr 

;:, 

(/) 

2.0 0 

z 

2.5 :5 

3.0 ~ ...J 

UJ 

3-0 <D 

1-

UJ 

4.0 UJ 

..._ 

4.5 :;!;-

-' w 

50 G:i 

...J 

55 [5 

\;;' 6.0 ~ 

65 

7.0 

Figure 49. -Graph showing fluctuati~ of water level in well G 86 following periods of heavy 

rainfall. 
GROUND WATER 217 

mile north of Little River Canal on the east side .of NW. 27th 

Avenue, and 1. 5 miles southeast of NW. lllth Street and LeJeune 

Road, where the Miami Airport rain gage was located (it has since 

been moved to the NW. 36th Street Airport). :Ouring the morning 

of April 16, 1942, 12. 16 in. of rain caused a 4. 1-ft rise in the 

water table. This well is only 9 ft deep and penetrates fine to 

medium quartz sand, Previous to April 16, only 0. 10 in, of rain 

had fallen in the preceding 15 days; therefore , the sand above the 

capillary fringe probably contained little moisture, Assuming that 

the water table in the area rose about the same amount as in well 

G 86, that the rainfall at the well was the same as at the rain gage, 

that the 2 ft of sand above the water table at the end of the first rise 

retained an estimated 2/3 in, of rainfall, and that the moisture 

held in the capillary fringe is the same in both positions of the water 

table, then the approximate value for the ratio between recharge 

(water reaching the water table) and the water-level rise due to 

increased storage in the aquifer, between the depths of 2. 4 and 

6. 5 ft below land surface, is calculated as 0. 23. This ratio is 

somewhat higher than the specific yield because a part of the water 

would be retained and would not be released from storage under 

gravity drainage; also, it is somewhat less than the porosity because the sand probably contained a small amount of moisture before the rain fell and because appreciable amounts of air may have 

become trapped, thus preventingwater from completely filling the 

void spaces. 

A second rainfall in the area, 6. 64 in. on April1 7, 1942, between 

9 a. m. and 3 p. m.. caused a 1. 65-ft rise of the water table. At 

the peak of this rise the water table was within 0. 85 ft of the land 

surface. Assuming that the soil above th.e water table had been 

thoroughly moistened by the heavy rains that ended less than 12 

hours previously·, and that all the rainfall infiltrated to the water 

table, a value of 0. 34 for the ratio between recharge and watertable rise was calculated for the formation between the depths of 

0. 85 and 2. 50 ft below land surface. 

The area surrounding the well is level and sandy, and it is believed that the water table did not get above the surface in the area. 

After the rain ceased the water table began to drop at the rate of 

0, 6 ft per day. Probably one of the greatest sources of error ·in 

the above line of reasoning is that for individual storms the rainfall in the area near the well may be appreciably different from 

that recorded by the gage, 1. 5 miles away. As the period of observation is lengthened, however, the total precipitation recorded 

by the rain gage becomes a more reliable measure of total precipitation at the well. 
218 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTIIEASTERN FLORIDA 

lUJNPALL AND TH~ WATBR TASLB IN TH~ OOLIT~ OP THB ATLAN2'1C COASTAL ·RIDOB 

Figure 50 shows rises of the water level in response to rainfall at well S 182, near Peters, No recording rain gages were 

maintained near this well. A standard U. S. Weather Bureau rain 

gage at Peters, which is read daily, is about 0. 5 mile east of well 

s 182. 

On September 15-16, 1945, the water level in wellS 182 rose 

2, 54 ft, al).d on these same dates 6. 95 in. of rainfall was ~ecorded 

at Peters. The 10 previous days were without rain, and it is estimated that the 4, 5 ft of material above the water table absorbed 

about 1 in, of water from this rainfall. The remainder o~ the rain, 

if it is assumed to have caused the rise in water levels, would give 

a ratio between recharge and water-table rise of about 0, 19 on these 

dates, 

All the wells shown in figures 48, 49, and 50 are typical wells 

of the Miami area, and their water-level behavior indicates that a 

large percentage of the rain that falls in heavy showers or storms 

reaches the water table in a very short time. 

The amount of rainfall that becomes recharge after any particular 

storm depends on many factors, most important of which are: the 

infiltration capacity (ability of water to percolate from the surface 

7.0 

-' 6.5 

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I 1 Well Sl82 located approximately 0.5 mile 

I 1 west of standard roin gage at Peters 

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: : RAINFALL AT PETERS 

15 16 17 

SEPTEMBER 1945 

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Figure 50. -Graph showing fluctuation of water level in well S 182 following periods of heavy 

rainfall. 
·GROUND WATER 219 

to the water table), the porosity' and the specific retention of the 

soil and rock above the water table; the intensity and duration of 

the rainfall; and the antecedent weather conditions, which may result in dry, moist, or wet materials above the water table, 

Under certain conditions it is possible to calculate approximately 

the amount of recharge reaching the water table, The following 

conditions are important: The area should have a high infiltration 

capacity, the land surface should be nearly level, and the water 

table should have a gentle slope and should not be unduly influenced 

by nearby canals (thus, to limit ground-water discharge during the 

storm and to make an estimation of discharge possible with a fair 

degree of accuracy). 

It is necessary, of course, to have fairly reliable values for the 

ratio between recharge and the water-table rise for that part of the 

aquifer over which the water table fluctuates. Wells S 182, near 

Peters, and S 196, 3 miles north-northwest of Homestead at the 

University of Florida Sub-Tropical Experiment Station, are in areas 

that appear to satisfy these conditions. Well S 182 is equipped with 

an automatic water-stage recorder, and a rain gage is 0. 5 mile 

east, near the intersection of U. S. Highway No. 1 and Quail Roost 

Drive. WellS 196 has a float gage that is readdaily; the rain gage 

is about 100 ft east of the well. 

From field work done during the early part of this investigation, 

Cross (Cross, Love, Parker, and Wallace, 1940, p. 80) estimated 

the specific yield of the aquifer in the vicinity of Hialeah to be 0, 22 

and estimated the specific yield near Opa Locka to be 0.15. 

Relating amounts of recharge to the response of the water table 

in wellS 196, a ratio of about 0, 15 for the Miami oolite was determined by the writers. When a shower followed a dry period, recharge was calculated as precipitation minus 0, 25 in. for each foot 

of rock above the water table at the end of a rise, thus allowing for 

water retained by the rock. Recharge was assumed to equal precipitation if heavy showers occurred on succeeding, days when the 

rise caused by the second shower could be correlated with the 

corresponding rainfall. 

Examination of the Miami oolite in borrow pits and canal bank 

cuts shows that the porosity and permeability of the formation change 

considerably in relatively short distances, both horizontally and 

vertically, but even with these changes it is believed that values of 

0. 15 to 0. 20 are the best average figures to use in relating recharge 

to water-table rises for these parts of the coastal area. 

Figure 51 shows the annual sum of the individual rises of the water 

table in wellS 182 during the calendar years 1943--46, plotted against 

annual precipitation at Peters, about 0, 5 mile to the east. Each 
220 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTIIEASTERN FLORIDA 

80 80 

I 

60 

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Total rtses of water table in feet x ratio of 

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of water reaching water table 

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SUM OF ALL RISES OF WATER TABLE DURING YEAR, IN FEET 

Figure 51. -Graph showing total yearly rise of water level in well S 182 compared with 

precipitation at Peters for 1943-46. 

point plotted indicates the total rise of the water level for that year. 

Only the years 1943 to 1946, inclusive, were used because the rain 

gage at Peters was not installed until May 1942. A straight line 

was drawn as closely as possible to the four plotted points, which 

gave a fair degree of alinement, This graph indicates that, with 

an average annual rainfall of 60 in. , an average total rise of about 

16ft will occur in the water table, If the ratio of recharge to watertable rise for the material saturated by the rising water table were 

0. 20, the amount of recharge would be 38, 5 in,., or 64 percent of 

the raih:fall. ' 

A similar study, made for the 10 years of record for wellS 196, 

showed that a 60-in. annual rainfall would cause a total rise during 

the year of about 20. 5 ft. Assuming a ratio of recharge to water· 

table rise of 0, 20, 40 in. or 81. 5 percent of the rainfall would reach 

the water table. If this ratio were 0. 15 the recharge would be 36_, 8 

in •• or 61. 5 percent. 
GROUND WATER 221 

It is recognized that results of the above method are of limited 

accuracy because of the impossibility of accurately determining 

the true specific ·yield of the material saturated by the rising water 

table; but by this method it is possible to obtain relative values of 

the ratio of recharge to water-table rises, and it shows that about 

two-thirds of the annual rainfall reaches the water table in southern 

Dade County, 

Wells S 182 and S 196 are between Howard and Homestead in 

typical areas of the coastal ridge. Well G 86, however, is in the 

north Miami area, where the formation above the water table consists largely of sand; recharge to the water table averaging about 

50 percent of the annual rainfall appears to be somewhat less than 

that of the area to the south. 

GROUNJ>..WATER DISCHARGE 

GENERAL STATEMENT 

In this discussion, the discharge of ground water refers only to 

the water that has infiltrated to the water table, although the rate 

of extraction from the aquifer may, in some instances, be related 

to the amount of moisture retained in the formation above the water 

table. 

Ground water may be removed from the aquifer by several means. 

Gravity will cause it to flow into streams, canals, and wells when 

the water table in the area is above the water surface in these exits. 

From the stream or canal, it may flow by gravity out of the area; 

from the well, it may be removed by pumping. The amount of 

ground water moving by gravity depends on the slope of the water 

table (also referred to as the hydraulic gradient) and the transmissibility of the aquifer. Where the water table is at or near the surface, a large percentage of the ground water may be removed by 

the process of evapotranspiration. If the water table is below the 

land surface, evaporation may take place where the capillary fringe 

reaches the land surface or where the air can circulate through the 

pores or interstices of the soil to sufficient depth to reach the 

capillary fringe. 

Water rises in the capillary fringe above the water table in response to the same molecular forces that cause a liquid to rise in 

a wick. In fine-grained geologic materials the capillary fringe may 

reach to a height of several feet above the water table; in silty or 

clayey materials it may exceed 10 ft; but in coarse sand or gravel 

it may be only a few inches or even a fraction of an inch, The 

height of the capillary fringe above the water table also varies with 

the temperature, and with the rise or fall of the water table itself. 
222 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTiiEASTERN FLORIDA 

EVM"QRATION AND .TRANSPIRA110N 

Transpiration is the exhalation of water vapor by organisms, but 

the ground-water investigator is concerned only with transpiration 

by plants, whose roots remove water from the soil and whose leaves 

return most of this water to the atmosphere. Transpiration is a 

process that is concerned with the metabolism of plants, and if the 

supplyofwaterbecomes too small, the plants wilt, wither, and die, 

Plants can extract water from the water table only so long as their 

roots extend into the capillary fringe or to the water table itself, 

In many ground-water investigatibns it is difficult or impossible 

to separate evaporation from transpiration, and the total of both is 

referred to as evapotranspiration, or total evaporation. Evapotranspiration varies widely, depending on the topography, soil, 

weather conditions, depth to water table, height of capillary fringe 

above the water table, and character of the vegetation. 

Over the Everglades and over most of the coastal ridge in Dade 

County the wate!' table is so close to the land surface that evapotranspiration accounts for a large percentage of the total water removed from the aquifer. The land surface in the glades in Dade 

County ranges from about 2 to 8 ft above mean sea level, and over 

most of the coastal ridge it is less than 10ft above mean sea level, 

The water table in the coastal ridge ranges from about 10 ft above 

mean sea level to 1 ft below, varying with location, weather conditions, pumpage, and several other factors. 

(See the section on climate for descriptions of experiments on 

evapotranspiration at Belle Glade and West Palm Beach.) 

EV APOTRANSPIRA110N AND DISCIIARGE STUDIES IN DADE COUNTY 

An attempt was made by the writers to correlate the rate of decline of the water level in two wells, G 72 and G 218, with the 

depth to the water table. These two wells are in the eastern part 

of the Everglades of northern Dade County, where the muck is 

about 3 ft thick and where the water table seldom drops below the 

base of the muck. The hydrographs of these two wells indicate that 

the rate of decline of the water table during rainless periods does 

not decrease noticeably as the water table drops. This suggests 

that evapotranspiration rates, for the limited range of water levels 

considered, do not decrease materially as the water table declines. 

Figure 52 shows typical fluctuations of the water table in wells 

G 72 and G 218 during rainless periods. The maximum daily rate 

of decline due to evapotranspiration losses appears to be about 

0. 15 ft, and the minimum is about 0. 03 ft. An average decline of 

0, 10 ft per day is at the rate of 3 ft per month. Assuming that the 
46 

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i DAILY rAPORAI'ON , IN INCHES J "-

' <lZ37 1 0.2!54 0.245 0-220 ! 0.189 0.192 0.22:9 

25 27 28 29 30 MARCH !947 

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DAILY LAPOR110N,IN jcKEs sl 0.2.34 ! 0.271!!1 0.286- _l o.30I 0.300 o.::50o 0.252: 0.1134 j 3. 17 18 19 20 21 

JUNE 194'6 

24 

!Figure 52. -Typical fluctuations of water levels in wells G 72 and G 218 during rainless periods. 
224 WATER RESOURCES lN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

water coming out of storage occupied 20 percent of the volume of 

the material dewatered, this would give 0. 60 ft or 7. 20 in. of water 

per month and 86. 4 in. per year. A decline of 0. 03 ft per day would 

be equivalent to 2. 16 in. per month or 25. 9 in. per year. 

The water taken by evapotranspiration from below the water table 

is only a part of the total evapotranspiration loss from the muck, 

because the latter has a high specific retention and plants can extract water held against gravity drainage above the water table. 

From Clayton's published results (Clayton, Neller, and Allison, 

1942, p. 10-14), it is concluded that a saturated cubic foot of muck 

soil in its original condition is about 80 percent water, but the 

specific yield is only about o. 20. 

Thus, it appears that in an area where the muck is 2 ft or more 

thick, the water table could be lowered readily by pumping but very 

little salvage would be obtained and evapotranspiration losses would 

be reduced only slightly. While the water table is in the muck, the 

capillary fringe reaches the land surface and evapotranspiration 

rates are high; when the water table is lowered below the muck, 

the moisture content of this material is so high that evapotranspiration rates can be maintained for long periods without appreciable falling off. Subsequent rainfall is largely absorbed by the muck, 

and only a small part of it percolates through to the water table. 

Thus, very little can be done to reduce the priority of plants on 

rainfall. 

Where the muck and marl mantle is about 1 ft or less in thickness 

above the limestone, lowering of the water table would probably 

produce conditions more favorable for salvaging some water from 

loss by evapotranspiration. 

The hydrographs of wells S 182 and S 196 show rainless periods 

as smooth curves of decreasing slope similar to the recession curve 

illustrating runoff for a surface stream. This decline generally 

starts from an hour to a day or more after the rain ceases, depending on depth to the water table, characteristics of the soil, and 

formation above the water table. Wells S 182 and S 196 are typical 

wells for the section of the coastal ridge south of the Tamiami Canal 

and north of Homestead; they are situated more. than 3. 5 and 9. 5 

miles respectively from the nearest Biscayne Bay shore points and 

thus, as indicated in figures 39 and 41, they are unaffected by normal variations in Bay levels. Furthermore, these wells are in the 

generalarea of weatherobservation(rainfall)stations (seep. 219). 

They are the only wells in this area with daily or continuous records of water levels over a period of more than 6 years. 

In an attempt to correlate the rate of decline of the water level in 

well S 182 with the stage of the water table, during rainless periods 

a graph was made (fig. 53) of rates of decline (obtained from re-
t--

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GROUND WATER 

EXPLANATION 

December!. February 

7r--~~--t 

March~May 

June ~August 

X 

6 

5 

4 

September- November 

Figures beside each point 

1--~~---1 show overage doily 1------h;;.:...----,,.~£---+-----l 

evaporation rote for 

preceding 5 days 

•. 30 

225 

I ':-=----"-----;-7---__L_----::-':;--,--_..J.-----::"'::------'12.1 

0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 

RATE OF DECLINE OF WATER TABLE (FEET PER MONTH) 

Figure 53. -Graph showing rate of decline of water level in well S 182 versus stage of water table correlated with average evaporation rate for preceding 5 days. 

corder charts) plotted against the corresponding water-level stages 

for times when less than a total of 0. 10 in. of rain had fallen in 

10 preceding days. Note that a decline of the water table, indicating 

removal of water from storage in the aquifer, is evidently accompanied by a decreasing rate of ground-water removal, The daily 

fluetuations in this well are slight during rainless periods, and the 

departures from a smooth curve drawn through the water level at 

noon each day seldom exceed 0, 01 ft. These small daily fluctuations, superimposed on the recession curve for the well, appear 

to be due mostly to changes in atmospheric pressure, but at times 

they may be due partly to transpiration, 

Forty-one points are plotted on figure 53, the data having been 

obtained from records for the period from May 1942 (date rain 
226 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTI'IEASTERN FLORIDA 

gage was installed) through Pecember 1946. The season of the year 

when the rainless periods occurred is indicated by symbols. Points 

for the lower stages, less than 2. 5 ft above mean sea level, are 

for periods that occurred principally during the spring and summer 

months when evapotranspiration rates were high (pl. 3). Above the 

2. 5-ft stage, most of the 10-day rainless periods occurred in fall 

and winter when evapotranspiration rates were somewhat below the 

yearly average. High water-table stages occurred frequently during the summer but a rainless period of 10 days, or more, did not 

occur often. 

The scattering of points on figure 53 shows that the rate of decline 

of the water table is influenced by factors other than the stage alone. 

If evapotranspiration processes are effective in withdrawing water 

from the water table, the quantity of water withdrawn will vary with 

depth to the water table and with plant growth and weather conditions. These factors, together with. the character of the soil and 

the type of vegetation, may cause evapotranspiration to range from 

zero to as much as o. 4 in. of water per day, and it can easily be 

seen ·that if water is being extracted from the aquifer 'by evapotranspiration, then the rate of decline is being influenced by the 

weather at the same time. Beside each point on figure 53, the 

average daily evaporation rate is given in inches for the preceding 

5 days (from Class A pan at Hialeah). Curves for three arbitrarily 

selected evaporation rates are drawn to show the general manner 

in which differences in evaporation rates displace the water-table 

recession curve. 

Another factor affecting the rate of decline is the intensity, duration, and areal distribution of the preceding rainfall. Heavy ant} 

highly localized showers build up isolated water-table mounds, 

which gradually flatten out during the period following the shower. 

Thus, a higher local rate of decline of the water table occurs in 

one of these temporary mound areas than would follow a rainfall of 

nearly uniform intensity and duration over a large area. As a 

ground-water mound spreads out to other areas, not covered by the 

shower, it tends to retard the decline of the wate11 table in those 

areas. 

Also shown on figure 53 are the approximate rates of decline of 

the water table caused by ground-water runoff. These rates were 

determined·for two values of the coefficient of transmissibility by 

using the average water-table slope and assuming a ratio of 0. 20 

between recharge and water-table rise (see p. 218). If the entire 

ground-water loss were by percolation through the aquifer to discharge areas in Biscayne Bay, the rate of decline would gradually 

approach zero as the water table declined to the same level as that 

in the bay, after which no further decline would occur. However, 

other factors a:ce effective, for, as shown in figures 41 and 45, the 

water table at times falls below sea level in certain coastal areas. 
CROUND WATER 227 

The average water level in Biscayne Bay during this investigation (1941-46), as determined from the recording gage at Coconut Grove, was found to be approximately 0. 6 ft above mean sea 

level, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey datum, adjustment of 1929 

(the plane of reference for this investigation). This average is 

significant when studying water-level records for observation 

wells located in areas unaffected by transient tidal variations, 

The measurable effects of transient variations apparently are restricted to a coastal strip no wider than about 7. 000 ft. Thus, for 

such observation wells as S 1.82 and S 196, the longer term averages of sea level, or water level in Biscayne Bay, are more significant than daily or monthly tidal variations. 

For average, and below average, water-tab.le stages Biscayne 

Bay is the only natural outlet (other than by evapotransipiration) for 

the ground water moving from the area in which wellS 182 is located. If all the ground-water flow were discharged into the bay, 

then the average gradient between the well and the bay would vary 

with the height of the water level in well S 182 above some relatively long-term average water level in Biscayne Bay. However, 

the data indicate that at a stage of 0. 6 ft above mean sea level 

(using 0. 6ft as the average water level in Biscayne Bay, base 

level for ground-water flow) the water table is still declining at a 

rate of about 0. 5 ft per month. Assuming that the water coming out 

of storage occupied 0. 20 of the volume of material unwatered, the 

loss from storage is at the rate of 1. 20 in. per month, or 14. 4 in, 

per year, for this stage of the water table. 

Above the average stage, the rate of decline increases rapidly 

as the stage rises. This is due to several causes, among which 

are the following: (1) As the stage rises, the hydraulic gradient 

toward the sea steepens and ground-water flow increases in proportion. (2) At higher stages there are additional outlets for 

ground-water flow. (3) As the water table approaches the land 

surface, the evapotranspiration loss increases. 

Figure 47 shows a high stage of the water table, and the contours 

indicate discharge from the western part of the coastal ridge toward the Everglades and toward Biscayne Bay. At extremely high. 

stages, certain springs thatformerlyflowed perennially commence 

flowing in places along the shoreline at elevations slightly above 

sea level. These springs flow only for a short titne, but they are 

additional and somewhat freer e?CitS than those that discharge into 

the bottom of the bay. Also, at extremely high stages, considerable ground-water flow is directed into the transverse glades (see 

the section on Ge-omorphology) that discharge (by surface flow) into 

the bay or connecting canals. 

The recorder charts for well S 182 generally do not show daily 

fluctuations similar to those for wells in the glades. The land sur-
228 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTiiEASTERN FLORIDA 

face at S 182 is about 11 ft above mean sea level, but within half a 

mile there are areas less than 7 ft above sea level. Because the 

Biscayne aquifer is very permeable, the evapotranspiration loss 

in nearby areas, where the" water table is closer to the land surface, would have some effect on the water in this well. 

Figure 46 shows contours on the water table for March 17, 1941, 

at a time when the water table was very near the average stage 

computed for the entire period of record (194Q-46). The rain gages 

in Dade County show no rainfall other than slight traces for the 

period March 10-19, inclusive, buton March 8-9 a rainfall ranging 

from 1. 04 in. to 2. 28 in. was recorded in all gages (the first 7 days 

of the month were rainless). The average evaporation rate from 

the Hialeah pan during the 5 days preceding March 17, 1941, was 

0. 18 in. per day (about average for the year). 

GROUND-WATER DISCHARGE STUDIES IN TBE ATLANTIC COASTAL RIDGE SOUTB OF 

KENDALL 

If an average value for the coefficient of transmissibility (see p. 

237)for a selected area arou.nd wellS 182 were known, the groundwater runoff from the area for an aver!'lge stage, based on the 

shape of the water table (see fig, 46 ), could be computed. If a 

value for the average annual recharge to, the aquifer in the area 

were known, it would be possible to compute evapotranspiration 

losses from the water table because the part of the recharge not 

accounted for by ground-water runoff would have to return to the 

atmosphere. Figure 51 indicates 'that about 38 in, of an average 

annual rainfall of 60 in. reaches the water table, assuming that 

the average ratio between recharge and water-table rise is 0. 20 

(see p. 218 ). 

Three pumping tests, at locations respectively 4 miles northnortheast, 7 miles north-northwest, and 4 miles west-northwest of 

wellS 182 (fig. 61), gave values for the coefficient of transmissibility (T) of about 4, 15, and 6 mgd perft respectively {p. -270). 

This is a rather wide range for the coefficientof transmissibility, 

the maximum of the three determinations being about four times the 

mtmmum. Therefore, it was decided to comp!lte theoretical 

ground-water runoff, using an average water-table stage and 

values of ·T equaling 2. 5, 5, and 10 mgd p~r ft in each case. These 

computations should therefore yield results indicative of orders of 

magnitude of the ground-water discharge. 

The area selected for_ making these computations centered 

around well S 182 and lay between the 2. O-ft and the 5. 5-ft 

water-table contours. At the average water-table stage in this 

area (fig. 46) the location of the 2. 0- and 5. 5-ft contours on 

the water table approximately coincides with the boundaries of 

the coastal ridge, because, at the average stage, the Everglades generally begin west of the. 5, 5-ft contour on the water 
GROUND WATER 229 

table and the mangrove swamp and marl flats begin on the east 

near the 2. O-ft contour on the water table. The width of the selected area was about 5 miles, measured along the 4. O-ft contour, 

2. 5 miles on each side of wellS 182. The north and south boundaries were arbitrarily chosen flow lines between the 2. 0- and 

5. 5-ft contours. 

The average length of, and the average water-table gradient 

across, each of the contours in the selected area was determined, 

and by assuming a value of _1,. the ground-water flow past each 

contour was computed, and the flow into, and out of-, the area 

was obtained. 

B.:.cause the size of the area enclosed within the contours and 

the north and south boundaries was known, the amount of increase 

in flow between the two contours could be expressed in inches per 

year for the area, 

This method was used for various combinations of contours to 

"average-out• errors in mapping the water table and to compensate for variances in the transmissibility. On the basis of these 

studies, a value ofT equal to 10 mgd per ft appeared to be too 

high, because it would require about 50 in. (of an average annual 

of 60 in. ) of rainfall as ground-water discharge to maintain the 

water table at the average stage. Given a value of -r equal to 5 mgd 

per ft, the ground-water discl:).arge would be about 25 in. per year. 

Assuming that 38 in. per year would reach the water table (fig. 

51), 13 in. would be discharged as evapotranspiration from the 

water table, and the total evapotranspiration would be 35 in. of 

water per year, provided that the- only other disposition of rainfall 

were ground-water runoff. 

A logical continuation of the above method shows: 

38 in, recharge to water table 

-25 in. ground-water discharge 

13 in. evapotranspiration from water table 

60 in. average annual rainfall 

-38 in. recharge to water table 

22 in. evapotranspiration of rain not reaching water table 

22 in. evapotranspiration of rain not reaching water table 

+13 in. evapotranspiration loss from water table 

35 in. total evapotranspiration loss, or 

60 in. annual rainfall 

-25 in. ground-water discharge 

35 in. total evapotranspiration loss 

Inasmuch as there are no canals within these selectedareas, sur.-

face runoff would be inconsequential. Given a value of Tequal to 
230 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

2. 5 mgd per ft, the ground-water runoff would be 12. 5 in. per 

year; evapotranspiration from the water table would be 25. 5 in., 

and total evapotranspiration would be 47. 5 in. 

Assuming that atmospheric conditions causing high evaporation 

rates from a free water surface are also conducive to high evapotranspiration rates from the water table, there should be some 

relationship between the rate of evaporation and the rate of decline 

of the water table. This relationship would hold true only when 

the water table is close enough to the surface for plants to draw 

freely upon it. 

The water table under most of the coastal ridge appears to decline as a result of evapotranspiration, but at a lower rate than in 

the glades to the west. Figure 53 shows the water table still declining at the rate of about 0. 5 ft per month when the water table 

is down to 0. 6 ft above mean sea level, which is approximately the 

average level of the water surface in Biscayne Bay (seep. 227). 

Because ground-water discharge would be zero from a flat water 

table at this elevation, and because there is no large-scale artificial withdrawal in the area, evapotranspiration must account for 

the decline below this stage. Even if the evapotranspiration in the 

immediate vicinity of a well on high ground ·is small, loss from 

adjacent lower ground (possibly within a 2- or 3-mile radius) will 

affect the water table in the higher area, and it will lower the water level there at a rate in excess of that caused by the local 

evapotranspiration. 

Figure 53 was prepared in an attempt to correlate stage and 

rate of decline of the water table with evaporation rates for the 5 

preceding days from a standard Class A, U. S, Weather Bureau 

evaporation pan at Water Plant, Hialeah. It is realized that evaporation rates as determined from an evaporation pan cannot be 

directly applied to evaporation from land surfaces, and in this 

section the estimates are based on changes in evaporation rates. 

The average evaporation rates are shown in figure 53. 

The highest evaporation rates tend to fall to the right side 1ofthe 

group of points, and the lowest evaporation rates •tend to fall to the 

left side of the group, thus indicating that higher evaporation rates 

tend to cause a more rapid decline of the water table at a given 

level. There is a considerable scattering of points for. equal evaporation rates. This is probably due to. several factors, the two 

principal ones being: (1) Local rainfall creates water-table mounds 

(see· p, 226), which, even after· 10 to 20 days following a heavy 

shower, may still be dissipating into the water table. {2) The 

evaporation pan at Water Plant, Hialeah, is 16. 5 miles northnortheast of the well, and average 5-day pan evaporation rates at 

the two loeations may vary enough to introduce some error. 
GROUND WATER 231 

This scattering of points makes it impossible to draw curves 

accurately correlating the rate of decline versus stage for constant evaporation rates. However, lines have been drawn to indicate average .evaporation rates of about 0, 25, 0. 184 (the average evaporation rate for the Hialeah pan for the period of record, 

1941-46) and 0.125 in. per day. 

A study similar to' the above was made for we 11 S 196 for the 

period 1938-46, inclusive. This well is at the University of 

Florida Sub-Tropical Experiment Station, 3 miles north-northwest 

of Homestead and 10. 5 miles southwest of well S 182. 

The evapotranspiration loss in the area of wellS 196, at a stage 

of 0. 6 ft above mean sea level (at this stage the water table is 

nearly flat and at the same level as the average water surface in 

Biscayne Bay), causes the water to decline at the rate of about 

0. 85ft per month. In t!te vicinity of S 196, a ratio of recharge to 

change in ground-water level of 0. 15 seems a reasonable value 

(see section on Ground-water recharge, p. 219). Using this ratio, 

the evapotranspiration is equivalent to about 1. 5 in. of water per 

month or 18 in. per year. At an average stage of 3. 5 ft above 

mean sea level, the water table declines at the rate of 1. 6 ft per 

month. Using the ratio of 0. 15, this is equivalent to about 35 in. 

per year. 

Afterdeducting losses for evapotranspiration, the ground-water 

discharge at average water-table stage is sufficient to cause the 

water table to drop at the rate of 0. 60 ft per month, which is 

equivalent to about 13 in. of runoff per year. 

In the area of well S 196 the value of the cofficient of transmissibility required to carry off 13 in. per year, based on the 

shape of the water table at average stage, appears to be between 

15 and 20 mgd per ft. The map of the water table in this area (fig. 

46) shows that the gradients are rather flat; however, the control 

for mapping the water table in this area is not complete enough to 

allow accurate contours to be drawn. 

The analysis of the behavior of the water levels in wells S 182 

and S 196 indicates that, for the coastal ridge between Kendall and 

Homestead, about 35 to 40 in. of the annual rainfall of 60 in. 

reaches the water table, and of this amount, about 15 to 20 in. is 

lost by ground-water runoff and 20 to 25 in. is lost by evapotranspiration from the water table. 

The coastal ridge area be tween Kendall and Homestead consists 

of about 120 square miles. A 15-in, annual ground-water runoff 

from this area is equivalent to an average daily runoff of 85 mgd; 

and a 20-in. runoff is equivalent to 114 mgd. It is estimated that,· 

at an average stage of the water table, the ground-water flow past 

the 2. O-ft contour, which in this area is about 18 miles lo~g, is 

from 100 to 140 mgd.. 
232 WATER RESOURCES IN SOU1HEASTER.N FLORIDA 

WAT~LEVEL DECLINE IN SELECTED WELLS OF TliE ATLANDC COASTAL RIDGE 

Figure 54 shows the recession curves for several wells in the 

coastal ridge. From these curves may be determined the approximate length of time required for the water table to decline from 

7.------------r 

\ Approximate recession 

\ curves for wells F 179, 

\ F210, G 86, SIS, and$ ~8 

6 I 

\\ 

Heavily '\ 

pumped areo~ 5 68 0~------+---------4 

1

o 30 so 

TIME, IN DAYS, SINCE WATER 

LEVEL STARTED DECLINING 

Figute 54. -Rece .. ion curves for five wells in the coastal ridge. 
GllOUND WATER. 233 

one stage to another during periods of no rainfall. The curves 

were traced from the hydrographs of wells F 179, F 210, G 86, 

S 18, and S 68, following very heavy I,'ainfall on April 16-17, 1942. 

On April 14, the water level in these five wells was 0. 5 to 0. 9 

ft below their average stage. Ten to twenty in. of rainfall fell on 

the area in which these wells are located during April 16 and 17, 

1 942. At this time, the water levels in the five wells rose to their 

highest stages on record (194o-46); they reached peak stages of 

5. 3 to 6. 9ft above mean sea level, 1 to 7 hours after the rainfall 

stopped. The rise in the five wells during these 2 days ranged 

from 4. 8 to 6. 1 ft. By May 14, the water level in these wells had 

declined to stages only 0. 1 to 0. 6ft above their average stage. 

Thus, within a 30-day period the water level had risen from relatively low stages to the highest stages on record and had declined 

to a stage only slightly above normal. 

These five wells are all located within 1. 5 miles of either the 

Biscayne Bay shoreline or a major canal, and the water levels in 

the wells react accordingly. 

Well S 68 is an observation well in the Miami well fieldnear 

Hialeah, about 0. 6. mile southwest of the- Miami Canal. On April 

14, the stage in the well was about mean sea level, and in the Miami Canal at Hialeah it was 1. 2ft higher, thus indicating influent 

conditions. After about 18 in. of rainfall on April 16 and 17, .the 

water level in the well reached a peak stage of 5. 3 ft above mean 

sea level within an hour after the rain .ceased. The corresponding 

peak stage in the canal was 2. 6 ft above mean sea level, a difference of 2. 7 ft, and the establishment of effluent conditions had taken place. Fifteen days later, the stage in wellS 68 was 1. 6 ft above mean sea le,vel, and in the canal it was 1. 7 ft above mean sea 

level. Thirty days after the heavy rainfall, the stage in the well 

was about 0. 4 ft above mean sea level and 0. 6 ft below the· canal 

stage, thus indicating that influent conditions had been reestablished. 

WellS 18 is about 0. 5 mile north of Biscayne Canal, and well 

G 86 is about 0. 5 mile north of Little River Canal; both wells are 

on, or near, NW. 27th Avenue. Afte·r about 18 in. of rainfall, these 

wells rose to peak stages of 5. 6 and 6. 1 ft above mean sea level. · 

Thirty days later, they had deelined to stages of 2. 0 and 1. 6ft 

above mean sea level, respectively. The differences between the 

water levels in the wells and those in the canals probably never 

exceed 3. 5 ft. Well F 179 is located at SW. 24th Terrace and 32d 

Avenue, and well F 210 is located at NW. 62d Street and Miami 

Court. Well F 179 is about 1. 3 miles northwest of Biscayne Bay 

shoreline and 1. 7 miles northeast of Coral Gables Canal. Well F 

210 is about 1 mile west of Biscayne Bay shoreline and 1. 3 miles 

south of Little River Canal. 
234 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

OROVNP..WATEB DISCBABOE STUDIES IN THE A'n.AN'DC COASTAL ftiOOE NOB'DI OF 

KENDALL 

The northern part of the coastal ridge of Dade County is dissected by several tidal drainage canals; the principal ones are Snake 

Creek, Biscayne, Little River, Miami, Tamiami, Coral Gables, 

and Snapper Creek. The recession curves for five wells in this 

area show that these canals quickly drain off water reaching the 

water table when the area is not flooded. Although noquantitative 

data are available for ground-water runoff through canals from 

the coastal ridge, the average discharge was determined for several selected days at two or three locations on each major canal. 

Continuous discharge records are available for the years since 

1940 for several stations on the Miami and Tamiami Canals (see 

section on Surface water). From these limited data it is impossible 

to arrive at a figure for total average annual ground-water runoff 

through canals from the coastal ridge. 

From 1 mile below Kendall to the Dade-Broward County line to 

the north, the coastal ridge includes an area of about 120 square 

miles. In this area, it is estimated that more than half of the average annual rainfall reaches the water table, and of this amount, 

the larger part leaves by ground-water runoff .. If the average annual ground-water runoff were 25 in., this would be equivalent to 

an average daily ground-water runoffof 143 mgd, or 221cfs. How-· 

ever, this is not the total ground-water runoff, because, in addition to recharge from rainfall on the coastal ridge, there is groundwater runoff due to underground flow into the area from the Hialeah, Opa Locka, and adjacent areas, just west of the coastal ridge. 

This additional ground-water runoff appears to be less than onequarter of the above figure (221 cfs), but it would be difficult to 

determine the amount with any degree of accuracy. 

A large part of the area just west of the coastal ridge is drained 

by a network of lateral canals. Most of the discharge from these 

canals is into the Miami Canal when the 36th Street dam is open. 

However, some of it goes into Biscayne, Little River, Tamiami, 

and Snapper Creek Canals. On the basis of the total area contributing ground-water flow directly to the bay and on the basis of the 

slope and shape of the water table at the average elevation above 

sea level, it is estimated that three-quarters, or more, of the 

ground-water runoff from the northern part of the coastal ridge of 

Dade County (beginning at the south near Kendall) is discharged 

into canals and thence finds its way into the sea. The remainder 

of the ground water discharges directly into the bay. 
GROUND WATER 235 

40 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 

9 

I 

35 I 

I 

I 

(/) 

z 

0 

_.l 30 _.l 

<t 

(!) 

1.&.. 

0 

I 

I 

p 

I 

I 

~ I 

I 

(/) 

z 25 

0 

I 

I 

i 

_.l 

_.l 

:E 

r:l 

I ~r/ 

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-~ 20 I 

w /' 

(!) 

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::::> 

a.. 

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15 

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p---<? \ 

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1925 

I I I I 

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1935 1940 1945 

Figure 55. -Pumpage from Miami well field at Hialeah, 1925-46. 
236 WATER. R.ESOUR.CES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

ESTIMATED GllOVNI>WATER PliMPAGE IN DADE COUNTY 

The total amount of water pumped from wells in Dade County 

during 1945 was estimated (Parker, 1947, p. 72-88) to be 21, 310 

million .gallons, of which 4, 240 million gallons was for industrial 

use and 4, 140 million gallons was for rural and agricultural purposes. The remaining 12, 930 million gallons was pumped for the 

various municipal water supplies in the county. These figures are 

equivalent to an average daily pumpage of 58 million gallons for 

all purposes. 

The average daily pumpage in 1945 from the Miami municipal 

well field was about 34 million gallons. The pumpage from this 

well field has increased steadily from an average of about 11. 5 

mgd in 1933 to 36. 6 mgd in 1946 (see fig. 55 and Appendix). Not 

all of this water enters the well field as normal ground-water flow. 

Instead, a large part of the water pumped ~rDm the Miami municipal well field percolates into the area from nearby canals; the most 

heavily pumped area is completely surrounded by canals. 

Of the more than 21,000 million gallons of ground water pumped 

annually, a considerable part is returned to the aquifer by seepage 

from irrigation systems, septic tanks, and drainage wells. As 

pointed out elsewhere in this report, this recharge helps to maintain high water levels in that part of the coastal ridge near the 

shore of Biscayne Bay. 

HYDROLOGIC PROPERTIES OF WATER-BEARING MATERIALS 

The two principal hydrologic properties of an aquifer are its 

capacities to store and to transmit water. All aquifers have both 

properties to a certain extent, but there is a wide range of degree 

of efficiency among them. 

OOEFI'lCIENT OF PERMEABILITY 

The capacity to transmit water through the pores and interstices 

of an aquifer is often referred to as permeability, and it is expressed by various combinations of units of space and time. It is 

now commonly referred to as the coefficient of permeability. Meinzer and Wenzel (1942, p. 452-454) discuss permeability as follows: 

"The standard coefficient of permeability used in the hydrologic 

work of the United States Geological Survey is defined as the rate 

of flow of water at 60° F., in gallons a day, through a cross section 

of 1 square foot, under a hydraulic gradient of 100 percent. Arelated coefficient, which may be called the 'field coefficient of permeability, • is defined as the rate of flow of water, in gallons a 
GROUND WATER 237 

day, under prevailing conditions, through each foot of thickness 

of a given aquifer in a width of 1 mile, for each foot per mile of 

hydraulic gradient. The standard coefficient of permeability can 

generally be computed very closely by multiplying the field coefficient by the ratio of (1) viscosity of the water in the stratum to (2) 

the viscosity of water at 60° F. • 

COEFFIDENT OF TBANSMISSIBJIJT\" 

Transmissibility is a measure of the capacity of an aquif;er to 

transmit water. To quote further. from Meinzer and Wenzel: "Recently Theis (1935, p. 519-52 4) introduced the very convenient term 

'coefficient of transmissibility,' [ T) which is the 'field coefficient 

of permeability' multiplied by the thickness, in feet, of the saturated part of the aquifer. Thus the [standard) coefficient of permeability denotes a characteristic of the water-bearing material, 

whereas the coefficient of transmissibility denotes the analogous 

characteristic of the aquifer as a whole. 

•Natural earth materials that have been tested in the hydrologic 

laboratory of the United States Geological Survey have been found 

to have coefficients of permeability ranging from about 0. 0002 to 

about 90, OOQ--that is, the most permeable material carries water 

at a rat€' about 450, 000, 000 times that of the least permeable material. However, most water-bearing materials utilized by wells 

have coefficients that are whole numbers of two or more figures, 

generally between 10 and 5, 000. • 

COEFF1QENT OF STORAGE 

The coefficient of storage (S) of an aquifer is defined as the volume of water released from, or taken into, storage per unit surface area of aquifer, per unit change in the component of head normal to that surface. To visualize this concept, imagine a decrease 

in head on an elemental vertical prism extending from top to bottom of a horizontal elastic aquifer of uniform thickness. Thevolume of water thereby released from this prism, divided by the 

product of the cross..-sectional area and the decline in head, determines the storage coefficient. For artes~an conditions, the water 

released is attributed solely to the compressibility of the aquifer 

material and of the water. Obviously, under these conditions, s 

is dependent on the thickness of' the aquifer. For water-table conditions the water released is attributed partly to gravity drainage 

of the zone through which the water-table declines and partly to 

compressibility of the water and aquifer material in the saturated 

zone. Usually, the volume of water attriputable to compressibility 

is a negligible proportion of the total volume of water released and 

can be ignored. The storage coefficient then is sensibly equal to 

the specific yield and is independent of the thickness of the aquifer. 
238 WATER. RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

SOLVING FOB T AND S BY USE OF THE TDEJS NONEQUW8BIUII FORMULA 

The coefficients of transmissibility ( T) and storage (S) may be 

determined from a mathematical analysis of .the shape and rate of 

expansion, with respect to time since pumping started, of the cone 

of depression that develops around a pumped well. As in any math~ 

ematical analysis, it is·necessary to assume certain basic conditions and relationships, and the reliability and accuracy of these 

coefficients, for practical application, is determined by how ciosely actual field conditions fit the assumptions on which the formulas 

are based. 

The nonequilibrium formula, now widely used in quantitative 

studies of ground water was introduced by Theis (1935, p. 519-

524) in 1935 for determining the coefficients of transmissibility 

and storage of a theoretical aquifer. It is called the nonequilibrium 

formula because the element of time (time since well started pumping) enters into it. 

This formula is as follows (Wenzel, 1942, p. 87): 

8 = 114,6qL :.u du 

T u 

!£Q. 

Tt 

in which: 

s = the drawdown in. feet at any point in the vicinity of a well discharging at a uniform rate. 

q the discharge of the well in gallons per minute. 

T = coefficient of transmissibility of the aquifer, in gallons per 

day per foot. 

s = coefficient of storage. 

= time the well has been pumped in days. 

r '"' distance in feet from discharging well to the point of observation. 

According to Theis and Wenzel, the nonequilibrium formula is 

based on the following assumptions: (1) The water-bearing formation (aquifer) is homogeneous and isotropic; (2) the aquifer has an 

infinite areal extent; (3) the discharge well penetrates the entire 

thickness of the aquifer; (4) the coefficient of transmissibility is 

constant at all places and times; (5) the discharge well has an infinitesimal diameter; and (6) water taken from storage is discharged 

instantaneously with the decline in head. The formula also assumes 

that Darcy•s Law is effective; that is, that the velocity of groundwater flow varies directly as the :;;;lope of the hydraulic gradient. 
GROUND WATER 239 

The integral can be called the well function of u, w (u), and can be 

evaluated by the series; 

u2 u3 u4 

W(u)"' -0.577216- log u+u • - + -- - ... e 2'2! 3•31 4'4! 

in which: 

The nonequilibrium formula may then be written: 

s ,. 114.6 q W( u) 

T 

By means of a special type curve, a graphical solution for values of T and s may be made (Wenzel, 1942, p. 88). 

Several attempts were made by pumping tests to determine the 

coefficients of transmissibility and storage for the aquifer in the 

Miami area. The four most important of these tests are known as: 

{1) S 1; (2) G 551; (3) G 552; and {4) G 553. They will be discussed 

on the following pages. 

LARGE-SCALE PUMPING TESTS 

S 1 PVMPING TESI 

From November 19 to November 26, 1946, a large-scale pumping test was made in the lower Miami Springs well field. The 

pumped well was S 1, one of the regular city supply wells; its location with respect to the other wells and the canals in the area is 

shown in figure 56. An idealized geologic section of the lower well 

field, with location and depth of the test wells plotted with respect 

to each other and to land surface, is shown in figure 57. 

Well S 1, the pumped well, is 61 ft deep and has 14-in. casing 

to a depth of 48. 5 ft. The rated capacity of the pump is about 

4, 100 gpm, The deeper observation wells in the area, which were 

measured during the test, are approximately the same depth as the 

pumped well and have about the same amount of casing. The shallow observation wells are 10 to 12 ft deep and have about 2 to 5 ft 

of slotted casing or open hole at the bottom (see fig. 57). 

All the supply wells, S 1 to S 8 (see fig. 56), in the lower well 

field were idle on November 14, exceptS 7, whichwas in operation 

continuously from November 14 through November 26, For the 

period November 14 to 18, inclusive, all the Miami water supply 

was obtained from the upper· well field (wells S 11 to S 22, inclusive), except that supplied by wellS 7. Well 8,7 has a ratedcapacity of 2,600 gpm, or 3, 744,000 gpd. The average daily pumpage 

from wells S 11 to S 22 during this period was 3D. 9 mgd. 
519. 

N 

1 

s 22. 

S18e 516. 51:5. 

S2fe $:20. s 11. 

Flori 00 East Coost Roifwa.y borrow pit c.anol 

cooverges wifh Miomi ct~nol oboot 3100 

feel north 

CWB 

NORr. 

so2 e ,---WATER WORKS 

ifles" PLANT, HIALEAH 

1000 

S I pumping - t-est -site 

! See fig: 57 for pro _per 

'SI)QCing of f-est wells S lA lo 5681 

0 

36TH 

T 

NORTHW£ST 

ST 

Figure 56.-Map of the Miami well-field area, 

620 ST 

54TH ST 

UPLANAT10N 

Cit:tofMianl~well • 

-=-:::.-

Conal 

s-• 

46TH 

5000 Fee-t 

ST 

CANAL 

STAGE 

R£eORDER 

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~ 0 

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GROUND WATER 

"'" "'"' 

FORT THOMPSON FORMATION 

(Contains pockets and lenses of sond) 

241 

.., ... "" "'"' 

rrrrTT7777777TTTT77777777717/I!-IITT77 TAMIAMI FORMATION 

(Relatively impermeable) 

DISTANCE FROM DISCHARGING WELL (51), IN FEET 

Figure 57, -Generalized Cl'OSS section through wells S 1 to S 68 in the lower Miami well field, 

On November 19 at 10:30 a. m., ,supply wellS 1 was placed in 

operation and continued operating until 11 a. m. November 26. 

The capacity of this well is 4,030 gpm, or 5.8 mgd. From November 19 to 25, inclusive, the total pumpage to the water works plant 

averaged 36 mgd, of which 9. 55 mgd was pumped from wells S 7 

and S 1; the remainder was pumped from wells S 11 to S 22 in the 

upper field. 

WellS 7 is 3,150 ft west of S 1. Of the supply wells S 11 to S 22, 

S 13 is the closest to S 1 and is about 4, 750ft north of·the Miami 

Canal. Wells S 11, S 12, and S 13 are near the water works plant 

on the north side of the Miami Canal. Wells S 14 to S 22, in the 

upper field, are 5,100 to 7,100 ft from wellS 1 and on the opposite 

side of the Country Club Canal (a shallow canal just northwest of 

the lower well field), At the closest point, wellS 1 is about 1, 500 

ft from the Country Club Canal. 

Records from a recording gage on the Miami Canal at the Water 

Works Plant at Hialeah for the period November 17 to November 

25 showed that the daily rnean stage of the Miami Canal ranged 

from 2, 6 to 2. 5 ft above mean sea level. The average daily range 

of fluctuation in the canal, during this period, was 0. 90 ft; this 

fluctuation was caused mostly by tides. At the upper 36th Street 

gage on the Miami Canal, 2. 1 miles downstream from the Hialeah 

gage (fig. 56), the daily mean stage in the canal for the same period 

ranged from 1.80 to 1.68 ft above mean sea level, and the average 
242 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

daily range of fluctuation for the 9 days was 1. 75ft (owing almost 

entirely to tides). 

Well F 1, which is 52. 7 ft deep and about 80 ft from the southwest bank of the Miami Canal and 3, 400ft northeast of wellS 1, 

was equipped during the test with an automatic water-stage recorder that showed a daily mean stage of 2. 26 ft above mean sea level 

on November 19, and 1.94 ft above mean sea level on November 26. 

The average daily range caused by tides was 0. 07 ft. The daily 

fluctuations caused by tides in well S 68 (fig. 57) during the period 

November 17 to November 26 was about 0. 03 ft. 

From a study of the measurements made of the water level in all 

observation wells within 6, 000 ft of well S 1 {during, and 6 days 

prior to, the test), it was concluded that a regional decline of about 

0.10 ft in waterlevels had occurred during the period November 19 

to November 26. Three observation wells equipped with automatic 

water-stage recorders, 4. 4 to 6, 2 miles from wellS 1, showed 

declines during this period of 0, 06, 0. 08, and 0. 15 ft. Therefore, 

corrections varying from 0. 00 to 0, 10 ft, increasing uniformly 

with time during the period November 19 to November 26, were 

applied to the observed drawdowns. The observed drawdowns were 

then computed on the assumption that no decline of the water level 

would have occurred if wellS 1 had not been pumped. 

Pairs of shallow and deep observation wells were constructed at 

distances of 10, 75, 150, and 300ft northeast from wellS 1 (the 

pumped well) in line with S 68 and G 68A (a shallow well), which 

are 500 ft northeast of well S 1 (fig. 57). The shallow wells are 

numbered respectively S 1A, S 10, S 1F and S lH, and the deep 

wells are numbered S lB, S lC, S lE and S 10. Shallow wells had 

been installed about 10ft from the other supply wells. 

In the lower well field the water levels in these supply wells and 

their companion shallow wells were measured during the test (except for S 7, which had been in continuous operation during and for 

5 days before the tests). Wells S 2, S 3, and S 4 are the only supply wells within 1, 000 ft of wellS 1. 

Referring to the Theis nonequilibrium formula (p. 239) as long 

as the values of u are less than 0, 02, values of W (u) versus u will 

plot as a straight line on semilogarithm'ic coordinates. This indicates that in the theoretical aquifer, the drawdowns .(for a given 

time in that part of the cone of depression around the pumped well 

that has stabilized in shape) will vary as the logarithm of the .distance from the pumped well, After the shape of the cone of depression has stabilized, the water levels may still slowly decline, but 

they will decline the same amount in all wells in that part of the · 

cone of depression that has stabilized, This condition makes i.t possible' to solve. the coefficient of transmissibility (T) by a semiloga-
GROUND WATER 243 

rithmic plot of drawdown versus distance of observation well from. 

the pumped well, so long as the observation well used is in that 

part of the cone of depression that has stabilized in shape. This 

method has been discussed by Cooper and Jacob {1946, p. 526-

534). The following formula is used: 

in which:· -- .T ., 2.303 Q/211 ~ 

(l = discharge of well. · 

l'ls"' change in drawdown1 in feet, for one log cycle on the str~ightline plot. 

Figure 58 shows a solution for T by this method. Using the drawdowns in the deeper wells after 1 day of pumping, the value of t 

(as obtained from the slope of the straight line fitted to the plotted 

points as closely as possible) is 3. 4 mgd per ft; after 6 days of 

pumping, the value ofT is 3. 25 mgd per ft. Using the drawdowns 

in the shallow wells, the value of T, after 6 days of pumping, is 

4. 3 mgd per ft. 

Figures 59 and 60 show semilogarithmic plots of drawdown versus time (after well S 1 started pumping) for the five pairs of observation wells at 75, 150, 300, 500, and 900ft from S 1. The 

drawdown in all shallow wells was less than in the deeper wells 

during the early part of the test, but, after 2 days of pumping, the 

water level in each pair of shallow and deep wells beyond 300 ft wa:s 

very nearly the same, and for all pairs the rate of decline of the 

water level in the shallow and deep wells was about the same. As 

far as 300ft from the pumped well, the water level in a given pair 

0. • - VA LUI;$ OF T 

A ~ 3, 4oo, ooo GPO PeR Fr 

8 = 41 ,J(JI),OOO 6PD PER fr 

.,// 4 

______._ t: :r .J,2~0, 000 6PO PER fT 

0 OBSCRVCO 0/iAWDOW'/11 IN OCCP wrLLS v 

/ 

AFTCR PtJMPJN6 I DAY 

/ 4 ~~~~;v;:M!I~~W:~~~s'N (J££P WF:LL$ / )/ 

·~ x 08$ERVED DRAWIJOWN IN SHALLOW / W£/.I..S AFfCR PIJMPING 6 DAY$ Y"' 

/ 

• ~ ,..._:7 

// /-- ;/: 0 _,.........-x / 

AV_,. 

av v 

• c ... J< -

I. • 10 

Dl STAN8~ FROM PUMP ~ WELL, IN FEET 1!00 IQOO 

Figure 58. -Graph showing transmissibility coefficient as determined by distance-drawdown 

relationships from S 1 pumping test. 
244 

.... 

"' 

0.0 

0. 2 

~0.4 

::: 

z 

~0.6 

"' ;:: 

" "' "' 0 

~ (.J 

"' "' 

0.8 

81.0 

1.2 

1.4 

10 

0.0 

-----

1---

0.2 

.... 

"' "' I.e 

il:OA 

z 

3: 

0 

"' 

~0.6 

"' 0 

"' "' t;o.a 

w 

"' "' 0 

(.J 

1.0 

1.2 

10 

WATER RESOURCES IN SOunmASTERN FLORIDA 

t--~ 

~·p)hiiL I 

'""' ' t'\ 

\ 

~s~~t.h 51 feet 1\ -.. ---~ ,._ ~ 

""!-. ... ~ 

·-, 

-~ 

r• 75 feet 

~0 100 500 1000 

TIME, IN MINUTES 

A 

NIIF,LtUflL h;-.. 

-I'< 

5 IE, depth 61 feet 

ro-~ 

r• ISO feet 

50 

~ 

....._ 

100 

........ " "" ' -........ "''-' 

"'-.. ....... ...... 

500 

TIME, IN MINUTES 

B 

~ 

----

1000 

~ i'-o 

..... ~I'-

'r-- .... ,• 

'r5000 10,000 

-...;._ 

....._..._._ ~ 

' ';:--

....... . 

. 

5000 10,000 

Figure 59. -Time·drawdown graphs for pumping test of S 1 for wells 75 and 150 feet distant. 
o.o ,..____, 1. J J ,I ! I 

r-=-mlfeet ,_ 

~0.2 

.. 

! 

z 

~0.4 , 

~ 

"' , 

, 0.6 

"' ,_ 

<> "' "' "' 0 0.8 

<> 

,_ 

... 

"' ... 

t.o 10 

0.0 

~ 0. 

z 

2 

;o 

0 

, 

~ 0.4 

"' , 

, 

"' 

·-

u 0.6 

"' "' "' 0 

<> 

,_ 

"' 

.. "' 

0.8 

10 

0.0 

! 0.2 

z 

;o 

0 

0 

~ 0.4 

"' c 

0 

"' 

~ 0.6 

"' a:

a: 

0 

<> 

o.a 10 

s IG, depJ sd fe[et --..... - --· -.4( -

--

r• 300 feet 

50 

~-lifp.- sl.D!tt 

r10 500 feet· 

50 

S ~, depth 52 te;t' -----~---

r• 900 feet 

50 

GROUND WATER 

~ "::-.... 

-.._ ::: 

100 

... _ ':'-f.::t: 

500 

TIME, IN MINUTES 

A 

~I depth 

1

11 t1., ,...._ 

---

100 

..,. !"'-.z, -._ -.... .... ... ..... r;. .... 

500 

iiME, IN MINUTES 

8 

N 3A, LptJ I) teL 

-------:-r-.. 

100 

·--._ -t~r-o 

500 

TIME, IN MINUTES 

245 

"*-~ 

~ h ~~ 

1000 5000 

~ ~ ~ ~ 

f-. 0 

1000 5000 10,000 

~ ~ ~ ~ r--r--, 

1000 5000 10,000 

Figure 60. -Time-drawdcwn graphs fCII'pumping test of S 1 fer wells 300, 500, and900 ft dilltant. 
246 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTiiEASTERN FLORIDA 

of deep and shallow wells differed byalmost a constant during the 

last 3 or 4 days of the test. For the wells at 10, 75, 150, and 300 

ft from S 1 the difference was about 1. 08, 0. 15, 0. 07 and 0. 015 

ft, respectively. This difference was still decreasing slightly in 

these wells during the latter part of the test, thus indicating that 

a slight amount of water was still infiltrating from the upper part 

to the lower part of the aquifer. 

The uncased hole in well S 1 is be tween 48. 5 and 61 ft be low 

the land surface (fig. 57) and it- was through this 12. 5 ft of open 

hole that the pumped 4, 030 gpm entered the well. As water approached the pumped well, the flow lines gradually converged to 

this zone, thus causing higher velocities and greater drawdowri~ 

in the deeper wells that are open to the aquifer only in this zone. 

The deeper observation wells and supply wells are so constructed 

that they would be subject to this effect, and, near the end Of the 

test, most of the differences in drawdown between the deep and 

shallow wells of each pair are believed to be due to this cause. 

The geologic section of the lower well field (fig. 57) inclt,tdes a 

layer of fine quartz sand, 10 to 20ft thick, between the Miami 

oolite (in which the water table is located) and the Fort Thompson 

formation (from which the water is directly pumped). This layer 

of sand is less permeable than the limestones, and the vertical 

velocity of water from the upper to the lower part of the aquifer 

is small compared to the horizontal velocity in the Fort Thompson formation. Thus, during the early part of the pumping test 

the aquifer manifests temporary artesian characteristics, which 

allow the cone of der;:reased pressure to spread more rapidly 

through the lower part of the aquifer than through the upper part. 

These same characteristics are also responsible for a more rapid 

recovery in the lower part of the aquifer immediately after pumping ceases. After a day or two of pumping, enough water infiltrates through the sand from the upper part of the aquifer to supply most of the water pumped by the well; the aquifer then evidences water-table characteristics. Well S 68 responds markedly 

to sudden shocks (such as thos,e caused by earthquakes) and thus 

gives further evidence of the semiconfining effect that the sand 

layer exerts in the aquifer. 

Using a value of the coefficient of transmissibility (T), determined by distance-drawdown relationships for that part of the 

cone of depression that has stabilized (fig. 58), values for the coefficient of storage (S)may be computed on the basis of the drawdown observed in a well. Values of s computed in this manner 

will be large for shallow wells that are close to the pumped well 

during the early part of the test. The value of S computed from 

drawdown in shallow wells will (in general) decrease with time 

and distance from the pumped well until the water levels in both 

the shallow and deep wells are the same. Values of S computed 
GROUND WATER ·247 

from the drawdowns observed in the deeper wells will (in general) 

increase with time and distance from the pumped well until a fixed 

value is reached upon stabilization of the cone of depression. 

If the water table is recharged from above or by influent canals, 

the value of s, computed in this manner by the Theis nonequilibrium formula, may continue to increase indefinitely, rising above 

1. 00. A value of s greater than 1. 00 is a physical impossibility 

under the conditions assumed for deriving the formula, because 

more than 1 cu ft of water cannot be extracted from 1 cu ft of 

saturated material. However, one of the basic assumptions of the 

formula is that the water pumped by the test well comes entirely 

from storage in the aquifer and the aquifer receives no recharge 

during the test. 

Another basic assumption of the Theis nonequilibrium formula 

is that the pumped well completely penetrates the aquifer and is 

capable of receiving water throughout the saturated thickness of 

the aquifer. In this pumping test, the deeper we.lls are open and 

capableofreceiving groundwateronly forafew feet in the pumped 

zone; the well does not directly receive water from that part of 

the aquifer in which the shallow wells end. Thus, it is believed 

that the deeper wells gave greater drawdown and the shallow wells 

gave less drawdown than if the pumped well had drawn directly 

from all parts of the aquifer. In making computations for coefficient of storage, therefore, an average value of 3. 8 mgd per ft 

for T was used. 

Table 16 shows values of S computed from drawdown in the 

deeper wells using a value of T equal to 3. 8 mgd per ft for both 

1 and 6 days after the test started. The drawdowns used in the 

computations were those taken from smooth curves drawn through 

the plotted points as shown in figures 59 and 60. Table 17 shows 

values of s computed from drawdowns in the shallow wells, using 

a value of t equal to 3. 8 mgd per ft for both 1 and 6 days after 

the test started. 

The coefficients derived from the S 1 pumping test indicate that 

T is about 4 mgd per ft and that s is about 0. 10. The coefficient 

of storage is more likely to be in error because a 10-percent error in the value of the coefficient of transmissibility, used in 

making the computation of S, may nearly double or halve the coefficient of storage, depending on whether T is greater or smaller. Also, slight errors or differences in drawdown, due to irregularities in the aquifer, cause relatively large differences in 

the calculated values for the coefficient of storage. 

346881 0-55--18 
Time since 

pumping WellS 1C 

started r = 75 ft 

(days) 

1 0,050 

6 ,047 

Time since 

pumpi1!!! WellS 1D 

started r = 75 Ct 

(days) 

1 0.247 

6 .168 

Table 16.-Values of S computed troni drawdowns in deep wells 

[Coefficient of transmissibility equal tci 3. 8 mgd per ft] 

WellS 1E WellS 1G WellS 68 WellS 4 WellS 2 

r = ISO ft r= 300ft r= 500ft r= 650ft r= 820ft 

0.048 0.071 0,105 0.090 0.052 

,063 .083 .130 .107 .063 

~ 

Table 17.-Values of S computed hom drawdowns in .shallow wells 

[Coefficient of transmissibility equal to 3. 8 mgd per ft] 

WellS 1F WellS lH Well G 68A WellS4A WellS 2A r= 150ft r= 300ft r= 500ft r= 650ft r= 820 ft 

0,113 1>.080 0.119 0.111 0.054 

,104 .1>89 .130 .117 .060 

WellS 3 

r=900ft Average 

0.063 0.068 

• 061i .080 

WellS 3A r= 900ft Average 

0,072 0.114 

.066 .105 
GROUND WATER 249 

G 151, G 552. AND G 153 PliMPING TI!STS 

One of the chief objectives of the ground-water investigation 

begun in 1939 was to determine a potentially safe area for the development of future municipal supplies. This area was described 

and mapped by Parker (Parker, Ferguson, and Love, 1944, p. 

26-28), but detailed and large-scale quantitative investigations 

outside the present well-field area, where test S 1 was made, 

necessarily awaited the selection of a general area 'for development. This choice, based on engineering economics as well as 

on the data collected from the geologic and ground-water investigations, was made i~ the spring of 1947 by Messrs. W. A. Glass 

and Frederick Weed, of the Department of Water and Sewers of 

the city of Miami, and arrangements were made to obtain detailed 

quantitative ground-water data on the chosen area. 

Previous pumping tests in the Miami area were not too successful because of the necessity for pumping and disposing of very 

large quantities of water. In most parts of the world, ·pumping 

tests using quantities of water ranging from about 100 to about 

1,000 gpm would suffice. In Dade County, however, the Biscayne 

aquifer is so permeable that rates of pumping in this range produce a cone of depression too shallow to be used to accurately determine the drawdowns caused by the pumping, or to satisfactorily determine the depth, shape, rate of spread, and decline of 

the cone of depression. In previous pumping tests, the wells had 

been pumped at approximately 1, 000 and 1, 500 gpm; these tests 

had indicated that the coefficients of transmissibility were very 

high and that exceedingly large volumes of water could be pumped 

with a very small drawdown, but it was felt that they did not give 

accurate values of the hydrologic coefficients needed for the 

planning of a well field. Therefore, it was decided to run tests 

in the potential well-field area at a rate of approximately 3, 500 

gpm, or 5 mgd. It had been shown in the fall of 1946 (in the lower 

Miami well-field area, where the pumping test on wellS 1 was 

conducted) that such a quantity would be large enough. 

The selected test area lies south and west of Miami (see fig. 

61 ). It is of triangular shape and contains approximately 11. 3 

sq miles. A test well occupies each angle of this area: G 551 is 

in sec. 36, T. 54 S., R. 39 E., a distance of approximately 5. 4 

miles northeast of G 552; G 552 is in sec. 27, T. 55 S., R. 39 E., 

a distance of approximately 5. 8 miles west-southwest of G 553; 

G 553 is in sec. 16, T. 55 S., R. 40 E., a distance of approximately 4. 6 miles southeast of G 551. 

Most supply wells in Dade County are drilled or driven. Most 

drilled wells have solid casing driven into hard, solution-holed 

limes tone, with an open hole extending from 1 or 2 ft to about 15 

ft beyond the end of the casing; driven wells generally have solid 
250 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTiiEASTERN FLORIDA 

TAM/AMI CANAL 

TAM/AMI "' TRAIL 

~ 

~ ~ -\ 

~ ~'t 

N 

(.) I EXPLANATION ..... 

~ 1-.. 

~ 

""' 

© ~ 

~ 'It Pumping test site '<;{ 

<:> (, -.J 

~ ~ 0 

' Observat1on well 1-.. 

<t) "': 

I 0 5 Miles 

Figure 61. -Index map showing general locations of wells G 551, G 552, and G 553. 

casing finished with a well point in sand. The driven wells seldom are more than 2t in. in diameter and are used chiefly for 

small domestic,supplies. All large supply wells, most fire wells, 

and large-capacity drainage wells are drilled wells ranging in 

diameter from 6 to 18 in. The average 6-in. well yie~ds as much 

as 1, 500 gpm with a drawdown of 2 to 4 ft. 

In these wells, all water 'must enter the casing only through the 

open hole or screened parts, thus causing large deflections in the 

ground-water flow lines, especially near the well (see fig. 57). 

In order to avoid this condition it was decided to try a type of well 

construction new to the Miami area, which, insofar as geologic 

conditions permitted, would minimize the deflection of groundwater flow lines and permit a more nearly horizontal flow through 

the entire thickness of the aquifer toward the well. 
GROUND WATER 251 

Such conditions could be fulfilled at the least expense by a 

slotted well, which would draw water through relatively large 

openings in the casing at all depths below the water table. However, it was obvious that if such slots were opposite a thick sand 

layer· the we 11 would fill with sand; the ref ore, the geologic section at the exact site of each test well was explored by core borings before the well was drilled. The placement of the slots then 

was determined from the geologic interpretation of the cores and 

cuttings. 

The slots, 3/8 in. wide and 12 m. long, were burned in the 18-

in. casing with an acetylene torch; they were cut parallel to the 

length of the casing and were arranged spirally around the circumference. Enough slots were cut to provide a total intake area 

throu~.J: the casing walls of about 10 sq ft (see fig. 64). 

Figure 62. -Reading the mercury manometer of the pitometer used to measure discharge from 

the pumped well. 
252 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

In each of the three pumping tests to be described, several short 

runs were made, generally on the day pre~eding the final test run, 

to ascertain that the physical and mechanical setup was satisfactory and to allow for any necessary repairs or adjustments. Then 

a 2-hour test run was made to correlate the throttle of the motor 

with the desired rate of pumping, which was determined by pitameter readings (fig. 62). These were made in a straight section 

of the Transite discharge line at a point far enough from the pump, 

valves, and pipe bends so that flow disturbances due to these features would be unimportant. When this rate was established for 

each well, the throttle was marked to facilitate setting wh~n the 

actual test run was made. Pitometer readings were made at frequent intervals du~ing the test runs to ascertain that a flow of approximately 5 mgd (3, 500 gpm) was maintained. 

Descriptions of the tests and results obtained are given in the 

following sections. 

G 551 PUMPING TEST 

On April 9, 1947, a 5-hour pumping test was run on test well 

G 551, the first of three such wells constructed for test purposes 

for the Department of Water and Sewers of the city of Miami. Figure 

63 shows the location of this well with respect to tne neighboring 

roads and observation wells, and figure 64 shows the method of 

constructionof G551, and the logs of G551 (prepared from cores, 

drill cuttings, and the action of the drill) and the five observation 

wells. 

G 551, the pumped well, has solid 24-in. casing to 29ft, slotted 

18-in. casing from 29 to 71 ft, and an open hole in the cavernous 

limestone from 72 to 84ft. The four observation wells, OW 1-10, 

OW 1.50, OW 1-200, and OW 1-500, at respective distances of 10, 

50, 200, and 500 ft from the pumped well, have solid 4-in. casing 

to 72 ft with an open hole in the cavernous rock to 84 ft. Well OW 

1-108, a second well 10 ft north of G 551, is 72ft deep and has 

perforated 4-in. casing to 72ft. The casing in this well is perforated with 3/8-in. holes drilled at 1-ft intervals for the entire 

length. 

The test-well site is relatively free from canals or supply wells 

that might affect the water table. The nearest waterway of any 

importance is Snapper Creek Canal, which, at its closest point, 

is about 1. 5 miles northeast of G 551 and is fairly well clogged 

with debris and water plants; there are no pumped wells of any 

consequence within several miles. Therefore, there could be no 

appreciable recharge from canals nor any interference from other 

pumping wells during a 5-hour test. 
GROUND WATER 253 

~ ::::e 

'<:{ 

~ :::::, 

DISCHARGE 

NORTH KENDALL 

pOW 1-200 

ow 1-50 

~W 1-10 

~-=~W I-lOS 

G 551 

~ 

z 

..J 

ll. 

~ 

1-

If) 

z 

<[ 

0::: 

N 

I 

EXPLANATION 

• 

Pumped well 

0 

Observation well 

General loc·ation 

of wells shown 

on figure 61 

1- Not to scale 

:::c 

(.) 

z 

CIJ 

DITCH 

DRIVE EXTENDED 

Figure 63, -Sket<:h showing locations of well G 551 and obsetVat:ion wells. 
254 

0 

w 

1.) 20 

Lt 

0:: 

:::> 

if) 

Q 

z 40 <( 

...J 

~ 

0 

...J 

w 60 CD 

1-

LI..I 

LI.J 

II. 

~ eo 

J: 

1-

0-

LI.J 

Q 

100 

WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

~ 

I= 

u 

on ::> C/) 0:: on 1- 0 0 0 

(,!) C/) :c I: f z 

0 

~ u 3: 3: 0 0 

;--- - ---, - r- .., Oolitic limestone 

---., 

0 ----------

"" "' ---- .S ·;; ' 0 

~~~~- 1------ ----~-

<:1' u 

..... 

"" - c: Solid ... I 'I !! c /4-.in."- ~o <.> cOSI ng 

Ill ... c"'- -- .S 

Ill ·;;,.,.... c:r I 3 0 Ul <:1' 

II I .., OQ') 

~Cavernous sandy .. . ! <;a> 

I II 

Open_,. 

hole 

-o_ ., ;;; 

Ci 0 

Ill ~.2 :::1 't ·O <3' .. c ... .. Q.. Ill T 

~ 

r12 ...... in. 

'--

Sandy 

(Relative! y 

- Open 

hole ~ 

mar I 

impermeable) 

'-

0 0 0 0 

~ f 

3: 3: 0 0 

Land - surface r-r----------

,_Peon_ -r-seo_ r- level 

------ ----- ---

Solid 

/4-in.">..., 

cOSihll 

limestone 

Open 

hole 

'-- -

Horizontal distances not 

to seale 

Numbers following OW I 

represent distance, in 

feet from pumped well 

Figure 64. -Drawing showing method of construction of G 551, and logs of G 551 and 

observation wells. 

Figure 65, -Pump used in aquifer tests. 
GROuND WATER 

Figure 66. -Water discharging at a rate of 5 mgd from G 551 at the end of the 2, 000-ft 

Transite line, 

255 

The pumped well was equipped with a deep-wel~ turbine pump 

set at 32 ft, having a rated capacity of 3, 520 gpm and powered by 

a 225-hp diesel motor {fig. 65~ The water pumped from the well 

was discharged to the south through 2, 000 ft of 12-in. Transite 

pipe into the western end of a shallow, narrow borrow ditch cut 

into the Miami ool.ite {fig. 66). The ditch, extending 1; 320ft east, 

is closed at both ends, and there was no surface flow into, or out 

of, the ditch during the test. 

The pump was started at 10:05 a. m. and run until 12:05 p, m., 

when it was necessary to shut it down because of motor trouble. 

After waiting for the effects of the pumping to disappear, the test 

was started again at 2:15 p. m. This time the pump operate.d satisfactorily, and at 7:15 p. m, it was shut down. 

The drawdowns used in making the computations were obtained 

during the period from 2:15 p. m. to 7:15 p. m. A small adjustment, varying from zero at the start to 0, 013 ft at the end of the 

test, was made to correct for the residual drawdown caused by 

operating the well (G 551) from 10:05 a. m. to 12:05 p. m. 
256 

0.00 .._ 

0.05 

~ 

" 0.10 

0.10 

0.20 

0.2 • 

~\ z 01\\ ;: . 

00.36 

0 

!i 

0:: 

0 

o.• 0 

o.• • 

o.s 0 

0.! • 

0.1 0 

o.e • 

\\ 

\ 

I 

WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

r--- ~l,_lsiL .._ 

-r-r-. r-. r-r-

--t---.ow 1·206 ~ r-- ~~t-r,.f, 

~ ~ ~ r- r--.. ....... 

~·50 

1--f-.Q. 

-r-.... 0 

~ ~ 

DRAWDOWN IN G 551 (PUMPED WELL) 

lime (t), Orawdo~n (sl, iomln~Jtu infl!!l!!t 

10 1.27 

30 1.30 60 1.32 

160 1.35 

~ 300 1.35 

~ 

"\ ...., 

I', ~ ~ 

ow 1•10 s j'Q... re.. r--r.,· 

~ OW HO 

r.--... -......, r:;:;; ' """ r-

"" .--....... r--.... 

• 10 50 100 500 I 00 

TIME (1), IN MINUTES 

Figure 67. -Tlme•drawdown gt"aph for pumping test of G 551, 

Figure 67 shows a semilogarithmic plot of the corrected drawdowns versus time after pumping started in G 551. The difference 

indrawdown between wells OW 1-10 and OW 1-500 remained nearly constant from 20 minutes after the pump was started until the 

end of the test; this indicates that the cone of depression had approximately stabilized to a distance of at least 500 ft in the first 

20 minutes of pumping. 

Figure 68 shows a semilogarithmic plot of corrected drawdowns 

versus di:;;tance from the pumped well for 150 and 300 minutes 
t;J 

w 

lL 

0 ,I 

0.2 

:; 0.3 

§ I# 

~ / ~ 0 

'? 

~ ;: 

0 

GROUND WATER 257 

0 - -

~ 

0 ~ 

- --;. ..... - "' ' ~ r--6:: 0 ;: ~;:.., p :il 

·@ 0 

?~ ~ ~ ~ 

T• 2.303 0 2 m4.t 

-::;;-- FOR WELLS OW I-50 ANO OW 1-200 

r •150 min 

·!> T• 2.303 X5.07mgd • !i/2 gdpe ~ " 6.28 X .204ff · m r <:> 

~ r • 300 min .• T " .. T• 2.303 X 5.07 mgd • 8 98 d It z 

~0.4 

c 

~ a:: 

c 0.5 ~ ff! /' 

6.28 X .207ff · mg p•r +- FOR WELLS OW 1-200 AND OW 1-500 

t • 150 min I T• 2.303 X 5.07 mgd • 13. 98mgd per It 

~ 

0.6 

"' 0 

I 

~ 

10 

t• 300 min 

6.28 X .133ft I 

,. ,r ~:r-~·~· 'i ··~ ll ~0 100 500 

DISTANCE FROM PUMPED WELL, IN FEET 

Figure 68.-Pistance-drawdown graph for pumping test of G 551. 

1000 

after pumping started. The points for the four wells do not fall 

upon a straight line as they should do for the theoretical aquifer 

composed of materials that are homogeneous, isotropic, and of 

indefinite areal extent. This indicates that the field conditions do 

not closely approximate the conditions upon which the test formula 

is based. The difference in conditions is believed to be due largely to the following causes: (1) Numerous solution holes and cavities occur in the aquifer, the largest of which is shown by the log 

of well G 551 to have a vertical dimension of 5 ft or more. The 

shape, size, and extent of these cavities are unknown; however, it 

is not uncommon for the .interconnecting passages or solutional 

areas to range in cross section from less than a quarter of a square 

inch to many square feet. These interconnecting passages are 

rather indirect and tortuous, and many large cavities begin and 

end abruptly in a series of small tubular ones. Probably, most of 

the larger ones extend laterally for considerable distances from 

the pumped well and actasnaturalpipelines or collectors of ground 

water in a manner similar to laterals driven out from a collection 

gallery. Thus, the largest percentage of the pumped water probably moves into the well through the solution channels, not uniformly through the aquifer. Obviously, the location of any well 

with respect to a large cavity would have a marked effect on the 

drawdown occurring in the well. (2) Even the small solution holes 

are sufficiently large, and the velocities in them are so high, relatively, that they cause turbulent ground-water flow in the aquifer. 
258 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Assuming that the water entering the well approaches it through 

a section of aquifer 60ft thick, that this section has an effective 

porosity of 20 percent, and that the flow is radial toward the well, 

pumping 5 mgd would give rise to ground-water velocities of about 

0. 12ft per minute (nearly 180ft per day) at a point 50ft from the 

well.. If the interconnecting passages are indirect and approach 

the well by tortuous routes, the actual velocities might be several 

times this amount. As the pumped well is approached the actual 

observed drawdowns inc·rease at a faster rate than they should for 

a theoretical aquifer in which laminar flow occurs. These anomalous drawdowns indicate that turbulent flow is probably occurring 

at distances greater than 100ft from the pumped well. 

Computations based on the drawdowns in wells 50 and 200 ft from 

G 551 (fig. 68) give values for T of 9. 12 and B. 98 mgd per ft after 

150 and 300 minutes of pumping. If the difference between the 

drawdowns in the two wells were as little as· 0. 01 ft in error the 

calculated value of T would change about 8 percent. Computations 

based on the drawdowns in wells 200 and 500 ft from G 551 give 

values for r of 13. 98 and 13.38 mgd per ft after 150 and 300 minutes of pumping. An error of 0. 01 ft in the drawdown in these two 

wells would cause an error of 18 percent in the calculated value of 

T. 

Using the drawdown in the wells 200 and 500ft from G 551 and 

a value ofT equal to 13,5 mgd per ft 1 the value of S after 150 minutes pumping is 0. 27. This value of s appears to be too high, and 

for it to fall near the expected value, T would have to be higher. 

From an analysis of all the data obtained from this pumping test 

(G 551) the coefficient of transmissibility is about 15 mgd per ft; 

however, the field conditions appear to differ too much from the 

assumptions on which the formula is based to allow a precise value of s to be calculated. 

G 552 PUMPING TEST 

On April 16, 1947, a 5-hour pumping test was made on well G 

552 in an effort to determine the coefficients of transmissibility 

and storage of the aquifer for the general area in which this well 

is located. 

G 552, constructed for the Department of Water and Sewers of 

the city of Miami, is about 1. 5 miles north of Eureka Drive and 

about 300 ft east of Naranja Road (see fig. 61 ). It is in an area 

that is free from pumping effects of wells 1 or re~harge or discharge .effects from tidal canals. Figure 69 shows the location of 

this well with respect to nearby roads and observation wells. 
GROUND WATER 

EXPLANATION 

• Pumped well 

0 

Observation well 

General location 

of wells shown 

on figure 61 

OW 2"1 G 552 

a; ow 2"10 s 

ow 2"50 

~w 2·2oo 

Not to scale 

EUREKA DRIVE 

Figure 69. -5ketc:h showing location of well G 552 and observation wells. 

259 

N 
260 

0 

WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTiiEASTERN FLORIDA 

z 

0 

;:: N u 

:> Ill <( 

"' a:: 0 2 ~ 0 0 0 

"' .... x; 0 

~ 0 

Ill r., N N 'f' <:> z r., N 

0 ;r: ;r: ill: ill: ;r: ;r: ~ 0 0 0 0 0 0 

---~-~-~~--~ ---- -------- ~~....:-----~~--- --~--- ---- '~ ~---- ~-- -~---~--

Fine quortz sond 

(Relolively low permeability) 

Horlzontol di•tonces not 

to $cole 

Numbers following ow 2 represent distance in 

feet from pumped well 

Figure 70, -Drawing showing method of construction of G 552, and logs of G 552 and 

observation wells. 

Figure 70 shows the method of construction of well G 552 and 

contains the logs of G 552 and observation wells. Well G 552 has 

solid 24-in. casing to 29ft, slotted 18-in. casing from 29 to 57ft 

(the slots have a total area of approximately 6. 4 sq ft), solid 18-

in. casing from 57 to 63ft, and about a 12-in. openhole in cavernous limestone from 63 to 79ft. 

Observation wells OW 2-10, OW 2-50, OW 2-200, and OW 2-500 

are respectively 9. 8, 50. 0, 199. 2, and 497.1 ft southwest of well 

G 552. These observation wells have solid 4-in. casing to 63ft, 

and below this is 11 to 15 ft of open hole in the limestone. Well 

OW 2-10 S, 10. 3 'ft southwest of well G 552, ha1:1 perforated 4-in. 

casing to 64 ft; the well is open to a depth of 63 ft. The 4-in. casing has 3/8-in. holes drilled at.l-ft intervals. Well OW 2-500 A, 

504 ft southwest of G 552, is an uncased hole, about 12 in. in diameter and about 15ft deep. 

G 552 was pumped in the same manner and with the same equip-

- ment as G 551; the pump bowl was set at 32 ft. The average rate 

of pumping during the test was 3,540 gpm and the actual rate never varied more than 2 percent from this figure. The water pumped 

from the well was discharged to the ~ortheast through 1, 890ft of 

12-in. Transite pipe iuto a transverse glade. It is believed that 

no recirculation of water occurred. 
1-

"' 

"-' 

0 ,I 

0.2 

0. 3 

0.4 

0.5 

;!!: 0.6 

z 

15 0.7 

0 

,. 

1---

I~ 

.,; 

"' "'o. a\ 

\ 

0 1\ 

,\ 

\ 

0.9 

I. 

2 

3 

GROUND WATER 261 

II II - ........ I-'-r2w 2-soo A 

lir!oo .,.. ;-- '-~ ~ !-.... 

--- Ulto 

---. ~ .._ 

!'----. ow 2-50 

• r--r-ra11>--.o. 

- OAAWOOWN IN G 552 (PUMPED WELL) 

Time (f), in minutes, DrQwdown ls), In feet 

30 2.32 

55 2.36 

102 2.36 

260 2.36 

~ --......ow 2-10 

~~ 

1-r--

r-.. ow 2-10 s 

t---

-1'-r10 ~0 100 1000 TIME (t), IN MINUTES 

Figure 71, -Time·drawdown ~ph for pumping test of G 552. 

Figure 71 shows a semilogarithmic plot of drawdown in G 552 

versus time after pumping was started. The drawdown curves for 

wells 200 ft, and less, from the pumped well show that the water 

levels were nearly stationary for about 6 to 15 minutes after the 

test. This may have been caused by the removal of sand from solution channels, which tht~s increased their capacity to transmit 

water and decreased the actual drawdown enough to compensate for 

the anticipated increase in drawdown. 
262 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUlHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Figure 72 is a semilogarithmic plot of drawdown versus distance 

from the pumped well. Drawdowns in wells OW 2-50 and OW 2-200 

give a value of T of about 2. 84 and 2. 85 mgd per ft, but drawdowns 

in wells OW 2-200 and OW 2-500 give a value of T of about 5. 72 

and 5. 65 mgd per ft. The smaller value of 'T, obtained by using 

drawdowns in the nearer wells, appears to be too low. This may 

be due to turbulent flow that develops in the solution channels of 

the aquifer, and which requires a steeper gradient (greater ~s) 

than would be necessary if the flow were la,minar (see p. 257). 

The values of T required to give a value of S equal to 0. 20 (which 

appears to be the most reasonable value of S for the Miami area in 

general) for the observed drawdowns in wells OW 2-200, OW 2-500, 

and OW 2-500A, after 5 hours of pumping, range from about 6 to 

as much as 10 mgd per ft. 

The data from this test corroborate the fact that the .field conditions do not conform closely to the assumptions on which the test 

formula is based. Although the aquifer is composed largely of 

sandy limestone, it is not homogeneous or isotropic; pockets of 

sand and dense layers of limestone, together with the numerous 

solution cavities and channels, give rise to conditions impossible 

to account for mathematically. The solution holes and channels, 

which 'give rise to turbulent flow in the aquifer, are especially 

confusing. It is conceivable that if another line of observation 

wells had been available, the drawdowns observed {especially in 

the closer wells) would not have agreed precisely with those used 

:and would have given a different calculated value of T. 

2 ~ 6 ;:"-

~ --~p ~ 0.2 t-------t---f--+-+--+--+-+-1'-+---_o V d. t-lr-+-+-i 

·~ ;./ r. 2.:Jo:J ote,.,..,s 15 

l;:j 0.4f-----+-----I--+-+----+~H-I--b;:;--~- FOR WELLS OW2-50 ANO OW2-200 

w ~ " y f • /50 min J 

~ ,:., /? T• ·;.~~ :~: ~~~ •2.84mgd perf/ t 

.:;, 0.61-------+-----1--+ 15 p "i-+-1-+--

.!!l • ~ ~ t• 300 min 

z /z:}T <::> r- 2.303 XS.Imod •284mgd per ft ;J: -:j'l' "> 6.28 X .655ft . ..1 

g o.af----+. A~ .::. +-1-+-+--- J: ~ ,~ O g9~~ f'Ofl WELLS OW2-200 AND OW2-500 

a: ~ f•/50mln I I C T, 2.:J03 X 5.1 mqd • 5 72 d ~~ I.O•I-~?''""""'""---~1---+-+-+---1---1-++t--- 6.28 X .32711 . mg Peir 

t•300 min 

T• 2.303 X 5.1 mgd, 565 d II 

1.21-----+---lc---+-+--+-+-+-+-+-- 6.28 X .3:Jfr · "'

9 per 

I I I I II .4t~o----'----'---'--!;w:--'__~--'--'-,~oo;;-----'----'---'--ce;:!;o:;;:o-'--'-...L.....":;!,oo·o 

DISTANCE FROM PUMPED WELL, IN FEET 

FigUl'e 72, -Distance-drawdown graph for pumping test of G 552. 
GROUND WATER 263 

G 553 PUMPING TEST 

On May 1, 1947, a 5-hour pumping test was conducted on well 

G 553, the third test well constructed for the Department of Water 

and Sewers of the city of Miami. This well is about 0. ~ mile' northwest of the little community of Howard {see fig. 61), in an area 

where no extraneous influences are felt, such as pumping from 

other wells or recharge or discharge due to canals. Figure 73 

shows the location of this well on the south side of Motu Drive with 

respect to the observation wells. Figure 74 shows the method of 

construction ofG 553, the logs ofG 553, and the observation wells. 

G 553 has solid 24-in. cas.ing to 36 ft, a slotted 18-in. casing 

from 36 to 80 ft, and an open hole about 12 in. in diameter in the 

cavernous limestone between 80 and 91 ft. The total area of the 

slots in the slotted casing is approximately 10 sq ft. The 4-in. 

observation wells OW 3-10, OW 3-25, OW 3-50, and OW 3-100 

are respectively 10, 25, 50, and 100ft east of G 553. These wells 

were drilled to a depth of 85ft and have perforated casing to a 

depth of 81 ft. The perforations are 3/8 in. holes drilled at intervals of 1 ft. The observation wells OW 3-200 and OW 3-500, 

located 200 and 500ft east of well G 553, respectively, were 

drilled to a depth of j35 ft and have 4-in. perforated casing t~ 70 

ft. The uncased portion of the hole in each of these two wells filled 

with sand shortly after construction, thup reducing their effective 

depth to about 70ft. Observation well OW 3-250, located 2S0ft 

east of G 553, was an uncased hole about 12 in. in diameter and 

about 16 ft deep; it was drilled to a depth of 34ft, but the bottom 

18 ft filled with sand. 

Well G 553 was pumped in the same manner and with the same 

equipment as, in the two preceding tests {see fig. 65). The water 

was pumped east from G 553 through 1, 700 ft of 12 in. Transite 

pipe into the eastern end of a ditch emptying into a transverse 

glade. It is believed that no recirculation of the pumped water 

occurred. 

On April 30, 1947, between 11:30 a. m. and 1:00 p. m., G 55~ 

was pumped at a rate of 3, 540 gpm for 90 minutes; then it pecame 

necessary to shut down the pump to replace a bearing. The next 

day, May 1, between 9:30 a. m. and 2:30 p. m., a 5-hour pumping 

test was made; the pumping rate was 3, 540 gpm and did not vary 

more than 2 percent. 

In the area of G 553, a layer of fine to medium quartz -sand intervenes between the upper limestone {Miami oolite) and the lower 

limestone {Fort Thompson formation) in a geologic relationship 

similar to that at the site of S 1 in Miami Springs. (See p. 246.) 

The permeability of this sandy layer is lower than that of the limestone, and pumping causes· a difference in recovery of water 

levels in deep and-·shallow wells". 

'346881 0-55--19 
MOTU DRIVE 

1 2- INCH TRANSITE PIPE L1 N E 

DISCHARGE DITCH 

EXPLANATION 

• Pumped well 

0 

Observation well 

General location 

of wells shown 

on figure 61 

N 

1 \\ 0 ow 3-soo 

G 553 \OW 3-250 1... 

OW 3-50 OW 3-200 ~ 

OW 3-100 4; 

Not to scale 

Figure '73, -5ketch showing location of G 553 and observation wells, 
"' '-' 

~ 

"' :;> 

"' 

Q 

"' <l 

.J 

w 

~ 

"' 

.... 

"' 

... "' 

;;!; 

£ 

.... 

fi. 

w 

Q 

.... 

., 

"' " ? 

"' 

~ 

0 

20 

40 

60 

80 Open 

hoi• ~~. 

/' 

--------~~~---

- 100 

GROUND WATER 

0 :c 0 

'!' ? "' "' "' ;o ;o ;o 0 0 0 

f;ne quortz sond ond $rnoll 

amount of nodular colcoreous 

sandstone 

(ll~/Qflvoly low pfrmoabilify) 

265 

g 0 0 

~ 0 "' "' ., "' ., ~ lo: 

0 ill 

Figw:e 74. -Drawing showing method of construct>on of G 553, and logs of G 553 and 

observation wells. 

Inasmuch as well G 5::>3 was constructed with nonperforated 

casing to 36 ft (which excludes the sand layer and overlying 

oolite), all water pumped had to enter the well between depths of 

36 and 91 ft. Thus, the water in the upper limestone, where the 

water table was located, reached the. pumped well by infiltrating 

through the sandy layer. 

Figure 75 shows a semilogarithmic plot of the drawdown versus 

time after pumping started for each observation wel~ during the 

5-hour test on May 1. Fr.om 10 minutes after the pump started 

until the end of the test the difference in drawdown between 

OW 3-10 and OW 3-500 was nearly constant; this indicates that 

the cone of depression, as observed in the deeper wells, had 

approximately stablized to a distance of at least 500 ft in the first 

10 minutes of pumping. 

The water level in the upper limestone, in which the water table 

is located, did not decline as much as that in the deeper limestone. 

The drawdown in the shallow well (OW 3-250) for the first 4 

minutes was less than that for the deeper well (OW 3-500), which 

is twice as far from the pumped well. However, after the first 

couple of minutes the rate of decline in OW 3--250 was greater than 

that for any of the deeper wells. This indicates that water was still 

infiltrating from the water table through the sand to the lower part 

of the aquifer (in this portion of the cone of depression) at a greater 

rate than the lateral flow of water through the oolite. · 
266 

0.0 

0. I 

0.2 

0.3 

0.4 

0.5 

0.6 

,._ 

tj 0.7 

LL 

~0.8 

.":0.9 

~ 8 1.0 

!! :3 I, I 

1.2 

1.3 

1.4 

1.5 

1.6 

1.7 

1.8 

0.0 

0. I 

0.2 

,._ 

4J 0.3 

"' LL 

~ 0.4 

30.~ z 

" 8 0.6 

!! 

~ 0.7 

0.8 

0.9 

1.0 

WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTiiEASTERN FLORIDA 

...._ j l I I ~ ~ 

--~- ow 3·500 ~- r> ~ Shallow ~~o~ell 

-1-t-r- ---. ow 3-200 r--r-'""'I-

....._, 1"-:-

...._ --....... ~ 

ow

1

3-r ~ '--<>-. -,.,I- i" .,__..,_ 

r-- 1--.. oi 3 50 ~ -- -~- !-" -....., 1-'--

ow 3-25 - '-o... 

r- f<> r----. ORAWDOWN IN G 553 (~UMPE:D WELL) 

T1me (t) 1 in mm(Jtes Drowdown {~) 1 lt'1 feet 

12 3 60 37 3 62 

.......... ow 3-10 lOS 3,62 

~ 300 3 60 

I _,_ ........ Q: ~540 gpm -~-- fo. - May lll947 

I I J - 10 50 100 oOO 1000 

TIM~ (t), IN MINUTES 

ow' 500 

ow 3-Z50 

ow 3-200 --- ~ ~ 

J ow 3 100 ow 3 50 

013-251 .............. ..,_,__, 1-- -OW3·10 ...._ --- ~~- ~ 

~ 

D~AWDOWN IN G 553 (PUMPED WECU 

T1me (t}, 1r\ m1nu'tes Drowdown (s) 1 in feef 

24 097 

200 I 06 o~ 1740 gpm 290 I 10 

- May 2 1 1947 

I I I I ill I l J I I Ill 10 50 

TIME (t), IN MINUTES 

100 

Figure 75. -Time·drawdown graph$ f"" pumping tests at G 553. 

500 1000 
GROUND WATER 267 

On May- 2, 1947, between 8:00 a. m. and 1:00 p. m,, a second 

5-hour pumping test was made on well G 553. For this test the 

rate of pumping was 1, 740 gpm, or 49 percent of the rate on the 

preceding day. Figure 75 also shows the drawdown in the observation wells during this test. 

The drawdowns at the two rates of pumping for both 5-hour tests 

are compared in table 18. The computed drawdowns at 3, 540 gpm 

were obtained by multiplying the observed drawdowns at 1, 740 

gpm by the ratio of the two rates (3, 540/1,740 "2. 03). 

Table 18,- Drawdown, in feet, for well G-5'i3 and observation wells at end of 5-hOUt 

pumpiniZ test 

Drawdown PWell 553 ow 3·10 ow 3·25 OW 3·50 ow 3·100 ow·3-200 ow 3-250 ow 3-500 

Observed at 3, 54C 

gpm .............. 3.60 1. 73 1.20 o. 95 o. 74 0.47 0.38 0.26 

Observed at 1, 740 

gp~ .............. 1.10 .61 .45 ,37 ,30 ,20 .18 .11 

Compl'ltedat 

3, 540 gpm 

(•2,03x 

drawdown at 

1, 740 gpm) .... 2,23 1. 24 .91 • 75 .61 ,41 • 37 .22 

Observed minus 

computed, at 

3, 540 gpm ..... 1.37 .49 .29 .20 .13 • 06 ,01 .04 

Ratio of com- puted to ob-. 

served, at 3, 540 gpm ..... . 62 . 72 .76 • 79 . 82 • 87 • 97 .85 

The ratio of computed to observed drawdown increases with 

distance away from the pumped well, but it is appreciably less 

than 1. 00 at a distance of 500 ft from the pumped well. The fact 

that the ratio is less than 1. 00 indicates that the actual conditions 

are not in strict accord with the assumptions on which the test 

formula is based, and it appears to corroborate previous data 

indicating that the ground-water flow is not strictly laminar, even 

at distances as great as 500ft from the pumped well, when the 

rate of pumping is as high as 3, 500 gpm. 

Figure 76 is a sem ilogarithm ic plot of draw down versus distance 

from the pumped well for 150 and 300 minutes after the test started 

for both the 1, 740 gpm rate and the 3, 540 gpm rate. The value of 

T obtained from the .3, 540 gpm rate, using all wells 25 to 500ft 

from the pumped well, is about 2. 5 mgd per ft and that for the 

1, 740 gpm rate is about 3. 5 mgd per ft. The value of r, computed 

from the drawdowns in OW 3-200 and OW 3-500after5hours of 

pumping at the 3, 540 gpm rate, was 3. 2 mgd per ft. After 5 hours 

of pumping at 1, 74'0 gpm rate the value of T, determined from the 

same two wells, was 3. 9 mgd per ft. Using a value of :r equal to 

3. 5 mgd per ft, values of the coefficient of storage {S) were com-
268 WATER RESOURCES IN SOU1HEAST!RN FLOIUDA 

o.o~---~---.---.---.----.---.---.-...,....,.---~-..-----.--...,.---.....-.....---,.V--.-V...,I/-. 

-:;:-:::k::-c~[/ / v 

L-:t:::" -- v / o.zl------l----1--l-+--+-+-+--l-+---::-:!~~--+--+-,..~f--H4-l 

,~o ~~~~-~-- _. I /V::, / 

o.4 o• 14~~~~~~i~ --- ,._!: "" /~// I __..-:::~- --,140 qo"' )----::;;" / 

~-- ....... '-Qi I /~:> 

;; t • 150 min Q • 17 40 Q pm +---+---+--+++-----:>""/~/:;_/-+ /--+-........JI--+--+-+-+-t-1 0.6..- 17 ~ T• ~:~~~ ~. :;;~; mgd •3.54 mgd i"' ,~ V~ // T • 2.303 Q I 2 nu 

"- t • 300 min Q • 1740 l!Ptn I VI' t • 150 min Q • 3540 9Ptn 

;;:oel- 2.303 X 2.505 mgd I.' , 3 10 d f.- - T•628X026ft •3.54m;dperrl', T•2. 03X5. tnO •256mgdperft 

1?i - - I 1 Vv s.z8xo.726ft · J+ 

i l..r:: / t • 300 min Q • 3540 ;pm 

o o.o ';<''"7T/ 2. 30$ X 11.10 mgd 

~ I '.yv;,. ;.- T• 6.2 8 X 0. 726 It • 2.58 mgd Pe< ft 

~ ~-· oO "I , q ,;. +-..,--f----4-1-1---<--++-------+---+--+--+--+--+-+-+-l 

'-·~~~ ~r<:o. 

I I I.SI-~'-----------1----d-1----+~ ,f--+--++-< t::>'f---~ ~~--- ~'1--1+---1- g~r-+-+-H---1 .., ~~ ~ ~ "' "'I '? t'-~ .:..1 .., .:., .:., .:., .., 

1.81LO ----------'l,......::.:__L_....L...:::t.........JL_jLl....L:,=!-oo:-----__::J._.=:.___t_ ~ ~ . . ~ _ _j__.....::;i_L-.t......JL.....J,-dlot>O . 

DISTANCE, IN FEET FROM PUMPED WELL 

Figure 76. -Distance-drawdown graphs for pumping tests of G 553. 

puted from the drawdown in wells locateq 100, 200, 250, and 500 

ft from the pumped well, as shown in table 19. 

Table 19.-Computed v~lues of S based on drawdowns after 5 hours of pumping and a 

vmua of T "'"-~al to 3. 5 mgd per It -~ --· 

Rate of 

pumping Well Well Well Well Average 

(gpm) ow 3-100 ow 3-200 ow 3-250 ow 3-500 

3,540 0.037 0.089 0.131 0,103 0,090 

1,740 .134 ,1615 .164 .152 .154 

The analysis of the data obtained from these tests on G 553 indicates that the value ofT in that area is about 3. 5 to 4 mgd per ft 

and that the value of S is equal to about 0. 15. The fact that the 

full-rate pumping test produced drawdowns considerably more 

than twice that of the half-rate pumping test indicat~s that turbulent flow toward the well is occurring through the natural limestone 

tubes or solution channels in the aquifer, and that this flow is 

highly complicated and not subject to precise mathematical analysis. Nonetheless, the data are useful and give a general value 

for hydrologic coefficients. 
GROUND WATER 269 

CONCLllRONS REGARDING T AND s FROM DATA OBTAINED FBOil LAIIGE-SCALE 

PllMPING TESTS 

The pumping tests on wells S 1, G 551, G 552, and G 553 are of 

value chiefly in indicating the productiveness of the Biscayne 

aquifer in several different locations. These tests, and other 

preceding smaller-scale tests, show that the aquifer in Dade 

County is highly productive everywhere along the coastal ridge 

and for a considerable distance into the Everglades; however, its 

productivity appears to vary considerably from one locality to 

another within this area .. 

The pumping tests discussed in the preceding pages indicate 

that actual field conditions under which the tests were made do not 

conform closely to the basic assumptions from which the Theis 

nonequilibrium test-pumping formula is derived. The differences 

are principally these: (1) The Biscayne aquifer is not homogeneous. Sand pockets or lenses, dense limestone layers, and cavities 

or solution channels occur. These cavities inay extend considerable distances and may influence a pumping well in a manner 

similar to that oflaterals supplying a collection gallery. (2) Even 

when no large cavities are encountered, the solution passages, 

common nearly everywhere in the Miami oolite and Fort Thompson 

formation, are large enough to allow turbulent flow to develop at 

distances as great as 500ft from the pumped well (when the rate 

of pumping is as high as 5 mgd). (3) In some areas, layers of 

sand or dense limestone of much lower permeability intervene 

between the water table in the upper limestone (Miami oolite) and 

the lower limestone (Fort Thompson formation), from which water 

is pumped. It is assumed in the formula that the aquifer has the 

same permeability throughout its entire thickness and that, during 

pumping, the water level in a well ending in the top of the aquifer 

is the same as the level in a well ending near the middle or bottom 

of the aquifer, providing that all wells are the same distance from 

the pumped well. (4) In the formula it is also assumed that water 

in storage is released immediately as soon as the water table declines, whereas actually, when there is a sudden lowering of the 

water table, water may drain for several hours or days from: the 

part of the aquifer that was saturated before pumping began. (5) 

Also, it is assumed that the pumped well penetrates the entire 

thickness of the aquifer and is able to receive water throughout 

the entire saturated -thickness of the aquifer. Thus, it is assumed 

that there is no vertical convergence of flow lines as the pumped 

well is approached. 

These divergences in the Biscayne aquifer from the basic assumptions on which the formula is derived make it difficult to 

obtain reliable values for the coefficient of storage (S). The values 

derived for the coefficient of transmissibility (T)are approximate, 

and T appears to range in value considerably from one location to 
2·70 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTiiEASTERN FLORIDA 

another so that it is difficult to determine what the average value 

of T would be for an area of 100 or 200 sq miles. 

From the four pumping tests just discussed S 1 and G 553 gave 

values of T equal to about 4 mgd per ft. The values of tat G 551 

and G 552 are about 15. 0 and 6. 0, respectively. The higher value 

of Tobtained from tests of well G 551 probably is due in large 

measure to the fact that most of the water mov.es into the well 

through solution channels in the limestone that are large enough to 

more than offset the added resistance of turbulent flow. When high 

pumping rates are used, water does not move unir'ormly through 

the aquifer to the well with laminar flow. 

It is estimated on the basis of analysis of the water levels in 

wellS 182 that annual ground-water runoff in that area is about 21 

in., which, at an average stage of the water table for the area 

surrounding the well, gives a computed value of Tequal to about 

4 mgd per ft. This figure compares closely with the value obtained 

from the G 553 test, which was conducted about 3. 8 miles away. 

In view of the wide ranges in value ofT (4 to 15 mgd per ft} 

oblained from these tests, the median (5 mgd per ft) was adopted 

as the best single value of ·r to use for the. coastal ridge from 

Peters north to Hialeah. 

A coefficient of transmissibility of 5 mgd per ft indicates a 

highly productive aquifer; which would compare favorably with an 

aquifer of the same thickness composed of clean, coarse, wellsorted gravel. As a matter of comparison, an 18-in. well in the 

Miami area, penetrating less than 100 ft of the Biscayne aquifer 

and pumping 5 mgd, has a drawdown of only about 2 to 3 ft; at 

Jacksonville, a typical well of equal diameter, penetrating about 

500 ft of water-bearing limestone in the Floridan aquifer (p. 188), 

when pumped at the rate of 5 mgd, would have a drawdown about 

10 times as great as that of the Miami well; and a well of equal 

diameter at Savannah, Ga. ,. penetrating about 500 ~t of waterbearing limestone in the Floridan aquifer where the coefficient of 

transmissibility is about 250, 000 gpd per ft, would have a drawdown of- about 50 ft. It is concluded that the Biscayne aquifer at 

Miami compares favorably in productivity with any aquifer in 

the world. 

QUANTITATIVE STUDIES OTHER THAN LARGE-SCALE PUMPING TESTS 

il 81 PtiMPING TEST 

The first effort to. determine hydrologic coefficients of the 

Biscayne aquifer at Miami by means of a pumping test was made 

February 29, 1940, The well selected was a fire well, F 85, 

located at NW. 77th Street and 15th Avenue, It was 6 in. in diam-
GROUND WATER 271 

eter and 58. 6 ft deep, with an open hole of unknown length in sandy 

limestone below the bottom of the casing. The well was pumped at 

a rate of 400 gpm over a 7!-hour interval. Other fire wells in the 

vicinity were measured periodically, and it was found that the 

pumping had no effect on water levels in these wells. 

As a result of this pumping it was decided that if any appreciable 

drawdown of the water table were to be measured, a considerably 

higher pumping ra'te would have to be employed, and measurements of drawdown would have to be made much closer to the 

pumped well. Accordingly, plans· were made to obtain a pump 

capable of discharging 1, 000 gpm (1. 44 mgd) and to install 20 

observation wells within a radius of 100 ft. Ten of these observation wells were to be of the same depth as the pumped well anc;l 

the other 10 were to be about 15ft deep, located beside each of 

the deeper observation wells. The water was to be discharged 

through 300ft of 6-in. pipeline into a weir box and thence into a 

large1 rock pit west of the well. Two staff gages were to be installed in the rock pit, and one gage was installed in Little River 

Canal at the point closest to the pumped we 11. All measuring points 

were to be tied by le.;,els into U. ·s. Coast and Geodetic Survey 

mean sea level datum. 

Preparations were completed so that preliminary readings of 

water levels in the new observation wells, all fire wells in the 

vicinity, and staff gages in the rock pit and Little River, could be 

made on May 8, beginning at 11:00 a. m. Pumping started on 

May 9, but engine trouble caused a shut-down after 20 minutes of 

operation. Readings were discontinued until pumping started again 

at 6:00 a. m., May 10. Again the pump did not Oflerate properly 

and readings were discontinued in the afternoon. On May 11, 

readings were begun again at 6:00 a. m., pumping was started at 

10:35 a. m. and except for three shut-downs of about 5 minutes 

each, to allow for pump oiling, continued for 24 hours. Readings 

were discontinued at noon, May 12. 

Discharge from the pumped well was approximately 950 gpm 

and, except for the period of the three shut-downs, varied only 

slightly. Vacuum-gage readings on the intake side of the pump 

fluctuated very little and showed no definite trend, being approximately the same just before pumping ceased as they were just 

after pumping started. 

Drawdown data from all wells were plotted as hydrographs. 

They indicate that the water table was practically a ,plane surface 

in the vicinity of the pumping test and that it fluctuated slightly 

owing to oceanic tides in Biscayne Canal. The hydrographs also 

indicate that accidental errors, though small, are highly significant because of the small drawdowns involved. They are especially 

significant for those wells being used to determine the slope of 
272 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUn!EASTERN FLORIDA 

the cone of depression, because the difference in water level 

(between distances of 50 and 100 ft from the pumped well) was 

only 0. 015 ft. 

The water levels in the 10 deep observation wells dropped a 

few hundredths of a foot almost instantaneously when the pump 

started and they rose the same amount when the pumping ceased. 

There was no apparent increase in drawdown in the 24 hours' of 

the pumping test. The shallow wells responded more slowly and 

with even less drawdown. No effect of pumping was noted in any 

of the other fire wells in the vicinity, nor was there any conclusive 

evi.dence that the water discharged into the rock pit raised 'water 

levels adjacent to the pit; water-table profiles between the pit and 

the pumped well (F 85) showed no gradient from the pit. 

Recovery at the end of the pumping test was plotted on semilogarithmic paper against distance from F 85. Of the 10 deep observation wells, six of them plotted in approximately straight 

lines; the other four wells showed such scattered points that they 

were disregarded. From the recovery curves of these six wells, 

the coefficient of transmissibility (T) was computed to be approximately 9. 5 mgd per ft. This figure seemed excessively high, but 

it was realized that even very small observational errors would 

result in large errors in the computed values. However, largescale pumping tests since that time have shown that considerably 

higher values forT may be valid for the limestone aquifer of this 

area (p. 270). Therefore, the 9. 5 mgd per ft, obtained at F 85 is 

probably correct. 

G Zl8 PUMPING TEST 

G 218, an exploratory test well 202. 5 ft deep, had been drilled 

in August 1941, in the Everglades, 6 miles west of the Miami well 

field. As with all such test wells, G 218 was pumped at successively deeper levels as drilling proceeded to obtain data on the 

quality and quantity of water at different depths. The data showed 

that this well penetrated the Biscayne aquifer at a point where it 

is typically composed of permeable sandy limestone and 'calcareous sandstone with occasional beds or pockets of quartz sand. 

The most permeable part was between about 60 and 75 ft below the 

land surface, where the water was very similar, chemically, to 

that obtained fro.m the Miami well field. 

Early in 1945 it was decided that a pumpingtest should be made 

in that area,· not only to determine the hydrologic coefficients of 

the aquifer, if possible, but also to pump the well long enoughand 

at a high enough rate that ground water would be drawn in from a 

considerable distance; thus, if any change in quality were to occur, 

it could be ascertained by chemical analyses of. the collected 

samples. 
GROUND WATER 273 

Accordingly, plans were made to plug the well at about 72 ft, 

blast the casing open slightly above that depth, then surge and 

pump the well to develop maxim.um efficiency. This was done in 

March 1945, and an excellent well was obtained. Following this, 

10 observation wells,2! in. in diameter, were drilled to the same 

depth as G 218, that is, toa depthof72ft. All wells were finished 

with open holes below the casing, ranging from about 5 to 10 ft. 

One ·line of wells e~tended north-south along the east bank of 

Snapper Creek Canal, which was then practically dry. These observation wells were qrilled at the following distances fr<?m the 

pumped well: G 358, 1 ft; G 359, 25ft; G 360, 50ft; G 361, 100ft; 

G 362, 200 ft; and G 363, 2, 200 ft. The other line of wells extended east-west through G 218 with one well, G 364, being 25ft 

west of G 218 .in Snapper Creek; the rest of the wells of this line 

extended east of G 218 as follows: G 365, 25ft; G 366, 50ft; and 

G 367, 100ft. 

To make certain that no recirculation of pumped water occurred, a solid earth dam was constructed across Snapper Creek 

Canal at a point slightly in excess of 2, 200 ft north of G 218, and 

a 12-in. Transite pipeline was laid to discharge the water beyond 

{north of) the dam. Staff gages were then set in Snapper Creek 

Canal on both sides of the dam and these, together with all observation wells, were tied by levels to U. S. Coast and Geodetic 

Survey mean sea level datum, 

A 6-in, centrifugal pump, rated at 1, 450 gpm when 20ft above 

water and pumping against a total head of 50 ft, was attached to 

the well casing. Discharge was into .the 12-in, pipeline where. it 

was measured by a pitometer located far enough from the pump 

that flow disturbances would be unimportant. 

Pumping began on April 7, 1945, at 9:50 a, m., and continued, 

except for occasional interruptions due to engine trouble, until 

April 25 at 9:30 p. m. During this period, . the pump operated 

efficiently for a total of 189 hours and pumped a total of approxi--

mately 14. 2 million gallons. The average rate of pumpage was 

1, 250 gpm, although at times the rate was as high as 1, 350 gpm. 

Because the pump operated discontinuously, the frequent starts 

and stops probably did not always allow the water table to regain 

equilibrium, and because the ·observed drawdowns were very 

small, and because occasional light showers had some recharging 

effect on the water table, it is believed that the values obtained 

for the coefficient of transmissibility are not precise, even though 

corrections were applied. 

The most satisfactory part of the testoccurredfrom 9:50 a. m., 

April 16, to 10:00 p. m., April 18. During this time, pumping was 

continuous for 60 hours and 10 minutes. No pumping had been done 

previously since 6:00 p. m,, April 13, and the water table on 
274 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

April 16 was a plane surface apparently not affected by previous 

pumping. Distance-drawdown graphs gave values forT equal to 

4. 4 mgd per ft for the north-south leg between wells G 359 and 

G 361, and 3. 9 mgd per ft for the east-west leg between wells 

G 365 and G 367. Thus, it is believed that 7' is about equal to 4. 0 

mgd per ft in the G 218 area. No satisfactory value for S could 

be computed. 

The chemical analyses of the water, made by chemists of the 

city of Miami Department of Water and Sewers,_ showed that no 

change in the quality of the water occurred with pumping. The 

dis-solved chemical constituents, temperature, pH, and color remained essentially uniform throughout the test and were very 

similar to those of raw water from the Miami well field in Miami 

Springs. 

STUmES OF CONE OF DEPRESSION IN MIAMI WELL FIELD 

Pumping from the Miami well field in Miami Springs produces a 

rather wide, shallow cone of depression averaging about a mile in 

ra,dius and 2 to 2t ft in depth at the center during the dry season. 

(See figures 32~34.) Water from this field is measured by venturi 

meters in the Water Works Plant in Hialeah, and a record of 

pumping time is kept for each individual well. By use of average 

water-table slopes at different distances from the center of the 

cone, the coefficient of transmissibility was computed using the 

Thiem formula (Wenzel, 1942, p. 81 ). These computations were. 

made throughout the year, under both wet and dry conditions, so 

that deep, intermediate, and shallow ·cones of depression were 

represented. Values of·T ranged from 2. 35 to 4. 9 mgd per ft and 

averaged about 3. 5 mgd per ft. This compares with the value for 

Tequal to about 4 mgd per ft obtained from data gathered at the S 1 

pumping test (p. 239-248). S 1 is one of the wells in the Miami well 

field. These values give a check on the methods used for determining Tin this area and indicate a fairly close correlation. 

CANAL INFLOW STUmES 

Darcy's law states that the rate of flow through porous media 

is directly proportionate to the hydraulic gradient. This law is 

utilized in the expression Q ~PI A.: in which (I equals the quantity of 

water discharged in unit time, P equal-s the permeab'ility factor, I 

equals the hydraulic gradient, and A equals the cross.:.sectional 

area through which the water is discharged. 

In field conditions, discharge through an aquifer past a line, 

such as a water-table contour, may be reckoned by the formula 

Q ~ TIW._ In this formula; Q equals the ground-water discharge in 
GROUND WATER 275 

gallons per day; T equals the coefficient of transmissibility; 1 equals 

the hydraulic gradient in feet per mile; and W equals the length, in 

miles, of the line across which the ground-water flow is measured 

A reach of canal suitable for an inflow study would be one that is 

fairly straight, with an appreciable. inflow between upstream and 

downstream measuring points, and with all the inflow contributed by 

ground-water seepage. In the Miami area, suitable sites for such 

studies are.verylimited because of lateral canals, surface inflow, 

small ground-water inflow, and tidal influences. The only suitable 

area is in the vicinity of Opa Locka between LeJeune Road and NW. 

1000 0 4000 Fft:t 

Datumil!mes.flseal~iiwol 

-COI'IQI$ 

-2.00-

Ground-woter contours 

(Contour inlervol Is 0.20 foot) 

Grounh~t;;:-d;~ll'loge oreo' 

0 Stream -QOQint; '$1Qtion 

80UL£VARO 

N 

1 

Figure 77, -Map of Cpa Locka and vicinity showing water-table contours and ground-water 

drainage areas on August 29, 1940. 
276 WATER RESOURCES IN SOU1HEASTERN FLORIDA 

?7th Avenue on the Biscayne, Opa Locka, and Little River C!lnals. 

However, this area is not ideal (see .... fig. '77) because low'flow, 

tides, and weeds in the canals make stream gaging difficult; furthermore, these canal stretches occur in an area that is largely 

underlain by quartz sand instead of the usual highly permeable 

limestone. Such materials would have a lower value of T than 

would be found elsewhere in the Miami area. 

All observation wells, measuring points, and staff gages were 

tied in to mean sea level datum and were measured at hourly intervals over a 13-hour tidal cycle. Streamflow measurements 

were made hourly at both the upper and lower ends of each of the 

canal reaches used in these studies. 

Mean flow past each gaging station was computed. Water-table 

maps were constructed (fig. 77), based on mean water-level 

readings over the tidal cycle corrected to mean sea level datum. 

Drainage boundary lines, located by means of contouts on the 

water table, were then drawn on thewater-table map. These delineated drainage areas were then planimetered, and' areas between the contours of each drainage area also were determined. 

The average distance of each contour from the canal was measured 

and the length of each contour within the drainage an~a:;, wa·s iriea~­

ured also. 

From these data, an average profile of each drainage area was 

drawn, and diagrams of the width of the drainage areas were plotted 

against distances from the canal. 

Studies ofthese ground-water profiles indicate large head losses 

near the canals. These losses· are the tangible evidence of the 

crowding of the flow lines as ground water moves from the aquifer 

out into the canals. It should be recalled that the water-table profile used is not an actual one taken normal to a given canal, but 

instead, it is built up by using average distances of each watertable contour from the canal. 

The flow past any given contour is: Q ~ Tl'W. From the profile and 

width diagrams, the water-table slope, l, and the element of 

drainage area width,· W, can be determined, and a diagram of 

slope-width factor can be drawn. 'Since the total discharge, Q, is 

known only at the canal, it is necessary to assume that groundwater dischapge is uniform throughout the area. This assumption 

makes the slope-width factor related linearly to the drainage area. 

These studies give values of T ranging from 1, 458,000 to 

1, 970, 000 gpd per ft. It is believed that these values may be fairly 

reliable for the areas tested; they are somewhat lower than values 

for. {of the highly permeable limestone areas. However, this is 

to be expected because the sand is not so permeable as the 

limestone. 
GROUND WATER 277 

FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED REGARDING TH~ PROPOSED WELL FIELD IN THE 

MIAMI AREA 

GENERAL ANALYSIS 

The Department of Water and Sewers of the city of Miami plans 

to develop a well field with a capacity of 50 mg:d in sec. 36, T. 54 

S., R. 36 E. This site is abput t mile west of the western border 

of the coastal ridge on the eastern border of the Everglades. 'rhe 

center of the proposed well field will be about 1. 5 miles southwest 

of Snapper Creek Canal near the site of well G 551 (see fig. 61 ). 

In this area, an average stage for Snapper Creek Canal is approximately 5 ft above sea level. In its present condition, the canal 

just west of the Seaboard Air Line Railroad is not very effective 

as a drainage canal because it is relatively s·hallow and contains 

a heavy growth of aquatic plants (mosses and rushes) that offer 

considerable resistance to the flow of water. From the vicinity of 

Miller Drive, Snapper Creek Canal flows flOrthward into tile 

Tamiami Canal, and from the vicinity of the Seaboard Air Line 

Railroad the canal flows eastward into Biscayne Bay. 

The land surface in the area of the proposed well field averages 

about 6 to 8 ft above mean sea level and is about 3 to 5 ft lower 

than the coastal ridge to the east. At an average stage, the water 

table is about 5! ft above mean sea level and about 1 t to 2 ft below 

. the land surface. 

It appears that the water pumped from a well field in this area 

would be derived from the following sources: (1) Water salvaged 

from evapotranspiration due to lowering of the water table substantially below the base of any muck present; (2) water supplied 

to the well field by infiltration from canals and by salvaging ground 

water that would have been discharged into canals, and thence into 

the sea, if the well field had not been in existence; and (3) water 

diverted from natural ground-water discharg~ areas. A part of 

the water pumped will be put back into the ground through drainage 

wells, septic tanks, and irrigational uses in the areas in which it 

is consumed. This will tend to decrease part of the total quantity 

of water diverted from natural discharge and will assist in maintaining a fresh-water head to prevent salt-water encroachment. 

The question of primary importance is whether sufficient freshwater head can be maintained in the Biscayne aquifer 1:5etween the 

bay and the well field, at an average stage of the water table, to 

prevent salt water encroaching westward at depth in the aquifer. 

Under conditions of high water levels (shown by fig. 47) when the 

slades are flooded, water will . be re'adily available to recharge 

the aquifer because more than half the cone of depression created 

by pumping in the well field will be under the flooded glades area. 
278 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUlHEASTER.N FLORIDA 

As there are no impermeable layers to prevent this surface water 

from recharging the aquifer, the cone of depression cannot expand 

to any great extent, because, as the water near the well field 

moves downward, water from adjacent flooded areas will flow in 

to replace it. It appears obvious that if the glades were continuously flooded, the wa,ter table would pe _high enough (because of a 

continuously high recharge to the aquifer) to prevent any encroachment of salt water from the sea. If a wet period followed a dry 

period, when the wate:r: taken from storage in the aquifer. would 

cause the cone of depression to expand for a distance of several 

miles, most of the water 'taken from storage would l::ie quickly replaced by downward infiltration from the flooded glades. The re'-

charge of the aquifer in this manner would result in the salvage of 

some surface water that otherwise would have been discharged 

into the sea. 

During times of drought, such as occurred in 1945 (see fig. 45 ), 

the water table over most of southern Dade County did not have 

sufficient fresh-water head above the average water level in 

Biscayne Bay to prevent sea water from encroaching inland at 

depth in the aquifer (see Ghyben-Herzberg principle, section on 

Salt-water encroachment, p. 591-592). Although the salt water 

moves inland at depth in the aquifer under low water-table conditions, the rate of advance, owing to the extremely low gradient 

causing encroachment, is so slow that the total advance of the 

salt-water front during 3 or 4 months of extremely low water-table 

conditions is not likely to exceed ·several hundred feet. As the 

water table rises (a result of recharge from rainfa:ll), the rate of 

advance is decreased, and if recharge continues, the advance of 

the salt-water front will be r?topped; if high water-table conditions 

are maintained for several months, the salt-water front may be 

flushed seaward beyond its original position. Thus, so long as 

hydrologic conditions are not greatly changed by artificial means, 

the inland and seaward movements of the salt-water front in the 

permeable limestone aquifer probably will be restricted to a zone 

less than t mile wide. However, ground-water conditions can be 

changed by artificial means, such as the construction of new canals 

or the deepening of existing ones (which would drain off·additional 

large quantities of ground water into the sea), or by heavy pumpage 

from wells. Under the new conditions, if the average yearly stage 

of the water table becomes appreciably lower, the salt-waterfront 

will move inland until it reaches a new position that will be in 

equilibrium with the average water-table stage. 

The water table in the area of the proposed well field ranges 

between 1 and 9 ft above mean sea level. As the stage changes, 

the balance between the fresh- and salt-water heads changes, thus 

causing the salt-water front tofluctuate back and forth through its 

mean position. Because of the slow movement of water through 

the Biscayne aquifer (estimated to be about 2, 000 ft per year when 
GROUND WA.TER 279 

the gradient is 1 ft to the mile), the salt front never has sufficient 

time to attain a position of equilibrium for either the high or the 

low water-table stages. Figure 78 indicates the position of the 

contact between fresh and salt water for the average water-table 

stage, according to the Ghyben-Herzberg principle. 

Figure 78 also illustrates estimated average conditions after the 

well field has been in operation for several years. This profile 

was obtained by subtractingfrom the average water-table profile, 

...J 

w 

> 

w W...J 

> 

o>-

w<! 

.,;m 

.,.w 

u.~z 

~:; ul 

(f) 

· /Profile of woter table at an average ~loge 

_L_ before pumping of proposed well field 

------ -----------------.... 

m Or---L--~----~------~------~----~------~----~L---~~nT.ryT,~ 

...J 

w 

> 

w 

...J 

>-

<( 

"' w 

z 

>-

<( 

u 

(f) 

iii 

~ 0 

...J 

w 

"' fw 

w 

.... 

~ 

w 

c 

4 

...J 

wl 

> 

UJ 

...J 2 

:lw "'"' wl- w; 

fW...J 

w.,; 

"-z 

"' "' 0 

Center of 

well fie 1 d 

FRESH WATER 

Water table before 

SHORE ~INE 

Figure 78, -Stabilized profiles of water table between shoreline and center of proposed well field. 

346881 0~55~~20 
280 WATER. RESOUR.CES IN SOUlHEASTER.N FLOR.IDA 

prior to the development of the proposed we 11 field (dashed line), 

the equilibrium drawdowns due to pumping 50 mgd in an aquifer 

having a coefficient of transmissibility of 5 mgd per ft. The center 

of pumping is a perpendicular distance of 7, 7 miles from an infinite line source of recharge (Theis, 1935, p. 519-524; Muskat, 

1937, p. 175), which is approximated in reality by Biscayne Bay 

water level (seep. 227) along the shoreline, This is illustrated 

by diagram in the lower portion of figure 78. 

Under these conditions, which were established by pumping from 

the proposed well field, the maximum fresh-water head above 

Biscayne Bay level (between the well field and the shore) is about 

3 ft and occurs about halfway between these two locations. A 

fresh-water head of 3 ft is sufficient to displace the salt water to 

a depth of 120ft. At a depth of 100ft, relatively impermeable 

material (Floridan aquiclude), which offers much greater resistance to the movement of water, is encountered in this area. 

Figure 78 shows the theoretical position of the contact between 

fresh and salt water that would be in equilibrium with the average 

water-table profile ~fterthe proposed wellfield has beenoperating 

for several years. The dashed line shows its position prior to development of the well field. 

For several reasons it is believed that the drawdowns shown are 

greater than would occur in actuality: (1) The center of the well 

field is approximately 1. 5 miles from Snapper Creek Canal at its 

nearest point. As mentioned previously, the flow in Snapper Creek 

Canal is to the north and southeast from this area, but after the 

new well field is in operation it is expected that the water table 

will average 1 to 1, 5 ft lower in the vicinity of the bend in Snapper 

Creek Canal. The water surface in the canal will lower as the 

area water table lowers, and thus the canal will salvage much of 

the water that formerly flowed out of the area and probably it will 

reverse its flow. Because Snapper Creek Canal is part of an extensive network of canals, water can be feq in~o the area by canal 

flow from considerable dist!lnces, It is essential however, that t11ere 

be suitable gates and locks on these canals" to prevent inland flow 

of salt water from the bay d'uring dry periods when the water table 

is below that in Biscayne Bay. If Snapper Creek Canal should be 

cleaned out and deepened, it is especially important to ·prevent salt 

water from flowing into the eastern part of the canal from the bay 

or ocean, (2) A second reason for smaller drawdowns than are 

shown in figure 78 is that lowering of the water table, by pumping,;, 

substantially below the base of any muck present, will'" reduce 

evapotranspiration losses, (3) During periods of drought the cone 

of depression about the well field continues to expand. The rainy 

periods that follow must refill the cone of depression before glades 

in this area can become flooded; this will salvage. some of the 

water that fbrmerly flowed out of the area by surface runoff 

through transverse. glades and canals. ~ 
GROUND WATER '281 

It is believed that the water salvaged from evapotranspiration, 

water salvaged from out-flowing canals, and water now being fed 

into the area through the canal system, will account for more than 

50 percent of the 50 mgd that is expected to be pumped fl·om the 

new well field, thus requiring less than half of this amount to be 

diverted from natural discharge areas in Biscayne Bay. Drawdowns in figure 78 are based on the total pumpage being diverted 

from natural discharge areas in Biscayne Bay. Therefore, the 

drawdowns would be expected to be considerably less than those 

indicated, which should increase the maximum fresh-water head 

(as shown by the profile) from 3 to 5 ft, or more, above the average Biscayne Bay water level. 

THEORETICAL DBAWOOWNS IN AN INFINITE AQUIFER 

It is possible by means of the Theis nonequilibrium formula 

(p. 238) to compute the theoretical ·drawdowns that would occur 

for a pumpage of 50 mgd in an aquifer of infinite extent having a 

coefficient of transmissibility of 5 mgd per ft and a coefficient of 

storage of 0. 20, As discussed on p. 270, the above coefficients 

appear to be about average values for the general area of the proposed well _field, 

Figure 79 shows the theoretical drawdowns at various distances 

from the pumped well and for various times after pumping has 

started. This figure may be of value in estimating the drawdown 

that would occur durin~ a rainless period after pumping starts, 

before the cone of depression has spread out to recharge areas 

(canals and flooded-glade areas), If turbulent flow develops in the 

aquifer as the pumping well is appr()ached, the drawdowns will 

exceed those shown, Turbulent flow may develop as far as 500 ft 

from a well pumped at the rate of 5 mgd, For a single well witha 

capacity of 5 mgd, the drawdown would be one-tenth of those indicated by figure 79. 

OONE OF DEPBESaON IN AN AREA IN WIIICil THE AQVJFE& IS VNIFOIIMLY &ECBARGED 

It is possible to compute the theoretical drawdown for a stabilized cone of depression in an ideal aquifer that is continuously 

recharged at a uniform rate. The transmissibility of the aquifer, 

the pumpage from the well, and the rate of recharge will determine 

the shape and extent of the cone of depression. The cone will 

spread until its circle of influence has expanded sufficiently to divert toward the well a quantity of water equal to that pumped from 

the well. For conditions to stabilize, the effective recharge within the circle of influence must equal the pumpage from the well. 

The effective recharge may be defined as the recharge to the water 

table minus evapotranspiration from the water table. For a given 
,_ 

"' "' .... 

DRAWDOWN FOR WEll PUr.! PING 

SO m9d ,. 341 72.0 9 p-m 

T• 5mgd/f! S• 0.20 5~~--~-----------------+--------------~~~--~~~------~~~~~~~~--~~~--~q------tr---------------~--~~ 

., .,, ., '"' '"' ~I '"' ~ 7.5r-----------------------~~~~~~~--------~~~~~~~~--~~~--~~~--------------r------h~------------~~------~ 

~I I~ .~ 

~· .~ iii ,~ .z 

~ 

0 ,I !:I .~ '" " 0 

~·o.or-----~~~--~~~---+--,~~~.,~~~~~--~~~--~~~------------t----------------r-----+r-------------~+------fl 

~ 

10 >00 ., 000 

0 !STANCE, IN FEET FROM PUMP EO WEL..L 

10,000 100,000 

Figure 79. - Theoretical drawdowns in relation to distance from ·pumped well and time after start of pumping. · 

N 

00 

N 

~ 

~ ::<1 

1:: 

"' g 

i!i 

!::: 

z 

"' 

~ "' 

~ 

1:;! 

"<< 

s 

~ 

~ 
GROUND WATER 283 

pumpage, the size of the circle of influence may be assumed and 

the recharge (in inches per year) maybe calculated, or, if the effective recharge is known or assumed, the size of the circle of influence may be calculated. · 

As the radius of the cone of depression is increased from a well 

that has been continuously pumped at a steady rate fora long time, 

a point is reached at which the drawdown, due to pumping from 

this well, is zero. This distance is said to be the radil).s of influence. Beyond the circle of influence the drawdown is zero, but 

within this circle of influence the. drawdown increases as the well 

is approached. A level water table, prior to the time pumping began, is assumed. · 

This drawdown curve may be approximated by the following 

method. Determine the increase in drawdown for various deerements in radius from the pumping well, using the following formula and a decrement that is a small percentage of the radius 

of influence. 

where: 

r

2 ~the distance in feet from the pumping well to point in 

question on the cone of depression; 

r1 =the distance in feet from the pumping well to a point on the 

cone of depression such thatr1 is less than r 2 ; 

R0 ~ radius of influence in feet; 

s 2 ~ drawdown in feet at r 2 ; 

s 1 ~ drawdown in feet at r,; 

q ~well discharge in gallons per minute; 

T '-coefficient of transmissibility in gallons per day per foot 

(assumed to be cons_tant); 

s • s = equals the increase in drawdown between r 2 and r 1 , 1 2 

R 2. r 2 

0 1 

R 2 

0 

equals the percentage of the circle of infl':lence, over which 

recharge is uniformly occurring, that is farther from the well 

than r

1 • By starting withr 2 equal to R0 and making the increment 

betweenr 2 and r 1 equal to 1/10 or 1/20 of R0 , the drawdown curve 

to the point in question may be closely approximated by summation of the increments of drawdown from R0 _ to the point in question, 

Assuming a circle of influence 7 miles in radius, the drawdowns 

for various distances from the pumping well or well field were 
0 

2 

3 

~ 

.... 

.... 

.._4 

z 

z 

~ os 

~ 0:: 

0 

6 

1 

e 

DRAWDOWN cLRvE IF ALL 

I - -o-

~ [I _ .....---->- WATER :.---- --o------ PUMPED CAME UNIFORMLY FROM 

--- !"---A CIRCLE OF 7-MILE RADIUS ~ - ...o- CURVE USED FOR ESTIMATING 

>---- EVAPOTRANSPIRATION SALVAGE / --~ I ___ ... ....--

v _,-'/ 

/ ........ _.o::.:::-DRAWDOWN CURVE IF ALL WATER 

/ PUMPED CAME FROM BEYOND A (/ 7-MILE RADIUS 

(l • 

I! Ql 

I T = 5.D mgd /It I 

J 0=50.0 mqd=34,700 qpm 

0 2 3 4 6 1 

DISTANCE FROM PUMPED WELL, IN MILES 

Figure 80. -Graph showing drawdowns resulting from pumpage within and beyond a circle of '1-mile radius. 
GROUND WATER 285 

computed for a coefficient of transmissibllHy of 5 mgd per ft and 

a pumpage of 50 mgd. The curve resulting from a plot of these 

drawdowns is shown as a solid line ln figure 80, and for comparison there is also shown, as a dashed line, the .drawdown curve 

that would have occurred if all the water pumped from the 'Nell 

had moved in from distances greater than 7 miles. The decrement of change for the radius was O; 5 mUe. A well field pumping 

50 mgd continuously, having a circle ot influence 7 miles in 

radius, would require an effective recharge of 6. 82 in, of water 

per year. A 6-mile radius of influence would require an effective 

recharge of 9. 28 ih. per year, and a 5~mile radius of influence 

would require 13. 36 in. of water" per year. 

From studies of the glades area (see section on Surface water, 

Hydrologic studies), it has been determined that the runoff through 

canals and transverse glades has averaged 5 to 14 in. of water 

per year. It is possible that 6. 82 in, of water per year could be 

salvaged by decreased runoff through canals and transverse 

glades, and by reduction of evapotranspiration loss due to lowering of the water table. The salvage of water over the area would 

not be uniform; near the center of the cone of depression, conditions would be favorable for salvaging a larger percentage of 

the water than could be salvaged near the border of the cone of 

depression. Also, the size of the cone of depression would vary 

with the rainfall over the area and with the elevation of .the water 

level in the glades, 

Figure 81 shows the estimated cone of depression in the proposed well-field area resulting from superimposing the drawdowns caused by a uniformly recharged circle of influence of 

7-mile radius(seefig. 80)upon the watertable of March 17, 1941, 

when the stage was about average for this area. 

EVAPOTRANSPIRA'l10N SALVAGE 

Declines of the water table due to evapotranspiration were discussed on pages 222-231. Figure 53 indicates that evapotranspiration is less at lower stages of the water table than at higher 

stages. This would generally be expected, because, as the water 

table declines farther below the surface, more energy is required 

to raise the water to the surface. Also, the water table and the 

capillary fringe may be beyond the reach of some plant roots. The 

middle curve on figure 53 is for average atmospheric conditions, 

which would cause about 0. 19 in, of water per day to evaporate 

from a standard class A evaporation pan, 

Figure 82 shows the estimated reduction in evapotranspiration 

under average atmospheric conditions for stages below average, 

as indicated by the decline of water levels in wells S 182 and S 196 

(see fig. 53). Using the evapotranspiration salvage curve, devel-
286 

TAMIAMI 

N 

WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

EXPLANATION 

-zwat~r tabl~ ex~mplified 

rneaauremenH Mod~ 

March 171 11341 

~-s.5-­

neor~tieol water table 

Q~$1,1rniriQ T• 50 mgd/ft. 

Qnd 0· 500 ~~d If the 

wclll!r pvrnpqd were 

drown und{lrmly rrom a 

t.lrel~: 7 mil4tli 1n radius 

1-tydrQIOi;Jy by N D. Hoy 

Figure 81. -Map of proposed well-field area showing theoretical cone of depression after draw· 

downs for a uniformly recharged circle of 7-mile radins are superimposed on the average water table. 
GROUND WATER · 287 

0.0~~ Average water table sta e/ 

!'-.. ~ 10 f-----+---+-<"""~;-----+----+-·-------1-·--+----.. -·-· ,, ___ _ i ,, f-----+---- ----G~ -·· · ~ 3.0 f---..................... - ................ ___ ............ ~---- ·---~' 1\,f~---+---+------+-----

t:j

~ \'For wells S 182 end S 196 ~ 0 5 182 

X S 196 

~ 4.0f-----t---+-----+---~--&\~---t---+-----

S.O D!;-__ __j_ ___ .L4 ___ ..J.6 ___ ..J8 ____ !LO --~-11..2------~4~--··"jG 

EVAPOTRANSPIRATION SALVAGE, IN INCHES PER YEAR 

Figure 82, -curve showing estimated evapottanspiration salvage resulting from lowering the 

water table, 

oped for wells S 182 and S 196 (fig. 82), and the drawdown curve 

for a pumping well that has developed a cone of depression of 7 

miles' effective radius under uniform recharge conditions (upper 

curve, fig. 80), it is possible to compute, by the summation 

process, what the apparent evapotranspiration salvage would be. 

The cot:nputation suggests that about 15 mgd could be salvaged. 

The average stage of the water table in the area in which the proposed well field is to be established is only 1 ~ to 2 ft below the 

surface; this places the stage 2 or 3 ft closer to the surface here 

than in the coastal ridge. It is believed that this would make the 

evapotranspiration salvage in the proposed well-field area greater 

than that indicated by wells S 182 and S 196. 

However, in areas of permanently lower average water-table 

conditions, the roots of some plants may tend to grow deeper and 

thus somewhat offset potential salvage. The writers know of no 

way to determine this effect, but it is believed that evapotranspiration salvage might be about 10 mgd where the well field is surrounded by a cone of dep7ession 7 miles in radius. 

INJ!1LTRATION FliOl\1 CANALS 

By assuming certain conditions it is possible to approximate the 

amount of induced recharge to an aquifer from a canal using the 

principle of recharge from an infinite line source, as outlined by 

Muskat (1937, p. 175), It is assumed that the canal is freelyconnected with the water-bearing formation, that the water level in 

the aquife:r bordering the canal is the same as the water level in 
288 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

the canal, and that these water levels wHl rise and fall -together, 

even though the change is rather rapid. It is further assumed that 

the canal is long and straight, and that canal flow into the area is 

sufficient to maintain a constant water level in the canal. · 

Figure 83 shows the stabilized cone of depression and the waterta_ble profile for a well pumping 50 mgd in an ideal aquifer that has 

e 

---

NOTE: CONTOURS ON WATER 

TAau;: ARf IN Fe:ET 

A80V£ MEAN SEA LEVEL 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I' ' 

PLAN 

SELECTED PROFILES 

\ 

\ 

' I 

c 

PUMftAGE: FROM WELL-= 50.0 

MILLiON GAt..L.ON$ PER DAY 

lRANS MISSIBILITY OF 

AQIJI~ER 5.0 mQ d I ft 

" ', 

' ' \ 

\ 

~ 

\ 

I 

\ 

I 

I 

Figure 83, -Profiles of the wateuable and plan of the stabilized cone of depression in an ideal 

aquifer of semi -infinite extent with reduced recharge &om a c::mal. 

an infinite areal extent away from the canal. A long straight canal, 

2 miles from the well and freely connected to the aquifer along its 

entire length, supplies essentially all the water pumped by the 

well. The water level in the canal is maintained at 5 ft above mean 

sea level throughout its entire length. The dashed flow lines show 

that influent seepage from the 4 miles of canal nearest the well 
GROUND WATER 289 

supplies 50 percent of the water pumped by the well, and the 10 

miles of canal nearest the well supply 75 percent of the water. 

The water-table profile along lines A, B, and C show the steepness of the gradients between the canal and the pumping well. 

Snapper Creek Canal passes within 1. 5 miles of the center of 

the proposed well field, and Bird Drive extension canal is 2. 5 

miles to the north. It appears that the effect of these canals would 

be approximated by a straight canal trending northwest-southeast 

and passing at a perpendicular distance of 2. 0 miles from the center of the proposed well field. Pumping test data 'for well G 551 

(p. 252-258) indicate that the Biscayne aquifer is very permeable 

in this area; the test gives a value of Tequal to about 15 mgd per 

ft. The limestone in this vicinity is rather cavernous, and the 

layer of quartz sand present in some areas between the Miami 

oolite and the limestone of the Fort Thompson formation is a.bsent 

or much less prominent. There appear to be no layers with low 

permeability to restrict the movement of the water from the Miami 

oolite to the Fort Thompson formation, from which the wells will 

draw their water. The rock walls of the canals are cut into the 

Miami oolite. 

The average water level in Snapper Creek Canal is about 5 ft 

above mean sea level in that part of the canal nearest to the proposed well field. At the junction of Snapper Creek Canal and 

Tamiami Canal the average water level is about 4. 5 ft above mean 

sea level. If the water table should decline 1 or 1! ft in the area 

bordering the canal at its nearest point to the well field, the direction of flow in this part of Snapper Creek Canal would reverse, 

and the water surface would have a slope of G..bout 0. 2 ft per mile 

toward the well field and away from the Tamiami Canal. It is believed that this slope would cause a sufficient flow of water in the 

canal to replenish the water that would infiltrate to the aquifer 

from the canal. A lower water surface in the canal would tend to 

lower the whole cone of depression {to a lesser degree) and would 

cause the infiltration from the canal to be a little less effective. 

During severe dry periods, as in 1945, Snapper Creek Canal can 

become dry and no water will be deliveredfrom other areas for 

infiltration to the well field. In such periods, simple water-table 

conditions will prevail. Infiltration from the canal to the aquifer 

will not account for all the water pumped from the well field, because the southern part of the cone of depression will intercept 

considerable quantities of ground water moving toward the natural 

discharge area of Biscayne Bay. In view of the high permeability 

of the limestone in this area, it is believed that the water salvaged 

(including that which formerly flowed into canals and out of the 

area), plus the influent seepage from· canals caused by pumping, 

will amount to a minimum of 25 to 50 percent of the total pumpage 

(data for 1 day, Mar. 28, 1946, p. 484, indicate that 78 percentof 

pumpage can come from seepage from canals). Water-table maps 

of the Miami area and the northern part of the coastal ridge 
290 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

(figs. 42-44) show the effectJyeness of deepened sections of canals 

in the lowering of the water table. If the situation were reversed, 

so that the water table was lower than the stage of the canal, the 

canals would be just as effective in raising the water table. 

CONCLUSIONS 

Because of variations in water-bearing properties of the Biscayne aquifer within relatively short distances, because the network of canals that intersect the area have a pronounced effect 

upon the water table, and because of the delicate balance between 

the fresh- and salt-water heads, it is not possible to obtain exact 

mathematical solutions to hydrologic problems. After carefully 

analyzing the data ava~lable, it is believed that about one-half or 

more, of the desired quantity of 50 mgd will be obtained through 

infiltration from canals to the cone of depression, by the reduction 

of runoff to canals from the area, and by evapotranspiration salvage due to lowering of water levels by pumping. It is believed 

that the remaining amount of water that is diverted from natural 

dis_charge areas in Biscayne Bay will not lower the fresh-water hea~ 

sufficiently to allow salt water to encroach into the well field at 

depth in the aquifer. During a series of dry seasons, or years, 

the salt-water front may advance slowly inland, but this advance 

should be compensated by the seaward movement during wet 

periods. 

P:;trticular attention should be given to the control of canals to 

insure ~hat they do not allow salt water to flow inland from the bay 

or from areas where the aquifer is salty. If the new well field is 

established at the location proposed, and if Snapper Creek Canal 

is cleaned out or deepened between Biscayne Bay and Tamiami 

Canal, special attention should be given to the eastern section of 

these canals ·to protect against inland flow of salt water, because 

the canals would provide a direct access for salt water into the 

well-field area. 
SURF ACE WATER 

lly D. B. Bogart and G. E. Ferguson 

CHAR_Af:TERISTICS OF DRAINAGE BASINS AND SUMMARIES OF GAGINGSTATION RECORDS 

METHODS OF INVESTIGATION AND EXPLANATION OF DATA 

COLLECUON OF FJELD DATA 

Characteristics of the surface waters of an area can be defined 

only after a period of observation can provide data of extreme con-

'ditions of both flood and drought and recorded values from which 

the most probable regimen for the future can be estimated; 10 years 

usually is considered to· be a desirable minimum length of record, 

although much can be learned from shorter records. A few observation stations were established by the Geological Survey in the 

Kissimmee R,iver basin and in the Lake Okeechobee area in 1930 

and 1931, but many stations used in this report were started as 

late as 1939 and 1940, and others are even more recent. Only 7 

:years of record (th;rough 1946) are available for some stations, 

but fortunately, wide variations of conditions occurred. 

A relatively wide range of hydrologic conditions occurred in 

southeastern Florida during the period of more intensive investigation (1939-46). The drought of 193_e was the principal cause for 

the establishment of the enlarged program by the Geological Survey 

in the Everglades area. The year 1940 was ordinary, but 1941 and 

1942 were moderately wet, and conditions culminated in the fairly 

high water of June 1942. After that, rainfall decr~ased markedly 

and the accompanying drought reached what may have been an alltime extreme in the middle of 1945. Conditions. returned to about 

normal in 1946 after heavy rains caused a large amount of recharge. 

Because of the close areal interrelationships of surface waters in 

southeastern Florida, the study necessarily covered all basins 

con,trib:uting to the Miami area. The longer rec;:ords for Kissimmee 

River basin and Lake Okeechobee supplemented the more recent 

work in the Everglades and the coastal area. 

Streamflow records, and records of stage along the streams and 

canals, 'were obtained through the operation of stream-gaging 

stations. At certain locations in southern Florida, water levels at 

these gaging stations were read from staff gages to hundredths of 

a foot by local observers. At other points, where tidal fluctuations 

or rapid changes in stage existed, or where the site was not readily 

291 
292 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTiiEASTERN FLORIDA 

Figure 84-Recorclinggage atrtream•gagingstation on Miami Canal at Water Plant, Hialeah, 

Well is connected to canal by two 2-lnch pipes, 

accessible to local observers. continuous records of stage were 

registered mechanically by use of water-stage recorder.s. Typical 

gages at a stream-gaging station are shown on figures 84 and 85. 

Figure 85,- Staff gage graduated in feet and hundredths of a foot at stream-gaging station on 

Miami Canal at Water Plant, Hialeah, 
SURFACE WATER 293 

Discharge records were collected by various methods. (See 

Corbett and others, 1943, for general disc-ussion of this subject.) 

At gaging stations immediately above control structures in Everglades canals the flow through the spillway openings was measured 

periodically by use of current meters, and daily discharge was 

computed from records of stoplog positions and head. (Figure 91 

shows a typical control in the Everglade-s with the recording gage 

at the left, just above the lock.) The spillway openings, or bays, 

have vertical slots on each side in which planks, known as stoplogs, may be placed in a horizontal position. Stoplogs are placed 

or removed (manually), according to the stage that is wanted above 

the control; the top logs act as the crest of the spillway .. The difference between the upstream stage and the average crest elevation 

is the head on the spillway, which is used to compute flow over the 

spillway. The relationship between the head and discharge was 

determined by making discharge measurements by current meter 

under a wide range of flow conditions. Allowances were made for 

obstructions in the spillway openings caused by hyacinth growth 

and for leakages both under and through the structures. Atcertain 

locations on the canals, where the control structures could not 

be used, observations of velocity along measured reaches were 

made twice daily, or oftener, by local observers by means of float;;. 

The velocity data were used, together with stage records and 

current-meter measurements, to comput~ rates of flow. At stations 

on the few natural streams in the area, it was usually possible to 

compute flow by means of a continuous record of· stage and a relationship between the stage and the discharge developed by means 

of occasional measurement of discharge. At stations on tidal 

reaches of canals where single discharge measurements would not 

represent the flow for other parts of the day, series of discharge 

measurements were made to define the flow variations during tide 

cycles (see de-tailed data for lower Miami Canal). 

INTEBl'B.ETATION OF DATA 

Stages and discharges in streams and canals seldom remain 

stationary, instead, they fl uc tua te with rainfall, evaporation, wind, 

tide, and regulation of control structures. The fluctuations in levels 

and discharges, when systematically observed at the gaging stations, are ·most effectively analyzed when plotted in the form of 

hydrographs having time scales selected to show the fluctuation 

being studied. Records of stages and discharges o'n a tidal stream, 

for example, are presented on hydrographs having an expanded 

time scale to illustrate fluctuations during a single tidal cycle, but 

they also are plotted on a greatly contracted time scale to show the 

seasonal or annual trends. In the first instance, the individual observations are used, but in the second instance, the plotted values 

are usually daily or monthly averages. Hydrographs containing 
294 WATER RFSOURCES IN SOtrl'HEASTERN FLORIDA 

daily or monthly avt;:rage values do not, of course, indicate in· 

stantaneous extremes in stage or discharge, and this limitation 

should be ~~cognized in the use of these illustrations. 

STAGE RECORDS 

All Geological Survey gages in southeastern Florida were either 

set, or tied in, to mean sea level, and thus all the water levels in 

the report are given in feet and hundredths of feet above mean sea 

level, The use of a common datum permits simple comparisons 

b~tween water levels at different locations,rand slopes or gradients 

in the water surface are clearly indicated, 

Okeechobee datum, occasionally referred to here, was originally 

established by levels run from Punta Rasa datum, which was obtained from measurements made near the mouth of Caloosahatchee 

River on the west coast of Florida. The U, S. Coast and Geodetic 

Survey has corrected and reestablished the elevation of these datum 

planes; Okeechobee datum (as used for years in the vicinity of Lake 

Okeechobee) is 1. 44 ft below mean sea level, Okeechobee datum 

was extended by the Corps of Engineers and Everglades Drainage 

District along all the major Everglades canals, and gages were set 

to it even in tidal waters along the east coast.l 

In the Miami area, the matter is further complicated by the use 

of two other principal datum planes: mean low water, Biscayne 

Bay datum-used by the Corps of Engineers for tidal waterway 

projects; and city of Miami precise datum-used by Miami for 

municipal improvements. Other datum planes are used locally, 

particularly along the coast, but these four are the planes most 

extensively used in the Everglades area. The use, of the several 

datum planes, and a lack of general knowledge of their interrelation· 

ships, often causes confusion in discussion of water problems. 

Table 20,-Principal datum planes used in the Everglades and in the Miami area 

Adjustment to be made 

Datum plane to elevations to convert to 

meansealevel, U.S. Coast 

and Geodetic Survey datum (ft) 

ity of Miami -0.269 

Sewall Point -0.49 

Mean low water, Biscayne Bay, 

0. S. Corps of Engineers -0.779 

jMean low water, Punta Rasa -0.88 

ake Okeechobee -1.44 

The relationship of the four principal datum planes is shown in 

table 20. This information can be used to convert elevations given 

I On July 1, 1947, the Corps of Engineers adopted mean sea level datum for work in the Everglades area and reset all their inland gages to that datum. 
SURFACE WATER 295 

with respect to one of the datums to any of the other three. The 

Punta Rasa and Sewall's Point datums are used in connection with 

the navigation canal across Florida from Fort Meyers to Stuart. 

This canal is the outlet, both to the east and to the west, for water 

released from Lake Okeechobee. 

DEFINITION OF TERMS 

Rate of flow is expressed in this report both in ~bic feet per llecond 

and in ~illions of gnllon~ per day, A flow of 1 cubic foot per second (secondfoot) is the rate of discharge equivalent to that of a stream or canal 

with a channel 1 square foot in cross-sectional area and 'with an 

average velocity of 1 foot per second. The unit million gallons per da}' 

is equivalent to 1. 547 cubic feet per second, These terms are 

abbreviated "cfs" and "mgd." 

Acre-feet and thousand'! of acre-feet are commonly used as units of runoff because of convenience in storage and irrigation calculations. 

An acre-foot is the quantity of water required to cover an acre to 

the depth of 1 foot and is equal to 43, 560 cubic teet. Water flowing 

at the rate of 1 cubic foot per second for 1 day is equivalent to 

1. 983 acre-feet, or approximately 2 acre-feet. 

In agricultural areas where pumping for drainage and for irrigation is extensively practiced, as in the upper Everglades, rate 

of flow is also expressed in aeJions per minute, abbreviated .. gpm ... 

The rate of 1, 000 gpm is equivalent to 2. 23 cfs, and if continued 

for 1 day, amounts to about 4. 4 acre-feet. 

Other useful terms for flow are: inflow, outflow, and seepage. In this 

report, inflow into a canal or an area principally refers to water 

entering by a connecting channel or by overland movement, but it 

may also include seepage flow •. Outflow, of course, is the same 

process in the opposite direction. Seepage is the movement of 

water through soils or rock formations into, or out qf, a canal or 

an area, It is either inseepage.or outseepage, depending upon the direction of the movement with respect to the canal or the area. The 

distinctions involved are useful because of the changing water relationships in the Everglades area. 

When discussing the direction of flow in a channel, or the direction 

of a current, it is customary to identify the movement with the compass reading of the direction toward which the water is moving; as, 

asoutherlyflow,or alloutherlycurrent, is moving toward the south. Familiarity with this definition is important because it is diametrically 

opposed to usage with respect to the wind. 

In most of the United States, the area contributing water to a 

stream can generally be identified and mapped and is referred to 

346881 0-55--21 
296 WATER RESOURCES IN SOU"IHEASTEP.N FI.O!UDA 

as the:drainage basin of that stream. The term is applicable to any 

point on a stream, but it is usually applied to the whole. In flat 

terrain like the Everglades, however, and in much of the central 

part of Florida, drainage basins cannot be identified as such. The 

drainage divides ·are too subtle for practical means of delineation 

and even vary. with different conditions of rainfall. The term 

contributing BTee therefore is generally used in this report although 

b.!Win-may occasionally be employed to make easier reading. 

INDEX OF GAGING STA'DONS 

Plate 1 shows the locations of all gaging stations in southern 

Florida with the type of data collected indicated by symbols. Each 

station in southeastern Florida is referred by number to a descriptive entry in table 21, in which all station records in that are~ 

are listed (cataloged by basin), beginning on the west shore of 

Lake Okeechobee and continuing clockwise around the shoreline. 

Within each basin, the stations are listed in downstream order, 

with those along the main tributary presented first. The month 

and year of beginning of records are included, and because many 

of the early records were not collected by the U. S. Geological 

Survey, the sou:rce of all other data is explained in the footnotes. 

Practically all the discharge records collected in southern Florida 

since 1930 are published in U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply 

Papers. Daily, monthly, and yearly discharges are listed for the 

regular gaging stations. Stage records are unpublished with the 

exception of those for Lake Okeechobee. 

In addition to recoras collected at the regular gaging station.s, 

listed in table 21, many observations of stage and measurements 

of discharge were made at miscellaneous locations. Most of the 

stage readings are unpublished, but the results qf most of the 

discharge measurements made since 1930 are published in U. S. 

Geological Survey, Water-Supply Papers. ·' 
SURFACE WATER 297 

Table 21.-/ndex of discharge and stage records in Lake Okeechobee and Ever&lades 

basins as of] an, 1, JQ47 · 

[D, daily discharge tecord; PO, periodic discharge measurementr; S, daily or continuous 

ltllge re!lord] 

No. Type 

on Location of Date of collection Collection agency 

pL 1 dam 

1 Fisheat1ng Cteek at Palmdale D Apt. 1931 to Dec. 1937 U. s. Geol, Survey and 

Okeechobee Flood 

Conttol District 

do••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• D Jan, 1938 to date U, S. Geol. Survey 

2 Indian Ptairie Canal near s Apt. 1928 to Mar. 1931 Evetglades Dtainage 

Lakeport, District 

do•••••••••••••••••••••••••••• D Apt. 1931 to Feb, 1933 U, S, Geol. Survey and 

Okeechobee Flood 

Conttol District 

3 Indian Ptairie Canal neat D June 1939 to date U, S, Geol. Survey 

Okeechobee, 

4 Alllgator Lake near Ashton. s Nov, 1941 to date ••••••••••••••do ................ 5 M:uy Jane•Hart Canal neat PO May 1942 to date ••••••••••••••do •••••••••••••• Nateoossee, 

6 Hart Lake neat Narooosee. s Nov, 1941 to date • .............. do: ••••••••••••• 7 Hart~East Tohapekaliga PO May 1942 to date •••••.••••••••• do. ••••••••••••• 

Canal neat Narcoossee. 

8 Ell'St Tohopekaliga Lake at s Nov. 1941 to date ••••••••••••••do •••••••••••••• St, Cloud. 

9 East Tohopekaliga· 

Tohopeka.liga Canal 

PO May 1942 to date •···~··•••••••do •••••••••••••• 

near St. Cloud. 

10 Tohopeka.liga Lake neat s Jan. 1942 to date ••••••••••••••do .............. Kissimmee. 

1.1 Tohopekaliga•Cypress Canal near St. Cloud, PO May 1942 to date ••••••••••••••do••••••••••'••• 

12 Cyptess Lake near St. Cloud s Jan. 1942 to date •••••••••••••• do. ••••••••••••• 13 Ha.tchineha Lake near St. s Jan, 1942 to date .............. do•••••••••••••• 

Cloud. 

14 Hatchinehaw Kissimmee 

Canal neat Lake Wales, 

PO May 1942 to date ••••••••••••••do •••••••••••••• 

15 Lake Kissimmee near Lake s Mar, 1942 to date U. S. Geol, Survey 

Wales. 

16 Kissimmee iuver at outlet s Apt. 1928 to Dee. 1930 Everglades Dtainage 

of Lake Kissimmee. District 

S, PO Jan, 1931 to Dec, 1937 Okeechobee Flood Conttol District 

D Jan. 1930 to Feb, 1934 Computed by U. S. 

Geol, Survey from 

above data, 

17 Kissimmee River below 

Lake Kissimmee. D Mar, 1934 to Dec, 1937 U. S. Geol, Survey and 

Okeechobee Flood 

Control District 

D Jan. 1938 to date U. S, Geol, Survey 

18 Kissimmee River at F art s Dec. 1941 to date ••••••••••••••do •••••••••••••• Kissimmee, 

19 Kissimmee River neat s Apr, 1928 to Dec. 1930 Evetglades Drainage 

Cornwell District 

s Jan. 1931 to date U. s. Geol, Survey 20 Kissimmee Rivet neat · Okeechobee PO Dec, 1927 to Mar. 1928 Everglades Dtaina.ge, 

District 

S, PO Apr. 1928 to Dec, 1930 ••••• ,., •••••••• do •••••••••••••• 

D Jan, 1930 to Dee. 1930 Computed by U. s. 

Geol. Survey from 

above data. 

D Jan. 1931 to Dec. 1937 U, S, Geol. Survey and 

Okeechobee Flood 

Control District 

D Jan, 1938 to date U. s. Geol, Survey 

21 Butler Lake at Wmdermere s Nov. 1941 to date •••••••••••~ •• do•••••••••••••• 22 Cyptess Creek at Vineland PO Sept, 1943 to July 1945 ............. ,do,,.,. ......... D ~(!· 1945 to date •••••••••••••• do. ••••••••••••• 23 Reedy Creek near Loughman D ov, 1939 to date •••••••••••••• do.. ••••••••••••• 
298 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 21.-/ndex of dischar&e l'ltld stlJI1e records in Lake Okeechobee and Ev<n'&lades 

baains as of ]1'1t1.J1 1947- Continued 

No, 

on Lcx:ation 

Type 

of Date of collection ~ollection agency 

pl. 1 data 

24 Weolryakapka-Rosalie Canal S,PD Aug. 1942 to date U, S. Geol, Survey 

near Lake Wales 

25 Lake Rosalie near Lake s Nov. 1941 to July 1942 ••••••••••••••do •••••••••••••• Wales 

26 Lake Arbuckle near Avon s Dec. 1941 to date •••••••••••••• do.. ••••••••••••• Park 

27 Arbuckle Creek near DeSOto D June 1939 to date •••••••••••••• do. ••••••••••••• 

City 

28 Lake Istokpoga near DeSoto s July 1936 to July 1942 Corps of Engineers 

City 

s Aug. 1942 to date u. s. Geol. ~urvey 

29 Istokpoga Canal near s, PO Feb, 1928 to Dec. 1929 Everglades Drainage 

Ccmwell District 

s Jan, 1930 to Dec, 1930 •••••••••••••• d.o. ••••••••••••• s Jan, 1931 to Feb, 1934 Okeechobee Flood 

Control District 

D Mar. 1934 to Dec, 1937 u. s. Geol. Survey and 

Okeechobee Flood 

Control District 

D Jan, 1938 to date U, S. Geol, Survey 

30 Taylor Creek at Okeechobee s, PO Apr. 1931 to Nov. 1931 Okeechobee Flood 

Control District 

D Dec. 1931 to Sept. 193 Computed by U. S. 

Geol. Survey from 

data fmnished 

s Oct. 1933 to Mar. 1934 Okeechobee Flood Con- ·. trol District 

31 Lake Okeechobee s May 1915 to Dec, 1930 Everglades Drainage 

Dbtrict 

s Jan. 1931 to D c. 1937 Okeechobee Flood Control District 

s Jan, 1938 to Sept, 1940 U. s. Geol. Survey 

s Oct. 1941 to date CorpS of Engineers 

32 St, Lucie Canal at Lcx:k No. D Apr. 1931 to Dec, 1937 U. S. Geol, Survey and 

1 at Lake Okeechobee Okeechobee Flood 

Control District 

D Jan, 1938 to date U. S. Geol, Survey 33 West Palm Beach Canal at D Nov. 1939 to date .,.,,,,,,,,.,do,,. ........... 

Canal Point 

34 West Palm Beach Canal at s Aug. 1942 to date ••••••••••••••do •••••••••••••• Loxahatx:hee · 35 West Palm Beach Canal near s Nov. 1939 to June 1941 ••••••••••••••do •••••••••••••• West Palm Beach 

36 West Palm Beach Canal at D Nov. 1939 to date U. S. Geol, Survey and 

West Palm Beach Lake Worth Drainage 

District 

37 Equalizing Canal 4 at Lake 

Worth 

s May 1944 to Jan, 1946 U, S. Geol. Survey 

38 Boynton Canal at Boynton D ]Illy 1941 to June 1943 U. S. Geol. Survey and 

Beach Lake Worth Drainage 

District 

s July 1943 to Mar, 1944 Lake Worth Drainage 

District 

39 Lake Okeechobee outlet near Belle Glade 

D Jan, 1940 to Sept, 1940 U. S. Geol. Survey 

40 Hillsboro Canal at Belle D Jan, 1940 to date ••••••••••••••do •••••••••••••• Glade 

41 Hillsboro Canal at Shawano s ~an. 1929 to date Shawano Plantation 

Plantation 

42 Hillsboro Canal at State s Nov. 1939 to June 1941 U, s. Geol. Survey Highway 7 near Deerfield 

Beach ' 

43 Hillsboro Canal near D ~ov. 1939 to date .............. do ................ Deerfield Beach 
SURF ACE WATER 299 

Table 21.-fndex of discharse and state records in Lake Okeechobee and Ever& lades 

basins a.s of jan. 1, 1947-Continued 

No, rr~e on Location Date of collectlon Collec1ion agency 

pl. 1 data 

44 Cypress Creek Canal at .D Feb, 1940 to June 1943 U. S. Geol. Survey 

Pompano 

45 North New River Canal at D Nov, 1939 to date ••••••••••••••do •••••••••••••• South Bay 

46 North New River Canal at ~.PO June 1942 to date .............. do•••••••••••••• 26~Mlle Bend near Fort 

Lauderdale 

47 North New River Canal at s Sept. 1940 to Jan, 1941 •••••••••••••• do. ••••••••••••• 

20-Mile Bend near Fort 

Lauderdale 

48 North New River Canal near 0 Nov. 1939 to date .............. do•••••••••••••• 

Fart Lauderdale 

49 Bolles Canal at Okeelanta PO June 1939 to Feb, 1944 ••••••••••••••do •••••••••••••• near South Bay 

50 South New River Canal at s Mar. 1942 to June 1942 ••••••••••••••do •••••••••••••• 

Highway 25 

s Apr, 1943 to date ••••••••••••••do .............. 51 South New River Canal near D Nov, 1939 to June 1941 ••••••••••••••do •••••••••••••• Davie 

52 Snake Creek Canal at North s Mar. 1946 to date •••••••••••••• do •••••••••••••• 

Miami Beach 

53 Biscayne Canal at NW. s Aug. 1940 to Dec. 1942 •••••••••••••• do. ••••••••••••• 

27th Ave,, Miami 

s Nov. 1945 to date ••••••••••••••do •••••••••••••• 54 Biscayne Canal at North s Feb. 1946 to date •••••••••••••• do •••••••••••••• 

Miami 

55 Biscayne Canal at Miami s Nov. 1940 to Sept. 1941 • ••••••••••••• do •••••••••••••• 

Shares 

s Sept. 1945 to' date ••••••••••••••do •••••••••••••• 56 Uttle River Canal at s Aug, 1940 to Dec, 1942 ••••••••••••••do •••••••••••••• 

NW. 27th Ave., Miami 

s Nov, 1945 to date ••••••••••••••do •••••••••••••• 57 Uttle River Canal at s Jan, 1946 to date ••••••••••••••do ••••••••••••• ~ 

NW. 7th Ave,, Miami 

58 Little River at Miami ~.PO Oct. 1940 to Sept, 1941 •••••••••••••• do ............... 

s Sept, 1945 to date ••••••••••••••d.o •••••••••••••• 59 Miami Canal at Lake D Nov. 1939 to June 1943 ••••••••••••••do •••••••••••••• Harbor 

60 Miami Canal below lock ·s Apr, 1946 to date •••••••••••••• do. ••••••••••••• 

and dam at Lake Harbor 

61 Miami Canal below junction 

with South New River 

S, PO Apr. 1~41 to May 1943 ••••••••••••••do•••••••••••••• 

Canal near Miami 

62 Miami Canal above County s Mar. 1942 to Aug, 1943 ••••••••••••••do •••••••••••••• Line Dam near Miami 

63 Miami Canal at broken dam PD May 1940 to date ••••••••••••••do •••••••••••••• near Miami 

s Sept. 1940 to date ••••••••••••••do•••••••••••••• 

64 Miami Canal at Pennsuco D Nov. 1939 to July 1943 •••••••••••••• do. ••••••••••••• 

near Miami 

s July 1943 to date ••••••••••••••do •••••••••••••• 65 Miami Canal at Russian s Aug. 1941 to date ••••••••••••••do •••••••••••••• Colony Canal near Hialeah 

66 Miami Canal at F.E.C. s Aug, 1941 to July 1943 ............. .,do ............... Canal, Hialeah 

67 Miami Canal at Water Plant, 0 Jan. 1940 to date •••••••••••••• do.. ••••••••••••• Hialeah 

68 Miami Canal at 36th Sj:reet, s Aug, 1941 to date •••••••••••••• do •••••••••••••• 

Miami 

69 Miami Canal at NW. s Oct, 1945 to date ••••••••••••••do •••••••••••••• 

27th Ave,, Miami 

70 Miami Canal lateral at Pennsuco PO Feb, 1940 to Aug, 1943 ••••••••••••••do •••••••••••••• 

71 Tamiami Canal outlets D Nov. 1939 to date ••••••••••••••do•••••••••••••• west of Miami 
300 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUnfEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 21.-lndex of disdlllt/le and sta?,e records in Lake Okeechobee and Everglades basins as of jan. [, 1917- Continued 

No. Type 

on Location of Date of collection Collection agency 

pl. 1 dat> 

72 Tamiami Canal at 40•Mile s July 1940 to date u. s. Geol. Survey 

Bend 

73 Tamiami Canal at Krome s Nov. 1939 to July 1942 ••••••••••••••do•••••••••••••• 

Ave., near Miami 

74 Tamiami Canal at Dade- s July 1942 to Jan. 1946 ••••••••••••••do •••••••••••••• Broward Levee near 

Miami 

75 Tamiami Canal near Caral D Jan, 1940 to June 1943 •••••••!'••••••do •••••••••••••• Gables 

76 Tamiami Canal at Red D Jan. 1940 to June 1943 •••••••••••••• do•••••••••••••• 

Road, Miami s July 1943 to date ..••••••••••.• do .•••..•• , .•••. 77 North Une Canal near Coral PO Jan. 1940 to May 1943 • .-••••• · ••••••.• do .............. 

78 c~:fH'.il.les Canal at Red s Jan. 1946 to date ••••••••••••••do •••••••••••••• Road, Caral Gables 

79 Snapp<!l' Creek Canal at s Nov. 1945 to date •••••••••••••• do.. ••••••••••••• Caral Gables 

80 Biscayne Bay at Coconut s Nov. 1940 to date •••••••••••••• do•••••••••••••• 

Grove 

81 Biscayne Bay near s Feb. 1946 to date ••••••••••••••do •••••••••••••• Homestead 

82 Caloosahatchee Canal at D July 1938 to date •••••••••••••• do •••••••••••••• 

Moare Haven 

83 Caloosahatchee River at D Apr. 1934 to Sept. 1936 Okeechobee Flood ConCitrus Center trol District and U. S. 

Geol. Survey 

84 Traffard Lake near s Mar, 1941 to date U. S. Geol. Survey 

Immokalee 

Note. -Measurements of discharge made at several points along Hillsboro, North New River. 

South New River, Miami, and Caloosahatchee Canals during 1913 by Everglades Engineering 

Commission and published in U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 352. 

Additional stage and discharge measurements made by Everglades Drainage District and Corps 

of Engineers, U.S. Army; some of these measurements are published in reports by these agencies. 

Non-continuous observations of stage and measurements of discharge made by U. S. Geol. 

Survey at numerous locatiOns not indicated above. A portion of these are included in following 

sections of this report. 

All records collected by U. S, Geol. Survey were in cooperation with one or more of the following: Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army; State Geologist: Trustees oflntemalimprovementFund, 

Everglades Drainage District, Dade County; cities of Miami. Miami Beach. and Coral Gables. 

BAsiNS TRiBUTARY ro LAKE OKEECHOBEE 

GENE&AL DRAINAGE SYSTEM 

The waters of south-central Florida collect in several basins 

and drain into Lake Okeechobee, and in their natural regimen they 

passed through the Everglades and into the sea. (See p. 138, 145, 

149 and pl. 12.) The lake forms a narrow place in a drainage 

system that is shaped somewhat like an hour-glass. It receives 

runoff from the north and northwest and distributes the excess water 

(artificially, since the lake has been controlled) to the east, south, 

and west. This relationship of river source to ultimate outlet is 

unique and is in part the cause for the unusual water problems of 

southeastern Florida. 
SURFACE WATER 301 

Kissimmee River is the largest tributary of Lake Okeechobee, 

but the lesser tributaries furnish a substantial part of the flow. It 

is not possible to clearly define the boundaries of the drainage 

basins because af the nearly level and indeterminate divides; the 

direction of flow over these divides varies according to the distri- · 

bution of rainfall. Detailed topographic maps are lacking, therefore the divides and d· ainage areas given in this report represent 

average conditions established from available maps and field observation. (Locations where measurements of flow and stage have 

been madein the basins tributary to Lake Okeechobee are shown 

on pl. 1 and in table 21.) 

The area contributing to Lake Okeechobee is about 4, 200 square 

miles, of which 80 percent is drained by the Kissimmee River. 

The remaining areas, considered ind~vidually, are small in comparison with Kissimmee River basin; the largest, Fisheating Creek 

basin, northwest of the lake, is roughly one-eighth the area of 

Kissimmee River basin. Taylor Creek, which lies immediately 

east of Kissimmee River, is next largest. Small natural sloughs 

and drainage canals, mainly along the northeast and· northwest 

shores of the lake, provide courses for runoff from the .remainder 

of the contributing areas. The aggregate runoff from these lesser 

basins is about 20 percent of the inflow to Lake Okeechobee and 

must be evaluated in an inventory of the water resources of southeastern Florida. 

The uppermost tributary, or source, of the system which drains 

southeastern Florida is Kissimmee River, with a drainage area of 

approximately 3, 300 square miles. The basin of Kissimmee River 

is very similar to those of many other coastal streams, with low 

undulating hills and flat, wide, swampy valleys. The northern and 

western parts of this basin, in which there are a myriad of lakes, 

form a part of the well-known Lake Region of central Florida and 

include some of the highest land in Florida. The altitude of the 

basin ranges from 16 ft at Lake Okeechobee to about 325 ft at Iron 

Mountain near Lake Wales; most of the basin is below 100 ft in altitude, land slopes are flat, and ~rainage is imperfect. 

Prior to settlement and development of the area the drainage 

regimen was characterized by the high degree of natural detention 

of the water in the various lakes, with overflow across wide, 

shallow marshes into lower lakes during the normally wet summer 

months and during periods of heavy rainfall. Some water probably 

flowed north into St. Johns River basin. More recently, construe tion 

of canals for reclamation of many of the principal headwater lakes 

and their connecting channels ha"s reduced detention, has increased 
302 WATER RESOURCES IN SOtJT!iE.AsTERN FLORIDA 

runoff, and has lowered the seasonal high-water levels. The drainage is still characterized, however, by its relatively slow runoff 

rate and its high proportion of storage. 

Kissimmee River basin occupies the part of Polk County that, 

according to Stringfield (1936), is the recharge area for the Floridan 

aquifer. 

Floods in Kissimmee basin are characterized by slow changes 

of stage and low velocities of water. They do not resemble the 

spectacular and destructive floods of hilly regions • .The towns and 

villages in the basin suffer very little from inundation, but }lomes 

in outlying districts may be damaged. The principal aspect of the 

floods is the shallow flooding of large areas of sandy prairie and 

intermittent marsh. Livestock suffers, but no real danger to 

humans occurs. In the upper and middle parts of the basin, roads 

become flooded at low places. Flood conditions may last for several 

weeks because of the slow rates of runoff. The waters are relatively clear and little silt is left after the floods pass. 

In an attempt to simplify description and to conform with signif· 

icant physical differences, the basin has been divided into two parts 

of nearly equal size, which are referred to as the upper basin and 

the lower basin. The upper basin is the part that, in general, drains 

southward into Lake Kissimmee. The lower basin is the part extending to Lake Okeechobee. Kissimmee River and its principal 

tributaries are discussed in a north to south order in the following 

sections. Miscellaneous points of observation in the basin are 

listed in table 21 and selected discharge and stage data at these 

locations are listed in table 23. 

UPPER KISSIMMEE BASIN 

The distribution of runoff in the upper basin (above the outlet of 

Lake Kissimmee) is influenced by storage in the chain of large 

lakes, which, with the interconnecting canals, make up the main 

headwaters tributary to the Kissimmee River. The area of the lakes 

in the upper basin total about 200 square miles, or about 10 percent of the basin area. Plate 1 shows the canals that carry the flow 

from Alligator Lake north through Lake Hart and then generally 

south through East Tohopekaliga, Tohopekaliga, Cypress, Hatchineha Lakes, and Lake Kissimmee. In wet periods a large amount 

of water flows into these lakes through small natural tributaries 

and secondary drainage canals. A principal tributary, Reedy 

Creek, discharges runoff from a large area to the northwest into 

the chain at Hatchineha Lake. Water also crosses the natural 

divide, shown on plate 1, northward through Lakes Weohyakapka 

and Rosalie into Lake Kissimmee. From Lake Mary Jane, just 

upstream from Lake Hart, a canal diverts some 'water Northeast-
Table 22.-Runoff oi lGssimmee River at outlet of, ar:1d below, Lake Kissimmee 

l Orainage area 1 , 8 SO square miles 1 

Runoff (in 1, 000 acre-ft) for indicated months Annual 

Year runoff Percent of 

Jan, Feb, Mar, Apr, May June July Aug, Sept, Oct. Nov, Dec, (1,000 12-year 

acre-ft) mean 

1930 74,0 65,5 80,7 108.4 112.0 299.5 451.5 269.0 223,0 269.6 164.6 113.0 2,236,8 324.5 

1931 122.9 103.7 111.1 100.2 97.1 69.0 52,2 44.5 40,0 39.4 32,7 29.7 842,5 122.3 

1932 26.6 21,7 19.9 14.4 10.0 11.1 11.9 18.0 26.5 28,7 26.6 23,8 239.2 34.7 

1933 21.8 17.0 16,5 13,4 10.4 9,1 18.6 34.1 221.6 205.5 115.0 82.6' 765,6 111.1 

1934 63.2 47.0 46.6 46,1 46.9 192.0 291,3 186,2 162.2 93,0 64.2 50,0 1,288.7 187,0 l935 '41.4 31.7 29.0 24.0 19.0 12,8 14.2 14.6 23,9 46.1 45,9 41.3 343,9 49.9 

1936 43,0 62.6 103.0 82.2 63.3 54,9 72.4 78.7 78.2 91.4 77.8 63,1 870,6 126.3 

1937 50,5 42.2 45.1 45.6 45.1 35,5 33,3 31,8 37.9 '70.8 94.6 108,4 640,8 93,0 

1938 98,3 72,3 64.8 46.8 36,6 33,5 36.6 43.3 36,6 39,7 41,6 37.6 587,7 85,3 

1939 32.3 25,3 22.8 16.7 14,2 13,9 32,2 55.0 100.9 123,2 93.9 70,1 600,5 87,1 194(} 61,2 57,3 61.6 56.8 45.4 35,8 34,6 39,0 46.8 49,5 41,0 36.2 565,2 82.0 

1941 39,5 43,8 54,3 79,3 79,5 61,6 117.5 104.4 116,9 102.7 102,8 106,7 969,0 14(},6 

1942 104.9 'l-5,0 89.6 82.0 68.5 63,1 84,6 81;5 68.6 60.7 47.3 40.8 866,6 125,8 

1943 36,5 29.5 27.3 22.5 19,6 15.9 18,2 27.8 41.7 56.5 50.8 47,3 393,6 57,1 

1944 41.9 33,6 30,7 27,4 23,2 19.5 20,(} 29,1 42,5 56,5 66,2 63.2 453.8 65,9 

1945 59.8 49,7 46,2 38.4 32.1 25,9 55.7 . 81.5 216.0 320,5 212,1 102.0 1, 239.9 179,9 

1946 73.3 58,2 60,1 49,1 39,6 35,8 36.0 62.4 85.9 99,(} 74,8 62.2 736.4 106,9 

Mean 

1935-46 56,9 48,4 52.9 47.6 40,5 34.0 42,9 54,1 74.7 93,1 79.1 64,9 689,1 100 

Percent 

of 

annual 8.3 7,0 7,7 6.9 5,9 4,9 6,2 7.9 10,8 13.5 11.5 9.4 100 

Note. -Daily stage records from January 1930 tc December 1930 by Everglades Drainage District, and January 1931 to December 1937 by Okeechobee Flood Control 

District. Single discharge measurements made during 1931 and 1932, and at semimonthly to monthly intervals from 1933 to 1937. Unpublished estimates of daily discharge for January 1930 to September 1933 made by the Geological Survey; daily discharge published for October 1933 tc Dece.mber 1937, Records subsequentto January 

1938 based on discharge measurements usually made .at bridge and gage-height record 3 miles below bridge. 
304 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 23,- Summary of discitarge and water-level data at stations in Kis.simmee River 

basin lor selected periods 

(Listed ln downstream order] 

No, Period MY 6-10, 194zl Period Mav 25-27 1943' 

Stations on Dischuge Elevation Discharge Elevation 

pl. 1 (cfs) (feet)3 (cis) (feet)' 

Alligator Lake ............................ 4 65.64 63.20 

Mary Jane Lake, north outlet'.,,, 10,1 1,4 

Mary Jane - Hart Canal ............ 5 324 12.6 

Han Lake ................................ 6 61,25 57,89 

Hart - East Tohopekallga 

Canal .................................. 7 336 1 

Eallt Tohopekaliga Lake ............ 8 57,35 53,95 

East Tohopekaliga -Tohopekaliga 

Canal •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 9 240 9,4 

Tohopekaliga Lake .. , ............... 10 55,31 51.19 

Tohopekaliga-Cypress Canal,., .. _ 11 602 17,0 

C'YJ'I'eSS Lake •••••• , .................... 12 54,76 50.18 

Hatchineha Lake••••••••••••••••••••• 13 53.33 48,74 

Hatchineha-Kissimmee Canal .... 14 1,110 52,91 114 48,37 

Lake Kimd:rnmee ••••••••••••••••••••• 15 52,67 47,22 

Kissimmee River below Lake 

Kissi:rnmee ••••••••••••••••••••••••• l7 1,280 52,26 307 46,91 

Kissimmee River at Fort 

Kissim:rnee ••••••••••,.•••••••••••••• 18 45,74 41,11 

Kissimmee River near 

Cornwell •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 19 31,64 26,83 

Kissimmee River near 

Okeechobee .... , ................... 20 2,520 23,71 485 17.90 

Trlbutariios 

Butler Lake at Windermere..-- 21 100,19 98,61 

Reedy Creek near Loughman .... , 23 237 67.67 20,7 66,60 

Weohyakapka·Rosalie Canal, .... 24 295 60.21 30,0 57,12 

Lake ROI!!ialle •••••••••••••••••••••••••• 25 54.87 

Lake Arbuckle •••••••••••••••••,.••••• 26 55.00 52,40 

Arbuckle Creek near DeSoto 

City"•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 27 370 40.94 62,0 37,96 

Istokpoga Canal, ..................... 29 634' 36,79 82,3 33.36 

iRunoff condltiom during this period are near tht seasonal average. July 1942 mean dls~harge of Kissimmee River near Okeechobee was 126 percent of the 22·year July mean(1924-45), Single measurements and observations at various locations were made on different days during the period, 

but slow rate of change makes all values comparable. For stations at which continuous records are collected, discharge and stage values represent average for period. 

ZRepresents runoff under drought conditlom. 

3Elevations are for mean sea level datum, Levels by U. S. Ceol. Survey and Corps of Engineers, u.S. Army. 

4Flows northeast into Ecoulockhatchee River (St. Johns River basin). 

ward out of Kissimmee basin into Ecohlockhatchee River head· 

waters (St. Johns River basin). 

The runoff from the upper basin (an area of 1, 850 square miles) 

is measured at a gaging station on Kissimmee River at the outlet 

of Lake Kissimmee, (no. 17, pl. 1) where records have been col· 

lected since 1930. The monthly runoff for this station ls listed in 

table 22. The minimum ordinary: discharge of 150 cfs occurred 

in June 1933 during a drought period. The maximum flow of 8, 750 

cfs occurred on June 24-30, and July 5, 6, 1930 (a rate 58 times 

as great as the minimum). The fact that both extremes were in 

June shows the wide range of runoff conditions that are possible in 

the critical spring and summer months. The mean annual discharge 

(12·year base period, 1935-46) was 950 cfs, eq,uivalent _to 6. 98 in. 

2No flow OCcUlTed September 3-4, 1935, when hlllTicane winds blew upstream-a special 

condition, 
SURFACE WATER 305 

of water over the entire tributary area, or about 14 percent of the 

average annual rainfall. The stage ranged between 44. 6 and 55. 2 ft, 

a difference of 10. 6 ft. 

Monthly measurements of discharge of canal stations, and daily 

measurements of stage in 10 lakes along the headwater tributaries, 

have been collected since January 1942. However, these limited 

records can provide only an approximate definition of runoff and 

stage characteristics. Stage and discharge observations for selected 

periods are given in table 23. 

PZ.OOD FREQUENCY 

A study of the frequency of flood discharges at the gaging station 

below Lake Kissimmee was made by the following method: The 

maximum discharge in each year of record was listed according to 

size; the greatest discharge was designated as no, 1. The mean 

recurrence interval in years (interval in which a given discharge will 

be equaled or exceededon the average) was computed by the formula 

N 1 ., where ~N is length of record in years and 1.1 is its relative 

·magnitude. A graph was then prepared on probability paper (Gumbel) 

with discharge as ordinate and its corresponding mean recurrence 

interval as abscissa. This graph shows the flood discharge that 

may be expected to be equaled, or exceeded, once in any period of 

years, on the average.· The results are summarized below: 

Average annual flood .............. 2, 7 50 cfs. (17 years of record) 

5-year recurrence interval ..... 6, 300 cfs 

1 0-year recurrence interval .... 7, 300 cfs 

15-year recurrence interval .... 8, 240 cfs 

Maximum flood observed, ....... 8, 750 cfs (June 24-30, July 5, 6, 

1930);· this figure probably was exceeded in August 1928. 

On a square-mile basis these discharges are less than thos~ 

observed downstream at the station near Okeechobee, as reported 

in the section on the lower Kissimmee basin. This relationship is 

contrary to the typical downstream decrease in flood dis.charge per 

square mile of drainage area, The comparatively low unit rate of' 

flood discharge just below Lake Kissimmee is probably.due to the 

attenuation by storage in the many lakes in the upper basin, 

The gaging station on Reedy Creek near Loughman (no, 23, pl. 1), 

where runoff froin an area of 190 square miles is measured, has 

been in operation since November 1939, Records show a minimum 

discharge of 2. 6 cfs on June 2, 3, 1945, and a maximum of 706 cfs 
Table 24.-Runoff of Reedy Creek near Loughmm 

[Dninage uea 190 squaxe miles . Unit 1 . 000 aae-feet] 

YeaT Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec, Annual 

1939 .............. ................ .................. ................. .................... ·········r:9 ............... .................... ................ ··········2:-:; .................. 1.3 .. ............ 1940 1.8 3,0 2.0 1,8 0,5 5.9 2,5 5.8 0,8 1.8 30,5 

1941 6, 6 4,5 5,5 9,5 2,7 1. 8 13.6 8.4 4,3 3.1 6,1 3,9 70.0 

1942 4,7 2.9 9.5 5.7 1,5 8.5 9.2 2.7 7,1 2.7 ,5 1,0 56.0 

1943 1,1 1,3 3,3 1,3 ,7 .6 8,3 9.6 10.2 5,8 1.5 1,5 45.2 

1944 2.1 .9 1.2 2.1 ,7 2,5 14,4 16.7 10.3 14,2 7.3 3,1 75,5 

1945 6.1 2.6 1.0 .4 .2 4,9 16,1 11.5 16.2 8,4 3,7 2,9 74.0 

1946 4,4 2.5 4,2 .9 1.1 1,6 7.9 15,4 11,5 7.0 3,8 2,1 62,4 
SURFACE WATER 307 

on0ctober22, 23, 1944. Neitheroftheseextremesis satisfactorily 

representative for design purposes because of the short period of 

record. A tabulation of monthly runoff is given in table 24. The 

average annual runoff for the 7 complete y~ars of record (to 1946) 

was 59, 100 acre-feet. 

LOWER KISSIMMEE BASIN 

The lower basin comprises an area of approximately 1, 450 square 

miles and may logically be considered in two distinct parts. The 

greater part includes Kissimmee River proper, which begins at 

the outlet of Lake Kissimmee and flows through a nearly flat valley. 

During low water stages the river follows a meandering clearly 

defined channel, but at flood stages it inundates a marshy flood 

plain several miles wide. The normal fall from Lake Kissimmee 

to Lake Okeechobee is 30 ft over a 98-mile stretch of the river 

channel. Lakes and well-defined tributary channels are few-lakes 

qover only 15 to 20 square miles, or about 2 percent of the area. 

The lesser part of the basin includes the western half of the 

lower basin and drains an area of about 700 square miles by means 

of Arbuckle Creek, Lake Istokpoga, and Istokpoga Canal (which 

flows into Kissimmee River at a point 49 miles above Lake Okeechobee). Outflow from Lake Istokpoga to Kissimmee River, most 

of which originally passed through Istokpoga Creek, was facilitated 

by the reclamation development that canalized and partially relocated Istokpoga Creek. This part of the lower basin contains about 

30 lakes having an aggregate area of about 100 square miles, or 

about 14 percent of the area. 

Runoff from Kissimmee River basin is measured at a gaging 

station directly west of the town of Okeechobee. The drainage area, 

3, 260 square miles, comprises over 98 percent of the entire basin. 

Discharge records collected at this key locatton since January 1930 

are tabulated by months in table 25 and are illustrated graphically 

in figure 86. Both the minimum and maximum known discharge 

occurred in 1928; the minimum was 206 cfs 3 on May 21 and the 

maximum was 20,000 cfs during .August. The mean annual discharge 

(over a 12-year period) was 1, 647 cfs, or the equivalent of 6. 87 

in, of water over the entire tributary area of 3, 260 square miles, 

or about 14 percent of the average annual rainfall. A comparison 

of this record with that for Kissimmee River below· Lake Kissimmee 

(the upper Kissimmee basin) indicates that the average volume discharged by the upper basin was 58 percent of that for the entire 

basin. The stage ranged between 16. 4; and 29. 0 ft, a difference of 

12.6 ft. 

Sfrom discharge measurement made by Everglades Drainage District at pointnearmouth of, 

river. Minimum discharge since October 1930, when daily discharge computations were begun 

by U, s. Ceol. Survey, was 231 cfs on May 18, 1932. 
Table 25. ~Runoff of E:i ssimmee River near Okeechobee 

[Drainage area 3 , 260 square miles] 

Runoff (in 1, 0 00 acre -ft) for indica ted months 

Year Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept# Oct. 

1930 102.6 90.0 100.7 152.4 183.7 536.8 437.1 289.2 253.8 277.4 

1931 174.9 153.6 191.2 168.5 145.4 99.4 78.3 70.2 76.5 72.0 

1932 45.3 34.4 30.9 22.7 20.2 47.7 33,8 52.3 126.2 77,8 

1933 44.2 34.0 33.5 32.7 23.6 20,3 61.4 153.0 460.3 308.1 

1934 101.3 78,9 77.4 77.6 79.5 236,0 442.4 318.5 249.4 181.3 

1935 72.9 52.1 43.4 34.2 26.5 18.7 28.4 32.2 76.6 184.5 

1936 75,9 106.2 180,1 123.6 93.2 99.8 108.2 117.8 126,3 141.3 

1937 90.0 74.8 77,7 83,0 66.5 58.3 61.8 58.9 62.2 143,8 

1938 132.1 95.6 83.9 59.5 41.4 45.3 65.1 94.9 72.6 83.4 

1939 50.1 37.1 3G.1 24.7 23.1 19.0 62.6 121.5 210.3 193.6 

1940 98.7 86.1 90.3 89.0 68.8 62.0 85.6 109.6 161.1 163.2 

1941 92.0 96.5 95.7 109.9 117.3 87.4 177.0 209,0 145.2 182.9 

1942 174.5 144.0 233,6 150.8 110.8 155,7 148.3 137.0 127,3 109.6 

1943 55.3 41.9 ·46.0 33.5 27.4 28.7 63.0 83.4 102.3 188.5 

1944 71.4 54.4 45.1 58.1 39.6 31,9 37.7 58.6 73.6 83,0 ' 1945 90.6 73.3 66.4 47.4 34.2 28.3 111.2 197.9 366.2 376.7 

1946 154.0 101.9 99.8 69,6 61.4 59.7 58:4 82.4 122.5 133,4 

Mean 

1935-46 96.5 80.3 91.0 73.6 59.2 57.9 83,9 108.6 137.2 165.3 

Percent 

of 

annual . 8.1 6. 7 7. 6 6.2 5.0 4.9 7.0 9.1 11.5 13,9 

Nov. Dec. 

199.8 162.0 

61.2 53.6 

66,8 53.8 

181.2 134.2 

124.8 91.9 

103.3 82.9 

127.0 107.5 

157,4 216,6 

79.9 61.8 

142.7 111,1 

92.3 74.9 

173.5 147.4 

79.1 67.5 

102.5 85.0 

103.6 98.3 

260.5 203,0 

106.8 94.8 

127.4 112.6 

10.7 9.4 

Annual 

runoff, 

1,000 

acre-ft_ 

2,785.5 

1,344. 8 

611.9 

1,486.5 

2,059. 0 

755.7 

1,406.9 

1,151. 0 

915.5 

1,025,9 

1,181. 6 

1,633,8 

1,638.2 

857.5 

755.3 

1,855.7 

1,144.7 

1,193,5 

100 

Percent 

of 12-year 

mean 

233.4 

112.7 

51.3 

124.5 

172.5 

63.,3 

117.9 

96.4 

76.7 

86.0 

99.0 

136.9 

137.3 

71.8 

63,3 

155.5 

95.9 

100 

C>) 

0 

co 

i 

;1 

~ 

~ Note, -Records from Aprill928 to December 1930, by Everglades Drainage District,consisted of daily stage readings (not continuous)· and discharge measurements §;! 

made about monthly, the latter began about December 1927 and included stage observations. Those from January 1931 to December 1937 were computed and 

published by U. S. Geol, Survey from field data by U. S. Geol. Survey and Okeechobee Flood Ccmtrol District. 
Table 26.--Runolllrom lower lGssimmee River basin 

[Drainage area 1, 410 square miles] 

Runoff (in 1, 000 acre-ft) for indicated months 

Year Annul 

runoff, Percent of Jan, Feb, Mar. Apr, May June July Aug, Sept. Oct, Nov, Dec, 1,000 12-year 

acre-ft mean 

1930 ............... .............. ........ -........ ................. ............... . .......... .............. ................ .................... 7,8 35.2 49,0 . ..................... .......................... 1931 52,0 49,9 80.1 68.3 48.3 30.4 26,1 25,7 36.5 32,6 28.5 23,9 502.3 99.4 1932 18,7 12,7 11.0 8,3 10.2 36.6 21,9 34,3 99.7 49,1 40.2 30,0 372.7 73.7 

1933 22,4 17,0 17.0 19,3 13.2 11,2 42,8 118,9 238.7 102,6 66.2 51,6 720.9 142,6 1934 38.1 31.9 30,8 31.5 32,6 44,0 151,1 132,3 87.2 88,3 60.6 41,9 770.3 152,4 1935 31.5 20.4 14.4 10.2 7.5 5.9 14,2 1'1.6 52.7 138.4 57.4 41.6 411.8 81.5 1936 32,9 43.6 7'1.1 41.4 29.9 56,8 35.8 39.1 48,1 49,9 49.2 44.4 548,2 108,4 1937 39.5 32.6 32,6 37.4 21.4 22.8 28.5 27. 1 24.3 73,0 62.8 108.2 510,2 100,9 1938 33.8 23.3 19.1 12.'1 4.8 11.8 28.5 51.6 36,0 43.'1 38.3 24,2 32'1,8 64.8 1939 17.8 11,8 7.3 8,0 8,9 5,1 30,4 66,5 109.4 '10,4 48.8 41.0 425,4 84.2 1940 3'1.5 28.8 28. '1 32,2 23,4 26.2 51,0 '10.6 114.3 113, '1 51,3 38.'1 616.4 121,9 1941 52.5 52.'1 41.4 30.6 37,8 25,8 99,5 104.6 28.3 80.2 70,7 40.'1 664.8 131,5 1942 69.6 69,0 144,0 68.8 42.3 92.6 63.'1 55.5 58.7 48,9 31.8 26.'1 771.6 152,6 1943 18,8 12,4 18.'1 11.0 '1.8 12;8 44.8 55.6 60,6 132.0 51.7 3'1.'1 463.9 91,8 1944 29.5 20.8 14,4 30,'1 16.4 12,4 1'1.7 29.5 31,1 26.5 37.4 35.1 301.5 59.6 1945 30,8 23.6 20,2 9,0 2.1 2,4 55.5 116,4 150.2 56.2 48.4 101.1 615.8 121.8 

1946 80. '1 43.'1 39.7 20.5 21.8 23.9 22.4 20.0 36,6 34,4 32.0 32,6 408.3 80,8 Mean 

1935-46 39,6 31.9 38,1 26,0 18.7 24.9 41.0 54.5 62.5 '12,3 48,3 47.'1 505,5 100 

Percent 

of '1.8 6.3 7.5 5.1 3.'1 4.9 8.1 10,8 12.4 14.3 9.6 9.4 100 

annu¥ 

Note. -Yalues shown are differences between runoff fOl' entire basin (station near Okeechobee, table 25)and tbl.tfor upper basin (station below Lake Kissimmee, table 22). 
310 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

2~~.------.----.-----------.-----------.-----------~----------, 

1o.ooo t---------11:-fi:--+-----------+--------JA'+-----+------------+------------I 

sooot-----~HU~+-------~r-+----4-\~---4----------~------------l 

4ooo~=====f~~+========t~d===~====~d;~~======~======~==~ 3000}-

~::l-r-_-_-_-_··~~===~="'-.,==;~:-/.:.. 7

_ '-_ -_ -_ '+<+l~:~::·....,~~··v~ ·-_-_--_-_-_,· ~.-.-_-':!_ .. }!._ ... ~_-_-;::,· "'.,-.."""'··..,··-,t---~~-;_:-:t~\...,;;:~ 

Cl 

!~"'--+­

~gg ---~----··· 

,__.. 

-~--... -

z 100~--~~----~--~~----~--~~----~--~~-----L--~~~--~ 8 2~000 1928 1929 1930 19~1 1932 

IJJ 1~000 

(/) 6000 

4000 a:: 3000 

w 2000 0.. 1000 

f- 600 

w ~gg UJ 200 

"- 100 

~ ~000 

"' 1~000 

~ 6000 

4000 

3000 

z 2000 

1000 

"' 600 (!) 400 a:: 300 

..: 200 

~ 100 

(I) 2~000 

0 10,000 

6000 

4000 

3000 

2000 

1000 

600 

400 

300 

200 

100 

""' 

"'V 

1\. 

II ' 

J 

-

1933 

~-~"---

'\N' ~ 

1938 

!"' ........ 

,{W 

1943 

" " 

"-....V " ' 

1934 

1\1 !""- ~ 

,.-1'_ '--./ ,.1 

""' 

1944 

J " '- "'\. I ,.,. 

1935 

~-" "-. 

1940 

II _ _.... 

r---... i 

"' 

194~ 

I 

.,.... 

f._/ '.J r----A ) 

1936 1937 

.v.. "' )J- '- I. """' 

V"""-' v "-.. 

1941 IS42 

--lo; schaf9e from Januaty 1928 

to S"ptember 1930 s~;~timoted from measurl;l'-

ments fl'l<lde by Ev~;~rg!IJ~et 

Dn:unaoe Dlstrlet c~d O~ee~ 

chobae Flood Control District en(linl!lflts 

"" :-.. .. r- ....... 

y· 

1946 

Figute 86. -Graph of discharge of Kissimmee River near Okeechobee, 1928-46. 

Runoff from the lower basin, which was taken separately, is 

listed in table 26, which is a tabulation of the difference between 

the runoff near Okeechobee and the runoff below Lake Kissimmee 

(table 25 minus table 22). The mean annual runoff for 12 years of 

record was 698 cfs. This figure shows that the yield of the lower 

basin was about 74 percent of that from the upper basin, although 

the lower basin comprises about 78 percent of the entire area. 

FLOOD PRBQ'QENCY 

A determination of the frequency of flood discharge at the gaging 

station near Okeechobee was made by the same method used for 

the station below Lake Kissimmee (see p. 305). The results are 

summarized below: 

Average annual flood········-··· 5, 380 cfs (16 years of reco-rd). 

S~year recurrence interval •••• 10,000 cfs 
SURFACE WATER 

10-year recurrence interval, ••• 13,400 cfs 

15-year recurrence interval •••• 15,000 cfs 

20-year recurrence interval. .•• 18, 700 cfs 

311 

Maximum flood known •••• _ ....... 20, 000 cfs (August 1928, prior to 

period of record). 

The discharge of Arbuckle Cr-eek, with a drainage area of 390 

square miles, was measured, starting in June 1939, at the highway bridge just upstream from Lake Istokpoga. The monthly runoff is listed in table 27. A minimum discharge of 6. 3 cfs occurred 

on June 21, 1945 and a maximum of 3, 560 cfs occurred on September 

17. 1945. The average annual runoff for the 7 complete years of 

record ending in 1946 was 202, 000 acre-ft. The stage ranged between 36. 4 and 44. 0 ft, a difference of 7. 6 ft. 

Arbuckle Creek is the principal tributary of Lake Istokpoga. 

Prior to the canalization of Istokpoga Creek, the lake overflowed 

along the southeast shore seasonally in much the same manner as 

Lake Okeechobee overflowed to the south before the drainage pattern 

was changed by reclamation projects. The overflow from Lake 

Istokpoga moved overland and by minor waterways to the southeast 

into the area now known as the Harney Pond and Indian Prairie 

Canal drainage areas, and it ultimately flowed into Lake Okeechobee. This procedure now occurs only in exceptionally wet years, 

and drainage is normally by way of Istokpoga Canal. 

'346881 0-55--22 
Table 27.-Rurl.off of Arbuckle Creek near DeSoto City 

[Drainage area 390 square miles, Unit, 1, 000 acre-feet} 

Year Jan, Feb, Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual 

1989 .................. ................ ,.. .............. .................... . ......•...... ··········-·· 18.8 32.8 72.2 43.5 18.4 9.2 . ................ 1940 14.5 17.0 20.9 18.4 6,4 11.1 30.7 28.8 53.9 27.8 8.3 7.8 245.6 

1941 17.0 16.6 13.6 22.2 13.6 12.4 55.0 27.1 2.1. 0 19.8 17.5 12.2 248.0 

1942 18.8 16.0 27.2 14.3 8.7 23.2 23.8 16,3 16,6 14.0 ·5.1 4,9 188.9 

1943 3.8 3,6 5.0 2.9 2.6 3.1 40,1 32,6 35.2 33.5 11,7 7.7 186.8 

1944 6.i 4.5 3.7 6.8 6.2 4,2 11,6 34.1 17.6 17.1 11.3 6.9 130.1 

1945 7.8 5.2 3.4 1.6 ,3 2.4 59.2 43.8 87.3 44.1 17.6 11.3 234.5 

1946 9.9 5.9 5.2 3.4 2.3 4.1 8.9 17.7 26.7 25.1 12.9 8.1 130.7 
• 

SURFACE WATER 313 

ISTOKPOO" CANM. 

The principal outlet of Lake Istokpoga is Istokpoga Canal. Its 

discharge has been measured starting in March 19 34 at the highway 

bridge 1. 5 miles upstream from Kissimmee River. The monthly 

runof{ from the 660-square-mile basin is shown in table 28. A 

minimum discharge of 4. 2 cfs occurred on June 17, 1945, and a 

maximum of 1, 640 cfs occurred on September 20, 1945. The average annual runoff for the 12 complete years of record ending in 

1946 was 284, 000 acre-ft. 

The average annual runoff for the 7 years ending in 1946 was 

296, 000 acre-ft, which compares with 202, 000 acre-ft from Arbuckle Creek for the same period, It is likely that some water 

overflows the southeastern shore of Lake Istokpoga in periods of 

high water and thus bypasses Istokpoga Canal. This is shown by 

the greater runoff from Arbuckle Creek in 1945 than from Istokpoga 

Canal, 284, 500 and 267,900 acre-ft, respectively. Despite the 

severe drought ending in the summer of 1945, the rainy season, 

marked by the passage of a hurricane, apparently supplied enough 

rain to cause the runoff of Arbuckle Creek in 1945 to be the greatest 

of the 7 years of record . 
Table 28.- Runoff of Istokpoga Cmlal near Com11•ell 

[Drainage area 66(} square miles] 

• Runoff (in 1, 000 ·acre -ft) for indica ted months Annual runoff 

Year Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 1,ooo Percent of 

acre-ft 12-year 

m;,,.., 

1934 ............ ................... ............... 16.3 19.3 36.9 40.4 36.6 3'7.3 30.2 22.9 18.1 ...................... 1935 15.0 12. (} 9.3 7.3 4.8 3.0 6.3 8.9 23.7 46.4 42.0 31.6 210.3 ··-············ 74.1 

1936 29.2 34.4 49.2 40.9 29.4 28.3 36.6 38.1 35.4 49.8 41.3 34.2 446.8 15'7.4 

1937 26.2 21.9 23.5 24.1 19.4 1'7.4 19.0 18.5 17.9 21.0 25,5 36.9 271.3 95.6 

1938 26.3 18.'7 15.0 7.4 3.3 5.0 10.5 21.9 1'7.8 19.6 20.4 16.9 182.8 64.4 

1939 13.0 8.7 6. 1 3.8 3.5 3.0 10.2 17,1 38.8 48.0 39.2 31.0 222.4 '78.4 

1940 27.4 23.8 23.5 24.2 1'7.6 16.3 24.2 38.1 53.3 53.5 3'7.8 28.'7 368.4 129.8 

1941 31.1 29.0 29.2 27.8 26.0 21.6 3'7.2 50.7 40.'7 37.2 34.6 31.5 396.6 139.7 

1942 33.1 29.5 42.6 34.3 28.2 35.5 39.4 38.0 33.'7 32.5 22.2 16,3 385.3 135.8 

I 

~ 

1943 12.9 10.6 10.8 7.1 5.1 7.2 15.2 28.2 38.5 56.0 40.4 32.8 264.8 93.3 

1944 24.1 16.6 12.9 14.2 9.1 5.'7 7.1 19.0 23.0 19.4 20.6 17.2 188.9 66.6 

1945 14.2 10.0 6.9 2.4 .9 .9 14.8 29.4 57.8 56.3 40.8 33.5 267.9 94.4 

1946 28.9 21.5 19.4 11.4 8.0 9.5 8. 6 15.,2 18.4 22.5 21.1 17.5 202.0 71.2 

Mean, 

1935--16 23.4 19. '7 20.'7 17.1 12.9 12.8 19.1 26.9 33.2 38.5 32.2 27.3 283.8 100 

Percent of 

annual 8.2 6.9 '7.3 6.0 4.5 4.5 6.'7 9.5 11.7 13.6 11.3 9.6 100 

Note. --Records of daily discharge from March 1934 to December 1937 computed and published by U. S. Geol. Survey from field data by U. S. Geol. Survey and ~ Okeechobee Flood Control District. ~ 

~ 
SURFACE WATER 315 

F1SIIEA11NG CREEK 

Fisheating Creek drains a basin of about 400 square miles. The 

headwaters adjoin Peace Creek basin on the west and are separated 

from Kissimmee River basin by the higher lake region on the north 

and east. Along its upper course the creek flows from north to 

south with an average gradient of about t ft per mile, generally 

through cypress swamp. The low-water channel meanders, and 

at high stages the water overflows the swamp areas. Runoff is 

sluggish because of the large amount of natural storage in the basin. 

During droughts there is little or no flow in the creek; this is pro b .. 

ably due to high evapotranspiration rates and lack of sustained 

ground-water inflow, The only sizable tributary heads in the low 

plateau southwest of Lake Childs. 

In its lower course Fisheating Creek flows in an easterly direction 

for about 20 miles and enters Lake Okeechobee on the western shore 

at the settlement of Lakeport. The lower part of the basin slopes 

generally to the lake,- rather than to the creek, thus making drainage boundaries indeterminate. Natural drainage features were 

changed somewhat in 19 32 by construction.of a levee roughly parallel 

with, and a few miles south of, the lower -reaches of the creek. 

This levee is a part of the main levee system of the lake. 

Runoff from the upper 305 square miles of the drainage area of 

Fisheating Creek was measured at the gaging station at Palmdale. 

Records collected since April 1931 show a period of no flow in 

nearly every year, usually in the spring; this period lasted nearly 

5 months in 1935. The maximum discharge observed was 8, 980 

cfs on September 17, 1945, and the average rate of runoff during 

the period of record was 227 ds or about 450 acre-ft per day. A 

tabulation of monthly and annual runoff for this station is given in 

table 29. The average yearly runoff for 12 years of record, 1935-· 

46, was 168, 900 acre-ft and the stage ranged between 27. 1 and 36. 4 

ft, a difference of 9. 3 ft. 
.Table 29.-Runotf oi Fisheating Creek at Palmdale 

[Drainage area 305 square miles] 

Runoff (in 1, 000 acre -ft) for indicated months Annual runoff 

YeaJ Jan, Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept, Oct. Nov. Dec, Pe:tcent of 1,00() 

acre-ft 12-year 

mean 

1931 ""-o-:1' ............. .......... ...... ..... _ ......... 1(},8 (},8 0 0.6 3.5 3,8 0.1 0 

1932 0 0 0 0 i,4 2. 7 34,9 100,6 20,4 6.9 1. 8 168.8 99.9 

1933 .3 ,1 ,9 3.2 .4 0 4,9 38,3 87.4 8,4 2.6 .8 147.3 87.2 

1934 ,3 ,3 ,8 .2 1,1 4,5 4,8 21.0 14.6 7,8 1.0 .1 56,5 33.5 

1935 0 0 0 O· 0 0 0 • 7 34.1 8,4 1.0 ,3 44,5 26,3· 

1936 1,4 40,5 22,5 2.6 .2 72,6 24.1 20.3 25,8 44,0 7.8 3.1 264,9 156.8 

1937 1,3 2.9 1,0 ,8 2.0 1,8 43.3 11.2 31,7 39,8 17.6 23.9 177,3 105.0 

1938 8.2· 1.8 .1 0 0 1.6 30,5 23,6 3,2 20.9 3,5 ,1 93.5 55.4 

1939 .1 0 .o 0 ,1 .2 31.2 66.2 75.4 36.7 10.7 3.4. 224,0 132.6 

1940 4,2 5, 7 9,6 6. 7 .2 0 27,0 31,7 93.8 25.7 3.9 3.9 212,4 125.8 

1941 18.0 19.4 7,4 30.0. 3,5 6.3 64.3 29,6 38.3 17.3 24.0 10,2 268.3 158.9 

1942 24,8 23.6 33,8 7.7 .9 26,4 14,2 6.9 12.1 a. 5 1.1 1.4 161,4 95.6 

1943 .9 • 3 2,4 .4 1.2 6,2 17.9 14.0 61.8 56.9 8.0 2,4 172.4 102.1 

1944 .9 .2 0 0 0 2.2 .8 14.5 29.7 4,0 1.6 ,2 54,1 32.0 

1945 ,3 0 0 0 0 ,1 71.5 28.4 117.3 55.0 13.5 1,9 288,0 170.5 

1946 1,5 0 1,3 0 0 ,2 2,2 22,5 25.6 9,1 2.8 .5 66.2 39.2 

Mean 

1935-46 5.1 7.9 6.5 4.0 .7 9.8 27,2 22,5 45,7 27.2 8.0 4.3 168.9 100 

Percent 

of 

annual 3.0 4.7 3.8 2.4 .4 5.8 16.1 13.3 27.1 16.1 4.7 2.5 100 

Note, -Records prior to january 1938 computed and published by U, S. Geol. Survey from stage rec~ and a part of the discharge measurements by Okeechobee 

Flood Control District. 
SURFACE WATER 317 

MINOR TRIBUTARIES 

Numerous small streams on the northeast and northwest shores 

of Lake Okeechobee discharge into the lake mainly through culverts 

in the hurricane levee. To facilitate drainage of adjacent areas 

under cultivation many of the streams were deepened (especially 

along the lower reaches), and some were interconnected by drainage ditches. In areas where no natural channels exist, drainage 

canals were excavated and passed through the levee by means of 

culverts. The culverts are equipped with check gates t0 prevent 

water from passing out of the lake into the leveed areas during 

hurricanes and other periods of high stage. 

Runoff from each of the basins is relatively small, but the combined total runoff contributes a substantial amount of water to the 

lake. Estimates based on periodic measurements by the Corps of 

Engineers show that the runoff from these small basins for the 7-

year period ending December 31, 1946, was approximately onethird of the amount contributed by Kissimmee River. Estimates of 

their combined discharge are given for this period by months in 

table 62. 

Indian Prairie Canal, Harney Pond Canal, and Taylor Creek are 

sizable secondary tributaries to Lake Okeechobee. 

INDIAN PRAIRIE CANAlIndian Prairie Canal enters Lake Okeechobee from the northwest; 

it is about 20 miles long and drains . the gently sloping prairie as 

far as Lake Istokpoga. The drainage area is indeterminate. In 

periods of exceptionally high water, overflow from Lake Istokpoga 

enters the upper part of the basin. The efficiency of the canal has 

been reduced considerably by the formation of sand bars at the 

mouths of lateral canals. 

Stage and. discharge records have been collected at the gaging 

station at Highway No. 78, close to Lake Okeechobee, since June 

1939. A period of no flow was observed nearly every year, and 

during some years the .period lasted as long as 6 months. The 

maximum discharge during the period of record was 1, 540 cfs on 

September 16~ 1945. The monthly and yearly runoffs listed in table 

30 show that the average annual runoff for the 7 consecutive years 

of record, 1940-46, was 74,000 acre-ft. The severity of the 1943-

45 drought is indicated by the runoff of 7, 200 acre-ft in 1944, less 

than 10 percent of the average annual runoff. 

Stage at the gaging station ranged between 12. 1 and 18. 0 ft, a 

difference of 5. 9 ft. When runoff is small, or zero, the stage is 

essentially the same as that of Lake Okeechobee. No levee exists 

along the northwest shore of the lake, and the canal is subject to 

varying degrees of backwater. depending upon the amount of runoff, 

the stage of the lake, and wind effect. 
Year Jan. Feb. Mar. 

1931 .................. ................... .. .................. 1932 0.3 0.1 0.2 

1933 .4 .................. .................... 

1939 ................ ................ ................. 1940 .2 • 8 1. 8 

1941 11.9 8.3 .1 

1942 13.3 9.9 18.3 

1943 0 .2 .6 

1944 0 0 0 

1945 0 0 0 

1946 3.7 1. 5 1.7 

Table 30.-Runoff of ln_diBI! Prairie Canal near Okeechobee 

[Drainage area indeterminate. Unit, 1, 000 acre-feet] 

Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. 

................. 12.7 3.0 0.9 1.1 2.4 

0.1 2.2 4.9 3.0 7.5 38.5 .................. .................. .............. . ............. ................... .. .................. 

.................. . ............... . ............... 5.8 2l.rt 16.9 

.1 0 0 0 0 24.2 

5.5 1.3 1.3 33.8 6.3 8.4 

3.8 .1 26.3 7.4 5.4 10.4 

.1 . 5 . 7 9.7 12.3 24.4 

0 0 0 0 0 3.0 

0 0 0 6.6 7.8 37.3 

0 .7 2.2 8.2 6.7 3.8 

Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual 

1.0 0.3 0.3 ~·--·~·········· 5.5 1.9 .6 64.8 ................. ................. .•............... ................. 7.6 .7 0 . .................... 10.9 1.5 .8 40.3 

9.4 7.4 7.6 101.3 

2.0 .2 .5 97.6 

27.7 4.0 .5 80.7 

2.8 1.2 .2 7.2 

72.2 26.4 4.4 154.7 

2.7 2.6 .3 34.1 

Note:-Data from Ma.y 1931 to January 1933 are for station near Lakeport and were computed and published by U. S. Geol. Survey from field data by· okeechobee 

Flood Control District. -
SURFACE WATER 319 

HARNEY POND CANAL 

Harney Pond Canal is located 6 miles southwest of Indian Prairie 

Canal and roughly parallel to it, This waterway is nearly 20 miles 

long, and it drains the prairie as far as Lake Istokpoga. A large 

sand bar at its mouth on the west shore of Lake Okeechobee restricts 

its flow to a considerable degree. No regular records were kept 

on Harney Pond Canal and its runoff is included in the "n9rth-shore 

creeks, etc" in table 62. Although it is smaller in cross section 

than Indian Prairie Canal (and therefore of smaller capacity) the 

flow characteristics are probably much the same, The drainage 

basin merges with adjoining basins and its area is indeterminate. 

TAYLOR CREEK 

Taylor Creek flows into Lake Okeechobee at the northern shore 

at a point about 4 miles south of the town of Okeechobee; it drains 

a basin having an area of less than 200 square miles. The upper 

courses of the stream pass through swampland with adjacent areas 

of sandy pine prairie at elevations of 40 to 50 ft above mean sea 

level, This basin, like that of Fisheating Creek, has a low gradient 

and a slow runoff; during dry periods the runoff ceases. The channel 

was dredged for navigation from the mouth of the stream to the town 

of Okeechobee. The channel passes through a hurricane gate at 

the lake (HGS-6), and the gate is kept open at all times, except 

during open hurricanes and accompanying high lake stages, when 

it is closed to protect the developed areas in the basin. 

Daily runoff from the upper 109 square miles of the basin was 

measured at a gaging station at the town of Okeechobee during the 

period December 19.31 to September 1933, This short record does 

not permit satisfactory evaluation of runoff characteristics, but it 

does indicate that flow ceases during droughts, The monthly runoff 

for the period of record is shown in table 31. 
Table 31.-Runoif ol ·Taylor Creek at Okeechobee 

[Drainage area 109 square miles. Unit, 1, 0 00 acre-feet J 

Year Jan, Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov, Dec. Annual 

1932 0.1 0.1 0 0 0.1 19.8 1.4 2.2 12,6 2.0 2.4 0.3 41.0 

1933 0 0 0 1.4 .3 .1 5.2 25.2 30.0 

Note.-Records consist of daily discharge computed and published by U. S. Geol. Survey from field data by Okeechobee Flood Control District. 
SURFACE WATER 321 

LAKE OKEECHOBEE AND PRINCIPAL OUTFLOW CANALS 

PBYSCAL FEATURES 

The function of Lake Okeechobee in the drainage system of southeastern Florida is that of a balancing reservoir, which r~ceives 

the natural runoff from the contributing ba§iins to the north and 

northwest, and whic~. within the limits of safe storage capacity, 

retains a portion of this water. The lake is also used as a disposal 

reservoir for natural and artificial drainage of excess storm water 

from the agricultural lands to the south and east. The same canal 

network and water-control system generally serves for both irrigation and drainage of these lands. 

The lake, which is roughly trapezoidal in shape, has an area, de~ 

pending on the stage, Cif 650 to '125 square miles, It is the second 

largest fresh-water lake lying entirely within the United States _ 

(Lake Michigan is the largest). At a stage of 13.5 rt" the depth 

over large areas of the lake is 10 to 14 ft, and the deepest part 

exceeds 15 ft. , The bottom of the lake slopes gently from shoreline to deep water, especially along the south and west sides, 

causing great areal variation with change in stage: At low stages, 

Observation Shoal (an extensive shallow area near Moore Haven) 

becomes a large grassy island that reallyis a part of Observation 

Island. The lands bordering the northern half of the lake rise from 

the shoreline at a gradient of about 1 to 3 ft per mile. Most of the 

lower, and more nearly level, lands south of the lake are about 15 

ft above mean sea level and slope gradually to the coast. 

Although Lake Okeechobee is comparatively shallow, it stores 

a considerable quantity of water because of its large surface area. 

Figure 87 illustrates graphically the relationship of lake area and 

capacity with stage, plo'tted from data furnished by the Corps of 

Engineers. A lake elevation of 8. 0 ft (9. 4 ft Okeechobee datum) 

was chosen as an arbitrary limit for minimum lake depth (the 

minimum -desirable operating stage is 12.6 ft) and storage below 

8. 0 ft was not included in the capacity computation. At an ordinary 

lake stage of 14, 0 ft (15. 4ft, Okeechobee datum) the total capacity 

above the 8, 0 ft elevation is about 2. 2 million acre-ft. 

LAKE-REGULATION PROGRAM 

Man's development of the Lake Okeechobee region has not greatly 

affected the characteristics of natural inflow, except for some 

changes in the regimen of discharge in Kissimmee River caused 

by canalization of streams connecting lakes in its headwater basins. 

Levees constructed around the south shore of,the_lak!;l for flood 

control and reclamation, however, have interrupted the natural 

., All stages and elevations refer to mean aea level datum unless otherwise stated, 
322 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLOIUDA 

.J 

w 

> w 

.J 

<{ 

LLJ 

(/) 

z 

<{ 

w 

::::::!: 

LLJ 

> 0 

m 

<{ 

1-

LLJ 

LLJ 

1.1.. 

~ 

z 

Q 

1-

~ LLJ 

..J 

LLJ 

AREA, IN SQUARE MILES 

400 500 600 700 800 

17 

16 

19 j 

I / 

f---------.-- ~~-· 

STORAGE ABOVE _ r-c_ v I 8.0 FEET ELEVATION 

,...----

18 

15 

14 

13 

12 

II 

10 

"''"~y~~ ~~-~~~-----

I I 

v 

I v 

v 

I l/ ~-~"' 

-- v 1/ J j -·-- --- 1/ j 

I I "-s 

~AREA 

-·- 1/ 1/ . 

I I 

1/ 9 

8 

0 5 

I Dato fi"""''' b!.l Corps of EnQ•neere 

10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 so 

STORAGE, IN HUNDREDS OF THOUSANDS OF ACRE-FEET 

Figure 87, -Stage-area and storage-capacity curves for Lake Okeechobee, 
SURFACE WATER 323 

outflow of water over the Everglades to the south and east during 

high lake stages, The outflow is now controlled and ·discharged 

from the lake into the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico by way 

-of the St. Lucie and the Caloosahatchee Canals, respectively, in 

the present program of lake regulation by the Corps of Engineers. 

The stage of the lake is controlled to provide benefits to agricultural 

act~vities through water-control operations, to furnish protection 

to residents and property from hurricane wind tides, and to provide 

adequate depth for navigation in the channels in the lake and in the 

St. Lucie and Caloosahatchee Canals. 

The objective of the present control program is to maintain lake 

elevations between the narrow limits of 12.6 and 15, 6 ft (14. 0 and 

17. 0 ft, Okeechobee datum). The difficulties of accurately fore· 

casting the amounts of inflow, as well as to forecast the relatively 

long period of time required to lower the lake through outflow 

channels, make the procedure difficult and intricate. An especially 

critical period exists late each summer, near the end of the rainy 

season, when the lake must be lowered sufficiently to provide for 

recharge and for protection during hurricanes, but at the same 

time, sufficient water must be retained in the lake to provide for 

all activities through the following normally dry winter and spring 

months. The magnitude of the problem may be realized by noting 

that the storage represented by the working range of stage (12. 6 

to 15.6 ft) is about 1. 25 million acre-ft •. The two outlet canals, 

disregarding all other factors, would take about 55 days at the 

maximum observed rates to discharge that volume of water. 

Figure 88 shows graphically the variations in the stage of Lake 

Okeechobee since records were begun in 1915, and it shows the 

sources of the records from which these stages are plotted. 

According to H;err (1937) and Schrantz (about 1936) the natural 

drainage characteristics of the lake were essentially unchanged 

during the first few years of this record, because the draip.age 

works were incomplete and their influence was small. Above 

a stage of about 14. 6 ft the lake overflowed the low shoreline 

"between Bacorn Point and a point some distance east of Clew· 

istonn (Herr, 1937) into the Everglades to the south; overflow 

also occurred- along the shoreline near Moore Haven into Lake 

Hicpochee and the headwaters of Caloosahatchee River. 

During 1921 the construction of low muck levees was begun on 

the south and east sides of the lake to protect agricultural lands· 

developed during the several comparatively dry years prior to 

1920, when stages remained relatively low. By 1926 these levees 

were continuous along the south shores, from a point near Pahokee 

to about 8 miles north of Moore Haven, with crest elevations varying 

from about 20 to 24 ft. The realization of the need for an outflow 

capacity greater than that provided by the early Everglades drain· 

age canals and the Caloosahatchee Canal led to the construction of 
324 18 

8 

14 

2 

IS 

16 

14 

12 

a&! 18 

> 

"' .J 

.. 

"' <f) 

16 

.. 14 

.. 

"' ~ 12 

> "' :1: 10 

.. 

12 

10 

16 

14 

12 

10 

/"' 

-r 

1915 

1'-----.......... 

1921 

' \ 

"------

1927 

1945 

WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

~ 

~-

11116 

,-

I ~ 1922 

(\ 

l ~ 1 

'-"' 

1928 

1946 

" / - _./ - '-"'' 

1917 

-/'. 

1918 

~ 1919 1920 

~/' ~J ~ ~~' -

1923 

1\ 

" ...., I 

1929 

1941 

'-/ ~-

1924 1925 1926 

~-F v ~ 

1930 1931 

~ ~ 

1942 1943 

Recordo, 1915 to December 1930, by 

Everolodea Drainage Olstricti Jcnuory 

1931 to December 1937, by Oke•c~obee 

Flood Control Di•trlct; January 1938 

to September 1941, by U.S. Geological 

Survey; October 1941 to December 1946, 

by Corps of Englneets 

1932 

1944 

Figure 88, -Gfaph showing stages of LaJ<e Okeechobee, 1915-46. 

the St. Lucie Canal, Although work was begun in 1916, water was 

not passed through the St. Lucie Canal until1924. By 1926 the flow 

reached 70 percent of the planned capacity, and in 1928 full-capacity 

operation was achieved (Schrantz, about 1936), 

Hurricane winds and rains caused the high stages in 1926 and 

1928, The great destruction and loss of life accompanying the 

hurricanes brought a keen realization of the inadequacy of the existing levee and the catastrophe was largely responsible for the more 

adequate present levee system, which was constructed by the Corps 

of Engineers from 1932 to 1938, Herr (1943) describes this levee 

in detail, stating in part: "The total length of the levee is 85miles 

and it forms a high rugged shore on the north, southeast, south, 

and southwest shores of the lake, The bottom width is from 125 to 

150 feet and the top width from 10 to 30 feet, The top elevation 
Figure 89. -Protective levee around LakeOkeechobee. Section of hnrricane levee near Pahokee. A portion of the lake is in the left background; the far shore is never 

visible from the top of the levee. Photo by Corps of Engineers. 

/ 
Figure 90, -Hurricane gate no. 6, located at the mouth of Taylor Creek near Okeechobee, The sector gates pivot at the near corners and can be SWIDlg together to 

close the 50-ft opening when a storm threatens. Operating, weather, and radio equipment are housed in the hurricane-proof sheherS. Photo by Corps of Enginel!l'S. 

"' 0 

I 

i 
SURFACE WATER 327 

varies from 34 to 38 feet above sea level or from 18 to 22 feet 

above the usual lake level. The levee effectively prevents the overflow of water from the lake along its location under any conceivable 

conditions, including hurricane tides. " (See fig. 89.) 

Six major structures were built in the levee to provide control 

facilities at the ends of waterways connecting with the lake. At 

Moore Haven a combined hurricane gate, spillway, and navigation 

lock was constructed (HGS-1) at the head of Caloosahatchee Canal. 

Other hurricane gates (occasionally used as controls at times other 

than during hurricane periods) were built at the following points: 

HGS-2, Industrial Canal, at Clewiston; HGS-3, Miami Canal, at 

Lake Harbor; HGS-4, Hillsboro and North New River Canals, at 

Chosen;.HGS-5, West Palm Beach Canal, at Canal Point; and HGS-6, 

Taylor Creek,· at Okeechobee. The gates are manned and closed 

when a hurricane threatens, and the protective levee stands as a 

bulwark between the land and the lake. Figure 90 (an aerial view 

of one of the hurricane gates) gives an indication of the large size 

of these works. 

Figure 88 shows that until 1932 the stage of Lake Okeechobee 

ranged rather widely. The extreme low, in 1932, was caused by 

the lake level being purposely brought down to facilitate construction 

of the protective levee. After 1933, lake levels were controlle'd 

for 10 years. The drought, starting in 1943, caused successively 

lower stages, which culminated in the 11. 3-ft stage of June 1945; 

this drought period was followed by a period of considerable recharge. It was determined that during periods of extended drought 

or heavy rainfall control of the lake between the desired limits was 

not entirely possible. However, control of Lake Okeechobee proved 

to be feasible most of the time, and farming in the muck lands was 

greatly facilitated. 

CALOOSARATCHEE CANAL 

Caloosahatchee Canal carries controlled amounts of water from 

Lake Okeechobee to Caloosahatchee River which empties into the 

Gulf of Mexico. This waterway serves in controlling the stage of 

Lake Okeechobee, in providing navigation between the gulf and the 

lake (a portion of the cross-state waterway between Stuart and Fort 

Myers), and in providing water control to the areas adjacent to the 

canal and the upper reaches of the river. 

The head of the canal is at Moore Haven, on the southwest shore 

of Lake Okeechobee, where lake water is released through a combined hurricane gate and navigation lock (HGS-1). The canal follows 

a southwesterly course for about 5 miles through a nearly level 

346881 0-55-_:_23 
328 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

overflow basin into Lake Ricpochee, which is a shallow natural 

body of water about 4 miles long (east-west direction) and 2t. miles 

wide. Caloosahatchee Canal passes through Lake Hicpochee and 

then continues in a westerly direction through a gently sloping 

natural basin to connect with Caloosahatchee River, which is 

can~lized in its upper reaches. A,t Ortona, 15 miles by canal from 

Moore Haven, a second navigation lock aids in controlling water 

levels on adjacent lands upstream. The remaining 55 miles of 

waterway is canalized in the upper reaches, and channels are 

dredged in the comparatively wide lower reaches. The mean range 

of tide is 0. 7ft (U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1947, p. 304) 

at Fort Myers, about 15 miles above the mouth, and tidal fiuctu• 

ations extend as far upstream as the Ortona Lock during periods 

of low water. BelowOrtona, several canals and natural tributaries 

drain the lands to the north and south. 

Prior to development, some of the natural overflow from Lake 

Okeechobee probably passed slowly overland along the approximate 

route of the canal into Caloosahatchee River. Improvement of this 

natural flood channel to facilitate navigation began at a compara-. 

tively early date,, as Dovell (1942,, p~ f39} states: 

"In late 1881 the Disston Company began operations with the 

employment of several engineers, J. M •. Kreamer, R. E. Rose, 

and others, who set about constructing dredges to be used in draining 

lands in south Florida. Rose, later. state chemist for many years, 

built the first dredge at C~dar Keys and assembled it at Fort Myers. 

The dredge required three months to reach old Ft. Thompson on 

the Caloosahatchee, due to trees in the river. The dredge worked 

from July 1882 until January 1883 cutting a canal to Lake Okeechobee. Disston and a party of his associates made the first steamboat trip from Fort Myers to Kissimmee City in February 1883 ... 

It is apparent, however. that Caloosahatchee Canal had little 

effect upon the control of Lake Okeechobee until around 1936, after 

a period of gradual ~mprovement beginning about 1909. The primary 

importance of Caloosahatchee Canal to the water resources of 

southeastern Florida arises from its relationship to the stage and 

control of Lake Okeechobee. Records of discharge of the canal 

were collected at a gaging station at Citrus Center during 1934-36 

and at Moore Haven since 1938 and are summarized in table 32. 

The maximum daily mean discharge recorded was 5, 390 cfs on 

July 8, 1942. Periods of several months of no now, except for the 

negligible amount of water released to pass boats through the locks, 

are common during the normally dry winter and spring months. 

The runoff in 1941 was 130 times as great as that in 1944--this 

is an unusual range for annual runoff. and it illustrates how now 

in Caloosahatchee Canal is directly associ~ted with control of Lake 

Okeechobee. The average annual runoff for the period 1939-46 was 
Table 32.- Runoff of CaloosaluJtchee Canal 

[Unit, 1, 00 ll acre ·feet 1 

Year Jan, Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual 

1934 ................... .................. ·········s:·i .......... 8.:3 24.3 4'1.4 28.4 3'1.3 39.4 32.1 17.4 7.6 .................... 1935 8.3 11.0 11.4 8.2 8.0 14.8 64.7 34.7 19.7 12.3 207,5 

1936 5,5 9.2 9.8 3.6 6.8 54.1 79.9 54.1 33.3 ................ .................... ................ ............... 1937 ............... ................ ................... ................. ·······-······ ··········-··· ............... ................... ................ ................ ................. ···-··········· ............... 1938 ................. .................... .............. ................. ................... ................. 0 0 0 0 0 0 ....•......... 

1939 0 4.5 12.1 0 0 0 0 0 106.6 130.9 60.3 0 314.4 

1940 0 0 '1.5 106.3 56.1 98.8 11.2 0 53.0 182.2 0 1. 8 526.9 

1941 '11.7 212.1 1'13.3 144.3 195.1 3,6 102.6 131.4 82.6 163,0 150.5 0 1,430.2 

1942 54,0 56.4 234,3 150.'1 205.2 151.5 138,1 1. 9 0 4.0 0 0 996.1 

1943 .8 2.3 2.0 2.1 4.4 1,2 0 0 0 0 2.1 0 14,9 

1944 0 3,8 2.3 0 2.1 .8 0 0 0 0 0 2.0 11.0 

1945 1.8 5.1 2.5 4.3 2.3 0 0 0 40.9 248.9 118.6 69.8 494.2 

1946 59.5 .................... 115.2 58.8 2,3 97.3 0 23.0 49.0 45.5 17.0 0 46'1.6 

Note. --Data from May 1934 to September 1936 for station at Citrus Center; those from July 1938 to December 1946 for station at Moore ;.J:aven. No data from ~O> October 1936 to June 1938. Program of improvement beginning October 1936 increased capacity of channel. ~ 

~ 

; 
330 WATER RESOURCES lN SOTITHEASTERN FLORIDA 

532,000 acre-rt, which is equivalent to 1. 2 ft of lake storage at a 

stage of about 15 ft. 

When no water is released from the lake, conditions in the reach 

between Moore Haven and Ortona become almost pool-like, but in 

periods of large lake discharge, the difference in water elevations 

in that reach may be as much as 6 ft. At Moore Haven, where the 

elevation of the ground is 14 to 15 ft, the lowest stage in the canal 

in the period 1939-46. was about 5. 8 ft, and the highest stage was 

14. 8 ft. 

s·r. LllCIE CANAL 

St. Lucie Canal, an important waterway in the drainage system 

of southern Florida, is the major channel used for control of water 

levels in Lake Okeechobee, The canal heads on the east shore of 

the lake and flows generally northeastward for about 40 miles to 

the Atlantic Ocean. The upper reaches constitute a true canal but 

the lower channel follows the canalized courses of South Fork St. 

Lucie River, which flows in a northerly direction for several miles 

to its confluence with St. Lucie River at Stuart, then it flows southeast'ward to St. Lucie Inlet and the Atlantic Ocean. This canal 

serves also as the eastern link in the cross-state navigation canal 

between Fort Meyers and Stuart. 

The canal proper was dug across a relatively high (maximum 

altitude about 30ft) sandy ridge. The banks are high and are not 

subject to overflow. The lands along the eastern, natural reaches 

are lower and are marshy in some area$, notably where Loxahatchee 

Marsh connects from the south. Some water is pumped from the 

channel in the upper reaches to-irrigate farms and groves, but the 

amounts so diverted are small.in comparisop with the total flow and 

quantities available as channel storage (in 1949), The lands adjacent 

to the canal also contribute large quantities of runoff through numerous channels during, and after, rainy periods. 

The discharge from Lake Okeechobee through St. Lucie Canal is 

completely controlled at the lock and dam about 25 miles downstream from the lake. The lock and dam, which was opened to 

traffic in March 1941, replaces two similar, older structures, one 

at the same site and one close to the lake. During periods of'little 

or no flow, stages above the lock are essentially the same as those 

in the lake, but during periods of heavy flow, slopes of as much as 

o. 3 ft per mile occur. Water levels downstream from the lock are 

scarcely above mean sea level, and tidal fluctuations are normally 

present over the entire lower reach, St. Lucie Canal began to contribute effectively to lake-level control in October 1926 (Elliott, 

1927), although construction began early in 1916. 
Table 33,-Run?ff of St. Lucie Canal at Lake Okeechobee 

Runoff (in 1, 000 acre -ft) for indica ted months Annual rtmQff 

Year Jan. Feb. Mar, ·· AF7 May June July Aug. Sept, Oct. Nov, Dec. -Percent of 1,000 

acre-ft 1~!~ 

1931 ................ .................. ............... 268.7 275.1 235.0 213,5 191.6 168.9 164,5 23.6 ................ ..................... ................... 1932 ....... 64:·o .......... _ ...... ................ .......... 10,8 31.6 69,3 '73.4 12,4 55,1 '72,9 88.0 . ................... ................... 1933 33.8 21.5 25,8 31.2 34,0 52.0 147.0 234.5 276,8 216.5 89.9 1,227.0 14'1.4 

1934 31.3 23.4 18.5 21.2 25.3 231,9 243.1 257.0 251,3 228,5 11.9 17.9 1,361,3 163.5 

1935 7.5 23,6 8.8 5., 14.2 7.0 9,4 10.9 4!1.4 212.6 154,2 16,6 519.9 62.4 

1936 9.9 134.3 276,3 255,1 211.3 166.0 284.6 285.3 251,1 279,6 83.6 15.5 2,252.6 270,5 

193'7 14.6 30,0 '28,1 32.5 21,7 15,8 59.0 130.'7 155.2 6'7,9 53,5 2'78,9 887.9 106.6 

1938 158.9 18.8 15,7 21.0 18.8 16.1 24,7 11.1 25,0 8,0 12.2 9.5 339.8 40,8 

1939 19.2 18,1 19.5 17.6 6,5 6;'6 10,6 15,9 42.8 160.6 8'1.'1 13.7 418,8 50.3 

1940 22,6 35,1 55,5 221.7 77.9 102.4 37,0 1'1.8 167.9 191.2 40.3 35,1 1,004.5 120.6 

1941 52.3 160,9 115.6 146.1 200.6 5,9 108.8 219.6 164,6 156,0 154.8 41.5 1. 526.7 183.3 

1942 25.8 59.7 227.7 202.2 153,1 179,1 227.8 168.8 65.6 34,9 15.4 24.1 1,384, 2 166,2' 

1943 22.8 9. 7 . 13.5 14.8 11.6 15,9 10.'1 10,4 12.1 14,0 22,4 16.3 174.8 21.0 

1944 15.6 17.4 1'7,3 14,8 20.9 14.5 1'7.4 14,1 17.4 11.6 11.5 14,1 186.6 22,4 

1945 13.0 9.6 16.5 16,8 18,0 24.2 14.5 16.1 90,2 340.6 255.6 15.4 830,5 99.'7 

1946 31.4 15.1 129,4 86,9 10.6 17,6 7.9 '7.8 9.8 124.2 10.4 15,2 466,3 56,(1 

Mean 

1935-46 32,8 44,4 1'1. 0 86.3 63,8 47.6 67.7 75.7 87.6 133,4 '75,1 41,3 832,7 100 

Percent 

of 

annual 3.9 5,3 9,2 10.4 '7,7 5, 7 8,1 9,1 10.5 16.0 9.0 5.0 100 

Note, --Data from April-1931 to December 1937 computed and published by U, S. Geol. Survey from field data by U. S. Geol. Survey and Okeechobee Flood 

Control District, No records from December 1931 to April·l932, 
332 WATER RESOURCES IN SOIITHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Records of the discharge of St. Lucie Canal near its head at Lake 

Okeechobee have be-en collected since 1931 and are summarized in 

table 33. During the period 1931-46, the flow ranged between a 

maximum daily mean rate of 6, 120 cfs on October 25, 26, 1945, to 

periods of no flow for several weeks, except for the negligible 

amount of water required for passing boats . through the locks. 

These periods of slack flow occurred usually during winter and 

spring, when water was being conserved in the lake. When the canal 

was not discharging, wind effect on the lake sometimes caused 

short periods of small reverse flow; however, these periods had 

no appreciable effect on the daily flow records. 

The maximum annual runoff in the period of record was 13 times 

as great as the minimum. This ratio is much less than. the similar 

ratio for Caloosahatchee Canal (page 328), which indicates that 

St. Lucie Canal was used more regularly for controlling the stage 

of Lake O~eechobee. The procedure was for St. Lucie Canal to be 

used for the main control outlet while Caloosahatchee Canal was to 

be used in periods when greater discharge was desired, or, occasionally, to provide irrigation supplies to ·the upper and middle 

reaches. The average annual runoff of St. Lucie Canal for the 

1935-46 reference period was 832,700 acre-ft, which is equivalent 

to 1. 8 ft of lake storage at a stage of about 15 ft. 

A comparison of the records of discharge of St. Lucie and 

Caloosahatchee Canals shows that although St. Lucie Canal had a 

slightly smaller recorded maximum daily mean discharge, its total 

outflow was considerably greater. During the 8 years ending in 

1946, St. Lucie Canal discharged 41 percent more water than 

Caloosahatchee Canal (see tables 32 and 33). 

THE EVERGLADES AND THE ATLANTIC COASTAL RIDGE 

GENERAL DRAINAGE FEATURES 

EVERGLADES HYDROLOGIC UNil 

Prior to development in that part of the Everglades bordering 

Lake Okeechobee, water from the lake overflowed the south shores 

in periods of higher stages and fanned out overland in the southern 

quadrant of the horizon. The first overflow probably occurred in 

two places, at a stage of about 15 ft, with part of the water moving 

west into the headwaters of the Caloosahatchee River and part 

drifting south in the Everglades proper. Overflow of the south shore 

became general at stages of 17 to 18 ft, and sizable volumes of water 

moved slowly in flat, broad sloughs toward tidewater. The largest 

slough (Jmown as the Everglades) extends as a grassy marsh, 35 to 

50 miles wide, from the south and southeast shores of the lake to 

the end of the Florida peninsula, 100 miles to the south (see the 

more detailed description under Geomorphology). 
SURFACE WATER 333 

Two principal branches of the Everglades, Hungryland Slough 

and Loxahatchee Marsh, extend northeastward toward the coast at 

Jupiter (see pl. 12). These sloughs probably once operated as 

floodways, but drainage developments have reduced their principal 

function to local drainage. Numerous small transverse (northwest~ 

southeast) sloughs or glades dissect the coastal ridge from Pompano 

to Homestead and connect the Everglades with the tidal estuaries 

along the coast. Except in periods of exceptionally high water, 

these handle principaliy local drainage. The Everglades also re• 

ceives runoff from the higher areas of miner a~ soils on the east and 

west, particularly from the west. Plate 12 illustrates the directions 

of surficial drainage in the area. 

In its natural state, only a minor, part of the rainfall and the over~ 

flow from Lake Okeechobee left the Everglades as surface drainage. Overland flow was extremely slow, because land slopes generally averaged about 0. 2 ft per mile, and inte;t-connecting natural 

drainage channels were extremely shallow and were choked with 

vegetation. During and after the rainy· season, water stood· at 

varying depths over the surface of the organic soils. These con· 

ditions naturally led to large losses through evaporation and tran• 

spiration. Data on p. 570 show that, because of the present stage 

ot development and the existing network of canals, the runoff 

amounts to only about one-fifth of the raii)fall on the area. 

Extensive reclamation activities in the Everglades during the 

period 1905 to 1927 include9 the excavation of more than 400 miles 

of arterial canals, which were equipped with control structures for 

the primary purpose of draining adjacent lands for agricultural 

development, Little additional excavation was accomplished subsequent to 1927. These arterial canals consist, in part, of four 

principal channels, which head on the southeast shore of Lake Okeechobee and flow generally southeastward to the Atlantic Ocean. 

(See pl. 14.) Another major canal flows eastward and westward 

across the State from the interior and drains an- area west of 

Miami, The other arterial canals are comparatively short; they 

flow generally to the east and drain principally coastal areas. 

Excavation of these canals was started from the coastal ends; hence 

it is logical that the lower reaches generally follow the channels of 

short coastal streams, which were outlets for the narrow sloughs 

connecting with the Eve'rglades. 

The major cal).als in the Everglades were constructed by the Ever· 

glades Drainage District, a political subdivision of the State of 

Florida that was established in 1905 (Dovell, 1942, p. 132-161). 

The boundaries enclose about 7, 500 square miles, which comprises 

most of the Everglades, an extensive area of sand on the west, 

much of the sand and rock coastal ridge, and Lake Okeechobee. 

The primary purpose of the Everglades Drainage District was to 

provide principal drainage ways for the reclamation of a vast area 
334 WATER RESOURCES IN SOU'IHEASTERN FLORIDA 

of organic soils, all of which was believed to be suited to agriculture. The four large canals dug from Lake Okeechobee to the 

east coast of Florida were West Palm Beach Canal, Hillsboro 

Canal, North New River Canatand Miami Canal (see pl. 1). These 

radiate from the southeast shores of the lake and cut across a wild 

section of fresh-water marsh. Because of economic difficulties 

the canals were never completed as originally designed and are inadequate for the flood load imposed on them. In local areas, where 

more intensive drainage was desired, provision was made for ,landowners to establish drainage subdistricts. Pumping facilities for 

water control were usually installed in the subdistricts and more 

stable conditions for farming were achieved. 

The characteristics of runoff from the Everglades at the present 

time are greatly changed from the original conditions. The land 

along the shore. of Lake Okeechobee has subsided several feet as 

a result of the reduction in soil volume since drainage operations 

were started. Thus, at the same stages, the lake now stands much 

higher with respect to the land and, for extended periods, is above 

the land surface. The lake is separated from the farm areas by 

the hurricane levee, and overflow no longer occurs along these 

shores. However, the relationship of lake level to land level is 

important to the water control of the area, and, as the land subsides, the problems become more acute. 

When the lake rises to the stage that gravity discharge is no 

longer possible from the major drainage canals to the lake, the 

hurricane gates in the main levee between Lake Harbor and Canal 

Point are closed to prevent flow from the lake. Under such highwater conditions, Kissimmee River basin and Lake Okeechobee 

and its other tributaries are cut off from the Everglades area, and 

no significant water movement between the two principal basins 

occurs. The possible seepage through, and beneath, the .hurricane 

levee has not been completely evaluated, but it is believed to be 

small. The Caloosahatchee Canal area is effectively separated 

from the Everglades proper by pumped drainage districts, and 

St. Lucie Canal is contained between high banks at all stages. 

Therefore, under moderate- to high-water conditions, all waters 

south of Lake- Okeechobee originate within the Everglades area and 

consideration must be given to this fact in the future development 

of southern Florida. 

The flow of water out of the Everglades after a heavy rainfall is 

now largely through the canal system, and it is relatively rapid, 

compared with predevelopment conditions. It follows that the total 

runoff is greater, because water now stands on the surface of the 

glades for shorter periods of time, thus furnishing less opportunity 

for evaporation. Overland flow to the south still occurs seasonally, 

but it is considerably less in total volume than that of the several 

canals. A knowledge of the drainage characteristics of the canals 
SURFACE WATER 335 

is of primary importance to the water problems-not only to those 

of the Everglades but also to those of the populous and extensively 

developed Atlantic Coastal Ridge to the east. Each of the canals is 

discussed in a general north to south order in succeeding sections. 

WATER CONTROL FACILI Tl ES 

In the developed area of organic soils south and southeast of 

Lake Okeechobee, the water in the canals may flow either from, 

or toward, the lake. The direction of flow in the major canals 

depends upon the stage of the lake and the amount of water pumped 

into the canals. Some diked areas, favorably located cl9se to the 

lake, pump directly to, or from, the lake through culverts in the 

protective levee and are relatively independent of canal capacity 

limitations. 

A control and lock was constructed in the period of principal 

development at each end of the four major Everglades canals 

connecting Lake Okeechobee with the sea. The dual-type structures 

were designed in such a manner that the lock could be opened and 

the spillway could be entirely removed (in most of them) to pass 

large flows. Figure 91 shows a typical installation with the lock 

Figure 91. -Control and lock in Hillsboro Canal nearDeerfield Beach, a typical Everglades installation. This is close to the coast, and the downstream pool is tida1. The U, S, Geological 

Survey .. ecording gage in at the upstream end of the lock. Head on the control is about 10 ft. 
336 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUI'HEASTERN FLORIDA 

closed and with stoplogs in the spillway bays to provide a controlled 

upstream stage. One of these controls has been removed, 5 two are 

essentially inoperative, 6 but the other five are still in active use. 

The locks at the control structures have seldom been used for 

navigational purposes since the highways and railroads have replaced the earlier water-borne traffic in the canals. Similar 

structures were placed in Caloosahatchee, St. Lucie, and South 

New River Canals, )lut of these, only the control and lock in South 

New River Canal still exists (1949). 

At the lake ends of the major canals, three hurricane gates also 

occasionally serve as controls (HGS-4 serves both North New River 

and Hillsboro Canals, which reach a junction close to the lake 

levee). When the hurricane gates are completely closed the nearby 

old controls are ineffective, except for passing local pump discharge. The hurricane gates are closed under the following 

conditions: 

1. When a hurricane threatens-to prevent wind-driven lake 

water from inundating the communities and farm lands of the upper 

Glades (the primary function of the gates). 

2. When the lake risE's higher than the canal levels during flood 

periods-to prevent outflow ,from the lake which would augment 

flood conditions; the old structures, because of their poor condition and high rates of leakage, are not effective enough in preventing 

lake discharge into the canals. 

3. Partly closed, occasionally in drought periods, to control the 

release of irrigation water and stage-maintenance flow from the 

lake. · 

4. For maintenance, the gates may be closed for as long as 2 

weeks; time is selected by Corps of Engineers to cause a minimum 

of interference with normal operations. 

5. Partly closed, occasionally, to stop masses of hyacinth from 

drifting into the canals. 

The major canals are interconnected in the upper Everglades by 

two large secondary canals, Boll~s and Cross Canals; these major 

canals drain and irrigate through a multitude of local canals and 

ditches. The principal farming area is divided into drainage subdistricts, which are individually diked off from adjoining areas. 

Except for those close to the lake and a way from the canals, the 

subdistricts pump extensively into, or from, the canals according 

to need. The pumps are of low-lift type and may range in capacity 

from several thousand gallons per minute to 60,000 gpm (134 cfs, 

:Miami Canal at Miami, just above cOllfluence with Tamiami Canal. 

Hillsboro Canal at Chosen, between Belle Glade and Lake Okeechobee; Miami Canal at · Lake Harbor. 
SURFACE WATER 337 

or 266 acre-ft per day). One pump house may contain several 

pumps. Most of the pumps of the drainage subdistricts were de~ 

signed to remove 0. 5 to 1 in. of water per day from their service 

areas. Many of the small farm pumps are arranged to pump in 

either direction, and many of the large units can be used as siphons 

for irrigating. 

The size of the pumps utilized in the lake area is related to a 

somewhat common misconception about the capacity of the canals 

for storage of discharged water or for sources of irrigation supplies. Apparently, many persons believe the storage capacity of 

the canals is a significant factor in water control of the Everglades; 

however, this is true only in a negative manner. A mile of canal, 

70 ft wide, has a surface area of 8, 5 acres, and therefore it has 

a storage capacity of 8. 5 acre-ft per mile for 1 ft change in level. 

In a canal 30 miles long, this would mean a storage of 255 acreft per ft change, which is approximately the discharge for 1 day 

of one 60,b00gpmpump. Whenit is consideredthat a single pumphouse installation may have two or three such pumps, and that there 

will be numerous other pumps operating along a typical canal, it 

becomes obvious that the storage capacity can be occupied in a 

short time. Unless the pumped discharge moves along the canal 

·at fast-enough rates, the water level rises ra.pidly and dikes may 

be overtopped, In the case of irrigation supplies, large demand 

will draw the canal down excessively unless seepage from reservoir 

areas, or direct infiow from other surface supplies, furnish some 

replacement. In either situation, additional discharge or supply 

capacity must be available for satisfactory operation of facilities, 

A principal canal in a subdistrict is shown under construction in 

figure 92 (note the neat trapezoidal cross section). 

A schematic diagram of the water relationship in canals, farms, 

pumps, and open lands is presented in figure 93, which shows two 

sets of water conditions, In dry periods, evaporation and transpiration from farms is large, and the pump canals and laterals 

are maintained at high levels to hold up the water table in the 

fields. Seepage losses occur to the open lands and then back into 

the main camll, which may be at a fairly low level because of the 

irrigation demand. 

In wet periods, the main canal is full and levels are above ground 

surfaces in the open lands, The farm ditches are held at low levels 

by pumping into the main canal tp encourage seepage from the fields. 

Seepage occurs in some degree under the dikes, and a certain 

amount of recirculation occurs. 

Figure 93 was drawn to be representative of the principal farming 

area near Lake Okeechobee, but the principles therein apply to 

installations in the entire Everglades area. The amount of seepage 

under dikes and canals can vary widely, depending upon the per-
338 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Figure 92, - Watet conttol facilities in the upper Everglades. Main canal of East Shore Drainage 

Disttict, W>.der consttuction near Belle Glade; part of channel still to be excavated and spoil 

material to be graded to form a dike, Canal was excavated to the rock surface in 9ft of muck 

soil; pump was a temporary installation for consttuction period; August 1944, 

meability of the upper rock formations. The diagrams show that 

farming in the muck areas of the middll'! and lower Everglades 

generally has been uneconomical, because pumping costs are excessive due to the large amount of seepage and recirculation of 

. pumped water. 

Although the dry-winter periods of 1943-45 resulted in an increased interest in pumping for irrigation (which is being practiced 

more widely each year), the major emphasis is stiil on pumping 

for drainage. The pumps are started in antidpation of, or following. 

excessive rainfall, and the surplus water is drawn through the 

multiplicity of channels to the pumps to be lifted into the canals. 

FACTORS AFFECTING CANAL CAPACITY 

SOU. SUBSlDEIVCE 

The subsidence of the muck and peat soils, particularly in the 

intensively farmed areas, is an important factor that has changed 

the nature of runoff in the Everglades. Organic soils continue to 

build up in swamp areas when natural conditions (especially water 

conditions) are undisturbed but are subject to losses when dry, 

These losses occur principally in three ways: 

1. Compaction--by vehicles and machinery in farming operations; may be as great as 12 in. during the first year of use. 
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WET PERIOD 

Figure 93, -Diagram of water relationships in typical farmed area of the upper Everglades during dly and wet periods, 
340 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

2. Slow oxidation-when dry, by chemical and bacterial action; 

insidious, because it is not apparent except by elevation loss over 

a number of years. 

3. Fire-when dry, the organic soils ignite readily and may 

smoulder for months; in the years 1943-1945 most of the Everglades 

was burned over (several times in some areas). 

The nature of the subsidence of organic soils has been discussed 

in detail by Evans and Allison (1942, p. 34-46) and Clayton and 

Neller (1943, p. 118-123). 

Clayton, Neller, and Allison (1942, p. 15) state: "Most of the 

cultivated lands of the northern Everglades have subsided approximately 5 feet since drainage was begun about 25 years ago. " This 

process is continuing, and its effect on canal efficiency is considerable. Where the land surface has lowered as much as 5 ft, it means 

that the canals have lost 5 ft of effective depth. And, as the spoil 

banks subsided with the land, an actual loss of cross section has 

occurred--44-percent reduction for a canal originally excavated to 

12 ft below the land surface. Figure 94 shows a control and lock 

that, in effect, has been raised above the land' because of subsidence 

of the soils around it. 

The loss of storag1 capacity in the cana1s is sizable, although 

it is not a controlling factor. The loss of conveyance capacity, 

FiglU'e 94, -Top of w:all of lock in South New River Cana~ at South Bay was once close to the 

gi'OQDd surface; loss of the muck soil by oxidation and bacterial action indtyperiodsbascaused 

surface to subside about 4. 5 feet. 
SURFACE WATER 341 

however, is extremely important, because this is a measure of the 

efficiency of the canals as water movers. Reduction of conveyance 

capacity by reduction of depth is a result of changes involving several 

!=>asic factol's: 

1. Reduction of cross-sectional area; 40 to 50 percent in some 

cases. 

2. Reductionof the hydraulic radius; this is a hydraulic function 

derived from the shape of the channel. The smaller the hydraulic 

radius, the lower the velocity of· the water, providing that other 

factors remain constant. 

3 •. Reduction of height to which water can be pumped to develop 

the slope that produces flow; for canals that drain into Lake Okeechobee the effect is quite large. 

For a typical canal (trapezoidal bl. section, 70 ft wide at the top 

and12 ftdeep), areduction indepth of 5 ft, plus anassumed halving 

of the water slope, would reduce its efficiency to 30 percent of 

original capacity. This roughcomputationisfurnishedonly to show 

the possible magnitude of the loss of conveyance capacity in the 

canals, a consideration that also involves the cost of such facilities. 

Some of this loss of capacity has been offset by increasing the 

height of bank dikes, but the relationship of canal stage to land 

elevation has not been improved. Costs of moving water have risen 

because of increased pump lift, an increase in the amount of water 

to handle (because of additional seepage from the canals to the 

fields), and because of continual dike maintenance. 

Among other causes for reduced canal efficiency have been the 

accretion of organic material and the formation of bars and shoals 

on the bottoms of the canal. Aquatic weeds, both floating and rooted, 

deposited a steady amount of organic debris in their natural cycles.· 

Weeds along the banks were cut and dumped into the canals, branches 

from trees and other material entered the canals and impeded flow. 

Fortunately, much of this material was carried out of the canals 

when higher velocities occurred during periods of medium and high 

water. A small amount of this material was removed by maintenance operations, but the net result was an appreciable reduction 

of the area of the canals. 

Bars, which are composed of sand, muck, or debris (or of all 

three), form in the canals under three general conditions: 

1. Where uncontrolled laterals intersect the canals. This is 

particularly bad in the sandy areas where, in some cases, lateral 

inflow developed naturally and unconfined flood waters were able to 

convey and deposit large amounts of sand as the velocity of the flow 
342 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

is reduced upon entrance to the main canal-this happens to a lesser 

degree in areas of organic soils. 

2. Where pump discharges enter the canals. Deltas and bars 

form on the discharge side of pumps, and because the pumps are 

usually close to the canals, thus the bars form in the canals. The 

suspension of heavier particles in the water results from the relatively high velocities that occur in the field ditches and in the 

pump-feeder laterals. 

3. Where organic material, consisting of decomposed weeds or 

miscellaneous trash, accumulates (this is usually caused by a reduction of velocity in canals). These shoals tend to be relatively 

low, but they may cover extensive areas. 

Probably no single shoal has any great effect ori flow in a canal, 

because a: reduction of cross section for a short distance does not 

cause a proportional reduction of capacity. In the aggregate, however, bars and shoals restrict flows appreciably, and they should 

be removed to increase efficiency. The dire financial plight of the 

Everglades after 1930 prevented necessary maintenance of the 

major canals, but in 1946 the Everglades Drainage District (1946) 

issued a set of regulations in an attempt to stop further blocking 

of the canals. Aside from a prohibition against disposal of any 

material except water in the canals, the principal pertinent regulation concerned the laterals, both controlled and uncontrolled. 

It was stated that in the future all pumps and lateral controls were 

to be located not less than 300 ft from the main canals, and that a 

sump was to be provided in that 300-ft reach for the purpose of 

detaining most of the material suspended in the water; furthermore, 

the connection from the sump to the canal was to be of such proportions, and to be so protected, that no appreciable amount of 

material would be carried into the canal. It was stated that existing 

installations less than 300 ft from the canal (and most of them are 

closer) must have a sump close to the field side for the same purpose. It was also ruled that uncontrolled laterals must be provided 

with similar settling basins. 

AQUATIC WEEDS 

Another important cause of canal inefficiency has been obstructions of aquatic weeds, an example of which is shown in figure 95. 

The bottom-rooted types are found principally in the secondary 

canals and field laterals (except in the lower Everglades-see data 

on Miami Canal) and may block flow almost completely. Fortunately, they seem to have a seasonal characteristic (they are 

affected by temperature or water velocity) and leave the channels 

comparatively clear at times. Without doubt, however, the water 

hyacinth, that beautiful but obnoxious floating plant, is the acknowledged champion among weed pests in canals. 
SURFACE WATER 343 

Figure 95. -Aquatic growth in Everglades canals. Dense cover of water hyacinth on North New 

River Canal at South Bay; view along centerline of canal in September 1946; the trampledappearing area shows the affect of spray-application of 2-4, D, a herbicide that is effective 

in killing hyacinth. 

Johnson (1948) states that contamination of the arterial canals 

began as soonas theywere connected with Lake Okeechobee, about 

1918. Regular operations and navigation maintaine.d some degree 

of control, but by 1925, mechanical methods were being employed. 

After 1930, with the economy of the Eve~glades tottering, this work 

was halted, and the canals were soon covered completely with 

hyacinth. Between 1935 and 1943, sporadic attempts were made 

to clear part_s of several of the main canals but no proper followup program was instituted, and regrowth occurred rapidly. Everglades Drainage District resumed active hyacinth control in 1943, 

but the scale of operations was limited. 

In 1946, it was demonstrated that the new herbicides known 

generally as 2, 4-D were effective in killing the waterhyacinth, 

and in July of that year an ambitious program of hyacinth removal 

on 178 miles of major canals was started. The 2, 4-D was sprayed 

in oil or water from planes, boats, and trucks and the results .were, 

on the whole, satisfact~ry. It maybe stated that 162 miles of canal 

were cleared so completely by July 1948 that only occasional patrol 

spraying was necessary thereafter. After this program the water 

in the Everglades canals was seen for the first time in many years. 

It is safe to say that the hyacinth problem has been solved, although 

the solution has not been applied a;7et (1949) to all channels in the 

Everglades. Removal of hyacinth cover is probably the least expensive procedure for obtaining significant improvement in channel 

efficiency. 

346881 0-55--24 
344 WATEJt IU!SOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

The retarding effect of water hyacinth on flow of water is not 

merely a matter of a certain part of the channel cross section being 

occupied. The roots hang 10 to 12 in. below the plants, and the 

net obstruction averages possibly a foot-which w:ould be 10 percent 

of a canal 10 ft deep. It is the restriction of flow by increased 

friction that reduces capacity. Because, not only is there the usual 

friction caused by the bottom and sides of the channel, but also, 

where complete hyacinth cover exists (see fig. 95), a large amount 

of friction occurs at the top, and the canal is, in effect, a closed 

conduit with rough sut:faces all around. Bogart and Clayton (1948) 

show that, because of complete hyacinth cover, North New River 

Canai (which was 70ft wide at the point of observation) was only 

57 percent efficient. The efficiency of Cross Canal, about 45 ft 

wide, was found to be about 53 percent. Such efficiencies, of 

course, vary with the stage-the higher the stage of any canal, other 

factors being equal, the higher the efficiency will be, and conversely. Loss of conveyance capacity caused by hyacinth cover 

increases as the size of the channel decreases, until the point is 

reached (in small farrr. ditches) where flow efficiency may approach 

zero. 

Loose hyacinth drifting with the current has a tendency to lodge 

on bridge piers and controls. Large· jams may form and may cause 

sizable amounts of backwater. Often, plants are removed by means 

of long-handled choppers, but 6-ft ice saws sometimes are used 

by workers standing on the matted plants, and even dynamite has 

been used to break up the jams. 

It is ironical that, in spite of the concern over the adverse effect 

of weeds and hyacinth in canals, these aquatic plants were beneficial 

at times. When water levels and disch;=;:rges fell so disastrouely 

low in the drought periods of 1943, 1944:, and 1945, the plants, by 

their blocking action, held water to only small flow on relatively 

steep slopes-thus holding up levels locally and preventing excessive wastage. In the Miami area, weed growth retarded inland 

p10vement of salty water in the tidal canals.· As a further paradox 

in the situation, the highly undesirable salty water killed the weed 

in the canals and cleaned long reaches that had been clogged for 

many years. 

TOPOGRAPHIC AND GEOLOGIC FACTORS OF WATER CONTROL 

In very general terms, the organic soils of the upper Everglades 

(as far south as the. latitude of Fort Lauderdale) are underlain by 

the Fort Thompson forJ;Dation, which, in this area, is relatively 

impermeable to water movement and is frequently capped by a thin 

layer of Lake Flirt marl (also an impermeable formation). (See plate 

4.) In this area, canals can be dug in the muck and rock-seepage 

into, or out of, the canals is small, and water control can beestablished. Because the muck soil is more permeable in a vertical 
SURFACE WATER 345 

direction than in a horizontal direction, drainage of the farm lands 

occurs via the network of mole drains, farm ditches, and laterals, 

which resembles the arrangement of capillaries and veins of the 

humanbody(Clayton, Neller, andAllison, 1942, p. 17, 60; Allison, 

1928, p. 117). 

East of the upper Everglades, the Anasta,sia formation underlies 

the Pamlico sand in the coastal ridge as far south as Deerfield 

Beach. The consolidated portions of the formation are quite permeable, but water control in the area is successful mainly because 

the canals and laterals are dug almost entirely in the sand, and 

rock is not often encountered. Seepage rates are likely to be somewhat greater than in the organic soils, but the higher altitude of 

the area, much of which is in the Lake Worth Drainage District, 

makes gravity drainage and pumped irrigation economically 

feasible. 

South of the latitude of Fort Lauderdale, the highly permeable 

part of the Fort Thompson formation and the Miami oolite underlie 

muck and peat soils and the shallow marls farther to the south. 

To obtain the necessa:.:y cross section and slope, lateral canals in 

this area must be dug through the shallow soils and into the rock. 

When water levels in such channels are held higher, or lower, than 

those in the adjoining ground, the seepage usually is very large. 

Pumping has been unsuccessful, for, in effect, the whole· countryside was being drawn upon because of the free movement of water 

through the rock. The creation of dikes around pumped areas was 

found to be impracticable. 

The coastal ridge south of Deerfield Beach is composed principally of the Fort Thompson formation and the Miami oolite and is 

overlain in places by a genera.lly thin layer of sand, which becomes 

thinner to the south. Water control by pumping is impractical here, 

except in isolated areas, and water control must be considered in 

terms of large areas rather than by arbitrarily limited basins adjacent to a waterway. 

Because of the wide range of geologic factors, the capacity of the 

canals to convey water from one area to another also ranges widely ... 

Where the canals are dug in relatively impermeable materials, 

water movement (other things being equal) is dependent upon tight 

and continuous dikes and upon simple hydraulic factors. However, 

canals cut into the permeable materials present much more complex problems. The adjoining ground water has free access through 

innumerable small openings, and, depending upon the relationship 

of the canal and the ground-water stages, it can seep into, or out 

of, the canal. When· the ground water is· the higher, ins-eepage 

occurs; when the canal is the higher, outseepage occurs. The 

processes can go on simultaneously at different'locations along one 

canal, particularly near artificial controls. The condition of in .. 
346 WATER RESOURCES IN SOliTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

seepage on one side of a canal and outseepage on the other side can 

occut where a canal cuts across the ground-water slope of an area 

and the canal stage is at the ground-water level. Under these conditions the canal has little effect on ground-water movement. 

The flat topography of the Everglades permits control structures 

to be effective in controlling water levels in the canals and basins 

over extensive area·s upstream. However. this can be a liability 

as well as an asset~ because, in the areas of permeable materials, 

it means that· the canals may collect water from one area haphazardly and at the expense of another area, and, by the very nature 

of the problem, this process can hardly be stopped, although the 

effect can be reduced. Fortunately for the economy of the Everglades area as a whoie, the highly permeable formations are located 

at the lower end of the basin, although that part is adversely affected 

in considerable degree. 

Studies at water-control structures in permeable areas show that 

retention of water upstream from the controls may be a very difficult problem. Under a head of 2 or 3 ft, and with the control 

completely closed, a considerable amount of water will seep through 

the formations below, and on each side of, the control and will return to the channel farther downstream. Hence, in order to hold 

heads of water effectively at such poinrs, sizable volumes of water 

must be continuously provided from an upstream source to replenish 

losses from this leakage. 

The drainage areas contributing water to the canals are indeterminate, and in some areas, the canals cut across the slope of the 

ground and the direction of natural drainage. Because of the flat 

topography, the direction of flow over an area may vary; the flow 

will be away from the center of heavy natural recharge (rainfall) 

or artificial recharge. In a similar manner. water summits may 

occur in a canal reach under high-water conditions-the flow may 

divide and move both ways at a point of large inflow from a pumped 

or uncontrolled lateral (see fig. 98). In general, the canals drain 

a considerably larger area to the north of the channels than to the 

south because of the natural south to southeast drainage and because 

of the predominantly southeast to east direction of the channels. 

During ordinary wet periods, overland flow occurs principally 

in the open Everglades west of North New River Canal and stretching 

from Bolles Canal south to the Tamiami Trail and Cape Sable. 

Such flow is modified in other areas by the canals and road fills. 

Under maximum flood conditions, however, the old drainage pattern 

is reestablished, and the water moves overland in large volume; 

this flow is still modified by development, but to a much lesser 

degree. 
SURFACE WATER 347 

THE COMBINED NATURAL AND AR'nF1CIAL CONTROL REGIMEN 

The natural regimen of the weather is obviously the background 

for water-control operations in the Everglades, but the relationship is not quite as simple as such a statement may imply. 

Each year has been divided by Johnson (1944) into four periods to 

cover general conditions that may occur during that year. For a 

given year, the limits of each period are not precise, but the subdivision is essentially valid. (See section on Climate for detailed 

weather information.) These periods are discussed below, starting 

with low water condition: 

February 1 to May 15: nonn~lly low water conditions.~ Rainfall is usually 

scanty, although sizable amounts often fa:il after April 1. This 

period is the end of the truck-farming season in the Everglades. 

Water levels· decline steadily, particularly in Dade County, and are 

above ground only in small areas; the Everglades is subject to uncontrolled grass fires and burning of the soil in particularly dry 

years; soil loss by slow oxidation is at maximum rates; pumping 

for irrigation is at a maximum; and, salt-water contamination of 

the tidal canals reaches farthest inland. Water is released from 

Lake Okeechobee into the major canals to provide irrigation supplies; and controls at the outlet ends of the canal are kept closed 

to reduce fresh-water runoff to a minimum and to combat salt-water 

intrusion. Depending upon prior conditions and light rainfall in this 

period., extreme drought conditions may develop which, as in 1945, 

can extend into June and July. 

May 15 to September 1: rainy season.- Many small and intense squalls 

occur; these squalls are interspersed with more general storms, 

which may have heavy rainfall. Farmlands, where the truckfarming period is finished, may be allowed to become flooded (good 

agricultural practice); the soil becomes saturated and, in the open 

lands, inundation occurs; moderate overland flow may develop; the 

canals rise considerably; and most pumping is done for drainage. 

Ordinarily, the outflow from Lake Okeechobee is reduced, and, in 

wet years, reverse flow to the lake may occur; the controls at the 

coastal ends of the canals are partly opened to provide local relief, 

but, at the same time, levels are kept high enough to divert, or to 

keep, as much water as possible on the open lands; and reserve 

capacity is maintained for the larger rains by keeping the canal 

stage below certain maximums. 

Septamber ito November 15: possible stonn season,-This is the most critical 

period of the year, Very often, the summer rains are over by late 

September, and it is desirable to conserve a maximum of stored 

water. At the same time, the area is subject to hurricanes, which 

are often accompanied by extremely heavy rainfall, making it desirable to have reserve capacity in the water-control facilities. The 

coastal controls are opened wider to keep levels down in the canals, 
348 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA . 

but efforts are made to keep all possible storage on open lands. 

The problem of reserve capacity is complicated by the heavy pump 

discharge in connection with preparations for the farming season. 

If a tropical storm develops, all the controls are opened wide at 

the coast and at other locations (as indicated) to remove as much 

water as possible fr9m the canals and developed areas. When 

heavy rains occur from such a storm, the facilities are usually 

inadequate for the quaptities of water to be moved, and varying 

degrees of flood conditions exist, 

November 15 to Febru~y 1: dry season~-:-Normally, rainfall is scanty, 

and levels decline steadily. If hurricane floods occurre.d in' the 

previous period, the controls are maintained in an open position 

until the excess water has been removetl. If the storm period 

passed with only moderate rains, the controls are closed as far 

as possible to conserve water for the growing season. Pumping 

changes from drainage discharge to irrigation as the growing season 

advances. Low storage during the rainy and stormy periods, and 

a period of no rain at this time, can set the stage for drought 

conditions. · 

The water regimen outlined above is in marked contrast to conditions ·over most of the United States, where· the period Of dry 

conditions 'and possible drought usually occurs from July to Oc;·-

tober. Over most of the country, streamflow is greater in the 

winter than in the fall, and it generally reaches a maximum in the 

spring; however, in southern Florida, the peaks usually occur in 

September and October. 

WEST PALM BEACH CANAL 

PHYSICAL DESCRIP'l10N 

West Palm Beach Canal extends 42 miles from the southeast 

shore of Lake Okeechobee at Canal Point to Lake Worth and the 

Intracoastal Waterway in the vicinity of West Palm Beach and 

passes through an area embracing the northern limits of the Everglades proper. In its western half, a straight reach, 19 miles 

long, extend~ in a southe~sterly direction and connects to a second 

straight reach of about the same length, which runs in an easterly 

direction to the coastal ridge and enters Lake Worth between the 

cities of West Palm Beach and Lake Worth. The total length of 

channel is 42 miles. (See plate 14 for the general features of the 

West Palm Beach Canal basin.) 

West Palm Beach Canal was dug in deep muck soil from Canal 

Point to where the muck grades into sand (about 4 or 5 miles east 

of 20-Mile Bend). The edge of the sand landis the point where the 

canal intersects the edge of· a low sand upland, which extends 
SURF ACE WATEl\ 349 

northwestward and roughly parallel to the west half of the canal 

and 4 to 6 miles away from it. This higher ground has an important 

part in the drainage regimen of the canal, because it is from this 

area that large quantities of water move overland in wet periods 

into the immediate canal basin. 

StateHighway716 (formerlyHighway 194 andknown ~s Connor's 

Highway) serves as a .dike along the southern side of the canal from 

Canal Point to 20~Mile Bend, and it is a part of the principal dike 

system of three drainage subdistricts: Pelican Lake, Pahokee, and 

Highland Glades Drainage Districts. The northern bank is effec~ 

tively diked for 5. 5 miles southeast of Canal Point as a part of 

Pelican Lake Drainage District. (In 1946-47 the northern bank 

dikes were extended as far east as Big Mound Canal.) East of that 

point, the original spoil banks (composed mostly of muck) subsided 

by slow oXidation, or by fire, and became ineffective as dikes. 

Thus, when water levels rise above ground surface in that area, 

West Palm Beach Canal is vulnerable to uncontrolled overland in· 

flow from the north. A small dike, known as Old State Dike, once 

existed parallel to, and about 3 miles north of, West Palm Beach 

Canal; it extended from near the lake to Loxahatchee. This dike 

has subsided, and it has little effect on water events. At the present 

time, it is marked only by a shallow borrow ditch. 

' It is in the area of the drainage subdistricts near Canal Point 

that most of the pumps along West Palm Beach Canal are located. 

A control and lock regulates flow most of the time at the lake end 

of the canal. Under certain conditions (see page 336), the hurricane 

gate (HGS~5) in the protective levee at Canal Point is closed, thus 

canceling the effect of the old control. 

Between Canal Point and 20-Mile Bend three large lateral canals 

enter West Palm Beach from the north: Lateral A, Lateral B, and 

Big Mound Canal. These are uncontrolled, serve little useful pur~ 

pose at present, and increase the high-water problems of the area. 

Cross Canal, an important tributary, extends west from 20-Mile 

Bend to Hillsboro Canal. A control was constructed in Cross Canal 

at 20-Mile Bend in 1945, replacing a temporarywood control built 

in 1944. 

The main highway across the State in the latitude of Lake Okeechobee, State Highway 80 (formerly Highway 25), crosses West 

Palm Beach Canal at 20-Mile Bend and continues east along the 

north bank almost to the seaward end of the canal, serving as a 

dike for a considerable distance into the sand area. Three bridged 

highway openings east of 20-Mile Bend permit uncontrolled inflow 

seasonally from the north. The south bank is low and uneven for a 

considerable distance into the sandy area and is subject to over~ 

flow at high stages. Several uncontrolled laterals exist in thi.s 

reach. The sandy ridge is essentially continuous from west of 
350 WATElt RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Loxahatchee to the coast, except for a slough (Loxahatchee Marsh) 

crossing east of range line 41--42 (pl. 1), and the coastal slough 

near the east end of the canal. Both banks are high throughout this 

eastern reach and are not subject to overflow. 

Loxahatchee Drainage District, on the north bank, 8 miles east 

of 20-Mile Bend, drains into, or irrigates from, the West Palm 

Beach Canal by gravity or pump. At range line 41--42, a principal 

tributary, known locally as Rangeline Canal, but officially designated as Equalizing Canal 1 (E-1), connects from the south and 

marks the western limit of Lake Worth Drainage District, which 

is the largest subdistriCt in the Evzrglades area. Rangeline Canal 

extends southward to an intersection with Boynton Canal and connects with Hillsboro Canal, west of Deerfield Beach. It was originally used only for gravity drainage, but a pump of 20, 000 gpm 

capacity was installed in 1944 at West Palm Beach Canal to irrigate 

the high sandy lands of Lake Worth Drainage District. State Highway 7 (formerly Highway 199) occupies the west bank of Rangeline 

Canal and forms a continuous levee, with culverts at regular 

intervals. 

East of range line 41--42, the principal connections are the 

equalizing canals of Lake Worth Dralnage District: E-2 and E-3, 

from the north; E-3 andE-4, from the south; and Stub Canal, frop1 

the north, in the western environs of the city of West Palm Beach. 

The sizable pumping plant at Morrison Field, constructed during 

World War II for local drainage, has little effect on West Palm 

Beach Canal because it is seldom operated. Several other minor 

laterals in the eastern 10 miles of the canal also have lit'tle effect. 

At U. S. Highway 1, the canal discharges into tidal waters at a 

control and lock. The control structure is larger than most controls in the major Everglades· canals, and it was designed to operate 

under heads as great as 12 feet. A unique feature is the wide highway bascule bridge built across the lock. The canal extends approximately half a mile farther east and discharges into Lake Worth, 

which is a narrow tidal estuary running paralle 1 with the . coast. The 

ultimate connection to the sea probably is via the inlet, 7 miles to 

the south at Boynton Beach, although during heavy discharge the 

flow may divide, and part of it may reach the sea by way of Lake 

Worth Inlet, 9 miles to the north. 

The principal features along West Palm Beach Canal with cumulative mileage from Lake Okeechobee are listed below: 

Location 

Centerline of 'lake levee and HGS-5........ •••••• •••••••••••••••••••• 0 

Control and lock, Canal Point (gaging station) ••••.••••••••. ••••••• • 1 
SURFACE WATER 351 

Location Mileate 

Lateral B, from north ...• , ................................................ ··g; 1 

Lateral A, from north,, ................................................. , 10, 7 

Big Mound Canal ........................................................... 11. 7· 

Cross Canal, bend ........................................................ 19.4 

20-Mile Bend bridge, ..................................................... 19. 5 

Loxahatchee, main lateral of Loxahatchee Drainage Distri~t. 26, 6 

Bridge, Canal E-1, State Highway 7, range line 41-42 ........ 31.0 

Canal E-2, north and south (connection south made in 1947). 32, 8 

Canal E-3, north and .south ........................................... ·, 35.6 

Bridge, Military Trail, State Highway 809, ....................... 36. 6 

Bridge, at Morrison Field.............................................. 38. 1 

Stub Canal ............. ~ ....................................................... 38.2 

Bridge, Seaboard Railway .............................................. 40,6 

Canal E-4 .............................................................. ....... 40. 8 

Bridge, F. E. C. Railway .............................................. 41. 3 

Control and lock, U. S. Highway 1 (gaging station) ............. 41. 4 

Bridge, U, S. Highway 1 (Alternate) .......................... , ...... 41. 7 

Lake Worth ...................................................................... 42. 0 

RECORDS AVAB..ABLE 

Records obtained for various points in the area of investigations 

are as follows (records were continued after period of this 

investigation): 

Canal Point 

Stage, northwest of .control: Nov. 7, 1939, to Dec. 31, 1946; staff 

gage read two and three times daily; stage essentially the same 

as in Lake Okeechobee except for wind surges and periods when 

HGS-5 was closed. 

Stage, southeast of control: June 30, 1940, to Dec. 31, 1946; continuous recorder graph; daily mean plotted in figures 96 and 97. 

Maximum: 16.40 ft, on Oct. 15, 1945, 

Minimum: 9. 40 ft, on May 24, 1944. 

Discharge: Nov. 7, 1939, to Dec. 31,'1946; daily mean plotted in 

figures 96 and 97; monthly and annual runoff listed in table 34. 

Maximum: 610 cfs, daily mean, to southeast, on Nov. 20, 1939; 

1, 760 cfs, to northwest (into Lake), on June 15, 1942. Periods 

of no flow were common at times of reversal of flow and when 

HGS-5 was closed. 

Loxahatchee 

Stage: July7, 1941, toAug. 27, 1942;staffgagereadonceweekly. 

Aug. 28, 1942, to Dec. 31, 1946; staff gage read once daily, 

Maximum observed: greater than 14.6 ft, on Sept, 22, 1941, 

and June 16, 1942, 

Minimum observed: 8. 02 ft, on June 30, 1944. 
16 

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Figure 96, -Graphs showing_ stage and discharge of West Palm Beach Canal, 1939-42. 
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Figure 97.- Graphs showing stage and discharge of West Palm Beach Canal, 1943-46. 
Table 34.- Runoff of Jl'esl Palm Beach Canal at Canal Point 

[Unit, 1, 000 acre-feet] 

Year Jan, Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec, Annual 

1939 ................. ................... ..................... . .................... •········•···· ................ .............. ....................... .................. ........ i9.'1 118.6 19.8 ......................... 1940 22.6 21,4 1'7.2 19.0 29.0 '7.5 13.3 -8,2 -H.2 16.7 23,3 164,3 

1941 -. 8 -4.5 8,6 7,6 12.3 23,9 -29.4 12.5 -12,7 -14,9 20,7 22,3 45,6 

1942 23.1 20.8 10.9 3.1 19.7 -6'7.2 -9.6 23,6 6.3 25.4 12.4 13,7 82,2 

1943 15.2 15.7 14,2 16,9 17.0 11.2 -13.9 1,9 -6.0 4,3 16,5 11,2 104.2 

1944 15.3 16.8 15.6 12,6 20.1 9.5 13,3 8.'7 8,6 -17.7 12.2 23,6 138,6 

1945 20.2 16.1 21.4 19,6 21.1 9,1 -24,9 -11.3 -48.4 -2.0 20,1 26;4 67,4 

1946 25.4 23.5 24.7 24.2 22,3 16.9 11.6 -.5 -17.7 21.5 -.2 23.2 1'74.9 

1 For period Novem!M>.r '7-30. 

Note, -Negative discharge indicates flow into Lake Okeechobee. 

Table 35.-Runolf of West Palm Beach Canal at West PBlm Beach 

[Unit, 1, 000 acre-feet] 

Year Jan, Feb. Mar. Apr May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov, Dec, Annual 

1939 ................. ................. .............. . ................ . ............... .................... .................. ................. ................... ................... 52,2 42,1 .................. 1940 46,0 44,2 46.6 4'7.1 41.8 78.0 60.2 102.4 161,7 88.5 69.5 68,2 854,2 

1941 119.5 94.2 84.4 89.7 62.6 46,1 136.4 93,1 131,3 132,3 71,2 49,1 1,109,9 

1942 52,3 39.9 56.5 11'7. 0 61.0 169,9 90,2 59.7 71.8 56.5 34.9 26.8 842.5 

1943 25.5 23.1 30.1 22.8 21.5 23,0 53,5 51.5 68,3 89.4 58.1 35.1 . 501.9 

1944 29.4 21,9 25,6 21,9 26,4 23,0 27.4 48,4 48.6 92,0 58,7 35,6 '458.9 

1945 34.1 21,4 20.1 11.6 12.9 28.1 47.7 44.8 122.9 128.9 64,7 3'7.1 574,9 

1946 39,2 24,8 32.3 24,4 51.6 68,8 68.5 66,0 128.1 79.2 97.2 60,6 740.7 

Note, -Lake Worth Drainage District furnished record of gate and lock openings and daily fUpplementary stage record. 
SURFACE WATER 355 

\Vest Palm BeacJ, 

Stage: west of control, Nov. 1, 1939, to Dec. 31, 1946; continuous 

recorder graph; daily mean plotted in figures 96 and 97. 

Maximum: 10. 33ft, on Apr. 18, 1942. 

Minimum: 2. 97ft, on May 7, 19~1. 

Discharge: Nov. 1, 1939, to Dec. 31, 1946; daily mean plotted in 

figures 96 and 97; monthly and annual runoff listed in table 35. 

Maximum: daily mean, 5, 320 cfs, on Apr. 18, 1942. 

Minimum: daily mean, 124 cfs (leakage only), on May 1, 1945. 

Maximum known: 8, 570 cfs, on Oct. 23, 24, 1924, computed 

from data .bY Everglades Drainage District. 

Profile gages 

Stages: at 10 locations from Canal Point to West Palm Beach, 

March 1944 to December 1946, about monthly. See figure 98 

for typical profiles, 

Miscellaneous 

· Discharge: at intermediate locations on the main canal and at 

many laterals, 1939 to 1946; occasional; usually in connection 

with special basin studies; see figure 98 for type of observations. 

FJ.()W CHARACTEltiSTICS. 

Under low and moderate water conditions, West Palm Beach 

Canal is controlled as far as possible to satisfy a variety of needs, 

some of which conflict,· During the winter and spring the extensive 

irrigation needs of the lake farming area require a relatively high 

canal level and a sizable amount of continuous recharge. This is 

met by releasing water from Lake Okeechobee at the Canal Point 

control at lake level. Part of the wafer moves down the canal for 

irrigation of land along the .east half of the canal, particularly in 

the Lake Worth Drainage District. Except in anticipation, or as a 

result, of the infrequent heavy rains of that time of the year. the 

controlled laterals are usually closed. Flow in the larger uncontrolled laterals continues in small volume while mos~ of the smaller 

ones are dry. 

To satisfy the irrigation needs of Lake Worth Drainage District 

by gravity via canal E-4 and Lake Osborn, the stage at the coastal 

control is maintained at about 8. 5 to 9. 0 ft. This stage provides 

gravity flow southward to some of the main east-west feeders where 

pumps lift the water for use on the higher lands of the subdistrict. 

Stages in excess of 9. 0 ft are detrimental to the inhabited areas of 

West Palm Beach adjacent to Stub Canal, and cause damage to small 

truck-farming operations in the mucky areas just west of the heavily 

settled areas. 
356 WATER RESOURCES lN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

The two stage needs at the opposite ends of the canal require that 

it be operated at an appreciable slope, which is accomplished by 

releasing a sizable volume of water at the coastal control. Complete 

closure of the control to avoid this apparent waste in the dry months 

would result in excessively high stages, followed by local damage. 

Cutting off the inflow at the Canal Point end of the canal would cause 

excessively low stages in the upper reaches, with resultant crop 

loss and a possible soil loss because of dryness. Consideration is 

also given to keeping the unused lands along the middle reaches as 

wet as possible. 

During the latter part of a normal spring, rainfall starts to increase and irrigation demand falls off sharply, except in the highersandy lands. The canals rise toward ground level, and the soils 

in the unused lands become saturated. In anticipation of, or during, 

heavy rains, most of the pumps are discharged at full capacity into 

the canal and are continued in operation until water levels in the 

diked areas are satisfactory for farming. 

If the rains inundate the sand lands, the Lake Worth Drainage 

District controls along West Palm Beach Ca,nal are opened and large 

volumes of water are dumped into the canal. This necessitates 

further opening of the main control at the coast, andoccasionally 

the lock also is opened to act as a spillway. The runoff from the 

sand lands then has first demand on the early capacity of the canal 

and thus reduces the amount of runoff capacity available to the lands 

in the western part of the basin. In addition, heavy overland flow 

(originating on the higher lands north of the canal and west of 

Loxahatchee) sweeps down into the canal, where no spoil banks 

exist, or at the uncontrolled bridge openings in State Highway 80. 

This inflow prevents the large pumped discharge west of Big Mound 

Canal from moving east, a water summit is established, and the 

stage in most of the western reach becomes higher than Lake Okeechobee. Flow is then established into the lake in a direction opposite 

to that existing prior to the rains. The water divide in the main 

canal has been observed as far as 1 mile east of 20-Mile Bend, a 

condition resulting from particularly, heavy rainfall in the middle 

of the bas.in. Generally, however, the location of the divide is at 

or near Big Mound Canal, and the flow from_that tributary has been 

observed to divide and flow both to the east and to the west for extended periods. Later, when overland flow from the north decreases, the water summit may· shift northwestward to the first 

large subdistrict pump. Still later, as outflow from both ends of 

the canal exceeds inflow, the divide moves fat'ther westward until 

it disappears, and continuous flow to the east is reestablished. 

In the meantime, the higher lands to the east drain more rapidly 

and may even take water for irrigation while the muck lands are 

still emerging from flood conditions. Then, most of the lower canal 

capacity is available for runoff from the west. However, it has 
SURF ACE WATER 357 

been observed that changes of several feet in stage at the coastal 

control have very little effect on the discharge of the main canal 

at range line 41-42, thus indicating that a controlling condition 

exists east of range line 41-42 that prevents larger runoff from 

the west. 

At higher stages, the low south bank east of 20-Mile Bend is 

subject to overflow from the canal for a distance of several miles. 

Thus, although the canal acts as a collecting channel, it is also a 

distributing agent; therefore, part of the old overland flow from 

northwest to southeast is reestablished across the line of the 'canal. 

Cross Canal, at the intersection with West Palm BeachCanal at 

20-Mile Bend, would ordinarily flow into the main canal under low 

.and moderate water conditions, unless prevented by the control. 

In flood periods, the typical flow is strongly westward (then southward), and the control is sometimes opened to permit this measure 

of relief. State Highway 716, on the south bank of the west half of 

West Palm Beach Canal, is subject to overflow, under maximum 

flood conditions, for a distance of several miles east and west of 

Big M<;>und Canal, 

Examination of the stage and discharge hydrographs, figures 96 

and 97, will disclose a number of significant characteristics of West 

Palm Beach Canal. The stage of Lake Okeechob'ee was plotted from 

the weighted daily mean stage computed by the Corps of Engineers. 

The actual stage at Canal Point varied because it was affected by 

wind on the lake. The discharge graphs show a negative section, 

which is a device for indicating that flow in West Palm Beach Canal 

at Canal Point was into the lake. This reverse flow occurred 16 .. 1 

percent of the time in the period of· record and ranged between 0 

and 25 percent yearly. 

Head on the Canal Point control exceeded 2 ft only a small percentage of the time and was less than 1 ft for extended periods. 

Large stage changes at the lower control often had no appreciable 

effect on stage at Canal Point. Perhaps the most striking feature 

of the graphs is the opposing relationship of the discharge at the 

two gaging stations-when discharge at the West Palm Beach station 

rose in response to rainfall or control changes, the discharge at 

Canal Point decreased or reversed itself; an opposite action took 

place during drought. In the first halves of the dry years, 1943-45, 

the discharge at both stations was very similar, thus indicating 

only a moderate gain or loss in discharge between them. 

Note the stage-discharge relationship at West Palm Beach, AprilMay1940.(andatothertimes). The stage dropped about4 ft because 

of control operation and rose sharply several weeks later. The 

discharge, however, did not vary to a great extent, except for the 

brief change at the time of the rise in mid- May. This is an out-
358 WATER RESOURcES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

standing example of the phenomenon observed frequently in Everglades canals-under conditions of uniform flow, changes in the 

crest elevation of a control often cause 'no significant change in 

the amount of flow. Once the stage adjusts to a stable condition 

(following control changes), the discharge stabilizes close to the 

rate that existed prior to the change. The canal basins thus have 

a relatively fixed drainage rate, within reasonable limits of operation--although this statement probably is valid for periods of 

moderate flow, it would not apply during periods of heavy runoff 

or during drought, when other factors would be involved. 

West Palm Beach Canal, the shortest of the four major canals 

in the Everglades, was not completed as planned; however, it is 

the largest water carrier. Tables 34 and 35 list the monthly and 

annual runoff, in thousands of acre-feet, at Canal Point and West 

Palm Beach, respectively. The average arinu_al discharge for the, 

period 1940-46 was 726, 100 acre-ft at the coastal control (West 

Palm Beach)--an average flow of 1, 003 cfs, two to three times as 

great as the flow of any of the other canals. The average annual 

discharge at Canal Point, 111, 000 acre-ft, represents net flow 

from the lake into the west end of the canal, which makes an overall netrunoff of 615, 100 acre-ftfrom the canal basin. This apparent 

reductionof runoffcapacity by diversionfrom the lake is mitigated 

by the fact that in high-water periods and with low-enough lake 

stages, the flow reverses and runs strongly into the lake at rates 

two to three times greater than the typical flow toward the eastthus causing a maximum discharge condition of flow from both ends 

of the canal during the more critical periods. 

SPECIAL STUDIES 

Special studi~s of West Palm Beach Canal consisted principally 

of areal studies of inflow from tributaries and discharge increase 

in the main canal. A few other studies were made-some of these 

studies covered too short a period of time to be conclusive by the 

end of 1946. 

INFLOW AND PROFILE 

A hurricane moved up· the center of Florida on a northerly course 

on September 15, 16, 1945. The storm caused about 5 in. of rain 

in the West Palm Beach Canal basin, which, added to previous 

sizable rains, caused the high-water conditions shown in figure 

98. By September 22 (the date of the study), peak stages in the 

easternhalfof thebasinhad passed, and a recession had startedmost of the lateral inflows probably were less than those that 

occurred a few days earlier. In the western half of the canal, !J-awever, water levels were still rising, and near-peak stages were 

observed, 
LAKE 

OKEECHOBEE 

Control 

Direction of flow and discharge 

in cublc feet per sec-o:nd 

Direction of flow only 

CONTROL 

AND LOCK 

18 

BIG MOUND 

CANAL 

0/KE CANAL 

20-MILE 

BEND LOXAHATCHEE 

r-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-· f-·-·-·-·-·-·- 0~1. ;;:-;;24:7 - r-

..J 

16 

~ Sopt 22, 1945..../" r---:--

<> 

RANGE- MILITARYl 

.-f.!~E TRAIL 

·~ 

~---. __ STUB 

CANAL 

:1: 

0 

.. 

w 

<D 

~ 

\j 

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"' >:::: 

~ 

"t 

i::! 

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W.OHTH 

,............ 2360 ofo 

CONT ROL AND LOCK ,::.4 ofo r---r--.. '-., 

~14 

....... 

~~ 12 ... .., ~(.f) 10 •Z 

Z<{ 

ow 

~::;; 8 

>w W> "' 

..JO 6 wen .. 4 

r-· 

I 

OJ 

--------- .~ 124 olii 

--- ~ 

Moy I, 1945_/ -----r----- -----~ r::s-1 ........... 

! 

11.8 19.4 26.6 31.0 36.6 38.2 4L4 

015 lANCE, IN MILES FROM LAKE OKEECHOBEE 

Figure 98. -Runoff pattern and stage profile of West Palm Beach Canal on September 22, 1945; flood condition following near-passage ot a hmricane. 

c:: "' 

~ n 

1'1 

~ 

PI 

::tl 
3.60 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEAsTERN FLORIDA 

The inflows, shownalongthewesternhalfof the canal, were fro;m 

pump installations, except for the flows from the three laterals on 

the north side, The high point in the stage profile (the water summit) 

was between Laterals A and B, where the discharge from a large 

drainage subdistrict pump was divided, The flow at Canal Point was 

strongly into Lake Okeechobee, furnishing the anomalous situation 

(common to the Everglades) of a canal discharging at both ends, 

The difference between the 916 cfs in the main canal at 20-Mile 

Bend and about 220 cfs inflow from laterals east of the water summit 

indicates about 700 cfs of discharge increment (pickup) in the reach, 

This large increase in canal discharge is a measure of the unimpeded 

overland inflow from the north (p. 349), Some relief was afforded 

by the outflow into Cross Canal, but this was offset by the two large 

uncontrolled inflows from the north, just east of 20-Mile Bend. 

The inflows from Stub Canal and Canal E-4 show the sizable proportion of the discharge at the control and lock that can originate 

close to the coast--about 20 percent in this case. The larger part 

of the discharge of Stub Canal likely was overflow from Clear Lake, 

which is located several miles to the north. 

The water-surface profile for May 1, 1945, shows the comparative condition of a low-water period. Slopes were flat and were 

below the surface of the ground at all locations. Only about onethird of the water released from Lake Okeechobee reached the 

coastal control; the remaining two-thirds was pumped out of the 

canal for irrigation or seeped out in areas where the canal stage 

may have been higher than the adjoining ground-water stage. Also 

shown is the highest profile known, which is that of October 24, 1924. 

DISCHARGE AT RANGE LINE 41-42 

West Palm Beach Canal at range line 41-42 is considered an intermediate key location in evaluating the flow characteristics of the 

canal. The station is at the west edge of Lake Worth Drainage 

District, and the discharge, as measured just above Canal E-1, 

originates in the Everglades proper, plus runoff and seepage from 

the intervening sand lands. Most of the flow increment east of the 

station originates in Lake Worth Drainage District. 

The daily mean stage at the coastal control was plotted i,n figure 

99, with the daily stage reading at Loxahatchee. The several miscellaneous stage readings at range line 41-42 show that the stage 

at Loxahatchee, 4. 4 miles to the west, is valid as a general reference for range line 41-42. This graph demonstrates that the stage 

at range line 41-42 was not affected by large changes of stage at 

the coastal control, 
16 

Wesl Palm Beach (abo>le <Onfrol ) 

2~~------------4------------r------------; 

OCTOBER NOVEMBtR DECEMBER 

0 

z 

0 

0 

.... 

"' 

0:: 

.... 

"-

,__ 

w 

.... 

... 

0 

iD 

:::> 

0 

~ 

..; 

<!) 

0:: 

<( 

:c 

u 

"' iS 

3200 

West Palm Beo.c:h 

R<lngetine 

0 

8 

I "' 6 .... Lo:tohatchee :c 

0 

~ 4 

~ 

_; 

L . I ..J 2 it 

z 

<i 

0:: 0 

OCTOBER NOVEMBER OECEMBER 

Figure 99. -Graph of stage and discharge in the eastern one-third 01 West Palm Beach Canal, October-December 1946. 

(II 

~ > 0 

tot 

~ ;;I 

~ 
362 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Figure 99 also shows the discharge at the coastal control and at 

range line 41-42 plotted above the significant daily rainfall at 

Loxahatchee. The rainfall-discharge relationship is evident. The 

marked similarity between the two discharge graphs and the stage 

at Loxahatchee, and the dissimilarity with the stage at the control, 

suggest that water events, in periods of moderate to high flow in 

the lower West Palm Beach Canal basin, are considerably independent of the operation of the control. 

HILLSBORO CANAL 

PHYSICAL DESCRIPDON 

Hillsboro Canal heads at the south end of Lake Okeechobee and 

extends, in a series of straight reaches, in a generally southeasterly direction to· the coast at Deerfield Beach-a total length of 51 

miles. It lies principally in the area known as the ~upper Glades" 

and maybe roughly divided into three sections. Plate' 14 shows the 

general features of the basin. 

The first section cuts across the heart of the winter producefarming area of the Everglades and extends from the lake to 

Shawano. This 18-mile reach was dug in deep (as much as 12 ft) 

organic soils; some of the most fertile land is in this area. The 

canal connects with Lake Okeechobee through the protective levee 

at a hurricane gate (HGS-'4), a few hundred yards west of the 

junction with North New River Canal. At Chosen, 1 i miles to the 

east, the control and lock is in poor condition and has not been used 

since 1939 (at least). The control and lock is kept open and causes 

essentially no interference with flow. Nearby, a large pump of 

the South Florida Conservancy District has a considerable effect 

on water movement in the main canal. Nine miles from the lake is 

6-Mile Bend and the junction with the western end of Cross Canal, 

which connects with West Palm Beach Canal at 20-Mile Bend, 13 

miles to the east by canal. 

About 1 mile southeast of 6-Mile Bend, a junction is made with 

Bolles Canal, which extends to the west and connects with both the 

North New River and the Miami Canals. The culverts connecting 

Bolles Canai to Hillsboro Canal are relatively small and have been 

so completely obstructed in recent years that flow through them 

has been negligible. 

Shawano is the center of operations in Brown Drainage District 

and is the eastern limit of development along the upper Hillsboro 

Canal. From Belle Glade to Shawano, many farms pump directly 

into, or from, the canal. Until 1948, the banks were continuous 

from the lake to a point about 4 miles southeast of 6-Mile Bend; 

beyond 6-Mile Bend a bank existed only on the southwestern side 
SURFACE WATER 363 

to the end of the development at Shawano. In 1948, the northeastern 

bank was extended to Shawano. State Highway 80 runs along the 

southern bank from Belle Glade to 6-Mile Bend, and the canal is 

accessible by road from close to the lake to Shawano. The Everglades Experiment Station is located on the southern side of the 

canalf 2. 5 miles east of Belle Glade. 

The second, or middle, section of Hillsboro Canal comprises the 

reach southeast from Shawano to Elbow Bend and the reach' continuing on an easterly course to the edge of the Everglades proper, 

about 4 miles west of Equalizing Canal No. 1. The area crossed 

by this reach of the canal is uninhabited and undeveloped, and it is 

one of the least accessible parts of the Everglades. Shawano is on 

the western edge of a large open area covered, for the most part, 

with the well-known Loxahatchee peat--one of the more extensive 

soils of the Everglades (Florida A gr. Exper. Sta., 1948, p. 62 -70), 

noted for its instability for travel by foot or vehicle. 

Several natural streams enter Hillsboro Canal from the north 

near Elbow Bend. Two miles east of the Bend is Indian Run, a 

natural tributary that connects with the Hillsboro Lakes area (see 

pl. 12). Late in 1943, the U. S. Soil Conservation Service constructed an adjustable control in Indian Run at the line of the north 

spoil bank of the canal. Another control, with fixed crest, was 

built in Gandy Run, 1 mile farther east, 

The Hillsboro Lakes area, or Hillsboro Marsh, is a wild region, 

which is normally wet, and which includes some perennial lakes. 

The innumerable small islands and interconnecting sloughs make 

this region well suited to wildlife preservation. However, it is also 

important to the water regimen of the Hillsboro Canal basin as a 

storage reservoir. Here, the Loxahatchee peat is in a semiliquid 

state, and the area can be traveled only by shallow-draft boats, 

which usually are driven by airplane propellors. 

From a point about 4 miles northwest of Elbow Bend, to a point 

! mile east of the bend, Hillsboro Canal never was completed as 

planned. The muck and some rock were removed from the southwest half of the channel; in the northeast half, only the muck was 

excavated, thus making an inefficient channel section. The banks 

are discontinuous in this reach, particularly in the vicinity of Elbow 

Bend, thus affording flow-ways across the line of the canal. East 

of Elbow Bend, the banks are high and continuous, except for four 

breaks in the north bank, three of which were closed in the period 

of observation. A very poor road has been leveled along the top 

of the high south spoil bank from the edge of the farm lands on the 

east to near Elbow Bend. 

The third, or eastern, section of Hillsboro Canal reaches from 

the eastern edge of the Everglades to the coast. The canal enters 
364 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUI'HEASTERN Fl.OIUDA 

higher sandy land 3 miles west of Equalizing Canal No. 1, and the 

south bank is farmed along the 3-mile reach. About six farm pumps 

furnish water for irrigation or frost control, but drainage is principally by gravity. A poor road runs parallel with the south spoil 

bank. 

State Highway 7 is on range line 41-42, which marks the western 

boundary of Lake Worth Drainage District. Equalizing Canal 1 

enters Hillsboro Canal from the north and extends northward along 

the east side of the highway to connections with Boynton Canal and 

with West Palm-Beach Canal. A 20, 000-gpm pump, installed in 1944 

to replace an older pump, supplies water to CanalE -1 for irrigation 

'of the high sands limds of the distri~t-~ Gravity drainage into Hillsboro Canal is regulated by a control. A similar lateral canal extends southward along State Highway 7 to Cypress Creek Canal. 

Irrigation pumps, with a total capacity of about 80,000 gpm,can 

furnish water to this lateral. -

Two miles east of State Highway 7, Canal E-2 connects from the 

north. Canal E-2 was extended i mile south to this location in 1944, 

and a 40, 000-gpm pump was installed, replacing two pumps with 

a combined capacity of about 8, 000 gpm. Several other pumps are 

located in the reach from State Highway 7 to the control and lock, 

4t miles to the east. 

The control and lock, which is typical of the older structures '(see 

fig. 91), is the discharge point for Hillsboro Canal. At times,- hea,d 

on the control may be as much as 12 ft. Tide effect extends inland 

to the control under all conditions, except during floods, occasionally, tide effect has been observed above the control when it was 

open at low stages. Canal E-3 connects from the north, 1f10 mile 

east of the control. Canal E-4 enters from the north, just west of 

the Florida East Coast Rai).way bridge. 

Hillsboro Canal follows the meandering course of a natural stream 

in its lower 2 miles and ends in Deerfield Beach at the Hillsboro 

River (now_ canalized for the Intracoastal Waterway). Flow from 

the mouth of the canal moves in the waterway, either north 2 miles 

to Boca Raton Inlet, or south 4 miles to Hillsboro Inlet, and joins 

the sea. There is limited access to the canal, east of State High·-

way7, by means of occasionalconnections fromStateHighway810, 

which runs parallel with, and about t mile south of, the canal.-

The following tabulation lists the principal features along Hillsboro Canal, with cumulative mileage from Lake Okeechobee. 
SURFACE WATER 365 

L.ocatron Mileage 

Centerline of lake levee and HGS-4 .. ,......... .......•••.......•.•... 0 

Junction with North New River Canal............................... • 2 

Control and lock, Chosen............................................... 1. 5 

Bridge, F. E. C. Railway............................................. 2. 5 

Bridge, State Highway 15, Belle Glade {gaging station)....... 3. 2 

6- Mile Bend; junction with Cross canal............................ 9. 4 

Bolles Canal ................................................................ 10. 5 

Shawano, bridge ............•.....•..•....••••.....•...•...... ,. ••.••.••.•• 17. 1 

Elbow Bend ...............••.••...•.••...............••.•...••. ,. .•......... 31.7 

Indian Run ................... ......•.••...••.•••.•.. _..... •. . . . . . . •• • .. •. •. . . 34. 1 

Bridge, Canal E-1. State Highway 7, range line 41-42 ........ 42.7 

Canal E-2 ... ····•*••••························•••·•·•··• ..................... 44. 8 

Control and lock {gaging station) ...................................... 47. 4 

Canal E -3 . .................................................................. 47. 5 

Bridge, Seaboard Railway .............................................. 48.0 

Canal E-4 . .......................................... ~····•·········· ... •••••*••·· 49. 5 

Bridge, F. E. C. Railway ............................................. 49.7 

Bridge, U. S. Highway 1 ................................................ 50. 3 

Hillsboro River and Intracoastal Waterway ....................... 51. 2 

RECOIUJS AVAJLAJJi.E 

(Records continued after period of this investigation] 

Belle Glade 

Stage: May 11. 1940, to Dec. 31, 1946; continuous recorder 

graph; daily mean plotted in figures 100 and 101. 

Maximum: 17.48 ft, on Sept. 26, 1940. 

Minimum: 10. 7? ft, on June 19, 1945. 

Discharge.: Jan. 11, 1940, to Dec. 31, 1946; daily mean plotted 

in figures 100 and 101; monthly and annual runoff listed in 

table 36. 

Maximum: 481 . cfs to east, measured, on Feb. 14, 1940. 

289 cfs to west (toward lake), measured, ori Sept. 9, 1940. 

Periods of no flow are common at times of reversal of flow. 

Shawano 

Stage: Jan. 1. 1929, to Dec. 31, 1946; gage read once daily; 

daily mean stage plotted in figures 100 and 101; monthly mean 

plotted on figure 102. 

Maximum obnerved: 16. 19 ft on June 23, 24, 1930. 

Minimum observed: B. 73ft on May 4, 1945. 

Deerfield Beach (near) 

Stage: west of control, Nov. 1, 1939, to April 14, 1940; gage . 

read once daily; daily niean stage plotted in figures 100 and 101. 
..J 

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I ! Deerfield Bea.ch-~~~ 

l I ! j_ ! ! ~ 

I I I ; 1939 

JAN. FE a M ~ APRIL MAY JUN£ JULY AUG. :SEM.' OCT. NOV. OEC. 

h..., ~ t-.:,. .. fo. -ko~ei:':beer=--~ .... .r ~ "-';'---r--

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---~ \a I V\~ f ·v ; 

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y De-erfield e~ci !\ 1\ I "'\, 

.A I~~ 1.. l/\,N, \ i rv v \ 11 r I '\!If\ ---.__J ,,~+-- _;-f'Z_\erhf,~. "' ~ -- - ~-, -- ____ '!' ~ 

rlard L!ke g:~lec~~~: v----- ~ T il941 

-""· FEB. ...... ·- MAY .AJNE JUL'I' AU~ SEPT. NOV. DEC. 

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J LY AUG. SEPJ. 

-.. l ;\ .......... ~~~'<' 

rf" 1\i"t" 

U I 

J 

OCT. NCW. 

1942 

OEC. 

Figure 100, -Graphs of stage and discharge of Hillsboro Canal, 1939-42. 
• 

,. _. /Loko~ I ; 

~~· __, ' ~ 

''-'!' J_ h 1"""'"- <tlZ ·:;,; P"N'-, /' '\. 

1~ ~ t~r\; m y-..._....- ... ,..;; z' ~~ ·; f""'-1--J i'iVi-. [\ .. 

w ]'\ :::. . "-.,.; w fJ > Deerfield Beoch i 1il • ~control: .. 4 ' 

" 

~~1 o8 ""' z"' I _.,

.. j"' 

"'"' ""' B:"-

..... 

r.., 

o.., 0 

£! ... 0 

2001! ; 

I ' 15011 

1000 ~· 

I ll., 

5([) 

I.,;;:Belle Glode ir-"-~ ~- I ..., j-...--.. 

0 

~- LD<e ooZ.-. De"ff" I- Beoch 1944 

- ...... FEB. .... JWtE JULY .... OCT. """· .. Belle ~c.de --, •. {\ ~1Jke ~ I ~ ,...., --'" """ ~,.._ N- "Vv: " ·"-. ,.. , r.r "'<){ ~ ~.: \.,..]\: I~\ ~....._. J .b-~ ::-! \_ ,... -J "N-·"'".,: ,..;.-'"' 1 = ·., tv:~ - _,'!,;; v..J ~, -

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500~~~i0Gbdej_ ; j\ ~h • _.. ....... ""-r~---1'"...,._ .......-!::: UV\~ \-IV"\ f,J'\ - - "" • . ./'. 

i'oeerilei<IBeoch owa;ll Lake Okeechobee / ! "" t946 

- F MAR. ...... MAY -· J ~00 ...... oc . NOV. DEC. 

Figure Hll. --Graphs of stage and discharge of Hillsboro Canal, 1943-46. 
Table 36.-Runoff of Hillsboro Canal at Belle Glsde 

[Unit, 1 , 000 acre ·feet] 

Year Jan, Feb, Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. 

1940 17.0 16.5 19.6 17.3 21.8 17,0 14.8 9.5 0 

1941 10.4 3.0 9.2 6.2 7.4 8,0 -5.2 3.7 3.4 

1942 12.3 10,2 8. 3 .5.5 6.9 -10,4 -6.7 3.2 -.3 1943 9.9 9.0 9,2 7.9 . 6.1 3.8 2. 5 5.3 3.9 1944 6.2 7.9 9.2 9,1 6.5 5,6 4.8 -1.8 4.1 

1945 10,9 9.4 8.5 5.9 4.4 .5 -8.0 -3.8 -1.2 

1946 8.8 11.8 12.6 12.2 7,4 6.5 6,0 6,8 1. 7 

Note. -Negative discharge i,',dicates flow toward Lake Okeechobee. 

Year Jan. Feb. Mar. 

1939 ''""'iii.'i"' .................. ~ ............. 1940 17.9 13,2 

1941 44.9 57.6 38.6 

1942 40,9 16.5 20.3 

1943 2.8 2,1 1.9 

1944 4,7 2.6 1.2 

1945 4.6 1,3 1.0 

1946 12.9 .6 .5 

Table 31.-RJmotf of Hillsboro Canal near Deerfield Beach 

[Unit, 1, 000 acre -feet] 

Apr. May June July Aug. Sept, 

.................. ................. . ............... ................... . ................. ................... 13,7 3.4 26,1 13,4 24,8 92.5 

47.7 20.7 29,8 94.8 58,6 60.3 

.52.6 46.9 103.4 lj5,6 20.7 34.8 

·2.0 2,1 2,2 3.1 4.2 16.8 

1,4 1,4 1.5 1,7 18,2 15,9 ,3 .4 .5 2. 7 5.0 27,8 

.4 5.9 13.0 15.6 13.1 36,5 

Oct. Nov, Dec, Annual 

14.2 17.6 18.4 183.7 

-.1 8.7 11.1 65,8 

9. 7 9,4 9.5 57.6 

7.4 '7.2 5.2 77.4 

-.9 9,7 12.4 72.8 

5.3 2.5 8. 7 43.1 

1,0 -2.8 -4.1 6'7.9 

Oct. Nov. Dec, Annual 

..................... 53,0 12.9 .. ................. 53,2 36.2 29.1 341,6 

79.7 36.0 14.2 582.9 

13,9 4,2 4.2 414.0 

2:1.2 10.6 10,0 83,(} 

32,2 12.6 3,5 96.9 

51,5 44.4 9.7 149.2 

30,8 28.8 15.0 173,1' 
SURFACE WATER 369 

April 15, 1940, to Dec, 31, 1946; continuous recorder graph; 

daily mean plotted in figures 100 and 101. 

Maximum: 12, 10"ft, on Oct. 17, 1944. 

Minimum: 3~ 50 ft, on Apr, 21, 194.1, 

Discharge: Nov. 1, 1939, to Dec. 31, 1946; daily mean, plotted 

infigures 100and 101; monthly and annual runoff listed in table 

37. 

Maximum daily mean: 2, 460 cfs, on June 11, 1942. No flow, 

on Dec. 16, 1939, Apr. 11, June 18, 1940, 

Miscellaneous 

Discharge: at intermediate locations on the main canal and at 

many laterals, 1931 to 1946; occasional; usually in connection 

with special studies; see figure 98 for type of observations. 

FLOW CIIARACTEBIS'l1CS 

Because of the restricted channel in the middle reaches, the 

control of Hillsboro Canal is effected almost separately for the 

lake and coastal sections. The control and lock west of Belle Glade 

is in poor condition and has been open for the entire period of observations. One of the limited control operations has been the 

occasional closing and partial closing of the hurricane gate (HGS-4) 

in the protecti~ levee· ~around Lake Okeechobee. Hillsboro Canal 

makes a junction with North New River Canal, and it also is affected 

by the control and lock in North New ~iver Canal at South Bay. 

Another control factor, of equal importance, has been the operation 

of the two large pump installations of South Florida Conservancy 

District-one in each canal. The discharge from each of the pumphouses often divides at the pump and flows both towards the sea and 

towards the lake. Because the two canals join and have a common 

connection to the lake, the directions of flow in the· reaches near 

the pumps and the junction of the canals can be a .combination of 

several possibilities, Wheq both pumps are operating, flow at HGS-4 

is usually into the lake. 

When raj.nfall necessitates heavy pumping along upper Hillsboro 

Canal, a water summit may occur in the reach between Belle Glade 

and 6-Mile Bend. Flow becomes sluggish, and as the canal stage 

increases, the amount of seepage returning to the fields may become 

significant. 

Prior to the construction of the control at the east end of Cross 

Canal in 1944, flow was generally to the northeast into Cross Canal 

from Hillsboro Canal at 6-Mile Bend. In the spring of 1943, this 

flow ranged from 60 to 95 cfs which was about 65 percent of the flow 

at the Belle Glade gaging station, but which probably wa·s considerably less than the maximum flow into Cross Canal. After the eastend control was built, flow of Cross Canal was generally into Hillsboro Canal at 6- Mile Bend. Water summits also were observed in 

Cross Canal as a result of pumping and control manipulation. 
370 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

The water does not rise out of the banks of Hillsboro Canal west 

of 6-Mile Bend, although there have been high-water periods when 

emergency dike repairs were necessary. Southeast of 6-Mile Bend 

the road and dike on the southwest side are subject to shallow inundation. In the Shawano area the northeast bank becomes inundated 

at moderately high stages, and the canal water spreads out freely 

overland; at times, the canal acts as an interceptor of overland 

flow from the north. In either case, however, water slopes become extremely flat, and no large effective flow occurs in the 

canal. It is this lack of flow capacity to the east that causes water 

in the area east of Belle Glade to become essentially stagnant in 

flood periods. 

In periods of low and moderate water levels, flow in the reach of 

Hillsboro Canal and Shawano to Elbow Bend is small. Because gf 

the small channel and excessive weed conditions, very little flow 

is possible; during periods of extreme drought, essentially no flow 

occurs (this was observed in 1944). In the vicinity, and east, of 

Elbow Bend, a considerable amount of inseepage from the north is 

obtained from the Hillsboro Marsh area. 

Under high-water conditions, the effectiveness of Hillsboro Canal 

is reduced considerably by the discontinuous . spoil banks in the 

middle reaches. Overland flow from north to south can enter and 

leave the canal through breaks in the banks, and it cannot be stated 

positively that any water .from the Belle Glade area actually reaches 

the sea via the canal. However, some flow continues east from the 

Elbow Bend area, whatever the source. 

The several pumps for irrigation along the lower reaches of 

Hillsboro Canal have a combined capacity of about 280 cfs (1946). 

The daily pumping in dry seasons causes the canal stage to drop 

at an excessive rate. (See p. 373.) 

East of Elbow Bend, the canal is within its banks at all stages, 

although one break in the north bank and several low spots in the 

south bank permit inflow andoutflow in high-water periods. When 

heavy rain threatens or occurs, the controls in Canals E-1 and E-2 

are opened, and a large runoff load is suddenly imposed on the 

canal. The control near Deerfield Beach is opene:d or closed in 

response to the needs of the area, and the lock is opened under 

flood conditions to act as a spillway. Because it is constructed in 

sand, the control is vulnerable to possible washouts around the 

ends, and efforts are made to keep the stage below 12 ft (the top of 

the structure is a little higher than 13 ft). 

When the control and lock are both wide open under flood conditions, the stage drop through the structure may be only a few 

tenths of a foot •. Then the stage and flow are controlled by the discharge limitations of the canal and other structures farther down .. 

stream in the normally tidal reach, 
SURFACE WATER 371 

Examination of the stage and discharge hydrographs, figures 100 

and 101, will disclose a number of significant characteristics of 

Hillsboro Canal. The stage at Belle Glade in most of the years of 

record had a range of only about 2 ft; the greatest change within a 

year was 4 ft in the period of recovery from the extreme drought 

condition in 1945. This stage reacted with general water conditions 

and was affected relatively little by control operations. The relationship to Lake Okeechobee, which also reacts slowly, probably 

was the principal factor in the stage regimen. 

It will be noted that the stage at Shawano often was close to the 

stage at Belle Glade, but in the dry-spring periods the stage difference was greater (exceeding 3 ft at times). This relatively steep 

slope reflects the pumping for irrigation and the limited capacity 

of the canal to convey water, 

Records of water levels in the Everglades are extl;'emely useful 

in showing the nature and the trends in water conditions over the 

immediate surrounding area. When such a record is collected on1 

a canal, the stages usually are representative of a large area. For 

this reason, the record of daily stage of Hillsboro Canal at Shawano, 

collected since January 1, 1929, is worthy of special attention because it is the longest c6ntinuous period of record known in the 

Everglades. The daily readings for 1939-46 are shown in figures 

100 and101, and themonthlymean stagesfor the period of record, 

1929-46, are plotted in figure 102. Note the typical large rise each 

year in the summer or fall, except in 1931, and the small rises in 

1943 and 1944. The extreme low that occurred in 1945 is outstanding, particularly because of the fact that the ground surface 

at Shawano was about 15 ft above mean sea level. This was at the 

trough of the 3-year drought that ended in 1945. The lowest individual reading was 8. 73 ft. 

Stage changes at the control and lock near Deerfield Beach were 

considerably larger than changes near the lake, as might be expected, because of control operations. The typical annual stage 

range was 6 to 7 feet, and changes of several feet in a few days 

were common. Comparison of the graphs (fig. 100 and 101) will 

show that extensive stage changes at Deerfield Beach had little or 

no effect on stage at Belle Glade. The steep declines at Deerfield 

Beach, shown in the spring of the year, beginning with 1943, were 

caused by heavy pumping for irrigation; an inspection of the discharge graphs for those periods reveals that discharge at the control was small-actually, it was all leakage. 

The discharge graphs at Belle Glade and Deerfield Beach tend to 

oppose--one graph rose when the other fell-although this effect 

was not pronounced because of the relatively small discharge at 

Belle Glade, 7 The effect of the several dry years starting in 1943 

7Compare with discharge of West Pabn Beach Canal, figures 96 and 97. 
372 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

16 

---- "{\ ---

r----- """""·· ~ -\ .. , .. \ 

15 

14 

1-... A ~N~ ~ 13 

-' 12 w 

> 

w 

..1 

I 

<:( 10 w 

C/) 16 

z 

<:( 15 w 

'-..IV ···--~~ 

1929 1930 

A 

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> 

0 13 \~ -

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w 

IJ.. 

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w 

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10 

16 

15 

14 

1935 

R-M3 \J \ 12 

If-------· 

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1941 

\ 

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193§ 

---···----·-

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I~ ., .. -· 

1942 

--

--it ~=-~t\ -- -(\ ~- PJ __ y 

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193 1932 1933 1934 

A -·-·-- ----f\1\ ------A ~-\ ["""\ ('---... J _ _1 v fL\1 -..__; ---- -·--·-··· 

1937 93E 1939 1940 

·---···- ·--- ··-····-·· 

A 1\ 

I\ I \ ·~-----·--·~~ 

r \1\11 ( /\ 1'6 -------r \ /\v~· \ t'\. I v 

-........J 

~-~- \ J 

\1 1943 1944 1945 1946 

Figure 102. -Graph of monthly mean stage of Hillsboro Canal at Shawano, 1929-46, 

and the realization of the poor carrying capacity of the middle 

reaches of Hillsboro Canal is reflected in the discharge graph for 

Deerfield Beach for the spring periods. In the drought years 1943-

45, discharge was kept to a minimum and no water was purposely 

released to the sea. However, although 1946 was a relatively 

normal year, no water was released until the first heavy rains 

(early in May). This compares with prior years, when. large 

quantities of water were released in the spring. 

Discharge of Hillsboro Canal at Belle Glade was not large at 

any time, ranging between 481 cfs to the southeast and 289 cfs to• 

ward Lake Okeechobee. Flow toward the lake is shown on the discharge graphs as a negative value below the zero line. Reverse 

flow occurred 10. 0 percent of the time and ranged between 1. 4 and 

25. 0 percent yearly. The net flow, however, was to the southeast, 

and it averaged 81, 200 acre-ft yearly, An unknown volume of this 

water came from the lake. The monthly and annual runoff is listed 

{n table 36. 

The average annual runoff to the sea at Deerfield Beach was 

262, 900 acre-ft, an average of 363 cfs, which was the least amount 

of any of the four major Everglades canals. Table 37 shows the 
SURFACE WATER 373 

monthly and annual runoff. Most· of this runoff entered the canal 

in the eastern half; only a small part originated in the Lake Okeechobee area and moved eastward in the canal proper. Ope-ration, 

of .the control and lock near Deerfield Beach caused a wide range 

of discharge rates (depending upon need imposed by general water 

conditions). In many dry periods, the control was closed to conserv~ water and the flow then consisted of leakage only. 

SPECIAL S11JDIES 

Special studies in the Hillsboro Canal basin were sometimes part 

of the large studies covering the Everglades in general, which are 

reported in a later section of this chapter under Areal studies, 

page 509. 

PUMPING IN LOWER REACHES 

One of the special studies of Hillsboro Ca)1al was the evaluation 

of pumping along the lower reaches, in 1944. More than a dozen 

pumps are used for irrigation of the high sand lands bordering the 

canal, and the demand is greatest in the late winter and early 

spring, when conditions ordinarily are dry. Occasionally, a large 

amount of water is pumped to raise levels in truck-farming areas 

for frost prevention. Most of the pumping is intermittent and usually 

occurs in the daylight hours. Daily !;irawdowns of the canal level, 

as observed above the control and lock near Deerfield Beach, were · 

as much a~ 0. 6 to 0. 8 ft. Recovery during the night was about o. 4 

to 0. 6 ft, thus causing a net daily loss of about 0. 2 ft. This rate 

continued for several weeks and resulted in excessive drawdown, 

which forced s·ome of the pumps to stop, because th~ water level 

declined below the ends of the intakes. 

The capacity of the pumps was evaluated at about 280 cfs. It may be 

assumed that the pumps operated about 9 hours a day at full capacity, 

thus averaging 105 cfs per day. The net storage change in the 16-

mile reach (90ft wide, from the control to the constriction at Elbow 

Bend), for a decline of o. 2 ft, would amount to an average removal 

of 17 cfs. Therefore, about a·s cfs was obtained from other sources. 

Because about 50 cfs may have been coming from the constricted 

middle reaches of the canal, the remainder (38 cfs) must have be-en 

obtained by seepage. Most of the seepage probably came from the 

Hillsboro Marsh, on the north side of the canal west of the farming 

area. The marsh plays an important part in the water economy of 

the lower Hillsboro Canal, and its capacity and limitations as a 

storage basin must be considered in plans for further development. 

Excessive pumping from the canal would deplete the storage in t)le 

marsh and would shorten the period that it can effectively provide ·. 

irrigation supplies. The salient fact emerges that Hillsboro Cani:Ll,. 
374 WATER RESOU}I.CES lN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

in its present condition, cannot supply sufficient water for the 

irrigation needs of the lower basin-this fact was emphatically 

demonstrated in the drought of 1943-45. 

SEEPAGE IN TIDAL REACH 

An evaluation was made, December 10, 1944, of the ground-water 

inflow into Hillsboro Canal between the control and lock near Deerfield Beach and the Dixie Highway bridge--a reach of 2. 4 miles. 

The several intermediate lateral canals were inspected and were 

found to have only negligible amounts of flow; low-water conditions 

prevailed, and the controls in the laterals were closed, The discharge at the control and lock was 290 cfs on the day of the study. 

Because the canal was affected by tide below the control, resulting 

in a constant change in the amount of flow in the tidal reach, it was 

necessary to make a series of discharge measurements over a tide 

cycle at Dixie Highway. The discharge hydrograph is shown in 

figure 103. The mean discharge for the tide cycle was 388 cfs, 

which puts the variable flow in the tidal reach on a basis comparable 

to the relatively steady nontidal flow of 290 cfs at the control. The 

difference between the two discharges, 98 cfs 1 represents the 

ground-water inflow in the tidal reach. Surface inflow was negligible, and, although the data are subject to moderate degrees of 

error, it may be stated that the 98 efs represents a fair evaluation 

of the inseepage. The rate was 41 cfs per mile of canal. 

600 

o500 

z 

0 

u 

w 

(J) 

0:: 

~400 

fIJJ 

IJJ 

"-

~300 

;:, 

u 

~ 

li 200 0:: 

<( 

:1: 

u 

(J) 

iS 100 

0 

' \ -----

1-----· 

6AM 

- 7:_0 ~ h-- I r\--- -MEAN~ 7 ~:acts r-· 

\ j 

\ I ""' ~/ Discharge measurements 

8 10 12 2 4 6 8 PM 

Figure 103. -Graph showing discharge of Hillsboro Canal at Dixie Highway, Deerfield Beach, 

December 10, 1941. Period of measurements is one tide cycle. 
SURFACE WATER 375 

NORTH NEW RIVER CANAL 

PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION 

As far as effective or working length is concerned, North New 

River Canal is the longest major canal in the Everglades and is the 

only canal that carries large amounts of water from the Lake Okeechobee farm area to the Middle Everglades. (See pl. 14.) From its 

connection with Hillsboro Canal near the lake, it extends south and 

east 60 miles in a series of straight reaches, ranging between 6 

and 25 miles in length, to the tidal waters of New River near Fort 

Lauderdale. Like Hillsboro Canal, it may be divided into three 

sections. Plate 14 shows the general features of the North New 

River Canal drainage area. 

The northern, or upper, section of North New River Canal cuts 

across the area of intensive farming near Lake Okeechobee for 10 

miles in a north .. south course. The head of the canal is at Hillsboro Canal, several hundred yards east of the hurricane gate 

(HGS-4) near Chosen and Belle Glade. The first 2 miles has a 

double channel excavated to about twice the size of the normal 

channel farther to the south. Near the southern end of this 2-mile 

reach, a large pumphouse of the South Florida Conservency District 

is located on the east barik. The town of South Bay and a control 

and lock is located 2, 5 miles south of the head of North New River 

Canal. The tiny settlement of Okeelanta is located 3. 5 miles farther 

to the south, where Bolles Canal connects both from the east and 

from the west. The east branch of Bolles Canal extends eastward 

9 miles to Hillsboro Canal. The west branch connects with Miami 

Canal, about 8 miles to the west. Neither branch of Bolles Canal 

is controlled. 

The bend to the southeastward, 10 miles from the lake, roughly 

marks the limit of the principal agricultural area, although about 

1946 farms were developed south of the bend. Numerous small 

farm pumps are located along the upper reach; the canal is accessible by road, except for the first 2 miles, and the banks are 

continuous. 

The middle reaches of North New River Canal extend about 42 

miles in a southeasterly direction from the bend south of Okeelanta 

to Flamingo Road, about 8 miles east of 20-Mile Bend, The canal 

is easily accessible from State Highways 25 and 84 (formerly High .. 

ways 26 and 26-A), which are located on, and usually form part of, 

the southwest and south bank. Concrete culverts were constructed 

on State Highway 25 about every 2. 5 to 3 miles from Okeelanta to 

20-Mile Bend, These culverts are 10 feet wide and about 6 feet 

deep and are fitted with stop-logs at the western ends; thus, they 

can be controlled. The eastern spoil bank is in poor condition because of burning and subsidence, and at some locations, where 

346881 o-.!55--26 " 
376 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTiiEASTERN FLORIDA 

grading was not completed, it is discontinuous. The middle reach 

of the canal is cut through a vast sawgrass plain, and the adjoining 

area is essentially undeveloped except for some farms between the 

bend and the Palm Beach-Broward County line. 

Ten miles northwest of the county line and at the county line, 

controls with stop-logs were constructed about 1940 by the U. S. 

Soil Conservation Service and the Everglades Fire Control District. 

In addition to these controls, which seldom were used and thus were 

removed in 1946, two low dikes (dike Band dike C) were constructed. 

extending 4 and 3 miles, respectively, west from North New River 

Canal. · The purpose of the dikes was to retard and impound the 

southerly overland flow in the Everglades, and thus to preserve 

organic soils and reduce damage from fires, When new, the dikes 

were only partly effective, and at the present time, because of subsidence and fire, they are completely ineffective. The borrow 

ditches, from which the material for the dikes was obtained, remain and act as collecting and distributing channels. 

Another stotl-lcg control, constructed by the Soil Conservation 

Service at 26JMile Bend, has been operated to good advantage. 

Water can be diverted to the west, above the control, through a 

bridge on State Highway 2 5 by manipulation of a low control 50 yards 

west of the highway. 8 Dike E extends 3 miles east from the canal 

and is similar to dikes B and C~ Flow into,. or out of, the borrow 

canal for the dike passes through a control at the east bank of the 

main .canal. 

At 20-Mile Bend, State Highway 25 continues to the south and 

North New River Canal turns to the east. The highway-fill forms 

a continuous dike, extending south to the Miami Canal, and it is an 

important factor in water control of the area. Five miles east of 

20-Mile Bend is 15-Mile Dike, which was constructed south to 

South New River Canal. Three miles farther east is Flamingo Road, 

which marks the end of the middle reach of North New River Canal. 

The third, or lqwer, section of North New River Canal starts at 

Flamingo Road, about 8 miles east of 20- Mile Bend. This is essentially at the western edge of the intensively developed area lying 

south of the canal. Except along the lines of the original transverse 

glades to the coast, the muck soil thins out, and areas of sand become the dominant type of soil farther east. Flamingo Canal is on 

the west side of Flamingo Road and extends south to South New River 

Canal. A gate in the culvert under State Highway 84 controls flow 

from the main canal into Flamingo Canal, 

At range line 40--41, about 1 mile east of Flamingo Road, a stoplogcontrolwasconstructedin19469 as partof a planto keep a max8 . . 

The lateral control was removed late in 1947 to provide a maximum channel for water diverted 

from the canal. 

PThe control has been operated at full-open position to date (early 1949), because of .water 

needs In the area. 
SURFACE WATER 377 

imum amount of water stored on the unused lands to the north and 

west. West Holloway Canal connects from the north just below the 

control and extends northward 3. 5 miles and then turns eastward. 

Both banks of West Holloway Canal are composed principally of 

fine sand; they are vulnerable to wave action during periods of high· 

wind and during periods of area inundation. The west bank forms 

part of the range line 40-41 dike, which is being extended north to 

Hillsboro Canal (1948-49). A similar, but smaller, control is 

located on the north bank of North New River Canal, just above the 

main control where the borrow pit and canal for the dike connects 

with the canal. The borrow pit originally was Holloway Canal until 

the construction of the dike relocated Holloway Canal. Because 

the west bank of the borrow canal is low and discontinuous, the 

canal intercepts overland flow from the undeveloped plain to the 

northwest, 

A small number of gravity and pumped laterals extend southward 

into the intensive citrus development in the 5-mile reach east of 

Flamingo Road. The principal control facility of North New River 

Canal·is the lock and dam, north of the town of Davie and 2 miles 

west of State Highway 7 (formerly Highway 149). This is the old 

coastal control and is the point where the canal discharges into 

tidal waters. Just downstream. East Holloway Canal (which is not 

controlled) enters the main canal from the north. East Holloway 

Canal extends north 4 miles and then turns westward to connect with 

West Holloway Canal. 

A little more than 1 mile east of State Highway 7. North New 

·River Canal ends at South Fork New River. which is a natural waterway. Flow from the canal ultimately finds its way to the Intracoastal 

Waterway and to the sea. via South Fork New River or Dania Cutoff Canal, or by both routes-this is discussed in a subsequent 

section on the lower New River basin. 

All except the last j mile of the lower reach of North New River 

Canal is readily accessible from State Highway 84, which is on, or 

close to, the south bank. 

The following listing gives the principal features along North New 

River Canal, with cumulative mileages from its head at Hillsboro 

Canal. Additional locations are listed to show distances to the tidal 

waterways at the coast, 

Location MilM~Je 

Head, Hillsboro Canal (0. 2 mile east of HGS-4} ................... 0 

Bridge. F. E, C. Railway ................................................ 2,1 

Bridge, Highway 80, South Bay ......................................... 2. 4 

Control and lock (gaging station) ....................................... 2, 5 

Bolles Canal, Okeelanta .................................................. 6. 1 
378 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTiiEA.STERN FLORIDA 

l.ocatzon Mileage 

Bend (south of Okeelanta)................................................ 9. 8 

Control, dike B ............................................................. 18. 5 

Control, dike C, county line ............................................ 28. 5 

CoQtrol, dike E, 26-Mile Bend (gaging station)., ................. 37.0 

20-Mile Bend ......... ~ ....................................................... 42. 8 

15-Mile Dike (to south) .................................................. ,48, 1 

Flamingo Canal, Flamingo Road, ..................................... 51. 3 

Control, range line 40-41 dike (to north), West Holloway 

Cana1 ............••.............•....••.•...............•.•.••..•..••.•...•.. 52. 4 

Control and lock (gaging station), East Holloway Canal ........ 56. 7 

Bridge, State Highway 7 ....................................... - .......... 58, 6 

South Fork New River, south of canal ............................... 59.8 

Via South Fork New River and New River 

Bridge, S. A. L. Railway .............................................. 61,0 

New River, North Fork New River ................................... 63,0 

Tarpon River .............................................................. 63.1 

Bridge, F. E. C. Railway .............................................. 63.7 

Bridge, Andrews Avenue, Fort Lauderdale ....................... 63. 8 

Bridge, u.s. Highway 1 ................................................ 64,2 

Tarpon River ................................................................ 64.8 

Intracoastal Waterway .................................................... 65.4 

RECORDS AVAILABLE 

[Records continued after period of this investigation] 

South Bay 

Stage (north of control): July 19, 1943, to Dec, 31, 1946; staff 

gage read twice daily; stage often the same as in Lake Okeechobee. 

Maximum observed: 15. 58ft, on Mar. 18-20, 1946. 

Minimum observed: 9. 56ft, on June 15, 1945, 

Stage (south of control): Oc.t. 28, 1939, to Dec, 31, 1946; staff 

gage read twice daily; daily mean of readings plotted in figures 

104 and 105, 

Maximum observed: 14. 98 ft, on July 20, 25, 1941. 

·Minimum observed: 8, 78ft, on June 15, 16, 1945. 

Discharge: Nov. 8, 1939, to Dec. 31, 1946; dailymeanofreadings 

plotted in figures 104 and 105; monthly and annual runoff listed 

in table 38. 

Maximum daily mean: 445 cfs to north on June 10, 17, 1942; 

365 cfs to south, on Dec. 15, 1946. No flow for long periods 

and at times of reversal of flow. 
Year Jan. Feb. Mar. 

1939 .................. ............... .................. 1940 8.9 5.8 3.4 

1941 8. 2 6.1 7.3 

1942 5.2 4.7 6.1 

1943 8,8 8. 7 9.4 

1944 10.4 8. 7 8.4 

1945 11,2 7. 5 .4.8 

1946 4.1i 5.8 7.8 

Table 38.-Runolf of ,'forth ,'lew River Canal at South Bay 

[Unit, 1, 000 acre-feet] 

Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. 

................... .................... ..................... ................. ................. ............... 2. 6 6,9 7.7 9,3 9,5 ti, 7 

5. 7 7,2 1,4 -12,3 2,6 5,1 

4.9 2. 7 -10.9 -.2 10,6 5.7 

7. 2 5.8 3.4 4,8 5.3 6. 2 

5,9 8.8 3,2 7,6 1.0 1.4 

8.0 5.9 4.3 1,5 5. 6 3.8 

11.6 11.7 5. 7 5.4 5,1 5.1 

Note. -Negative discharge indicates flow toward Lake Okeechobee. 

Table 39.-Runofl of ;'.'ortil :"few River Canal near Fort Lauderdale 

[Unit, 1 , 000 acre -feet] 

Year Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. 

1939 ................. .................. ................ ................... ................. ................... ................. . .................. ................... 1940 16.7 26.8 21.6 18.1 9.0 38.4 30,2 50,3 63.8 

1941 44.8 43,6 46,4 1i6,5 31.4 30,5 94.4 81,3 64.8 

1942 30.7 21.2 20.0 30.7 22.9 86.7 85.1 53.1 54,6 

1943 6.6 6,8 3,4 2,5 5. 6 5.2 18,3 22.4 30,4 

1944 8.2 1. 8 2. 7 2.4 6.4 1.9 1.4 8,4 8,1 

1945 4,3 2,0 .7 .3 .2 .2 1.9 2,4 25.4 

1946 14,3 2,5 1. 7 ,5 3,2 15.6 24,9 34.0 52,0 

lfor period November 8-30. 

Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual 

................ 4,ti 8,1 .............. 4.8 11,1 8. 9 85,6 

6,9 5,2 8.1 51,5 

10,2 11,0 12,3 62.3 

10.9 11.6 10.6 92.7 

3,8 4,9 4.8 68.9 

3,1 3.3 3.8 62.8 

3,9 4.9 11.6 83,2 

Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual 

.. ................. 121.9 13.2 .. .............. 52.0 41.2 33,3 401,4 

71.6 39,9 23,0 !i38,2 

39.4 15.0 12.8 472.2 

26.8 8,9 11.1 148,0 

29,0 16,8 7,3 94.4 

50.8 69.0 20,8 178,0 

38.9 35,0 8. 7 231,3 
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a I ~SCHJ tb &a y _j_ ~k~~~t;~;; ~~M' 1942 ~.~..4500 I'JNj:- .FEB. ~I PU.Y " y SEPT. OCT. NOV. DEC. 

Figure 104. -Graphs showing stage and discharge of North New River Canal, 1939-42. 

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-- fEll. MAll APRIL ... ~ JUr<E JULY AUG. SEPI'. ocr. NOV. DEC. 

tooo•l----+---+---l,-+---1-+----+---+-_ .._-h[P~F\~If'v..-i---1 

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I- 'Near FQfi.Louderdale• _\946 

-!iOO .Jifl. FEB. MAR.. JULY I :NOV. DEC. 

Figwe 105. -Graphs •bowing stage and di•charge of North New River Canal, 1943-46, 
382 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

26-Mile Bend 

Stage, north of control: June 23, 1942, to Dec. 31, 1946; con• 

tinuous recorder graph; daily mean plotted in figures 104 and 

105. 

Maximum: 11. 05 ft, on Aug. 4, 1944. 

Minimum: 6. 42 ft, on Mar. 6, 1943. 

Discharge: Aug. 1, 1941, to Dec. 31, 1946; through main control; 

about twice-monthly discharge measurements. 

Maximum measured; 1, 170 cfs, Aug. 1, 1941. 

Minimum measured: 9. 4 cfs, on Dec. 15, 1944. 

Fort Lauderdale, near, Lock No. 2 

Stage, west of control: Nov. 4, 1939, to Dec. 31, 1946; continuous recorder graph; daily mean plotted in figures 104' and 105. 

Maximum: 6. 93 ft, on Dec. 16, 1946. 

Minimum: 0.. 78ft, on Dec. 3, 1942. 

Maximum known: 7.66 ft, on Oct. 15, 1929, from records by 

Everglades Drainage District. 

Discharge: Nov. 8, 1939, to Dec. 31, 1946; daily mean plotted 

in figures 104 and 105; monthly and annual runoff listed in 

table 39. 

Maximum daily mean: 1, 970 cfs, on Aug. 8, 1941. 

Minimum daily mean: 3 cfs, several days in May and June 

1945; leakage only. 

Maximum known: 5, 400 cfs, on Oct. 15, 1929, from records 

by Everglades Drainage District. 

Miscellaneous 

Discharge: at intermediate locations on the main canal and at 

laterals, 1939 to 1946; occasional; usually in connection with 

special basin studies; see figure 106 for type of observations. 

FLOW CUARACTEIUSUCS 

Conditions of flow in North New River Canal near Lake Okeechobee are necessarily associated with the regimen of the upper Hillsboro Canal because the two canals join and form a continuous reach. 

The control and lock at South Bay was in poor condition during the 

period of observations by the Geological Survey, but it was operated 

to hold varying small heads. Thus, Hillsboro Canal, in which the 

control near the lake does not function, is the semidependent waterway and is controlled in part by North New River Canal. Under 

certain conditions (seep. 336), the hurricane gate (HGS-4), in the 

protective levee west of the junction of the canals, acts as a control. 

The large pump north of the control at South Bay and the similar 

pump in Hillsboro Canal at Chosen (near Belle Glade) have a considerable effect on the direction and distribution of flow in the upper 
SURFACE WATER 383 

reaches of the canals, The pump . discharge often divides at the 

pumps, and thus all combinations of flows result. Ordinarily, when 

both pumps are discharging, flow at HGS-4 is into Lak!il Okeechobee, 

although flow in the two canals at the gaging stations may be away 

from the lake. 

In periods of heavy rainfall, flow at the South Bay control may be 

to the ·north (toward the. lake), partly because of heavy pumping at 

farms south of the control. Although at one time the water summit 

was found at Bolles Canal, this may not always be true. The maximum discharge to the north exceeds the maximum to the south 

(based on 7 years of record). The lock at the South Bay control is 

not operated as a discharge channel, 

Between South Bay and the bend south of Okeelanta, the east bank 

of North New River Canal overflows at several locations during 

flood periods. Numerous farm pumps discharge into, or irrigate 

from, the canal. Water in the east and west branches of Bolles 

Canal flows into the main canal, but it may reverse when irrigation 

demand exceeds the ordinary flow, Bolles Canal is a poor water 

carrier because it flows through the area of greatest soil subsidence 

in the Everglades--B. 4 ft of soil was lost near Okeelanta between 

1913 and 1946 (Florida Agr. Exper. Sta., 1948, p. 80), Because 

of a lack of maintenance procedures, the channel area has been 

reduced by extensive shoals near the pumps, 

Flow through culverts in State Highway 25, from the bend south 

of Okeelanta to the Palm Beach-Broward County line, usually is 

into North New River Canal. In wet seasons, water from the higher 

lands along the west side of the Everglades, south of Clewiston, 

moves overland in a southeasterly direction into the North New 

River Canal drainage area. The canal is in a definite subsidence 

valley and acts as a collecting channel. This action continues until 

drought stages develop, whereupon the water in the canal is held 

higher than in the land, and outflow to the land by seepage may 

occur, Except where farm ditches may be connected, stub laterals 

extend about 50 ft west from the culverts. 

From the Palm Beach-Broward County line to 26-Mile Bend, 

flow in the highway culverts is out of the canal in flood periods, 

but it may reverse when a return to moderate levels occurs. 

Wate:r: levels above the control at 26-Mile Bend usually are maintained sufficiently high to divert flow through the stub lateral to the 

west, where it fans out over the open lands. Occasionally, the stage 

is low enough to permit inflow to the canal, but the control in the 

lateral was operated to prevent such flow (see footnote on page 376). 

Water is also diverted through the control in the east lateral, but 

this flow is smaller than the flow to the west: Because ofthe relatively close relationship to the higher water levels of the Hillsboro 
384 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUIHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Canal drainage area, flow into the canal from the east lateral occurs 

in periods of moderate water levels. 

Flow in the highway culverts from 26-Mile Bend to 20- Mile Bend, 

when open, is into North New River Canal. 

Under high-water and flood conditions overland flow from the 

northeast enters the canal at numerous gaps in .the eastern spoil 

bankfrom0keelantato20-MileBend. Flow in the highway culverts 

maybe, andoftenis, cutoff byplacingstop-logsin the control ends 

of the culverts. 

The north spoil bank of North New River Canal, from 20- Mile 

Bend to the control and lock north of Davie, is high and continuous, 

except for several low places that permit inflow into the canal in 

extreme flood conditions. The only north-bank lateral is West 

Holloway Canal which in wet periods pours large quantities of water 

into the main canal. This 14-mile reach is important to the water 

economy of what is known as the Davie area, the land lying between 

North New River and South New River Canals and extending a short 

distance south of the latter canal. 

State Highway 84 (formerly Highway 26A), on the south side of 

the canal, forms a continuous dike that is topped only in maximum 

flood conditions; and even then, a temporary low levee of sand and 

gravel is constructed to prevent overflow. A number of culverts 

under the highway connect with distribution laterals and farm ditches 

extending to South New River Canal. Some of the laterals utilize 

pumps for irrigation or drainage, but most of the water is supplied 

by grav~ty flow. 

South New River Canal is held at a lower stage than North New 

River Canal and acts principally as a drainage channel. The relationship between these two large, and roughly parallel, canals is 

unique because both irrigation and drainage are possible by gravity 

and sometimes are carried on simultaneously. Seepage rates in 

the sand and rock of the area are fairly high and necessitate additional pumping and drainage capacity. 

The control and lock north of Davi~ is a typical Everglades structure. The spillway and stop-log section is entirely removed and 

the lock is opened to provide maximum capacity for flood flows. 

In maximum floods, overflow occurs at the north end of the control, 

but there is no serious threat of washout because the whole structure is subject to a high degree of submergence; drop in water surface across the control is only a few tenths of a foot, and velocities 

are relatively low. Tide effect ordinarily extends to the downstream 

face of the control, but it may occur above the control at moderate 

and low stages when the control or lock is open. 
SURFACE WATER 385 

The north bank has several large breaks for a distance of 1 mile 

east of the control and lock, which permit large quantities of overland flow to enter North New River Canal in very wet periods. State 

Highway 84 on the south bank is subject to overflow, unless it is 

diked off. 

The canal takes a gently meandering course east of State Highway 7 (formerly Highway 149), and it enters _the swampy headwaters 

of New River. A discussion of the lower New River basin is in a 

subsequent section. 

Because of the natural and artificial water regimen of the area, 

North New River Canal, throughout its length, is inadequate for 

the water load imposed on it. Although its construction closely followed the original design, it cannot handle the requirem~nts of the 

upper, middle, and lower reaches. Satisfactory operation of the 

canal has bee~ prevented by the conflicting needs in the several 

areas and by a lack of responsibility for operation of the controls. 

The stage and discharge hydrographs, figures 104 and 105, show 

certain significant characteristics of North New River Canal at the 

principal gaging stations. The intermediate record at 26- Mile Bend 

aids considerably in studying the regimen of water events in the 

basin. 

When HGS-4 was open, and flow in the upper canal was small, 

the stage at the north side of the control at South Bay was much the 

same as that in Lake Okeechobee. The control was in poor condition, but heads of as much as 4 ft were held. Repairs to the control 

in July 1945 were reflected in the relatively stable discharge afterward. It will be noted that the greatest discharge at South Bay was 

reverse flow (toward the lake). 

The stage at South Bay was independent of stage changes at the 

control west of Fort Lauderdale (Lock No. 2), except to the extent 

that general water conditions affected the whole basin; and it was 

independent of changes at 26-Mile Bend to a considerable degree. 

It will be noted that when discharge at Lock No. 2 was large, the 

discharge at South Bay was small (and in extreme cases, it was 

reversed). 

Stage changes at 26-Mile Bend often were reflectedin the stage 

at Lock No. 2, but at times the changes at the two stations were 

opposed (as in March 1946). Oc,casionally, a large stage-change 

at 26-Mile Bend, with consequent reduction of flow, caused no 

significant change at Lock No. 2 because control adjustments were. 

made at Lock No. 2 to hold the same stage (see November 1942 

and October 1943). 
386 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

In common with other Everglades canals, adjustments of stage 

at the lower control (Lock No. 2) often resulted in essentially no 

change in discharge once the storage behind the control had adjusted. A very low stage occurred in September 1945 when the 

control was opened to facilitate repairs to the control. 

The daily discharge of North New River Canal at South Bay was 

not large at any time, ranging between 365 cfs to the south and 

445 cfs to the north (toward Lake Okeechobee). Flow to the north. 

or reverse flow, is shown on the discharge graphs below the zero 

line as a negative value-here, the flow toward the sea is determined to be the positive, or normal, direction. Reverse flow 

occurrt;d 3. 5 percent of the time and ranged between 0 an,d 11. 7 

percent yearly, 'which was a shorter period of time than for 

reverse flows that occurred in West Palm Beach and Hillsboro 

Canals. The net flow, which was to the south, averaged 72,400 

acre-ft yearly. Part of this water came from the lake but the 

amount is unknown. The monthly and annual runoff is listed in 

table 38. 

Periodic measurement.s of discharge from the west reach of 

Bolles Canal into North New River Canal were made in 1940-42. 

The maximum discharge measured was 300 cfs, on July 28, 1941. 

On several occasions no flow was observed during dry periods, and 

it is believed reverse flow into Bolles Canal occurred when irrigation demand exceeded the flow from the west. 

Construction of North New River Canal closely followed the 

original design, but because of its length and slightly smaller 

cross section, it was less effective than West Paim Beach Canal 

in draining the Everglades. The average annual runoff to the sea 

at the control and lockwest ofFort Lauderdale was 309,100 acre-1 

ft, which averages 427 cfs. More than three-quarters of this runoff originated to the south of South Bay, and undoubtedly a large 

part of it drained by seepage and direct inflow from the unused 

lands to the south of the principal farming area. Table 39 shows 

the monthly and annual runoff. 

The discharge at the lower control varied widely, and in dry 

periods, when flow was cut off by. closing the control gates, the 

discharge was as little as 3 cfs. This small flow was leakage 

through the lock gates and under the structure, and until repairs 

were made early in 1945, the flow amounted to at least 30 cfs. 

SEEPAGE RATES 

A series of 14 studies of North New River Canal was made in 

the period 1941-45 to determine seepage losses or gains. Because 
SURFACE WATER 387 

of the dense cover of hyacinth on the canal at that time, observations 

of flow could not be made at all of the desired locations and, necessarily, some studies were incomplete. 

Most of the seepage determinations were made under dry conditions, when movement of water was slow and differences of discharge 

between locations along the canal reached the point of permissible 

measurement error. Some of the studies, however, were complete 

enough to furnish significant information. Data obtained along North 

New River Canal on May 1, and November 2, 3, 1944, are shown 

in figure 106. Only the lower half of the canal is shown, because 

the more significant phase of the problem occurred there. Seepage rates are shown as straight lines between observation locations. 

Discharge in the main canal is shown as a continuous graph with 

inflows, or outflows, indicated by vertical distances. 

The study of May 1, 1944, was made under extremely dry conditions. The lev'el of Lake Okeechobee was low, and flow at the 

upper end of North New River Canal was only 157 cfs. Water levels 

were below the ground surface throughout the length of the canal, 

but they were above, and below, the ground-water table at various 

location5. The most interesting aspect of the study is the loss, or 

outseepage, in the east-west reach from 20-Mile Bend to 15-Mile 

Dike. Here, the canal is cut through permeable rock and the soil is 

shallow, but farther to the east, deep sand is encountered and the 

seepage rate decreased. In this particular instance, the canal level 

was above the water table and outseepage occurred at an average 

. rate of 21 cfs per lineal mile. 

The study of November 2, 3, 1944, was made when water levels 

were moderate in the upper Everglades and fairly high in the lower 

Everglades. The water table at most locations along the canal was 

higher than the level of the canal, and the discharge of the canal 

progressively increased downstream. The graph shows that the 

gain in discharge, or inseepage, increased considerably between 

20-Mile Bend and 15-Mile Dike and averaged 19 cfs per lineal mile. 

At the time, it is probable that most of the inseepage was derived 

from the area north of the canal, where water was stored .above the 

canal level. The vertical jump in the discharge graph at range line 

40-41 represents a large inflow from this storage pool. 

The two studies furnish an indication of the intricate relatipnship 

between water levels and canal flows. The seepage rates are not 

maxima for North New River Canal, or for any other canal that is 

dug in porous rock. On the other hand, unpublished data by U. S. 

Soil Conservation Service shows that, under stable water conditions, 

the lev~l of a canal can be considerably independent of the water 

table, which can continue at a uniform slope across the line of the 

canal. 
388 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

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G !oo~----+-------4--------r-------t-~~~~+-------4-------r------f '!!: \.,''-;;. * ~.; 

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~ 200~------+-------~----~~~y~~~~:~~.-+-------~------~-------l Q ;::;:- ' 

<Y' ........ 

,., ..... .,..... '\~oy 1,194-4 

100~------~----~-------+-------+------~--~~~~----+-----~ 

~ho 

2~o~----~s-------3~0~----~"~----~40~----~4~~------~5*o~----~55~----~&~o 

MILES BELOW JUNCTION W~TH HILLS60RO CANAL 

Figure 106, --Graph of discharge and seepage rates of North New River Canal on May 1 and 

November 2, 3, 1944. 
SURFACE WATER 389 

SOUTH NEW RIVER CANAL 

PHYSICAL DESCBIP'I10N 

• South New River Canal, one of the shorter arterial waterways, 

runs east and west and lies entirely within Broward County. The 

western end of its 23-mile channel connects with Miami Canal, 

and the eastern end connects with Dania Cutoff Canal and South 

Fork New River and thus ultimately enters the sea. 

The connection between South New River Canal and Miami Canal 

is not controlled, and free interchange of flow can occur at all 

times. State Highway 25 crosses South New River Canal about 8 

miles to the east of the junction of these two canals. The south 

spoil bank is continuous in the reach, but the north bank is breached 

in at least three locations and overland inflow from the north occurs 

in wet periods. 

Fill for the construction of State Highway 25 was obtained from 

borrow pits along the west side of the highway, and these borrow 

pits form sizable canals extending north and south. The north 

borrow pit ends at North New River Canal at 20- Mile Bend, almost 

6 miles to the north, but it is not connected with that canal. A low 

place in the north spoil bank (and later • a culvert pipe) permits 

flow from the north borrow pit into South New River Canal. The 

south borrow pit ends at the Dade-Broward County line, a little 

more than 7 miles to the south; it is not connected with South New 

River Canal. . 

A quarter mile east of State Highway 25 is an earth dam, which 

makes a pool of the upper reach of South New River Canal. A 

small pipe culvert is set high in the dam, but in the period 1940-

46, no flow was observed. Moderate flow occurred in 1940-41 

through a breach in the dam. 

Another earth dam, which was construqted about 1924 and which 

was extensively breached in 1941, is located 4t miles east of State 

Highway 25. Head on the dam has been small since the breaching, 

and it is relatively ineffective as a water control. 10 A levee, known 

as 15-Mile Dike, extends north 4. 5 miles from this location to 

State Highway 84 and North New ~iver Canal. 

Snake Creek Canal connects from the south with South New River 

Canal at a point 3 miles east of 15-Mile Dike. Here, Flamingo 

Canal extends northward to connect with North New River Canal on 

the west side of Flamingo Road. This location marks the western 

edge of the intensive citrus development in the Davie area. Flamingo Canal is controlled at a point t mile north of South New River 

Canal and at its head at North New River Canal. 

10The break in the dam was roughly filled about December 1947. Later, three 48-inch pipe 

culverts were installed. 
390 WATER RESOURCES lN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

A typical control and lock is located nearly 4 miles east of Snake 

Creek Canal at the western side of the town of Davie, About 3 miles 

farther downstream, State Highway 7 (formerly Highway 149) 

crosses the canal and marks the eastern limit of the Davie area. 

Numerous north-south uncontrolled lateral canals connect in the 

reach from Snake Creek Canal to State Highway 7. 

South New River Canal ends at the Florida Power and Light 

Co. plant about 0, 4 mile east of State Highway 7. Here the canal 

connects with Dania Cutoff Canal and the canalized reaches of South 

Fork New River, both of which connect with the Intracoastal Waterway and ultimately with the sea. Dania Cutoff Canal is the shorter 

and more direct outlet. Details of the lower New River basin are 

discussed in the next section. 

The banks of South New River Canal are continuous from State 

Highway 25 to the lower end, except for several breaks in the south 

bank, west of Snake Creek Canal. The canal is accessible by roads 

along the banks from about 2 miles west of Snake Creek Canal to 

State Highway 7. 

The following table lists the principal features along South New 

River Canal with cumulative mileages from its head at Miami Canal. 

Additional locations are listed to show distances to the tidal waterways at the coast. 

Location Mileage 

Head, connection with Miami Canal. ................................... 0 

Bridge, State Highway 25 (formerly 26) .............................. 8. 4 

Earth dam ...................................................................... B. 6 

Dam (15-Mile Dike) ....................................................... 12. 8 

Bridge, Snake Creek Canal, Flamingo Canal, Flamingo 

Road ........................................................................ 15.9 

Control and lock No, 3 .................................................. 19.6 

Bridge, Davie ............................................................... 20.9 

Bridge, State Highway 7 (formerly 149) ............................. 22. 4 

Mouth, connection with Dania Cutoff Canal and South Fork 

New River ......................••..... ......................................... 22. 8 

via South Fork New River 

Lateral, Florida Power and Light Co. plant intake ............. 22.9 

Lateral, Florida Power and Light Co, plant return .......... , •• , 23,8 

Bridge, State Highway 84 (formerly 26-A) ............ , ........... 24. 6 

North New River Canal, mouth of ...................................... 24,8 

(for continuation of New River see similar list for North 

New River Canal on page 377). 
SURFACE WATER 391 

via Dania Cutoff Canal 

Location Mileage 

Lateral, powerplant intake ............................................. 22,9 

Control ....................................... •·•••·•············•·••·•••·•••·• 22. 9 

Lateral, powerplant -return ............................................. 2 3. 4 

Bridge, Ravenswood Road ............................................... 24. 9 

Bridge, Seaboard Railway ............................................... 25. 1 

Bend .......... ············•··•·••••••••••••·············•••••••••············•• 25. 3 

Bend •..•........•.. ··••·•••••·•·•············••••••···············••••·••······ 26. 0 

Hollywood Canal. ......................................................... 26. 0 

Bridge, F. E. c. Railway ................................ -............. 26, 7 

Bridge_, U. s. Highway 1 ................................................ 26, 7 

Mouth of Dania Cutoff Canal, Intracoastal Waterway ............ 28,6 

RECORDS AVAILABLE 

[ * Record continued after period of this investigation] 

., 

Highway 25 

Stage: Apr. 12, 1943, to Dec. 31, 1946*; continuous recorder 

graph; daily mean plotted in figure 107. 

Davie, near, (at Snake Creek Canal) 

Stage, east of bridge; Nov. 8, 1939, to June 15, 1941; staff gage 

read twice daily; daily mean of readings plotted in figure J 08. 

Maximum observed: 5. 68 ft on Sept. 12, 1940. 

Minimum observed: 0. 50 ft on Dec. 17, 18, 1940. 

Discharge, including inflow from Snake Creek Canal and Flamingo 

Canal: Nov. 8, 1939, to June 30, 1941; daily mean plotted in 

figure 108; discharge measurements listed in table 40, including tributary inflow; monthly and annual runofflisted in 

table 41. 

Maximum daily mean: 337 cfs, on Sept. 21, 1940. 

Minimum daily mean: 5. 8 cfs, May 21-28, 1940 

Davie, at 

Discharge, monthly, January 1940 to December 1942, listed as 

"other flow" out of the area in table 63. . . 

346881 0-55--27 
I 

DADE 

(MIAMI 

·BROW~O CAl /U-) OP£N CWNTY ! liNE DAM -nlmmmmr r:_ ~ _..... 

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f\. r .-(,945 OEISERVA'nON STATION IS AT 

i\ STATE HIGHWAY 25 ( FOR!oOERI.l' 26 ) 

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FEBRUAII'f 

- APRil MAY JUNE .JUlY AUliUST SEP'Ini8ER OC10BER NIM:IIBER 

Figure 107. -Graph of stage of South New River Canal about 8 miles west of Snake Creek Canal, 1941-46 • 

.. 

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DECEMBER 
7 

6 

OBSERVATfON SfATION IS Ja SNAKE CREEK 

r'\~ CAN"'-, 5 Mli.ES WEST F DAVIE 

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' ....... , vv_ / 1 tk_J 'rJ -·7 

1939 • r-~j · .. _., 0 JANU.t.RY FEIIRUARY IIIARCH o\PRIL 

- JUNE ,JUlY AUGUST. SEl"'EVVIVV OCT OllER NCHDIBER Df!CEMBER 

Fipe 108. -Graph of stage and discharge of South New River Canal near Davie, 1939-41, 
394 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTiiEASTERN Fl.ORIDA 

Table 4p.-Discharge measuTements, in cubic feet pet' second, and elevations, in feet 

above mean sea level, of South New RiveT, Fltn~ingo, and Snake Creek Canals at 

intersection 

[Measurements of illflow marked by asterisk (*) are estimated] 

Flow of Illflow from ' 

Date of South New Elev of water 

measure· River Canal Flamingo Snake Creek sunace at ment above Canal, Canal, intersection 

intersection from north from south 

1939 

Nov, 8 54.5 25.6 *2 4.51 

15 53,6 19.9 *2 4.43 

Dec, 5 45.7 13,7 *2 3,40 

13 46,7 14.6 *1 3.16 

20 39,0 *4 *1 3.38 

1940 

Jan. 6 39,5 16.4 *1 3.32 

12 50.6 22.6 *2 3,32 

23 33.9 33.4 *2 3,21 

Feb. 1 39.4 36.5 0 3,33 

9 39,7 41.0 *1 3.19 

20 39.9 29.0 *1 3.02 

27 35.2 29,6 •.s 2.76 

Mar. 7 33.7 21,0 0 2.61 

15 33.6 15,5 0 2.18 

22 22.6 12,0 0 2.37 

27 27.7 9,5 0 2,23 

Apr. 4 41,6 9.5 •2 2.29 

9 33,2 6.4 0 2,13 

19 22,5 *1 0 1. 90 

26 19,0 *1. 5 0 1.71 

26 7. 7 *1.5 •.s 1.81 

27 12.7 •,4 2.05 

May 3 10.5 •. 2 0 2.28 

10 7. 9 0 *1 2.21 

17 6.4 0 1 ••• 4 2.36 

22 5,3 0 *.5 2.38 

31 10.3 19.6 *2 'Z.88 

June 4 62,5 61.4 10,9 ::..46 

15 41,9 29.6 •s 2.94 

21 32.0 9.6 *2 2. 06 

26 23,6 25.2 *4 2,04 

July 5 27,3 13,6 0 1,86 

12 25,2 21.1 0 1, 98 

19 23.2 21.2 0 1.94 

24 17.6 20,7 •1 1.87 

31 28.0 28.3 *3 2,56 

Aug, 7 32,4 18.5 *3 2,65 

14 23,9 13.6 •5 3,17 

22 28,1 14.1 •5 3,32 

30 48.2 27,8 *12 4.15 

Sept, 3 34,0 16.8 *1 3,70 

13 163 62.5 "5 5.65 

17 130 84.1 •a 4.91 

24 208 101 16,8 4,47 

Oct. 1 196 61.8 14,7 3,73 

8 146 82.2 14.8 2.81 

8 lr3> (2) (2) 2.86 

17 56.4 *10 2.79 

22 108 57,8 12.4 2.00 

30 114 68.9 14.3 3,22 

Nov. 7 145 58.2 12.5 2,49 

13 98.1 37.3 10.0 2.32 

20 81.6 38.9 10.9 1. 27 

27 63.9 36.5 9.0 1.83 
SURFACE WATER 395 

Table 40.-DischBtge measurements, in cubic feet per second, and elevations, in feet 

above moan sea level, of South New River, Flamingo, and Snake Creek Canals at 

intersection-Continued 

Flow of Inflow from 

Date of South New measure ... River Canal Flamingo Snake Creek 

ment above Canal, Canal, 

intersection from north from south 

1940 

,Dec, 4 65.8 22.6 8.5 

10 50.5 18.8 6,3 

18 46.4 9,3 3,8 

26 39.3 29.5 6.8 

1941 

Jan. 9 66.3 38.8 10,1 

15 40.0 16.7 5.3 

23 61.0 31,4 7.3 

30 37.4 23,6 6.1 

Feb, 6 55,4 19.8 4.4 

15 99.7 42,9 15.3 

26 71.6 27,2 11.6 

Mar. 7 77.8 15,0 5.4 

19 77.5 16,4 4.6 

26 30,9 27.8 7.1 

Apr. 3 63.8 28.6 4,1 

9 85.9 67,3 17.4 

22 92.4 23,4 5.4 

30 69.7 23,5 5. 6 

May 6 69.7 17,4 2.9 

14 45.5 7,1 *1 

21 32.3 *7 *2 

28 12.7 0 0 

June 25 55.9 45.2 2.1 

1943 

Mar. 31 25.7 0 0 

May 5 28.5 1 0 

June 3 59,5 0 2 

1 Negat1ve sign indicates flow to south, oppos1te to normal direction, z Flow (235 cfs) measured below intersection of Snake Creek Canal • 

.. 

Elev of water surface at intersection 

• 86 

1.66 

1.21 

2.36 

2.23 

2.12 

1,41 

2.10 

1,48 

2,04 

1, 65 

1,04 

1,20 

1.93 

1.05 

2.62 

2.23 

2.72 

2,46 

2.26 

1.80 

2,65 

4,00 

2.22 

2.54 

1.86 
Year Jan. Feb. Mar. 

1939 ................ ................ ................ 1940 4,4 4.2 3.0 

1941 5.4 7,1 5.1 

1For period November 8-30. 

Apr. 

Table 41.-Runoff of South New Rivec Canal near Davie 

[Unit, 1, 000 acre-feet] 

May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. 

"''''i:'8'''' .................. 0,5 ""'4:'5''"' """"2:'9"' ....... 3:'4"" "'"13:'2"" "'""13:'0" 

7.1 3.2 3.0 .................................................................... . 

Note, -Runoff measured just east of Snake Creek Canal; includes inflow from Snake Creek and Flamingo Canals. 

11 

Nov. 

13,3 

9,3 

Dec. 

3.5 

5.2 

Annual 

.............. 65,5 
,SURFACE WATER 397 

FLOW CBARACTEBISDCS 

The South New River Canal drainage area was not studied intensively, and information on it is relatively meager. Because of the 

close relationship of the drainage area to adjoining areas, however, 

it is possible to present certain general characteristics. 

The upper reach of South New River Canal, between Miami Canal 

and State Highway 25, is part of a longpool that is continuous with 

Miami Canal. The storage pool and its adjoining area has considerable effect on the water regimen of Miami Canal; this is discussed 

in detail in the section onMiami Canal. 

The stage as recorded at State Highway 25 about 8 miles east of 

Miami Canal, is shown in figure 107. This record is extremely 

useful because it reflects essentiiillY natural conditions integrated 

over a large area by the pool formed by the two canals. The annual 

maximums varied little, and in all except 1 of the 6 years of record 

a stage of 8. 0 ft or higher was reached. The relationship with 

general water conditions is shown by the varying amounts of decline 

of water levels in the winter and spring, despite the fairly uniform 

high levels in the fall. 

The accelerated rate of decline below a stage of 7 ft occurs because the ordinary ground elevation in the area is about 6. 5 to 7 ft. 

An inch of water lost by runoff, seepage, and evapotranspiration 

when the area is inundated obviously causes a 1-in. decline in water 

level over the surface area of the canal. An inch of water that is 

lost when water-table conditions prevail means a decline in the 

water level of the canal of about 4 or 5 in., depending upon the 

specific yield of the soil or rock. This accelerated rate of decline 

in the water level occurs because the rate of loss from runoff, 

seepage, and evapotranspiration is relatively uniform in the period 

of transition from inundation to water-table conditions. 

State H{ghway 2 5 acts as a dike to hold overland flow from moving 

to the east, Seepa1_e through the porous rock under the highway 

and under the dam, /4 mile to the east, augments the discharge of 

the middle reaches of South New River Canal. Water movement 

from the open lands is thus retarded and is spread over a longer 

period of time, reducing the peak of floods to some degree and also 

extending favorable water conditions when dry periods develop. 

The defect in the situation from the viewpoint of water control is 

that, because of the porosity of the rock and its extent, only limited 

control can be accomplished. 

The breach in the dam at 15-Mile Dike nullifies the effect of that 

dam, because the head developed there is usually small and often 

negligible. The reach from State Highway 25 to Snake Creek Canal 

acts as a collector of ground-water seepage, and surface-water 

inflow is limited to a few uncontrolled laterals or breaks in the 
398 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN Fl.OIUDA 

The bridge opening, just upstream from Snake Creek and Fla· 

mingo Canals, is restricted, and in periods of high flow a loss of 

head, as large as 0. 5 ft, occurs. Discharge of the main canal and 

the two tributary Pan·als is often affected by backwater from th~ 

control and lock at Davie or by t1dal backwater when the cuntrol is 

open. Table 40 lists the separate flows at the intersection. It is 

app!J.rent that Snake Creek Canal furnishes only a small part of the 

gross discharge, while the flow of Flamingo Canal generally. is about 

half that of the main canal. Taking an average of the weekly discharge measurements "in the 1939--41 period of record, the gross 

discharge is distributed as follows: 

South New River Canal, from west .................... 64 percent 

Snake Creek Canal, from south........................ 5 

Flamingo Canal, from north ............................ 31 

In extremely dry periods, the flow reverses in Snake Creek and 

Flamingo Canals, because of irrigation demand or because of outseepage to the water table when it is lower than the level of the 

canals. 

The monthly runoff in acre-feet for the period of record is shown 

in table 41. The 65,500 acre-ft of runoff in 1940 is significant in 

that the runoff of the other large canals was from 5 to 13 times as 

large in the same year. However, this significance is mitigated by 

the fact that a sizable amount of additional r:unoff probably occurred 

in the 5-mile reach between Snake Creek Canal and the control at 

Davie, and runoff at the control may -have been considerably greater 

than, although not comparable to, that of the other canals. 

The stage a"1d discharge hydrograph, figure 108, shows conditions 

at South New River Canal near Davie for the period of record. The 

period is short" and covers what might be called a random period 

of a year and a half. Although the extremes of flood and drought 

were not observed during this period, the graphs indicate the possibility of a relatively wide range of conditions that may occur in 

the future. The low stages are significant and are likely to occur 

in almost every year, The discharge shown includes that from 

Snake Creek and Flamingo Canals. 

The numerous laterals between Snake Creek Canal and State 

Highway 7 are used mostly for gravity drainage. A moderate amount 

of gravity irrigation occurs, but only a few ~rrigation pumps 

have been installed. In the period of observation by the Geological 

Survey, the control and lock at Davie was kept open the greater part 

of the time, and free tide-affected flow occurred. The control is 

in fair-to-poor condition, and when it was closed, only moderate 

amounts of head were held, When negative head developed on the 

control during the early part of the 1943-45 drought-that is, when 

the tidal downstream stage exceeded the upstream stage with the 

control closed-the spillway section collapse~, be_cause it was de-
SURFACE WATER 399 

signed to hold a head of water in only one direction. Rebuilding 

consisted principally of reassembling and securing the scattered 

timbers and stop-logs, but the incident is typical of the need for 

careful planning and designing in this low, flat region. 

For the most part, South New River Canal acts as a drainage 

canal, and its level is kept lower than that of North New River 

Canal to permit gravity drainage and irrigation in the area between 

the two canals. Unfortunately, when heavy rains occur and water 

levels rise, drainage capacity by gravity of South New River Canal 

and its laterals is reduced. In periods of heavy runoff from the 

area, some of the discharge from North New River Canal flows 

southward in South Fork New River and into Dania Cutoff Canal, 

thus causing a backwater condition in South New River Canal and 

consequently a reduction in flow upstream, The problem is further 

complicated by underground seepage from North New River Canal, 

which is conveyed to, and intercepted by:, South New River Canal. 

Laterals that enter South New River Canal east of the control 

and lock at Davie (see fig. 109) have the samedrainage advantages 

as those west of the control, but they are less favorably located 

for the purpose of supplying water for irrigation. In dry periods, 

the water levels downstream from the control are tidal, and irrigation demand may draw salty water that occasionally invades the 

lower reach of the canal. See section on Salt-water encroachment. 

LOWER NEW RIVER BASIN 

Consideration must be given to the lowe.r New River basin in 

arriving at a comprehensive view of the waterways of southeastern 

Florida. The flow characteristics of this generally tidal area were 

made more complex by the canalization of the natural channels and 

by the digging of new channels. The growing urban development 

of Fort Lauderdale, with resultant ,water problems, has shown the 

need for water research in the area, 

PHYSICAL DESCRIPttON 

The principal features of lower New River basin are shown in 

figure 109. As far as the present waterway system is concerned, 

it may be considered to head 0. 4 mile east of State Highway 7, at 

the meeting of South New River Canal, South Fork New River, and 

Dania Cutoff Canal. The South Fork is a natural stream that has 

been canalized in part. North New River Canal enters it from the 

west, 2 miles northeast of the head of South Fork; Three miles 

farther to the northeast the meandering South Fork meets North 

Fork and the two. branches become New River. 
400 WATER RESOURCES IN SOU'IliEASTERN FLORIDA 

North Fork New River heads about 2. 5 miles northwest of the 

junction of the two branches and is the lesser waterway. Just east 

of the junction, a secondary channel, known as Tarpon River, extends to the south and then t6 the east, where it rejoins New River 

near the edge of the mainland. 

The lower reach of New River is a relatively deep tidal waterway that meanders through the heart of Fort Lauderdale and is used 

extensively by yachts and light commercial craft. The easternmost section of the river passes through a series of low-lying 

islands, located in what was originally a mangrove flat. At the 

present time, the river ends at the Intracoastal Waterway, but at 

one time it continued to the east and out to sea at New River Inlet. 

Since the digging of the entrance channel at Port Everglades, 1 

mile south of New River Inlet, the inlet has filled in completely, 

and connection to the sea is now made by way of Port Everglades 

entrance. 

A shorter connection to the sea from the head of South Fork New 

River is afforded by Dania Cutoff Canal. This sizable channel extends nearly 6 miles to the east in four straight reaches to the 

Intracoastal Waterway. A dam is located just east of a coolingwater intake for the Florida Power and Light Co. plant, and the 

whole junction area makes a complex water pattern that is discussed 

under flow characteristics. Apart from the powerplant laterals, 

the only sizable tributary is Hollywood Canal, which enters from 

the south just west of Dania. Hollywood Canal drains low sloughs 

and part of the coastal ridge and extends 4 miles southward to the 

western environs of Hollywood. Dania Cutoff Canal is not actually 

a part of New River and its tributaries, but it must be included as 

such because it cannot properly be separated in consideration of 

the movement of water in the basin. 

FLOW CHARACTERIS'DCS 

The principal tributaries to lower New River, North New River 

Canal and South New River Canal, have been discussed (p. 3 7 5-3 99) 

and illustrated in the two preceding sections. Reference to figure 

109 will show that water movement below the controls in these 

canals may occur in several possible patterns. The waterways in 

the lower basin are tidal throughout under low and moderate runoff conditions, and changes in tidal storage (p. 445) are accompanied 

by reverse· flows. The site of points of flow reversal and divisions 

of flow result from a complex function of tidal ranges, fresh-water 

runoff, and the topography of the area. North Fork and South Fork 

meander through a swamp that has considerable storage capacity. 

Flow from NorUiNew River Canal is principally toward the northeast in South Fork, but it may turn toward the southwest for several 
SURFACE WATER 401 

hours in each tidal cycle, In periods of large runoff, the flow 

divides at the end of North New River Canal, and water moves both 

ways in South Fork. The part that flows toward the southwest enters 

Dania Cutoff and thus moves to the sea. The volume of flow from 

North Fork also is a factor in the situation, but detailed information cannot be obtained, It is likely that local runoff east of the 

end of North New Ri:ver Canal causes some of the diversion toward 

the southwest in South Fork. 

Tarpon River is restricted at several road crossings by small 

culverts and does not have much e_ffect on New River, It serves 

principally as a local drainage channel. 

The net discharge of South New River Canal is toward the sea 

in Dania Cutoff Canal, but flow is often toward the northeast in 

South Fork New River; this action is a result of tidal reverse flow. 

In flood periods, all of the flow is into Dania Cutoff Canal, because 

some water from North New River Canal flows southward in South 

Fork. The additional flow from the north may be sizable; it occupies 

a significant part of the capacity of Dania Cutoff Canal, causes an 

appreciable amount of backwater in South New River Canal, and is 

a serious problem in drainage of the Davie area. Plans for placing 

a control in South Fork, near State Highway 84, have met with objections from the Fort Lauderdale area, wher~ residents desire 

a minimum flow in New River during wet periods. 

At maximum load, the powerplant at the head of South Fork New 

River uses 290 cfs (130, 000 gpm) for cooling the condensers. This 

large quantity of water is obtained from two intakes connecting 

with Dania Cutoff Canal and South Fork; for practical purpGses, they 

can be considered to be a single intake because they both draw on 

the same pool. After passing through the condensers, the water 

leaves the plant in a canal that extends eastward to a north-south 

canal, where controls at the intersection permit flow southward to 

Dania Cutoff Canal or northward .to South Fork. 

Because efficiency of the powerplant depends upon a supply of 

cooling water at the lowest possible temperature, efforts are made 

to prevent recirculationof the warmed water. When the discharge 

from South New River Canal and South Fork New River is large, 

no particular problem exists and the water is returned to Dania 

Cutoff Canal and thus to the sea. When fresh-water discharge is 

moderate, the water is returned to Dania Cutoff Canal, but the dam 

at the powerplant is closed near high tide to prevent rec~rculation. 

As runoff decreases and dry conditions develop, however, the 

demand of the powerplant exceeds the normal discharge of any of 

the waterways and exceeds the combined fresh-water discharge 

from North New River Canal and South River Canal. This unbalance 
402 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

brings highly saline water inland to the powerplant and creates a 

series of associated problems (see section on Salt-water encroachment). Although salty water is usable for cooling, it is in the best 

interests of the area to prevent such encroachment. Thus, during 

dry periods the control is kept closed and the warmed water is diverted to South Fork by the north branch of the return channel. The 

longer distance of travel effects a small amount of cooling, but -the 

water eventually returns to the plant at a temperature that is higher 

than normal. The temperature might build up excessively except 

for the restraining influence of cooler fresh-water discharge from 

the west and an admixture of sea water. 

The problem of salt intrusion and recirculation of cooling water 

became acute in the period 1943-45. In 1947, the power company 

extended the outlet canal to the east, thus enabling the warmed water 

to be routed over a longer distance. The additional travel is partly 

through a shallow slough area that facilitates cooling. Under moderately dry to dry conditions, the use of water at the powerplant 

completely changes the seminatural regimen of flow and indicates 

the need for special consideration in any further development of 

the area. 

The bridges across the principal channels of lower New River 

basin individually cause only small restriction on flood flows but, 

taken as a whole, they cause enough head loss to require careful 

consideration. Most of these bridges are of the horizontal-swing 

type. The greatest flow restriction occurs in Dania Cutoff Canal 

where the Florida East Coast Railway and U. S. Highway -1 cross 

at a short narrow section of the canal on fixed bridges. 

SPECIAL STUDIES 

GENERAL FLOW DISTRIBUTION 

Observations of stage and discharge were made in lower New 

River basin onFebruary 15, 1941. Water conditions were highfor 

that time of the year, and several inches of rain had fallen on the 

basin about February 10. Runoff was fairly high, and a typical flow 

pattern existed. The discharges at key locations are shown in figure 

109, but the tributary flows were not measured. Dashed arrows 

show the probable directions of flow, where observations were not 

made. 

North Fork New River undoubtedly contributed a considerable 

part of the 1, 230 cfs flow that was measured in New River at Fort 

Lauderdale, and thus it may be expected that the flow from North 

New River Canal divided at South Fork. This is corroborated by 

the discharge of 22 5 cfs in South Fork at its connection with South 

New River and Dania Cutoff Canals. This flow was measured south 
2.0 feet 

NEW 

N 

t 

RIVER 

EXPLANATION 

Conal 

Direction of flow 

D1rection of flow ond discharge 

in cubic feet per second 

58cfs 

PL,iJNT,iJT/ON CAN ,ilL 

2 Mtt.ES 

Figure 109. -Map of lower New River basin showing principal discharges on February 15, 1941. 

-J 

;:: 

(§ "' 

'-' 

~ "' 

~ 

~ 

'q: 

lu 

ll 

C) 

"' c:: 

~ 

> n 

I"' 

~ ;;l 

, 0 

1-- -

~ 

'q: 

--1 

1--

'q: 

~ 

0 

(.<,) 
404 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTifEASTERN FLORIDA 

of one of the powerplant intakes, and it is likely that the total discharge south in South Fork was substantially larger, because the 

powerplant takes large volumes of water for cooling purposes, This 

is substantiated by the unusual flow increase indicated in Dania 

Cutoff Canal between the junction with South Fork and U. S. Highway 1. Part of the increase probably was the cooling water that 

was returned to Dania Cutoff Canal through the discharge canals 

after being used in the powerplant. The diversion of water through 

the plant, under conditions existing in February 1941, had no effect 

on the hydraulics of lower New River basin (except in the immediate 

area of the plant). The control at the plant was open during the 

period of observations. 

Increase of discharge in South Fork New River between North 

New River Canal and Dania Cutoff Canal probably was small, because the intermediate drainage area is relatively small. The 

sizable increase of flow in South New River Canal, however, can 

be attributed to the extensive drainage system in the Davie area, 

(Note the relationship between flow in the main canal and the tributary flow at the intersection 5 miles west of Davie.) 

TIDE STAGE AND DISCHARGE RELATIONSHIPS 

The field work for the general flow pattern of lower New River 

basin involved detailed observations. The basin was affected by 

tide (tidal backwater) below the controls in the main tributary 

canals, which meant that simple discharge measurements were 

not enough to obtain representative data. At the five tide-affected 

locations in the study on February 15, 1941, stage and discharge 

observations were made over a period of about 13 hours and covered 

a complete tide cycle-the basic data are shown in figure 110. 

The tidal range in New River at U. S. Highway 1 was 2. 69 ft 

and in Dania Cutoff Canal at U. S. Highway 1 it was 1. 73 ft, which 

reflects the larger and more open channel between New River and 

the Port Everglades entrance. The mean discharge of New River 

was 1, 230 cfs, but the flowvariedbetween almost 3, 000 cfs toward 

the sea and 840 cfs inland. The period of inland, or reverse, flow 

lasted 3. 5 hours. By comparison, Dania Cutoff Canal averaged 

733 cfs and varied between 1, 160 and 120 cfs, with no reverse flow. 

The tidal range in North New River Canal at State Highway 7 

(formerly 149) was 1. 23ft, and in South New River Canal at State 

Highway 7, it was 1. 29 ft; the relationship was the reverse of that 

of the downstream stations. The discharge of North New River 

Canal, however, varied only a small amount, while that of South 

New River Canal varied between 55 and 540 cfs. Reverse flow did 

not occur in this part of the basin. 
L RN« J u.s Higjy I ll ~ 

1\ Mean dischorge:l230~ 

IL_ 

\ 

' ...... 

-- --- f--r 1---~~-

\ I __ 

L ___ ,\ Mean discno~ .. 1 t80 cb 

""-~ North New RiYer Canol ot HI!Jhwol' 7 

-- 1--- Mean eljlion =Lea feet 

"" ~---

/ v--~ ·.t_ ...__ v....-/ --- I 

v ~ / !lew Rivff ot li.S. Hlghw.;; " Mean elfll'(lfion :0.49ftet ['-.......__ L/ 

3000 1500 

DaJ Cotoff caL at v. S.llghway I 

Q r·d~mr=~ v-"" z 2000 0 1000 " .., ,, .. """ ·~ -~ ··~ 

~ <I> 

.., 

0:: oand South New River ~ 

"-

,_ .-·- ·-·- "' "' .... / .._ ... 1000 <.> 500 

~~ v v _, .... !"" \ a; 

:::> - .. ~···· ·~· ............... " ;!; / ..:; / ··~~ . "' / ... "' 1'..1!:_ ..... ~·~"*••• •u• .. 0 "' 0 "" <.> 

South New Rlver Con:;( South Fork New ~tver ot junctian <I> c: 15 :a at Highwoy 7 wi1h South New R ~ver Canol "1 

Mean dis"forge = 3 2 r cis T" dlschr=225r 

f) 

1'1 

-1000 -500 ~ 3 3 ;:;1 Sau1h New River Conal at Highway 7 :a ...J Mean ole¥ationll29fnt 

2 "' 2 

"'~ v-:-t--- r-J..._ ..,_, 

"' b... ...... 

;!;!II / 

zz -v ) ~ -- 0<1' 1-

~~ ./ 0 "'"' 0 _.... D..Ua Cutoff Canal ot { S. Highway I 

._..._ 

"'0 

-'> 

... 

.. Ide an elevation= D. 56 cis I 

r-- - -I -I 6AM 8 10 12 2PM 4 6 8 6 AM 8 10 12 2PM 4 6 8 

Figure 110, -Graphs of stage and discharge in lower New River basin on February 15, 1941, 
406 WATER RESOURCES lN SOUlHEASTERN FLORIDA 

The minimum discharge of South New River Canal at Highway 7 

was less than the minimum discharge of Dania Cutoff Canal at Highway 1, which is contrary to the usual relationship in tide-affected 

waterways. Also, the discharge cycle of South Fork New River at 

the junction with South New River Canal was ciut of phase with 

the cycles at other locations in spite of the fact that both the 

stage and discharge of South New River. Canal at Highway 7 were 

in nearly normal phase and that the stage there should be fairly 

representative of conditions at the junction, only a short distance 

away. 

A comparison of the stage graphs for North New River Canal at 

Highway 7, and for South New River Canal at Highway 7, ·shows 

that the two stages were uniformly only 0. 5 to 0. 6 ft apart throughout the cycle, with North New River Canal being the higher. This 

continuous slope toward the south accounts for the southward flow 

in the upper reach of South Fork New River. The relative timing 

of the tidal cycle propagated up South Fork New River and Dania 

Cutoff Ca:qal to the ends of this connecting reach of South Fork New 

River caused the discharge cycle at the junction end of the South 

Fork to be unusual. However, by combining the flows of the South 

Fork and South New R5.ver Canal to obtain net flow to the east at 

the junction, it is possible to obtain a graph of normal shape and 

phase (as shown in fig. 110). 

MIAMI CANAL-UPPER AND MIDDLE REACHES 

Miami Canal is shown on most maps as a continuous waterway, 

heading at Lake Okeechobee and extending 81 miles southward and 

southeastward to Biscayne Bay at Miami. From the standpoint of 

effectiveness as a waterway. however, the upper and lower reaches 

are essentially independent of each other and are connected by a 

middle reach that permits the passage of only small amounts of 

water. In discussing the canal, therefore, the upper and middle 

reaches are treated separately from the lower reaches. Plate 14 

shows the general features of Miami Canal drainage area. 

PHYSICAL DESCIUPUON 

Miami Canal heads at the hurricane gate (HGS-3) in the protective 

levee at Lake Harbor, where Ritta Island lies just to the north in 

Lake Okeechobee. (See pl. 1. ) A short distance south of the hurricane gate a large pumphouse of South Shore Drainage District connects with the canal. A typical control and lock of the Everglades 

is located at Lake Harbor proper. 

The canal runs on a south-southwest course for 8. 5 miles from 

the lake, following the alinement of an old canal (Disston), which 
SURFACE WATER 407 

extends 2. 5 miles beyond. Bolles Canal intersects Miami Canal 

6:5 miles from the lake, connecting to the east with North New 

River Canal at Okeelanta and extending west 3 miles, At the bend 

2 miles farther south, Miami Canal swings to the south-southeast. 

Upper Miami Canal was dug in deep' muck, some rock was removed, and the channel was largely completed to Bolles Canal, 

which marks the end of the upper reach. South of Bolles Canal, 

only the muck was removed (except near the bend, where the rock 

surface rises a little and a small amount of rock was removed). 

Disston canal was dug in muck only and is quite shallow. 

From the bend, Miami Canal runs for 40 miles in two straight 

reaches south-southeastward to the head of the deep section just 

above the junction with South New River Canal. This location near 

the junction is considered to be the end of the middle reach. 

The channel in the middle reach was excavated only in the muck 

arid is shallow. Because of lack of maintenance, it has filled with 

weeds and brush and has become useless. The spoil banks, which 

have subsided as a result of fire and slow oxidation, are marked 

principally by woody growth. 

Upper Miami Canal is accessible by road from the lake to several 

miles south of Lake Harbor, and the spoil banks are continuous in 

the reach. South of that region, the banks are broken or obliterated. 

The canal follows the natural slope of the land, and the depth of 

excavation gradually becomes less as the layer of muck and peat 

thins to the south. 

The principal features along the upper and middle reaches of 

Miami Canal with cumulative mileage from Lake Okeechobee are 

listed below: 

Location Mileage 

Centerline of lake levee and HGS- 3 .................................... 0 

Control and lock, Lake Harbor, (gaging station).................. • 4 

Bridge, State Highways 25 and 80...................................... • 4 

Bridge, Atlantic Coast Line Railroad................................. • 9 

Bolles Canal ................................................................. '. 6. 5 

Bend, Disston Canal ....................................................... 8. 6 

Bend ........................................................................... 24. 6 

Beginning of deep channel ................................................ 48. 7 

346881 0-55--28 
408 WATER. RESOUR.CES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

RECORDS AVAILABLE 

[*Record continued after period of this investigation] 

Lake Harbor 

·.Stage, north of control: Oct. 29, 1939, to June 30, 1943; staff 

gage read Oct; 29, 1939, to May 15, 1942, twice daily; May 

16, 1942, to June 30, 1943, thrice daily; daily mea~ plotted 

in figure 111; stage essentially the same as in Lake Okeechobee, 

except for wind surges and periods when HGS-3 was closed. 

Maximum obse~d: 16. 64 ft, on Nov. 2, 1939. 

Minimum observed: 11.10 ft, on May 23, 27, 1943. 

Stage, s~).lth /of control: April 25, 1946 to Dec. 31, 1946*; con; 

tinuo-tis recorder record • 

.Ott. 29, 1939 to June 30, 1943; control not effective and stage 

essentially the same as that north of control. 

Discharge: N.ov. 7, 1939, to June 30, 1943; daily, mean plotted 

in figure 111; monthly and annual runoff listed in table 42. 

Maximum daily mean: 572 cfs, to south, on Jan. 6, 1942. 808 

cfs, to north (into lake), on July 22, 1941. 

No flow, on many days, at times of reversal of flow and when 

HGS-3 was closed. 
Year 

1939 

1940 

1941 

1942 

1943 

Jan. 

••~t•••• ........ 

1.4 

-6.4 

8. 7 

2.0 

Feb. Mar. 

.................. ............... -.06 4.4 

-8.8 -3.8 

8.5 8.1 

1. 6 1.1 

Table 42.-Runoff of .~liami Canal at Leke HarlxJr 

[Unit, 1, 000 acre-feet] 

Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. 

.............. ................ 3.0 2. 6 ....... :a:; .......... ~2:2· ······~;;:g·· ...... :·25:9·· ····:·i;;:o .. -15.6 -12.2 -5.0 -39.1 -25.5 -12.4 -10.1 

1.8 .5 -17.7 -7.5 -.9 -4.5 .7 

• 9 .2 -.1 ......................................................... . 

Note.-Negative discharge indicates ,flow toward Lake Okeechobee. 

\ 

Nov. 

-.5 

.4 

-.5 

2.1 

Dec. 

5.1 

.7 

4.7 

1.5 

Annual 

-37.3 

-135.3 

1.3 
410 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTiiEASTERN FLORIDA 

Figure 111, -Graphs of stage and discharge of Miami Canal at Lake Harbor, 1939-43, 
SURFACE WATER 411 

FLOW CIIARACTERIS'l1CS' 

During the period of observation (1939-43) the control and lock 

in Miami Canal at Lake Harbor was kept open and essentially uncontrolled flow occurred. The hurricane gate (HGS-3) was closed 

occasionally-at times of hurricanes, to prevent passage of hyacinth 

into the canal, and to control the releasing of water from Lake 

Okeechobee in dry periods. Direction of flow, therefore, was 

generally subject to the vagaries of rainfall and water conditions as 

well as to the surges and changes in the level of Lake Okeechobee, 

which were caused by wind. 

The large pumphouse just south of the head of Miami Canal undoubtedly had some effect on the direction of flow and the discharge 

at the control and lock, because the maximum output of the pumps 

(268 cfs) was often greater than the discharge of the canal, At 

times, the flow from the pump was seen to divide'and flow both 

north and south in the main canal, Smaller. farm pumps in the 

several miles south of Lake Harbor pumped into, or from, Miami 

Canal, but they had no important effect on the flow. 

The water of the upper several miles of Miami Canal stays within 

banks under all conditions. In the vicinity of Bolles Canal and .farther south, however, the canal overflows in wet periods and is lost 

in the general inundation. Overland flow often occurs there because 

the spoil banks are in such a poor condition that they cannot hold 

or divert much water. Water in large quantities moves overland 

from the higher sand and muck lands to the west and passes in a 

southeasterly direction across the middle reach of Miami Canal; 

some of it drains into North New River Canal. In the dryer periods, 

the water in the middle reach of Miami Canal is within the banks, 

but because of the vegetation-choked condition of the channel, little 

or no flow occurs. In drought periods, the channel in the middle 

reach becomes completely dry. 

As a practical water carrier, upper Miami Canal consists of the 

first 6 miles (less in flood periods) and the branch of Bolles Canal 

to the east. It seryes a relatively small area, but it is not very 

effective even for that area because of the lack of control operations u 

and the runoff from the open lands. It must be considered as an 

unusually large local canal. 

Stages and discharges of upper Miami Canal are shown in figure 

111. The stage north of the control was essentially the same as 

that of Lake Okeechobee except for wind surges and thus did not 

range as widely as the stage of the other major canals, Because 

the control and lock were generally open, head loss through it was 

usually very small and the stage south of the control was much the 

same as that north of it. 

11The control and lock at Lake Harbor was put back in service in 1946 and a fair measure of 

control was provided, 
412 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

The discharge shown in the graphs is that at the control and lock 

and does not necessarily represent the flow into and from Lake 

Okeechobee. (The discharge of the large pumphouse close to the 

lake is not included. ) Flow toward the lake is indicated on the graphs 

by a negative sign to differentiate it from flow toward the sea, which 

is considered the normal, or positive, direction. Reference to 

figure 111 and table 42 shows that the major part of the flow was 

toward the lake because of the large amount of runoff from the 

·open lands, Negative, or reverse, flow occurred 47 percent of the 

time in the period of :record.and 38, 71, and 39 percent of the time, 

respectively, in the 3 years of record, Rates of discharge ranged 

between 572 cfs away from the lake and 808 cfs toward the lake, 

No flow occurred on many days during the period of record, and 

during late 1942 and the·first half of 1943 the flow was very small 

andindecisive indirection. This was a notably dry period, and the 

small amount of water movement may be accounted for by the fact 

that upper Miami Canal was connected only to Lake Okeechobee, 

and no flow existed in the middle reach or in Bolles Canal. 

In flood periods, it is likely that the east branch of Bolles Canal 

contributes no water to Miami Canal, but instead, it picks up some 

of the overland flow from the west and diverts it to North New River 

Canal. In the period between flood and drought, when Miam~ Canal 

is flowing south at Lake Harbor, some of this water enters the east 

branch of Bolles Canal. In drought conditions, the shallow, ill· 

maintained channel of Bolles Canal becomes dry at some locations. 

LOWER MIAMI CANAL 

The lower reach of Miami Canal is treated here as a hydrologic 

unit because it is separate from the upper and middle reaches. In 

discussing the lower drainage basin, the name "Miami Canal" will 

be used, and references to upper and. lower parts will refer to parts 

of the lower basin. See plate 14 for the general features of the 

drainage area. 

Because of its key relationship to the Miami metropolitan area, 

Miami Canal was studied most extensively of all the canals in the 

Everglades and coastal ridge, It is closely related to the municipal 

water supply in several ways: as a source of recharge to the present 

well field; as a source in itself for emergency supply or for future 

water needs·; as a threat to the permanence of the well field because 

of contamination by sea water; and, paradoxically, as a protection 

against contamination of the public supplyby sea water. The canal 

is also the principal drainage way of upper Dade County and is closely 

related to flood problems; it is important to the preservation of the 

soil and wildlife of a large area of the middle Everglades; its use 
SURFACE WATER 413 

as a source of industrial water supplies has increased; and it (Miami 

River) is increasingly used for navigation. 

Because the investigations of Miami Canal were eo extensive, 

its discussion has been divided into a number of subtopics, even 

though a sharp division by subject could not always be effected. 

Most of the tidal phenomena observed and reported for Miami Canal 

are common to all tidal waterways in southeastern Florida and can 

be applied to them. 

PHYSICAL DESCRIPDON 

Lower Miami Canal is assumed to begin at the head of the deep 

excavation just northwest of the junction with South New River Canal 

(fig. 112). This location, which is also the southern end of the 

shallow middle reach of the canal, is 49 miles from Lake Okeechobee and 32 miles northwest from the mouth of the canal at Biscayne Bay. It is marked by a line of broken rock across the canal 

(fig. 113), which has the appearance of a breached dam, but which 

was left from the dredging operations. 

Figure 112, -View of Miami Canal upstream from jiUlction with Soutll New River Ca11al. End 

of deep cha~~nel and outli11e of shallow channel shows in backgroiUld, February 19, 1941. 
414 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Figur.e 113. -View upstream in bed of Miami Canal: shallow excavation above head of deep 

channel. Photograph taken April 13, 1943, in dry period. 

South New River Canal, which extends due east to the Fort 

Lauderdale area, connects with Miami Canal 0, 4 mile below the 

head of the deep channel. No control exists at the junction of the 

two canals, Miami Canal continues to the southeast through sawgrass terrain for 10 miles to an earth dam.. In figure 114, note 

Figure 114. -Lower Miami Canal above County Line Dam. Dense jungle on bank of Miami 

Canal 2 miles above CountyLine Dam: trees and brush were not indigeno\IS to the area prior to digging the canal. 
SURFACE WATER 415 

the rank growth of rubber, guava, and other. trees on the aerated 

soil of the spoil banks. These trees do not occur in the adjacent 

glades soils. Both banks are unevenly graded, breaks in the banks 

exist at many locations, and no road serves this reach. 

County Line Dam, as the earth and rock dam is known locally, 

is actually in Broward County about 0. 4 mile north of the DadeBroward County line at the point where Dade-Broward Levee intersects Miami Canal. The dam has five 36-in. pipe culverts, each 

equipped with a gate valve at the upstream end (see fig. 115). The 

culverts and gates were installed late in May 1940 to replace a 

35-ft breach that had been cut in the dam a week previously. The 

gates are opened to release flow for recharge of downstream areas 

in drought periods, but the dam was placed primarily for flood 

control. 

Dade-Broward Levee extends southward to Tamiami Canal and 

Tamiami Trail, and northward to South New River Canal. The muck 

section south of Miami Canal has subsided by oxidation a11d burning, 

has been breached extensively at several locations, and during the 

period of observations by the Survey, was not very effective.12 The 

section of the levee north of Miami Canal was b1:1ilt almost entirely 

of muck and has subsided to the point where its effect is negligible. 

12 Dade County rebuilt and strengthened the levee in 1947 and 1948, 

Figure 115, -Upstream side of County Line Dam showing top of control gates, temporary 

irrigation-pump installation, and diversion to the bonow pit along the west side of DadeBtoward Levee. The levee appears in the left background as an extension of the dam, April 

20, 1943. 
416 WATER RESOURCES JN SOUTHEASTERN Fl.ORIDA 

The borrow ditch along the west side of the south section of DadeBroward Levee has been connected with Miami Canal. in several 

ways: directly through a breach in the canal bank (see fig, 115); 

through an uncontrolled 2-ft pipe culvert; and through the same 

culvert, with a gate valve. Connection with the borrow ditch along 

the north section of the levee was at a low place in the canal bank, 

which permitted flow only during higher stages. 

Broken Dam, 2. 5 miles downstream from County Line Dam, is 

an earth and rock dam that was dynamited, and the remnant of the 

damisadefiniteconstrictionin the canal (see fig. 116). ciose by, 

State Highway 25 (formerly 26) comes in from the north and runs 

parallel with Miami Canal along the northeast spoil bank toward 

Miami. 

BetweenBrokenDamandPennsuco, about 4 miles farther downstream, several small lateral canals. and ditcpes enter Miami 

Canal from both banks, Half a mile below the dam, Golden Glades 

Canal enters from the east."' A short, but wide, stub canal enters 

from the west a little more than 1 mile above Pennsuco. The pur· 

pose of the stub canal is not known, although its dimensions indicate that an ambitious project was planned. Between Golden Glades 

Canal and the stub canal, a long lateral is shown entering from the 

southwest on most maps, This lateral is so shallow and choked 

with weeds that it can hardly be considered a waterway. 

u The road parallel with Golden Glade5 Canal was rais.ed to form a levee by Dade County in 

1947 and 1948. 

Figure 116, -Miami Canal at Broken Dam. 
SURFACE WATER 417 

At Pennsuco (contract~on of Pennsylvania Sugar Co., now defunct), a principallateral enters Miami Canal from the southwest. 

Pennsuco Lateral extends 6 miles to the west and intersects DadeBroward Levee about 5. 5 miles south of County Line Dam. On the 

east side of the levee, the lateral is dammed"'off from the levee 

borrow pit, but on the west side of the levee it is connected with 

the borrow pit. An earth dam is located about 1. 5 miles from 

Miami Canal, and close to the main canal is a p1:1mp and control. 

In the 6-mile reach between Pennsuco and the Florida East Coast 

Railway bridge in Hialeah, three small laterals enter Miami Canal 

from the north (see pls. 15 and 16). About midway in this reach, 

Russian Colony Canal conne<;:ts from the west and extends 2. 6 miles 

to the west to a junction with the north section of Snapper Creek 

Canal. Shallow canals extend northward and westward from the 

junction, but they are poor water carriers. 

Starting at the Florida East Coast Railway bridge, 1. 5 miles 

above the city of· Miami Water Plant, is a series of laterals that 

have an important relationship to the Miami well field. The interrelationship of these laterals and the well-field area are shown 

on plates 15 and 16 and in greater detail in figure 140. F. E. C. w 

Canal connects with Miami Canal just upstream from tbe bridge 

and extends south along the west side of the railroad about 5 miles 

to Tamiami Canal. The channel that connects through a culvert 

on the downstream side of the bridge is known as F. E. c. Borrow 

Canal and extends south 3 miles to a dead end. This sizable borrow 

pit provided fill for the railroad's maintenance yards and shop 

(now abandoned). 

The Water Plant in Hialeah is on the northeast bank of Miami 

Canal 7. 7 miles from Biscayne Bay. This plant supplies water to 

Miami, Miami Beach, and other communities in the metropolitan 

area. The original capacity of the plant was 40 mgd, which was 

increased to 60 mgd in 1948. The wells are located principally in 

Miami Springs on the southern side of the canal and within a radius 

of about 1 mile from the plant. 

A short distance above the Water Plant, Red Road Canal enters 

Miami Canal from the north, extends northward 9 miles along the 

west side of Red Road, and connects with many laterals and canals. 

The small canal that connects with Miami Canal from the southwest, 

just below the Water Plant, is important because it passes close 

to the lower well-field area in the golf course in Miami Springs. 

This is known as Country Club Canal (also, South Side Canal), and 

it meanders toward the southwest about 2 miles to a connection 

with F. E. C. Borrow Canal. A mile downstream from the Water 

Plant, a small lateral connects Miami Canal with Twin Lakes, 

which is a small flooded rock pit. 

W The initials ~r. F, C. • are used locally as a name, 
418 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Two miles southeast of the Water Plant and immediately below 

the NW, 36th Street bridge is the site of 36th Street Dam, At this 

location, which is 5. 6 miles from Biscayne Bay, dams were placed 

in Miami Canal during parts of 1940 and 1943-46. A boatlift was 

constructed to move boats (as large as about 40 ft long) around the 

dam. Except for a period of about 2 years the dams were of a 

temporary nature, constructed from sheet-steel piling. The installation and operation of the dams were necessary to conserve 

fresh-water supplies and to prevent salty water from, contaminating 

the well fields-see the section on encroachment of salty water in 

the tidal canals, 

Several hundred feet below the dlfin site, Miami Canal becomes 

wider and deeper at the head of thtf channel improvement made in 

1932-33. The 4-foot break in depth (approximate) is referred to 

as the" step", and it plays a part in the water events of the canal. 

A little less than 1 mile below the dam site, Palmer Lake connects with Miami Canal from the west through a short connecting 

chanriel. Palmer Lake (see fig. 184), which is actually a low-level 

rock and gravel pit, is tidal and has some importance with respect 

to the intrusion of salty water in the area, 

Tamiami Canal, the principal tributary of Miami Canal, connects 

from the west lf4 mile above NW. 27th Avenue, Miami, and 4. 2 

miles from Biscayne Bay. (See pl. 14.) A short distance above 

Tamiami Canal a concrete abutment marks the site of the old control and· lock that was removed about 1932, when the channel was 

enlarged. 

For practical purposes, it has been considered that Miami Canal 

ends, and Miami River begins, a short distance upstream from the 

bridge at NW. 27th Avenue. This is not strictly accurate, but is 

appropriate, because Dade County is planning to build a control 

and locks for the stream at this location, and therefore it will 

provide a logical dividing point. 

About lf4 mile downstream from NW. 27th Avenue, the natural 

channel of North Fork Miami River (known locally as Comfort 

Canal) connects from the west with the present Miami River (fig. 

184). Fergusons Mill was located here on a natural riffle in the 

river during the early settlement days. A natural riffle is a rarity 

in southern Florida and its existence shows how the rock formations 

formerly kept water ponded in the Everglades, ev«i!n in areas now 

thickly settled. Miami River was one of the overflow channels of 

the Everglades, and the muck-soil areas of lower Tamiami Canal 

basin and around Miami sprihgs are actually part of the Everglades. 

Miami River is gently meandering in the last 4 miles from North 

Fork Miami River to Biscayne Bay. A little less than 1 mile south-
SURFACE WATER 419 

east of NW. 27th Avenue the natural channel of South Fork Miami 

River enters from the west. This stream extends toward the west 

for about 1. 5 miles to the east end of Comfort Canal, which confi.nues westward through a low slough to a connection with Tamiami 

Canal. Below South Fork, no other significant tributary enters 

Miami River, which empties into Biscayne Bay in the heart of 

Miami. 

Miami Canal .and Miami River are continuously accessible by 

road from County Line Dam to Biscayne Bay, a distance of 21 miles. 

The spoil banks vary considerably in height, and at many locations 

the parallel road grade is actually the bank and may be subject to 

overflow during extreme flood conditions. The lower 5. 5 miles of 

the canal and river is used extensively by both pleasure and commercial boats. Many yacht basins and industrial concerns line 

both banks. 

The following tabulation, which is a continuation of the tabulation 

on page 407, lists the principal features along the lower reaches 

of Miami Canal, with cumulative mileage from Lake Okeechobee, 

Location 'fileage 

Beginning of deep channel •• · ................................... Mooooooooo48. 7 

Junction with South New River Canal ................................. 49. 1 

Bend ..... ,. .............................................. ···••••••••·••••············· 58.2 

County Line Dam:, Dade-Broward Levee ............................ 59,0 

Broken Dam, State Highway 25 from north, stage station., ... 61. 5 

Golden Glades Canal,,..,,,.,.,,.,,.,M, 00 ooooooooooooooOooooooo•••••oooo•• 62,2 

Stub lateral ................................ ~ .................................. 64. 3 

Bridge, Pennsuco lateral, stage station ............................ 65. 6 

Russian Colony Canal, stage station .................................. 68. 4 

F. E. C. Canal, F. E, C. Ry. bridge, F. E. C. Borrow 

Canal. stage station ................................................... 71.6 

Red Road Canal •........... ····••••••••···••••••••••••••••••••••••••··••••• 72. 9 

Water Plant, Hialeah, gaging station ...................... ~ ......... 73. 1 

Country Club Canal ............. ~ .......................................... 73. 3 

Bridge, Hialeah-Miami Springs ....................................... 73, 6 

Twin Lakes entrance~·······••·••••·•••••·••••••••••••••·•••·,..,. •........ 74. 0 

Bridge, NW. 36th Street ................................................. 75.1 

36th Street Dam, boatlift, stage stations ............................ 75. 15 

Change in channel depth (step) ............................. ; ............ 75. 2 

Bridge, Seaboard Railroad .............................................. 75, 4· 

Palmer Lake entrance .................................................... 76. 0 

Tamiami Canal ..•... ,. ............•........................................ 76. 5 

Bridge, NW. 27th Avenue, beginning of Miami River ........... 76,8 

North Fork Miami River ................................................. 77. 1 
420 WA 'I'ER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Location 

South Fork Miami River-···••••••••••••••··•••••••••••••••···"""'""······· 77.7 

Bridge, NW. 17th Avenue ................................................ 78, 0 

Bridge, NW. 12th Avenue ......................... - ..................... 78, 6 

Bridge, NW. 5th Street ....•......•.....................................•. 79.2 

Bridge, West Flagler Street ............................................ 79. 7 

Bridge~ S_W. 1st Street ......... a.••••••••••••••••••• .................... 79.8 

Bridge, SW. 2nd Avenue .............. · .................................... 80. 1 

Bridge, F. E. c. Railway .............•.•. _ .......•.............••..... 80.2 

Bridge, South Miami Avenue ......... -........ ····•·•••·•••·••••••••••••• 80. 4 

Bridge, SE, 2nd Avenue (U. S. Highway 1) ........................ 80, 6 

Mouth, Biscayne Bay ......................................................... 80. 8 

In the early days of the development of the Everglades, Miami 

Canal was a continuous waterway from Lake Okeechobee to Miami 

and must have received some water hyacinth from the lake, as did 

the other major canals. Curiously enough, however, practically 

no hyacinth exists in the lower reaches, now separated from the lake 

by the shallow, weedy middle reaches. ~ennsuco lateral contains 

a small amount and some can be found in the tidal river reaches, 

but the main canal has been exceptionally free, including the connecting pool of South New River Canal. The reason for this has not 

been evident, because conditions for hyacinth growth in Miami Canal 

seem to be as favorable as in any other canal. Even the periods of 

low velocity and negative flow have not spread this pest, and the 

clumps that seem to be possible breeding centers do not expand very 

fast, 

However, at times a bottom-rooted plant (ident~fied as a naiad) 

and other aquatic plants have partly blocked the channel of Miami 

Canal upstream from Hialeah, When the bottom-rooted weed is 

broken loose by increased flow or temperature changes great 

masses move with the current and lodge against bridges and other 

obstructions. The resultant jams may reach sizable proportions, 

cause appreciable loss of head, and lead to the destruction by. 

scour of pile-supported structures. A case is reported where a mass 

of weed, rolling as a great amorphous wad· in the current, caught on 

a bridge and caused so much backwater that the water cut a new 

channel around the bridge. 

Except for the last 4 miles, lower Miami Canal is an artificial 

channel, which exte!lds toward the southeast through an area that 

originally drained toward the southeast and south. West of Hialeah, 

it was dug through a shallow layer of peat into very porous limestone. 

In the coastal ridge, excavation was principally in porous rock, except where a shallow sand cover of varying thickness existed. The 

limestone is so highly permeable that most of the flow enters the 
SURFACE WATER 421 

canal by seepage through the bottom and banks; this is particularly 

true in moderately dry to drought periods. 

Because of the flatness of the terrain through which Miami Canal 

passes, the area contributing water to it is indeterminate. Drainage divides, both surface and underground, shift according to control operations and distribution of rainfall. This makes it impossible to determine uriit-runoff rates except by treating the Everglades as a hydrologic entity. 

·In order to discuss the lower reaches of Miami Canal effectively, 

the channel has been divided into several parts. The principal 

divisions are the headwaters-reservoir area, the storage-inflow 

reach, and the tidal reaches. The pertinent hydraulic characteristics of each part are discussed following the tabulation of available 

records. 

REOORDS AVAILABLE 

[*Record continued after period of this investigation] 

Junction with South New River Canal 

Stage: June 11, 1941, to May 17, 1943; continuous recorder 

graph; essentially the same as that for South New River Canal 

at State Highway 25-see figure 107-but was several tenths 

of a foot lower in wet periods, or when weed growth in the 

canals was heavy. 

Discharge: March 1941 to April 1943; miscellaneous measurements above and below junction made on 23 dates; see table 

43. 

Reservoir area 

Stage and discharge: Feb. 1941 to April 1943; about monthly 

reconnaissances of the pool from South New River Canal at 

Highway 25 to Miami Canal at Broken Dam; see figure 124 for 

the type of data obtained. 

County Line Dam 

Stage, northwest of dam: Sept. 25, 1942, to Aug. 26, 1.943; continuous recorder graph; daily meanplotted infigures 119-123. 

Broken Dam 

Stage, northwest of dam: Sept. 26, 1941, to Dec. 31, 1946*; 

continuous recorder graph; daily mean plotted in figures 117-

123. 

Maximum: 7.16 ft, on Sept. 27-29, 1941. 

Minimum: 1. 02 ft, on June 20, 1945. 

Discharge: May 1940 to Apri11946; miscellaneous measurements 

made on 50 dates; see table 44. 

Maximum measured: 522 cfs, Feb. 17, 1941. 

Minimum measured: 12. 1 cfs, June B, 1945. 
Table 43.-Discharge, in cubic feet per second, and elevation. in feet move mean sea level, at selected points principally in headwater stor,..ge area of 

lower ,lfiami Canal and the upper South New River Canal 

Date 

1941 

Mar. 1zb 

Apr. 25c 

June sd 

July 29e 

Aug. 28 

Oct. 8 

Nov. 25 

Dec. 31 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May 

June 

July 

Aug. 

Oct. 

Dec. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

1942 

4 

11 

29 

15 

25 

24 

29 

29 

9 

31 

2 

1943 

6 

3 

3 

13 

At 

water plant 

881 

800 

328 

819 

648 

1,010 

853 

610 

483 

384 

323 

299 

323 

944 

1,200 

1,220 

1,200 

716 

423. 

313 

316 

1 

19 

Discharge of Miami Canal 

Above junction 

with South New 

River Canal at location A a 

Below junction 

with South New 

River Canal at location Ba 

45 .................................. . 21 

0 

62 

42 

35 

15 

2 

2 

3 

0 

0 

0 

12ii 

....................................... 

91 

0 

137 

69 

125 

58 

13 

5 to 10 

113 

103 

5 to 10 

404 

163 

84 

82 

22 

15 

10 

14 

34 

28 

Total inflow 

at two selected 

channels in to 

South New River 

Canal at 

location ca 

68 

52 

0 

80 

42 

·42 

16 

£1 

0 

0 

148 

Outflow 

to south 

above County 

Line Dam 

location Da 

4 

6 

24 

20 

20 

1'1 

16 

7 

5 

0 

0 

90 

() 

Elevation 

Miami Canal 

above County 

Une Dam 

7.78 

7,62 

6.42 

7,98 

7.84 

7.98. 

7.69 

7.30 

7.12 

7.04 

5.57 

4.49 

5.18 

8.50 

8.15 

7.78 

7.77 

7.26 

6. 08 

5.38 

5.18 

4.45 

2.78 

alocation indicated is shown in figure 124. 

hEarth dam in South New River Canal about y, mile east of State Road 25 was 

not yet replaced on this date and a discharge of about 40 cfs to the east was 

measured at the site. 

cDischarg e of about 43 cfs measured at dam site ref erred to in footnote "b" above. 

dDischarge of about 33 cfs measured at dam site referred to in footno.;:e ''b tt above. 

e Gates at County Line Dam open and pas sing w .ater at a rate of 188 cf s. Dam 

e frrred to in footnote "b ". 

Outflow. 

~ ;;;! 

::a 

~ 0 

c: 

~ !2! 

"' 

~ ;;;! 

~ 

i3 

i:!l 

~ 
SURFACE WATER 423 

Table 44,-Disc/u~rge, seepa&e, and watw-level date on Miami Cenal in stora&e inflow 

reach, County Line Dam to Pennsuco 

Discharge (in cfs) Elevation {in feet above mean sea level) 

Date Broken Penn- Difference Above County At Broken Difference At Penn• 

Dam sucd1 Inflow Outflow Line Dam Dam (in feet) suco 

1940 

May 23 96 48 ........... 48 .......... ~ ...... 3.17· 

·············· 

1.96 

27 91 8,9 .......... 2 (b) 3,20 .............. 2,16 

Nov. 21 439 928 489 ............. ·············"···· 5, 76 

·············· 4,80 

1941 

Feb, 17 522 806 284 ............ 1111 •••••••••••••••• ,. 5.13 ............ ,. .. 4.14 

June 24 203 297 94 ............ .................. 4.14 .............. 3.04 

1942 

Feb. 14 175 245 70 ............ ................... 2. 98 . .............. 1.98 

Mar. 13 170 260 90 ............ ••••••••••a••••••• 2,84 ............... 1.85 

19 178 202 24 ············ .................. 2. 75 . ............. 1.89 

22 161 240 79 ............ .................. 2.71 . ............. 1.81 

May 8 125 172 47 ............ ................... 3,40 . ............. 2,73 

20 118 180 62 ············ .................. 3.57 . ............. 2.84 

30 200 178 .......... 22 

·················· 

4.21 ............... 3.14 

June 13 262 320 58 ........... ·················· 

6.52 .............. 5.74 

27 296 328 32 

·················· 6, 88 .............. 6,07 

Dec, 28 133 231 98 ............. 5,60 2.58 3,02 1.53 

1943 

Jan. 15 135 213 7~ . .......... 5.10 2.33 2.77 1. 21 

26 117 206 89 4,78 2,26 2,52 1,33 

Feb. 1 128 196 68 . .......... 5,35 2.54 2,81 1,57 

8 117 175 58 ...... ,. .... 4.93 2.34 2.59 1,27 

15 104 145 41 ........... 4.60 2.18 2,42 ,97 

22 84 104 20 ........... 4.35 2.16 2,19 1.11 

28 100 152 52 ........... 4,55 2.15 2,40 .97 

Mar. 10 82 65 . ......... 17 4.30 2.38 1,92 1,53 

16 74 66 .......... 8 .................. 2.40 . ............... 1,54 

30 51 44 .......... 7 •b3.70 2,31 1;39 1. 52 

Apr. 1 88 82 . ......... 6 b3, 29 2.71 .58 1. 60 

2 95 80 .......... 15 3,23 2.78 .45 1.64 

3 110 82 .......... 28 ~3.19 2,82 • 37 1,70 

5 87 75 .......... 12 b3.10 2, 78 • 32 1.71 

7 91 112 21 ........... b2.98 2.80 .18 1.72 

8 92 93 1 ............ b2.92 2. 77 .15 1.74 

10 96 77 19 b2.86 2. 76 .10 1. 71 

13 90 !i7 .......... 23 2.79 2. 73 ,06 1.67 

17 73 72 .......... 1 b2, 69 2.66 • 03 1.62 

27 100 172 72 ........... b5. 60 3,94 1,66 2,52 

May 4 136 128 

·········· 

8 4, 71 3,98 .73 2,24 

11 57 87 30 ........... 4.41 3,22 1,19 2,01 

19 50 81 31 ........... 4.35 3,65 .70 2,43 

26 77 173 96 ........... 5.84 4,62 1.22 3,27 

June 5 143 114 ............. 29 5,59 4.11 1,48 2.44 

15 50 75 25 ........... 4.90 3,48 1,42 1,96 

22 41 47 6 ........... 4.55 3,13 1,42 1,74 

1944 

Apr. 25 113 106 . ......... 7 b2.89 2,65 .24 2.03 

1945 

Apr. 13 59 64 5 . .......... b2,26 2,03 • 23 1.61 

May 18 19 ......... ·········· ........... ................. 1.27 .............. .69 

June 8 12 ......... .......... ··········· ................. 1.30 . .............. ,51 

1946 

Jan. 14 353 694 341 

··········· 7,26 4.71 2.55 3,88 

Mar. 14 137 152 15 

··········· . ................ 2.72 . ............. 2.17 

28 97 83 .......... 14 ················· 2.88 .............. 2.56 

Apr. 25 50 ········· ·········· ........... . ................ 2.38 . ............. 1.96 

aDischarge for Miami Canal at Pennsuco was computed on basis of a hydrograph through the 

m'{,asurements and does not include inflow from lateral, 

County Line Dam open, 

'346881 0-55--29 
424 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Pennsuco 

Stage: Sept. 28, 1940, to Dec, 31, 1946*; continuous recorder 

graph; daily mean plotted in figures 117-123. 

Maximum: 6. 13ft, Sept. 22, 23, 1940, July 4, 1942. 

Minimum: 0. 24ft, June 18, 1945. 

Minimum daily (tidal): 0. 27 ft, on June 17, 1945. 

Discharge, above Pennsuco lateral: Nov. 9, 1939, to July 5, 

1943; daily mean, plottedinfigures 117-120;monthly and annual 

runoff listed in table 45. 

Maximum daily mean: 956 cfs, Nov. 25, 26, 1940, 

Minimum daily mean: 44 cfs, Mar. 30, 1943. (Reverse flow 

was observed near high tide on one date in drought period of 

1943). 

Discharge of Pennsuco lateral: Feb, 12, 1940, to Aug. 2, 1943; 

about weekly measurements, listed in table 46; daily mean 

plotted in figures 117-120. 

Maximum measured: 186 cfs, Oct. 7, 1940. 

Minimum measured: 3.1 cfs, Apr, 13, 1943, 

Russian Colony Canal 

Stage: Aug. 13, 1941, to Dec. 31, 1946*; continuous recorder 

graph; daily mean plotted in figures 118-123. 

Maximum: 5, 21ft, June 27, 28, 1942. 

Minimum:0.21ft, June17, 18,1945. 

Minimum daily (tidal): 0, 22 ft, June 17, 1945. 

F. E. C. Canal 

Stage: Sept. 28;1941, to July 5, 1943; continuous recorder graph; 

daily mean plotted in figures 118-120. 

Maximum: 3. 89 ft, Sept. 4, 1942. 

Minimum: -o. 23ft, July 3, 1943. 

Minimum daily {tidal): 0, 43ft, July 3, 1943, 

Water Plant, Hialeah 

Stage: Feb, 24, 1940, to Dec, 31, 1946 *; continuous recorder 

graph; daily mean plotted in figures 117-123, 

Maximum: 4. 55ft, Sept. 15, 1945. 

Minimum: -0. 54ft, July 2, 1943, Mar, 22, 1945, 

Minimum daily (tidal): 0. 20 ft, Mar, 22, 1945, 

Discharge: Jan. 24, 1940, to Dec, 31, 1946*; daily meanplotted 

in figures 11 7-12 3; monthly and annual runoff lis ted in table 

47. 

Maximum daily mean: 1, 670 cfs, on Nov. 8, 9, 10, 1940. 

Minimum: 390 cfs reverse flow, measured June 23, 1943. 

No flow, May 16 to June 24, 1945 (dam at NW. 36thStreet 

closed). 

NW. 36th Street Dam 

Stage, northwest of dam: Aug, 12, 1941, to Dec, 31, 1946*; 

continuous recorder graph; daily mean plotted in figures 118-

123. 

Maximum: 5. 11 ft, Sept. 15, 1945. 

Minimum: 0. 84 ft, Mar. 22, 1945 (at low tide), 

Minimum daily (tidal): 0, 10ft, Mar. 22, 1945, 
Year 

1939 

1940 

1941 

1942 

1943 

Jan. Feb. 

................................. 31.4 23.4 

44.1 41.6 

23.4 15.5 

13.4 8.3 

~or period November 9-30. - r or period July 1-5. 

Mar. 

17.9 

42.5 

1t;, ~ 

4,5 

Table 45 •. -Runoti of Miami Canal Bt Pennsuco, near ,'fiani 

[Unit, 1, 000 acre -feet] 

Apr. May 

. ............................. . 11,? 5,9 

40.4 27.8 

15.2 10.6 

8.2 8,1 

June 

9. 7 

15.9 

18.1 

6.2 

July Aug. 

7.? 10.9 

21.6 23.5 

~3.6 39,2 

1,1 .......... .. 

Sept. 

17.9 

23.7 

43,3 

Oct. Nov, Dec. Annual 

... ............... aao.s 39.2 .. ................ 44.8 .'>4,6 47 . .'> 283.4 

29,9 31,7 31,1 373.8 

40,2 20,2 16,5 282,4 

................. ................. . ............... .................... 
426 WATER RESOURCES IN SOtiTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 46,-Discharge measurements of Pennsueo Lateral at Pennsuco, near Miami 

Date Discharge Date Discharge Date Discharge (in cfs) ! (in cfs) (in cfs) 

1940 

Feb. 12 78.5 May 27 34,1 July 27 73.3 

13 85.5 June 2 35.5 Aug. 3 103 

29 56,7 6 33,0 10 ·84.6 

Mar. 25 38.0 9 30.2 18 110 

Apr. 29 19.5 12 40,1 25 99.3 

May 6 16.8 18 35.5 31 152 

31 5.5 24 38.5 Sept, 8 144 

June 3 30,4 24 49,1 14 131 6 40.1 30 56.4 21 111 

10 42.2 July 7 84.5 29 140 

18 29.7 15 119 Oct. 5 104 

July 2 12.1 22 120 19 85.5 

9 17.8 28 124 26 79.6 

15 44.8 Aug. 4 153 Nov, 2 65.7 

22 35.1 14 128 9 68.4 

29 28.2 25 121 16 54,8 

Aug. 2 34.1 Sept. 2 85.4 23 32.4 

5 42.1 8 95,3 30 16,7 

8 19,9 15 113 Dec. 7 34.5 

12 20,5 22 126 17 35,4 

15 31.6 30 125 17 36.0 

22 48.2 Oct. 7 153 21 45.8 

Sept. 9 53.8 14 135 28 24,8 

1ti 74.1 20 129 

23 123 27 118 1943 

30 164 Nov. 4 92.5 Jan. 4 29,5 

Oct. 7 186 17 ·99.4 15 31,3 

14 162 24 103 19 26.4 

21 142 Dec. 1 94.7 26 16.7 

28 122 9 88.3 Feb, 2 51.9 

Nov. 4 133 16 72.5 12 20.0 

18 117 22 63.6 23 11.0 

25 103 30 52.2 28 11.6 

Dec, 2 96.1 Mar. 10 8.99 

9 107 1942 16 10.9 

16 98.4 Jan. 5 46.8 30 5.16 

23 88,9 12 47.6 Apr, 2 4.50 

30 163 20 58.5 2 3.42 

26 43,2 13 3.12 

1941 Feb. 2 35.0 23 28,5 

Jan. 6 123 10 34.3 27 26.7 

13 132 16 29.7 May 4 8. 76 

21 107 23 32.9 11 6.65 

27 160 Mar, 4 36.6 19 21.9 

Feb, 3 136 10 33.6 26 34.8 

10 170 16 24.0 June 5 23.2 

17 131 23 24.3 15 8.82 

24 94,4 28 11.3 22 10.0 

Mar. 3 113 Apr. 6 22,9 July 5 25.0 

10 122 10 26,4 Aug. 2 23.8 

17 88,8 19 62.1 

24 114 27 57,2 1946 

31 103 May 5 32,5 Jan. 14 118 

Apr. 7 96,0 11 21,0 Mar. 14 29.2 

14 123 18 20.0 28 15,1 

21 84.6 June 8 54.2 Apr. 25 10,2 

28 60,8 16 34.3 

May 5 101 29 50.4 

12 86.4 July 10 51.1 

19 62,5 20 61.1 
Table 47.-Runoff of Micmi Canal at Water Plant, Hialellh 

[Unit, 1, 000 acre-feet] 

Year Jan, Feb, Mar, Apr. May June Jnly Aug, Sept, 

1940 a19. 7 39,4 26,5 18,8 3,6 25,0 17.4 24.2 52.ti 

1941 70,2 62,8 56,6 54.6 44.0 25.6 47,7 46,4 41,6 

1942 35,3 26,0 23.4 34.0 27.6 52,4 64.2 73,2 86,3 

1943 19,1 12,3 1.8 10.0 17.0 13,3 14.1 17,4 16,2 

1944 31,7 14,9 6,3 1.4 14,7 9,6 11,2 23,2 17.8 

1945 Ul,3 4.9 2,3 .9 .1 .1 5,0 4,1 23,7 

1946 65,7 25,9 9.4 3,8 17.0 20.3 31,6 33,6 58.2 

aBased on record for Miami Canal at Pennsuco, 

Oct, Nov, Dec, Annual 

92.6 9~~-~~: 68,5 478.6 

56,6 49.8 43,4 599.3 

63,4 35.0 24.2 545.0 

26,3 36.3 45.3 229.4 

27,7 39,2 29.1 226,8 

49,2 85.6 81,9 277.1 

70,6 68.6 51.3 456,0 
-' 

w ,_> 

w"-' 

w-' 

..... 

zw 

-<I) 

Zz 

Q .. >-w ;J:::; 

"'w -'> "'o 

.. "' 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

I 

1600 

~ ~ 1200 

=>o 

'-'<.> 

~~ 

..;o:: BOO 

"'"' o:<L 

..... 

Iw 

~~ 400 0 

0 

~ j\ 

\J\}\_., 

.... 

\ 

------.. ___ ~ 

-----

-- JANUARY FEBRUARY 

'"'"' ....... ~:ken oaJ County Line Do m open ........ 

r-.. '-.....; 

/ ~ ' ""~ [', 

rv'v "'"\ ( Pennsu> ~'Vjf' ''" 1'-1 193M 

"' ." ~J "-..J \..... rJ ) WoterC ~ Jl 

fl.r--J 1\ ~ rr !" I .'"'-vJ 

-vyl.J· ~ """"' ~ Bisoojne Ba 1

1 _.!).' f\. f\ 

MEAN SEA LEVEL 1 v Jv IV..,-.,yv \ 

/'"\. 

r VI ~'\ (\ 

)- Water Ploni---······· ~::Vf 

{\__ l/ ,/ . ,...., ... ------ "'~--~'":~__,J 

)\ / I .............. r-

/'•-.... Penns uc ~ 1939 .;i>·-- / Pennsuco . 

........... _.::::.___.., 

'~ '-....., ~ ...:_/ ------ -----"" above I o tera~ 

~ ..... -------- ./ f-.!_e~su~tolerol 

~----1 1--~---~~ -.. -~-... 

--- - -.!!...-___ ,.. - -- --- -- MAilCH APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER OCTOBER I NOVEMBER DECEMBER 

Figure 117. -Graphs of stage and discharge of lower Miami Canal, 1939-40. 
7 

6 

..J 

"' 5 1-> 

"'"' ....,_, 

"-cf 

z"'4 -<J'J 

zz 

0<( 

i= "' 3 <(::!: 

>...., 

~> 

"'~ 2 <( 

1600 

~c 

~ ~1200 oo 

~~ 

"""' 800 "'"' 0::0.. 

c{l- 6w 

<J'J w 400 

a"-

0 

i 

; 

~----~r, );' 

""~-) "--

' 

/\ I\ 

"'"'\r---v -....., 

{ \ ''\ !I 

" I ,... 1 l'V 'v"'.., r--"' !"" 

"' A 

w 'V'-~ 'v-

.-. ........................... ~ ... ...-.... .. ._} ~ ......... 

r---~-+------ JANUARY FEBRUARY 

Br~en Dom ;-- -- ; 

f ·--r i !' ....... -, 

( ~_1Pennsuco l L_ r---... >, -... 

{' r'- r-..,_,,\ r-.-

1 r--.J'--- .r '\ I At RJssio~-.t' ~----...... ~ ", f' ~ " "-

~ f"-\\.1 _,J 

~ ,J,,,r--...,J ~ ............. 

,------~ ' ' - ~ it ; I" .J 

At FE. C. Canal~- t-......._-" 

""' 

/ ""'~r-J {' VV.'\("V' "-- \ Water plant ~,L·rv "'"'"'-......, 

v ~ :~ ,.1\ r ~Jr"'f "( 36th. St V : _ 1

(obove dam) I r· 1'\ _ •• J\ \ ~ r.J\ tl #-;, r"""v~ .,~ I '-\,'\ \ ..t;:_:,........_ Biscayne 8 ay '\ tj\ \ fr' JfV 1-J,J(..t\. -, Vf""'J \.... r~"'-' \ 

A !v ('"\ ,.."'f \, ........ /(""" r I ,~~ ' I "'J t; \}>< I \ -,.."'\\1 

'Vo 1-l MEAN SEA LEVEL\ I v ~ \..J v ..t \ 

'vii 

! 

~(' A ; 

~~"'A 1 

~ Water P~ant I~ 

·-.f--.. /" -.f>-1. -~ u "'""'- .AI v 

Penosuco {obO'Ite lateral} -~ ... -....~ ..... "./" --- ' 

L _____ ... __ ,.. ... _ --------- ~ -~·"~t~~\_ ,_ ~..-_, ... _.......- _.,/ 

-------f.---- -----~--=+---~ ----]---~--- MARCH I APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST !SEPTEMBER OCTOBER NOVEMBER ! DEC EMBER 

Figure 118. -Graph of stage and discharge of lower Miami Canal, 1941. 
w 

> 0 

<Il_j 

<rw 

f--> 

"-'w w-' 

"-4 zW 

-<ll 

z"z 

Q<[ 

f--W :;::;: 

w 

_j 

w 

r-----~~-----,-C-o-un_t_ym •• Lm"";nm"i'e"m"''nD.ma""m~a-p-~r.-n-------,--~-~--------~----------.---•• -•. -__ '_-------,--.. -... ----~~~-------,-------r-------, 

8~------~----~-------T------~------~-+----~-------P~~~~-~~-=--~-~----~-------+-------; 

~------~~~ ------~~~--~~------~~ -------Hf _ _.. __ c_o_"_"'~y~L-i-oe_l_o-bo_v~e~-d-o_m_)/ __ -_-,·:_· ______ ,_--_ .. _ ... _~_~_-_·,_,~----T-------1 , --• .,_ ! 'i 1---.. , I ! • 

~ . ; :-.,!-.. ; ~ i r-~ Broke~i}:;m1-jl' '-. 1 .r-- ~~ ............ --~~ ~------~i-------~-------''t-+-1 ~ i .'\. il ( 1--- -....... f ........... 

1 \t, (1 ~ j'·.,j '\. ';~ ;'r--.../\.)'-Penn~ -. 1,.......___ ~'-. 

5 !--------+-------+--------+-"-·'-+\ -i:---+: _ -., : · L .. . ,-1.... . _L "---., ~ \ 

'Jr-,V.., ; I r·-· At! Rus:;~~-- ''·-.... ____ ...., ,r---. ________ f'... \r\! 4 I 1.'-.\~ :-Colon) Canal ··· ... -' ~ · 

'J '"' \\\ " I i L,..il.t F.EC Conot r-....... ! -\~ ""'\ 

' t-.~ "'' r "\ :-' i\ \1\'--l"'J ! ,...-..l'.r! ~---""]'- '-~--- ·-·--.. \ , 

~ ~ 1200 ~ ~oter Plant ~~ r' ~ 00 800~------~-----t-------t---+~-+-------+-+-----c-------r------~~~--~~--~H-------+-------i 

z 

·a: 

)!! 1 ~ 

· · ""' fl '-f'.v._ 

l 

i 

\.,!\. I '\ /\ A ! .. ,1 

j{ 

;l 

above 

Pennsuco 

lateral ...,._. 

_...----r·--------- , -~.,, '· ~ 

~ ~ 400 •• ' r---- _.-- _, . •, ..A 

., ~-- t---...._.-- --~ ""' ;- --~~ " '-...1' _.-· ------t --- '-' ··-.... -------:-:: I tJ '--~ 'w---·-r----------- Pennsuco Lateral-.. ---~ r----..._ __ _ ~ W f---· - -~ - ---t_----->- I . j------_~r----= 0 "- O JAN-;RY FEBRUARY MARCH APRIL i MAY JUNE j JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER OCTOBER NOVE!o1BER • DECEMBER 

Figure 119. -C1aph of stage and discharge of lower Miami Canal, 1942. 

~ 

w 

0 
...J 

w 

~--~ 

t:j...J 

"-<( 

~m 

zz 

Q<( 

;::w 

§:::0 

ww ...J> 

wo Ill 

<( 

><o 

.mz 

=>a 

<.>o 

~~ 

,;"' 

<OW 

"'"- 11--

<.>"' <Jl"' 15"-

sr-----~-----,------~mm~-.~,,,-----,, -----,1r------,------,------r------,------,-----, 

County Line Dam o

1

pe n ' G ounty Line (above dam)....._____ _ 

I , ,~...... ---.... t-----~./ ---------

0 

1200 

BOO 

400 

(\ ..._/( Woter Plant ! I iA ~ ,..LJ 

0 JANUARY FEBRUARY MARCH APRIL MAY 1 JUNE I JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER ; OCTOBER NOVEMBER DECEMBER 

Figure 120, -Graph of stage and discharge of lower Miami Canal, 1943, 
8 

I I 

County Line Dam open 0 . I I ' 0 0 

' 

6 

...J 

w I-> 

ww 5 W...J 

..._ <{ 

zw --"' 4 

2~ 

~~ 

~~ 3 

"'o 

"' <{ 

2 

'-.. 

~-, Count Line (above dam ) -...,. 0 

r ...... r 

I Broken Dam / ,..... ...... 

"\. I ' ', "'"'· I / ... -...c ...... l __ ./-,.. I ~, 

" ! \\ I ' : '.....,..), r-.... ', ' (\. i j 

--,,, : \ I 

l.J\ [', ' ' I 

I 

,. ..... Pennsuco d ~~~ -... ~ \ "~- ''<.) ~ 

~~, \r, 

\~"' ~'I \ ,v lr' (~-.., ' '·---.iG_\ '• ' 'J \VJ A ... -........ ,..._~~ ~~J -... .._,tf \. , __ ' ' ---~ ~ ~ \ '\j \r)~'~ \..,.;"\.. ... 

'-,, '"-"Ft~ . 

~~ ---t: ' 

f'o:. AI Russian Colony Con a I j \~ :" ~ Jwater ?toni .---.. f' \...;: '"""' \ ~ 

-~v r'v\~ ~ \ r' :?JI1vf1 ~ 

~ 11 --, ~J_& 36th. St. (above da~ ~ / A,'l'-........,A\ :\., .. ...:~..,~ 

-- ~"""' ,; ~. ¥ • • ' 

'\", ,.. .... ~ ~p ·v; I rv.,.-r;:s ~~ W.Y~~~ V~"'if~ ~\1-n.r..Jp "'";."iN' \J '" V p Vv v \~ ~or·'\ " ".r .. ~ :\ :'\ " 

~~~ " ... \., r,".,.j V1 ") ... :,rv-.'1 'VVJ "'\.!\'~ I MEAN SEA..,. VEL \J Biscayne Bay i \\'~"" 

v li 1200 

<,?a 

'% 

oo 800 w ;;;;"' 

w<t: 

"'"' 400 "'"- <{ 

rlow 

"'"' o"- 0 

~ ,.._..., Water Plant - " ,......... ~ ~ 

~ ~ \ -"-.....___ _j~ "-"v r--r--r-r' 

JANUARY FEBRUARY MARCH "' APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER OCTOBER NOVEMBER DECEMBER 

Figure 121. -Graph of stage and discharge of lower Miami Canal, 1944. 
8 

7 

6 w 

> 0 

m_, 

<lw 5 

~-~ "'-' w 

lL<( 

w 4 ~<I) 

~~ ~:2: 

w 

..J 

w 

20 

2 

I 

0 

1200 

IDZ 

=>o 

0 fi: 800 ;.':'f> 

w-o: 

"'"' o:n. 

~t;; 400 

Uw 

~lL 

0 

0 

0 

' 

A 

~~...._ :-.-........__ t--\ ~ ~ -... --... '(\., ~ ~-~ ~ 

M~ '~'\~ \ I f....{':s1 \s \j 

J 

f-. 

u~ 

""""'-...... JANUARY FEBRUARY 

County Llne Dcm111~~en 

I County L iJ (above dam l 

I 0 

i 

' ' 

, 0 

0 r--- 0 0 I 0 

0 ~ fl.'v'V! v' ~ ~\ oo 

0 1\ ~' li . 0 

'-J~ JG Oo 0 \ 

kt\ \ 

.................. Oo 0 r---. ..... ·-- '"' 0 0 0 ' '• 

~ ~ r'" ~ ~tft$ ~ / ~ ·~ ~\..r-.... r-1' .... ) . \1 V" 

~tV ...Jt.~~ t""--v r-\r ~~- 'v~EAN SEA L~LJ ~~ if,_.!',/'../' /vrv VV\.~k 

~ .. 

I I , ' 

Water Plant 'i. ~ I j\J {\ i r JV-- MARCH APRIL MAY i JUNE JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER 

Figure122.- Graph of stage and discharge of lower Miami Canal, 1945. 

0 0~ 0 0 0 0 

~· 

Broken D-am 

/1 ~ ....... ....... 

/" ............... _.. ~ ........ ,_ I'-.. rr1---./ --... __ -t------..,___, ~ 

1 VI /-.,;:._. / At RtJssi en Colony C ono t 

~ i 1 wa;,:r Plant 

.// 

;d.~(~ •.;:·-·)6th 5; (above dam l 

,...VJ,., d ~/'"'·\: \ 

l\ l'nf.. J~J\) \i-\ tA "" ........... ~ 1'.., j > " -..:, ,,.. • lj \A B~scoyne Bo /'v"v-/'w, rZ- ~ \i 

~ "' '""'- ~I 

~ 

j OCTOBER NOVEMBER j DEC EMBER 
8 I 0 0 0 

7 ; 0 

0 0 0 0 

! 0 

6 

0 

I 

-' 

w 1-> 

ww 

W...J 

"-..: 

zw 

-(f} 

5~--. -- 0 

" I 

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we co 

<( 

2 

1200 

~a 

mz 

=>o 

oo 

z w 800 -"' lLi fr. 

"'"' Q: (l. 400 <(1-

"'w Ow 

~"- 0 0 

~ \ -~--~ f\., ' --,_ J 

_-, " .. '\M"'~~ ,, ·~ ,, ' ' 1-r. :\.,.. ~ \.., 

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JANUARY FEBRUARY 

~ ! MARCH 

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Broken Doml I 

; 

! .£. 

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___ ,.., ........ '-i / <A:' County Line (obove dam ) ! -....--....... To 0 0 

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APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST ; SEPTEMBER OCTOBER NOVEMBER i DECEMBER 

Figure 123. -Graph of stage and discharge of lower Miami Canal, 1946. · 
SURFACE WATER 435 

Stage, southeast of dam: Feb. 14, 1942 to June 1, 1942; Jan. 30, · 

1943 to Dec. 31, 1946 *; continuous recorder graph. 

Maximum: 5. 31 ft, Sept. 15, 1945. 

Minimum: -0.92 ft, Mar. 7, 1945 (at low tide). 

NW. 27th Avenue, Miami (Miami River) 

Stage: Oct. 25, 1945, to Dec. 31, 1946 *; continuous recorder 

graph. 

Maximum: 3. 17 ft, Oct. 7, 1946. 

Minimum: -1. 05 ft, June 27, 1946 (at low tide). 

Biscayne Bay at Coconut Grove 

Stage: Nov. 8, 1940, to Dec. 3.1, 1946 *; continuous recorder 

graph; daily mean plotted in figures 117-12 3. 

Maximum: 9. 9 ft, Sept. 15, 1945 (hurricane peak). 

Minimum: -1. 52ft, Dec. 14, 1944 (at low tide). 

Miscellaneous 

Stage: southeast of County Line Dam, southeast of Broken Dam, 

and southwest of control in Pennsuco Lateral; 1940-46 *• 

occasional, usually in connection with special studies. 

Discharge: at intermediate locations on the main canal and at 

many laterals; 1940-46 *; occasiona.l, usually in connection 

with special studies (see plates 15 and 16 for type of 

observations). 

HYDRAULIC CHARACTERIS'DCS OF HEADWATERS 

RESERVOIR AREA 

The triangle formed by the 10-mile reach of Miami Canal above 

County Line Dam, the connecting S-mile reach of South New River 

Canal, and the road fill of State Highway 25 is nominally considered 

to be the reservoir area of lower Miami Canal, but a large area 

north and west of the canals is also part of the reservoir. See 

figure 124 and plate 14. Although there is considerable water impounded in the pool formed by the two canals, the larger part of 

the water stored above County Line Dam is in the soil and permeable 

rock of the drainage area. The total storage and drainage area of 

the canals is indeterminate; it is considerably larger than the 

triangular area described above, but for reference purposes it is 

usually called the Triangle. 

Overland flow travels slowly southward in the central Everglades, 

following natural sloughs, but generally moving as a broad sheet 

of water. Some of the flow enters Miami and South New River Canals 

at the head of the deep section above the junction, through breaks 

in the spoil banks, or by seepage through and under the banks. The 

breached barrier at the head of the deep section retards flow, but 

it permits the passage of sizable volumes of water in wet periods 

from the shallow, vegetation-choked middle reaches. South New 

River Canal, in particular, acts as an interceptor and receives a 
436 WATER. RESOURCES lN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

sizable amount of ground .. water seepage. In a like manner, these 

canals act as distributors and recharge the Triangle area. During 

the normallywet summer andfall seasons, water stands above the 

ground in the area. 

Figure 124 shows one of a series of studies made in 1941-43 under 

a wide range of conditions. State Highway 25 (formerly 26) acts 

as a dike, but some· water moves toward the east under it. 

The usual movement of water within the Triangle is southeastward 

to a point below County Line Dam, where a considerable quantity 

returns to Miami Canal by seepage. The flow map shows how the 

velocity in South New River Canal increases westward as additional 

increments of flow are received. A maximum velocity is reached 

in Miami Canal just below the junction with South New River Canal, 

and then it decreases to the southeast in Miami Canal as water is 

lost by direct .outflow and seepage. Table 43 lists discharges in 

the storage reach of the canals observed during the studies. The 

flow of Miami Canal at Water Plant, Hialeah, is also listed to relate the varying water conditions to a useful reference base. 

At moderate and low stages, most, or all, direct surface inflow 

and outflow ceases, although the canal pool still intercepts and 

Glades 

flooded 

'~ ~! iii 

0 

EXPLANATION 

Canal 

Earth dam 

Breached barrier 

Elevation of water In feet above mean sea level 

Inflow to canal 

Outflow from canal 

Direction of flow and velocity in feet per second 

Note: Letters A,B,C,D indicate .locations referred to in toble 43 

Glades 

._I ~· ..._, i.-O ,.__, ?,__ _ _,_ _ __._l __ _Jr Miles 

.25 

flooded 

N 

FigUl'e 124. -Map of Miami Canal reservoir area showing the flow pattern and water conditions 

In a wet period, June 24, 1942. 
SURFACE WATER 437 

distributes by seepage from the banks. The flow through the 

breached barrier at the head of the deep section stops as the shallow 

middle reaches of the canal dry out-see figure 113. Ground-water 

flow in the Triangle is fairly large, and it continues long after surface inundation and flow have ceased, 

Evaporation and transpiration losses are larg~ from this shallow 

surface and permeable underground reservoir, and together with 

the ground-water outflow, cause lowering of water levels at rates 

of as much as 2 ft per month. This maximum rate occurs usually 

in late winter and early spring. See figure 107, which shows the 

level of South New River Canal at State Highway 25, a location that 

serves as a key to the water levels in the Triangle. It is important 

to appreciate these losses, because the ordinary annual maximum 

stage in the reservoir 'is only about 8 ft. The rate of decline accelerates after a stage of about 7 ft is reached, because the land 

surface in the Triangle is 6. 5 to 7 ft above sea level. The relationship of the qtage in the storage pool to the stages at other locations along Miami Canal can be studied by comparing figures 

107 and 117-123. 

A part of the water in storage in the reservoir becomes available 

to South New River and Miami Canals in two ways. The first and 

principal manner is by uncontrolled seepage. The second manner 

is by release through culverts or breaches in the earth and rock 

dams that confine the water in the canal pool. 

A breach existed in the dam in South New River Canal, just east 

of State Highway 25, and discharges of as much as 43 cfs were observed prior to the filling in of the breach in July 1941. The high 

pipe culvert in the dam has not been seen in an open position during 

the entire period of observations. 

The gates that control flow through the five pipe culve.rts in County 

Line Dam were opened to augment flow in Miami Canal, as shown in 

figures 107, 117-123, It will be noted, except for the period in 1942 

(for a special evaluation of volume of storage in the reservoir), the 

gates were opened below a pool stage of 4. 0 ft, and except for a 

small immediate drop, the level of the pool declined at a rate no 

faster than that existing prior to the opening and declined at a decreasing rate as the level fell, It is suggested that the raising of 

water levels below County Line Dam (because of the opening of the 

gates) caused a decrease in the amount of ground-water seepage 

from the reservoir into Miami Canal below the dam, and thus resulted in no particular change in the rate of decline of the reservoir 

level. In effect, the direct surface outflow from the reservoir replaced part of the seepage outflow. The amount of available storage 

is discussed in Storage capacity of reservoir in the section on 

special studies, and data on the rating of the gates in County Line 

are also given. 
438 WATER RESOURCES IN SOU'I'HEASTE~ FLORIDA 

The only other channel that directly carried water from the 

Triangle was the borrow ditch south from County Line Dam along 

the west side of Dade-Broward Levee. Outflow from the canal pool 

as great as 90 cfs was observed through the breached canal bank 

at that location. About 1944, a 2-ft concrete pipe culvert was placed 

to close the breach; after this, the maximum flow was about 20 cfs. 

STORAGE INF•.ow REACH 

The channel of Miami Canal from County Line Dam to Broken 

Dam, a distance of 2. 5 miles, is usually called the storage-inflow 

reach, because it receives a large amount of water by seepage 

from the reservoir area, adjoining the northeast bank, and from 

the pool upstream from County Line Dam. Direct surface inflow 

occurs only during the greatest floods. The inflow reach probably 

extends several miles farther southeast toward Pennsuco in periods 

of high water, but when levels are low above County Line Dam, 

reductions in discharge, rather than increases in discharge, have 

been observed in this additional section. 

The large volumes of flow measured at Broken Dam a,re an excellent indication of the porous character of the rock through which 

the canal was excavated. Despite extensive, although discontinuous, areas of impermeable rock, the seepage in the 2. 5-mile reach 

below Broken Dam has been found to be as great as 200 cfs per 

linear mile of canal. As would be expected, the amount of seepage 

varies with the elevation of the reservoir area. Selected stages 

and discharge in the ·inflow reach are listed in table 44. 

The water slope in Miami Canal, from below County Line Dam 

to Broken Dam, is usually quite flat, and even in periods of large 

flow at Broken Dam, it does not exceed about 0. 3 ft. The stage 

graphs, figures 117-123, therefore furnish an indication of head 

on County Line Dam by the difference between the stages at the 

two dams. The stage above County Line Dam is usually much the 

same as that in South New River Canal, at the other end of the 

storage pool. The stage at Broken Dam reacts with that of the 

reservoir, but it is also subject to the flow regimen of the tidal 

reaches of Miami Canal, The more rapid rate of decline at Broken 

Dam, following the annual wet season, results from the direct 

drainage to the sea; but the leveling effect in some winter periods 

results from the operation of 36th Street Dam in ~iami; then, the 

reservoir declines the more rapidly of the two stages. 

When the gates in County Line Dam are opened to augment flow 

in Miami Canal, the upper pool drops considerably and the lower 

pool rises, thus resulting in a reduction of the head that existed 

prior to opening the gates. This was well illustrated during the 
SURFACE WATER 439 

first half of April 1943 (see fig. 120) and should be kept in mind 

when efforts are made to move more water toward the Miami 

area-the static head is significantly reduced when the gates are 

opened. 

The constriction at Broken Dam is enough to cause head losses 

as great as about 0. 3 ft during periods of high discharge or at low 

stages-see figure 116. Velocities are relatively fast for Everglades canals, and the sizable volumes of flow through the gap 

furnish visual evidence of the nature of water-control problems in 

this area of highly permeable rock. 

'l1DJ\L llEACHES 

The bottom of Miami Canal is below mean sea level from County 

Line Dam to Biscayne Bay, a distance of 20 miles; thus, the canal 

is subject to tidal backwater. Broken Dam is usually considered 

to be the inland limit of tidal fluctuations, although during floods 

the limit is much farther east and during droughts the tide effect 

extends all the way to County Line Dam. 

THE FUNDAMENTAL TIDE 

The Atlantic Ocean along the east coast of Florida is subjected 

to typical tidal action, as imposed by the moon and the sun. The 

tide-producing force of the moon is the predominant factor, being 

a little more than twice that of the suri (Pillsbury, 1940). The fundamental tide is of the semidiurnal type, with two nearly equal 

cycles in each lunar day of 24 hours and 50. 4 minutes and with an 

essentially sinusoidal pattern. The high waters (the peaks of the 

cycles) usually follow a smooth trend, alternately higher and lower 

(see fig. 125), although the relationship may be reversed 

occasionally. 

A few definitions will·help. to understand references to tidal 

phenomena. The range of the tide is the vertical distance between 

the high and low points of acycle.'" As shown in figure 125, the 

range changes considerably within a short period, as associated 

with the phases of the moon. The tides with the greatest range in 

each lu!lar month, which are known as spring tides, occur at the 

time of the full or new moon--depending upon the relative declinations of the sun and moon, a complex relationShip. The tides 

with the least range are called neap tides. The amount of tidal range 

is particularly important in low country like southeastern Florida, 

where the canals, and therefore the drainage, are considerably 

affected by tidal backwater. 15The range is also referred to as the "amplitude"; but amplitude is more commonly identified 

with "semlrange•, the departure of a wave from the average position. 

346881 0-55--30 
I! BISCAYNE BAY AT COCONUT GROVE ;igh li~ 

2.0 ~RECORDED Tt DA i VA RIA Ti 0 NS ----+~~ \T]~do~,-,~,-ng~ ,·-L~--1\----J)ftl-. --+lr----,f+-(--f-1f--J.I---f.\- fl_--jl\--, ,,~~--H 

I Durolion of !loll f:;>. {\ II t j I : f\ f\ II i /\ /\ A••~o)tido 1 

~''lf~JJ&tw~:, ~t-~- ~~-~- ~,r, :r-r-._ 

~ I~ \ v I I v IIJ . ~ IU I ~ ~ ~ ~ l.O l-- __ Neap tides ____ k Durotion Gf riSE~ Per1od d c~cle ]----__ _ Spring 1ides 

>-

w 

w 

lL 

~ 1.5 

z 

0 

>-

~ w 

_j 

w 

;19 120 21122123124 25 26 

FEBRUARY 1948 

BISCAYNE BAY AT 

28 

1. ~~~~~==~~~~~~-t-~~~-~MA~Y~~--J~U~N=E-+----,J~U~~~~~AU~GU~ST=-f=~~~~~~~~N~OV~E~MB~E~R~D=E~CE=M7.BE==R~ 

1948 

EXPLANATION 

• New moon 

0 

F.uli moGn 

N 

Greote-s t north 

declination 

s Gre.otest s.oufh 

dedinQtion 

Figure 125. -Graph of actual tidal variation in Biscayne Bay for a short period and predicted tidal variation for 1948. 
SURFACE WATER 441 

The monthly (lunar) pattern of variation is superimposed on an 

ahnual cycle of a more subtle nature, which slowly but steadily 

raises and lowers the pattern. This cycle, which is caused by the 

change in the sun's declination, is shown by the dashed line that 

represents the mean tide on the prediction graph. In turn, the entire 

pattern is affected by a further cycle (longitude of the moon's node) 

having a period of about 19 years. A number of other factors are 

involved in the forces producing the tides, which make them highly 

complex and a special field of study. 

A distinction should be made between tide and' current, which 

are often loosely interchanged. Tide is the vertical change in the 

surface elevation of a body of water. Current is the horizontal 

movement of water caused by tidal action, gravity flow in waterways, wind action, or other causes. 

When water flows from the sea into a bay, estuary, or river under 

tidal action, the condition is referred to as the ~flood tide," or 

"flood current." When tidal flow is toward the sea, the term "ebb 

tide," or "ebb current," is used. The short period of negligible 

current, when the flow reverses at the turn of the tide, is called 

"slack water," For locations close to the ocean, as at inlets, the 

time of slack water is very closely the same as the time of high and 

low tide, but this does not hold true in tide-affected rivers, because 

of runoff and friction. 

It will be noted on the graph of tide prediction that the annual 

pattern is nearly centered about the 0. O-ft sea level line, which is 

to be expected because the prediction is based on observations that 

established the mean sea level datum. The section of chart from 

the automatic stage-recorder in Biscayne Bay (fig, 125), however, 

shows that the water surface was below 0. 0 ft only about 30 percent 

of the time and that the daily mean level ranged between 0, 3 and 

1. 0 ft. This is not necessarily a contradiction, because local 

factors, such as fresh-water runoff and wind effect (particularly 

in the fall of the year), change the pattern of tidal fluctuation in the 

bay. 

TIDE LEVEL~ 

N__ormiJJ. tides, --8ince May 1931, a tide gage has been maintained 

by the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey on the open coast at Carter's 

Pier, Miami Beach, The record from this gage shows that from 

the period 1931-32 to the period 1940-43 there has been a definite 

increase of about 0. 2 ft in the tidal range. (See fig.126.) The range 

declined markedly in 1944, 1945, and 1946. This variation in the 

range is a reflection of a 19-year cycle in the longitude of the moon's 

node, and therefore it can be expected that the range will decrease 

until about 1950 or 1951, 
442 

...... 0.3 

w 

w 

"-

~ 

z 

g 0.2 

... 

> w 

..J 

w 

z 

... 

w 0. 

lE 

0. 

I 

I 

,---·-

'/. 

/ 

-

WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

··-· ··1 ·-r ---1 T ······-· 

Observations by 

1

u s CJast anl GeoJ.tic survey at 

Carter's p·,er, Miami Beach 

--·- --- -- --··- ·-

Elevation\ ~ 

-----· 

- / 

~~h v -~-- - I \ ... 

// / 

l ~1 -···---~-- 1/ \ / Range 

v· I 

t-- !--" ....... M<AN S<A L<VH 

"'·'·· - ... --- ---~---·. 

0 

.. 

2? 

~ 

' ' 

~-~. 

2.8 

1\ I 

\ 

2.7 

2.6 

r-, 

" ', 2.5 

2.4 

Figure 126. -Graph of annual mean elevation and range of Atlantic Ocean at Miami Beach, 

1931-46. 

1-

w 

w 

"-

~ 

w" 

"' z 

... 

"' 

z 

... 

w 

lE 

..J 

"" :::> 

z 

z 

... 

There has also been a progressive increase in annual mean sea 

level of about 0. 22 ft during the 15-year period of record, which 

has also been observed at other places along the Atlantic . Coast 

(Marmer, 1941, p. 620-629). 

The combined effect has been to increase high-tide levels at 

Miami Beach during 1940-46 by 0, 28 ft in comparison with levels 

in 1931-32. Low-water levels rose only about 0. 15 ft, because the 

increase in tidal range tended to counteract the increase in sea 

level. Throughout the record, sea level remained about halfway 

between high and low water. 

The record from the U. S. Geological Survey recording gage in 

Biscayne Bay at Coconut Grove furnishes an interesting comparison 

with that on the open coast, Tidal range in the bay during late 1940 

to 1946 varied between 1. 0 and 2. 7 ft, and averaged 1. 82 ft, which 

was 70 percent of the range of the ocean at Miami Beach. Therefore, it might be expected that during 1931-46 the rise in high-tide 

level of Biscayne Bay was 0. 22 ft, plus 70 percent of the 0. 06 ft 

increase in the semirange, or a total rise of 0. 26 ft, as compared 

with 1931-32, This is based on the assumption that the basic rise 

of 0, 22 ft in the mean level of the ocean was also experienced in 

the bay. 

The tidal levels of the bay and ocean are important to the freshwater supply of the Miami area, and particularly to the municipal 

well fields. The increase in range, together with the rising sea 
SURFACE WATER 443 

level, probably aided the intrusion of sea water during the 1940-;-46 

period. The mean stage of Biscayne Bay at Coconut Grove during 

this period was about 0. 6 ft above mean sea level datum. 

Windtides,-A sizable body of water, such as Biscayne Bay, is 

subje9t to wind tides of considerable magnitude, which have no 

regular period, but which are associated with wind velocity and 

direction. Biscayne Bay is shallow, thus augmenting the effect of 

wind on the water, The ·prevailing winds are easterly and southeasterly, therefore it is probable that the mean stage of the bay is 

higher along the west shore than along the east shore (particularly 

in the northwestern corner, where the U. S. Geological Survey tide 

gage is located). This may account, in part, for the fact that mean 

stage of the bay at Coconut Grove is higher than the mean stage of 

the ocean in the period of study; however, it should be kept in mind 

that fresh-water runoff may also be a factor. 

Many small fluctuations of the level of Biscayne Bay are caused 

by ordinary winds of the area, and, while these fluctuations usually 

are small, they are associated with the problem of contamination 

of tidal canals by salty water. The greatest. wind tides, of course, 

are those associated with the hurricanes that occur in southern 

Florida, The steady high winds of a hurricane tend to raise the 

level of the bay, and, during the period of ma~imum wind velocities, 

they can cause a destructive high stage. Some data (supplied by the 

U. S. Weather Bureau, Miami) on the three significant hurricanes 

in the 1940-46 period are listed below: 

Hurricane, track of center: 

Oct. 6, 

1941 

Direction............. ... ........ • .................. NW 

Approximate minimum distance from 

Oct. ,18, 

1044 

N 

Sept. 1'5, 

194'5 

NW 

Miami, miles ................................... 13SW 120W 25SW 

Wind velocity, U. S. Weather Bureau, 

Miami: 

Maximum, 5 minutes, sustained, (miles a per hour) ......................................... 63 

Maximum, 1 minute (miles per hour) ........ " 68 

Direction .................. ~ ....... ~............... E 

Stage of Biscayne Bay at Coconut Grove: 

Mean, 2 days prior to storm (feet)......... 0, 7 

Maximum during storm (feet)................ 4. 0 

65 86 

69 109 

SE SE 

b 

1.4 0.8 

3,9 9. 9 

8

Estlmated 40 to 60 percent greater at Dinner Key (location o£ bay gage, 4 miles southwed of 

U. s. Weather Oureau office). 

bWinds held steady for several days prior to storm. 

The storm of October 6, 1941, was small, and the wind velocities 

increased rapidly within a few miles south of Miami. The storm of 
444 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTiiEASTERN FLORIDA 

October 18, 1944, was a large storm, and gales were felt in Miami 

for several days, although the center of the storm was quite a dis• 

tance away. (Note the comparable maximum wind velocities of the 

two storms and the resulting wind tide.) 

The hurrkane of September 15, 1945, was moderate in size, but 

it was quite intense near the center. The 9. 9·ft stage at Coconut 

Grove was measured in a still pool, and it does not consider wave 

action that probably was several feet higher. The bay rose from a 

4-ft stage to a stage of 8 ft in 1 hour and 20 minutes; and from 5 ft 

to 8 ft in 50 minutes (the time element necessary to rise above 8 

ft is not known, because the stage recorder became submerged and 

the record is incomplete). The high level of the bay caused a large 

rush of sea water inland in the tidal canals for several hours. A 

profile of the peak stages in Miami Canal is shown in figure 134. 

The paths of hurricanes have no fixed relationship to the Miami 

area, and storms may be expected from any direction. The three 

storms noted above happened to have maximum gales from the easterly quadrant, but this will not always be the case. Therefore, a 

hurricane could pass near Miami and produce relatively little wind 

tide along the western shores of upper Biscayne B!!Y• although other 

shores might be inundated. The maximum wind tide at Miami will 

probably occur during periods of spring tides, with the maximum 

wind velocity occurring from the southeast at the time of high tide. 

TIDAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SEA.LEVEL CANALS 

A waterway directly connected with a tidal body of water usually 

is affected by tidal variations for some distance above its mouth. 

The length of the reach affected depends upon the elevation of the 

bottom of the channel, the amount of fresh-water runoff, and the 

friction-producing elements in the channel. 

The term "backwater," in ordinary :;;tream-gaging usage, is the 

height that water surface in a· channel is raised above its normal, 

or natural, level by an obstruction retarding its flow. Such an obstruction conceivably could be in the nature of a dam, a bridge, 

aquatic vegetation, or tides.· Regardless of the nature of the ob-

'struction, the effect on the flow is the same. A backwater curve is 

the profile of the water surface in the reach that is subjected to 

backwater. Backwater may also be classified as the volume of water 

represented by the difference in area of the backwater surface and 

that of the normal water surface, multiplied by the width of the 

channel. 

The variations in backwater produced· in a waterway by tidal 

fluctuations in the body of water intowhich the waterway discharges 

are shown· in figure 127. It will be noted that the effect of tidal 
SURFACE WATER 445 

variations is not simultaneous throughout the waterway, and that 

the result is a wave that travels upstream. Because the vertical 

motion of the water affected by the wave is a result of continuous 

and alternate storage and release of water in the channel, it follows 

that a tidal impulse can travel upstream against the flow of water 

in a channel. Therefore, a tidal wave moving upstream does not 

indicate actual upstream movement of the wa.ter, except under 

certain conditions as described in the following paragraphs. 

In figure 127, the line of mean slope (DE) represents the average 

water surface for the whole tide cycle. The slope of high waters 

(OF) and the slope of low waters (DA) show the limiting positions 

of high and low tide as the cycle moves inland. The vertical distance between these two lines at any location is the tidal range, and 

the height of the water surface above the line DA is the backwater. 

The volume of water represented by the triangle DF A is the tidal 

prism above point A. On the other hand, tidal storage is the volume 

alternately stored and drained by tidal action, and it includes bank 

storage as well as channel storage. It is always less than the tidal 

prism because the tidal prism is never filled with water at any one 

time (see fig. 127). Tidal storage is often expressed in units of 

cfs-hours, because of the constantly changing ratio of storage, but 

it may also be expressed in acre-feet or by other volumetric units. 

Tidal storage is an important factor in the design of channel im~ 

provements and canals, in pollution and sewage dilution problems, 

and in studies of currents. 

Tidal storage also may be shown on a discharge hydrograph, as 

in figures 1,29 and 130. With rate of flow as the ordinate, and with 

time as the abscissa, the area under the curve for any period is a 

volume. Thus, the area between the curve and the line representing 

the mean discharge is the tidal storage. There are two such areas 

in the plot of a tide cycle. The one above the mean line is the period 

when the tidal storage is being emptied-water is going out of 

storage. The other is the period when the tidal storage is being 

filled-water is going into storage. 

The tidal range decreases as the wave moves upstream, and it 

disappears at some point inland. The rate of decrease would be 

uniform in a perfectly uniform canal, but it varies in the typical 

waterway because of changes in the channel section and alinement. 

For a given canal, the limit of tidal backwater varies with the 

amount of fresh-wate'r runoff in the canal, because runoff has a 

damping effect-the greater the runoff, the shorter the reach 

affected by tide. 

The wave of the tide cycle in the lower reaches of the canal is 

usually the same shape as that in the bay, but a change in symmetry 
446 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

occurs as the wave progresses upstream. The fresh-water runoff 

and other factors oppose the upstream propagation of the wave, and 

they tend to shorten the duration of the rise and to lengthen the 

duration of the fall, although the period of the wave remains the 

same. This is the characteristic river-type tide that is common 

in the upper tidal reaches of coastal streams. 

Because of the wave-like variations of water surface caused by 

tide, the slopes DF and DA in figure 127 actually never occur as 

shown in the figure. The storage changes that produce the wave 

take considerable time, thus causing a progressive lag inland for 

any point on the fundamental cycle, No data are available to prove 

the amount of lag in an extreme case, but it conceivably could be a 

full cycle--12 hours and 25 minutes. That is, the bay level could 

be at high tide and a point far inland could also be at high tide, but 

the inland high tide could be a result of the preceding high tide in 

the bay, The lag in progression of high and low tides is shown in 

figures 128 and 129. 

The progressive changes in slope, directions of flow, and changes 

in storage of a tidal canal are shown schematically in figure 127, 

At the right side of the figure is a graph of the fundamental tide in 

.Yle bay at the mouth of the canal, point A. The decreasing range 

of, the tide and the lag in the progression of the wave are shown in 

the parallel graphs at points Band C. At location D the tidal backwater plays out, and the slope of the water surface above D represents the steady fresh-water flow, To make the diagram relatively simple, the fundamental tide has been centered about mean 

sea level. The several phases of the profile are discussed below, 

using the circled reference numbers, 

1. Slope and direction of flow are positive at all locations; the 

bay is rising and some of the fresh-water runoff is being stored as 

the backwater from the bay increases, 

2. The bay rises faster than the canal can store water for the 

increasing backwater, and flow inland occurs from the bay; the 

point of reversal of flow progresses slowly upstream, becaune 

storage is being accumulated at that point from both directions, but 

at a faster rate from the bay; all of the canal runoff goes into storage 

(tidal storage). 

3. The bay level reaches high tide and starts to decline rapidly; 

a positive slope is reestablished near the mouth of the canal, a 

second point of reversal in flow occurs, and some of the stored 

water flows out, The second reversal moves inland rapidly because 

water is moving away from it in both directions, and the positive 

slope to the bay steepens, In this period, flow in the canal occurs -

in three sections-two positive and one negative. The first reversal 

is still moving upstream, but at a -slower rate than before because 
~ 

"' 

EXPLANATION 

--!> 0tRf;;CT10111 Of Fi..OW 

~ 

SURF ACE WATER 

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MODJFI~D C"tCU' 

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MEAN STAGE 

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CONOITION 

IN EJAY 

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Figure 127. -Diagram of tidal backwater in a canal and progressive changes of slope, direc • 

tions of flow, and changes in storage of a tidal canal. 

of the decreasing backwater and the filling-in of the low point of 

the profile; all of the runoff is going into storage; tidal backwater 

extends upstream beyond the first reversal, but the flow above that 

point is all positive, and it diminishes toward the reversal point. 

The second reversal overtakes the first reversal, and all slopes 

and flow become positive toward the ba 
448 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN. FLORIDA 

4. The level of the bay is approaching a low condition; the high 

point of the wave (high tide) has reached point C; the profile and 

direction of flow is positive, and the fresh-water runoff is augmented by the release of the water stored earlier. 

5, The level of the bay has passed low tide and is beginning to 

rise again; low tide is progressing upstream and has not yet oc-

-curred at points B and C; water is going into storage below the 

point of low tide and out of storage above it; the point of changeover, 

from storage release to storage, progresses inland until condition 

1 (storage at all locations) is again reached. 

The undulating character of the profile shows the reason that 

tidal slopes are so complex-a steady condition is never achieved, 

It also shows why computations based on theory are so hard to 

make and why field studies of tidal phenomena are necessary. The 

diagrams present only the most simple aspects of the problemactual channels usually have many variations in alinement, in proportions, and in runoff, all of which make the whole problem much 

more complex. 

This discussion omits the further complication imposed by the 

difference in specific gravity between fresh water and sea water, 

which involves the problems of divided flow and density head. Additional discussion of this subject will be found in the section on 

Salt-water encroachment under the head:i.ng Contamination of tidal 

canals. 

TIDAL FLUCTUATIONS IN MIAMI CANAL 

The discussion of the fundamenta~ dde and tidal phenomena can 

be applied to most tidal waterways, but it is specifically applicable 

to Miami Canal. Miami Canal plays a very important part in the 

water events of the greater Miami area, particularly with respect 

to the protection of the municipal water supply and to the conservation of water in the open lands farther to the west. 

Miami Canal .is subject to an average tidal variation of 2. 0 ft at 

its mouth in Biscayne Bay (U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1947, 

p. 303).!_Compared with the average range of 2. 6 ft in the ocean at 

Miami Beach and 1. 8 ft in the bay at Coconut Grove·, it is apparent 

that the tidal range in the bay diminishes with distance from the 

ocean. The tidal range also diminishes to the south and becomes 

very small at the south end of Bis.cayne Bay and at the upper Keysless than 1 ft in Barnes Sound. 

A period of typical tidal variations in Miami Canal is shown in 

figure 128, which entails tracings from gral?hs of five water-stage 
SURFACE WATER 449 

recorders. Because of conflict" with the hydrograph of the Water 

Plant recorder, only a part of the Biscayne Bay' record is. shown. 

N6 dam was in place in the lower reaches 'Of the canal, and free 

tide-affected flow occurred throughout the period. The sharp rise 

at Pennsuco on April 11 resulted from releasing water at County 

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450 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Line Dam, 6, 6 miles, to the northwest. The large rises on April 

16-17 were caused by extremely heavy rainfall. Total precipitation 

for April 16-18 at Water Plant, Hialeah, was 18.09 in,; at Broken 

Dam, 6. 05 in. was recorded. 

The damping of the tide as it moved inland is evident in figure 

128. The degree of damping between Water Plant and Russian Colony 

Canal, during Aprill 0-15, probably resulted from the aquatic weeds 

in the canal, because discharge at Water Plant was low (ranging 

between 200 and 300 cfs), -The great storm increased the discharge 

to 1, 200 cfs, which is reflected in the upward shift of the several 

canal stages and in the further damping of the tidal action. Some 

of the increase in damping may have been offset when some of the 

aquatic weeds were removed by the greatly increased discharge. 

The limit of tidal backwater, prior to the rains, was in the vicinity 

of Broken Dam, but, as a result of the rains, it was shifted downstream to a point between Broken Dam and Pennsuco. 

The progressive upstream lag in the times of high and low tide, 

between the bay and Broken Dam, is indicated on the figure; this 

lag amounted to about 5 hours for low tide and to a little more than 

3 hours for high tide. This variation in lag is directly associated 

with the change in symmetry of the waves as they were propagated 

farther upstream. The stage graph at Pennsuco is a good example 

of the river-type tide, wherein the duration of the fall becomes 

longer than the duration of the rise, because of the proportions and 

friction of the channel, and because of the fresh-water runoff. 

The average rate of propagation of the wave on April14 and 15, 

1942, (fig. 128) can be computed from the stage graphs. It is 

assumed that the time of the tides at the mouth of Miami Canal was 

the same as that at Coconut Grove on Biscayne Bay. The reach to 

Pennsuco is 15. 2 miles. 

Progress of low tide - 15. 2 -2.8 

5. 4 mph 

8. 0 feet per second 

Progress of high tide -

- ~ 2. l 

= 7. 2 mph 

= 10. 6 feet per second 

The theoretical rate of progression of tidal action in an estuary 

or large channel under frictionless flow is c = Jg'd; where c-is the 

rate, g is the acceleration of gravity, and dis the depth of the channel 

(Pillsbury, 1940, p. 175, 224). 
SURFACE WATER 451 

In this case: 

c = ~ 32 ){ 8 

= 16.0 fps 

The difference between the actual and the theoretical rate of progression indicates that depth is not the sole factor involved; probably the size of a canal and its roughness (friction) are important 

factors. 

The simple elements of the rise and fall of the tide are well 

understood, but the movements of water resulting from that rise 

and fall are not so widely appreciated. These movements and their 

variations are discussed below by combining general data with 

specific data for Miami Canal. 

When the ebb flow starts out an inlet, the impounded water being 

released is not only the tidal storage of the bay, but it is also the 

storage of all the tidal channels and lakes that are tributary to the 

bay. Thus, the fall of the tide in Biscayne Bay re'leases water impounded in Miami River and its. trioutaries, causing channel 

velocities and discharges that are comparatively large. The turn 

of the tide at the inlet starts the flood flow in from the ocean, water 

is again stored in the bay, and backwater from the rising bay reduces the discharge of Miami River. 

Stage and discharge graphs for stations along Miami River and 

Canal are shown in figure 129. The most obvious feature is the 

fact that the stage and discharge graphs both follow essentially the 

same pattern, disregarding the differences in scale and timing. 

The wide variation of discharge at NW. 5th Street, ranging between 

430 and 2, 840 cfs, caused equally wide variation in the velocity of 

flow at that location. The fact that all of the discharge at the station 

was in one direction means that the fresh-water runoff from the 

drainage area of the canal was great enough to raise the level of 

the river as fast as Biscayne Bay was rising--which at times exceeded 0. 6 ft per hour. 

As compared with the discharge at NW. 5th Street, the smaller 

range of discharge at Water Plant was caused by the large tidal 

storage area between the two stations (which includes the lower 

reaches of Tamiami Canal) and by a smaller tidal range than at 

the lower station. The larger mean discharge at NW. 5th Street 

(1, 810 cfs, as compared with 1, 230 cfs at Water Plant) is explained 

by the additional intermediate runoff, a large part of which (more 

than 330 cfs) was direct increment from ntmiami Canal. 

The shape of the hump in the graph for NW. 5th Street (reflected 

also on the Water Plant graph) is a characteristic of most tidaldischarge patterns of Miami Canal. The cause is not apparent, 
452 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

AT NORTHW£ST 5TH ST 

Tidal storage equals 5420 cfs-

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I I MEAN SEA LEVEL 

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FEBRUARY 17, 1941 

storage_ equals 574 cfs-hrs 

6 9 

Fl"gure 129, --Graph of tidal variation in stage and discharge at stations along Miami River and 

Canal, February 17, 1941. 
SURFACE WATER 453 

although it could be the effect of the timing of tidal release from 

Tamiami Canal, or it could be the result of some peculiarity of 

currents in Biscayne Bay. 

Concerning the graph for NW. 5th Street, as centered about the 

line of mean discharge, note that the minimum flow was more 

divetgent from the me.an than was the maximum flow--a difference 

of 1, 370 cfs, as compared with 1, 000 cfs. And also, the period of 

reduced discharge (belo:w the mean) was shorter than the period of 

increased discharge-S. 6 hours, as compared with 6. 8 hours. 

These features indicate that tidal storage fills more quickly than 

it empties, because of the combined effect of runoff and the rising 

bay, coupled with the differences in rates of inland propagation of 

the high and low tides. The storage and release of the tidal storage 

can be considered as flood and ebb storage, because it is associated 

with the flood and ebb of the bay even though flow in the canal may 

be in only one direction during the entire tide cycle. 

The tidal storage at Water Planton February 17, 1941, was 574 

cfs-hours (47 acre-ft); at NW. 5th Street, it was 5, 420 cfs-hours 

(448 acre-ft), or. nearly ~C times as great, thus illustrating the 

relatively large amount of tidal storage intermediate between the two 

locations. Because of the cavernO\lS nature of the limestone, thropgh 

which much of the lower reaches of Miami and Tamiami Canal were 

excavated, water can easily enter or leave the ground through the 

banks. This change in ground storage was believed to be large, A 

very rough computation for the NW."5th Street location, however, 

indicates that the surface storage accounts for about 70 percent of 

the tidal storage (under conditions that existed on February 17, 

1941), thus leavirtg only 3(1 percent for the bank storage. 

The stage graphs of figure 129 show ordinary conditions. The 

diminishing range of tide, inland from the bay, is well illustrated, 

as well as the progressive inland lag of the high and low tides. 

Another little-understood aspect of tidal action in a canal is the 

phasing of the discharge cycle (or wave) in a manner similar to the 

inland progression of the high and low tides. The fundamental tide 

cycle is approximately a sine wave and can be considered as being 

divided into 360 °, as well as having a time period of 12 hours and 

25 minutes. 

The cycle of discharge in a tidal system has the same general 

form as the stage cycle and is a product of the stage cycle, but the 

extremes occur at different times-that is, the discharge cycle is 

out of phase with the stage cycle. At the perfect (theoretical) inlet 

from the sea, the flow through the inlet changes from flood to ebb 

(reverses) just after high tide in the ocean, The ebb flow reaches 

a peak as the tide falls to midtide, and it stops when low tide is 

reached. Thereafter, the flood flow resumes and the discharge 
454 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

cycle is completed, but it is later than the stage cycle by a quarter 

cycle-it lags by 90 °, or a little more than 3 hours. 

At Government Cut (the principal entrance to Biscayne Bay), the 

discharge cycle lags behind the stage cycle by about 110 °. This 

lag becomes progressively greater inland from the inlet. The dis~ 

charge cycle becomes distorted in Miami River, because of fresh~ 

water runoff and other factors, and the lag is not constant for all 

parts of the cycle. At Water Plant, Hialeah, the high discharge 

occurs about 154 o (5 hours, 20 minutes) after high tide, and the low 

discharge occurs about 135 o (4 hours, 40 minutes) after low tide. 

An example of the phase lag in the canal is shown in figure 129. 

Below some critical quantity, the fresh~water runoff in Miami 

Canal is not able to fill the channel and raise its level as fast as 

Biscayne Bay rises. Flow inland from the bay then occurs during 

part of each tide cycle. The mechanics of this reverse (or negative) 

flow are illustrated in figure 127. The length of the period of reverse flow and the distance inland that it extends are functions of 

the amount of fresh~water runoff and the tidal range. 

Under reverse~flow conditions, salt water from the bay moves 

up Miami Canal. The existence of an upstream current at any lo~ 

cation does not necessarily mean the presence of salt water, how~ 

ever, because salt water from the bay pushes some of the fresh 

water back inlan·d. Later in the cycle, when all flow is toward the 

bay (positive), both fresh and salt water flow downstream. During 

this action, a certain amount of intermixing occurs, and water con~ 

taining varying amounts of chloride can be found in the canal. The 

salty water, being heavier than the fresh water, lies in the bottom 

of the channel and moves inland as fresh~water runoff decreases. 

In addition to this replacement of the fresh water in the canal, the 

salty water moves into, and out of, bank storage and tends to con~ 

taminate the adjoining ground water. It is during periods of low 

runoff and at times of maximum tidal range that salty water moves 

inland at the fastest rates. This phenomenon is more completely 

discussed in the s.Jction on Salt-water encroachment under the 

heading Contamination of tidal canals. 

Typical and extreme conditions of reverse flow in Miami Canal 

at Water Plant are shown in figure 130, which was developed from 

field observations. A series of discharge measurements made over 

a tide cycle is known as a tidal discharge integration or simply as 

an integration. 

The graphs for December 7, 1942, show conditions during a long 

steady decline in stage and discharge of the canal. The characteristic shape of the hump near the peak of the integration is not prominent; instead, it is indicated by a flattening of the curve. The 3-

hour period of reverse flow, indicated on the graph as negative 
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Dolo ore from gaging stal!on 

at Water Plant at Hi a leo h 

Range of stage = I. 72 ft 

B 10 

JUNE 23, 1943 

Figure 130. -Graph of tidal variation in stage and discharge of Miami Canal at Water Plant, Hialeah, December 7, 1942, and June 23, 1943. 
456 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

flow, means that salty water was progressing inland during part 

of each cycle. However • the reverse flow measured at Water Plant 

was fresh water that was forced back by salty water, which had 

advanced nearly to the entrance to Palmer Lake. 

The changing symmetry of the tide cycle as it moves inland is 

also reflected in the discharge cycle. The upper part of the integration (shaded to show the flow representing the tidal storage) has 

the typical wider and flatter shape, as compared with the lower 

part; this shape is the effect of the inland progression and lag of 

the tide, Note the time relationship between high and low tide and 

the extremes of discharge. Despite the fairly low mean discharge 

of 327 cfs, the time necessary to fill the tidal storage was about 

2 hours less than required to empty it, 

The graphs for June 23, 1943, show conditions near the low 

point of a very bad drought condition. The most notable features 

are the unusually long period of reverse flow, the large negative 

flow, and the very low mean discharge. With fresh-water runoff 

so small, and with the tidal range at the maximum for the month, 

salty water in the canal was moving inland at a fast rate. The salt 

front actually passed the point of observation in Hialeah, and some 

of the water measured during the cycle was salty. Fortunately for 

the protection of the public water supply, within a short time rains 

caused increased runoff and forced the salty water downstream. 

The maximum negative flow of 395 cfs was nearly as great as the 

maximum positive flow. 

If the canal were not controlled, the next event in such a drought 

period would be the cessation of all fresh-water runoff. Salty water 

would soon move in under the fresh 'water and continue inland. The 

rise and fall of the tide would cause the salty water to move in and 

out of the banks, and extensive contamination would result. Continued drought effect would result in a net canal flow inland, and contamination of the entire tidal reach would soon occur. This was 

observed in some of the shorter canals in the Miami area and probably would have occurred in Miami Canal, had it not been for the 

dam at NW, 36th Street. 

Several pertinent factors from the graphs in figures 129 and 130 

have been compiled in the following tabulation: 

Miami Canal at Water Plant, Hialeah 

Discharge: 

Feb. 17, 

1941 

Mean ••••..•.••...•..••..•..•.•.•.• c::fs •• 1. 230 

Maximum •••.•.••••.•••.•.•.••••• cfs •• 1, 390 

Dec. 7, 

1942 

327 

686 

June 32, 

1943 

65 

415 
SURFACE WATER 457 

Miami Canal at Water Plant, Hialeah 

Feb. 17, 

1941 

Dec. 7, 

1942 

June 23, 

1943 

Discharge--continued 

Minimum (or max negative) •• cfs •• 1, 050 -273 -395 

Range .............•...••..........•• cfs •. 340 959 810 

VolU:me per cycle ••••••••••• cfs-hr •• 15,250 4, 055 801 

acre-ft .. 1, 260 335 66. 2 

Time: 

Period of reverse flow •••••••• hrs •• 0 3. 0 5.4 

Reverse flow ..... percent of cycle •• 0 23 44 

Maximum discharge after maximum stage .............••..•... hrs .. 5. 8 5. 1 4.7 

Minimum discharge after minimum stage ..................... hrs •• 6,0 4. 9 4,9 

Stage: 

Mean .•.....•...•••••..•••••.••••.•...• ft .• 2.07 1. 06 • 83 

Range ..................... , ••••.•.•.•.• ft .• • 73 1. 48 1.72 

Range at Pennsuco ................ ft .. • 07 • 55 .11 

Tidal storage: 

Volume 1, 790 1,730 ..................•..•... cfs -hr .. 574 

acre-ft •• 47.4 148 143 

Time to fill ....................... hrs •• 5. 3 4.9 5.7 

Time to empty .................. hrs .• 7. 1 7. 1 6.7 

Percent of fresh-water runoff ...... 3. 8 44 216 

The following interesting relationships are indicated in this 

listing of data, several of which maybe related to the basic factors 

of decreasing mean discharge and stage in the series presented: 

1, The range of discharge increased generally. 2. The length of 

the period of reverse flow increased markedly-it may be assumed 

that the maximum period (no runoff) would be around 50 percent of 

the cycle, 3. The volume of tidal storage compared with the freshwater runoff increased considerably-mathematically, the percent 

would expand indefinitely as runoff approached zero. 4. The lag of 

the discharge cycle after the stage cycle apparently decreased with 

the amount of discharge. 

The volume of tidal storage, as shown also by other studies, was 

closely related to the range in stage. The apparent contrary relationship of range and volume on December 7, 1942, and June 23, 

1943, may possibly be explained by the accumulation of aquatic 

weeds in the canal during the period between the twb dates, which 

would damp the tidal action and thus reduce tidal storage in some 
458 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

degree. This is corroborated by comparison of the tidal range at 

Water Plant with that at Pennsuco. Thus, to arrive at any stagevolume relationship, it is necessary to use stage data from two or 

more stations. 

FLOW CHABACTERIS'IICS OF MIAMI CANAL 

The multiple-purpose function of Miami Canal makes its reg~men 

over a period of time imp.ortant as reference data. The canal helps 

to collect water for the reservoir area, and at the same time, it 

is the instrument that excessively drains the area. The drainage 

needs for farming are met in wet periods, and when dry weather 

sets in, the canal furnishes the necessary irrigation water. Miami 

Canal indirectly supplies a considerable part of the municipal wellfield draft, but in dry seasons, when that part is most needed, salty 

water may move up the canal and contaminate the wells. 

One of the best sources for the comparison and evaluation of conditions in the Miami Canal drainage area is the stage record at 

Pennsuco, shown in figure 131. This record for the period 1926-46 

is the longest available in the Everglades area, and it is the only 

long record in the lower Everglades. The record is a base reference 

statistic for the water regimen of a large area from County Line 

Dam to NW. 36th Street. It has certain weaknesses in the period 

in which once-daily staff gage readings were made (to November 

1939). The readings were discontinuous, particularly in the drier 

seasons, with breaks as long as 5 months. Also, the readings were 

made about the same time each day, thus disregarding the twicedaily tidal variation that often existed in the canal and which was 

greatest at the lower stages. The early record then is increasingly 

weak below a. stage of about 3 ft, particularly during the first several 

years, when pumping for drainage and irrigation occurred. Despite 

these weaker periods, which are minimized in some degree by the 

time scale o,f the graph, the moderate- and high-stage record is 

valid, and the whole constitutes a most useful record. After November 19 39 the graph is plotted from daily mean stages obtained from 

a continuous recorder. 

In studying the record, it is desirable to remember that the ground 

elevation at Pennsuco of about 4 ft in 1946 was possibly 1. 5 to 2 ft 

lower than in 1926. because of subsidence of the soil from oxidation 

and fires. This means that during all except about 2 of the 21 years 

of record the ground was inundated in varying depths and for varying 

periods. 

The seasonal variation is the outstanding characteristic of the 

graph in figure 131, showinghow definite a divisionexists between 

the annual wet and dry periods. The maximum stage of 8. 77 ft for 

the 21-year record occurred in 1929, which is remembered as an 
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SLI!j!Cir Compony ond Gr~;~hom'8 0~;~1ry; ~onlii'IUOUII 

record!ilr graph uud afhn November 19;,9 

Figute 131, -Graph of stage of Miami Canal at Pennsuco, 1926-46, 

459 
460 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

outstanding flood year, The highest stage reached in a year, however, is not the only c'riterion of water conditions at Pennsuco; the 

length of the wet, or dry, period must also be considered, 

In the winter and springof 1939, drought conditions caused salty 

water to move far inland and contaminate some of the municipal 

supply wells, All of 1938 was unusually dry, thus setting the condition for early 1939, The year 1927 was also dry, and a serious 

drought condition probably occurred in the spring of 1928. 

A series of very dry winter seasons, starting in late 1942, culminated in the extreme drought condition of June 1945, Although 

fair amounts of recharge occurred in the wet periods of 1942, 1943, 

and 1944, the succeeding long periods of little rainfall caused water 

levels to fall excessively, The stage would have been even lower 

except that J:-{W, 36th Street Dam helped conserve water in the 

springs of 1943 to 1946. The effect of the dam shows in the graph, 

notably in 1944 and 1946. 

The over-all range of stage at Pennsuco was nearly 8, 5 feet-in 

an area where some of the land is less than 4 feet above sea level. 

Some of the fast rates of recharge shown on the graph are noteworthy, as well as the long periods of steady decline, However, 

a general study of tpe graph indicates no positive trend in the period 

of record, The record is duplicated in greater detail with other 

stage records along Miami Canal for 1939-46 in figures 117-123. 

The annual maximum stage at Pennsuco for the period 1926-46 is 

shown in the following tabulation;· in which each peak was assigned 

a number indicating its order of magnitude-the highest peak listed 

as No, 1. 

Year Maximum stage 

(in feet) Magnitude 

19213 •••••••••.•...• 7. 73 ..••••••.•..•.. 2 

1927 ···•·••••••·••· 4. 69 .••....••...••• 20 

1928 ............... 6. 39............... 4 

1929 •.•..••.••••.•. 8. 77 .••.•.•••••.•.. 1 

1930 ......•.•...... 6. 09............... 9 

1931 .•..• ,., .•••••.•. 5. 67 ••...•.•.••••.• 12 

1932 .....•.•...••.. 6. 29................ 6 

1933 ...... ••·•·•·• 6. 39............... 5 

1934 ................ 5. 38 ................ 17 

1935 ............... 5. 97 ••..••.••••.•.• 10 

1936 ••••.• .••••••• 7. 10 ................. 3 

1937 .• 1111••·········1111 5. 40 ..•.••••••••••• 15 

1938 •.•••.• ····~~~~·· 4. 16 ............... 21 
Yellr 

SURFACE WATER 

Maximum stage 

(in feet) ' .If agni tude 

1939 •.•.•••..•..••• 5. 58 •••••..••••.... 13 

1940 ......... ~ ..... 6. 14............... 7 

1941 ................ 5. 32 ••• 111 ••••••••••• 18 

1942~ .............. 6. 13 ••.••••••.•.•.. 8 

1943 .••.. ,.,. ••.•••.. 5.89 •.....••••••••• 11 

1944 •• 1!11111..... .. . • • • 5. 39 ••••••••..•.•.. 16 

1945 ••••••.•••••••. 5. 43 .•.•••••••••••• 14 

1946 •••••••••.••••. 5. 08 •••••••••.••••• 19 

461 

Figure 132 shows the annual peak stages at Pennsuco plotted by 

date of the year. The seasonal grouping shown would be expected, 

but certain other features of the graph are outstanding. The early 

group of 5 peaks is separated from the remainder by a time interval of 67 days (more than 2 months), during which no annual peaks 

occurred. The main group of 16 peaks all occurred within a period 

of 56 days (or a little less than 2 months), and no peaks occurred 

during the succeeding 6 months. 

The vertical distribution is also interesting, because 16 of the 

21 peaks were in a stage range of 5 to 7 ft, and 15 of these 16 peaks, 

or 71 percent of the total number, were within the narrow range 

of 5. 3 to 6. 4 ft. The small boxed area on the graph encompasses 

the concentration of annual peak stages, with 12, or 57 percent, 

occurring within the relatively short time of 56 days and within the 

narrow stage limits of 1. 1 ft. The over-all stage range was 4. 6 ft. 

The auxiliary graph in figure 132 shows the annual peaks plotted 

in chronological order. A downward trend seems evident, but it 

should be accepted and used with caution, because it is not certain 

that the trend will continue. It may, however, reflect the control 

of Lake Okeechobee and the increasing practice of water control in 

the upper Everglades in the later part of the period 1926-46. This 

would decrease the overland movement of water from the north 

and possibly show in some degree in lowez: Miami Canal drainage 

area •. The subsidence of the peat soils also may play a· part in the 

downward trend, because, at a g;iven stage of inundation, more 

water now is stored above the surface of the soils. 

The same procedure as. that outlined for the flood frequency 

computations for Kissimmee River (p. 305) was used for the 

Pennsuco annual peak record. Based on the period 1926-48, the 

recurrence interval for the annual peak stage was computed as 

follows: 
462 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Recurrence interval; 

(years) 

Annual stage expected to be 

equaled or exceeded 1 

(in feet) 

5 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 7, 1 

10 .............................. 8, 3 

15 ............................... 8. 9 

20 ............................. 9. 1 

1 Includes 1947 and 1948 peaks. 

The data shown were chosen from the recurrence-interval graph. 

Any recurrence-interval data must be used with an appreciation of 

their limitations. 

The discharge and stage of Miami Canal at Pennsuco are affected 

by conditions in the reservoir upstream, and by backwater from 

aquatic growth, tidal action, and control operations farther downstream, particularly in dry periods. The discharge pattern from 

Pennsuco to County Line Dam was discussed in connection with 

table 44, which shows that,although the discharge increases in the 

reach under normal conditions, it may decrease in dry periods and 

when water is released at County Line Dam. 

The discharge was measured and computed on a. daily basis during 

the period 1939-43 at a point just above the mouth of Pennsuco 

Lateral. The monthly and annual runoff, listed in table 45, shows 

...J 

w 

> 

9 

~ B 

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(/) 

~ L&.l 

::!:; 

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> 0 

<n 

<( 

1-

w 

~ 

~ 

z" 

0 

!;i 

> 

w 

...J 

w 

7 

6 

5 

4 

.... 10 

"' " "' LL 8 

~ 

.;s 1\ I' -""""' ~ v y v v IV.._ r--- 0 

;:: 

~ 4 1.,11 "o I I"' I "' "' 0 .J "' 2l "' .. ... "' ~ ~ ~ ~ 

• 

• 

EXPLANATION 

• Mo•imum stage In yec:~r 

Jan, Fob. Morch April Moy June 

Number of peaks in month I I 

• I 

• 

2 

• 

A reo of concentration 

~--~ .. 6 

~ -;-, 

• I 

: • . I 

~ •• J 10 

--

• 

• 2 

• 

July Aug~ Sept. Oct. Nov. Ooo. 

3 0 ' 7 4 0 

Figure 132, -Graph of annual maximum stage of Miami Canal at Pennsuco, 1926-46, 

L&.l 

(!) 

z 

<t 

lr 

1-

0 

0 

lL 

a: 

L&.l 

fl. 

(/) 

l<: 

;5 

fl. 
SURFACE WATER 463 

a mean annual runoff of 313, 000 acre-ft for the 3 complete years 

of record. The maximum daily discharge was 956 cfs on November 25 and 26, 1940. 

Records show that during the period that the sugar development 

was active, and as late as 1931, the control in Pennsuco Lateral 

was operated, and the pumps were operated for both drainage and 

irrigation. After 1931, it is likely that the control was kept open; 

this was true after 19 39, during the period of this investigation. 

Discharge measuremen.ts of Pennsuco Lateral, made about weekly 

intervals during 1940-43, are listed in table 46. The measured 

maximum and minimum discharges were 186 and 3. 1 cfs, respectively. Annual runoff for 3 years of record, 1940-42. averaged 

56,000 acre-ft. 

Tide effect at Pennsuco has been as much as 0. 7 ft during the 

period of investigations. Strong inland flow was observed during 

a drought year, showing that, if the dams had not been installed 

downstream, salty water could .have contaminated the entire tidal 

reach. 

The stage and.discharge hydrographsof Miami Canal, 1939-46, 

are shown in figures 117-123. They show the regimen of the canal 

under a wide range of natural conditions and also under artificial 

control. Their value is enhanced because they encompass the period 

of the most severe drought known to the area. 

One of the prime unknowns of this investigation was the ability 

of Miami Canal to provide sufficient discharge along its lower 

reaches to prevent salt water from moving upstream to a point 

where it would endanger the municipal well fields. Unfortunately, 

the pronounced seasonal variations in rainfall cause equally pronounced variations in runoff. The larger part of the storage accumulated during the wet summer and early fall period drains out 

and evaporates before the next period of rain occurs, and drought 

conditions often exist for periods of several months or more. Thus, 

a discharge of 400 cfs, or more, at Hialeah, which has been determined to be necessary to keep salty water below the NW. 36th Street 

Dam site, is not available for lengthy periods, even though an excess 

of water is generally wasted to the sea in the preceding wet periods. 

Even when dams at NW. 36th Street were operated to conserve some 

of the runoff and to fence off the encroaching salty water, the desired flow could not be maintained, because of conflicting water 

needs along the reach to County Line Dam. 

A fairly complete log of the general operation of NW. 36th Street 

Dam may be found in the section on Salt-water encroachment,. During 

various periods, as noted previously; CountyLine Dam was opened 

in an effort to augment the flow of Miami Canal in the Hialeah area 

and to raise water levels that had become dangerously low. The 

graphs in figures 117-123 show the effect of this operation. 
464 WAT!l\ 1\ESOUl\CES IN SOUTHEAST!l\N FLORIDA 

The graphs also show the obvious response of the canal at the 

several stage stations to rainfall, or to the lack of rainfall. The 

relationship between changes in stage and changes in the level of 

Biscayne Bay can also be observed. 

It will be noted that the slope of the water profile, as indicated 

by the vertical distance between the graphs for adjoining stations 

on any date, may vary widely, even though the discharge at Water 

Plant may be the same. This is a direct result of bottom-rooted 

aquatic plants, which are present at all times above the WaterPlant station, and which sometimes effectively block the channel. 

The weed!> usually tear loose under the impact of larger flows, and 

thus they cause backwater that has a variable and somewhat seasonal 

aspect. 

In aiscussing the salient features of figures 117-123, the yearly 

graphs will be taken in chronological order. The graphs were 

plotted from daily mean stages and discharges that are averaged 

from variations at a station for 1 day-including the wide variation 

often imposed by tidal action. Daily mean figures permit the 

visualization of the important features of a stage or discharge 

record without the unnecessary encumbrance of extraneous detail. 

1940. -The sharp rise at Pennsuco is noteworthy, because it was 

not reflected in nearly the same degree at Water Plant, probably 

owing to the uneven distribution of rainfall. The effed of the first 

dam to be constructed at NW. 36th Street can be noted in the 

levelling-off of the stages in the spring and in May, when it was 

completely closed. 

1911.-The winter and spring rains were abundant; uncontrolled 

flow existed at all times, and the discharge dropped below 400 cfs 

for only a short time. 

1942. -Declining water levels during the spring resulted in the 

release of flow at County Line Dam late in March and in the first 

half of April. The resulting increase in water levels at the lower 

stations must also be attributed, in part, to a coincidental rise in 

Biscayne Bay. However, flow at Water Plant was augmented to 

around 400 cfs (as shown by the discharge graph), although the bay 

rise probably reduced the amount of increase by causing additional 

tidal backwater. The heavy rainfall of mid-April stopped further 

need for control operations during 1942. 

June 1942 was outstanding for the large amount of recharge in 

the drainage area· of Miami Canal. Note that the discharge and 

stage at Water Plant reached a maximum early in September, even 

though the highest level in the headwaters area occurred about the 

enc! of June. The discharge at Pennsuco reached a maximum in 

October and, coupled with the flow from the lateral, amounted to 

nearly three-quarters of the discharge passing Water Plant. 
SURFACE WATER 465 

19-H~ -The effect of. releasing water at County Line Dam in the 

first half of April can be seen, although it was reduced by the closing 

of NW. 36th Street Dam during most of March and early April. As 

usually happened when water was released at County Line Dam in 

dry periods, much of the water was absorbed before reaching the 

critical area near the well fields. 

This was the first year of the serious 3-year drought ending in 

1945, and runoff of Miami Canal at Water Plant was the second 

lowest of record; discharge was notably low throughout the year. 

An outstanding effect shows in the stage graphs starting in July. 

The low velocities in the canal encouraged the growth of aquatic 

weeds, with resultant obstruction of flow, as evidenced by the increasing slope between Water Plant and Russian Colony Canal and 

the lack of discharge response to the increasing slope, Curiously 

enough, the problem of salty water did not become critical in late 

1943, and the effect of the weed block was beneficial. because it 

prolonged the period of flow above 400 cfs and probably reduced 

· the severity of the drought during the following dry season. 

1Q44. -Despite the favorable effect of weed growth in 1943, lack 

of rainfall again caused serious drought conditions. Water was released at County Line Damfrom mid-April to mid-May, andagain 

about the end of June, but little effect occurred at Water Plant. 

The NW. 36th Street Dam was closed or pa~tly closed, for more 

than 4 months, and levels above the dam were kept fairly constant. 

The weed block was considered detrimental to movement of water 

to the well-field area, and late in the spring, about 2. 4 miles of 

heavy growth was cut away in the reach above Russian Colony Canal. 

The graphs for 1944 (and other years) illlustrate one of the principal 

characteristics of the surface and ground reservoirs of the headwaters area. Whereas the stage graphs from Broken Dam downstream show the steep decline during fall and winter,which is caused 

by canal runoff and general drainage of the coastal zone, the stage 

above County Line Dam tends to hold up for a long period and shows 

a considerable lag in the time of the principal decline. In this 

period, water is being doled (in effect) from the reservoir by seepage (except when the dam is opened). This characteristic is important to the water regimen of the lower reaches, because without this seepage the problem of drought and salt-water contamination 

would be more serious. 

As a result of the operation of NW. 36th Street Dam and because 

of the drought, the total runoff for the year was the least of record 

(see table 47). The sharp rise of Biscayne .Bay and the lower 

reaches of. Miami Canal in mid-October was caused by the northward passage of a large hurricane off the west coast of Florida 

(see p. ~43). Note that the stages at the i~and st~tions rose also, 
466 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

but they stayed at the peak level because of rainfall recharge associated with the hurricane, Rainfall in the lower reaches was small, 

and the Water-Plant graph shows the combined effect of the rise 

upstream and the return of the bay to a normal condition, Note 

particularly that in July the bay stage was higher than the level 

above NW, 36th Street Dam-a condition of the gravest import tci 

the salt-water intrusion problem, Fortunately, this period of net 

negative head was short. 

1945,·-This year started with low water levels and marked the 

culmination of the drought. County Line Dam was open all of April 

and half of May, but the level of the reservoir was so low that the 

effect of the additional flow was lost at Water Plant. The dam at 

NW. 36th Street was operated throughout the year and was closed 

for over 4 months. In May and June, the average level of Biscayne 

Bay was higher than the level of Miami Canal at Water Plant, The 

occurrence of rain, starting in June, relieved the threat to the 

municipal water supply. In the worst period, net flow in all the 

tidal canals in the Miami area probably was inland, and some of 

the stub canals were highly saline throughout. 

The increased rainfall, later in the year, resulted in the first 

large runoff in Miami Canal since 1942. Note again the effect of a 

hurricane close to the Miami area in mid-September, 

· 1946, -This year showed a return to more ordinary conditions. 

More effective operation of NW. 36th Street Dam resulted from 

closing the dam earlier in the period of annual decline, thus holding 

higher stages above the dam. Note the near-pool conditions during 

April, when the total fall between Broken Dam and NW. 36thStreet 

was about 0. 5 ft. 

Miami Canal at the Water Plant in Hialeah is considered to be a 

key station in the investigation of the waters of the Miami area. 

The evaluation of this discharge is used as a reference base for all 

other water records of the drainage basin, because the discharge 

is the resultant of all the factors involved in the uncontrolled runoff 

in the canal, and it is the key to the protection of the municipal well 

fields. The Water Plant has an intake from Miami Canal, and the 

water can be used in an emergency if the other source of supply 

fails for any reason. The relationship of the gaging station to the 

well field, and to NW. 36th Street Dam and the deeper channel below the dam, makes its locaticn strategic. 

Table 47 shows the monthly and annual runoff at Water Plant. 

The totals for the drought years 1943-45 are sig'nificant with respect 

to the more normal years. The mean annual runoff for the 6 complete years of record was 389, 000 acre-ft, which was a little more 

than half of that for West Palm Beach Canal at West Palm Beach, 

but it was greater than for any of the other major canals, 
Table 48.-Comparison of discharges lor Miami Canal at Pennsuco and WBter Plant gaging stations 

Average discharge (in cfs) 

Calendar year 

Miami Canal Pennsuco lateral at Miami Canal 

a hove lateral Pennsuco below lateral 

at Pennsuco at Pennsucoa 

1940c, ..................... 390 11 4131 

1941 ....................... 516 102 618 

1942 ....................... 390 58 448 

Average (1940-42) ...... 432 77 509 

a Sum of two preceding columns. 

b Computed by subtracting discharge at Pennsuco (below lateral) from that at Water Plant. 

c Partly estimated. 

Inflow between 

Miami Canal Pennsuco~ at Water Plant, Water Plant 

Hialeah (in cfs) 

707 246 

828 210 

753 305 

763 254 

Ratio of discharge 

at Pennsuco (incl. 

latera 1) to discharge 

at Water Plant 

(in percent} 

65 

75 

60 

67 
O:::PLANATfON 

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COUNTY 8ROK£N 

LINE DAM DAM 

RUSSIAN COLONY 

PENNSUCO CANAL 

WATER N W 36TH STREET 

PLANT DAM BISCAYNE 

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DISTANCE, ~N M:l LES FROM LAKE OKEECHOeE£ 

Figure 133, --Graphs of stage profiles of Miami Canal for selected date.s ·and map of lower reaches of canal. 
SURFACE WATER 469 

Table 48 furnishes a useful comparison of annual discharges at 

Pennsuco and Water Plant, showing the discharge increment between the stations and the comparative runoff. The table indicates 

that 67 percent of the discharge at Water Plant, during the period 

1940-42, originated in and westward of the Pennsuco area. Although 

it is true that some of the flow tha-t originated west of the Pennsuco 

area was useful to the lower reaches, too much of it was necessarily 

wasted to the sea in wet periods, If part of this runoff could be 

stored for a longer time, the area would greatly benefit. 

The data for plotting water-surface profiles of Miami Canal for 

any time during the period 1940-46 can be obtained from the stage 

graphs of figures 117-123. A few selected profiles, however, have 

been prepared in figure 133, which also shows a map of the lower 

reaches. The series of four profiles for dates in 1942 shows a 

progressive decline of both stage and discharge under typical conditions. The steep gradient between Water Plant and NW. 36th 

Street indicates a reduction of channel capacity, as compared with 

adjoining reaches. The convex profile during periods of large flows 

is typical, as is the gradual flattening with decreasing discharge 

and the tendency to become concave. 

The profile for August 2, 1943, shows a condition of low discharge 

during the early phase of the severe weed block that developed that 

summer. Note the steep gradient for this flow in the reach west of 

Water Plant and the much steeper slope between Pennsuco and 

Russian Colony Canal, where the weed block was extreme, Profiles 

for other dates would show the development and dissipation of the 

weed block. 

The high stage of Biscayne Bay during the hurricane of September, 

15, 1945, (see page 443) caused extreme variations in stage upstream in Miami Canal. For a time, at the height of the storm, 

the inland rush of water must have been impressive, A profile of 

the maximum height of the hurricane wave is shown in figure 134 

for the tidal reaches of the canal, The profile is a limiting curve 

that did not exist as a whole because the progression of the storm 

wave inland took an appreciable amount of time, similar to the 

development of tidal action. However, instantaneous profiles would 

indicate that even steeper slopes occurred during the storm. Even 

though NW. 36th Street Dam was entirely open, the degree of constriction at the site caused a small loss of head and a lag in the 

movement of the wave. 

The average rate of inland propagation of the storm wave can be 

computed from the time of occurrence (eastern war time) of the peak 

stage at the sevt::ral stations listed below, which were taken from 

recorder charts to the nearest 5 minutes: 
470 WATER RESOURCES IN' SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Station Time (p, m.) 

NW. 36th St., below dam............... 8:40 

NW. 36th 'st., above dam ............... 8:50 

Water Plant, Hialeah.................... 9:20 

Russian Colony Canal. ................... 9:55 

Pennsuco ..... " .............................. 10:30 

Broken Dam ................................ 11:00 

Unfortunately, the time of .the maximum stage in Biscayne Bay is 

not known, because the recorder was submerged and the record is 

incomplete. The average. rate of inland travel of the storm wave in 

the 14. 65-mile reach from NW. 36th Street to Broken Dam was 9, 2 

fps, or 6. 3 mph. This is at about the same speed as that of tidal 

action, as discussed on page 450. 

The mean profiles of the canal on the day prior to the hurricane, 

and on the second day after the hurricane, also are shown in figure 

134, The rise in the profile between the two dates represents the 

recharge of the drainage area by rainfall. 

Note the changing characteristics of the storm graph with movement upstream, At NW. 36th Street, the rise and fall were sudden, 

and nearly normal tidal action was soon resumed. At Water Plant, 

a similar hydrograph developed, but the effect of the rainfall upstream is shown in the period following the peak stage. The rainfall effect increased at the upstream stations, and at Broken Dam 

the stage leveled off with very little recession from the maximum. 

~ 3 _j 

<( 

~ lJ-J .,...,......,,.....c=.+-1 

zz 

Q<C 

~~I 

~~ 

w g 0 14 

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Figure 134, -Profile of Miami Canal during hurricane of September 15, 1945, and stage graphs 

for stations along the canal for the storm period. 
SURFACE WATER 471 

COMPUTATION OF DISCHARGE BY TIDE-CORRECUON METHOD 

Dy C. C. Yonker 

The determination of daily mean discharge of Miami Canal at 

Water Plant at Hialeah, or of any tidal stream, would be a fairly 

simple problem if the mean tide-cycle elevation at the mouth of the 

stream were constant, However, the mean elevation of the ocean 

is not constant; instead it varies from cycle to cycle during the 

four quarters of the lunar month. Because of these variations in 

mean elevation, the discharge at any place in the tidal reach of a 

stream is continually changing, not only because of the rise and 

fall of the tide, but also because of the rise and fall of the mean 

tide -cycle elevation at the mouth of the stream. A three-dimensional 

relationship exists between the mean tide-cycle elevation at the 

mouth and the mean elevation and discharge at a given place in the 

tidal reach, Use is made of the tide ranges as a factor in determining the equivalent, or tide-corrected, elevation at a gage in the 

tidal reach that corresponds to a constant tide-cycle elevation of 

zero for the mouth of the stream. The discharge rating curve is 

based on the relationship between the tide-corrected elevation and 

the discharge. 

The station at Water Plant, Hialeah, and the tide station on the 

west shore of Biscayne Bay at Coconut Grove were selected for 

this explanation. Water Plant is 7, 7 miles upstream from the 

mouth of Miami River; the tide station is 3. 8 miles southwest of 

the mouth of Miami River and 7. 5 miles southeast of the station on 

Miami Canal (a total separation of 11. 5 miles, by water). See 

figure 133 for relative locations of stations. 

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF STREAM 

The stream-bed elevation of Miami Canal at Water Plant is 10 feet 

below mean sea level. Just below NW; 36th Street, 2 miles below 

Water Plant, the canal becomes broader and deeper, but above and 

below this point the width and depth are fairly uniform. The canal 

is straight below Water Plant to the point where it joins· the river, 

a distance of 4 miles. In the last 4 miles, the river meanders 

slightly. See the section on Physical description (p. 41 B) for details 

of the character of the can.al. 

Two complete tide cycles occur every lunar day (24 hours and 

50. 4 minutes). The discharge increases during a falling stage and 

reaches a maximum at about 1 t hours prior to the minimum stage. 

The minimum discharge occurs about 1 ~ hours before the maximum 

stage. Figure 128 shows stage hydro graphs covering an 8-day period 

for the upper and lower stations and for other upstream stations. 

346881 0-55--32 
472 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUI'HEASTERN Fl.ORIDA 

MEASUREMENTS OF DISCHARGE 

Measurements of discharge are made by a complete discharge 

integration, consisting of one measurement about every hour during 

the tide cycle. After certain relationships have been developed, 

the method involves making one measurement during the tide cycle, 

or, under certain conditions of flow, a pair of measurements, one 

at the maximum discharge and the other at the minimum discharge. 

Measurements made almost every hour during a tide cycle will, 

when plotted, define a hydrograph having tidal characteristics 

similar to the stage hydrograph (as shown on fig. 130), except that 

the maximum and minimum discharges occur about 1 i hours in advance of the minimum and maximum stages, respectively. Pairs 

of measurements, one a~ the peak discharge and one at the trough, 

will, when averaged, give too low a discharge for the tidal cycle, 

because they give equal weight to the narrower trough; therefore, 

a coefficient is applied to the average of the peak and trough discharge measurements to obtain the mean-cycle discharge. The 

coeffi'cient at Water Plant varies widely, but when the minimum 

discharge is greater than 200 cfs, the coefficient ranges only from 

1. 00 to 1. 12. 

Use is made of the tide ranges at the upper and lower gages as 

a factor in developing the Tide-correction method. In a uniform 

channel that is affected by tide, the tide range at any point in the 

tidal reach is directly proportional to the tide range at any other 

point; and, in a nonuniform channel, even though there may be 

variations in the magnitude of the tide with respect to the distance 

above the tide source, a very definite relationship exists between 

the tide ranges for any two points in the tidal reach. It follows then, 

that if the tide ranges for any two points bear a direct relationship 

to each other, a given change in mean-cycle elevation at one place 

will produce a change at another place in the tidal reach that is 

equivalent to the proportion of the tide ranges for the two places. 

Therefore, if the mean-cycle gage height at the lower gage is 

corrected to 0 ft,the equivalent correction at the upper gage can be 

determined from the following relationship: 

Correction to gage height at upper gage .. Tide range at upper gage 

Gage height at lower gage Tide range at lower gage 

The graphical determination of the tide-corrected gage height for 

the upper gage is based on the following steps: 

1. Plot the elevations of the crest of the tide at the upper and 

lower gages for the tide cycle during which the discharge measurements were made, and connect the two points with a straight line. 
SURFACE WATER 473 

2. Plot the elevations of the trough of the tide at the upper and 

lower gages, and connect the two points with a straight line. 

3. Extend both lines to the point of intersection and draw a 

straight line through the vertex of the triangle and the point of zero 

eleva.tion at the lower gage. 

4. The point of intersection of the line drawn in step 3 with a 

vertical line drawn through the position of the upper gage gives the 

tide-corrected gage height. Figure 135 shows the graphical determination of the tide-corrected gage height of one tide cycle for the 

discharge measurements that were made on October 12, 1942. The 

data obtained from the recorder charts at Water Plant (upper gage) 

and Biscayne Bay (lower gage) stations, upon which the graph is 

based, are as follows: 

Feet 

Mean gage height at upper gage (point G) ........... 2. 64 

Mean gage height at lower gage (point D) ........... l. 61 

Tide range at upper gage (BF) ......................... 1. 08 

Tide range at lower gage (CE) ......................... 2. 26 

On the basis of the four steps mentioned above, the graphical 

determination of the tide-corrected gage height at the upper gage 

is the equivalent stp.ge on figure 135 cor;esponding to 0 at the 

lower gage (point.G'), or 1. 87ft. 

An arithmetical determination of the tide-corrected gage height 

for the upper gage, based on the data that were used in plotting 

the graph on figure 135, is as follows: 

G G' ~ Q.£.. 

DD' CE 

G G' ~ 1.61 X 1.08 

2.26 

G G'~ 0.77 

The tide-corrected gage height at the upper gage (point G') then 

becomes, 

2. 64 - o. 77 ~ 1. 87 ft. 

Note that the graphical and the arithmetical methods both give a 

tide-corrected gage height of 1. 87 ft at the upper ga.ge. The graphical method is presented only for purposes of illustration and is 

not_used in actual practice. 
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limils of low tide/, 

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.............. 7 i 

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Theo!etical tidLcorrected sl~ -...... 

............... ... ~ ...... ..... • ....... _E:' 

I I l I 

IS 14 13 12 II 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 0 

DISTANCE, IN MILES ABOVE MOUTH 

Figure 135. -Graphical determination of the tide~corrected gage height of Miami Canal at Water Plant, Hialeah. 
SURFACE WATER 475 

DEVELOPMENT OF RATING CURVE 

The mean-cycle discharge, as determined from 20 sets of discharge measurements, was plotted against the actual mean-cycle 

gage height and also against the tide-corrected gage height, as indicated On figure 136. The rating curve shows the relationship 

between the tide-corrected gage height and the mean tide-cycle dis3,0 r----r---.,...---,...----r---.,...---,...---....,.----, 

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EXPLANATION 

0 MEAN GAGE: HE:IGHT FOR ONE TIDE-CYCLE 

TIDE-CORRE:CTED • GAGE HEIGHT 

1000 1500 

DISCHARGF.:, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 

:woo 

Figure 136, -Graph of relationship between tide-corrected gage height a,nd discharge for Miami 

Canal at Water Plant, Hialeah. 

charge• for the upper gage. The discharge plotted against actual 

mean-cycle gage height shows· a considerable scattering of the 

plotted points because of variations in channel storage, but the pischarge plotted against tide-corrected gage height shows a very close 

agreement for the numerous measurements. The shape of the rating 

curve is characteristic of that for a stream having a large initial 

cross-sectional area at the point of zero flow. 

The tide-correction method of rating a tide-affected stream may 

be used where reverse flows occur during a part of each tide cycle, 

because the mean discharge for the cycle is the value used in the 

computation. It is also applicable to a reach of tidal waterway, on 

which both observation stations are upstream from the mouth of 

the waterway. The method has been used successfully for computing daily mean discharge of Miami Canal at the Water Plant, 

Hialeah, since 1940. 

A number of comprehensive areal studies were made of Miami 

Canal from County Line Dam to NW. 36th Street. These studies included the lower Tamiami Canal drainage area, and they will be 
476 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

SPECIAL STUDIES 

STORAGE CAPACITY OF RESERVOIR 

In the winter and spring of 1939, drought conditions prevailed, 

salty water moved far up Miami Canal, and some of the supply wells 

of the city of Miami became contaminated. Therefore, when drought 

conditions caused significant inland movement of salty water in 

March 1942, and when the flow·of Miami Canal dropped below 400 

cfs (the amount necessary to hold the salty water below NW. 36th 

Street), the gates in County Line Dam were opened. 

The five gates were opened in the periods March 2 3-April 7, and 

April 11-16, 1942. A study was made to evaluate the amount of 

water released at the dam and to determine how much of the water 

reached the critical area in Hialeah. It was evident, however, that 

factors, such as varying tidal backwater, and rainfall, were serious 

obstacles to an accurate evaluation. 

During the period that the gates were open, about 7, 100 acre-ft 

of water passed downstream (not including basic leakage through 

the dam). Of this, roughly 3, 600 acre-ft, or about half, reached 

the Hialeah area. This flow increased the discharge at Hialeah to 

above 400 cfs and caused a small retreat in the salt front. The 

experiment and associated study came to an abrupt nalt April 16, 

when heavy rainfall drenched the drainage area and thus ended the 

necessity for augmented flow in Miami Canal for a while. 

The experiment started with a stage of 6. 6 ft above County Line 

Dam, which, in view of later drought experiences, was relatively 

high. At this time, water conditions in the area below the dam were 

moderately low, and the fact that as much as half of the flow reached 

Hialeah can be attributed to this c9ndition. Most of the remainder 

of the water released at the dam was lost by outseepage in the 6-mile 

reach between the dam and Pennsuco. 

When County Line Dam was opened during more serious drought 

conditions in succeeding years, it was found that very little of the 

released water reached Hialeah, and it was determin~d that most 

of it was dissipated above Pennsuco. The only benefit then was a 

temporary slow-down of the rate of water-level decline in part of 

the drainage area. 

The experiment at County Line Dam furnished an opportunity to 

rate the control gates of the dam and to evaluate the quantity of 

available storage above the dam in the canal channel and in the soils 

and rocks of the reservoir area. A series of discharge measurements, made while the gates were open, furnished the data evaluated 

in figure 137. The amount of storage that is shown was computed 

above an arbitrary base of 2. 5 ft, with all five gates open. The 

vertical distance between the two curves of the upper diagram rep-
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SURFACE WATER 477 

o~----~~-----2~0-00----~~----4-0~0-0------~----6-0~0-0----~~--~8~000 

STORAGE ABOVE DAM, IN MILLIONS OF GALLONS 

4 

3 

2 

50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 

DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 

Figure 137. -Graph of available storage in reservoir area of Miami Canal above County Line 

Dam and rating of control gates in da:n. 

has stabilized after the gates have been opened. The main achievement of the study was the measurement of the storage magnitude. 

Prior to this study, an evaluation had been considered to be impossible because of the indeterminate area of the reservoir and the 

tributary drainage basin. 

It will be noted that the storage curve nears the horizontal at a 

stage of about 7 ft, thus indicating a large increase in available 

storage. Although observations were not made at this higher level, 
478 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

the assumption is valid, because the reservoir area becomes inundated at stages of about 7 ft. Then the reservoir is replenished 

from the north and west from the Everglades and is connected with 

the great shallow river that exists during wet periods. Here, the 

effect of withdrawals is that of diversions from a large river; while 

the river exists, the rate of withdrawal from storage is limited 

only by the capacity of the control gates and of the canal channel 

above them, 

The lower part of figure 137 presents the rating for the gates in 

County Line Dam. The flow for a given head is that occurring after 

stages and slopes have stabilized, This adjustment is significant, 

and to overlook it mc.y lead to erroneous conclusions as to the discharge that can be expected when only the static head on the dam is 

considered. In the 1942 study, the static head of 4. 1ft was reduced 

to 2. 2 ft after stabilization with three gates open (the upper pool 

dropped 0, 7 ft and the lower pool rose 1. 2 ft). Again, in a similar 

study in 1943, the static head was reduced from 1. 50 to 0, 66 ft 

(initial upstream stage was 3, 7 ft) with three gates open (the upper 

p<;wl dropped 0. 41 ft and the lower pool rose 0. 53 ft). 

SEEPAI'>E RATES AND PROFILES IN TIDAL REACHES 

One of the most important factors in the·problem of water control 

in the Miami area is the seepage from, or into, the porous formations through which the canals were· excavated. At times, the seepage rate is so high that canal design is an uncertain procedure. Any 

extension or revision of water-control facilities in the future must 

take cognizance of this basic problem. 

Some of the features of seepage rates along Miami Canal have 

been discussed under the heading Storage inflow reach. Figure 138 

shows graphs of cumulative discharge and seepage rates on two 

dates, as well as profiles of the stage. The data were obtained 

during comprehensive studies of the storage inflow and tidal 

reaches, Stage was recorded as six locations, the main canal discharge was measured at several points, and all tributary flows were 

measured. The discharge curve is plotted as a continuous line, and 

the short vertical jumps in the curve show where flow from a tributary enters the canal. The graph of seepage rates was divided into 

three sections, and the breaks in slope occur because the rate was 

averaged for each section, 

The study of December 17, 1941, showed seepage rates of 100, 

40, and 4. 0 cfs per linear mile in the three sections of the reach. 

Water levels were declining steadily after the fall wet period, and 

none of the immediate drainage area was inundated, The total flow 

at Pennsuco was 88 percent of that at Water Plant; most of this flow 

was runoff from open lands and served no beneficial pu'rpose. 
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C1Junty Line B-roken ~nn:suco Rus~~~-a~olony Eo~~o~:~st Dam Dam RaUwCJy 

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Hiale-ah 

N-orthwe-st 36th St~ 

Miami 

2oo.----r----~.--r----,----,---,--,--,---,----,-,--,----,----,-=T=LT---~r---.----,.-~ 

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. I 1 .. • ---- ; I ~------ 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 

DISTANCE, IN MILES FROM LAKE OKEECHOBEE 

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Figure 138.- Graph of cumulative discharge, seepage rates, and profiles ot Miami Canal !rom County Line Dam to Water Plant, Hialeah, on selected dates. 
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VARIATION ON DECEMBER 30 

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Minimum?-::::. ~ ...... ~a.:cimum 

Mean~ ---------

1--------- -- >- E c: c: c ,., 0 c 100 til o_ ;r .,_ u 0 " .. .. £ ~ c c: >- c: 0 ~- 0 0 u ~ Q(/} 

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PROFILES 

~ November 13th r-- 1510 cis l>lo•ember 13th 

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December 14th/ ~ . :.._.., f-+. 1360cfs December . .., ~ 

""" 1:=----

65.6 68.4 73.1 75.1 

DISTANCE, IN MILES FROM LAKE OKEECHOBEE 

14th 

--80.8 

Figure 139.-Graph ot stages, tidal fluctuations, and pro!Ues along lower Miami Canal, November and December, 1945. 
SURFACE WATER 481 

Without additional control facilities, this large and useless runoff 

cannot be reduced. 

The study of November 21, 1940, was made during the annual 

period of principal decline, but water levels generally were about 

1 foot higher than during the study in 1941. Conditions were moderately wet, and proba_bly some of the basin was shallowly inundated, 

The seepage rates were determined at 176, 53, and 43 cfs per linear 

mile, These values were not the greatest observed during the investigation, but they were large enough to be noteworthy to those 

concerned with the design of further water-control facilities, It 

should be noted that 73 percent of the flow at Hialeah originated in 

the open lands to the west. 

BACKWATER EFFECT IN TIDAL REACHES 

A steel-piling dam was in Miami Canal at NW, 36thStreetduring 

most of 1945, and a breach 45 feet wide was opened in the·dam in 

September, when the annual wet period started, The remaining 30 

feet of the 7 5-foot dam caused a visible drop in stage at the dam 

site, An evaluation was made of the backwater effect of this constriction, with respect to both stage and discharge, at Pennsuco, 

9. 6 miles upstream, 

The data used for the special study were the field observations 

presented in figure 139, 

Fluctuations of Biscayne Bay usually have a considerable effect 

on the level of Miami Canal in the Hialeah area, and the effect extends to varying distances farther inland, depending upon the amount 

of runoff and, sometimes, upon the amount of aquatic vegetation in 

the canal. The series of stage hydrographs for the various locations 

shows the diminishing inland effect. of changes in the bay level and 

the increasing inland effect of general water conditions. Throughout 

the 2 months of record (as illustrated), the breach in NW. 36th 

Street Dam remained the same. 

The stage at Pennsuco reached a maximum in mid-November (as 

it reacted to accumulating rainfall) and then declined steadily to 

about the end of December, The mean level of Biscayne Bay, in 

the same period, fluctuated erratically, but this was not reflected 

at Pennsuco because of the large runoff. 

The graph of tidal variation on December 3 shows the diminishing 

tidal backwater at successive inland locations, The range of tidal 

backwater in one cycle at the several stations was: 
482 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN Fl.ORIDA 

Feet 

Biscayne Bay .................... 1. 57 

NW. 36th Street: 

Below dam .................... 1. 39 

Above dam .................... 1. 23 

Water Plant, Hialeah,........ • 48 

Russian Colony Canal........ • 11 

Pennsuco......................... • 05 

Broken Dam, above dam ... , , 00 

The profiles for the three selected dates, shown in figure 139, 

demonstrate that the reaches farther inland received a greater 

amount of drainage in the period than was received by the reaches 

nearer the coast, This typical relationship is also discussed in 

the section above on Seepage rates and profiles in tidal reaches, 

The relatively steep slope that existed between Water Plant and 

NW. 36th Street Dam indicates a considerable degree of channel 

friction, and it was one of the main reasons why tidal backwater 

was dissipated so rapidly in the reach. 

As shown in the stage hydro graphs (figs. 117-12 3), the backwater 

caused by the remnant of NW. 36th Street Dam was consistently 

around 0. ZO ft. Removal of the dam (thereby reducing the backwater 

to about 0. 08 ft at the site) would probably have had little effect 

on the stage and discharge at Pennsuco. The several stage records 

in figure 139 show that sizable variations at NW. 36th Street Dam 

caused little stage change at Pennsuco. There would have been a 

temporary increase in discharge of less than 2. 4 percent at the 

site following removal of the dam. As observed in other canals 

where control changes have been made, this increase would have 

soon disappeared, and the discharge would have stabilized to the 

same rate that existed prior to the change. 

It is shown from this study that constrictions and loss of head in 

Miami Canal (and in other waterways) do not affect all parts of the 

canal to the same degree. Losses do occar at constrictions, but 

they are not directly proportional to the degree of constrict,ion, 

and the effect diminishes in an upstream direction. 

WELL·FIELD AREA 

As indicated previously, the source of the municipal water supply 

of Miami is ground water, but the canals near the well fields have 

very important functions in the supply. One of the most important 

of these functions is the supply, by seepage, of a considerable 

volume of recharge to the. wells. 

In spite of the probability that the banks and bottoms of the canals 

have become more or less coated with sediment (and therefore less 
SURFACE WATER 483 

pervious than when first excavated), large outseepage to wells has 

been observed and evaluated, 

In early 1946, as dry winter conditions developed, NW. 36th Street 

Dam was closed, and pool conditions existed in the Hialeah-Miami 

Springs area (site of the municipal well field). Discharge observations on March 28, 1946, showed that water was being lost by 

outseepage (recharge 'to the Biscayne aquifer) from Miami Canal 

between Broken Dam and NW, 36th Street. The detailed observations 

made in the vicinity of the well fields are shown in figure 140. A 

significant reduction of flow occurred in Miami Canal, and flow in 

mo"st of the secondary canals was toward the well-field area. A 

ground-water study, made the same date, shows that the cone of 

depression in the well-field area intercepted the bounda:r:y canals, 

The lowest point of the principal cone was -1. 2 ft, as compared 

with a level of 2. 5 ft in Miami Canal. 

In the computation of the total amount of water seeping out of the 

canals in the vicinity of the well fields, it is assumed that most of 

the 30 cfs in Miami Canal downstream from Country Club Canal 

passed by leakage and seepage under, around, and through NW. 

36th Street Dam, It is believed that the actual loss at the dam was 

considerably less than 30 cfs, but this figure will cover the unknown 

quantity of outseepage that did not enter the well field. A summation, 

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MIAMI 

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0 

PLANT 

HIALEAH 

LOW£R W£LL F/£LD 

Flow in conal at Northwest 

23d Street 

canal ends approximately 0.3 mile to south 

I Mile 

EXPLANATION 

Main canal 

Auxiliary canol 

Arrow md1cates direct~ 

ion of flow of sur~ 

foce water, in cubic ro feet per second 

N 

1 

figure 140. -Map of Miami well-tield area showing distribution ot .canal flow on March 28, 1946. 
484 WATER. RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

then, of all the discharges show that at least 53. 7 cfs, or 34. 7 mgd, 

left the canals by seepage to the well field. This is 78 percent of 

the 44. 4 million gallons that were pumped from the wells on that 

date. 

The study reported above is only for one condition. In flood 

periods it is likely that the canals contribute relatively little water 

to the well field. The amount of contribution during drought periods 

probably is greater than the 78 percent determined for March 28, 

1946. 

TIDAL STORAGE OF MIAMI RIVER 

In June 1946, the Geological Survey started a study of the tidal 

storage of ·Miami River to evaluate the effect of a proposed lock 

and dam just above NW. 27th Avenue, at the head of the river 

proper. A study was made on June 28, 1946, at the time of spring 

tides (when the tidal range was the greatest in the month). The 

principal data obtained are shown in figure 141. 

The graphs of discharge demonstrate some of the principles of 

tidal flow developed in the sections on Tidal characteristics in sealevel canals and Tidal fluctuations in Miami Canal. The basic 

graphs are in the right half of figure 141. The mean discharges at 

NW. 27th Avenue and SE. 2nd Avenue were nearly the same, indicating relatively small ground-water inflow in the 3. 8 miles of 

river channel. Discharge of Miami Canal at Water Plant was 309 

cfs, and that of Tamiami Canal at NW. South River Drive (close to 

mouth) was about 340 cfs; which accounts for most of the 672 cfs 

measured at NW, 27th Avenue. 

The shaded area on the discharge graphs represents the volume of 

tidal storage at the two locations (different parts of the tide cycle 

were used to avoid conflicting shading). Although the mean discharges were about the same, the tidal storage at the upper station 

(NW. 27th Avenue) was almost two-thirds that of the storage at the 

lower station, thus showing that the greater volume of tidal storage 

was above NW, 27th Avenue. 

The same discharge curves are repeated in the left half of figure 

141. The shaded area between th~m represents the volume oftidal 

storage in the channel and banks between the two locations and is 

identified as storage or release. Each part of this shaded area also 

represents the volume of water that would flow in the appropriate 

direction past SE. 2nd Avenue during one tide cycle if a dam were 

to cut off all flow (including fresh-water runoff) at NW. 27th Avenue. 

The net effect is plotted below the other curves. 
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SOUTHEAST 20 AVENUE Tidal s forage • 84 40 f s 

Figure 141. -Graph of tidal variation in stage and discharge at two locations on Miami River, June 28, 1946. 
486 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

The computed curve furnishes a good indication of results from 

damming the river under conditions similar to those of June 28, 

1946. The computed curve has a tidal storage that is 39 percent 

that of the observed storage at SE. 2nd Avenue. The maximum 

computed discharge is about 40 percent of that of the observed 

discharge, therefore it can reasonably be expected that maximum 

current velocities in Miami River would also be reduced in about 

the same degree. Of course, in wet periods, large fresh-water 

runoff would cause swifter currents. 

The net storage and net mean discharges of the study do not quite 

balance (a requirement of hydraulic theory), but these minor differences may be ascribed to the errors inherent in the type of observations and their development. Of the basic phenomena of reverslng tidal discharge that were observed and measured, possibly 

the most interesting was the inland progression of the points of 

reversal. The reader is referred to page 444 for a more detailed 

discussion. The reversal occurred at three locations, as follows: 

Location 

First reversal; positive to ne!2ative 

(a. m,) 

Miami River at SE. 2nd Avenue ... 

Miami River at NW, 27th Avenue.. 

Miami Canal at NW. 36th Street .. 

4:42 

5;35 

6:30 

Second reversal; neg· 

ative to positive 

(a. m.) 

9:00 

9:10 

9:25 

The first reversal of flow took 1. 8 hours to travel from the bay 

to a point 5. 5 miles· inland, but the second rever~al took only 0, 4 

hour to travel the same distance. This supports the theory presented earlier to the effect that the faster-moving second reversal 

probably overtakes the first reversal. . 

TAMIAMI CANAL 

Although it cannot properly be called an arterial canal, part of 

Tamiami Canal is important to the water events of the lower Everglades. It extends generally east-west across the State and does 

not connect with Lake Okeechobee. The more important part of 

Tamiami Canal is the shorter section east of Dade-BrowardLevee 

that drains the western environs of Miami and is closely associated 

with the water problems of lower Miami Canal. The least important 

part {hydrologically) is the long reach across the Everglades and 

into Big Cypress Swamp, Much of the data on Miami Canal can also 

be applied to the eastern part of Tamiami Canal, including the tidal 

reaches. The principal features of the drainage area are shown in 

plate 14. 
SURFACE WATER 487 

PHYSICAL DESCRIPUON 

Tamiami Canal is not a drainage entity, because the greater part 

consists of a borrow pit that was dug to provide fill for the famous 

Tamiami Trail (U. S. Highway 41). It operates as a typical Everglades canal between its mouth at Miami Canal and Dade-Broward 

Levee, about 14 miles upstream. The long western part was excavated across the tip of the State, crosses the nominal height of 

land near the Dade-Collier County line and extends westward along 

the Trail, 

For this report, it will be assumed that the western part of 

Tamiami Canal begins at Monroe, which is located about 15 miles 

west of the Dade-Collier County Line. Here, the old grade of 

Tamiami Trail rejoins the newer alinement and a sizable channel 

extends southward from the canal to one of the bays on the Gulf of 

Mexico (Chokoloskee Bay). Tamiami Canal actually continues toward the west, but no observations of flow were made west of 

Monroe. 

From Monroe eastward to Dade-Broward Levee (a 40-mile 

reach), Tamiami Canal is unique. It is a continuous channel, except in drought periods, but it acts more in the capacity of a collector and distributor. The parallel highway fill of Tamiami Trail 

south of the canal has 64 bridges in this 40-mile stretch; these 

bridges range from 45 to 90 ft in length. The bridges cross shallow 

stub channels that connect with the canal and extend toward the south 

for about 100 ft to the edge of the highway right-of-way; however. 

about a half dozen channels continue farther south. 

Tamiami Canal extends 11. 5 miles eastward from Monroe to a 

bend that swings southeastward; then it continues 8 miles more to 

40-Mile Bend, where it swings back to an easterly course. This 

route runs through a sparse cypress area that marks the edge of 

Big Cypress Swamp. In the vicinity of the bend east of Monroe, 

the canal cuts through the highest land along its route--elevation 

8 ft above mean sea level. The divide is so subtle that it is not 

noticeable, but contrary to the frequent experience in the Everglades, the water summit in the canal has always been close to it, 

East of 40- Mile Bend, which is a principal landmark, the soil is 

predominantly muck that has burned and oxidizect', thus exposing the 

underlying eroded rock surface in many areas. From 40-Mile Bend 

to east of Dade-Broward Levee, the terrain is the typical sawgrass 

plain of the Everglades, with few trees to relieve the flat horizon 

(see fig. 27). The numerous stub laterals are the principal feature 

of the canal in this reach. 

About 22 miles east of 40-Mile Bend, Krome Road Canal (another 

borrow ditch) connects from the south and marks the edge of very 

346881 0-55--33 
488 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

sparse developments (see pl. 15). A branch extends 2. 5 miles 

northward to North Line Canal, anunmaintainedshallow canal that 

is parallel with Tamiami Canal and extends about 12 miles both to 

the east and to the west from the line of Krome Road Canal. 

The southern end of Dade-Broward Levee extends across 

Tamiami Canal at a· point 2 miles east of Krome Road and 13.6 

miles above the mouth, thus marking the boundary between the 

borrow-ditch section and the working section of Tamiami Canal. 

The levee extends northward about 8 miles to Pennsuco Lateral and 

continues 5. 6 miles farther to Miami Canal and County Line Dam. 

Until 1946, pipe culverts (with inverts at an elevation of 6 ft above 

mean sea level) provided drainage through the levee at higher 

stages; these culverts have been removed and replaced with solid 

fill. The borrow pit along the east side of the levee connects with 

Tamiami Canal and acts as a lateral. 

Krome Road and Dade-B.roward Levee mark the western limit 

of a somewhat complicated system of interconnected waterways, 

which extends to the edge of MiamL Until 1946, little or no maintenance work was done on the canals, but since then, the larger 

canals have been maintained. Snapper Creek Canal intersects 

Tamiami Canal 4 miles east of the levee at the location known as 

Sweetwater. The south branch of Snapper·Creek Canal extends for 

12 miles toward the south and southeast to Biscayne Bay at the 

southeastern corner of Coral Gabll'!s. The north branch connects 

with North Line Canal about 2. 5 miles to the north, and a separate 

section continues 5 miles farther north to Russian Colony Canal 

(a tributary of Miami Canal), with a break about 2 miles north of 

North Line Canal. 

About 4 miles east of the connection with Snapper Creek Canal 

and 5. 6 miles above the mouth, Coral Gables Canal connects with 

Tamiami Canal from the south. Coral Gables Canal meanders 7 

miles in a southeasterly direction to Biscayne Bay and lies mostly 

within the city of Coral Gables. 

Just east of Coral Gables Canal, Tamiami Canal turns toward 

the northeast, and about half a mile below the turn, North Line Canal 

and F. E. C. Canal enter from the north. Comfort Canal branches 

off toward the east 2. 3 miles above the mouth, and the entrance to· 

Semii.nole Lake (a deep rockpit) connects from the west 0. 2 mile 

farther downstream. (See pl. 22.) The mouth of Tamiami Canal 

is at Miami Canal 0. 3 mile above NW. 27th Avenue, Miami. 

The land through which Tamiami Canal was excavated slopes toward the southwest and south in the western reaches (see pls. 10 

and 11). East of 40-Mile Bend, the land slopes mainly toward the 

southeast. The canal is accessible by roads along, or close to, the 

south bank (except for several miles of the lower reaches, near 

Miami). 
SURFACE WATER 489 

The following tabulation lists the principal features along 

Tamiami Canal, with cumulative mileages from the mouth at Miami 

Canal, 

Location 

Mouth, Miami Canal .......................... ,......................... .. . 0 

Bridge, NW. South River Drive ................................... .. 

Bridge, Le Jeune Road (NW. 42nd Avenue) ..................... . 

Seminole Lake entrance ......... ..................................•... 

Comfort Caml (he~d) ...........•...••... ••••••····•·••••·••·•······•••• 

Bridge, Red Road (57th Avenue), gaging station .............. .. 

Bridge, F. E. c. Railw_ay ............................................ . 

Bridge, Seaboard Railroad, F. E. C. Canal ................... . 

North Line Canal ...........•............•. -.................•........•.... 

Coral Gables Canal ............•.........................••...........•.. 

Footbridge. gaging station ............................................ . 

Snapper Creek Canal, north and south ........................... .. 

Dade-Broward Levee .......................... ,. ...•..................... 

Krome Road Canal (north and south), State Highway 27 

(Krome Road) ........................................................... . 

Lateral south (bridge 50), gage ..................................... . 

Lateral south (bridge 45), gage ..................................... . 

Lateral south (bridge 32), gage ..................................... . 

40-Mile Bend, gage, meteorological station ..................... . 

Dade-Collier County line ..................... N ....................... . 

Slough north and south (bridge 115), gage ........................ . 

Bend .............................. " .. ~~~························•·••••••·••·••••• 

Slough north and south (bridge 105), gage ....................... .. 

Monroe, lateral south (bridge 96), gage .......................... . 

Bridge, State Highway 29 (formerly 164) ........................ .. 

RECO&DS AVAILABLE 

• 1 

1.3 

2.1 

2. 3 

3.2 

4.6 

4.7 

4.8 

5.6 

6. 1 

9.7 

13.6 

19.7 

22.0 

24.8 

34.6 

37.2 

41.4 

43.4 

45.2 

49.2 

56.7 

73.8 

[* Record continued after period of this investigation. ** Slightly 

lower stages probably occurred June 12-20, 1945, when both 

gages were reported to be dry) 

40-Mile Bend 

Stage: July 1, 1940, to Dec. 31, 1946*; gage read once daily; 

plotted in figures 142 and 143. 

Maximum observed: 8. 95 ft, on Sept. 22, 1945. 

Minimum observed: 4. 57 ft, on May 3, 4, 1946. 

Krome Road 

Stage: Nov. 10, 1939, to July 8, 1942; gage read twice daily; 

daily stage plotted in figure 142. 
490 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Maximum observed: 7. 72 ft, on Sept. 30, 1940. 

Minimum observed: 4, 49 ft, on May 28, 1940. 

(Compare extremes with those for different period at DadeBroward Levee where stages are essentially the same.) 

Dade-Broward Levee 

Stage, west of levee: July 28,1942, to Jan. 17, 1946; gage read 

once daily; plotted in figures 142 and 143 (continues where 

record at Krome Road stops). 

Maximum observed: 7. 65ft, on Aug, 9, 1942. 

Minimum observed: 1. 46 ft, on June 11, 1945. 

(Compare with extremes at Krome Road.) 

Stage, east of levee: July 28, 1942, to Jan. 17, 1946; gage read 

once daily. 

Maximum observed: 7. 14 ft, on Oct. 10, 11, 1943, 

Minimum observed: 1. 42 ft, on June 21, 1945, 

Outflow to south 

Discharge, through 63 connecting laterals in 43-mile reach from 

Monroe to Dade-Broward Levee: Nov. 1, 1939, to Dec. 31, 

1946*; daily mean, plotted in figures 142 and 143; monthly and 

annual runoff listed in tables 49 and 50. 

Maximum daily mean: 2, 140 cfs, on Sept. 18, 1945, 

No flow, for extended periods in drought years. 

Coral Gables, near, (footbridge 0, 5 mile west of Coral Gables 

Canal) 

Stage: Mar. 19, 1940, to June 30, 1943; gage read twice daily; 

daily mean of readings plotted in figures 142 and 143, 

Maximum observed: 6. 05 ft, on Sept. 21, 1940, 

Minimum observed:' I. 84 ft, on April 18, 1943. 

Discharge: Jan. 16, 1940 to June 30, 1943; daily mean, plotted 

in table 51. 

Maximum daily mean: 346 cfs, on Sept. 30, 1942. 

Minimum daily mean: 3. 0 cfs, April 7-18, 1943, 

Red Road, Miami 

Stage: Mar. 9, 1940, to Dec. 31, 1946*; continuous recorder 

graph; daily mean plotted in figures 142 and 143. 

Maximum: 3. 84 ft, on Sept. 15, 1945. 

Minimum: -0. 52 ft, on Mar. 22, 1945, 

Minimum daily (tidal): 0, 06 ft, on Mar. 22, 1945. 

Discharge: Jan. 25, 1940, to June 30, 1943; daily mean; plotted 

in figures 142 and 143; monthly and annual runoff listed in 

table 52. 

Maximum daily mean: 526 cfs, on Sept. 23, 1940. No flow, 

April4 to May 22, 1943, (canal flow cut off by dam 1. 5 miles 

upstream). 

Miscellaneous 

Stage: at about 12 locations from Monroe to Coral Gables Canal 

in connection with 203 discharge measurements of the outflow to the south, 1939-46*. 

Discharge: at 63 laterals from Monroe to Dade-Broward Levee, 

in connection with 203 discharge measurements of the outflow 
SURFACE WATER 491 

to the south, 1939-46*; at intermediate locations on the main 

canal and at many laterals, 1940-46*, occasional, usually in 

connection with special studies; see plates 15 and 16 for types 

of observations. 

OISCHARGE, IN ~UBIC ~l.EVAfiON, IN r'EET 

FEET PER SECONO ABOVE MEAN SI.::A Lt;:VEL 

i 

u_u=~~_LLL~W-~i-L_~ 

ELE:VATION, IN F"E:£::1 AaOVE MEAN SEA LEVEL 

OISCHARGE, IN cuatc FEET PEM SECOND 

8 ~" 

ELEVATION 1 IN FEET ABOVE MEAN SEA LEVEL 

- t--t-- 1--- . . ---------·-

t-- -- 1 

t---1--

t----Ill-+--~: --- t-- -- --

·t-

. . . 1--t-- t--f-- .... --t-t--1--· 

" - j - t f·-- - -l---l---l---1-- --· - 1---

-1--,- f--- ... 

~~ · >---+i - ~-- .. I 

: fi~ i I 1-h-t! ~!--/t -"II -- ---+-;-r·--y ir'- ELEVATION, IN FE:f:T ABOVE MEAN $!;A l.EVEL 

Figure 142. -Graphs of stage and discharge of Tamiami Canal, 1939-42. 
9 

0-Mil~ Bend • 'r-- .r r-

-..,IV-.. ,/lh j r--' 

7 

"\ f\r 6 

I I"'--.. '\. i"-'\ , !5 Oode-Browar~ ~, 

I 

4 '\ J 

' ~ • ~v -'-"v., \ ..... "' ,~ ....... ..._ 

' v '--;~ ,J'~ '-"'Ro< R~~ IJii .~ 

0 

0 

0 

N 

- Outflow to s~ut t.-j '--f-.--- J 1 .............. 1944 

.... ..... APR I .. y JULY AUG. SEPJ. 

9 

J ,l _,..! 1---f t"'----' r---.. ~--r--... 40- Mil_e Ben.d;y.' I 

i'J',. I r I 

s '-('J J'iP 

I 

9 

40- M1le Bend 

• 

7 --.....~ rr 

• ~ r s I \ r 

I l i I 3 i I I ! ,...,, !> .... ,, 

' 

i Rod Rood 1 l". P.,J ...... , V'}vv rv ! ......... ....... ...J,:~-

""" 

4 

3 

• .J.-\.,. fr"~ ·' 

• J·v v v'-.j \'"I 

' "'"IT" rvv- . .......,.~. Red Ro.gd 

0 

I 

I ! I I .\ 0 

I Outflow to southf 945 Outflow t-o south ..; "--.., 1946 

I v-i-/ r 

' ....._ J-- I-

-fEB. ...... YAY JU .lilLY •UG. SEFr. f1lL ..... '"" "" JU>E lY ..... st/'f .OCT. """· 

Figure 143. -Graphs of stage and discharge of Tamiami Canal, 1943-46. 
----------------------------------------------------------------------

Table 49.-Runolt of Tamiami Canal outlets west of Miami 

[Between Monroe and the Dade-Broward Levee, unit, 1, 000 acre-feet] 

Year Jan, Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec, Annual 

1939 ............... ............. . ............. ............... ................ ............... ··~·········· .............. . ............... . ............... 50.ti 19.2 . ..................... 1940 13.1 8.0 4.8 3.1 1. 8 5.9 10.1 29.5 80,5 50.8 24.0 17.2 250.2 

1941 25.4 48.9 31.2 38.5 12.3 9.5 54,8 45.1 41,1 43.7 42.() 20.7 413.2 

1942 12.9 5,7 5. 7 2.0 2.2 80.2 31.1 14,8 31.1 11.7 2. 0 1. 9 201.3 

1943 1.4 • 7 .5 .8 1. 7 2.2 10.0 24.ti 69.6 47.0 18.8 14.6 191.9 

1944 9.1 2.6 1,0 .3 1.5 1.7 5.7 18.8 10.8 15.4 11.1 2,1 80. 1 

1945 2.1 • 9 .2 (a) (a) ,2 11.1 26.1 92.6 94,2 58.1 22.9 308.4 

194ti 10.1 2.0 1.1 • 5 .8 2.9 5.9 12.2 47.2 44.1 23.9 14.7 165.4 

aN eglipble. 

Table 50,-AntJUal summary of dischacges, in cubic feet per second, for gaging stations on Tamimni Canal 

At Red Road At Coral Gables Outflow to south 

Calendar 

year 

1940 ............ . 1941 ........... .. 1942 ............ . 1943 ........... .. 1944 ............ . 1945 ............ . 1946 ........... .. Period of record 

Maximum a 

522 

380 

334 

522 

Minimum a Averageb 

23 206 

64 248 

44 204 

Maximum c 

294 

303 

34"6 

Minimumc 

11 

59 

27 

Averageb 

151 

193 

169 

. ...... ,., ...................................................................................................................... . . ................................................................................................................................. . . .................................................................................................................................... . . .................................................................................................................................... .. 23 219 346 11 171 

Maximumd 

>t, 670 

1,430 

1,730 

1,820 

541 

2,140 

1,160 

2,140 

13 

30 

4 

2.5 

.8 

0 

2.5 

0 

Averageb 

345 

571 

278 

265 

110 

426 

229 

318 

~ndicates highest value for maximum and lowest value for minimum obtained from means of pairs ol discharge measurements usually made weekly and corrected to 

rer,resent average for tidal cycle and approximate average for day. _ bcomputed from daily values of discharge obtained from discharge measurements, stages, and weather records some of which are shown graphically in figures 142 

and 143. 

~rom discharge measurements made about weekly, each of which represents the approximat~ discharge for that day. 

drrom discharge measurements made about weekly 1940-1942, and semimonthly 1943-1946, each of which represents the approximate discharge for that day. 
Table 51.-Runoff of Tamiami Canal near Coral Gables 

[Unit 1 000 acre-feet] 

Year Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual 

1940 ............... 10.8 7.1 3.3 1.4 5.1 4.1 8.4 14.7 ll:i.1 14.8 13.2 . .................. 1941 14.8 12.5 11.8 8.6 7. 8 4.2 10.3 9.9 12.2 16.8 15.5 15.1 139.5 

1942 13.6 8.1 6. 2 5.0 2. 7 7.4 6.7 9.6 18.6 19.0 15 7 10.1 122.7 

1943 5.4 2,3 .9 • 7 2. 9 4.1 ••••••••••••( diScontinued) ••••••• _ •••• - .................................................................. 

Table 52.-Rurwii of Tarniami Canal at Red Road, Miami 

fUnit, 1, 000 acre -feet] 

Year Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual 

1940 a18. 1 13.9 9.9 6.3 3.2 11.5 7.1 12.9 19.8 20.2 16.4 14.4 153. 7. 

1941 15. 6 16.6 17.2 13.0 10.2 4. 7 13.4 12.2 13.5 20.7 21.3 21.1 179.5 

1942 17.7 10.9 9,4 8.2 4,8 14.9 10.5 10.1 18. a 18.0 14.3 ·. 10.0 147.6 

1943 6,0 3.4 1. 6 .1 2.7 5.7 ............. .(discontinued). •• ••••••••••-•• ...................................................................... • 

aComputed on basis of comparison with records for Tamiami Canal outlets. 
SURFACE WATER 495 

FLOW CHARACTERISDCS 

In wet periods, overland flow from Big Cypress Swamp and the 

under Everglades moves slowly toward the south in a broad sheet 

of water (see pl. 11). This 40-mile-wide "river" (for it is an intermittent river that might aptly be called Everglades River) finds 

an outlet to the Gulf of Mexico in the complex of channels in the 

Ten Thousand Islands area between Cape Sable and Everglades, 

Collier County. The hydraulic characteristics of the river are a 

product of water conditions over a vast area of undeveloped land 

stretching from Tamiami Trail to Lake Okeechobee, and their 

evaluation furnishes an excellent key to the natural water regimen 

of the Everglades. 

The western section of Tamiami Canal, from Monroe to DadeBroward Levee, cuts across and intercepts the flow of the river. 

The canal also acts as a distributor, because the intercepted water 

moves to the east or west and flows through the stub laterals and 

longer laterals that are bridged by Tamiami Trail. Although the 

river gradually diminishes and disappears in the dry season, 

Tamiami Canal continues to intercept and distribute a considerable 

flow ?f ground water, until the water table has fallen below the 

bottom level of the outlet channels. 

During periods of large discharge, the movement of intercepted 

water west of 40-Mile Bend is toward the nearest outlet lateral. 

The same action occurs east of the bend, but more often the water 

will move toward the east before finding an outlet. During periods 

of moderate to low flows, the intercepted water west of the DadeCollier County line moves westward in Tamiami Canal and may 

continue quite a distance in the channel; east of the county line, the 

direction of flow will be toward the east for a considerable 

distance, The resultant of components observed in the field show 

suuthwesterlyflow in the reach from Monroe to the county line, 

southerlyflow to about 5 miles east of 40-Mile Bend, anct southeasterlyflow in the remainder of the reach to Dade-Broward Levee. 

The southeasterly trend in the eastern reach shows the route of the 

river within the actual limits of the Everglades proper-refer to 

plates 11, 12, and 14. A short distance below the line of Tamiami 

Cana~, the river is shunted toward the southwest by the Atlantic 

Coastal Ridge. 

Figure 144 presents the runoff pattern of Tamiami Canal and the 

river, as well as profiles of wet and dry conditions. The arrows 

on the map show the direction of flow in the main canal. The flow 

in each lateral is indicated in the bar graph below the map, Note 

the concentration between bridges 100 and 108 in the slough area, 

which is not far from the Gulf of Mexico. A much greater concentration occurred east of 40- Mile Bend in the muck-soil area. The 

western mass of this flow is the effect of water that flows from the 
------------~~----------, 

w 10,-------,------,------,--,---------,,---,-----,--~---,----,,--.IO 

~ 9 ! i I 19 

1D _, - J-- OCTOBER 5,19.. i J, ct ILl 8 ---- -"""" I ----- / ~ B ~;:; 1 ~-- -- 7 

l::'-'6; \---- I_ _!..., ------- 6 

.. .,.,.:---- I 1-.... \ i / --......... ' ZW ·~-------------~ \-------~~~-----~~-~~~:~ .. ------~~.-0-X-~~T-E-G-~-U-N~O~S~UR~F~AC~E~/~~--r--~~-----~-~-r~~ 

;;("' 4 ____ ___. I J / i ·-.__ 1'\ 4 

~ ~ 3 ~~ 'MAY 30~ 1945, NO OUTFLOW TO SOUTH I ... ____ :"" ;;; ~ 2 I I 

~ ~MOIIROE BRIDG£ 8fiWIJ£ 

105 

~£ 115 40·Mil.£ 

BEND 

~ .J2 

96 

MONROE ~-=;~~~p.;_-;llk:-_,. - ~>- 1 l 1151~ .:::." ~ ~ 

COLUER COUNTY '8 

MONROE COUNTY 

! lJRI[)(j£ BRIDG£ 45 50 

... ____ _ KROME 

ROAD OAD£· SNAPPER SINJWARD CREEK LEVEE CANAL 

Figure 144. -Graph and map of flow distribution and profiles of Tamiami Canal outlets during a wet period, October 5, 1945. 
SURFACE WATER 497 

higher and steeper area of mineral soils in the Big Cypress Swamp 

to the northwest. The eastern mass is the principal flow from the 

upper and middle Everglades. 

Flow in Tamiami Canal increases from zero at the Dade-Collier 

County line to a maximum in the vicinity of bridge 40 and then tapers 

off to zero again at Dade-Broward Levee (except for the small flows 

that sometimes occur through the culverts in the levee). West of 

the county line, the flow is more of the typical canal type, because 

of the usually large outflow of the lateral at Monroe. It is doubtful, 

however, that any water traverses the whole reach, because a 

constant process of interception and distribution of flow occurs. 

In drought periods, as shown in figure 145, the water level declines 

so far below the ground surface that the bottom of the canal becomes 

exposed. The canal then becomes a series of shallow stagnant pools, 

weed-choked and malodorous from dead fish. Figure 144 shows the 

water profile on May 30, 1945, when no flow occurred in either the 

canal or the outlets. The profile is. essentially that of the water 

table. 

Water hyacinth.._was not much of a problem in Tamiami Canal, 

although the degree of infestation increased at a point east of bridge 

50 late in the period of investigation. Bottom-rooted aquatic weed 

was a common cause of flow restriction, and at times it reduced 

east-west distribution to small quantities. Thick masses of weed 

were observed that were holding water on a slope as great at 4 feet 

Figure 145. -Middle reaches of Tamiami Canal near 40-Mile Bend in severe drought period, 

April 1944; bottom of canal exposed and only small weed-choked pools remain. 
498 WATER RESOURCES lN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

in 5 miles near Monroe, and on less steep, but still significant, 

slopes east of 40- Mile Bend. 

The opinion has been expressed that the road fill of Tamiami 

Trail causes a significant amount of backwater to· the overland flow 

in the Everglades, in fact, to such an extent that coastal areas are 

subjected to excessive stages in flood pe'riods. However, this has 

not been borne out b;Y the 203 detailed observations tnade by the 

U. S. Geological Survey during the period 1939-46, Flow under 

the bridges along Tamiami Trail has been found to be smooth during 

periods of large discharge, and head loss was ordinarily only a 

few hundredths of a foot, 

It has been observed, however, that a loss of head of as much 

as 0, 3ft often occurs at the southern ends of the stub laterals. The 

edges of these short channels are partly blocked by material left 

from dredging operations. Also, debris tends to catch on the broken 

rock, and dense vegetation has become established at the outflow 

ends of many of the stubs. It is doubtful that cleaning the outlets 

would appreciably affect stages east of Dade-Broward Levee; however, increased flow might shorten the period of higher stages 

west of the levee. The small loss of head across Tamiami Trail 

for all reasons probably has no effect on coastal areas. 

Most of the runoff in lower Tamiami. Canal is derived frcim 

ground-water frow, except in dry periods when the connecting canals 

contribute sizable amounts of water. Some overland inflow also 

occurs west of Snapper Creek Canal, where the north spoil bank is. 

discontinuous. Flow in Tamiami Canal was not large. at any time 

during the period of study because of weed blocks and lack of maintenance. At times, the bottom-rooted weeds grew so luxuriantly 

that discharge nearly ceased. 

Snapper Creek Canal invariably discharged northward into 

Tamiami Canal, except for the period iri 1942 when an earth dam 

temporarily blocked all flow. At times, some water flowed northward in the north branch of Snapper Creek Canal, turned eastward 

in North Line Canal, and then returned to Tainiami Canal, because 

of weeds and other causes of reduced capacity in the main canal. 

The situation was difficult to comprehend, however, because weeds 

were also plentiful in the channels that were followed by this diverted water. 

In extreme flood periods, large tributary flow from the south into 

Tamiami Canal occurred from Snapper Creek Canal and laterals 

farther west. This flow continued northward in the direction of 

Miami Canal, at times causing a westerlyflow in part of Tamiami 

Canal. The northward flow during flood periods was the result of 

heavy rainfall farther south and the relationship to the higher coastal 

ridge. In ordinary wet peri.ods, the basin usually is inundated as 

far east as Snapper Creek Canal. 
SURFACE WATER 499 

The vicinity of Coral Gables Canal is considered to be the inland limit of tidal variations in Tamiami Canal. Tidal action would 

likely extend farther inland in dry periods, except that aquatic 

vegetation tends to damp it, The channel in the western environs 

of Miami is relatively narrow, and this also helps to reduce tidal 

variations. 

Coral Gables Canal generally flows into Tamiami Canal, but 

during extreme floods, it may divert sizable amounts of water to 

the south. This reversal of the normal (designed) pattern is another 

example of the limited capacity of the drainage canals to handle 

larger amounts of runoff. 

North Line Canal consistently drains into· Tamiami Canal, as 

observed throughout the study, Just a short distance to the east, 

F. E. C. Canal usually diverts flow from Tamiami Canal (depending 

upon the relative water levels in Miami Canal and the municipal 

well-field area). The northward flow in F. E. C. Canal contributes 

a significant amount. of recharge to the well fields. During extreme 

floods, heavy northward discharge in F. E. C. Canal enters Miami 

Canal and thus reaches the sea by a route longer than via Tamiami 

Canal. 

Tamiami Canal, from Coral Gables Canal to Miami Canal, has 

a relatively low discharge capacity, because of constrictions, 

shoals, and shallow sections. Sand-fill dams were placed in 

Tamiami Canal just downstream from F. E. C. Canal in the years 

1943-45, when serious drought conditions developed. These dams 

prevented further inland contamination by salty water and also 

helped divert fresh water toward the Hialeah-Miami Springs well 

field. For a short period in the spring of 1940 a sheet-steel piling 

dam was placed about 0. 5 mile upstream from Red Road for the 

same purpose. 

As in Miami Canal drainage area, the water movement in Tamiami 

basin is so complex that data on the main canal do not satisfactorily 

depict actual water conditions. Consequently, areal studies were 

made, the results of which appear in the section on Areal studies. 

Below F. E. C. Canal, the tidal regimen, imposed by Biscayne 

Bay through Miami River, increasingly affects Tamiami Canal. 

Typical tidal discharge occurs, and reverse flows are observed in 

dry periods. 

A short distance below Red Road, Comfort Canal heads at Tamiami Canal and extends to the east to enter South Fork Miami 

River (see pl. 20). The connection at Tamiami Canal is shallow and 

weed-grown, and it is probable that not much water is diverted. 
500 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORJDA 

Seminole Lake, the deep rockpit on the north side of the canal, 

plays an ~mportant part in the tidal discharge of Tamiami Canal 

because of its large area (about 100 acres that is increasing in size 

as more rock is removed), The tidal storage that must pass in and 

out of the lower reaches is thus enlarged to the extent of 100 acrefeet for each foot of tidal range (1, 210 cfs-hours). Because the 

storage generally empties inabout 5. 2 hours, an average of 230 cfs 

of the canal capacity is utilized by the storage in Seminole Lake 

for a tidal range of 1 ft (peak flow would be about 370 cfs). This 

quantity is an important part of the channel capacity of lower 

Tamiami Canal and means that runoff from farther inland is reduced. A tidal lake, or an enlargement of a tidal waterway, reduces 

the volume of runoff from upstream sources. Future improvement 

of Tamiami Canal must allow for this factor, because Seminole 

Lake and other rockpits are being enlarged, 

The stage and discharge graphs for 40-Mile Bend and the outflow 

from Tamiami Canal, shown in figures 142 and 143, are especially 

valuable because they show the most nearly natural water conditions 

that exist in the Everglades area. The annual stage range at 40-

Mile Bend is the least for any station observed, ranging from a 

little more than 1 ft to 4 ft. The small range in 1941 reflects the 

sustained overland flow southward. It will be noted that although 

the stage at 40-Mile Bend and the discharge southward follow roughly 

similar trends, the discharge graph fell off mur.h faster proportionately. Generally, the discharge graph di:d not increase until the 

stage rose above 7 ft, and sometimes it did not peflect large rises · 

at the beginning of the wet period; thus indicat~l:hat inundation and 

overland flow had not occurred. '\: 

Table 49 shows that the Tamiami Canal outflow in 1945 was the 

second highest of the record, despite the fact that the most serious 

drought known occurred earlier in the year. This demonstrates 

that care must be exercised in using data based on arbitrary periods. 

The average annual runoff for the 7 years of record was 230, 000 

acre-ft, which ·.vas 57 percent of the discharge of Miami Canal at 

Hialeah. Annual extremes and means for the outflow are given in 

table 50 together with similar data for the stations farther to the 

east. According to table 50, which gives an annual summary of the 

discharges of Tamia.mi Canal, the outflow to the south was nearly 

twice as much as the runoff to the east. 

The water regimen of lower Tamiami Canal (the section east of 

Dade-Broward Levee) is much the same as that of lower Miami 

Canal, and many water events are coextensive in the two adjoining 

drainage. areas. 

Stages and discharges of lower Tamiami Canal in the period 1939-

46 are shown in figures 142 and 143. The response to general water 

conditions, as described for Miami Canal (p. 454--456), is evident. 
SURFACE WATER 501 

The difference in stage between Red Ro'ad and the station near 

Coral Gables is noteworthy, because the distance between the two 

stations is only 2, 9 miles. The relatively steep slope indicates the 

limited capacity of the channel in that reach, which is due, in part, 

to a lack of maintenance. Therefore, the stage at Red Road reacts 

to a greater degree with changes in Biscayne Bay and the regimen 

of Miami Canal. The small response at Red Road to large recharge 

inland is particularly illustrated in the graphs of about May 1944, 

Note also the very slow rise to the annual maximum stage and the 

fact that it often occurs late in the year. 

The monthly and annual runoff of Tamiami Canal near Coral 

Gables is listed in table 51. The average runoff for the 2 complete 

years of record was 131, 000 acre-ft, which is probably about 

average for free-flow conditions, although runoff undoubtedly was 

considerably lower during the drought years of 1943-45. The runoff at Red Road is listed in table 52. The mean annual runoff for 

the 2 complete years of record was 164,000 acre-ft, which shows 

that th-= inflow in the reach between Red Road and the station near 

Cor~l Gables was 33, 000 acre-ft. 

SEEPAGE RATES AND PROFU.E IN LOWER REACHES 

Seepage rates (ground-water inflow) along lower Tamiami Canal 

were found to be not very great, compared with those along Miami 

Canal. Figure 146 presents the seepage rates computed for September 16, 1941, together with the stage and cumulative discharge 

profiles. The seepage rates determined for the three principal 

reaches were 39, 8. O,and 9. 6 cfs per linear mile. Note the very 

steep slope from North Line Canal to Red Road, which is an indication of the poor condition of the channel. Of the total discharge 

at Red Road, 65 percent originated west of Snapper Creek Canal. 

The vertical jumps in the discharge graph represent the inflow 

or outflow in the connecting canals. A curious combination of flows 

is shown at the eastern end of the graph, where North Line and 

F. E. C. Canals flow in opposite directions, even though the two 

canals are only about 800 ft apart. This unusual condition really 

indicates a continuous flow from the west in North Line Canal (toward the Miami well field), which enters Tamiami Canal and 

quickly leaves it by way of F. E. C. Canal; it also indicates the 

flow of some water from Tamiami Canal. The result is as though 

North Line Canal were connected directly with F. E. C. Canal, 
502 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN Fl.ORIDA 

"' 5200 

u zW 

~.(f) 

w "'160 

~il: 

:2 ... if: l:tJI20 

oLL u 

~ 80 u 

0 t 

Dade-Broward Snapper Creek 

Canal 

Footbridge North Line 

Canal Road 

40 Levee 

.:.~ + + " i+ + ::E(f) ~~30~~~==~--4-~"-==~~~~----~~-----t----~- I --+---~----~----+-·­

"'"' 

~il:2o-- ....... 

<!>W 

~ ~ 10 1-----+------···------ wu 

(f)jj5 

~a 

0 14 13 12 II 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 

DISTANCE ABOVE MOUTH, IN MILES 

Figure 146. -Graph of cumulative discharge, seepage rates, and profile of Tamiami Canal from 

Dade-Broward Levee to Red Road, September Hi, 1941. 

SECONDARY CANALS 

BOYNTON CANAL 

Boynton Canal is a principal east-west canal of Lake Worth 

Drainage District, and it is the only canal between West Palm 

Beach and Hillsboro Canals that drains into tidal waters (pl. 14). 

It extends westward from Lake Worth and the Intracoastal Waterway at Boynton Beach to .range line 41-42 and Equalizing Canal 

No. 1 (a distance of 9. 5 miles). Boynton Canal intersects the other 

three equalizing canals and supplies irrigation water, or furnishes 

drainage, according to need. Controls and pumps in the canal make 

its operation quite flexible. 

A gaging station was operated on Boynton Canal just east of 

U. S. Highway 1 at Boynton Beach from July 1941 to June 1943. 

Because the principal control on the canal was a short distance west 

of the station, the stage record which was made below the control, 

could be used only to compute daily mean discharge. The discharge 

record in _figure 147 shows that the flow regimen was entirely 
280 

a 

z 

0 

u 

240 

0 

0 

*200 0 

"' w 

"-

~160 

1:: 

0 

.g 120 

0 

ui 

~so 

.. 

J: 

0 

"' 

0 

0 

0 

0 400 

I 

I 

'\ I 

' 

o-' UJ\ 160 0 ! 

I 0 

0 

0 

ll 

0 JULY AUGUST 

I : ' r ' 

! i i I 

I i ! I I 

! 1\ ! 

' 

< \ 

11 I 1 

! n A 

1941~ 1942 

~I\ i 

~ ll ~ LA,,_ ~ l '\ ttk i t.. J ~ 

I ! 

i 

j 

l I 

i i i i 

' I 1942---. I ' 

1\ 19~ 

SEPTEMBER! OCTOB£R NOVEMBER DECEMBER JANUARY FEBRUARY MARCH APRIL MAY JUNE 

Figure 147. -Graph of discharge of Boynton Canal at Boynton Beach, 1941-43. 
Year Jan. Feb. Mar. 

1940 IO. 5 10.5 10.5 

1941 11.5 11.1 1 • 9 

1942 7,9 2.3 2.5 

1943 .5 .6 1. 0 

T<>hle 53.-Runofl of Boynton Canal at Boynton Beach 

[Unit, 1, 000 acre -fe.,t} 

Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. 

1 o. 5 1o.5 to.9 'O. 6 11.2 12,3 

'1.1 I . 7 1 • 5 18.9 4.7 28.2 

39.2 3.3 44.3 3.7 1.9 4.8 

1. 2 1.0 1.1 ............... ......... ,.. ...... ................. 

Oct. 

10.9 

11.4 

5.0 

............ 1

Computed on the basis of several discharge measurements and on the record tor Wen Palm Beach Canal at West Palm Beach. 

Nov. Dec. Annual 

'o. 1 10.7 9.8 

4,5 1.5 75.0 

.8 .4 116,1 

. ................ .............. ....................... 
SURFACE WATER 505 

artificial, with only limited indication of seasonal variations, The 

outstanding peak was caused by discharge following the unusually 

heavy rain of April 15-17, 1942. Except for a short reach at the 

eastern end, Boynton Canal is not subject to tidal backwater. 

Monthly and annual runoff are listed in table 53, which ·shows that 

the runoff for the 2 complete years of record ending in June was 

169,000 and 22, 000 acre-ft, respectively. This wide variation of 

runoff reflects the artificial regimen and the very small wastage of 

water during the 1943 drought period. The record also shows the 

entirely different water requirements of relatively high lands that 

are almost entirely sand, as compared with the needs of the mucky 

areas that are adjacent to the other canals discussed in this report, 

CYPRESS CREEK CANAL 

Cypress Creek Canal extends toward the west from the natural 

tidal slough of Cypress Creek at Pompano to range line 40-41, a 

di~tance of 12 miles. It is a local canal that drains a low sandy 

area characterized by small cypress "heads" or groups of cypress 

trees. The canal stages are controlled in two pools by two small 

dams. (See pl. 14,) No cooperative pumping for irrigation o·ccurs; 

instead, each man operates separately. 

A gaging station was operated on Cypress Creek Canal in the 

center of Pompano from February 1940 to June 1943. The stage 

and discharge graphs (fig. 148) show a rather natural water regimen 

because the drainage area is low. This record is in marked contrast with that from Boynton Canal (fig. 147). It will be noted that 

much of the runoff was in the winter months, because the truck 

farmers in the area opened the controls for each rain. 

The stage graphs are for the principal pool extending from 

Pompano west to the inland control, just east of State Highway 7. 

The monthly and annual runoff listed in table 54 shows an average 

annual runoff of 60, 000 acre-ft for the 2 complete years of record. 

The discharge ranged between 0 and 492 cfs, and the stage ranged 

between 1. 02 and 5. 64 ft. 

Cypress Creek Canal has a low efficiency as a water carrier J;lecause of weeds and a cover of hyacinth. 
506 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

6 

5 

4--~-

3 

2 

!-~~----

0-· 

0 

0 

_j 

,_w5 

w> 

~~4 

z"" -"' • "' 3 Zz 

g., 

I-UJ2 

~::'ll 

~~ 1 UJO 

~ 0 

~ C> 400 "'z B 8 3oo 

z"-' -<f) 

,j a; 200 

"'"' 

~ 0. 100 o:l- uW 

"'"' c"- 0 

w 

> 

'JAN. 

"' ·-~---

I 

Vl/\ 

c--------

• --~•~u•~· 

~ 

J\ 

- -A-N. 

~ 

·····-

----

. F 

~ 

\ 

..... 

--

f--·--

A 

1\ 

~\J -FEB.-

·- ,. -- n ''"'' ____ I---

tl\ ·- ·- ---- • (\fi ~ AI) ~-·~ ~ f 

'] "" II M --- ( 1\ 1~1 --\J- t-!~ ~ P\7\1 'I,. 

''·" 

~ -- --- .. -·~·· .. --

11 -

- -~--- ---·- - ( ~ 

~ .A rt A J 1\ ~p~4o 

'- I 'II\.. -----~- ''J \ \J -"' --.r--- .A 

APRil --M NE' lilY. A G. SEPT.- ·o NV- ·o.c:-

(\ -------- --~ 

I ~-\A n ~~ M\ ·;~: 1\-r\ 

'"\____: 

1\1'\ 0 n 

l\l\J y J -~ l.J "VV\ ~ 

----- ~- ~-- ·-·· -- ~-- ... -· . --· -· -··-

r'\ 

" {VI ·-----

.~ oAI\ ~ \ ! A 1941 

CJC1 \...., 

--MAR:~ ----;;JlRlL I'-

MAY ~ JULY AUG. 

~ 

.SEPT. -~~ OCT. 

Nv 

-NOV:-. 

~ Nc_. 

~l-~~\ . -- ----~------"194~ ---- - /'\ 

8 j 4 / lf 1 (\ rV'V"i'"\ ,_; · N' -- ---- \ ~ • ~-~Z 32 m-y~ 1\1 I r' -~ ~42 I\ {\ (\ --+~\] v 

2 « l'l..\J----\J----1~ ~~------ - -....A.r v" J --

~ ~ l --- -----1-----+---+---+-------1 _j 

w ------- _____ J ___ L_ __ --'----__ _j_ __ ___L __ ___j_______ _ ______ c___ __ ~o o----- rnz400r-~~--,----r---,---,---~, .. , -·-·- - ~-----1 

~0 '\! ~ ~300 \' -- -lr-+---+--+---+----+----+----+--

~~ :,Jt ~ -'\ -----+,~f-""""wrhll\.---''9-42-+----+1\---+---+----+l-9-.;·;- ~::: h-J 1~ ~ '-4J\..f\j 1~3 0 "- O "-JAN-:"1-n-B. MAR. Y JUN UG. SEPT, t-·--ocr:-i- N 

FigQre 148. -Graph of stage and discharge of Cypress Creek Canal at Pompano, 1940-43. 
Table 54.-Cypress Creek Canal at PompatlD 

[Unit, 1, 000 acre-feet] 

Year Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual 

1940 12.3 12.2 4.0 4.2 1.2 4.4 2.3 -3.1 14:s 4.2 2.5 5.7 50.9 

1941 5.1 4.8 4.4 6.1 2. 5 1.9 11.6 6.5 8. 9 5.8 3.4 1. 7 62.7 

1942 10.6 5.5 2.4 7.1 4.2 11.0 5.6 2.5 4.ti 3.1 .3 • 7 57.6 

1943 .08 .o: .2 .o· • 3 .2 ................. ................ ............. ................ • •• 4 ........ ~ .. ..................... . ........................ 1Computed on basis of comparison with records for Hillsboro Canal near Deerfield Beach. 
508 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

'DDAL CANALS IN THE MIAMI AREA 

The coastal ridge in the greater Miami. area is drained by five 

short canals-snake Creek, Biscayne, Little River, Coral Gables, 

and Snapper Creek-that follow a southeasterly direction to Biscayne Bay and are roughly parallel with Miami Canal (see pl. 22), 

The major part of their channels was excavated in tl:'ansverse 

glades, which were once natural overflow channels 'of the Everglades. The lower reaches are regularly tidal, and in dry periods 

tide effect may occur in all reaches. The runoff from the canals 

was not controlled untill946, when Dade County 'Started construction 

of temporary dams to prevent upstream movement of salty water. 

The regimen of flow in the short canals is much the same as that 

in Miami and Tamiami Canals and the tidal phenomena are similar, 

The principal difference is that. the discharge in the short canals 

is less sustained, because they do not head in reservoir areas, 

Records of stage and discharge have been maintained on the short 

canals in the Miami area, as listed in table 21. Continuous stage 

recorders were operated for varying periods, but the records have 

not been developed and plotted. In connection with special areal 

and basin studies, numerous measurements of discharge w~re 

made at .many locations along the canals, Results of most of the 

discharge measurements are published in u: S. Geological Survey 

Water-Supply Papers 872, 892, 9~2, 952, 972, 1002, 1032, and 

1052. 

Snake Creek, Biscayne, and Little River Canals lie north of 

Miami proper and drain into the head of Biscayne Bay, The primary purpose of these canals was for suburban development rather 

than for agricultural purposes. 

Snake Creek Canal (also known as Royal Glades Canal) starts at 

South New River Canal, 5 miles west of Davie. It extends south 

for about 7 miles, then turns eastward and southeastward to connect with Oleta River at North Miami Beach. The. entire channel 

is in a slough area, and it is inadequate for the area served. Runof~ 

in flood periods is reduced by the obstruction of the channel by two 

highway and one railroad bridge at the lower end, where head 

losses in excess of l·ft have been observed, Tidal action extends 

at least as far west as Red Road during dry periods, 

Biscayne Canal heads at Red Road, west of Opa Locka, and extends 10 miles eastward and southeastward to Biscayne Bay at 

Miami Shores. A principal branch, Opa Locka Canal (pl. 20), joins 

Biscayne Canal near the midpoint. The canal was excavated in a 

slough, except for a short reach close to the bay. The canal is 

fairly large, but lack of maintenance has reduced its capacity. 

Several constrictions exist in Miami Shores (at the golf course and 
SURFACE WATER 509 

at several bridges in the viCinity). Except during flood periods, 

the canal is tidal throughout. 

Little River Canal heads at Red Road, north of Hialeah, and extends B. 4 miles eastward and southeastward to the natural channel 

of Little River in the northern part of Miami. For the most part, 

it was excavated in a slough and is about the same size as Biscayne 

Canal. A narrow section at the F. E. C. Railway bridge reduces 

the runoff capacity by an appreciable amount. The canal is affected 

by tides throughout its length, except during flood periods. 

Coral Gables and Snapper Creek Canals lie south of Miami and 

Miami Canal. Both are unusual in that they connect with another 

canal and usually discharge from both ends. 

Coral Gables Canal heads at Tamiami Canal, just west of the 

Miami City limits, and extends southeastward to Biscayne Bay at 

Coral Gables. Most of the channel was excavated in a slough, except for about 1 mile of the eastern reaches, which was cut in some 

of the highest land in the Miami area. The channel is shallow and 

narrow at several locations east of Red Road. Below U. s. Highway 

1, the canal is larger because it was developed as a scenic attraction. Except during flood periods, tidal action affects all but the 

upper 3 miles or so. 

Snapper Creek Canal extends all the way from Russian Colony 

Canal (at a point only 1 i miles from Miami Canal) southward and 

then eastward to Biscayne Bay, east of South Miami. The branch 

north of Tamiami Canal is not continuous, and the north-south 

reaches have a varied pattern of flow. The channel is shallow in 

the vicinity of the bend toward the sou the as t, and, as far. as 

the coastal ridge is concerned, flow may be considered to start 

there. The upper reaches are in the Everglades, and the middle 

and lower reaches follow a natural slough (except for the last half 

mile, which was cut through higher land). The channel cross section 

is generally small and is not adequate to serve the drainage area 

in the manner intended. Tide effect occurs as far inland as the 

Seaboard Railroad bridge. 

The five short canals do not have the capacity to provide drainage 

for their drainage areas, and flooding of the old sloughs, particularly in the western reaches, occurs fairly often, During wet ye.ars, 

all the canals in the transverse glades overflow. 

AREAL STUDIES 

The hydrology of any drainage area in the Everglades is so intimately related to the hydrology of adjoining areas that records on 

a single canal, although valuable, do not present a sufficiently broad 
510 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

evaluation of water conditions. In order to better understand general 

water conditions, many areal studies were made. In making these 

studies, stages and discharges were obtained at the regular gaging 

stations and at many intermediate locations, as indicated by the 

pattern of the canals. 

GENERAL STUDY OF EVERGLADES 

For one series of studies, the entire Everglades area was considered. Plate 14 shows the results of this study, which was made 

March 30 to April 2, 1943. Drought conditions were assuming 

serious proportions at that time, and controls in the canals were 

closed to reduce wastage to a minimum. All of the open lands were 

dry, and fires burned over most of the Everglades, causing serious 

losses of organic soils. 

AREA WEST OF mALEAH 

The regular records for Miami and Tamiami Canals in the western environs of Miami were highly useful, but more data were 

needed to obtain a comprehensive view of local water conditions. 

The two large canals are interconnected with a network of smaller 

canals and road ditches that makes the patterns of water movement 

in the area quite complex. 

The study made June 29 to July 1, 1942, when much of the area 

was inundated and runoff was fairly large, is presented in plate 15. 

Measurements of ground-water levels were included, and the complexity of the flow pattern is apparent. The contours are, for the 

most part, surface-water contours because of the general inundation. However, in flat terrain such as this, they may be treated 

in much the same manner as ground-water contours. (They are 

shown in greater detail in fig. 32.) 

A parallel study on April 24-26, 1946, when conditions were 

moderately dry, is shown in plate 16. The land surface was dry, 

and the contours represent ground-water levels (see also fig. 33). 

Discharges were small at all locations, primarily because dams 

were closed in Miami and Tamiami Canals. One of the noteworthy 

features was the fact that all the flows in the canals near the well 

field were toward the cone of depression. (See the more detailed 

study in fig. 140,) The relatively close spacing of the contours, 

west of the well~field area, shows that recharge was being derived 

from the basin of Tamiami Canal. 

Note also that the ground-water contours were generally parallel 

to Miami Canal, indicating that the principal movement of water was 

toward the canal and not directly to the sea. 
SURFACE WATER 511 

HYDROLOGIC STUDIES 

By W. B. Langbein 

INTRODUCTION 

A comprehensive view of the surface waters of southeastern 

Florida is a highly desirable, if not an essential, prerequisite to an 

effective understanding of its complex water problems. The special 

purpose of these quantitative studies is to contribute toward such 

a view, through the general analysis and appraisal of important 

aspects of the occurrence and behavior of surface waters in the 

region. 

An important objective of a quantitative surface-water study is 

an accounting, or inventory, of water as it passes through the hydrologic cycle, (See p. 15 for a discussion of the hydrologic cycle.) 

Rainfall, after reaching the earth, is disposed of in two ways: 

1. The processes of evaporation and transpiration return a major 

part to the atmosphere as water vapor, and 2. the remainder of the 

rainfall. drains off, ultimately reaching the sea. Evaporation and 

drainage from the land are continuous processes, although they 

are variable in rate and amount. There is an endless sequence of 

additive and subtractive factors, which, over a long period of time, 

must balance; that is, total inflow as rainfall must equal total outflow as evapotranspiration and runoff. When short periods are being 

considered, the gain or loss in storage in the area must be evaluated 

to balance the equation between inflow and outflow. 

Rainfall and runoff can be measured directly. However, evaporation and transpiration were not subject to direct measurement 

at the time of this investigation, and their rates and volumes could 

only be inferred by reference to measurements of evaporation from 

suitably placed pans of water and by study of the difference between 

rainfall and runoff. 

Between periods of rainfall and runoff, water is held in temporary storage by various means. There can be no direct accounting 

of, such volumes and their locations; instead, the investigator must 

resort to inferences based on seemingly pertinent hydrologic and 

hydraulic principles. Storage is accounted for as so much bulk, 

but it is useful to classify it for some purposes with regard to its 

time characteristics, that is, by its lag, or by the length of time 

that it remains in the area after the causative rainfall has ended. 

If we wish to make an accounting of inflow, outflow, and storage, 

the hydrologic cycle may be broadly classified as follows: 
512 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUI'HEASTERN FLORIDA 

1. Rainfall 

2. Runoff: 

a. Base runoff 

b. Direct runoff 

3. Storage: 

a. Ground 

b .. Surface: 

Streams 

Swamps 

Lakes 

c. Soil moisture 

4. Evapotranspiration 

GENERAL HYDROLOGY OF THE AREA 

Introductory to, and as a background for, the detailed analyses 

to follow, it seems desirable to inquire into the general features of 

the surface waters of southeastern Florida, with special attention 

to the following aspects: (1) The amounts of water involved during 

the period of investigation, and (2) a comparison 'of these figures 

with normal amounts. 

A condensed inventory of the annual amounts of water involved 

in the entire southeastern Florida drainage unit (see p. 300) is 

given in table 55. 

Table 55.-Annual summary of hydrologic ·''Ofta lot soutlteastem Florida 

[Drainage area about 9, 000 square miles; data measurements given in inches] 

Mean Total Precip· Total 

Calendar Net change areal itation storage Losses 

year precip· runoff a min Ill at end of in storage (P·R- AS) itation (R) runoff year (!!,.S) 

(P) (P-R) (S) 

1939 ................ ................. ·~~·············· 7.6 .................. 1940 53.0 8,7 44.3 7.4 ·0.2 ··················· 44,5 

1941 59,8 14.2 45.o 8.2 +.8 44.8 

1942 50.0 11.0 39.0 4.9 -3.3 42.3 

1943 45.2 3.1 42.1 5.8 +.9 41.2 

1944 43.jl 2,7 41.2 4,9 •• 9 42.1 

1945 50.5 6.3 44.2 9.3 +4,4 39,8 

1946 48.1 6.1 42.0 7. 5 -1,8 43,8 

1940-46 350.5 52.1 298.4 ~········· ..... ·.1 298,5 

7-year 

average 50.1 7,5 42.6 

··············· .................. 42.6 

afigures are based in part on estimates of flow. Includes that measured in the canal system 

only. Percolation from ground water in the Everglades is unmeasurable, and therefore it is not incl .. ~ed, 

Rainfall, the primary source of the fresh water, averaged approximately 50 in. during the 7 years of investigation. During the 

same 7 -year period, rainfall in southern Florida averaged about 

0. 5 in. below a long-term average. The period included 1941. one 
SURF ACE WATER 513 

of the wettest in the long-term record, and 19.44, one of the driest. 

The latter part of the 7-year period was markedly drier than the 

first part. In general, it appears that rainfall during the 7 -year 

investigation was nearly representative of the region • 

. Runo.ff from the southeastern Florida drainage unit, as measured 

in the canals draining it to the sea, was equivalent to 7. 5· in. over 

the 9, 000 sqw;lre-mile area. During the 7-year period (1940-46), 

runoff of Kissimmee River averaged 7. 45 in. per yel!lr~ only slightly 

less than the estimated average for the 22-year period (1924-45). 

The difference between rainfall and runoff averaged nearly 43 in. , 

which was attributed to evapotranspiration losses. The range in 

year-end storage indicated in table 55 for the 7-year period (1940--

46) was abopt 5 in. This storage includes water stored in Lake 

Okeechobee; and in the waterways, :;wamps, and lakes in the Kissimmee basin and as ground water and soil moisture in the Kissimmee 

and other contributing basins and Everglades. Natural storage at 

the close of the calendar year tends to reach a minimum stage, 

therefore the actual range in storage during the period was considerably greater. 

The atmosphere is by far the most effective agent of land drainage, disposing of several times as much as the waterway systems. 

Areas in which losses to the atmosphere are 'great in relationship 

to the rainfall arE; frequently classed as moist and subhumid (p. 3 5 ). 

A large relative loss indicates that runoff is subject to large variations during years in which rainfall is less than the average loss 

(which happened in 2 out of 16 years in the Kissimmee basin). Runoff 

is then produced only by torrential rains and by drainage of storage 

from previous years. During such years, the persistent losses to 

the atmosphere result in marked decrease in storage, and the 

cumulative effect of 2 or more such consecutive years would be exceedingly unfavorable. In general, physiographic conditions (p. 12 7-

155) in Florida make it mandatory that swamp and lake storage act 

as an important regulator of runoff; therefore a single dry year, 

especially if it follows a wet year, will not necessarily be seriously 

deficient in runoff. 

Table 56 lists the annual runoff of selected drainage basins in 

southern Florida. Substantial range in runoff may be noted between 

wet years (such as 1936) and dry years (such as 1938). There were 

frequent erratic variations from the general pattern of runoff, notably in 1934 when the flow of most streams was above normal, yet 

the flow of Fisheating Creek was the third lowest in 15 years of 

record. The table includes runoff of several intervening areas, 

which were computed by subtracting the volume discharged at the 

upper station from the volume discharged at the lower station, and 

expressing the difference in inches· over the intervening drainage 

area. In using such figures, it is well to remember that they are 
514 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

;-------------~----------------------

83" 

29' 

27'· 

82' 

EXPLANATION 

,---·-·-, 

~.31 / 

Outline of droinoge basin 

' and mean annuallrunoff 

in inches 

25 0 !iO Mll•s 

ILL' L•~·~·~l __ _L __ ~I 

81' 

i 

f 25'f-----------+-----------4------&--- t> 

09 •• . . 

80' 

.. ·~-:~~! <7 

L_ _______ _j_ _ _.=""f>:__ ___ "' ________ - ____ ___j_ _______ __J 

29' 

28' 

27' 

26' 

25' 

83' 82' 81' 80' 

Figure 149. -Map of drainage basins of southern Florida showing mean annual runoff in inches, 

1935-46. 
Table 56.~Surnmary of runoff, in inches, for selected drainll{je basins in southern Florida for calendar years 1930-46 

Drainage basin 

1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 Mean 

,Streams 

Area 1935-46 

(sq mi) 

Kissimmee River below Lake 

Kissimmee ............................... 1,850 22.6 8.54 2.42 7.76 13.08 3.48 8.83 6.50 5,95 6.09 5.73 9.82 8. 78 3.98 4.59 12.57 7.46 6. 98 

Kissimmee River near 

Okeechobee ........................ 3,260 ........... 7.73 3.52 8.55 11.86 4.35 8.10 6. 63 5.27 5.88 6.81 9.40 9.42 4.92 4.35 10.68 6.58 6.87 

lstokpoga Canal near Cornwell... 660 .......... ...... ........... .......... . ...... 5.99 12.66 7.72 5.20 6.31 10.46 11.27 10.94 7.52 5.36 7.60 5.75 8.06 

Kissimmee River between below 

Lake Kissimmee and near 

Okeechobee, excluding Istokpoga Canal near Cornwell •••••• 750 ....... ......... 10.26 5.05 2.30 5.99 3.65 4.98 6.26 6.72 9.66 4.98 2.82 8.69 5.16 5.52 

Fisbeating Creek at Palmdale •••• 305 ............. ...... 10.36 9.05 3.48 2.74 16.28 10.89 5. 74 13.77 13.06 16.50 9.92 10,60 3.33 17.70 4.08 10.38 

Everglades drainage nnit1 •••••••••• 3,900 ........ ...... ....... ........... ............ .......... ....... ........ . ...... ........ 10.79 18.31 13.07 4.92 4.09 7.59 8. 02 2 9.54 

Southeastern Florida drainage 

units •••••••••••.•••••••••••.••••••••. 9,000 ......... ...... ....... ........ . ....... .. ....... .............. 8. 67 14.16 11.05 3.10 2.67 6.29 6.13 2 7.44 

Orange River near Fort Myers •••• 5 83.' ....... ...... ........ ......... . ......... . ...... 15.14 7.82 4.18 12.42 7.46 9.09 2. 97 7.93 2.96 8.28 "-7.82 

Peace Creek at Zolfo Springs ..... 830 ........ ....... 15.06 7. 63 12.64 10.05 10.02 15.81 7.35 10.15 11.34 11.59 5.42 ~7.23 8.64 10.66 

Peace Creek at Arcadia ............ 1,380 ......... ...... 4.56 .14.05 12.40 1.78 13.59 10.23 9.02 19.81 9.82 10.03 12.23 13,56 5.02 16.11 8.52 11.31 

Peace Creek between Zolfo 

Springs and Arcadia .............. 550 .......... ...... ........ ........ 8.39 8.00 15.02 10.50 7.51 25.86 13.72 9.85 13.57 16.50 4.45 ~4.37 8.35 12.31 

Alafia River at Lithia .............. 236 ........ ........ ........ 13.68 12.80 13.49 11.54 13.18 19.47 6.27 13.75 9.91 18.86 7.77 ~3.04 10.73 13.40 

Withlacoocbee River at Trilby, •• 630 .9.19 1.63 13.67 16.57 6,82 8.58 8.03 3.72 8.oo 4.48 9.09 6. 80 4.96 4. 75 112.43 5.47 6. 93 

1Includes area south of Lake Okeechobee and St. Lucie divide, west of Atlantic Coastal Ridge, north of Tamiami Canal, and east of western boundary of Everglades 

Drainage District. (PI. 11 shows bonndaries of Everglades Drainage District.) 

2Mean 1940-46. 

!Includes measured canal system only and comprises the rnnolf from Caloosabatcbee and St. Lucie Canals and the runoff from the Everglades Wlit. 

4Mean 1936-45. 

!Revised 1940. 

Revised 1938. 
516 WATER RESOURCES IN SOIJI'HEASTERN FLORIDA 

the differences between large quantities and that errors that are 

small in relation to those quantities may be quite large with respect 

to the differences. The runoff of Kissimmee River between Lake 

Kissimmee and Okeechobee for 1936 is especially questionable. 

Moreover, in using table 56, it is well to bear in mind that where 

(as in some instances) the sizes of the drainage areas are questionable, the values of the.runoff as expressed in inches will be correspondingly uncertain, 

The last column lists the average annual runoff for the 12-year 

period 1935-46, during which most stations werein operation, The 

average annual runoff of the streams listed ranges from 5. 52 to 

13,40 in. 

Figure 149 shows the mean annual runoff of the streams listed 

in table 56 and their correct geographic position. Conspicuous on 

the map is the low annual runoff in the lower Kissimmee bas in and 

in the central peninsula. The runoff is highest in the west coast 

tributaries and in the Everglades where a 7-year mean is shown. 

The geographic variations in runoff correspond in general to variations in rainfall shown on figure 3. Losses in lakes and swamps 

might also affect the volume of runoff. 

ANALYSIS OF CLIMATOLOGIC DATA 

The climatologic data gathered were of tw9 kinds: precipitation, 

representing the volume of:Supply; and evaporation from observation 

pans, representing the \foate of abstraction of water by the 

atmosphere. 

Rainfall information was obtained principally from U. S. Weather 

Bureau publications. 

Mean areal precipitation (see table 57) was computed by the 

Thiessen method, using perpendicular bisectors, This method 

assumes that the precipitation at any point in the basin during a 

given interval of time is the same as that recorded at the nearest 

rain gage, The accuracy of the computed mean areal precipitation 

depends primarily on the number and distribution of rain gages, and 

secondly, on the characteristics of the distribution of precipitation, 

The number of rain gages used in these studies is listed in table 58. -

The greater density of rain gages in the Lake Okeechobee and 

Everglades area, and the presumed greater accuracy of the gages, 

may be credited to the rain gages installed as part of this investigation, Because of the spotty nature of Florida's rainfall, a large 

number of rain gages are required for detailed determination of 
Table 57.-Weighted average precipitation in [{issirnmee River basin above Okeechobee, by months, computed by the Thiessen method irom rainfallstation records 

ke Wales Dav en port Month (0. OBO) a (0 • 090)a 

1930 

Oct........... 0,93 

Nov........... 2.16 

Dec........... 4.26 

1931 

Jan ............ . Feb ........... . Mar .......... .. 

Apr .......... .. May .......... . 

June .......... . July ........... . Aug .......... .. Sept ......... .. Oct .......... .. Nov .......... .. Dec ........... . 

1932 

3,37 

1.39 

4.51 

4,20 

3,62 

• 99 

6.40 

9,48 

2,30 

2.03 

,05 

l.S3 

Jan............. , B7 

Feb............ .10 Mar........... 2,55 

Apr............ ,38 

May........... 6,53 

June........... B. 61 

July............ 3,46 

Aug............ 9,17 

Sept............ 2.56 

Oct............. 1,25 

Nov............ 1,60 

Dec............ .lB 

1933 

Jan ........... .. Feh ............ . 2,69 

3,72 

See footnotes at end of table. 

1.35 

2.65 

4,60 

2,41 

1,16 

5.1B 

4.94 

3.Bl 

1.B5 

4.37 

8.56 

5,56 

1,63 

• 14 

3,11 

• 61 

• 27 

3.so 

• 74 

4, 98 

7.41 

3,87 

13.01 

2,79 

1,15 

2,'72 

,11 

,94 

2,51 

lslesworth Orlando. Kissimmee Lake Placid 

(0. 063)a (0. 03l)a (0.174)a (0.079~ 

2.20 1.87 2.12 .................. 1.02 .87 1.87 ................... s.oo 4,01 4.09 .................... 

2. 76 2.77 2.71 ............•... 

1,50 .89 .97 ................... 7,02 4.93 4,15 ................... 3.79 5.41 4.51 ................. 3, 34 3,19 2.29 ................. 2,15 • 88 2.57 . .................... B.85 8.33 5.90 ................... 8.51 s. 27 6.S3 .................... 5.96 4.92 3.os ..................... .76 1. 68 1. 60 ................... ,22 .19 • 27 ................ 2,26 3,66 3.so . ................... 

,75 1,52 1.44 ................... .62 .11 ,21 .................... 3,50 3,87 2,91 .................. 1,29 ,26 ,21 ..................... 7.14 9,05 B.16 .................... 10.04 7.85 8,34 ...................... 1,00 3,58 5,51 ...................... 11.76 4.93 B. 77 .................. 3.34 2,67 2.27 ...................... 1.33 ,95 .72 ..................... 4.93 4,93 7.94 ................... ,04 ,lB ,03 .................. 

2,26 2,19 1.53 ...................... 3,47 3,04 3.64 ...................... 

Okeechobee Avon Park Outlet, Weighted total 

Okeechobee 10 mi. wer,t (O.l68)a b ake Kis-

(0. 017) a (0.124)a simmee Month Year {0. 099)a c (0.114)a c (0. 2S3) 

2.12 0,92 2.42 2,27 1.89 .................... l.Bl 1.82 1.25 2.42 1,91 ................. 1,9B 2.81 4.13 3,87 3,94 ................... 

1.97 4,34 3,92 3.B6 3,43 . ................. 1.17 1,23 2.36 1.29 1.40 . ................. 2.9B 4,63 3,75 3.54 4.29 . ............... 7.71 8.37 5,25 6,14 5,58 . .................. 2,59 2,20 6,10 2.72 3,36 . .................. 1.28 2,62 3. 74 .36 1.93 . ................. 2.97 6. 76 il.15 2.31 5,59 . .................. 4,85 4.61 6,37 6.67 6.79 .. ................ 4.75 7,43 7,84 3,82 5,03 ................. 2,42 2,35 2.98 1.57 1,92 . ............... .27 • 25 .18 ,44 .25 .................. 1,97_ 4,35 1.47 2.54 2.72 42,29 

1.14 ,23 .63 .27 .70 

.65 1,73 ··············· .14 0 . 35 .................. 2.03 1,6S 1.99 3,30 2. 75 .................. .73 2.34 2.08 .36 • 97 .. ................... 7.52 10,81 5.95 9.30 8,03 ................. 8. 81 9,30 9. 29 9.06 8.83 ................... 2. 94 4.67 4,68 4,S2 4,32 .................. .., 

12.45 10,60 2. 80 11.45 9,20 

4,08 2,74 4,06 3,73 3,17 . ................. 3,62 2,29 4,50 2.92 2,28 ................. 1,81 1,59 2,48 2. 55 3,50 ................... .11 ,14 • 07 ,10 ,10 44,20 

.71 ,42 1.97 2,47 1.79 ... ................... . 07 2.79 2,35 2,70 2,89 . ............... 
Table 57.-Weighted averB.ge precipitation in I:issimmee River basin above Okeechobee, by months, computed by the Thiessen method from rainfallstation rerords -Continued · 

Month 

1933-con. 

M 

A 

a:r ................ 

pr ............. 

May ............ June ............ July ............ Aug ............ Sept ............ Oct ............. N 

D 

ov •••••••••••• 

ec ...••.....•. 

1934 

J an .•.••.•...... 

F eb ............. Mar ............ 

A pr ............. 

M 

J 

J 

A 

ay ............ 

tme ... ··~········ uly ............ ug ............ 

Sept ............ Oc 

N 

D 

t ............. 

ov ............. 

ec •••••••••••• 

1935 

J an ............... 

F eh ............. Mar 

A 

Ma 

J 

.......... ~···· 

pr ............. 

y ............ nne ..•..•..•..• 

J uly ............ A ug ............ 

s ept. ........... 0:: t ............. 

Lake Wales Davenport 

(0. 080)a (0. 090)a 

1. 29 2.13 

5. 22 3. 07 

4.05 1.68 

5.09 7.19 

10.39 15.74 

7.70 6,52 

17.23 19.25 

2,20 1,92 

1.68 1,06 

.11 ,36 

1.77 .41 

2.73 3.01 

4.71 5.84 

4,34 5.61 

4.11 5.68 

13,23 19.91 

11.76 7.64 

5,97 5.20 

2. 84 3,95 

4. 79 .89 

.53 • 22 

.68 • 79 

.27 .97 • 83 .1. 51 • 35 .30 

4,58 1.56 

5.30 3,51 

5,42 5.13 

7.76 7,14 

4.37 3,96 

9.50 8.74 

1.89 .76 

Islesworth Orlando Kissimmee 

(0. 063)a (0. 031)a (0.174)a 

1,61 2.54 3,81 

3,16 4,33 4.11 

4.32 2.41 4,80 

5.90 8. 20 8.38 

7.85 5.46 13.08 

8, 63 9,18 6,45 

11.50 14.10 14.42 

2,50 3.84 2;82 

1,78 1.72 1.99 • 38 .41 .41 

. 91 1.04 1.37 

4,47 3.37 ·3.25 

3,08 4,33 5, 12 

4.52 4.58 5,96. 

7.80 8,08 8. 70 

15.89 13,35 15.75 

9.24 9.00 7.03 

6. 57 1.27 3.46 

3.80 3,14 4.23 

3,98 1,50 2, 54 • 30 .09 .43 

.48 • 55 • 66 

1.21 1.37 1.43 

3,34 2.79 2.46 

1.45 ,70 1.42 

3,47 2.26 2.78 

4.28 2.42 2. 77 

8.73 2.47 3.38 

9.91 10.13 7.38 

4.54 7.61 4,15 

10.68 9.79 9.96 

5.14 4.07 .60 

Okeechobee Avon Par~ , vut1et, Weighted total 

Lake Placid Okeechobee 10 mi. west (0.168)a ake Kis· 

(0.079)a (0. 017)a (0.124)a b simme;o: Month Year 

(0. 099)ac (0.114)a c (0. 253) 

1.85 2,41 3.41 1.70 0,89 2.08 ···~·········· .. 7.08 8,82 7.35 5.90 4. 73 5.05 . ................. 2.50 3,42 2.16 3.66 3.52 3,42 . ................... 3. 81 2,97 6,65 4.77 7.28 6,53 . .................. 13.87 8,69 19.10 13.78 10.63 12,58 . ................ 7,18 5,95 2.75 6.62 5.19 6,16 . ............... 11.64 13.M 8,59 11.71 15,75 14.09 . ................ 4. 83 2.88 2.47 1.94 3,43 2. 88 . ............... 1. 65 1,63 1.58 3.47 1.17 1.76 . ............... ,03 .35 .18 • 27 • 12 • 23 59.46 

1.94 .76 1,02 1.22 .98 1.16 . ............... 2.62 2,47 2,36 2.80 1, 86 2. 71 ................ 2.96 4,37 2.64 3.58 2. 96 3. 84 . ............... 2.36 4.37 3.23 4,32 4.98 4.64 . .................. 9.01 6,69 7.47 7,15 6.42 7.09 . .................. 9.16 9,48 4.39 10.94 14.91 13.34 ..................... 8.03 6,01 2.99 4.13 3.11 6.00 .................... 5.23 4,41 4.11 4.77 6,74 5.13 •••••e••••••••••• 4.75 6.40 3.87 3,17 3.13 3.69 . .................. 2,13 2,75 ,51 .11 2,1·2 2,02 . ...................... .40 .74 ,82 .93 .81 .58 . ........................ • 50 .71 .64 1,00 .36 .59 50.79 

• 56 ,39 .64 .41 .93 .88 . ................. 1.84 2. 94 1 •. 84 1.15 .63 1.61 .................... 2.14 ,30 ,34 .81 .25 .78 .................. 4.61 11.63 4,47 6,03 4.73 4.17 . ............... 2.56 2,14 1.48 2.87 1.73 2.73 . ................ 6. 64 6,17 4,18 6.87 7.96 5,94 . ..................... 5,47 3,95 6.24 7,13 6.21 6. 97 .................... 9.71 5.54 5.50 9,93 3.66 5.42 .. ................... 11.00 6,49 10.40 11.35 7,39 9.42 . .................. 3.85 9.24 7.18 2.99 2. 79 2.99 . ........................ 

Ul 

...... 

co 
Nov •••••••.••• .64 1. 77 • 72 .85 . 79 1,00 .72 1,66 1.05 • 81 1.09 . ................. Dec ••••••••••• 2. 71 3.49 3.28 4.81 3.33 2.89 1.95 1,47 2,39 2.58 2.80 44.80 

"' .. 1936 

&l Jan •••••••••••• 2.28 2.86 4. 04 4.11 2.07 3,13 1.11 2.35 4. 83 3,93 3.24 .................... ~ Feb •••••••••••• 8. 72 6,08 7.65 6, 29 6,64 7,12 6.58 6,28 8,35 7.49 7,20 .................. 0 Mar •••••••••••• 4,49. 4,30 3.20 2. 90 4,31 3,80 2.70 1. 94 5,52 3,71 3,90 .................. ..,. I Apr .••••••••••• .13 1,16 .47 1.58 1.58 2.56 1.16 • 69 1. 67 1,45 1.32 . ................... May ........... 3.98 5. 27 8.56 3;58 6,40 4, 23 5,32 4,99 2,59 4.17 4,81 "' .................. I June ........... 11.18 9.65 8. 97 11,28 7.30 10.53 11.58 10.07 10.87 4.51 8.35 ................. I July ........... 2,38 4.81 5.76 2.63 4.01 5,82 8.54 4.58 6. 88 6,46 5.22 ..................... "' ..,. Aug ........... 6.41 3,00 4. 8ti 4.95 4.81 6.71 5. 77 3,50 7.99 4.84 5. 20 ................ Sept ........... 5.77 4,17 4,77 5,81 2.67 6,99 6.24 5,96 9,99 10.49 6.C2 ................... Oct ............ 4,64 4.11 3,62 5. 07 3.42 3.58 2,00 2. 79 3.87 2. 73 3.44 . ................ Nov ............ 1,05 1.64 1.85 2. 21 1.20 1. 65 2.19 2.58 1.07 1,08 1,45 . ................. Dec ............ 1.24 • 83 1.00 1.77 1.12 1.32 1.67 .93 2,14 1.21 1.24 52.19 

1937 "' c: Jan. ............ .44 • 01 • 50 ,97 • 51 .90 .90 1,15 2.63 1,01 .95 ................... Feb ............ 5.52 6,13 4,95 5,00 4,83 4. 63 2,03 2.83 5.13 5.27 4.88 .................... ~ Mar ............ 4.20 2.60 3.37 2.97 4.53 3,47 3,49 4.36 3,31 2,43 3,41 ................. n Apr ............ 6.38 3,71 2.45 3.78 3.61 3.31 5.21 3,05 4,06 4.92 4.10 I"' . ................ May. ........... 2.19 • 97 3.75 4,47 1.96 .10 1.53 1,01 1,65 3.16 2.12 . .................. June ........... 4,51 4,48 6.74 5.22 3.77 6,35 6,23 5,50 4,70 4,09 4,72 ................... ~ July ............ 9. 75 4,78 6, 77 5.14 8.43 6.98 6,38 5,48 5,29 7.05 6,84 . ................. ;;\ 

Aug ............ 9.87 7.19 9.95 13.14 11.34 4,00 4.30 4.20 6.27 5,22 7.30 :a •-co•••··········· Sept ........... 4.71 5.27 4.91 9.37 3.29 3,13 6.40 7.15 6.47 9,23 6.16 .. .................. Oct. ........... 4.06 7,31 5.65 4.55 8.Hi 1.88 5.59 3,32 6.47 10,90 6.98 . ................ Nov ........... 6.67 5.49 3.59 3.67 3.75 6,06 8.27 6,75 5,44 3.52 4,81 .. ................... Dec ............ 1.52 .98 1,23 . 82 .70 .31 • 63 ,78 ,87 • 82 • 85 53,12 

1938 

Jan ............ 1.65 . 77 1.13 ,73 • 64 .10 1,45 2.09 1.44 1.75 1.24 ... ............... Feb ............ 1,14 . 79 • 37 . 81 . 61 .78 1. 08 • 54 1.43 2.12 1.14 . .................. Mar ............ 1. 69 2.72 2. 51 1. 74 1.98 • 73 1.43 .55 1.45 1,38 1.56 .. ............... Apr ............ .53 ,19 ,03 ,34 .34 2.92 .55 0 ,42 1.48 • 79 . ............... May ........... 5,38 6,88 9, 29 6. 30 5,73 2,38 2.02 2.89 3,43 4.83 4,95 . .................... June ........... 6.39 3.51 3.89 4.49 3,89 6.55 10.46 9,11 4,64 8,12 6.13 . ......... ,.. ....... July ........... 9. 59 5, 67 7.15 9.70 8.84 12.77 10.08 12.61 8,13 12,46 10.08 . ................ Aug ............ 4.65 3.85 4.09 4.36 3.37 • 85 1. 27 3,39 4,24 4.98 3.87 . ................ Sept ........... 6.68 4,57 5.77 5.30 1.90 4,18 7.17 5,88 2.81 5.49 4. 53 . ............... See footnotes at end of table, 0\ 

... 

(0 
Table 57.-Weighted averai{e precipitation in Kissimmee River basin above Okeechobee, by months, computed by the Thiessen method from rainfallstation recoros-Continued 

Okeechobee jAvon Park Outlet, Weighted total 

Month Lake Wales Davenport Isles worth Orlando Kissimmee Lake Placid Okeechobee 10 mi. west (0.168)a b akeKis-

(0. OBO)a (0. 090)a (0. 063)a (0, 031)a (O.l74)'l (0. 079)a {0. 017}'l (0.124)a b simmee Month Year (0. 099)ac {0.114)ac (0. 253)" 

1938 Con. 

Oct ............ 8.36 4.27 3.87 3,88 4.27 4.29 5,06 3,42 6.44 4.40 4.75 . ................... Nov ........... 1. 24 1.30 .63 1.49 .80 1.90 2.42 1.60 2.50 1,97 1.59 ....................... Dec ••••••••••• .18 • 05 .33 .30 .08 .08 • 32 0 .19 0 .09 40.72 

1939 

Jan, ........... 1.19 1. 01 1.29 1.21 .97 • 75 • 23 .19 1.52 1.00 • 98 . ................. Feb ............ 1.32 .24 .31 • 35 ,41 1,11 ,23 • 25 1,20 .28 • 55 ................... Mar ........... 1.00 1,19 .65 1.75 1,80 1.40 2. 60 1. 77 1.34 1. 62 1.48 . ................. Apr ............ 3,81 3,99 4.76 4.97 5.99 5.34 6.36 5.15 4.66 5.73 5,17 ................ May ........... 5.09 8.10 3,71 4.87 3.34 8.15 8.48 6.63 5,85 4.29 5.17 ................ June ........... 14.23 18.10 12.22 15.64 14.09 4.73 7,21 5.92 7.91 6.28 10.04 . ................. July ........... 7.32 7.59 10.30 6.34 10,08 8.21 7,93 7.25 8.22 3.56 7.34 . ...................... Aug ........... 14.36 13.12 14.89 8.90 11,01 8.48 8.95 12.04 19.85 9.09 12.05 . ................. Sept. .......... 5. 02 5,12 5.06 5.24 4.61 7.84 5.38 9.68 6.22 5.44 5.89 . ................. Oct ............ 1,92 1. 69 1. 27 1.67 1.18 2.22 4.10 2.39 4.63 2.96 2.41 ..................... Nov ........... .86 -.48 ,33 .39 .50 1.37 2.59 1.47 .50 .82 .so ................. Dec ........... .66 1.14 1.10 1.09 • 87 • 74 2.14 .98 .61 ,29 .74 52.62 

1940 

Jan. ........... 6.11 2.68 1.94 2.14 2.31 2.83 4. 74 4.33 3,83 4.05 3.51 ..................... Feb ............ 4.29 3,77 3.59 2. 89 3,28 3.48 2,30 2, 51 3.66 4,12 3,59 ................... Mar ........... 4.01 3, 24 3.13 4,23 4.91 4.29 5,86 4.88 3,58 4,43 4.24 .................... Apr ............ 2,52 1.93 2.22 4.44 2,19 ...................... 2,05 .95 1.54 1. 77 1.89 . .................... May ........... ,72 1.41 2.55 1.72 .97 .................. 4,97 4.34 5.30 • 75 2.27 . ................. June· ........... 5.36 7.65 8;37 6. 67 4.34 6,42 7,25 3.63 8.43 3,01 5,33 . .................. July ........... 9,04 6.66 8.09 10.14 12.01 8,21 6.10 11.86 11.76 6.37 9.14 . .................. Aug ........... 7.76 5.04 4. 73 8,{)4 9.22 7.57 4,23 6.65 4,02 5,58 6,42 .................... Sept ........... 7.60 9.55 4,5S 7.35 5.44 8.94 10.22 14.33 9.94 5,33 7.72 .................. Oct ............ 1,28 1,22 ,03 .37 .74 .42 ,30 1, 50 .68 1,36 ,96 . ................ Nov ........... .06 .19 • 22 .22 .09 .-0 0 ,16. .10 ,03 ,09 ·····••t••••••• 

Dec ........... 3.16 5,98 5. 62 5.81 4.08 5,04 4.95 5.51 4.43 3.79 4.47 49.63 

1941 

Jan. ........... 4.15 3,95 5,07 4,69 4.85 .................... 5.32 4.46 4.01 3.69 4.24 . ............... Feb ............ 4,31 4.04 3,59 4,16 3.86 ..................... 3,62 3.64 3,02 4,87 3,98 . ................ Mar ........... 2.80 3.06 3.60 2.47 3.81 .................... 2,45 2.98 2.92 3,12 3.16 ..................... 
Apr ............ 6.35 7,18 4.76 5.53 5.31 5,30 4.90 6,90 4.73 7.83 6.25 . ................... May •••••••••• .81 1.43 1.76 2. 73 2,71 1.'16 .90 1,25 1,04 .83 2,06 . ................... June ••••••••••• 9.90 1.74 9.67 8,18 11.61 12,12 3,83 9.81 9.52 9.09 9.76 . ................... july ••••••••••• 10.17 11,87 14.50 9.44 13.88 11.53 12.82 12.19 15.20 8.02 11.59 . ................... Allg ••••••••••• 2.44 6,15 3.58 6,46 3. 76 3.78 2.24 3,16 3.ll 4.68 4.01 . ................. Sept ••••••••••• 4.44 5,23 5.32 4.76 4,33 ...................... 3.90 7.63 4.89 6,12 5.46 .. ................. Oct •••••••••••• 2,66 3.23 2.71 5.33 2.96 4.19 6,95 6.00 2.62 4.04 3.77 . ..................... Nov ........... 2.87 3,38 4.57 3,61 3.31 3.14 1.95 1.99 2.49 3.63 3.29 . .. ,.. ............... Dec ........... 5.18 4. 83 2.26 2.29 2.71 .. ..................... 4.54 5.80 1,98 3,24 3.47 61.04 

1942 

Jan. ........... 2.58 2.32 2.22 2,32 2.40 ................... 1. 55 3,03 4,48 2.31 2.79 .................... Feb ............ 3.48 3.51 2.95 3,03 2. 61 7. 25 4.30 6,14 4.12 4, 06 3.92 .................... Mar ........... 5, 71 6,38 5.36' 5.83 7.51 3.60 3.97 4.80 3,86 3,41 4,99 .................... Apr "' ............ 2,73 2.52 1.81 2.32 2,67 3.11 2.27 2.08 2.67 2.23 2.46 . ................. !ii 

May ........... 3.26 2.61 1.31 1.11 1.40 5.44 2.67 2.22 6,43 1.40 2.63 ................... "'I 

June ........... 8.28 11.24 12.47 10.57 14.59 6,92 13,35 8.88 8.52 9.49 10.36 .. ..................... f; 

july ........... 5.43 9.97 6.98 2.01 1.68 9.34 4.65 4.88 8.76 4.95 5. 67 .................. 1'1 

Aug ........... 3.88 3.51 5.03 6.71 5.65 4.99 2,53 .79 5.19 5,04 4,52 ..................... -~ Sept, .......... 6.18 5.70 6,23 4.17 4.21 9,26 5,10 5.38 5,37 5,58 5,62 .................. Oct. ........... .42 ,06 .40 ,24 .36 .42 .70 .30 ,13 1,40 • 57 ...................... ~ Nov .. ; ........ • 25 .11 .17 .12 .11 .33 .49 0 . 0 ,16 .14 .................... Dec ........... 4,36 2.79 2.67 2.80 2.31 2,20 2.45 1. 57 3.54 1,56 2.42 46.09 "' 

1943 

Jan ............ .81 1, 69 1.97 1,61 1,41 1,93 0 • 20 1.21 1.63 1,35 .................... Feb ............ .75 ,54 • 73 ,57 .45 ,38 .85 .78 .46 ,40 • 53 ................... Mar ........... 4,77 4,34 5,02 4,52 5,39 5.41 4.60 6,02 4.94 3,81 4.80 . ..................... Apr,, .......... .92 1,66 2.21 1,60 2,52 2,10 .10 1.20 1.69 2,47 1.99 ................. May ........... 6,34 5.74 3.14 4,83 3,04 5,30 4.90 3.26 8,83 4,28 4.82 ................ Jtme ........... 5.83 9,25 8.30 3,66 2,34 6,62 2.26 3.51 5. 76 6.75 5. 62 ................ July ........... 11.17 11.13 8.80 9.08 11,13 6.81 6.77 6.99 7.86 13.00 10.20 ................ Aug ........... 7,72 5.13 5.83 7.50 7,90 11.49. 8.20 10.78 10,02 5.63 7.73 .................. Sept ........... 3,07 5.98 10.17 11.66 3.18 8.42 4.00 8.54 3.98 5,34 5.73 .................. Oct, ........... 2,62 1,40 1.50 2.56 2.47 6.33 3,60 3,58 4,35 3,36 3.20 .................. Nov ........... .50 ,39 1.12 • 77 1.07 1.19 3.67 1.35 1,32 1.16 1.08 .................. Dec, ........... .37 • 53 1.59 1.04 .60 .35 .-26 .45 .59 .24 • 51 47.56 

1944 

Jan. ........... .82 1,13 2.06 1.92 1.17 ,90 .44 • 80 1.25 1.02 1.12 ................ Feb ............ .36 ,31 ,34 • 05 .21 ,55 • 25 0 • 79 ,39 • 35 .................... 01 

See footnotes at end of table. N 

... 
Table 57.-ll'eighted average precipitation in l~issimmee River basin above Okeechobee, by months, computed by the Thiessen method from rainfall~ 

station records-Continued 

Okeechobee Avon Park Outlet, Weighted total 

Month lake Wale• Davenport Isles worth Orlando Kissimmee lake Placid Okeechobee 10 mi. west (0.168)a b !Lake Kis 

(0. 080)a (0. 090)a (0. 063)a (0. 031)a (0.174)a (0, 079)a (0. 017)a (0.124)a b (0.114)a c simmee Month Year (0. 099)ac (0. 253)8 

1944-Con. 

Mar ............ 3.74 6.71 5,50 4,31 6,61 1,72 1,87 1.71 4,25 4.34 4.45 ... ..................... Apr ............. 2,51 1,07 2,59 2.31 2.79 3.01 6,98 6.97 5,73 5.85 4,20 . ................ May ............ 4.90 ,92 3.11 2.83 1,28 1,03 2.72 3.29 2,07 1,25 2, 00 ... ................ June ............ 8,28 10.02 7.11 6,43 6,46 4.56 5,02 4.94 7,39 9,26 7,45 . ................. July ............ 9,08 7.09 21.49 11.04 7.05 7.29 3.98 5.08 11.17 6,59 8,38 . ................ Aug ............ 9.66 11,33 6,65 5.39 5. 51 8.78 4,56 8.21 6,42 5,01 6.92 ................ Sept ............ 1.73 6.54 5. 96 4.52 3,87 3,76 3,14 1.98 3,39 5,96 4,37 ................... Oct ............. 5.82 9.89 8.87 8.53 8,07 3.51 7,03 6,87 4,45 6,25 6.75 ................. Nov ............ • 25 • 23 /. 24 .11 .14 .64 • 25 .26 ,26 • 72 .37 ................... Dec ............ .14 .12 .09 0 ,18 .93 .14 .43 . 51 .77 .42 46.78 

1945 

Jan ............. 3,63 4,23 3.93 3,86 3.35 1.11 1,61 1.62 1,95 2.03 2,63 . ................ Feb ............ ,09 .09 .18 .11 ,19 • 29 ,25 .20 .• 03 . 36 .19 . ................... Mar ............ ,38 .46 ,92 ,54 .43 ,05 1.90 1.90 .40 • 15 • 53 .................. Apr ............. .94 1,59 1.03 1,47 2,76 3,52 4.29 5.14 1,61 • 12 1,88 . ................ ,.. 

May ........... .75 .78 1.76 2,93 . 55 3.90 1,47 1.81 2.45 1,04 1,48 ................ June ........... 21.29 18.44 15.02 13.70 17,13 9.82 5. 04 10.30 14,09 14,11 14.78 ................. July ............ 13.30 13,60 12,24 7. 06 5.86 9.31 4,78 6.48 14.48 7.15 9.21 .................. Aug ............ 4,29 7.85 6.19 5.28 3,25 3,84 5,37 5,86 2,79 4. 79 4.67 . ................. Sept ........... 8,50 10,77 11.11 15.87 9.41 12.13 11.32 13.04 8.43 11.67 10.84 

Oct ··············- ............. 3,30 5, 60 2.19 1. 61 3. 01 6,17 5.17 3,81 5.94 4.17 4.17 ................. Nov ............ 1,25 .87 .50 1.00 ,98 ,99 1.31 1.42 ,49 2.21 1. 27 .................. Dec ............ 1,90 3.46 3.32 2,52 3.21 2,52 ,90 3.47 2,00 1,60 2,50 54.15 

1946 

Jan ............. 1,33 1.24 1,70 2.24 1,69 2.02 1,48 • 75 1,14 ,90 1,31 .................. Feb ............. 3,69 3,62 3,43 2,96 3.07 2,02 1,02 2.73 2,11 2,97 2,91 ................... Mar ............ 1.43 1.24 1,64 1,15 1,60 .53 1,34 3.68 1.08 ,80 1.38 .................. Apr ............. • 09 • 52 • 68 • 81 .58 • 27 .02 .17 • 20 ,30 .37 

May ·····~·········· ........... 10.49 6,48 7.88 4.24 5,72 5,81 5,59 10.40 6,03 5,76 6.79 .................. June ............ 7.25 10,97 5.50 7.78 5,30 4,92 7,51 8.94 8,02 4,36 6.50 ................... July ............ 5,89 9.78 10.25 8.57 9. 91 4,78 4.99 9.19 9,88 11.72 9,46 ................... Aug ............ 5,20 7.31 8,24 10.06 7.80 3,76 3.75 3.83 6,04 8.71 6,90 . ................ Sept ............ 3,60 3.95 7.00 7.75 7,43 5,34 7,16 6.67 8,09 6,54 6,39 .................. 
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Oct ••••••••••••• 2.67 2.11 2.58 3,32 

Nov •••••••••••• 1.33 .97 1.04 .97 

Dec ............ . 83 1.89 2.34 .28 

aProportional weights assigned to precipitation. Sum equals unity. 

bThrougb February 1933. 

L. 92 1.99 1. 86 1.92 

1,75 2.63 1, 50 2.71 

.98 • 50 1.23 .99 

cBeginning March 1933. 

dused for months of April and May 1940; January, February, March, September, December, 1941; and January 1942. 

eR ec ord at Lake Alfred, June -De ce mb er 1946. 

fRecord at Orlando Airport, May 1944 to December 1946. 

4.74 1.93' 2.58 . ............. 2. 06 .44 1.45 . ................. 1. 31 1.05 1.15 47.19 
524 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUI'HEASTER.N FLORIDA 

Table 58,---Number of raing81ifes used todetennine precipitation in given drain~J4e basins 

Loc:ation Number of Area Square miles 

rain gages (Square miles) per rain gage 

Kissimmee River,,, ....................... alO 3,260 326 

Lake Okeechobee ......................... as 800 160 

Everglades area ............................ a2o 3,900 195 

Florida (average for State) .............. bus 54,861 461 

aSubsequent to June 1940, 

bAs published by U. S. Weather Bureau in 1946 climatological summary, 

rainfall distribution. Rains of appreciable duration seldom occur; 

however, during the rainy season, showers of high intensity and 

narrow width pass across the peninsula at varying speed. Possibly 

of equal importance is the inadequacy of using mean areal precip~ 

itation in studies of rainfall and runoff relations over relatively 

large areas. For example, a heavy rainfall over the more saturated 

areas will produce a larger volume of runoff than it will over the 

relatively absorbent area. 

An evaporation pan has been maintained by the Soil Conservation 

Service and the Florida Experiment Station at Belle Glade since 

1924. It is a standard Weather Bureau Class A land pan (Kadel, 

1919) and is the oldest in the region for which early records are 

available. Measurements from four sunken pans in the vicinity of 

Lake Okeechobee were begun by the Corps of Engineers in 1937. 

During the period 1940-46, 10 evaporation stations were in operation in the area. A compilation of selected evaporation records, 

including a description of the pans, is given in tables 8, 9, and 10. 

For a discussion of the regional climatologic characteristics, see 

the section on Climate. · 

KISSIMMEE RIVER BASIN 

EXPLANATION OF METHODS 

SEPARATION OF DIRECT AND BASE FLOW 

Base flow is the gradually varying or sustained component of 

streamflow, It responds slowly to seasonal rainfall, and on it are 

superimposed relatively abrupt peaks, closely associated with 

periods of rainfall, which represent direct runoff. Rivers, lakes, 

swamps, and ground water in southern Florida merge to such an 

extent that it is impossible to ascribe particular sources for base 

and direct f~ow, and the distinction between them, which is at times 

obscure, is one of time-characteristics, 

The separation of direct and base flow has been approximated 

graphically by plotting a hydrograph of daily mean discharges for 

each year of record. On these graphs the daily precipitation at one 
0 

::1 I I I I . I . I I . I . I . !I . I . I . ::I 

::1 ~ I . . I . . I . . I ; I : I . . I : I ·. I : I i : I r I . ·~·1 ... ~ . ~ , . y • ' . ,_,: 4200 

z 

0 

<> 

"'2600 "' 

~ .. 

-~ 2-400-

~ 0 2..200 iii 

1l 

,.; 

.. 

"' <( 1800 3: 

" " Q 

1600 

1400 

1200 

1000 

- Ci:-~ 

~I 

~ I r-t_l ~ 

""" ~ 

Rolol•ll_~. rl ol Kissimmee, .... -lull-ll---r ~;-----;-!-

Roirrlall •I A 'I' an PGrk~ 

__L ~ -[ ··~,, 

/ \-,.,......,""""""'•' 

~ !----~ 

~ f'\ r"--.. 

~----- ______ ",j_ 

\ \ 

" 

\~ / \ h 

; \ 

' \1 \Ll I I 

i ' ' J ' ' 

Hd-~~-~ -~-tl~l- -~~ - 1].-'_\ 

\ . ' 

·-

J ~---;- [.~--:-~- 1+--j '! l ll~ u 

'.' 

i. 

,r '~I ,.::..._Esti!"MMIed bose flow 

/ I I 

~- ~---~~ 

800 JG.n. Fib. Mor. Apr. Mo.f .lurut July Aug. Sept. Oct. . ~"· D1-c. Jart.. 

~7 ·~ 

Figure 150. -Hydrograph of Kissimmee River ner Okeechobee, 1937. 
526 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

1100 - ---+----· ·-

1---- -

1000- -1---- ---

----+---. 

900 ------ --- +----+--

~ ------ ---· 

s 800 

t> 

w 

..J ----· 

"' "' 

z 700 0 

0 

_____ J 

--- --- -------I---

--I---- --t-- - +----- .. -

+--f----+-+-+----+- --- _ _.. x 

.;{ 

---1----1---- - )' 

-+----11-+--+-t---- -~ - - ----

-1----f---· 0- --- --- ---- ----~-k/·. 

z 

0 --- -------

Ill -- ~~y+--+--+--+- ~ 600 

.. "' 

.... 

w 

"' 

~ 5oo----

+ '/.:• #.# i-

--+---+--+- { ~~ ~---r---

··-·--

lli 

" 0 -------

_:_~&<t' ------- -

-+-+---+-f-- .,L ~~"' --- -/ "''<) 

--

;;:; i 400-- --- ----

!i 

~ 5 300f--- -- ----f--- - --b/ 

--_,~ 

100 ---e-f---

-- --r---

- -- --+--- EXPLANATION 0 !93~ 

• 1933 

+ 1935 

--1----

----- -- ··-- • 1938 ---+----+-----1--

_____ , ______ _ ------ -------

-----t--

c~-L~~o~o~~~zo~o~+-~3o~o~~~4o~o~L-~soSo~L-~soo~-L~roso~L-~eo~o~L-s~o~o-L_~~ooo 

DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND, 5 OAYS AFTER SELECTED OAYS 

Figute 151. -Lower part of depletion rating c:utve, Kissimmee River near Okeechobee. 

or two places in the basin has also been plotted. Figure 150 is a 

sample of such a hydrograph. 

The basic method was originally described by Houk (1921, p. 165) 

and later by Meinzer and Stearns (1929, p. 107-116). 

The depletion hydrograph, prepared from a study of the decline 

in stream discharge during rainless periods, is a useful guide for 

the separation of base flow. However, long rainless periods with 

an accompanying uninterrupted decline of base flow from high to 

low flows seldom occur in humid regions, and it is generally necessary to build up a depletion rating curve using segments of hydrographs covering different rainless periods. In selecting these segments of hydrographs, care is exercised to allow sufficient time 

after rainfall for all direct runoff to be discharged from the basin. 

In the Kissimmee River basin 10 days was allowed. Having selected 

hydrograph segments representing apparently normal depletion, 

discharge at a given time was plotted as ordinate against' discharge 
SURFACE WATER 527 

IO,ODO;-----,...-----,...-----,---------,...-----,...------, 

9000 ---··-·--·-··. ··-------··· 

8 000 f-----1-

7000 -------+--

----4-------

·-------+-- . -----t--- ·----

:~~~ ... =...- -··-+------ --t-------

···--

-·-··-

4000 --\·- +------+--

3000 ~ ----+----+-------t-··· -~···----

r' ~~~ r u 'ooo r-·- '- .. -------- -- ~ 9001----- ------"k;------f- ------+---------

~ 800 --·-· ---+"----' ....... ---·-··· -----··· ····----·--···---- ?£ 700 f-----~- . -----t-----r. -----+--~--- ------t---- -

'3 GOO ---1------- -~ 

i ::t-r----------···-_·-----+c--------·- ------+--- . '~,=-

300 1-------+- .. \ 

zoo-- ···----

I000~-----5~0------,~00-------,5L0------20L0-----25L0-----~300 

DAYS 

Figure 152. -Average depletion hydrograph, Kissimmee River near Okeechobee. 

5 days iater as abscissa. A number of points were thereby defined 

and an average depletion rating curve drawn giving more weight t"o 

those points plotting to the right, as it is believed that points that 

are plotted inconsistently to the left might represent direct flow. 

The lower portion of this curve is shown in figure 151. From this 

depletion rating curve a depletion hydro graph was readily prepared 

by plotting the depletion discharges at 5-day intervals as obtained 

from the curve (see fig. 152). 

The depletion hydro graph so derived was an important aid in locating the position of the graph of base flow on the basis that segments of -the observed hydrograph that conform with the depletion 
528 WA TEl\ RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLOIIIDA 

hydrograph represent base flow, For example, see figure 150. 

The depletion hydrograph (used as a template) was placed along a 

recession limb of the discharge hydrograph, and a line was drawn 

to coincide with the lower part of the recession. This line was then 

extended upward, The difference between the extended depletion 

hydrograph and the total flow is presumed to represent drainage 

occurring as direct runoff. A point on the extended depletion hydrograph, generally 10 days after the end of rainfall, was selected as 

the peak of base flow. This point was then connected, usually by 

a straight line, with the base flow line at the beginning of the rise, 

There is considerable uncertainty about base flow during flood 

periods, and the longer the stream remains at flood stage the 

greater the uncertainty, During flood, the flow from ground water 

into the streams or drainage channels may be checked or even 

reversed because the water level of the streams is likely to be 

higher than the adjacent water table. On the other hand, floods are 

also periods of ground-watc:;r recharge by direct downward percolation to the water table; therefore, the net effect is problematical. 

BASE STORAGE 

The depletion hydrograph, representing drainage from ground 

water, swamps, and lakes during long rainless periods of no re6000 

--t---+---t---··- -------- .. 

----+---+------------- / 

--+-------t----- ---+--·--- ~/~---+------1 

4000 -- ---+----t---- --- ------- -- --... 

7000 

5000I-----I-

~ 3000 ~------,+ .. ------------- ---+---+----+--------.., L ~ 2000 /v '------

a //~/-

i v i3 1000 -------- -------,>""-J----+---+----+---+---+- 980000 -------- -·· /-~-- ----+-----t-----1 

"' "' <I 

"' 

/ -- ------+----+---+--+-----1 700 f------1¥ ---+---+----+----t---+ ---...... _ ----------+-----1 600 1----/-++ ----··---·- ----'--+-------1 

500 t------+--+-

400 I 

300 .... j_ . ._ . 1-------+----+---t-·---- -+-----1----+------

BASE STORAGE, IN INCHES 

Figure 153. -Relation between rate of base flow and base storage, Kissimmee River near Okeechobee. 
6000 

~60 0 

5200 

"' 4800 

>- ..; 

Q 

Q 

1- "' 

0 

"' ..J 

"' Ul 

z 

Q 

ci 

z 

4400 

4000 

8 3600 

"' Ul 

"' "' CL 3200 

1-

"' "' ... 

0 2800 

iii 

::::> 

0 

z 

.... 2400 

u. 

0 

z 

::::> 

"' 2000 1-

0 

"' "' 0 1600 u. 

0 

1- "' 

<( 

"' 1200 

800 

400 

+ 

I 

I. 

l.., 

I 

+ 1/. . .,I l• 

I 

SURFACE WATER 

I 

I 

1/ 

I 

I 

I 

v 

I 

I 

I 

I 

1/ 

/ 

• I 

I 

:; 

I 

I . 

EXPLANATION 

e Mardi 1931 

• September 1932 

+ October to N0118mber 1935 

o March to April 1936 

>< October to November 1937 

.. December 1937 0 

0 400 $00 1200 1600 2000 2400 2600 

RATE OF DIRECT RUNOFF, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND, 

5 OAYS AFTER SELECTED DAYS 

529 

I 

-

~ 

-

3200 

Figure 154. -Recession rating curve of direct rW1off, Kissimmee River near Okeechobee. 
530 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

charge, is a hydrograph of discharge from the water bodies maintaining base flow. The rate of this drainage is an indication of the 

rate at which storage in those water bodies is being depleted, and 

the rate of drainage, as well as storage, decreases with time. 

Therefore, it seems appropriate to associate rate of drainage with 

that part of the storage yet remaining that will appear as runoff. 

This has been done by pbtting values of ordinates to the depletion 

hydrograph against the area under the graph to the right of the 

ordinate. Figure 153 shows the base-:storage curve, as it is called, 

for the Kissimmee River basin, with the volumes of storage expressed in inches. 

DIRECT·RUNOFF STORAGE 

A recession hydrograph for direct runoff, representing water 

generally in transit during and soon after the cessation of rainfall. 

was prepared in a manner similar to the depletion hydrograph, 

Direct runoff is the ordinate between the base-flow line and the 

hydrograph of total discharge (fig. 150). Only points on the recession limb of the hydrograph were used. In preparing the normal 

10,000 ,---.,.---,--r-"r"""T",-r-r-r-----,--,--,--..,.-r-r...,-T"'' 

~-----+---+-~-4-~~-+-t------

8 000 e-------=~:·--~--~:~ :~--~f- - -~ -~~:~~ ~- ~-~ -~=-b;±~ :· ~ ·- 6000~---4--~--+---~- ~-+-r~------+----+--~~~-~~ 

0 5000 -------------- -- -·-·-----+---+-- -1---+--+-+-+-+-------- - /~ ___ J __ -+--

§ 4000 / 

<I> 30001--------- ------·-··---- +---- '---'- ··- --- --------·-·-··-- ---t--+--+-+-1 

~ , 000 ------+-----~--+-~--+-~+--1-+v-- __ ___ ------+----+--+-+-H~ ~ ~~ 

B ,V 

=- 1000~~==-====~====~==+==t~~'=t~~======+===~===t==~t=~~ g 8oo 1------------ f--··-+------lf--/-7fv'---4----l-+~+---------+-- ----+--~-4--~~--+-l 

;:;) / ~ 6oo - - -----+---+7

_____,.+-+-+-+---l--l-l-----+--+-+-+-++-+-H ~ 500~-------~-~--~--+--+-+-+~~----

- 400 ~ 

~ / ~ 300 ---/---~-r--~r--+--+-+-+-~+-------+----+--~~-+-+~~ 

!::i 

"' 200 ·v 

0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0 

I 100~--~~-~--~~~~~~-----~----~--L_~J_~~ .01 .02 .03 ,04 .05 .06 .OS .10 

DIRECT-RUNOFF STORAGE, IN INCHES 

Figure 155. -Direct-runoff storage, Kissimmee River near Okeechobee. 
SURFACE WATER 531 

recession graph (see fig. 154), preference was given to hydrograph 

segments showing the most rapid rate of drainage; those few hydrographs that declined so rapidly as to be indicative of drainage that 

occur;,s in only parts of the drainage basins were disregarded. 

A storage curve of direct runoff (see fig. 155) was constructed 

in the same manner as the base-storage curve described in the 

preceding paragraphs. 

ANNUAL RUNOFF ANALYSES 

The runoff of the Kissimmee River basin (3, 260 square miles), 

a,s measured at the gaging station near Okeechobee, represents 

about 65 percent of the inflow to Lake Okeechobee. The general 

characteristics of the basin as they affect the runoff are described 

in the previous section, 

The average annual rainfallfor the period 1931-46 is 49.54 in., 

and the mean deviation from the average is 4, 6 in. (9. 3 percent of 

the average). During this period the annual runoff ranged from 

3, 52 in. in 1932 to 11.86 in. in 1934 (table 61), and the average 

annual runoff is 7. 13 in, The mean deviation from the average is 

1. 98 in., 28 percent of the average, in comparison with a 9-percent 

mean deviation in precipitation, illustrating the relatively greater 

fluctuation in runoff. 

For the 12-year period 1935-46, annual runoff of the Kissimmee 

River averaged 6. 87 in,, broken down as follows: Runoff of Kissimmee River below the outlet of Lake Kissimmee (1, 850 square 

miles), 6. 98 in.; runoff of Istokpoga Canal near Cornwell (660 

square miles), 8, 06 in.; and runoff from the 750-square mile intervening area just above the gaging station near Okeechobee, only 

5, 52 in. This reflects in large part the lesser amount ofrainfall 

in the lower part of the basin. 

Annual runoff of the Kissimmee River, in inches, has been 

plotted against mean areal rainfall, as shown on figure 156, As a 

partial explanation of the scattering of the points there has been 

indicated, next to each plotted point, the rate of estimated base 

flow, in second-feet, at the close of the preceding year, as an index 

of moisture conditions then prevailing. This study shows that the 

volume of annual runoff is much affected, not only by the amount 

of precipitation representing the supply but also by antecedent 

moisture conditions, A correlation analysis showed that annual 

runoffequalsapproximatelyO, 51 (0. 7 P0 + 0. 3P1)- 18. 32, in which 

P 0 is the total precipitation of the current year and P 1 is the precipitation during the preceding year. The same study showed that 

precipitation during the second preceding year had virtually little, 

if any, influence, The distribution of precipitation among the 
532 

70 

60 

(/) 

UJ 

::t 

(,) 

z 

~50 

J 

...J 

it 

z 

a 

0: 

...J 

<( 

:;:) 

z 

z 

<( 

40 

30 

WATER RESOURCES IN SOU"IHEASTERN FLORIDA 

--

1150 X 

f---· X / 765 

/ 

1660 1510" / 

" 1260 y X 

904 / 1630 _-.,.~~~ 0 ,..., ~ .. 0 

<ft~ ,... 1590 

~~~1040 0 

\O~ ~"' 12"so 2890 .,,, 2260° 

v~\9'~ 13~0 

.... . ·-·- --1---

0 

780 

o-2440 

0 2260 

·-·· ··~ 

f;XPLANATION 

Figures indicate base flow in secondfeet on Dec. 31 of preceding year 

X 

Yoortin which bose flow at end of 

year was higher than at begiMing 

0 Years in which bose flow ot end of 

yeor wos lower fhan at beginning 

·-

0 2.5 50 75 10.0 12.5 15 0 17.5 

ANNUAL RUNOFF, IN INCHES 

Figute 156. -Annual rainfall-rwtoff relation, Kissimmee R1ver near Okeechobee. 

seasons, also an important factor, is best studied by the preparation 

of r.ainfall-runoff diagrams by months. 

Base flow, as listed in table 59, averages 88 percent of the 

total runoff. Comparison of this ratio with that for the adjo'ining 

Peace Creek basin illustrates the effect of terrain upon streamflow. 

Peace Creek, draining a relatively narrow valley, discharges only 

62 percent of its runoff as base flow. 
Table 59,-!':fonthly runoff analyses, l~issimmee River near Okeechobee, 1930- #5 

Total Discharge at Base flow at Base storage Direct-runoff Direct-runoff RainfalL Evaporation 

Month runoff end of month Base runoff end of month at end of month Direct-runoff discharge at storage at end (from table 56, (from Belle 

(inches) (cfs) (inches) (cfs) (inches) (inches) lend of month of month in inches) Glade pan, 

(cfs) (inches) in inches) 

1930 

Oct ................ 1. 60 4,400 1.16 3,520 3,34 0.44 880 0,05 1.89 4.89 

Nov ............... 1.15 2,720 1.04 2,675 2.81 ,11 45 0 1. 91 3.64 

Dec ............... ,93 2,640 .88 2,440 2,63 .05 200 ,01 3.94 3,37 

1931 

Jan ................ 1,01 3, 210 .86 2,440 2. 63 .15 770 ,05 3,43 3,21 

Feb ................ • 88 2,370 • 77 2,360 2,57 .11 10 0 1.40 3,46 

Mar ............... 1.10 2,250 .88 2,250 2,46 ,22 0 0. 4.29 4.72 

Apr ................ .97 3,690 .77 2,360 2,57 • 20 1,330 :09 5.58 4.91 

May •••.•••••••••••• .84 1,870 • '15 1,H·IO 2,07 .09 0 0 3,36 6,59 

June ............... .57 1,480 • 56 1,480 1.59 • 01 0 0 1.93 7,05 

July ............... .45 1,160 .45 1,160 1,13 0 0 0 5.59 7,49 

Aug ............... .40 1,180 .40 1,150 1.11 0 30 0 6,79 6,32 

Sept ............... .44 1, 260 .41 1,260 1. 27 ,03 0 0 5. 03 5,30 

Oct ................ .41 1,140 .41 1,140 1.10 0 0 0 1.92 4,54 

Nov ............... ,35 935 • 35 935 .82 0 0 0 ,25 3,78 

Dec .... ; .......... .31 782 ,31 780 .62 0 2 0 2.72 3,32 

Total ........... 7.73 6.92 • 81 42.29 60,69 

1932 

Jan ................ .26 ii56 .26 656 ,47 0 0 0 • 'fO 3,55 

Feb ................ • 20 552 • 20 552 ,36 0 0 0 ,35 4.02 

Mar ............... .18 452 .17 440 ,25 ,01 12 0 2.75 5.60 

Apr ................ .13 308 ,13 308 .15 0 0 0 • 97 6.72 

May ............... .12 520 .10 400 • 22 . 02 120 .01 8.03 7.15 

June ............... .27 953 .16 485 • 29 .11 468 .03 8.83 5,13 

July ............... .19 418 .15 418 .24 .04 0 0 4.32 7,09 

Aug ............... .30 1,260 ,28 1,120 1. 07 • 02 140 ,01 9.20 6,22 

Sept ............... .73 1,500 .45 1,500 1. til • 28 0 0 :t17 5,14 

Oct ................ ,45 1,250 .45 1,250 1, 26 0 0 0 2,28 5,34 

Nov ............... .38 1,010 .38 1,010 .91 0 0 0 3, 50 3,42 

Dec ............... .31 765 .31 765 .60 0 0 0 ,10 3,47 

Total .......... 3,52 3,04 .48 44.20 62.!15 
Table 59.---Monthly runoff analyses, Kissimmee River near Okeechobee, 1930..:.46--Continued 

Total Discharge at Base flow at Base storage 

Direct -runoff Direct -runoff Rainlall Evaporation 

Base runofl Direct-runoff discharge at torage at end (from Belle Month runoff end of month (inches) end of month at end ot month (inches) end of month of month from tab! e 5b , Glade pan, (inches) (cfs) (cfs) (inches) (cfs) (inches) in inches) in inches) 

1933 

Jan ............... 0.25 664 0,25 664 0.47 0 0 0 1.79 3.24 

Feb ............... . 20 552 . 20 552 . 36 0 0 0 2,89 4,46 

Mar ............... . 19 469 . 19 469 . 28 0 0 0 2,08 6.11 

Apr ............... ,19 503 . 16 503 • 30 • 03 0 0 5,05 6.18 

May .............. . 14 299 .14 299 .15 0 0 0 3,42 7.15 

June .............. .12 350 . 12 350 .19 0 0 0 6,53 6.13 

July .............. . 35 1,880 . 29 1,400 1.48 ,06 480 • 03 12.58 5.82 

Aug .............. .88 1,660 . 63 1,660 1.81 . 25 0 0 6,16 5.03 

Sept .............. 2.64 6,100 1,46 6,100 4.32 1.18 0 0 14,09 5.97 

Oct ............... 1. 78 3,950 1. 7o 3,750 3.47 . 02 200 .01 2,88 4.78 

Nov .............. 1,04 2,630 1.03 2,630 2.79 • 01 0 0 1.76 3.86 

Dec ............... . 77 1,830 .77 1,830 2,03 0 0 0 .23 3,48 

Total .......... 8.55 7. 00 1.55 59.4b 62.21 

1934 

Jan ................ .58 1,530 . 58 1,530 1. 65 0 0 0 1,1ti 3.o3 

Feb ............... .45 1,360 .45 1,360 1.42 0 0 0 2. 71 3.69 

Mar ............... ,45 1,230 .44 1,150 1,12 . 01 80 0 3. 84 5.56 

Apr ............... ,4.5 1,360 . 39 1,280 1.29 .06 80 0 4. 64 6.96 

May .............. .4b 1,390 .44 1,340 1.40 .02 50 0 7.09 6.40 

June .............. 1.36 7,880 . 79 5,000 3,98 . 57 2,880 . 20 13.34 6.19 

July ............... 2,55 6,440 1.93 5,000 3.98 . 62 1,440 • 09 6.00 7.12 

Aug ............... 1,83 4,500 1. 63 4,250 3. 70 . 20 250 .01 5.13 6.70 

Sept .............. 1.44 4,000 1,3b 3, 730 3.45 .08 270 . 02 3.69 5. 77 

Oct ............... 1,04 2,300 • 97 2,200 2.41 • 07 100 .01 2,02 5.73 

Nov ............... • 72 1,770 .65 1,660 1,82 . 07 110 • 01 • 58 4.03 

Dec ............... . 53 1,3b0 ,52 1,3b0 1,41 . 01 0 0 .59 3.49 

Total .......... 11. So 10.15 1. 71 50.79 65.27 

1935 

Jan ................ ,42 1,030 .42 1,030 .96 0 0 0 .88 3,81 

Feb ............... .30 860 . 29 810 . 65 • 01 50 0 1.61 4,25 

Mar ............... . 25 581 . 25 581 .38 0 0 0 • 78 6.52 

Apr ............... . 20 5ti3 .19 485 .29 . 01 78 0 4. 17 7.80 

May .............. .15 312 .15 312 .16 0 0 0 2.73 8.84 
June .••••••••••.••• .11 376 ,09 290 .14 .02 86 0 5.94 6. 55 

July •••••••••••••••• .16 545 .15 545 ,35 ,01 0 0 6.97 7.38 

"' Aug •••••••••••••••• ,19 689 .18 600 .41 ,01 89 0 5,42 7.02 

... Sept .•••••••••••••• ,44 2,500 • 31 1,285 1.30 .13 1,215 • 08 9.42 5. 54 

&l Oct ................ 1,06 2,230 • 62 1,840 2.03 .44 390 .02 2.99 5, 37 ~ Nov ................ . 59 1,450 . 55 1,425 1,51 .04 25 0 1.09 4.32 

0 Dec ................ .48 1,280 .47 1,280 1.30 ,01 0 0 2.80 3,50 I Total: .......... 4,35 3,67 • 68 44.80 70.90 

"' "" I 1936 I 

"' Jan ................. .44 1,180 ,44 1,180 1.16 0 0 0 3.24 4,18 

"' Feb ................ ,bl 2,950 .47 2,000 2,23 .14 950 • Oi:i 7, 20 3. 81 

Mar ................ 1.04 2,680 ,82 2,315 2.53 .22 365 .02 3,90 6.22 

Apr ................ .71 1,760 • 67 1, 715 1. 89 .04 45 0 1.32 7.b8 

May ............... .54 1,450 . 53 1,450 1.55 .01 0 0 4.81 7.40 

Jtme ............... ,57 1,980 . 51 1,565 1.71 ,06 415 .02 8.35 5.94 

July ................ • 62 1,760 ,58 1, 700 1.87 ,04 60 0 5.22 7.37 

Aug ................ • 68 1,980 • 62 1,875 2,09 ,06 105 . 01 5.20 6.54 "' c: 

Sept ............... .73 2,140 • tiS 2,110 2.34 ,05 30 0 b.82 4.92 ~ Oct ................ . 81 2,440 . 77 2, 280 2,49 .04 160 . 01 3,44 5.15 > 

Nov ................ .73 1,830 .70 1,820 2.02 ,03 10 0 1,45 4, 28 () 

Dec ................ • 62 1,660 . 62 l,boO 1. 83 0 0 0 1.24 3,14 "' 

Total ........... 8.10 7.41 • 69 52.19 ob.63 ~· 

1937 .., 

"' Jan ................. .52 1,360 • 52 1,340 1,39 0 20 0 :s5 4.44 ::0 

Feb ................ ,43 1,330 ,42 1,300 1.33 .01 30 0 4,88 3, 86 

Mar ................ .45 1,300 .44 1,240 1.24 .01 60 0 3,41 5.30 

Apr ................ .48 1,180 .43 1,180 1.1o ,05 0 0 4.10 6,30 

May ............... .38 986 ,38 986 . 89 0 0 0 2,12 7.77 

Jtme ............... .34 964 .32 940 • 83 . 02 24 0 4.72 6. 70 

July ................ .36 986 .33 920 • 80 .03 66 0 6,84 6. ijij 

Aug ................ .34 1,050 ,33 945 ; 84 ,01 105 . 01 7.30 6.02 

Sept ............... ,36 1,210 .33 1,000 .91 .03 210 ,01 6,16 5.58 

Oct ................ . 83 4,680 .47 2,120 2,34 .36 2,560 .18 6.98 4.93 

Nov ................ .90 3,270 .7o 2,050 2,28 .14 1,220 .08 4,81 3.7b 

Dec ................ 1,24 2,320 • 82 2,260 2,47 ,42 60 0 • 85 3, 12 

Total. ......... 6.63 5.55 1,08 53.12 64,44 

1938 

Jan ................. .76 1,910 .75 1,910 2.13 .01 0 0 1,24 3;69 

Feb ................ . 55 1,550 .55 1,550 l.o9 0 0 0 1.14 4,22 01 

Mar ................ . 48 1,200 .48 1,200 1.19 0 0 0 1.56 5,85 w Apr ................ ,3.4 826 .34 826 . 68 0 0 0 .79 6.18 01 
Table 59.-Monthly runoff analyses, Kissimmee River near Okeechobee, 1937-46-Continued 

Total Discharge at Base flow at Base storage i Direct-runoU [Direct-iiiiiOH Rainfall Evaporation 

Base runoff Direct -runoff discl!arge at j;torage at end (fromBeU.e Montb runoff end at month {inches) end of montb jat end of month (inches) end of mOnth of month from table 56, Glade pan, (inches) (cfs) (cfs) (inches) (cfs) (inches) in incbes) in inches). 

1938-Con. 

May •••••••••••••• 0,24 673 0,24 590 f·40 0 83 0 4,95 6,66 

June •••••••••••••• .26 826 ,23 720 - .54 ,03 106 ,01 6,13 6,50 

July •••••••••••••• .37 1,590 ,36 1,350 1,41 ,01 240 . 01 10.08 6.64 

Aug,. ............. .55 1,360 .51 1,360 1.41 ,04 0 0 3.87 6. 75 

Sept. ............. .42 1,180 .42 1,180 1.17 0 0 0 4,53 5,92 

Oct ............... .48 1,650 .40 1,400 1,46 ,08 250 .01 4.75 5,34 

Nov ............... .46 1,140 .44 1,130 1,08 ,02 10 0 1,59 4,08 

Dec ............... ,36 904 ,36 904 . 79 0 0 0 ,09 3,36 

Total .......... 5. 27 5,08 .19 40,72 65.79 

1939 

Jan ................ . 29 744 .29 744 .58 0 0 0 .98 3.88 

Feb ............... .21 587 ,21 587 ,39 0 0 0 .55 4.98 

Mar ............... . 17 406 .17 406 . 22 0 0 0 1.48 6,12 

Apr ............... .14 456 .13 380 . 20 • 01 76 0 5.17 7,46 

May .............. .13 282 .12 282 .14 . 01 0 0 5.17 7.48 

June .............. .11 536 .10 390 • 21 ,01 146 ,01 10.04 6.97 

July ............... ,36 828 .25 828 .69 .11 0 0 7.34 6,62 

Aug ............... .70 4,510 .46 2,460 2,66 .24 2,050 .14 12.0.5 5.26 

Sept .............. 1.20 4,510 • 89 2,920 3.00 ,31 1,590 ,10 5.89 5.76 

Oct ............... 1.11 2,520 1,04 2,520 2.70 ,07 0 0 2,41 5.09 

Nov ............... .82 2,070 .80 2,050 2.28 .02 20 0 .so 3.94 

Dec ............... ,64 1,630 ,64 1,590 1. 74 0 40 0 .74 3.31 

Total .......... 5,88 5,10 .78 52.62 66,87 

1940 

Jan. ............... .57 1,530 .54 1,·490 1,59 .03 40 0 3.51 3,16 

Feb ................ ,50 1,490 ,48 1,430 1.50 .02 60 0 3,59 4.42 

Mar ............... .52 1,530 ,50 1,430 1,50 .02 100 ,01 4.24 5,52 

Apr ................ .51 1,320 ,50 1,320 1.34 .01 0 0 1,89 6,55 

May ............... .40 1,090 ,39 960 .85 .01 130 ,01 2,27 8,08 

June ............... . 36 1,000 ,33 970 .87 ,03 30 0 5,33 6,38 

July ............... .49 1,810 .40 1,490 1.59 .-09 320 ,02 9,14 6,78 

Aug ............... • 63 1,760 ,58 1,570 1.70 ,05 190 ,01 6,42 6,31 

Sept. ............. .93 2,940 .70 2, 520 2.70 ,23 420 .02 7,72 4.84 
Oct ................ ,94 1,690 .77 1,830 2,04 ,17 60 0 ,96 5.7'1 

Nov •••••••••••••••• • 53 1,320 • 53 1,320 1,34 0 0 0 ,09 4.21 

Dec •••••••••••••••• ,43 1,320 .42 1,150 1.11 .01 170 ,01 4.47 2.90 

Total ........... 6.81 6.14 .67 49.63 64.86 

1941 

Jan ................ : ,53 1,670 .45 1,400 1,46 .08 270 .02 4,24 3.08 

Feb ................ ,56 1,700 .50 1,570 1.70 .06 130 • 01 3.98 3.73 

Mar ................ • 55 1,500 .53 1,470 1,55 • 02 30 0 3.16 5,50 

Apr ................ .63 2,060 .53 1,670 1,83 ,10 390 .02 6.25 6.48 

May ............... .67 1,670 .57 1,480 1.58 ,10 190 .01 2.06 8,04 

Tune ............... • 50 1,530 .48 1,490 1, 60 .02 40 0 9,76 7,36 

July ................ 1,02 4,280 • 79 3,060 3, 04 • 23 1,220 .08 11.59 6,09 

Aug ................ 1,20 2,620 1.06 2,430 2,63 ,14 190 .01 4,01 6,74 

Sept ............... ,84 2,800 .75 2,250 2,47 • 09 550 .03 5,46 5,62 

Oct ................ 1,05 3,360 • 85 2,670 2,82 .20 690 ,04 3,77 5,54 

Nov ................ 1,00 2,450 • 95 2,450 2,65 ,05 0 0 3,29 3,55 

Dec, ............... .85 2,450 .82 2,260 2,48 .03 190 • 01 3,47 2. 60 

Total ............ 9.40 8. 28 1,12 61.04 64.33 "' c: 

i;l 

1942 > (l 

Jan ................. 1,00 2,800 .83 2,440 2,64 ,17 360 • 02 2, 79 2,93 ,.., Feb ................ .83 4,650 • 73 2,450 2.65 ,10 2,200 .15 3,92 3,70 

Mar ................ 1,34 3,360 1,06 2,890 2,97 • 28 470 ,03 4.99 5. 80 ~ Apr,,,,,,.,, ....... .87 2,060 .82 2,050 2. 27 • 05 10 0 2,46 6,61 ;I May ............... .64 1,670 .64 1,600 1. 75 0 70 0 2,63 7.32 

june ............... "' ,90 2,450 . 73 2,360 2,58 .17 90 • 01 10.36 5.64 

July .. .'. ............ .85 2,310 .80 2,210 2,44 ,05 100 .01 5,67 7,67 Aug,,.,,,,,,,,,,,,. .79 2,060 ,77 2,060 2. 28 ,02 0 0 4.52 6,31 

Sept ............... • 73 2, 060 .71 2,060 2.28 .02 0 0 5,62 5.25 

Oct ................ .63 1,500 • 63 1,500 1, 60 0 0 0 ,57 5, 64 

Nov, ............... .45 1,190 .45 1,190 1.70 0 0 0 .14 4,08 Dec,,,,,,,,,,,.,, •• .39 1,040 • 38 1,040 .96 .01 0 0 2.42 3,06 

Total ............ 9.42 8,55 .87 46.09 64.01 

1943 

Jan ................. ,32 860 .31 820 • 68 .01 40 0 1.35 3,53 

Feb ................ .24 676 .24 660 .47 0 16 0 • 53 4.40 

Mar ................ ,26 632 • 25 632 .44 • 01 0 0 4.80 5.91 

Apr ................ .19 500 .19 490 .30 0 10 0 1.99 6,53 

May ............... .16 566 .14 410 .23 .02 156 .01 4,82 7,18 

June ............... ,16 500 .14 460 • 27 .02 40 0 5.62 6,20 Ul 

July ................ .36 1, 470 . 28 1,380 1.43 • 08 90 .01 10.20 6,62 

Aug,,, ............. .48 1,500 .46 1,350 1.41 .02 150 .01 7,73 6,46 -.3 "' 
Table 59. ~IJonthly runoff analyses, Kissimmee River near Okeechobee, 1930-46- Continued 

Total D ischa.rg e at Base flow at Base storage Direct-runoff Direct -rimoff Rainfall Evaporation 

Month nmoff nd of month Base runoff nd of month at end of month Direct-runoff discharge at torage at end from tab I e 36 , (from Belle 

(inches) (cfs) (inches (cfs) (inches} {inches} end of month of month in inches} Glade pan, 

(cfs) (inches) in inches) 

1943-Con. 

Sept ............... o. 59 1,840 o. 54 1,840 2,03 0.05 0 0 5.73 5. 80 

Oct ................ 1. 08 2,000 . 76 2,000 2.23 .32 0 0 3. 20 5,16 

Nov ................ . 59 1,530 .58 1,530 1.65 . 01 0 0 1.08 3,45 

Dec ................ .49 1,270 .49 1,250 1. 26 0 20 0 • 51 2.92 

Total ............ 4.92 4,38 .54 47.56 64.16 

1944 

Jan ................ .41 1,060 .41 1,060 .98 0 0 0 1.12_ 3.22 

Feb ................ .31 835 ,31 835 . 69 0 0 0 .35 4.68 

Mar ............... .26 676 .26 676 ,49 0 0 0 4.45 5,58 

Apr ................ .33 960 .25 750 .58 .08 210 .01 4.20 6.47 

May ............... • 23 478 . 22 . 478 . 28 • 01 0 0 2.00 6.87 

June ............... .18 457 • 17 457 • 27 . 01 0 0 7.45 7. 12 

July ................ . 22 742 ,18 660 .47 .04 82 0 8,38 6. 77 

Aug ................ • 34 1,210 .30 1,060 .98 . 04 150 • 01 6. 92 6. 20 

Sept ............... .42 1,210 .40 1,190 1.17 .02 20 0 4.37 5,68 

Oct ................ .48 1,570 .43 1,360 1.42 .05 210 • 01 6. 75 4. 89 

Nov ................ . 60 1,670 .55 1,640 1.80 • 05 30 0 .37 3.74 

Dec ................ .57 1,550 . 5E 1,510 1.61 .01 40 0 .42 3. 07 

Total ............ 4.35 4,03 ,31 46.78 64.29 

1945 

Jan ................ .52 1,410 • 51 1,410 1.48 • 01 0 0 2.63 3.68 

Feb ............... .42 1,210 .42 1,210 1.20 0 0 0 .19 3,89 

Mar ............... .38 930 .38 930 . 82 0 0 0 .53 6,17 

Apr ................ . 27 678 . 27 660 .47 0 18 0 1.88 7.06 

May ............... .20 458 .19 458 . 27 .01 0 0 1.48 7,42 

June ............... .16 734 .14 460 • 27 . 02 274 • 02 14.78 6.09 

July ............... .64 5,960 .34 1,830 2.03 ,30 4,130 .31 9.21 5. 73 

Aug ............... 1.14 2,640 • 88 2,540 2. 71 .26 100 .01 4,67 6.38 

Sept ............... 2.11 7,840 1.4( 6,600 4.46 .71 1,240 .08 10.84 5.44 

Oct ............... 2.17 5.240 2.1C 5,240 4.03 .07 0 0 4.17 4,37 

Nov ............... 1.50 3,770 1.49 3,700 3.44 .01 _70 0 1.27 4.25 

Dec ............... 1.17 3,030 1.1< 2,890 2. 97 .02 140 .01 2,50 3.04 

Total ............ 10.68 9.27 1.41 54.15 63.52 
1946 

Jan ••••••••.••••.••• • 89 2,110 . 87 2,110 2.34 .02 0 0 1.31 3.20 

Feb ................. . 59 1,730 . 58 1,660 1.81 .01 70 0 2.91 4.56 Mar ................ . 57 1,460 . 57 1,460 1.55 0 0 0 1.38 5.61 

Apr ................. .40 970 .40 970 . 87 0 0 0 .37 7.60 

May ................ • 35 1,000 . 31 920 • 81 • 04 80 0 6.79 6.34 

June •••••••••••••••• . 34 792 . 29 690 • 51 .05 102 • 0 6.50 5. 77 

July ................ . 34 1,270 . 29 1,020 .94 . 05 250 .o 9.46 6.14 

Aug ................ .47 1,460 .43 1,370 1.42 .04 90 .o 6.90 6.35 

Sept ................ • 70 2,440 . 60 2,400 2.60 .10 40 0 6.39 5.31 

Oct ................. . 77 1,820 . 75 1,820 2.02 .02 0 0 2.58 5.33 

Nov ................ • 61 1,660 . 59 1,640 1.80 • 02 20 0 1.45 3.29 Dec ................ • 55 1,430 • 54 1,430 1.51 • Ol 0 0 1.15 3,38 

Total ........... 6. 58 6.22 .36. 47.19 e3:4s 
540 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

MONTHLY RAINFALL-RUNOFF RELA'l10NS 

The discharge of the Kissimmee River varies seasonally in response to the distribution of rainfall and the seasonal variation in 

temperature. Runoff, in inches, for each month of record (1930-

46), as measured at the gaging station near Okeechobee, is given 

in table 59. The average discharge near Okeechobee by months 

for the period 1931-46 is given in table 60. 

The values of average annual precipitation, runoff, and precipitation minus runoff, given in table 60, are the average of annual 

values based on data given in tables 57 and 59 and summarized in 

table 61; they are not the summation of the monthly values shown 

in table 60. 

The lowest flows occur in winter and spring, usually in May and 

June. The highest fl'ows are in September, October, and November, 

as a result of the rains of those and preceding months, 

Runoff during a given calendar month (evaporation losses assumed 

constant) was analyzed as a function of the following two factors; 

viz.: (1) Antecedent discharge, which in turn is indicative ofthe 

amount of carry-over discharge(drainage of wat~r already in the 

basin) and the degree of wetness or dryness of the soil, or conditions that determine the portion of the subsequent months' rainfall that will be converted into runoff or added to storage available 

for runoff during subsequent months. (2) Mean depth of rainfall. 

Table 60.-Avere.ge monthly and Bnllllal h;rdrologic data, Kissimmee River near Okeechobee 1931-41) 

[Measurements given in inches] 

.. 

1 .. 

"' -~ a " 0 .. 

E :p~ .. -~ !! .... :~ If .<: .e-.s 1 l) .t ~ ~ 6 .. o:l: 

Jan. 1,95 0.55 1,4 

Feb, , 2,4 '.46 1. 95 

Mar-t 3,0 • 5 2. 5 

,Apr. 3. 2 .43 2.75 

11~ 4.0 .35 3. 65 

J e 7. 85 .39 7,45 

July 8,05 • 58 7,45 

Aug, .6.4 • 68 5, 7 

Sept. 6.55 ,92 5,65 

Oct. 3,25 ,94 2,3 

Nov. 1.45 ,70 .75 

Dec. 1.5 • til ,9 

Annual a49.5 a7.13 42.4 

a Average of annual values, see text, 

bsum of monthly values. 

..... <;,.s 

~IS i .. a 

~-a ~ 

~ je 

2.5 1.41 

2.9 1. 31 

3,2 1.19 

3.8 1, 01 

4.8 • 80 

5.1 .99 

4.9 1. <19 

4.2 1. 76 

3,2 2,32 

2.7 2,21 

2. 9 1.84 

2, 8 1.54 

I b43,0 

] I 

1;<;1 .. "' ...... :!~ § .. "' 0 .. .. ~ ... .s ~t tl ~ 6 ,:iig ~~ .l;l "t'a 5<;6 ~ .. 0 1-< 

0.01 10.7 63 

,01 10,2 tJ4 

• 00 9,6 67 

.01 8, 9 72 

.00 7,9 77 

.02 8.9 80 

.04 11.1 82 

,02 12.3 82 

.02 14.7 80 

.02 14,2 75 

.01 12,7 67 

.00 11.3 63 

a72,5 
SURFACE WATER 541 

Base flow a<t the end of the preceding month, as taken from 

table 59, was used as the index or correlation parameter. Base 

storage was then obtained by use of figure 153, and direct-runoff 

storage was obtained in a similar manner from figure 155. Monthly 

precipitation was obtained as shown in table 57. 

Diagrams similar tq figure 156 were prepared, one for each 

calendar month, with precipitation as ordinate, runoff as abscissa, 

and antecedent base flow as parameter. Lines of equal antecedent 

base flow were drawn to conform with the plotted points. A study 

was made of the 12 monthly charts so prepared to determine the 

adjustment that could be made to measure precipitation so that all 

points for all months could be placed on one chart. Figu~e 157 

shows such a chart. The ordinate is precipitation minus L, L'being 

the values of the adjustment just described. A list of the< values of 

'L foD the several months is given in figure 157 and in table 60. 

Several points that did not plot satisfactorily may be attributed to 

improper estimates of base flow or to deficiencies in thE; analysis 

of precipitation. The computation of mean areal rainfall based on 

one rain gage for 326 square miles is .subject to large errors of 

sampling. Moreover, the study does not distinguish between rainfall of a single heavy storm from that of a number of separate 

storms, nor does it indicate whether the storms occurred at the 

beginning or at the end of the month. The chart applies only to 

average conditions. Nevertheless the average error of estimate 

is only 10 percent. 

It was observed that the values of L, referred to above, were 

equal to those values of precipitation minus runoff for which there 

were no net changes in base flow. In other words, for a month in 

which precipitation minus runoff exceeded ·r.., the base flow at the 

end of the month was higher than at the beginning; conversely, if 

precipitation minus runoff was less than ::... , the base flow at the 

end of the month was less than at the beginning. It was also observed 

(table 60) that the sum of the values of L for the 12 months is approximately equal to the difference between average annual precipitation and average annual runoff. The difference between this 

figure and annual figures of precipitation minus runoff segregates 

years in which there was a net increment or a net decrement in 

base flow. The line drawn on .figure 156 for a value or'L = 43.0 

in. (mean annual water loss) approximately separates the group of 

points in which there was a net rise in base flow from those in 

which there was a net fall. Accordingly, a diagram (fig. 158) was 

prepared to show the monthly change in base flow with respect to 

p. L, the values of .R beirig implied by relation to the other factors. 

The observed points on which the diagram is based are omitted. 

The ordinate is precipitation minus L, the initial or antecedent 

base flow is given as the abscissa (logarithmic scale), and the final 

base flow is shown as the parameter. For values of f> • L equal to 
542 

I 

10 -

9 

a 

7 

2 

I 

0 r--·- --· 

I 

-2 

-3 

-4 0 

-· 

0 

!i? 

1/ 

I 

·------

--·-

.20 

WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

-· v 

/ 

v ·---··· --------· ---- .... 

v- ~ / ------ ·--------····· / ---------- -----

/ 

-

-·· I 

I v / -. / / 

I I / 

/ /--· 

I / -- -· 0 I I 0· 

~ 

1/ / ··----------

I ----- ·-···--

0 I R / - ---- -------· -·········-··- ··-··-··· --··-·--···-

~ f I 

I I 

I I ·--····--- ------ ··-

_ _/ -·· ... I ------- ------- ··--- -- I o/ EXPLANATION 

0 Parameter i$ bose flow ot 

~I beginning of mont~ 1n 

cubiC feet per second -· 

I Volues of L 

I Jan. 2.5 July 4.9 

Feb. 2.9 Aug. 4.2 Mac. 3.2 Sept 3 2 ·--· 

I Apr. 3.8 Oct: 2.7 May 4.8 Nav 2 9 June 5.1 Dec~<;-~ 

Total 43.0 

I I .50 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.50 

MONTHLY RUNOFF, IN INCHES 

Figure 157.-Monthly rainfall-runoff relations, Kissimmee River near Okeechobee. 
SURFACE WATER 543 

0 

-2 

8 ~ "'"'-, -- -····- ~-~ _,~ 

" !". "" 1', 

··~ ~~ "' ~ ~ 

""' " \\ 6t----

~ -- I--I-- .. 

"" ~ " " ~I\ \ \ 4t-----~---· f"\. -\ \ \ 

\~\~ \~ - -

\ \~ ' r- \ .-~---

~ \ r\ r\ \ \ 

\ \ ~ \ \ \ ---~ ··+-

~ '\o 1\ 1\ \ 'v., ~ 

~~j \ [\ 0 \ \ -~ \ \ \ F1gures sMw bose flow of end \ of month, in cubic fut ptt \ \ SI!!Colid 1\ 

\ \ \ \ \ 

\ II 300 400 500 600 800 1000 """" 3000 4000 GOOO 8000 10.000 

INITIAL BASE FLOW, IN CU31C FEET PER SECOND 

Figure 158, -Monthly change in base flow, Kissimmee River near Okeechobee. 

-3 in. or less, the graphs give results substantially equivalent to 

the depletion hydrograph (fig. 152) for intervals of 30 days. By 

using figures 157 and 158 in combination, an estimate of runoff for 

each month can be made in advance, contingent upon the range in 

expected precipitation. This may prove of use in the regulation of 

Lake Okeechobee. 

An example of methods of using figures 157 and 158 might be 

helpful. Consider the wet year 1934. Base flow on December 31, 

1933, was 1, 830 cfs. Precipitation during January in the period 

1931-46 ranged between 0. 70 and 4. 24 in, with a mean of 1. 96 in. 

Since L for January is 2. 5 in. , the corresponding values of P • L are 

-1. 80, +1. 74, and -0.54 in. According to figure 157, January runoff would range betweenO. 55 and 0. 75 in. • with an expected figure 

of 0. 65 in., which corresponds to normal precipitation for January. 

According to figure 158, base flow at the end of January should 

range between 1, 400 and 1, 800 cfs, with an expected figure of 

1, 600 cfs, Precipitation during January 1934 actually was-below 

normal but above the minimum of record, and so runoff experiences 

was 0. 58 in. and final base flow, 1, 530 cfs. The process can be 

continued from month to month, or projected for 2 or more months. 

However, if projected for more than 2 months the range widens 

rapidly. 

In projecting the estimates, it is not necessary to base minimum 

and maximum limits on compounded maximum or minimum precipitation figures for each month; instead, ·such observed precipitation sequences are used that will give minimum or maximum 
544 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTiiEASTERN FLORIDA 

precipitation for the group of months. Thl.1s, continuing through 

February 1934, we have limiting base flows at the end of January 

of 1, 400 and 1, 800 cfs. However, it is not likely that January ex~ 

tremes of precipitation would again be followed by February extremes .. Nevertheless, it is plausible to use total January plus 

February precipitation for these limits. These totals are: minimum, 1. 05 in.; maximum, 10. 44 in; average, 4. 35 in, Since we 

have used 0. 70, 4:-24, and 1. 96 in., respectively, for January, the 

corresponding quantities for February are 0, 35, 7. 20, and 2. 39 in. 

Using these figures in conjunction with a value of L of 2, 9 in. and 

with the estimated limits of base flow at the end of January, the 

February runoff should range between 0, 40 and 1. 10 in., with an 

expected value corresponding to the occurrence of normal precipitation in January and ,February of 0. 55 in. 

WATER Loa;:& AND STORAGE 

The general hydrologic equation for a basin is P: R- L, M. In 

this equation P represents the precipitation;· R, the runoff; L, the 

evapotranspiration loss; and _\,S, the change in storage in the basin 

during the period. If the period of time is long enough, the c,1ange in 

storage may be neglected and tbe losses would be approximately 

P -R· For the 16-year period of record, mean annual _losses so 

approximated are equal to 49. 5 - 7. 1 = 42. 4 in. In the same period, 

evaporation from the 4-ft ventilated pan at Belle Glade, as listed in 

table 8, averaged 6'4. 62 in. per year. The annual water losses of 

the Kissimmee River basin wer~ therefore about 66 percent of the 

evaporation from the Belle Glade pan. It has been found (Harding, 

1942) that evaporation from lakes and large ponds averages about 70 

percent of the evaporation from a ventilated pan. Accordingly, water 

losses from the Kissimmee basin average about the same as evaporation from equivalent lake areas. This is not surprising because. 

much of the basin is occupied by lakes and swamps. A more accurate value of the mean annual water loss is computed below. 

To compute monthly water losses, the change in storage must be 

accounted for. In the basic equation P. R- L"' .'\S, M refers to the 

change in total storage of water of all kinds in the basin. The Kissimmee River basin includes extensive areas of swamps and lakes 

in which surface- and ground-water storage and soil water merge 

to such an extent as to obscure distinctions between them, However, 

two broad kinds of storage may be recognized: gravity water 

(storage available for runoff), which is mainly the water in lakes, 

rivers, and in the ground under water-table conditions; and capillary 

water (surface soil-moisture storage), ordinarily referred to as 

soil moisture or water in the soil-root zone. The storage available 

for runoff is the source of direct and base runoff. There are no 

ready measures of storage, except so far as storage can be inferred 

from records of precipitation and runoff. It is well to emphasize 
SURFACE WATER 545 

that volumes of storage, as computed from analysis of the hydrograph and reported in table 59, represent such portions of the 

storage in the zone of saturation as were realized in runoff. Volumes 

of these components of available storage as computed from depletion 

and recession hydro graphs are reported separately as base storage 

and direct-runoff storage in table 59. The component of base storage 

(ground storage) is by far the greater, reaching a maximum of 

more than 4 in. during September 1933 and 1945, Direct-runoff 

storage within the same period of record did not exceed 0. 5 in. 

Base storage, according to the depletion hydrograph (fig. 152), 

requires nearly 9 months to change from the highest to the lowest 

base-flow rates. Furthermore, an average lag of about 3t months 

occurs between the time of recharge and the middle of the period 

of the mass of outflow. During this interval, variable quantities of 

ground water are lost by evapotranspiration, depending on the depth 

to the water-table. Much swamp water and marsh water is included 

in the total amount of ground storage, and such water is subject to 

direct evaporation and transpiration by phreatophytes and hyd:r:ophytes, Accordingly, only a small part of the water in the zone of 

saturation escapes as runoff in the drainage channels and is measured as base storage. Direct runoff is more transient, having an 

average lag of only about 10 days. It is less subject to loss, although 

the same principle applies, 

Storage in the zone of saturation (including lakes and rivers) in 

the basin could be determined from ·ground-. and surface-water 

levels by the formula v ~ yh, where V is volume of storage, h is the 

average areal range of water levels, and y is average specific yield 

(as determined by laboratory or discharging-well methods; for lake 

and river areas its value is unity). None of the above factors is 

known, therefore the equa~ion cannot be evaluated. However, 

assuming a 7-ft range over the basin during the period 1931-46 (as 

inferred from the range in stage observed in several canals) and 

a specific yield of 20 percent (an average value), the fluctuation in 

storage is 17 in. For the same period a 4, 5-in, range in base 

storage (available for runoff) was inferred from the hydrograph. 

According to these assumptions only about 25 percent of the groundwater recharge was realized as base flow in the Kissimmee River. 

The above figures for ·range in water levels and specific yield may 

not be correctly evaluated for the:Kissimmee basin, but they should 

serve to illustrate the method that was developed in further detail 

by Meinzer and Stearns (1929) in relation to the Pomperaug basin 

in Connecticut. Comparison of recharge, as deduced from observations of ground-water levels, with base flow computed from the 

hydrograph, indicates that about 56 percent of the recharge becomes 

available as base flow in the Pomperaug basin. However, this basin 

is in a climatic and physiographic zone different from that of the 

Kissimmee. 
546 WATER RESOURCES IN SOliTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

The value of P· R for a given calendar month that separates months 

with increments from those with decrements in base flow is given 

as L in figure 157 and table 60. For a value of?- R~L, therefore, 

change in storage (M) may be presumed to be very small and is 

treated as zero. The values of L were used to compute the monthly 

changes in basin storage by the formula f:..SmP-R-L. in which Pis 

the monthly precipitation, R is the measured runoff, and L is the 

average evapotranspiration loss. i\S represents the changes in all 

forms of storage, average monthly values of which are given in 

table 60. 

Changes in storage have been computed for each month of record 

and cumulated from the beginning of record, These cumulated totals 

to the end of each month of record have been plotted on figure 159 

against base flow at the end of the respective month. A line has 

been drawn to average the plotted points, and the scale of cumulative 

P- R-- L chosen so that computed storage is about zero for the lowest 

observed base flow of record, The range in storage experienced, 

as indicated by the extreme points shown, is about 24 it;t, , of which 

about 4 in. represent base storage, Storage reached record-low 

values in Aprill932 and again in the spring of 1939. High values, 

about 20 in. above the minimum, occurred at the beginning of the 

record during the fall of 1930, and again during the fall of 1933. 

The scattering of points might be ascribed either to inadequacy of 

the theory or to greater variability in monthly loss than has been 

allowed for herein. However, study of the deviations from the 

average graph l:!hown failed to reveal any systematic relationship 

between loss during a given calendar month and other factors such 

as precipitation or runoff. 

Soil moisture has an important role in the hydrologic cycle. A 

large part of the evapotranspiration losses is from the soil moisture. The soil is recharged during each rain and pumped out by 

persistent evapotranspiration processes during fair-weather 

periods. This recharge has first toll on rainfall, penetration to the 

water table occurring only in those places where soil moisture is 

near or at capillary capacity, Soil moisture represents storage, 

and during the growing seasons it is probably subject to greater 

and more frequent fluctuations in volume than any other itemof 

storage. Storage, as computed in this section, includes only that 

volume in excess of the minimum recorded during the 19 32 and 19 39 

droughts. It is doubted whether the wilting point was reached over 

any appreciable area, although the Weather Bureau reported that 

irrigation was practiced where possible, so there was probably a 

considerably but indeterminable volume of water in soil moisture 

inaddition to the amount shown. If, however, the range in storage 

of so-called gravity water (as computed f'rom range in canal and 

lake stages) is 17 in., and the range in total storage during the 

same period was 24 in., then the difference of 7 in. was the soilmoisture storage, assuming that the extremes of soil moisture 
10,000 

9000 

8000 

7000 

6000 

5000 

4000 

3000 

c 

2 

c 

u 2000 -· "-' 

(/) 

a:: 

UJ 

0.. 

1-

UJ 

"-' 

u. 

2 

(ll 

::> 

u 

2 

'$.. 

_, 

0 

u. 

"-' 

(/) 

«1: 

lD 

1000 

900 

800 

700 

600 

500 

400 / 

I . 300 v • . 

200 

100 0 

. . . 

. . . . 

/, 

.. /• 

/' . v-· .. 

. . . 

4 8 

SURFACE WATER 547 

~ 

--"~-

1.- ·····- . / 

·-~~ 

. 7 

/ . . 

/:. -··-~~·-~·-

/. . . .. . .. . . . . .,, ___ \ v: . . . 

y .. . . . . . .. .l.~.t..... .• . ··-····---

. 

. 

.. .. 

-

.. 

16 20 24 28 

TOTAL STORAGE, IN INCHES 

Subject to depletion by evapotranspiration and runoff 

Figure 159. -study of the relation between base flow and total stotage, Kissimmee River basin. 
548 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUIHEASTERN Fl.ORIDA 

occurred at the same time as the extremes in gravity water, which 

one would expect. 

To summarize, then, the range in storage during the 1931-46 

period was about 24 in.; of this, about 17 in. may be gravity water 

in lakes, streams and ground water, and the remaining 7 in. may 

be soil moisture, which is directly available only to plants or other 

evaporative processes. Of the gravity water, only 4 to 5 in. is 

realized as runoff. Therefore, about 20 in. of storage is not avail~ 

able for runoff. 

Figure 160 presents a study of rainfall runoff, losses, and storage 

during an average year. The lowest line shows cumulative runoff 

based on data in table 60. Added to this is the computed storage 

available for runoff, which is the sum of the base storage and 

storage available for runoff at the end of each month, as given in 

table 60. The ordinate to this second line at any time is the total 

water· outflow plus water in storage available for outflow. A horizontal line is indicative of no recharge and means that outflow is 

at the expense of storage. ·The ordinates to the third line represent 

total storage plus measured runoff. 

At the be ginning of the year an average of about 11. 5 in. of storage 

is in the basin. This is the initial point for beginning the line of 

supply (cumulative precipitation). The difference between the line 

of cumulative precipitation and the third line represents cumulative 

evaporation ·and transpiration (L) frbm the beginning of the year. 

The boundary between total storage and evapotranspiration is 

indistinct, because if there was an error in the estimates of losses in any month such error would be reflected in the estimate of 

storage inasmuch asP. R .. L + t.S. P and R are known and their 

difference is known, hence the sum ofL+M is known; ho)l\7ever, the 

boundary between them has been based in large part on tHe assumptions that fluctuations in total storage are reflected by base flow 

and that losses for any calendar month are the same in eachyear. 

Consequently, this boundary in figure 166 is the average of two 

lines, one defined by adding to the first line the total storage according to the base flow (obtained fr.om base storage in table 60 and 

by use of fig. 153) as ~ead from figure 159, and the other, by subtracting from the upper line (initial storage plus cumulative precipitation) the cumulative monthly water loss (L). 

It will again be noted that evaporation and transpiration make up 

by far the largest single item in the water budget. This may be . 

nearly the same indry years as in wet years. The largest storage 

factor is storage not available for runoff, and in this there may be 

a wide difference in storage between the wet year and the dry year. 
SURFACE WATER 549 

70f··----r------r-----r-----r----+----r---·-+·----+----+----+----+--~ 

55 

so 1:1 

i5 

:!: 

q 

45 "' .,. 

;;, 

0 

fi 

40 "' ii: 

<Jl <Jl 

~ "' I "' <.> 15 "' a.. 35 ~ w 

30 

25 

20 

15 

Figure 160, -5tot'age and cumulative precipitation and runoff during average year, Kissimmee 

RiveP near Okeechobee. 
550 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

.... The annual water budget is given in table 61. For each year the 

precipitation and runoff measured at Okeechobee, and their difference, is given. The base flow in second-feet at the close of each 

year is also listed. These data were taken from table 59. 

Analysis of the data in table 61 by the method of least squares 

indicates that P-R~0.002i\BF+[42.S4+0.50(P·49.54)], in which Pis 

annual precipitation in inches, R is annual runoff in inches, and 

'IBF is net annual change in base flow (in cubic feet per second). 

The annual difference between rainfall and runoff is equivalent to 

·water loss only if storage is accounted for. The term in the above 

equation for change in base flow may be taken as representing 

changes in storage. Accordingly, it follows that annual water losses 

equal P-R-0.0021\DF. The values, so computed, are listed in the 

last column of the table. The annual loss computed in this manner 

differs from that which would be obtained by using the base storage 

for the end of December each year, given in column 6 of table 59, 

by as much as 1. 5 in. but has been used as being the more probable 

values. These values of water 'losses range between 38 and 49 in., 

a much smaller range than occurs either in precipitation or in the 

difference between precipitation and runoff. The average annual 

water loss of 42. 54 in. is not exactly the same as the difference 

between average annual rainfall and runoff for the period of record, 

as computed from column 4. 

Table 61.-Annual summary of hydrologic data, r:issimmee River basin 

Precipi· Base flow 

Calendar Precipi· Measured tation at end of Change in Losses = tation runoff minus base flow p.J?.0.002t\BF year (inches) (inches) runoff year (cfs) (inches) 

('inches') (cfs) 

1930 ················ .................. """"34:'56 2,440 ................... ................... 1931 42.29 7.73 780 -1,ti60 37.88 

1932 44.20 3.52 40,68 765 -15 40.71 

1933 59,46 8,55 50.91 1,830 +1,065 48.78 

1934 50.79 11.86 38,93 1,360 -470 39.87 

1935 44.80 4,35 40.45 1,280 -80 40.61 

1936 52.19 8.10 44.09 1,660 +380 43.33 

1937 53.12 6.63 46.49 2,260 +600 45.29 

1938 40 •. 72 5.27 35.45 904 -1,356 38.16 

1939 52.62 5.88 46.74 1, 590 +686 45.37 

1940 49.63 6,81 42.82 1,11\0 -440 43.70 

1941 61.04 9.40 51.64 2,260 +'l,no 49.42 

1942 46.09 9.42 36.67 1,040 -1,220 39,11 

1943 47.56 4.92 42,64 1,250 +210 42,22 

1944 46.78 4,35 42.43 1,510 +260 41.91 

1945 ·. 54.15 10.68 43.47 2,890 +1,380 40.71 

1946 47.19 ~.58 40.61 1,430 -1,460 43.53 

1931-46 

total 792.63 114.05 678.58 ..... , ......... ·l, 010 680.60 

16-year 

averag': 49.54 7,13 1-2.41 1,650 -63 42.54 

The stability of the annual losses does not necessarily mean that no 

runoff will occur during a year with less rainfall than 43 in. Rainfall 

during 19.38 was only 40. 72 in., yet there was 5. 27 in. of runoff. 

The ninoff and part of the losses were made up by withdrawals 
SURFACE WATER 551 

from storage, mainly from storage remaining from the preceding 

year. 

LAKE OKEECHOBEE 

Lake Okeechobee acts as a sump pit for the runoff of the Kissimmee River and lesser contributors, The total tributary area 

is about 4, 200 square miles, Rainfall on the lake surface is also 

an important source of supply. However, evaporation from the lake 

surface and transpiration of littoral vegetation remove most of 

this supply. At the present time, the surplus of inflow over evaporation is discharged through drainage canals. Before the cons truction of the canals and levees, the lake discharged most of this surplus by minor percolation and seepage to and from the Everglades 

(seep. 107 and 185) and by the spilling of water over the southern 

and southeastern rims at high stages. 

Table 62 presents a hydrologic summary of Lake Okeechobee 

for the 7 years of record of outflow, 1940-1946. For this study, 

an area that is referred to as the lake basin is used. It consists 

of approximately 800 square miles, and it includes the lake and 

surrounding area toward the lake from locations of inflow and outflow measurements. 

In preparing a water budget for Lake Okeechobee, frequent use 

is made of the hydrologic equation arranged as follows: (P + IJ _ 

(0 + L + MJ=seepage. Precipitation (P) and storage (M) in the lake 

are measurable quantities. Although inflow (r) and outflow (o) in 

the rivers, creeks, and canals are also measurable, the taking 

of such measurements involved serious practical difficulties. Two 

items cannot be measured directly, namely, the evaporation and 

transpiration losses from the lake basin (L), and such minor and 

relatively insignificant seepage to and from the Everglades as may 

take place (s.ee p. 107). The equation, therefore, cannot be balanced except by inference. 

Table 62 first lists the net discharge from the lake basin measured in the several drainage canals. Although the flow in some 

of the canals is sometimes to and sometimes from the lake, there 

was an average discharge from the lake basin of 1, 627,000 acre-ft 

per year. 

Inflow to the lake basin carried by the Kissimmee River, minor 

creeks, and a canal, as listed, averaged 1, 932,000 acre-ft per 

year, Accordingly, the net flow into the lake basin, as measured, 

averaged 305, 000 acre-ft per year. Rainfall over the lake basin, 

as determined from measurements at rain gages, averaged 44. 4 

in. a year, equivalent to 1, 895,000 acre-ft a year. 

346881 0-55--37 
552 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 62.-Hydrologic summary 

[All quantities are in thousands of acre-feet, except as noted. Tabulated flow out of bke is 

New River (table 38), Miami (table 42), and Caloosahatchee (table 32) Canals, Tabulated 

Indian Prairie (:anal (table 30)] 

J";n· Feb. Mar. Apr. ··- - - 1940 

Flow out of lake: 

Tabulated flow,, ................................ '18,5 78.7 107.6 369,9 Culverts and other flowl ...................... J 1,0 al:I,O 3 1. o 1 1. 0 

Total outflow .................................. 79,5 86.7 108.6 370.9 

Flow into lake; 

Tabulated flow .................................. 103.1 92.6 101.7 95.8 

North-shore creeks, culverts, etc,l .. .,., .. '46.0 262,0 2 26.0 223,0 

Total inflow ............................. , .... 149.1 154.6 127.7 118.8 

Net flow out ol lake .............................. -69.6 -67,9 -19.1 252.1 

Rainfalls over lake basin4 ............... Q.n.) .. 2.42 3.21 4.42 1. 56 

Rainfall over lake basin ......................... 103.3 137.0 188.6 66,6 

Mean lake stage during period .......... (fQ~. 16.77 16.76 16.77 16.45 

Mean lake areil during period ...... (sq mi) .. 723 723 723 718 

Lake stage first day of pedod ............ (ftJI .. 16.61 16.62 16,72 16.89 

Lake storage.6 , first day of period ............. 2,518 2,522 2,568 2,646 

Change in storage during period ............... 4 46 78 -476 

Total inflow plus rainfall ........................ 252.4 291.6 316.3 185.4 

Total outflow plus change in storage ......... 83.5 132.7 186.6 -105,1 

Difference,,, ........ ,, •• ,,.,,,,,.,,,,,,, •••••• ...... 168.9 158.9 129,7 290,5 

1941 

Flow out of lake: 

Tabulated flow .................................. 135,4 368,8 310.2 294.3 

Culverts and other flowl ...................... .6 0 0 .5 

Total outflow ................................. 136.0 368.8 310,2 294,8 

Flow into lake: 

Tabulated flow .................................. 121.9 124.2 103.2 145.4 

North-shore creeks, culverts, etc,l.,.,., .. 71.4 69.4 19.8 62,6 

Total inflow ................................... 193.3 193,6 123,0 208.0 

Net flow out of lake ............................... -57,3 175.2 187.2 86.8 

Rainfall3 over lake basin4 .............. (in. ) ... 4.89 4.31 3.34 7.33 

Rainfall over lake basin .......................... 208.6 183.9 142.5 312.7 

Mean lake stage during period ............ (ftf,, 16.09 16.21 15.85 15.90 

Mean lake area6 during period ...... (sq mi) .. 715 716 708 711 

Lake stage 6 first day of period ............ (ftf,. 15,87 16,21 16.19 15.69 

lake storage6 , first day of period .............. 2,178 2,334 2,324 2,098 

Change in storage during period ................ 156 -10 -226 54 

Total inflow plus rainfall ........................ 401.9 377.5 265,5 520.7 

Total outflow plus change in storage .... ,.,., 292 358,8 84,2 348.8 

Difference •• , ........................................ 109.9 18,7 181.3 171.9 

1942 

Flow out of lake: 

Tabulated flow .................................. 129,1 160,3 495.4 368.2 

Culverts and other flowl ...................... 0 13.7 0 1. 8 

Total outflow ................................. 129.1 174.0 495.4 370.0 

Flow into lake: 

Tabulated flow .......... , ....................... 212.6 177.5 285.7 162.3 

North-shore creeks, culverts, etc. 1 ........ 24.1 42.6 53.5 35.6 

Total inflow,. ................................. 236.7 220.1 339.2 197.9 

Net flow out of lake .............................. -107.6 ·46,1 156.2 172.1 
SURFACE WATER 553 

of Lake Okeechcbee, 1940-46 

combined Opw in St. Lucie (table 33), West Palm Beach (table 34), Hillsboro (table ~6), North 

flow into lake is combined flow of Kissimmee River (table 25), Fisheating Creek (table 29), ·--·· -· - ·- -. -- -

May June July Aug. Sept, Oct, Nov. Dec, Yev -

194,3 229.7 83,4 20.7 184,5 396,1 86,0 88,2 1,917.6 1 2.0 2.0 2.8 1.9 0 .2 ,8 ,8 21,5 

196.3 231.7 86.2 22.6 184.5 396.3 86.8 89.0 1,939.1 

69,0 62,0 112.6 141,3 279,1 199,8 97.7 79.6 1,434.3 

'3.o 25.3 22.2 42.1 126,6 24.2 1.0 5,8 407.2 

72.0 87.3 134.8 183.4 405.7 224.0 98.7 85.4 1,841.5 

124.3 144,4 ~48.6 ~160.8 -221.2 172.3 -11.9 3.6 97.6 

3.83 7.22 4.89 7.59 8,78 .68 .24 3.72 48.56 

163,4 308,1 208,6 323,8 374.6 29,0 10.2 158.7 2,071.9 

15.40 15.45 . 15.11 15,42 16.29 16.37 15.92 15. '10 16.03. 

697 697 689 697 717 718 711 '705 713 

15.85 15.42 15.22 15.08 15.66 16.76 16,05 15.79 16,61 

2,170 1,976 1,886 1,824 2,084 2,587 2,260 2,142 2,518 

·194 -90 -62 260 503 ~327 -118 36 ~340 

235.4 395.4 343.4 50'7.2 780.3 253,0 108,9 244.1 3,913.4 

2,3 141,7 24.2 282.6 687.5 69.3 -31.2 125.0 1,599.1 

233,1 253,7 319.2 224,6 92.8 183,7 140,1 119.1 2,314.3 

410.4 37,8 125.4 344,3 230,6 _300,2 339.3 87.7 2,984,4 • 7 6.7 1.4 0 0 0 0 0 9,9 

411,1 44.5 126.8 344.3 230.6 300.2 339.3 87.7 2,994.3 

122,1 95,0 275,1 244.9 191.9 209.6 204.9 165.2 2,003.4 

18.4 6.4 158.9 38.8 65,4 103,7 18,9 9,4 643.1 

140.5 101.4 434.0 283.7 257,3 313,3 223,8 174,6 2,646,5 

270.6 -56.9 -307.2 60.6 -26.7 -13.1 115.5 -86.9 347.8 

2,20 3,83 11.74 4,63 6,63 5.12 1.94 2.14 58,10 

93.9 163.4 500.9 197.5 282.9 218.5 82.8 91.3 2,4J8.9 

15.50 14.90 15.66 15.94 15.93 16.35 16.29 16.24 15.90 

700 679 705 711 711 718 717 716 711 

15.81 14.98 15,03 16.18 15,73 16.26 16,50 16,15 15,87 

2,152 1,780 1,802 2,320 2,116 2,357 2,467 2,306 2,178 

-372 22 518 -204 241 110 -161 87 215 

234,4 264.8 934,9 481,2 540,2 531,8 306.6 265.9 5,125,4 

39,1 66,5 644,8 140,3 471,6 410,2 178,3 174,7 3,209,3 

195.3 198,3 290,1 340,9 68,6 121.6 128,3 91,2 1,916.1 

388,1 224.4 341,9 207.2 72,8 85.3 50.3 61.1 2,584.1 

3,0 16,2 6,0 3,8 4,2 2.2 2,5 1.7 55.1 

391.1 240.6 347.9 211.0 77.0 87,5 52.8 62.8 2,639.2 

111.8 208.4 169,9 149.3 149,8 120,1· 80,4 69.4 1,897.2 

10,0 165,3 42,5 16.7 35,9 12,0 2,1 1. 7 442,0 

121.8 373.7 212.4 166,0 185.7 132,1 82,5 71,1 2,339,2 

269,3 -133.1 135.5 45,0 -108.7 -44.6 -29.7 -8.3 300.0 
554 WATER RESOURCES IN SOU'll£ASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 62.-llydro1ogic summary of 

Jan, Feb. Mar. Apr. 

1942-Continued 

Rainfall over lake basin4 ........................ 1.82 3.21 4.64 4,06 Rainfall over lake basin ......................... 77.7 137.0 198.0 173.2 

Mean lake stage during period.,.,., .... ,(ft)f, 16.49 16.41 16.46 16,06 Mean lake area6 · during period ...... (sq mi)., 720 718 720 715 

Lake stage, first day of perio<l ......... (ft)f .. 16,34 16.50 16,58 16,34 Lake storage•, first <Ia y of period ............. 2,393 2,467 2,504 2,393 Change in storage during period ............... 74 37 -111 -228 

Total inflow plus rainfall,. .. ,. .................. 314.4 357.1 537,2 371.1 

Total outflow plus change in storage ......... 203,1 211 384.4 142 

Difference,,,,,.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,., •• ,,, ............... 111,3 146.1 152.8 229.1 

1943 

Flow out of lake: 

Tabulated flow .................................. 59.5 47,0 49,4 49,8 Culverts and other flowl • ., .... , ... ., ......... 1. 9 1.0 1. 0 2.6 

Total outflow ................................. 61,4 48.3 50.4 52.4 

Flow into lake: 

Tabulated flow .................................. 56.2 42.4 49.0 34.0 

North-shore creeks, culverts, etc.! ......... 1. 5 • 7 .6 .4 

Total inflow,. .. , ............................. 57.7 43,1 49.6 34.4 

Net flow out of lake ............................. 3,7 5,2 • 8 18.0 

Rainfall3 over lake basin4., .. ,.,. ....... (in,) .. .19 ,38 2.56 2.06 

Rainfall over lake basin ......................... 8.1 16,2 109,2 87.9 

Mean lake stage during period,.,., .... ,.(ft)~. 14.68 14.41 14,31 13,99 Mean lake area6 during pedod,.,..,(sq. mi) .. 664 641 633 610 Lake stage, first <lay of period,..,., • .,,.(ft)~. 14.80 14,56 14.22 14.28 

Lake storage•\ first day of pedod. ........... 1,703 1, 601 1,462 1,486 

Change in storage during pedod ................ -102 -139 24 -186 

Total inflow plus rainfall ....................... 65,8 59.3 158.8 122.3 

Total outflow plus change in storage ... ., .... -40,6 -90.7 74,4 -133,6 

Difference ........•..••...............•.............. 106.4 150 84.4 255,9 

1944 

Flow out of lake: 

Tabulated flow ................................. 47.5 54,6 52.8 42.4 

Culverts and other flowl ...................... 4,5 3,2 4.9 1.1 

Total outflow ............................... , 52,0 57,8 57,7 43.5 

Flow Into lake: 

Tabulated· flow ................................. 72.3 54.6 45.1 . 58,1 

North-shore creeks, culverts, etc,l .. ,. ... 2.9 3,0 3,3 12.2 

Total inflow.,,,,. ............................ 75.2 57,6 48.4 70.3 

Net flow out of lake ............................. -23.2 .2 9.3 -26.8 

Rainfall3 over lake basin4 ............... (in, ) .. • 79 .12 4.81 4,00 

Rainfall over lake basin ................... ., ... , 33,7 5.1 205.2 170.7 

Mean lake stage during period .......... (ft) 5 .. 15.13 14.98 14.65 14.58 

Mean lake area 6 during period ...... (sq mn •. 689 687 656 656 . Lake stage, first day of period .......... (ft}5 

.. 15,19 15.14 14.89 14.62 

Lake storage6, first <lay of period ............. 1,873 1,851 1,742 1,626 

Change in storage during period ............... -22 -109 -116 -91 

Total inflow plus rainfall ....................... 108.9 62,7 253,6 241.0 

Total outflow plus change in storage ......... 30 -51.2 -58.3 -47.5 

Difference ... , .. ,.,, .................................. 78.9 113.9 311.9 288,5 

See footnotes at end of table.· 
SURFACE WATER 555 

Lake Okeechobee, 1940-46-Continued 

May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Year 

a. 51 10,07 4.35 3.":n 4.57 ,55 1.03 1.86 43.58 

149.8 429.7 185.6 166.8 195.0 23.5 43,9 79.4 1,859,6 

15.38 15.65 15.64 15.27 15.25 15.17 14.96 14.82 15,63 

697 703 703 695 692 692 687 672 703 

15.84 15.07 15.89 15,46 15.11 15.36 15.01 14.80 16,34 2,165 1,820 2,188 1,994 1,837 1,949 1,793 1,703 2,393 

-345 368 -194 -157 112 -156 -9(} 0 -690 

271.6 803,4 398.0 332,8 380,7 155.6 126,4 150,5 4,198, 8 

46.1 608,6 153.9 54 189 -68.5 -37.2 62.8 1,949.2 

225.5 194.8 244.1 278.8 191.7 224.1 163.6 87.7 2,249,6 

45.1 35.4 4.1 22.9 16,8 36.6 59.8 43,3 469.7 

1,8 0 0 0 0 2.5 4.6 ,3 16,0 

46.9 35,4 4.1 22.9 16.8 39.1 64.4 43.6 485,7 

29.1 35.6 90,6 109,7 1!18.5 273,1 114.5 87.9 1,110,6 

1. 0 4,8 33.2 33.2 ,)5,4 46,3 2.5 3,3 182,9 

30.1 40.4 123.8 142.9 243,9 319.4 117.0 91,2 1,293,5 

16.8 -5.0 -119.7 -120.0 -227.1 -280.3 -52.6 -47.6 -807,8 

2,84 5.10 7.19 6,44 3,99 2.18 1. 74 .19 34,86 

121.2 217.6 306.8 274.8 170,2 fJ3,0 74.2 8,1 1,487.3 

13,58 13.27 13.47 13.96 14,48 15.07 15.22 15,21 14.30 

598 588 594 610 649 689 692 692 633 

13.81 13.44 13.32 13.79 14.17 14,67 15.16 15,27 14,80 

1,300 1,158 1,113 1,292 1,442 1,647 1,859 1,908 1,703 

-142 -45 179 150 205 212 49 -35 170 

151.3 258,0 430,6 417.7 414.1 412,4 191.2 99,3 2,780.8 

-95.1 -9.6 183.1 172.9 221,8 251,1 113.4 8, 6 655,7 

246.4 267.6 247.5 244.8 192,3 161,3 77.8 90.7 2,125.1 

58.4 33,6 43.1 22.0 31.5 -3.2 38.3 56.9 477.9 

6.3 3,9 2. 3 2.4 1. 5 0 .1 .3 30,5 

64.7 37.5 45.4 24.4 33.0 -3.2 38.4 57.2 508.4 

39.6 34.1 38,5 73.1 106.3 89.8 106.4 98.7 816,6 

,4 2.3 2.4 33.7 37,3 33.8 3,8 2.0 137.1 

40.0 36,4 40.9 106,8 143.6 123.6 110.2 100,7 953,7 

24,7 1.1 4,5 -82.4 ·110.6 -126,8 -71.8 ·43.5 -445,3 

3.82 3,88 5.84 4.88 4.03 6,16 .16 .17 . 38,66 

163.0 165.5 249,2 208.2 172.0 262,8 6.8 7.3 1, 649,5 

14.26 13.~5 13,72 14.02 14.21 14.49 14,70 14.54 14,44 

633 610 601 610 626 6- 664 649 641 

14,40 14.09 13.77 13.80 14,15 14.24 14.75 14.76 15.19 

1,535 1,410 1,284 1,296 1,434 1,470 1,682 1,686 1,873 

-125 -126 12 138 36 212 4 -126 -313 

203,0 201.9 290.1 315.0 315.6 386.4 117.0 108.0 2,603.2 

-60.3 -88,5 57.4 162".4 69 208,8 42.4 -68.8 195.4 

263.3 290.4 232.7 152.6 246.6 177,6 74.6 176.8 2,407.8 
5.56 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 62.-Ilydrologic summary of 

Jan. Feb, Mar, Apr. May 

Flow out of lake: 1945 

Tabulated flow .................................. 55.3 44.4 56,.3 52.8 53.7 

Culverts and other flowl ....................... 0 0 0 3.7 5.4 

Total outflow .................................. 55.3 44.4 56.3 56,5 59.1 

Flow Into lake: 

Tabulated flow .... , ............................. 90.9 73.3 66.4 47,4 34,2 North·shore creeks, culverts, etc, I.,.,, .. 4.3 1.6 3.4 ,9 .5 

Total inflow ................................... 95,2 74.9 69.8 48.3 34,7 

Net flow out of lake ............................... -39.9 -30.5 -13.5 8,2 24.4 

Rainfall'over lake basin4 .................. (1n~, 1.30 .41 .09 2.32 2.15 

Rainfall over lake basin .......................... 55,5 17.5 3.8 99,0 91,7 

Mean lake stage dUring period ............ (ft)~ 14,53 14.40 14.14 13.66 13.26 

Mean lake area diD'ing period .... , .(sq. ml)t 649 641 618 601 588 

Lake stage, first of day period ............ (ft}!., 14.46 14.63 14.38 13,86 13.54 

Lake storage/ifirst day of period ............... 1,560 1,631 1,527 1,319 1,196 Change in storage during period ................ 71 -104 ·208 .."123 -262 

Total inflow plus rainfall ........................ 150.7 92,4 73,6 147.3 126.4 

Total outflow plus change in storage ......... 126,3 ·59.6 ·151,7 ·66.5 -202.9 

Difference ......................................... ., 24,4 152.0 225.3 213.8 329.3 

1946 

Flow out of lake: 

Tabulated flow .................................. 129.7 56.2 289.7 193,7 54,3 Culverts and other flow1 ....................... ,4 6.3 7.9 10.8 12.8 

Total outflow ................................. 130.1 62.5 297.6 204,5 67.1 

Flow Into lake: 

Tabulated tlow .................................. 159.2 103.9 102.8 69.6 62.1 North-shore creeks, culverts, etcl,.,,,.,, 9.6 5.6 17.6 3.2 16.8 

Total inflow .................................. 168.8 109.5 120;4 72.8 78.9 

Net flow out of lake ............................. I 

-38.7 -47.0 177.2 131.7 -11.8 

Rainfall 3 over lake bastn' .............. .(in.).. •.. ,92 1.46 2.76 ,06 6.97 

Rainfall over lake basin ........................ 1 39,3 62.3 117.8 2.6 297.4 

Mean lake stage d!D'ing period ........... (ft) ;, 16,81 16.75 16,69 15,84 15.50 

Mean lake area6durlng period .. .,.(sq. mi~., 723 723 722 708 700 

Lake stage, fl,rst days perlod ............ (ft) .. 16,83 16,80 16,79 16,28 15.46 

Lake storage 6, first day of period, ............ '2,619 2,605 2,600 2,366 1,994 Change b• storage during period ............... -14 -5 -234 -372 18 

Total inflow plus rainfall ........................ 208.1 171,8 238,2 75,4 376.3 

Total outflow plus change in storage ......... 116.1 57.5 63.6 ·167.5 85,1 Difference ........................................... 92 114.3 174.6 242,9 291.2 

!Records computed from discharges furnished by U. S. Corps of Engineers, Jacksonville, and 

discharge relationships. Includes Miami Canal at Lake Harbor after July 1, 1943. 

ZComputed on basis of other records and rainfall data. 

sMean rainfall determined by weighting, by Theissen method, records for five rainfall sta- tions around Lake Okeechobee for period January and February 1940 and six .rainfall stations 

for period March 1940 to December 1946. on a map furnished b·.r l.J. S. Corps· of Engineers 

Jacksonville. Althongh rainfall values were weighted on basis of a normal lake area, onlythe 

values were used for the lake basin t~re defined under footnote 4 and that are assumed to represent the conditior.s in the basin •. 
SURFACE WATER 557 

Ll'k" Okeed10bee, 1940-46-Continued 

June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov, Dec, Year 1940-46 

inclusive 

40.4 ·16.9 6.6 85.3 595.9 400.1 124.1 1,498. 0 

1. 2 0 .1 0 2.9 5. 2 7.0 25,5 

41.6 -16.9 6.7 85.3 598.8 405.3 131,1 1,523,5 

28,4 189.3 234.1 520.8 503.9 300.4 209.3 2,298.4 

6,8 38,9 45.8 290.5 167.8 20.4 4.5 585,4 

35.2 228.2 279.9 811,3 671,7 320.8 213.8 2,883.8 

6,4 -245,1 ·273.2 ·726.0 -72.9 84.5 -82.7 -1,360.3 

6.71 7.42 5,17 9,91 4,40 1.08 .95 41.91 

286.3 316.6 220.6. 422.8 187,7 46.1 40.5 1,788.1 

12.90 13.31 14.27 15.68 17,08 16.94 16.84 14.75 

'574 588 633 705 727 725 723 672 

12,84 13,08 13.99 14.62 16.84 17.18 16,81 14,46 

934 1,023 1,370 1,626 2,623 2,780 2,610 1,560 

89 347 256 997 157 -170 9 1,059 

321.5 544.8 500.5 1,234.1 859,4 366,9 254.3 4,671.9 

130.6 330.1 262.7 1,082.3 755,8 235,3 140.1 2,582.5 

190,9 214,7 237,8 151,8 103,6 131.6 114.2 2,089,4 

144,0 30,9 42.2 47,9 196,2 29.3 45,9 1,260,0 

1,3 • 6 0 0 ,1 .4 ,8 41.4 

145.3 31.5 42.2 47,9 196,3 29.7 46,7 1,301.4 11,391,6 

62,1 68,8 111.6 151,9 145.2 112.2 95.6 1,245,0 

21.6 34.2 45.1 83.6 36,9 33.1 13.4 320.7 

83,7 103.0 156.7 235.5 182.1 145.3 109.0 1,565.7 13,523.9 

61.6 -71.5 ·114.5 ·187.6 14,2 -115.6 -62.3 ·264.3 -2,132.3 

7.10 6.85 5.06 7.67 1,57 3.15 1.57 45,14 310.81 

303,0 292.3 215.9 327.3 67,0 134.4 67.0 1,926.3 13,261.6 

15.62 15.68 15.87 16.18 16.25 16.41 16.43 16.17 15.32 

703 705 711 716 716 718 718 716 695 

15.50 15.58 15,82 15.98 16.43 16,09 16.41 16.83 16.61 

2,012 2,048 2,156 2,228 2,435 2,278 2,426 2,619 2,518 

36 108 72 207 -157 148 4 -189 -88 

386.7 395.3 372.6 562,8 249,1 279.7 176,0 3,492,0 26,785.5 

181,3 139.5 114.2 254.9 39,3 177.7 50.7 1,112,4 11,303.6 

205,4 255.8 258.4 307.9 209,8 102 125,3 2,379.6 15,481.9 

·- 4Lake basin refers to lake and surrounding area toward the lake from locations of inflow and 

outflow measurements and has been measured as approximately 800 square miles. 

sokeechobee datum : 1. 44 feet below mean sea level. 

6from area and caP'1.city curves by U. S. Co9>s of Engineers, Jacksonville, 
558 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

The above are the directly measurable quantities of supply to 

and drainage from the lake. From surveys of the lake a capacity 

table has been computed by the Corps of Engineers. With this 

table and a record of its stage, the month to month changes in 

volume can be taken into account in the inventory. No other quantities are directly known. Evaporation from the lake and transpiration from the littoral vegetation are unmeasurable, and the 

amounts lost in such manner can only be estimated. The difference 

between precipitation plus total measured inflow to the laK'e"basin 

and total measured outflow, with adjustment for storage in the 

lake, averaged about 2, 200, 000 acre-ft per year, the equivalent 

of 51. 3 in. over the lake basin. The monthly differences average 

as follows: 

Month Thousands of inches over acre-feet lake basin 

Jan. 99 2.3 

Feb. 122 2.9 

Mar. 180 4. 2 

Apr. 242 5.6 

May 255 6.0 

June 229 5. 5 

July 258 6. 0 

Aug. 248 5. 8 

Sept. 179 4.2 

Oct. 169 4.0 

Nov. 11!7 2. 8 

Dec, 115 2.6 

These differences range from a maximum of 6. 0 in. in May and 

July to a minimum of 2. 3 in. in January. The seasonal cycle is so 

strongly developed that evaporation and associated transpiration 

from hydrophytic vegetation· are obviously the controlling factors. 

Seepage in and out of the lake is also contained in these figures, 

but the net quantity is exceedingly small and probably quite uniform 

throughout the year. Parker (p. 107) has estimated, on the 

basis of ground-water studies that inflow into Lake Okeechobee is 

only about 730 acre-ft per year, or about 1. 0 cfs per day. 

Measurements of evaporation from the pans located about the 

lake are a further aid in judging the losses from Lake Okeechobee. 

These measurements, expressed in inches of depth per unit of area, 

must be multiplied by a coefficient in order to convert therp to 

equivalent evaporation from a lake surface. The location ant:i'' description of these pans, which are maintained and operated by the 

Corps of Engineers at Clewiston, are given in table 7. In this 

analysis a coefficient of 0. 78 was used for the six sunken land pans 

around the lake, however, the proper application of pan coefficients 

is a subject open to much question. A value of about 0. 7 conforms 
SURFACE WATER 559 

reasonably well to available experience for application to Class A 

pans, such as those of the Department of Agriculture at Belle Glade 

and Hiwassee. (See pages 42-54 for a discussion of evaporation.) 

Additional losses due to transpiration of hyd~ophytes occur in a 

marsh around the shore of the lake. This area, comprising 100 

square miles, was measured on an ecologic map furnished by 

Dr. J. H. Davis, Jr., ecologist of the Florida Geological Survey. 

These losses are assumed to be in addition to the' evaporation from 

the water surface in the same area, because the losses of this area 

total 150 percent of those of the water surface area (Calif. Dept. 

of Public Works Bull., 1942., p. 132-138). Evapotranspiration 

was studied at the experiment station at Belle Glade during 1937. 

From a stand of mature sawgrass grown in a tank with water about 

11 in. from the surface, the evapotranspiration was measured as 

84 in. (Clayton, Neller, and Allison, 1942, p. 32), 131 percentof 

the losses from a nearby Class A evaporation pan. In calculating 

total evaporation losses from the lake basin by reference to pans, 

the compute!=~ lake ev~poration will be multiplied by 1.00 x ~ +: 

1.50 X !88-= 1.06, 

Evaporation from the Class A pans at Belle Glade and Hiwassee 

averaged 63. 2 in. per year during the 7-year period 1940-46. On 

this basis, evaporation from the lake would be 44. 2 in. ; with allowance for littoral transpiration, the total losses would be 46. 9 in. 

per year. Evaporation from the six sunken pans average 54. 2 in. 

Using a coefficient of 0. 78, lake evaporation would total 42. 3 in.; 

with allowance for littoral transpiration, the total losses would 

amount to 44. 8 in. 

Since the calculated evaporation from the Lake is 46. 9 in, where 

using the Type-A ventilated pans and 44. 8 in. where using the sunken 

pans, the actual evaporation may be between these two values---46 

in. per year. This average loss could be reconciled with the average 

land-water evaporation calculated for the Kissimmee River basin 

(42. 4 in.), because the opportunity for evaporation would make the 

lake loss somewhat higher. 

All of the above evidence suggests that the losses amount to almost 

the 51. 8-in. difference between precipitation plus total inflow to the 

basin and total outflow with adjustment for storage. The extent, 

therefore, that 46 in. represents the annual water loss for the lake 

basin, the residual between 51. 8 and 46 in. represents the net outseepage, a rate of about 6 in. per year or 0. 042 ft per month. This 

is equivalent to 250,000 acre-ft per year, whereas ground-water 

studies (p. 1U7) indicate a flow of less than 1, 000 acre-ft. 

Obviously the pan coefficients are higher than indicated by experience at other lakes. 
560 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN Fl.ORIDA 

Runoff, as it usually occurs in a natural basin, does not occur 

in Lake Okeechobee, because rain becomes runoff as soon as it 

falls upon the lake, The lake waters are subject to losses, but the 

situation is somewhat different from evaporation from the soil and 

vegetation in other natural basins. Nevertheless, the difference 

between precipitation and los"Ses is the net increment to the waters 

passing into and out of the lake basin. As already indicated, rainfall during the 7-year period of record (1940-46) averaged 44.4 in. 

This figure is about 3 in. below a long-term normal. Since evapotranspiration losses are of the same order of magnitude as the rainfall, the lake basin contributes almost nothing ~o the water supply 

of southeastern Florida. 

During the same period of record, runoff of the Kissimmee 

River basin averaged 7, 45 in, (see table 61), and runoff for the 

entire southeastern Florida. drainage unit averaged 7. 5 in, (table 

55). The difference between measured rainfall and runoff in these 

two areas averaged 42. 9 in: and 42.6 in., respectively, only slightly 

less than the estimated loss from Lake Okeechobee. Probably the 

negligible contribution by Lake Okeechobee to the water supply of 

southeastern Florida is due as much to low rainfall over the lake 

as to high losses. 

EVERGLADES AREA 

The Everglades area is the most downstream part of the southeastern Florida drainage system, and is the hinterland to the populous Atlantic Coastal Ridge. The distinguishing features of the 

Everglades proper, although climatic and physiographic in their 

inception, are basically ecologic (see pls. 11, 12), However, in 

defining an area from the point of view of its water resources, 

boundaries must relate to drainage features and points of measurement, Such boundaries will not conform precisely with the limits 

of the ecologic unit. The Everglades area, as this drainage unit 

will be called, covers 3, 900 square miles and is bounded on the 

north by the southern levee of the Lake Okeechobee basin (described 

in the previous section) and by the natural divide that runs from 

the head of the St. Lucie Canal to West Palm Beach. From West 

Palm Beach the boundary extends southward along the Atlantic 

Coastal Ridge to the Tamiami Canal, then westward to the low . 

drainage divide that conforms approximately to the western boundary 

of the Everglades Drainage District. It follows this divide northward 

to Lake Okeechobee. The Tamiami Canal forms a suitable boundary 

because it is used to measure not only the eastward drainage from 

the area, but also the drainage to the south. 

The flows that pass the terminals of all canals crossing the 

boundaries are summarized for the period 1940-46, by months, in 
SURFACE WATER 561 

table 63. The difference between total outflow and inflow represents 

the net increment to visible runoff, produceq by precipitation over 

the area. This quantity averaged 1, 985, od6 acre-ft per year, or 

9. 54 in. 

Runoff, a term applied in general to the surface outflow from an 

area, has complex characteristics in the Everglades. The canals 

have a flat gradient and are excavated partly in rocks of varying but 

relatively high permeability to water. As a result, the direction 

and rate of flow in the canals is influenced by the surrounding water. 

There is an almost constant movement of water into and out of 

storage in the rock and, to a more limited extent, in the muck 

through which the canals are cut. Seemingly, the boundary between 

the canals and the rock and muck, as far as the movement of water 

is concerned, is indefinite. Moreover, the flow in the canals is 

subject to considerable regulation to provide for irrigation and 

drainage. The control structures at some points are only partially 

effective however, because of leakage through the adjoining permeable rocks. This situation also affects the measurements of 

runoff, but to an indeterminable extent. 

There is also some seepage flow across the boundaries of the 

area that cannot be measured. Before the canals were built, over· 

flow and seepage flow from Lake Okeechobee were diffused through 

the imperfectly drained Everglades. Now, only a very small net 

seepage flow occurs each year between the lake and the Everglades 

south and east of the lake. In addition. an indeterminable amount 

of water percolates out of the Everglades to the sea. Seepage and 

percolation. if they were of the same magnitude, would compensate 

one for another • but the latter is probably much the larger. Although 

both are probably small in relation to the total measured flow, 

they introduce a measure of uncertainty into all inventories of the 

water resources of the southeast Florida area and especially of the 

Everglades. 

Other items in the inventory include mean areal precipitation, by 

months, based on observations at 20 rain gages (subsequent to June 

1940). The distribution of gages is on the average of one gage for 195 

square miles, the best coverage in the State. However, most of the 

gages are located along the coast or around the lake, leaving wide interior areas poorly defined. Annual precipitation averaged 50.98 in. 

during the 7 years 1940--46. The difference between rainfall and runoff, as given in table 63, equals the sum of the evaporation and transpiration losses and the volume put into, or withdrawn from, storage. If a sufficiently long period of time is considered, changes in 

storage may be neglected and the difference will equal the portion of· 

the rainfall lost as evaporation and transpiration. This difference, 

during the 7 years of record, averaged 41.44 in. (subject to minor 

adjustment for net change in storage). Thus the atmosphere accounts for 82 percent of the total rainfall on the area and is by far 

the most effective agent for the ~rainage of the Everglades. 
562 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 63.-llydrologic summary of Everglades area 

[All quantities are in thousands ~gf acre~feet, except as noted. Tabulated flow out of area for ton Canal (table 53). Hillsborb""Canal (table 37), Cypress Creek Canal (table 54), North New 

outlets (table 49). Tabulated flow out of area for 194346 includes discharge at the following 

(table 39), Miami Canal (table 47), and Tamiami Canal outlets (table 49). Tabulated flow 

(table 34), Hillsboro Canal (table 36), North New River Canal (table 38), Miam!Canal(table 

Palm Beach Canal (table 34), Hillsboro Canal (table 36), and North New River Canal (table 

Jan. Feb. Max. Apr. 

Flow out of area: Hl40 

Tabulated flow ..................................... 135,1 152.9 127,1 111.8 

Other flow I, ........................................ 3.2 6.3 4,7 3,6 

Total outflow .................................... 138,3 159,2 131.8 115.4 

Flow into area: Tabulated flow ..................................... 55.9 43.6 44.6 41.9 

Total inflow ...................................... 55,9 43,6 44.6 41.9 

Net measured runoff from area .................... 82.4 115.6 87.2 73.5 

Net measured runoff from area ............ (lo..) .. .40 ,56 .42 .35 

Mean rainfall over area2 .... ., .............. (in. ) .. 2,86 2.93 4.26 1.52 

Rainfall less runoff ................ , .......... (in.)., 2.46 2.37 3.84 1.17 

Pan eva.poration' .............................. (in, ) .. 3.16 4.42 5,52 6,55 

1941 

Flow out of area: Tabulated flow ..................................... 327.0 329.6 279.7 317.2 

Other flow 1 ......................................... 12.0 11.9 12.6 19.6 

Total· outflow .................................. ,, 339.0 341.5 292.3 336.8 

Flow into area: 

Tabulated flow ..................................... 11,4 -4.2 21.3 3.9 

Total inflow, ................................... ,, 11.4 -4.2 21.3 3,9 

Net measured runoff from area. .................... 327.6 345.7 271.0 332.9 

Net measured runoff from area ............ (in. ) .. 1,57 1.66 1.30 1.60 

Mean rainfall over area2,,., ............... (in. ) .. 4,48 4.31 4.14 5.75 

Rainfall less runoff ........................... (in. ) .. 2.91 2.65 2.84 4.15 

Pan evaporation3 .............................. (in. )., 3.36 3.65 5.49 6.80 

1942 

Flow out of area: 

Tabulated flow .................................... 208.4 128.0 140.0 290.8 

Other flow! • .,, ................................. ~ ... 7.4 4.7 4.3 7.4 

Total outflow., .................................. 215.8 132.7 144.3 298.2 

Flow into area: 

Tabulated flow ..................................... 49.3 44.2 33.4 15.3 

Total inflow ...................................... 49,3 44.2 33.4 15.3 

Net measured runoff from area .......••••••••.•••• 166.5 88.5 110,9 282.9 

Net measured runoff from area ........... (in,.) .. • 80 .43 ,53 1,36 

Mean rainfall ovet area.2 ................... ·(in.) .. 2.85 2,20 3,99 5.67 

Rainfall less runoff, ......................... (in. ) .. 2.05 1. 77 3.46 4,31 

Pan evaporations .............................. (ip. ) •• 3,22 4,04 5.68 6.80 

1943 

Flow out of area: 

Tabulated flow .......................... , ......... 55.4 45.0 37.7 38,1 

Other flow! ......................................... 6. 8 4.3 2,8 1,4 

Total outflow ................................... 62.2 49.3 40,5 39,5 

Flow into area: 

Tabulated flow .................................... 33.9 33,4 32.8 32.0 

Other flow~•••••••••·t~•·••v._ .......................... 2.0 1.6 1.1 .9 

Total inflow, ............................ , .... , 3s.9 35,0 33.9 32,9 
SURFACE WATER 563 

sout/1 and east of Lake Okeechobee. 

1940-42 includes discharge at tl!>' following stations: West Palm Beach Canal (table 35). Boyn• 

River Canal (table 39), Miami Canal (table 47), Tamiami Canal (table 52), Tamiami Canal 

stations: West Palm Beach Canal (table 35), Hillsboro Canal (table 37), North NewRi:>~erCanal 

into the area, for 1940~42 includes discharge at the following stations: West Palm Beach Canal 

42). Tabulated flow into area for 1943-46 includes discharge at tbe following stations: West 

38)] 

May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec, Year 

64.5 190.2 142.0 248.4- 488.0 362.4 280,8 237.1 2,540.3 

.9 9.8 7.1 13,8 18.7 14,4 10.7 8.3 101.5 

65.4 200.0 149.1 262.2 506.7 376.8 291.5 245,4 2,641.8 

60.3 28.5 35.2 2.9 ·36.4 22,7 45.8 51.3 396.3 

6o;s 28.5 35.2 2.9 ·36.4 22.7 45.8 51.3 396,3 

5.1 171.5 113.9 259.3 543.1 354.1 245.7 194.1 2,245.5 

.02 .82 .55 1. 25 2.61 1.70 1.18 .93 10.79 

3.40 9.09 5.77 9.40 10.18 2.44 .65 4.22 56,72 

3.38 8. 27 5. 22 8.15 7.57 • 74 ·.53 3.29 45.93 

8.08 6,38 6.78 6.26 4.89 5,72 4.42 3.51 65.69 

84.4 148.6 472.0 347.9 389.7 421.8 268.2 174.7 3,660.8 

7,7 7.4 29.5 24.6 19.0 21.2 10.4 4.9 180.8 

92.1 156.0 501.5 372.5 408.7 443.0 278,6 179.6 3,841.6 

14.7 28.3 -86.0 -6.7 ·16.6 ·18.8 34.0 46.2 27,5 

14.7 28.3 ·86.0 -6.7 ·16.6 -18.8 ·34,0 46.2 27,5 

77.4 127,7 587.5 379,2 425.3 461,8 244.6 133.4 3,814,1 • 85 • 61 2.82 1. 82 2.04 . 2. 22 1.18 .64 18.31 

1.50 7.54 10.78 4.05 8.83 4,03 2.70 .98 59.09 

.65 6,93 7.96 2,23 6.79 1.81 1,52 .34 40.78 

8.36 7.22 6.34 6.98 5.61 5.70 3.78 2.70 65,99 

72.9 562.8 345.9 236.0 312,8 211.0 106.4 81.0 2,796.0 

4,9 26.8 26,1 14.8 15.3 10.2 2.8 2.3 127.0 

77.8 589.6 372.0 250.8 328,1 221.2 109.2 83.3 2,923.0 

29.8 ·106.2 -24,0 36.5 7.2 46.0 14.9 37,0 203.4 

29.8 -106.2 -24.0 36.5 7.2 46.0 34,9 37.0 203.4 

48.0 695,8 396.0 214.3 320,9 175.2 74.3 46,3 2,719.6 

.71 3,35 1.90 1. 03 1.54 .84 .36 • 22 13.07 

6.08 14.58 3.33 4,91 6.17 1.59 ,97 2.14 54.48 

5.37 11.23 1.43 3.88 4.63 .75 ,61 1.92 41.41 

7.26 5.85 7.54 7.18 6.10 5,76 4.23 3.37 67.03 

47.9 45.9 99.0 120,1 201.3 214.7 133.0 116.1 1,154.2 

4,0 7.0 11.8 18,0 27.6 24.5 16.5 17.1 141,8 

51,9 52.9 110.8 138,1 228.9 239.2 149.5 133.2 1,296.0 

28.9 18.4 -6,6 12.5 4,1 22,6 35,3 27.0 274.3 .2 -.1 -7.9 -6.2 -3,3 2.5 4.6 5.2 .6 

29.1 18.3 -14,5 6.3 • 8 25.1 39.9 32.2 274.9 
564 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUlliEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 63,-lfydrologic summaq of Everglades area 

Jan. Feb, Mar. Apr. 

1943 Continued 

Net measured runoff from area .................... 26.3 14.3 6.6 6.6 

Net measured runoff from area •••••••••••• (in.) .. .13 .07 .03 .03 

Mean rainfall over area~ .................... (in.) •• 1.23 .61 1.03 2.27 

Rainfall less runoff ........................... (in. J •• 1.10 .54 1,00 2.24 

Pan evaporations .............................. (in.) •• 3,64 4.49 6.35 6,55 

1944 

Flow out of area: 

Tabulated 83.1 43,8 36,8 27.4 flow ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

Other flowl .......................................... 10.0 3,0 4.0 2.0 

Total outflow .................................... 93.1 46,8 40.8 29.4 

Flow into area: 

Tabulated 31.9 33,4 33,2 27.6 flow •.•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

Other flow 1 .......................................... 3.6 2,1 ·,8 -3.5 

Total inflow ...................................... 35.5 35,5 32.4 24.1 

Net measured runoff from area ..................... 57.6 11.3 8.4 5.3 

Net measured runoff from area ............ (in. ) •• .28 • 05 .04 ,03 

Mean rainlall over area z .................... (in. )., .88 • 06 2.20 1.60 

Rainfall less runoff ........................... .(in. ) .. • 60 ,01 2.16 1.57 

Pan evaporations .............................. .(in. ) .. 3,37 4,74 5,88 6.86 

1945 

Flow out of area; 

Tabulated flow ...................................... 65.0 30.5 24,3 13,1 Other flow1 .......................................... 8.0 2.0 .9 ,1 

Total outflow ..................................... 73.0 32,5 25,2 13,2 

Flow into area: 

Tabulated flow • .,., ................................. 42.3 33.0 34,7 33,5 Other flowl .......................................... -2.1 -.6 -2.7 .1 

Total inflow ...................................... 40.2 32.4 32.0 33,6 

Net measured runoff from area ..................... 32.8 .1 -6.8 -20,4 Net measured runoff from area ............ (in.) .. .16 .0005 -.03 -.10 

Mean rainfall over area2 .................... .(in, ) .. 1.78 • 76 • 50 1.53 Rainfall less runoff ........................... (in.) .. 1.62 • 76 • 53 1.63 

Pan evaporations .............................. (in.) •• 3.66 4.38 6.26 7.30 

1946 

Flow out of area: 

Tabulated flow ...................................... 142.2 55.8 45.0 29,6 Other flowl .......................................... 16.0 3,0 5,4 1,9 

Total outflow ..................................... 158.2 58.8 50.4 31.5 

Flow into area; 

Tabulated flow ...................................... 38.8 41.1 45.1 48.0 

Other flowl,..,, ..................................... -1.0 5.6 7.3 7.1 

Total inflow ...................................... 37,8 46,7 52,4 55.1 

Net measured runoff from area ..................... 120,4 12,1 -2,0 -23,6 Net measured runoff from area ............ (in.) .. ,58 .06 -,01 -.11 

Mean rainfall over area 2 ................... (in.) •• ,99 1,01 2,33 ,33 

Rainfall less runoff.......................... (in, >•· .41 • 95 2.34 .44 

Pan evaporations ............................. (in• ) .. 3,44 4.49 5,82 7,76 

1

•0ther flow" records consist of: 1940-42·, records far South New River Canal at lock and 

dam in Davie computed on basis of twotide.dischargeintegrations made 2 miles below Davie, 

interpolated as to distance and compared with record of North New River Canal: and 1943-46, 

records of outflow computed from discharges furnished by Corps of Engineers, Jacksonville, and 

discharge relation with other stations. 
SURFACE WATER 565 

south and east of Lake Okeechobee- Continued 

May June July Aug. Sept, Oct. No", Dec. Year 

22,8 34.6 125.3 131.8 228,1 214.1 109.6 101.0 1, 021. 1 

.11 .17 .60 .63 1.10 1,03 • 53 .49 4.92 

5.15 6.30 8.35 6.27 7,21 3,79 2.65 .39 45,25 

5.04 6.13 7.75 5,64 6.11 2.76 2.12 ·.10 40.33 

7.52 6.73 6.34 6,10 6.40 5.35 3.94 2.96 66.37 

50.5 37.7 47.4 117.0 101,2 196,3 138.4 77.6 957,2 

5.0 3.0 5.0 20.0 17,0 31.0 20.0 9.0 129.0 

55,5 40.7 52.4 137.0 118.2 227,3 158.4 86.6 1,086,2 

35.4 18.3 25.7 8.0 14,1 ·14.8 26.8 40.8 280.4 

2.5 ·.3 -.1 -12.8 ·18,8 ·15.0 -1.0 .1 -44.0 

37,9 18.0 25.6 -4.8 -4.7 -29,8 25.8 40.9 236.4 

17.6 22.7 26,8 141,8 122.9 257,1 132,6 45.7 849,8 

,08 .11 ,13 ,68 ,59 1.24 .64 .22 4.09 

5,86 3,81 8,20 8,03 4.47 6,95 .22 .38 42,66 

5.78 3,70 8.07 7,35 3,88 5,71 -.42 .16 38,57 

7,34 7.24 6.99 6.47 6.28 5.32 4.02 3,36 67.87 

13.6 29.1 68.4 82.4 292,4 374,6 321;8 172.4 1,487.6 

.2 2.8 13.0 16.2 41i.O 57.8 40.8 18.8 206,6 

13.8 31.9 81.4 98,6 338,4 432,4 362.6 191.2 1,694.2 

31.4 13,9 -31,4 -9.5 -45.8 6.4 25.9 38.9 173,3 

-,5 -6,8 -8.4 -14.4 -27.2 -5.3 5.2 4.8 ·57,9 

30,9 7.1 -39.8 -23.9 -73.0 1.1 31.1 43,7 115,4 

-17.1 24.8 121.2 122.5 411.4 431.3 331.5 147,5 1,578,8 

-,08 .12 .58 .59 1.98 2.07 1,59 .71 7.59 

2,63 7.39 9.27 6,10 10.42 5,62 1.74 1,47 49.21 

2,71 7.27 8,69 5.51 8.44 3.55 .15 • 76 41,62 

8,13 7.20 6,40 7.04 5,89 4.61 4,33 3,12 68,32 

78.5 120,6 146,4 158,9 322.0 263.6 253.6 150.3 1,766,5 

12.3 20.7 23.0 24,4 45,5 34.4 33,4 20.2 240.2 

90.8 141.3 169,4 183.3 367.5 298.0 287.0 170.5 2,006.7 

41.4 29.1 23.0 11.4 -10.9 26.5 1,9 30,7 326.1 

4,2 .9 .3 -4.4 ·2.5 -2.5 .3 .8 16,1 

45.6 30.0 23,3 7.0 -13,4 24,0 2.2 31.5 342.2 

45.2 111.3 146.1 176,3 380.9 274.0 284,8 139,0 , 1,664.5 

.22 .54 • 70 • 85 1,83 1.32 1.37 .67 8.02 

7.28 7.25 8,48 6.35 7.60 2,04 3,62 2,20 49.48 

7,06 6.71 7.78 5,50 5.77 ,72 2,25 1,53 41.46 

6,53 6.42 6,10 6,23 5,12 5.37 3.68 3,48 64.44 

2 , 

Rainfall computed by Thiessen method by weighting records of 11 stations for period January to May 1940, and 20 stations for period June 1940 to December 1946, • 3Values for January to July 1940 are records of Belle Glade station. Values for August 1940 to December 1946 are averages of four stations in the area. 
566 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 63 also lists the monthly evaporation from four Class A 

pans (Kadel, 1919) in the Everglades that is used in the study of the 

difference between rainfall and runoff. 

Rainfall-runoff diagrams might be helpful in the maintenance of 

an inventory of water needed if the water levels of the Everglades 

were regulated. However, the available record is short, and only 

provisional analyses can be obtained. 

The relation between monthly rainfall and runoff depends upon 

the temperature as it affects losses, and upon the storage in the 

area at the beginning of the month as it affects drainage and soil 

conditions. This problem is further complicated by regulation of 

the flow in the canals. The solution involves correlation between 

the runoff, rainfall, month of the year, and a parameter indicative 

of storage and soil conditions. 

Under certain conditions, as in the Kissimmee basin, the rate 

of outflow or runoff prior to the period of study may be a satisfactory 

index of antecedent storage and may yield acceptable correlation. 

A trial correlation, using monthly mean outflow during the preceding 

month as the parameter, gave a mean error.of 26 percent; using 

total outflow in four major canals during the last 5 days of the precedingmonth, gave an average error of 19 percent. Because these 

errors appeared high, further study was made. 

Storage in the area can be approximated for a given period by 

reference to the basic equation P. R = L +L\S, in which I? is prec.ipitation, R is the measured runoff, L is the evaporation losses, and 

M i-s the change in storage of all kinds. P and Rare .known factors; 

therefore, the sumL+M can be determined. Over the 7-year period, 

·P-R averaged41. 44 in. (p. 561). If t.S is tentatively taken as negligible, then this difference equals the average annual water losses. 

The average annual pan evaporation loss for the 7-year 

period was 66. 53 in. Therefore, the average losses are about 

g@Jj = 0.62 of the evaporation from a Class A pan in the region. 

By applying this ratio to the monthly pan evaporation throughout 

the period of record, the approximate 8s can be determined. If 

the monthly values of L\s, with due regard to sign, are accumulated, 

estimates of variations of total storage in the basin are obtained. 

The origin point of storage may be taken so that the lowest cumulative value in the record is zero. There is no way of ascertaining 

just how much storage remains below this lowest value. On figure 

161 the cumulative storage, computed against the mean rate of 

outflow from the Everglades area in second-feet, has been plotted. 

The plotted points conform well enough to justify the graph q.s drawn. 

The range in storage during the 7 years (1940--46) was about 18 

in. , which is somewhat less than the range in the Kissimmee River 

basin during a 16 -year period. During the 7 -year period, the range 
SURFACE WATER 567 

10,000 

9000 

~ 8000 

a 7000 

. / 

/ <( 

...J 6000 (,!) 

Q; 5000 w 

> 

w 4000 

:::!!: 

0 

oc 3000 u.. 

0 i5 2000 u~ 

w 

en 

Q; 

w 

D.. 

• • 

• "/'__ • .. .i' • 

• 

I ·/ '~J~ 

l"o • 

• .. ;. •• 

' ·v 

/ • 

• 1- 1000 w 900 w 800 u.. 

0 700 

iii 600 :::;1 

u 500 

~ 

~ 400 

a 

...J 300 I.J.. 

1-

:::;1 

0 

~ 200 

:I: 

• / 

• /..: 

/ 

, 

• • / -/ EXPLANATION 

/ Total storaoe is the cumulative 

values of precipitation minus -

/ runoff minus ( 0.62 x pan 

evaporation, in inches) 

~· • 

v 1-

z 

0 

:::!!: 

100 

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 

TOTAL STORAGE, IN INCHES 

Figure 161.-Study of the relation between rate of outflow and storage in the Everglades area, 

1940-46. 

in storage in the Kissimmee River basin was about 22 in. The 

range in storage in the Lake Okeechobee basin was much greater, 

of course, being about 44 in., and it was subject to a relatively 

high degree of control. 

Figure 161 indicates a general correlation between rate of outflow and the total storage as computed by cumulating monthly values 

by the equation P-R~L+I:!S. There is no reason to expect precise 

correlation; one fault is that the cumulative process gives opportunity for the retention of errors in precipitation. Although the 

annual value of L may be considered to be known, no such certainty 

is attached to the respective monthly values, which are estimated 

by multiplying pan evaporation by a coefficient. On the other hand, 

the relation shown in figure 161 t:an be regarded as providing two 

measures of storage. Total storage can also be computed as cumulativeP-R-L. The average of the total storage, as obtained by both 

of these methods, may provide a more stable measure of storage, 

which might be useful in rainfall-runoff correlations. 
568 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

This has been done on figure 162. The ordinate is monthly precipitation minus a correction term. ,l.. , depending on the calendar 

month.· The appropriate values of the correction term were derived 

by trial to bring the several months together on one diagram. The 

sum of the 12 monthly values of L equals the mean annual water 

losses, and the monthly values are roughly proportional to ;;>an 

evap'oration. The abscissa of figure 162 is net runoff from the area 

(the difference between measured outflow and inflow), expressed 

both in inches and thousands of acre-feet. 

Ill 

UJ 

0 

;l; 

;l; 

6~--------------------~------~------~~r---~~r----, Values of L 

Jan. 1.4 in July 5.1 in 

Feb. 2.1 AUQ. 4.7 

Mar. 3.0 Sept. 4.0 7 Apr. 4.0 Oct. 3.3 

May 3.1 Nov. 2:7 

June 5.3 Dec. 2.1 

Total 42 .e 

61----~--+--

~~ 4~----~~--~--~~+--~--~-~~~----+----~ 

Ill 

~ 

~ 

~ 3~---~~~~-~~~-~+---~~+------~------+-------~ 

ti !:: 

a.. 

frl 

[ 2~--+---~--~---+~----~+-------~------~-------·~-----

EXPLANATION 

Parameter is overcu;te of: 

I, Meon outflow in cubit 

feet per SO'cond durlnQ 

precedlnq month 

0 1-1--+---l--+---l-----+-J----~--+-~f-.---+--------- 2.Mean outflow correspond~ ing to total storage at 

'=lost of previous month 

I 

0 

0.~ 

I 100 

INCHES 

I I I 200 300 400 500 

THOUSANDS OF ACRE-FEET 

MONTHLY RUNOFF 

Mean error •14.5 percent 

I 

700 

Figure 162, - Rainfall ~runoff diagram, Everglades area, 
SURFACE WATER 569 

The correlating parameter is an average of the mean outflow (in 

cubic feet per second) during the preceding month, and of the 

equivalent discharge corresponding to the storage at the end of the 

preceding month (as read from figure 161). The average error of 

estimate is 14. 5 percent, somewhat greater than was obtained in 

the Kissimmee River basin. 

Besides possible use in month to month regulation of water levels 

in the Everglades, figure 162 can be used in other ways. For 

example, it might be of interest to estimate the runoff that might 

have occurred under a combination of highest observed rainfall and 

highest antecedent storage. The greatest monthly rainfall occurred 

in June 1942, which followed the highest May of record. This 

resulted in the highest monthly discharge of record-3. 35 in •. But 

suppose June 1942 had been followed by a wet July, such as July 

1941, with a mean areal rainfall of 11 in. By extrapolation of figure 

162, with a parameter of 8, 500, it is found that about 6 in. of runoff (1, 250, 000 acre:-ft) would have been produced, which is nearly 

t:wice that of June 1942. 

An annual inventory of the water in the Everglades area is given 

in table 64. First, the annual precipitation over the area is listed. 

The runoff listed is the total annual outflow in the canal system 

minus the total annual inflow. Subsurface flow was not measured. 

Second, the difference between the rainfall and the runoff equals 

the sum of the losses and the change in storage. The mean outflow 

rate during December is given as a measure of storage in the area. 

It will be noted that above-average value of P·R in 1940 is associated 

with a marked increase in base flow, while the below-average value 

of P·R in 1944 is associated with a marked decrease. The values 

of base flow were assumed to be associated with storage and were 

correlated with the deviation of the P·R values from their mean. 

The annual values of P-R were adjusted by multiplying the change 

in base flow by o. 001, as shown by this correlation; the computed 

losses for each year are shown in the final column of the table. 

The annual losses average 41. 35 in. 

The average losses, computed above, may be compared with 

the losses measured from 4- by 12-ft tanks containing cut and 

standing vegetation at the Experiment Station at Belle Glade 

(Clayton, Neller and Allison, 1942), Annual losses ranged from 

9. 1 in. for a tank with a mulch soil covered with a heavy layer of 

cane trash to 68 and 84 in. for a thriving growth of sawgrass with 

water 11 in. from the surface. The results indicated that annual 

losses from sugar-cane areas are from 42 to 45 in. After making 

allowances for density and for deeper water and better protection 

from wind in the Everglades, it was estimated that mean annual 

losses from sawgrass lands average about 60 in. However, water 

was always available in the tanks for evaporation--a condition nGt 

representative of the Everglades, which are nearly dry for considerable periods. during the average year when the sawgrass 

defoliates. 
570 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Tab!~ 64.-Annunl summllry of hydrologic data, Everglades Dretl 

Precipi- Measured Prec1p1- I Mean ontflow Change in Losses = Calendar tation tninu rate during 1 tat ion runoff runoff December base flow P- R- 0.001 ~LF year (inches) (inches) (inches) (cfs) (ds) (inci1es) 

1939 ............... ················ .............. 2 2,100 

1940 ··:·cs9o, .... ···········••t••········· 56.72 10,79 45.93 3,990 44.04 

1941 59,09 18.31 40,78 2,920 -1,070 41,85 

1S42 54.48 13.07 41,41 1,360 -1,560 42,97 

1943 45.25 4.92 40.33 2,170 +810 39,52 

1944 42.66 4.09 38,57 1,410 -760 39,33 

1945 49,21 7.59 41.62 3,110 +1,700 39.92 

1946 49,48 8.02 41.46 2,770 -340 41.80 

Total 356,89 66.79 290.10 ················ +670 289.43 

Average 50,98 9,54 41.44 ················· +95.71 41.35 

10.001 .\s~· is adjustment for change in base storage in which.l\.DFis change in base flow, 

2Estimated, • 

The tanks give a result substantially greater than the mean losses 

from the Everglades computed by analyses of records of rainfall 

and runoff. Probably this is because of difference in evaporation 

opportunities. between the tanks and the Everglades, unless net 

subsurface percolation into the Everglades is greater than appears 

evident. Further investigation, both of tanks and surface and subsurface flow, is required to settle the matter. 

However, it is known that during 1940-46, rainfall minus runoff 

from the 9, 000-square-mile area of the Kissimmee-OkeechobeeEverglades unit averaged 42. 6 in. (see table 55), The runoff to the 

sea was measured in the canal system_ The amount of groundwater flow out of the Everglades is not kt'lown; if it were known, it 

would reduce the difference computed above. A value of a loss of 

60 in., except over local areas, appears incompatible with the 

above result. 
SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 

By Garald G. Parker, U. II. Drown, D. U. Uogart and S. K. Love 

SOURCE OF SALT-WATER CONTAMINATION 

GENERAL STATEMENT 

A critical study of all available information obtained prior to 

July 1939 and the analysis of all pertinent data collected during the 

present investigation show without doubt that sea water in the 

Atlantic Ocean and in Biscayne Bay is the source of salt-water 

contamination of ground· and surface waters in the Miami area.' 

Two other possible sources that were studied and rejected are: the 

highly mineralized artesian water in the Floridan aquifer, which 

lies about 600 to 1, 000 ft below the surface, and the highly mineralized water found at shallow depths in some areas of the 

Everglades. 

Without exception, the deep artesian wells drilled in the Miami 

area yield water that contains about 1, 000 to 3, 000 ppm chloride. 

This water is unfit for most uses; therefore, most artesian wells 

in and near Miami have been abandoned. The rocks of the Floridan 

aquiclude that overlie the Floridan aquifer and confine its water 

under pressure, are impermeable; the only way that the mineralized artesian water could contaminate the Biscayne aquifer is 

through leaky well casings. Some leakage is known to occur, but 

most of the areas affected are within 1 mile of the coast, where 

the ground water is already contaminated by sea water. Furthermore, the concentration of dissolved mineral matter in water-table 

wells close to Biscayne Bay is several times greater than the concentration in the artesian water. 

The concentration of dissolved solids in shallow ground water 

in the Everglades is generally higher in the vicinity of Lake 

Okeechobee than farther south toward Miami. Except in the encroachment zone along the coast, the large body of shallow 

ground water in the Miami area is not contaminated. Former invasions of the sea left saline residues in the water-bearing formations underlying large areas in the Everglades. These residues 

have been only partly flushed out, whereas in and near Miami they 

have been completely flushed out (Parker, 1945b, p. 119-143). As 

shown in the section on Quantitative studies in ·the Miamiarea, the 

Biscayne aquifer is replenished almost entirely by local rainfall. 

It is obvious, therefore, that at present the only source of saltwater contamination in and near Miami is the sea water from the 

Atlantic Ocean and Biscayne Bay. 

571 
572 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

ATLANTIC OCEAN 

CHEMICAL COMPOSI'DON OF SEA WATER NEAR MIAMI 

The chemical composition of the ocean water has been determined by analyses of samples collected from many places over the 

world. The concentration of dissolved mineral matter has been 

found to vary considerably from place to place and from time to 

time at a given point. However, the ratios between the more abundant constituents are essentially constant (Sverdrup, Johnson, and 

Fleming, 1942, p. 165). This fact has an important bearing on the 

study of ground water contaminated with sea w.ater, in which the 

chloride content of the samples is taken as an index of the amount 

of contamination. 

The analyses commonly taken to represent the average composition of sea water are those made by Dittmar on 77 samples collected from many parts of the world by the Challenger Expedition 

in 1884. The average of these analyses is given in table 65, together with an analysis of water collected on May 23, 1941, from 

Table 65.-Analyses of sea water 

Average of 77 Miami Beach 

samplel sample% 

Parts per Ratio toCl Parts per Ratio to Cl 

million (percent)3 million • (percent)S 

Calcium (Ca) .............. 419 2.17 423 2,14 

Magnesium (Mg) .......... 1,304 6.73 1,324 6,70 

Sodium (Na) ............... 10,710 55.35 10,970 55.49 

Potassium (){) .............. 390 2,02 429 2.17 

Bicarbonate (HC03

) ...... 146 .75 147 • 74 

Sulfate (So_4""""'""" 2,690 13.90 2,750 13.91 

Chloride (C ) .............. 19,350 """'.'1i6"' 19,770 .. .................... . Bromide (Br) ............... 70 49 .21 

Total dissolved solids .... 35,000 . .............. 35,800 ....................... !Analyses by Dittmar !rom samples collected by Challenger Expedition, 1884. 

2 Atlantic Ocean at Miami Beach, May 23, 1941. 3 Content of indicated ion divided by chloride content and multiplied by 100, 

the Atlantic Ocean about 50 ft offshore at 41st Street, . Miami 

Beach. The concentrations of the different constituents in the 

sample collected off Miami Beach in 1941 are. slightly greater 

than those reported by Dittmar. However, the percentage of chloride in the two samples is essentially the same. 

In the Miami Beach sample the computed chloride· concentration 

was 19, 800 ppm, which is the value used in this report as an index 

of the degree of contamination of ground water with sea water. 

The chloride equivalent to the bromide in that sample was subtractAn from the weight of silver halides before comouting the 
SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 573 

chloride concentration. In routine chloride determinations; ~lowever, total halides were titrated with silver nitrate solution and 

reported as chloride. 

Variations in the c:11oride concentration of sea water in the vicinity of Miami were studied byDole and Chambers (1918, p. 299-

315) in 1914-15. Daily samples of sea water were collected at 

Fowey Rocks Light, 6! miles off Cape Florida and about 15 miles 

southeast of Miami, within 1 or 2 miles of the western edge of the 

Gulf Stream. It was observed that periods of heavy rainfall were 

frequently followed by decreases in chloride concentration. Chloride concentrations ranged from about 19, 300 to 20, 200 ppm and 

averaged 19, 930 ppm during the period of record. 

The average chloride content of sea water in the Gulf of Mexico, 

as determined by Dole (1914, p. 69-78) on 54 samples collected 

twice .daily between May 20 and June 16, 1913, from Southwest 

Channel in the Tortugas, was 19, 934 ppm. Dole and Chambers 

concluded, therefore, that the normal chloride concentration of the 

Gulf Stream off Fowey Rocks is about the same as that of the Gulf 

of Mexico but that it decreases at times as a result of heavy rainfall and subsequent discharge of surface streams in the Miami 

area and of ground-·water reservoirs along the coast. 

Determinations made on several samples collected from the 

Atlantic Ocean during the present investigation show a range in 

chloride concentration from 19, 18!1 to 20,420 ppm. It appears 

that the chloride concentration of 19, BOO ppm in the sample collected off Miami Beach on May 23, 1941, represents approximately the average chloride concentration in sea water in the vicinity of Miami. 

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SEA WATER 

In order that the relationship between milligrams per liter and 

parts per million may be determined for water samples contaminated with different amounts of sea water, and also in order that 

corrections may be applied to water-level measurements in wells 

contaminated with sea water, it is necessary to know the specific 

gravity of sea water and that of sea water diluted with different 

amounts of fresh ground water. A full discussion of the determination of these specific gravities is given on pages 598-600. It was 

found that the average specific gravity of sea water in the Miami 

area, referred to distilled water at 25°/25° C., is 1. 02680. 

The effect of specific gravity on the factors relating milligrams 

per liter and parts per million was determined in the following way. 

Values of chlo,ride were determined gravimetrically on several artificial dilutions of sea water with fresh ground water, and these 
574 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTI-IEASTERN FLORIDA 

were plotted with milligrams per liter as one coordinate and parts 

per million as the other. It was found that for dilutions in which 

the chloride concentration was below 5, 000 milligrams per liter, 

adjustments to the above factors were small enough to be neglected. Above 5, 000 milligrams per liter the adjustment increased 

with increasing concentration. Tables were prepared from which 

adjusted factors could at once be applied to chloride concentrations 

in milligrams per liter to obtain concentrations in parts per million. Unless otherwise specified, all concentrations given in this 

report are expressed in parts per million. 

BISCAYNE BAY 

CIU.ORIDE CONCENTRADONS 

Chloride concentrations at different places in Biscayne Bay often 

differ considerably from those in the ocean nearby and also differ 

from time to time· at a given place. Differences in concentration 

were observed by Dole and Chambers (1918, p. 313, 315). They 

state that these differences probably were due to the diluting effect 

of fresh water from the Miami River and other smaller streams, 

and to the concentrating effect of evaporation in the shallow expanses of the Bay where circulation is sluggish. The present investigation confirms these conclusions. 

During the present investigation, surface and bottom samples 

were collected in May 1940 from 22 stations in Biscayne Bay (the 

locations are shown in fig. 163). At some stations, samples were 

collected at middepth. Chloride concentrations determined on 

these samples are given in table 66. 

The data in the table show that the chloride concentration in 

most of the samples was greater than that normally found in sea 

water. The higher values are the result of concentration of the 

water in Biscayne Bay by evaporation. Samples from Station 5 

contained considerably less chloride than ocean water because of 

the diluting effect of fresh water discharged from the Miami 

River. Dilution was also observed in samples from Stations 12 

and 13, near the outlet of the Coral Gables Canal, and from Station 

15, near the outlet of Snapper Creek Canal. 

Excluding the samples collected from Stations 5, 12, 13, and 

15, the chloride concentrations in surface and bottom samples 

ranged from 19,080 to 21,170ppm, and they averaged 20,270 

ppm. Thus, the average chloride concentration in Biscayne Bay 

was 340 ppm greater than the average concentration of the Atlantic 
SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 575 

?1 

9 8 • 

12 •lo • 

13 • • II 

4, 

~ .19 

20 -\ • 

"'" 

•,a 

(.) 

.17 21 

~ • EXPLANATION 

• ' Sampling stotlon 

Q) 0 4 Miles 

Figure 163, -Location of sampling stations in Biscayne Bay. 

Ocean at Fowey Rocks in 1914-15 (Dole and Chambers, 1918, p. 

299--31:;), and 500 ppm greater than the concentration determined 

in the sample collected from the ocean at 41st Street in Miami 

Beach in 1941. 
576 WATER RESOURCES IN SOt.rrnE.ASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 66.-Chloride concentrations at sampling stations in Biscayne Bay, May 1940 .. 

Station No. Date Time Sampling Depth Chlotide 

(see fig. 163) point (feet) (ppm) 

1 .............................. May 7 11:07 a. m. Surface 1 19,230 

Bottom 4 19,080 

2 ............................... ••••• do,,,,,, .. 10:13 a. m. Surface 1 19,890 

Middle 4.5 19,850 

Bottom 9 19,890 

3 .............................. ..... do ........ 9:50 a. m. Surface 1 20,040 

Middle 5 20,180 

Bottom 10 20,180 

4,. ............................ ..... do ........ 10:25 a. m. Surface 1 19,560 

Middle 7. 5 19,280 

Bottom 15 19,560 

5 .............................. ..... do ........ 11:28 a, m, Surface 1 11,930 

Bottom 5 15,920 

6 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• May 17 8:55 a. m. Surface 1 19,750 

Middle 4 20,800 

Bottom 8 20,320 

7 .............................. May 7 10:25 a. m. Surface 1 20,230 

Middle 15 20,040 

Bottom 30 20,080 

8 .............................. May 17 9:30 a. m. Surface 1 20,460 

Middle 5.5 20,700 

Bottom 11 20,610 

9 .............................. May 7 12:21 p. m. Surface 1 19,130 

Bottom 3 19,180 

10 .............................. ..... do ........ 12:34 p. m, Surface 1 19,320 

Bottom 4.5 19,280 

11 .............................. May 17 10:48 a. m, Surface 1 20,510 

Middle 5 20,420 

Bottom 10 20,700 

12 ............................. May 7 1:00 p. m. Surface 1 17,360 

Bottom 5 17,270 

13 .............................. ..... do ........ 2:43 p. m, Surface 1 18,700 

Bottom 3 18,610 

14 .............................. May 17 11:50 a, m. Surface 1 20,420 

Bottom 2,5 20,460 

15 .............................. ..... do ........ 12:40 p. m, Surface 1 15,630 

Bottom 2.5 19,700 

16 .............................. ..... do ........ 12:10 p. m, Surface 1 20,980 

Bottom 4 20,980 

17 .............................. ..... do,,,,,,,, 1:35 p. m, Surface 1 20,890 

Middle 5.5 20,840 

Bottom 11 20,940 

18 .............................. ..... do ........ 1:15 p. m. Surface 1 21,080 

Middle 5.5 21,030 

Bottom 11 21,170 

19 .............................. ..... do ........ 11:10 a. m. Surface 1 20,980 

Middle 5 20,980 

Bottom 10 20,890 

'20 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ..... do., ...... 2:20 p. m. Surface 1 20,700 

Middle 7.5 20,420 

Bottom 15 20,610 
SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 577 

Table 66.-Chloride concentrations at sampling stations in Biscayne/Jay, May 1940-Con. 

Station No. Date Time Sampling Depth Chloride 

(see fig, 163) point (feet) (ppm) 

21, ............................. ..... do ........ 2:12 P• m. Surface 1 20,800 

Middle 4 20,750 

Bottom 8 20,650 

22 .............................. ..... do ........ 10:20 a, m, Surface 1 20,610 

Middle (j 20,510 

Bottom 12 20,610 

'.:HEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SALT-CONTAMINATED WATERS 

SURFACE WATERS 

Several samples of salt-contaminated water were collected 

from the Miami Canal. Analysis of the water showed that its composition was essentially the same as an artificial mixture of uncontaminated canal water and sea water. 

GROUND WATERS 

Analyses of samples of ground water collected from wells in 

and near Miami show that ground water that has been contaminated 

with sea water differs somewhat in compositionfrom an artificial 

mixture of. the two, 

Samples of uncontaminated ground water from the Miami area 

were found to be relatively uniform in composition. (See the 

section on Quality of ground and surface waters, p. 727. ) An average of 24 analyses of samples from typical wells is assumed to 

represent the average composition of uncontaminated ground water 

in the area. Using the chloride concentration as an index of the 

degree of contamination in other samples containing more than the 

average amount of chloride, the theoretical concentrations of the 

other constituents were computed. Typical analyses of uncontaminated and contaminated ground water are shown in figure 164. 

The actual amount of calcium in each sample was more than the 

computed amount. In order to study the differences between actual 

and computed concentrations, all data for the chemical constituents 

in parts per million were converted to equivalents per mlllion. 

(An equivalent per million means one unit chemrcal equivalent 

weight of a chemical constituent per million unit weights of solution. 

Concentration in equivalents per million is calculated by dividing 

concentration in parts per million by the chemical combining 

weight of th~ chemical constituent. ) 
578 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

20r--------------------------------------------------, 

z 

0 

:J 

--' 

::§ 

12 

0:: 

w 

a.. 

EXPLANATION 

D SODIUM 

AND 

POTASSIUM 

~CHLORIDE 

~ MAGNESIUM ~ SULFATE 

~CALCIUM ~~ BICARBONATE 

(/) 

fz 

~ Br-------------------------------_, 

~ 

s 

0 

w 

UNCONTAMINATED 

CONTAMINATED 

ACTUAL 

0~--------~~~~----------~~~L---~~~~-----' FiRUre 164. -Analyses of uncontaminated and contaminated RIOtmd water. 

Differences in equivalents between actual and computed concen -

trations ofbicarbonate were usually smaHand showed no tendency 

to be consistentlypositive or negative. Differences between actual, 

and computed concentrations of sulfate were usually small, but 

somewhat larger than differences in bicarbonate. About half of the 

sulfate differences were positive and about half-were negative. 

The more prominent differences in concentrations occurred 

among the cations (calcium, magnesium, and sodium). Deviation 

of actual concentrations from computed concentrations of calcium 

were plotted against the algebraic sum of deviation of magnesium 

and sodium as shown in figure 165. In general, increases in calcium concentrations were compensated by losses in magnesium 

and sodium concentrations. This would suggest that for each 

equivalent per million of calcium gained, one equivalent of magnesium or sodium, or a mixture of the two, was lost. 

A suggested explanation for the differences between actual and 

computed concentrations of cations in contaminated waters in the 

Miami area is based on the phenomenon of cation exchange (commonly referred to as base exchange). Many investigations of cation 

exchange have been made, primariiy in the field o{ soil chemistry 

(Kelley and Brown, 1924; Chapman and Kelley,1930, p. 391-406). 

Workers in soil chemistry have long known that soil colloids, 

usually the aluminum silicate clay components, possess the property of adsorbing one or more cations from water solutions and 

of releasing them again in exchange for other cations under suitable conditions. The conditions which determine the order and 
0 

]> 

h 

c 

3: 

0 

1"1'1 

< 

]> 

-i 

0 

z 

(/) 

-

z 

1"1'1 

0 

c 

< ]> 

r 

1"1'1 

z 

-i 

(/) 

"U 

f'l1 

::n 

3: 

r 

r 

0 

z 

SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 579 

MAGNESIUM + SODIUM DEVIATIONS, IN EQUIVALENTS PER MILLION 

- 0 0 

~ ~ 0 

(J 0 

I~ 

N 

0 

"U 

r (.M 

c 

(/) 

.,. 

(JI 

Ill 

MIN us 

0 

0 

~ 0 0 

~ ( ~ 0 0 t'-' 

~ 0 

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Figure l!i5. --Deviation of cation concentrations in contaminated gtound waterfrom computed 

cation concentrations. 

mechanism of cation exchange have also been investigated (Jenny, 

1932, p. 2217-2258; Walton, 1942, p. 306-337; Bray, 1942, p. 

954-963). . 

It has been found that the cation-exchange capacity of many soils 

is also associated with the content of organic matter. McGeorge 

(1930, p. 181-312) concluded that the base-exchange capacity of 

highly organic soils is approximately a linear function of the percentage of carbon in the soil and that the exchange takes place in 

chemically equivalent proportions. Examination of well cuttings 

obtained during the drilling of test wells shows no evidence of aluminum silicate clays in the highly permeable Biscayne aquifer in 

the Miami area. It would appear, therefore, that cation exchange 

take.s place largely through the medium of organic matter, which 

colors practically all the grc:mnd water in the area. 

For additional discussion of cation exchange refer to the section 

on Quality of ground and surface waters, pages 821-822. 
580 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

HISTORICAL REVIEW OF ENCROACHMENT IN THE MIAMI AREA 

In the section on Ground water (Occurrence) there is a discussion of the development of water supplies, froni the first supply 

taken directly from a large spring beside the Miami River near 

NW. 27th Avenue and 20th Street to the present (1946) well field 

in Hialeah and Miami Springs. These discuss.ions indicate the 

principal conditions for the successive abandonment of supplies 

for larger ones more remote from salt-water encroachment. In 

the following discussion these conditions are reviewed, with particular attention given to the manner in which they developed. 

EARLY CONDITIONS 

During the latter part of the 19th century and the early part of 

the 20th century, geologists and naturalists began scientific explorations of the Florida peninsula. Prominent among them were 

Alexander Agassiz, Leon S. Griswold, George C. Matson, and 

Samuel Sanford, all of whom visited Miami and recorded their 

observations. Notes on early conditions also have been written 

by others, including Daniel G. Brinton, A. W, Dimock, Hugh L. 

Willoughby, and Fred C. Elliott. A thorough review and careful 

interpretation of some of their notes have yielded valuable information on the relation between fresh water and salt water prior 

to the construction of drainage canals in the area, 

Shaler (1890, p. 144) made extensive geologic investigations 

along the southeastern coast of Florida in 1887 or 1888, In describing conditions in the Coconut Grove area, he observes "* * * 

the waters of the Everglades at a distance of only 3 miles from 

the shore in their time of lowest level lie 16 feet high above high 

tide. [Shaler does not indicate the source of his altitude figure, 

Ecologic, geologic, and topographic studies made during the 

course of this investigation indicate that Shaler•s "16 feet above 

high tide" is about equivalent to 10 feet above mean sea level. 

Thus, an error of several feet in altitude is involved in Shaler•s 

figure, which was probably based on an estimate,] In the rainy 

season they often rise to such an altitude that they pour over the 

reef wherever it is less than 20 feet in altitude. [The term "-reef• 

as used here refers to the Atlantic Coastal Ridge.] A sufficiently 

wide canal, having a depth of 20 feet and a length of not over 4 

miles, would drain the waters of the Everglades into Biscayne 

Bay. The rivers which flow over this part of the reef come down 

to the sea level over a series of rapids formed upon the harder 

layers of the reef, and thus the full escape of the Everglade 

waters is· prevented. In the region more to the north, the· entanglement of the vegetaHon about the headwaters of the streams, 

even where th~y have no rapids in their beds, likewise hinders 

the escape of the marsh waters. • 
SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 581 

Shaler (1890, p. 146) further describes the "reef" as so thickly 

covered with sinkholes "that nearly all the rainwater appears to 

find its way by underground channels to the sea, where we can 

note its emergence in great springs. • In describing the western 

side of the "reef,,. Shaler states, "All portions * * *which were 

so situated as to be exposed to the waves of the lake, which in the 

rainy season covers this district, were very deeply corroded. 

* * * In the rainy season these waters rise to the height of from 

5 to 8 feet above their leve 1 during the dry season, when I observed 

the district * * *· After the rainy season passes, the water is 

drained away by the numerous exits to the sea. • 

In a note appended to Shaler's paper (1890, p. 158), Alexander 

Agassiz makes the following comment: "To the damming up of the 

waters in the Everglades, and to the sudden outbursts of gigantic 

masses of water charged with organic matter and lime, we may 

trace the immense destruction offishes which so frequently occurs 

on the shores of the Florida keys and the waters surrounding 

them.'" Griswold (1896, p, 53) mentions "great springs of constant 

flow• emerging "in large numbers along the shore.~ Fuller (1904, 

p. 266) in 1903 observed one of these springs in Coconut Grove 

flowing at the rate of 100 gpm from the base of a limestone bluff. 

He indicates that the water was used for drinking and was reported 

to have supplied the American fleet off Havana in 1898. The water 

was described as being clear and hard, and as containing sulfur. 

Figure 166. --Rapids of the Miami River before dredging of Miami Canal. 
582 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

I 

Likewise, (Matson and Sanford, 1913, p. 179, 256, 289) mentions 

the existence in 1908 of "springs of some size * * * flowing from 

the low ridges of Miami oolite near Biscayne Bay. • Apparently, a 

few of the springs were used for domestic supplies and by 

fishermen. 

Griswold (1896, p. 53) mentions the presence of a distinct "fan· 

line• in the Miami River just west of the pineland. It has also been 

reported by Lilburn R. Railey, John W. Watson, and E. J. Sewell 

(personal communications) as having been near, and slightly west 

of, the present NW. 27th Avenue Bridge. A rather vivid description of the rapids andflow of the river at this "fall line• (fig. 166) 

is given by Willoughby (1898, p. 39). The discharge of this large 

volume of fresh water into the Miami River below the falls indicates that comparatively fresh water occurred in the channel 

within 2 or 3 miles of the salt water of Biscayne Bay. 

Willoughby (1898, p. 65) says: "All along this shore (Coconut 

Grove] there are [Dec. 1896) places where the freshwater comes 

up through the rocks under the salt water with quite a head. It no 

doubt comes from the Everglades by subterranean passages. • 

John Sewell (1933) describes ground-water conditions in early 

Miami [see the section on Ground water (Occurrence)] and notes 

that hard limestone water was then obtainable in wells 50 to 60 

feet deep at the mouth of the Miami River (fig. 167) and at the old 

Miami Hotel (now South Miami Avenue betw.een SW. 1st and SW. 

2nd Streets). He also describes the flowing fresh-water wells that 

were drilled 50 to 60 feet deep on the site of the present Miami 

Country Club (near NW. 11th Street and lOth Avenue). At first, 

these wells produced hard fresh limestone water without pumping, 

but gradually they ceased flowing and had to be pumped. Eventually 

they became salty and were abandoned. 

Munroe (1930, p, 118, 218) says of early ground-water conditions, "The abundant spring water off the shore, while organically pure, and beautifully clear and tasteless, was somewhat 

hard* * *". He photographed boatmen obtainingfresh water from 

beneath salt water in Biscayne Bay. 

The foregoing quotations, illustrations, and references give 

valuable background material in regard to early ground-water 

conditions in the Miami area. Shaler's observations are of particular interest because they indicate that a tremendous amount of 

water was formerly stored in the Everglades to within nearly 3 

miles of Biscayne Bay. It is not difficult, therefore, to account for 

the presence of large fresh-water springs discharging into 

Biscayne Bay, along the base of the oolite ridge and through the 

floor of the bay itself. With such relattvely high heads of fresh 

water continuously available in, and west of, the oolite ridge, it is 

highly improbable that the contact of salt water and fresh water 
... "' 

&l 

0 

I 

"" I 

I 

., 

"' 

Figure 167. -Looking upstream from the mouth of the Miami River befoce dredging of Miami Canal. 
584 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLOIUDA 

was very far inland. Possibly at depths of 200 feet or more below 

mean sea level the contact might have been farther inland. At 

shallower depths, however, it appears that no encroachment could 

possibl? have taken place because of the overwhelming weight and 

flow of fresh water from the land. 

CHANGES BETWEEN 1907 AND 1939 

In 1907 the first serious modifications of the natural equilibrium 

between fresh water and salt water in southern Florida were 

undertaken by man. Dredging operations, a part of a State-wide 

drainage program, were started at that time in the New River 

basin at Fort Lauderdale. However, not until 1909 was dredging 

begun in the Miami River. By 1910 a channellO feet deep had been· 

opened through the "fall line, • or rapids, at the head of the Miami 

River, and was extended about 4t miles into the Everglades. 

Water that was formerly ponded in the Everglades behind the 

coastal ridge and stored within the rocks of the coastal ridge itself 

was now free to waste through the canals into the ocean; and water 

at sea level, fluctuating with the tides, extended inland as far as 

the head of the cuts, or to the base of the temporary earth dams 

placed to form pools deep enough for the dredges to operate. 

W. S. Jennings (1909, p. 122), in a letter to the trustees of the 

Internal Improvement Fund of the State of Florida, dated November 

19, 1907, tells of his observations during a visit that he and 

Governor N. B. Broward made to the site of the dredging operations: "The canals reduce the water level from the surface to 

approximately 6 feet below the surface of the ground as shown by 

the water in the canal, and the land for a mile on either side of the 

canal is entirely reclaimed, and is practically ready for preparation for cultivation, and the general influence of the drainage 

reaches to a much greater distance than one mile. * * * Generally speaking, the work is a great success * * *. The influence on 

the river has never been and is not perceptible. The reduction of 

the water level to 6 feet below the surface of the ground is all and 

more than could have reasonably been expected * * * the superintendent finds it necessary to keep a sufficient quantity of water in 

the canal to float the dredge, while in front of the dredge is the 

water pouring over the front of the canal and falling 6 feet over a 

perpendicular dam to the water level of the canal and thus going 

on to the ocean. 

"The result is that the reclamation of the land is fully demonstrated. We walked for a distance of t mile or more along an 

Indian trail or canoe route through the saw-grass, where 20 days 

ago the Indians traveled with their boats and canoes, the water 

having all been drawn off from this territory by the cutting of the 

canal, thus lowering the water level. • 
SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 585 

Nature•s original equilibrium between fresh water and salt 

water, which was based on a high water table, was thus destroyed. 

As progress was made toward reestablishment of an equilibrium 

based on a lower water table, the springs along the shores of 

Biscayne Bay • diminished in flow, then disappeared, and swampy 

areas upstream along the Miami and New Rivers began to dry out. 

Clyde P. Ross (1919), of the U. S. Geological Survey, observed 

that originally the area covered by the Miami well field (the southeast portion of the old Royal Palm Golf Grounds-now the Miami 

Country Club-near NW. 11th St. and lOth Ave.) was swampy, but 

that it had drained and dried. Sanford (Matson and Sanford, 1913, 

p. 291) reported that in 1908 the Miami supply was derivedfrom 

four flowing wells that ranged in depth from 73 to 95 ft. These 

wells were located in a swale underlain by a thick layer of relatively impermeable marl. The swale was partly surrounded by 

higher land, behind which the waters of the Everglades were impounded. These conditions were ideal for the development of local artesian wells, and therefore flowing wells existed in the Spring 

Gardens (Penniman Springs) area in those early days. 

Twelve years after Sanford's investigation, C. P. Ross reported 

that the original wells had ceased flowing, that pumps had 'leen installed, and that the wells had been plugged at a depth of 40 to 45 

ft to avoid taking water from the deeper parts of the aquifer, which 

had become contaminated by salt water. This salt-water movement was further facilitated by drainage operations that began in 

August 1917 and continued until June 1923. During that period, the 

Miami Canal was dredged to an average depth of 12 ft from its 

junction with the Miami River northwestward to a point a quarter 

of a mile above (northwest of) its junction with the present South 

New River Canal (about 32 miles from Biscayne Bay). 

In 1928 and 1929, chloride determinat'ions were made on ground 

water samples collected from a number of drainage wells in the 

Miami area. The samples were collected at t}le time of drilling 

and should, therefore, represent true ground-water conditions. 

From these data an isochlor map, figure 168, was prepared. (An 

isochlor is defined as a line on a map conn'ecting points of equal 

chloride concentration. ) Although the data do not give complete 

areal coverage,· they indicate reasons for water from the original 

Miami Water Company field at Spring Gardens becoming too salty 

for use. The isochlor representing a concentration of 10, 000 ppm, 

based on samples from wells 70 to 100ft deep, lies northwest of 

the well field. Thus the field occupied an area of even higher 

chloride concentration. Inasmuch as the field originally (1907) delivered fresh water, it is obvious that the boundary between fresh 

and salt water migrated inland largely as a result of ·dredging 

operations in the Miami River and construction of the Miami 

Canal. 
586 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN Fl.ORIDA 

~L NO!i'THW£"57 -Jl 

" 

"' " '> 

• ~ " 

s.ooo 0 

L---L . .J I l .1 ... ----------· J 

.16 'fH 

fS rH 

N 

1 

10,000 PPM 

ls.oehlors, in p1Ut$ per million 1 for water from wells 70 ~ 100 

feet dee-p 

10 1000 PPM 

15,000 Fuf 

- __ _j_ __ --- -- J 

---------~-~-----···--

Figure 168. -Map of metropolitan Miami area showing isochlors for 1928-29, based on samples · of ground water from drainage wells, 

As mentioned previously, earth dams were built in each of the 

newly dredged canals to give the dredges sufficient water in which 

to operate. Although they were breached on .a few occasions to 

allow barges and excavating equipment to pass, they were restored 

each time and remained in place until concrete locks and dams 

were built in 1912~13. If all these structures had been kept in good 

condition, they might have prevented many of the damaging results 

of the breaching of the natural barrier. Operation of the dams and 

locks has been irregular. Those on the South New River and North 

New River Canals were most effective and are still in use. The 
SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 587 

MiamiCanal lock and dam apparently was not effectively used and 

was finally removed when the Miami River was dredged to a depth 

of 15ft in 1931~32. The deepening of the channel almost to the 

NW. 36th Street bridge did not greatly affect ground-water levels; 

however, it did expose new areas to salt-water contamination. 

Likewise, the dredging of several supplementary canals, largely 

during the period 1926-42, further dissected the Miami area and 

accelerated the drainage of ground water stored -during the rainy 

periods. Table 67 gives the approximate construction periods for 

each of 10 canals in the Miami area. (See also fig. 184.) 

Table 67.-Canals in the Miami area and periods of their construction 

Name of Period of Na1ne of Period of 

canal construction! canal construction! 

Biscayne ............... 1925-26 Miami•~•••••••••••••••• 1909--32 

Comfort •• , •••••••••••• 1925-34 Opa Locka ••••••••••••• 1925-26 

Cotal Gables ......... 1925-42 Snake Creek •••••••••• 1912-13 

F.E.c .................. No record Snapper Creek. ....... 1912-13 

Little River ........... 1925-27 Tamiami2 ................ 1919-28 

1 Construction as originally planned. Most canals have been considerably 

modified during later years. 

2 Five and a half miles completed to 192o: remainder excavated as a borrow ditch for the State Road Department for building of the Tamiami Trail 

(U. S. Highway 94). 

During periods of low water these canals provided 10 avenues 

along which salt water CO'lld move, and from which it could contaminate water-bearing formations. 

CONDITIONS SINCE 1939 

In 1933, Charles Morgan, who was then Miami City Chemist, 

called the attention of V. T. Stringfield, of the U. S. Geological 

Survey, to the increased salt-water encroachment in the Miami 

Canal and the salting of wells along that canal. However, it was 

not until the latter part of 1938 and the early part of 1939 that a 

severe drought in southeastern Florida forcibly demonstrated how 

seriously the original equilibrium between salt water and fresh 

water had been modified. At that time, the ocean level during high 

tide was above the fresh-water stage in the canals. This was 

caused by a combination of factors, including overdrainage of the 

coastal ridge, drainage of the Everglades, and rainfall deficiencies. 

As •.he 1938~39 drought progressed, water that had formerly 

been stored behind the rock barrier of the coastal ridge wasted 

into the ocean. Flow reversals in the tidal ·canals occurred for 

periods of 2 to 5 hours during each tidal cycle, and salt water migrated farther and farther inland. As the length of the reversal 
588 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

periods increased, the salt water migrated more rapidly, until 

eventually it reached more than 10 miles inland in some canals. 

The damaging effects of this inland salt-water movement in the 

drainage canals were noted when salty water appeared in certain 

welts in the Miami well field, which is near the Miami Canal, 7. 5 

miles inland from Bis·cayne Bay. Although public concern centered 

principally around contamination in this field, numerous private 

supply wells located near the salt water in the tidal canals of Dade 

and Broward Counties also became contaminated. The dp.mage 

was widespread and costly, and even in temporarily salted areas 

it persisted long after seasonal rains reestablished fresh-water 

stages in excess of the maximum salt-water stages. 

Figure 186 shows seasonal variations in the extent of salt-water 

contamination in the Miami Canal for the period January 1940 

through December 1946. On the average, salt water extended up 

the Miami Canal approximately 4 miles. This is about 2 miles 

farther than in 1909, before drainage work began. 

The general extent of salt-water contamination of the aquifer is 

shown in figure 169. The map for 1904 indicates the estimated 

and reported conditions in the area prior to any drainage work. 

Salty water probably extended only about 1i or 2 miles up the 

Miami River, and fresh-water springs fiowed at elevations of as 

much as 5 ft above mean sea level qn the seaward side of the oolite 

ridge along the west shore of Biscayne Bay. Ground-water levels 

were high in the Everglades; probably, at times, they were even 

higher along the coastal ridge, inasmuch as springs were also reported on the western side of the ridge (Matson and Sanford, 1913, 

p, 289). The stippled areas in the figure represent the estimated 

zone in which wells about 80ft deep would tap ground water having 

chloride concentrations of approximately 1, 000 ppm or more. 

The map for 1918 (fig. 169) indicates estimated, reported, and 

known conditions in the area about 5 years after completion of 

preliminary dredging of the Miami Canal. On the average, salty 

water probably extended inland about 3 or 3i miles up the Miami 

River. Most of the perennialsprings no longer existed on the east 

side of the coastal ridge, and certain swampy areas east of the 

ridge had been drained. Ground,water levels of the Everglades 

and the coastal ridge were lower, and an increase in chloride concentration had occurred in the areas (stippled) exposed, and already subjected, to salt-water contamination. 

The map for 1943 (fig. 169) indicates observed average conditions in the Miami area after the canals had been dredged. Note 

the greatly increased width of the contaminated zone and its long 

extensions inland along the drainage canals. Note also that these 

inland extensions follt>w up every tidal canal. This map plainly 

shows why the Coconut Grove field, which lies entirely within the 

stippled area, had to be abandoned. 
SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 

1104 

E)(PLANIITION 

IIIII 

A~EA OF SJI,L,TWAT!R ENCROACHMENT 

589 

Figure 169. -Maps showing progressive salt-water encroachment in the Miami area, 1904-50. 

The map for 1946 shows that the encroachment of sea water 

upon fresh water was continuing in most canals. (See the section 

on Encroachment in the tidal canals, p. 618 et seq.) Water levels 

were exceedingly ·low during this period, and effective control of 

them, by regulation of the canals, had not been established. However, a start was made by the Dade County Engineering Department 

in 1945 following a legislative act granting Dade County control over 

the water levels in canals and waterways 'within its boundaries. 

The map for 1950 indicates the following dev~Hopments: (1) increased rainfall and greater recharge to the aquifer as compared 

to the 1943-46 period; (2) effectiveness of temporary dams in the 
590 WATER RESOURCES' IN SOU'IHEASTERN FLORIDA 

tidal canals in maintaining somewhat higher heads of fresh water 

in the canals and aquifer upstream from the dams, and in preventing salt-water movement in the canals for any significant 

distance above the dams. 

The five maps in figure 169 show the general pattern of encroachment into the Biscayne aquifer of the Miami area over a 

period of 47 years. They show that the major spread of contamination probably occurred between 1943 and 1946. During that time 

a lengthy drought occurred, and in 1945 water levels fell to record 

all-time lows. Parker (1945a, p. 539) reckoned, on the basis of 

studies in the Silver Bluff area, that the rate of encroachment until 

1943 had been approximately 235ft peryear. In a 27-monthperiod 

that overlapped 1943-44, the front of the wedge of encroaching salt 

water advanced 2, 000 ft, which is at the rate of 890ft per year. 

To arrest this threat to the water supply, Dade County and Miami 

cooperated in the building of temporary steel sheet-piling dams in 

tidal canals. Navigation and other interests prevented the building 

of dams in the Miami Canal east of the NW. 36th Street bridge site, 

and in the Coral Gables and Tamiami Canals east of Red Road. 

The encroachment pattern shown on the map for 1950, compared 

with that shown on the map for 1946, clearly describes the results. 

On the Biscayne, Little River, and Miami Canals actual seaward 

retreat of the inland ends of the tongues of encroaching salt water 

has occurred. In each of these areas the temporary dams, although makeshift and leaky, have prevented additional serious intrusion of sea water during the dry seasons and have conserved the 

fresh-water supply. 

By contrast, contamination along the Tamiami and Coral Gables 

Canals is continuing. The former empties into the Miami Canal 

downstream from the 36th Street dam site; therefore, it is vulnerable to salt water movement up the unprotected channel. Both 

the Coral Gables and Tamiami Canals were dammed at Red Road, 

but low stage and low flow enabled sea water to penetrate as far as 

the dams. The continued spread of salt water in these two areas 

is directly attributable to the lack of downstream salt-water control dams. 

In the intercanalareas parallel to the shorelineofBiscayne Bay, 

the salt water has generally maintained its 1946 position. This 

condition speaks well for the water-control program, which has 

not only excluded the sea water above the dams but has also resulted in somewhat higher water levels in the affected areas. This, 

together with the increased rainfall and recharge to the aquifer 

since 1947, has slowed the 890-feet-per:..year encroachment rate 

to practically zero. Only in the area of Coral Gables Canal has the 

intercanal contamination zone migrated inland. This movement is 

probably caused by the increased opportunity for salt water to gain 

access from the bay through newly dredged canals in that area. 
SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 591 

Water-table contour maps (see section on Ground water (Quantitative studies)). indicate that even though drainage has lowered 

water levels considerably, a low ground-water divide still exists 

in parts of the coastal ridge in the Greater Miami area, It is not 

a remnant of the original natural divide, In dry weather the 

present ground-water mounds owe their origin not to natural recharge, but to artificial recharge through irrigation (lawnwatering) systems and waste water from septic tanks, drainage 

wells, and similar media. In wet weather there is. sufficient natural 

recharge to create a temporary divide, The artificial recharge is the 

re-sultofwater being taken from the aquifer in the Miami SpringsHialeah area· and delivered by the municipal water system to the 

downtown area and the coastal strip, where it is returned to the 

aquifer. Although springs no longer exist on either side of the 

ridge, it is evident from the water-table contours (flow is at right 

angles to contours) that for short distances, even during the 

lowest stages of water levels, ground-water flow occurs in some 

places from the ridge toward the Everglades. 

Further details on the present extent of salt-water contamination in the Miamiarea are shown on the isochlor map, plate 17, 

If similar maps could have been drawn for the period prior to 

drainage work, the isochlors would have been much nearer to 

Biscayne Bay than those shown in plate 17. They would have been 

parallel to the shore except where it bends inland at the Miami 

River and other tidal waterways emptying into the bay. 

ENCROACHMENT IN THE AQUIFER DIRECTLY FROM THE OCEAN 

HISTORICAL REVIEW OF LITERATURE ON COASTAL GROUND WATER 

Significant studies of coastal ground water were made independently by Badon Ghyben and A. Herzberg shortly before 1900. The 

results of their investigations are reviewed by Brown (1925, p. 17-

19), who points out that their work"*** appears toapplyparticularly to small 'ist"ands and narrow land masses that are made up of 

freely pervious material, especially sand. It can not be applied 

to large land bodies or to continents, for it implies that sea water 

should be found in every locality where the water table is below 

sea level. There are well-known interior land areas which lie 

many feet below sea level but in which the ground is entirely free 

from sea water. The application of the theory is also greatly 

modified by the kind of rocks and their structure. The importance 

of Herzberg's theory, however, is not to be ignored and has been 

most convincingly demonstrated by Pennink (Pennink, J, M. K., 

De •prise d"eau• der Amsterdamsche duin waterleiding: K. Inst. 

Ing. Tijdschr., 1903-4, p, 183-238, The Hague, 1904) on theCoast. 

of Holland." 
592 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Pennink"s work clearly demonstrates that salt water underlies 

the land at a depth of 100 to 200 meters below sea level over a 

belt several miles wide that is adjacent to the Netherlands coast; 

that the depth to salt water is greatest where the water table is 

highest, and that the level of salt water rises under areas where 

the water table is low; that the zone of diffusion between fresh 

and salt water averages about 20 meters in thickness on the North 

Sea end of the contact; and that the general zone of contact between 

fresh and salt water is very regular and its center is occupied by 

the 1, 000-milligram-per-liter isochlor (1, 000 mg/1 is approximately equivalent to 1, 000 ppm). Irregularities in Pennink"s isochlor pattern are readily explained by differences in lithologic 

character qf the water-bearing beds. 

Ghyben and Herzberg developed the principle that because salt 

water is denser and of greater specific gravity than fresh water, 

under conditions of static equilibrium it would take a column of 

fresh water 41 ft high to -counterbalance. a column of normal sea 

water 40 ft high. Stating it another way, a head of 1 ft of fresh 

water above mean sea level indicates a depth of 40 ft of fresh 

water below mean sea level, or a ratio between fresh-water head 

above sea level and depth to salt water below sea level of 1 to 40. 

This is the familiar ratio commonly used in predicting the depth 

at which salt water will be found in a given coastal area. Barksdale 

(Barksdale, Sunds tram, and Bruns te in, 193 6, p. 2 5) has aptly likened the manner in which fresh water (in a narrow coastal zone or 

island structure) "floats• on salt water, to the manner in which an 

ice mass floats on water, with most of its volume submerged. 

Much aof the significant early literature concerning coastal 

ground water has been ably reviewed in Brown's paper (1925). All 

these studies developed relationships and gave conclusions predicated on the assumption that static conditions were being con~ 

sidered. The Ghyben-Herzberg principle, however, requires the 

water table to be a convex surface intersecting the shoreline at 

mean sea level. The fact that the water table slopes toward the 

shoreline indicates flow-flow that is maintained by sufficient recharge to keep the water table above sea level. 

Muskat•s treatment (1937, p. 289) of gravity-flow systems offers 

an explanation of how that outflow takes place. Muskat shows that 

the water table does not intersect the ground surface at sea level, 

but that it does so at a higher elevation. The space between is a 

zone of seepage. Observations appear to confirm this theory in 

the Miami area, where the profiles made during the investigation 

indicate a water table sloping gently downward toward Biscayne 

Bay. Instead of intersecting the bay at mean sea level, however, 

the trend appears to be such that the intersection will occur above 

mean sea level and, in fact, even above the high..;tide level. The 

profiles further suggest that the vertical height of the boundary or 

seepage surface is about 0. 5 ft. This might suggest discharge by 
SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 593 

springs; however, no visible springs now exist along the shore, 

although in the early days, before drainage canals lowered the 

water table, many springs flowed near the base of the limestone 

cliff along Silver Bluff and elsewhere along the coast. 

The wave-cut bench that forms the land surface between Biscayne 

Bay. and the low sea cliff, Silver Bluff, slopes gently down from 5 

ft above mean sea level to the water•s edge. The water table is 

never very far below this surface, and the discharge of ground 

water here through evapotranspiration is much higher than that in 

adjacent areas inland from the cliff. The land surface of the wavecut bench is always moist and near the shore is quite damp, indicating continuous ground-water discharge. 

Wentworth (1942, p • .685) points out that ground water may be 

discharged in larger quantities by means other than seepage without substantially upsetting equilibrium conditions, if somewhat 

isolated leakage channels to the sea exist at depths where the hydrostatic pressure of the fresh water is greater than that of the 

salt water. This condition occurs in the Miami area, and the flow 

takes place both along a secondary system of vertical and horizontal solution channels in the limestone and through parts of the 

formation originally more permeable than others. The numerous 

large and small springs that formerly discharged along the shore 

and into the bottom of Biscayne Bay and connecting tidal canals 

gave vivid proof of the existence and operation of these shallowdepth channels of ground-water d~scharge. It is quite likely that 

considerable ground-water discharge still occurs in this manner, 

but owing to the smaU size of these submerged springs they are 

not readily noticed, Mention has already been made of the former 

perennial springs that now flow only during times of extreme 

high-water level. 

These two avenues of discharge probably account for the principal discharge of fresh water moving seaward in this area. 

STUDIES IN THE SILVER BLUFF AREA OF MIAMI 

SELECTION OF mE SITE FOR STUPY 

The Silver Bluff area was selected for intensive investigation 

largely because it appeared to be a representative area of the 

coastal ridge in Miami. There, the geologic section is quite similar to that of other areas along the coast of Dade County. Furthermore, this area offered the largest number of wells (points of access to the ground-water body) that could readily be used for observation; the depths of these wells ranged from about 45 to 125ft. 

Thus, a fairly good observational pet was already established, In 

addition, there were no tidal canals in the immediate neighborhood, 

although the general area (see fig. 200) is entirely surrounded by 
594 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

canals on the sides landward from Biscayne Bay. These canals 

are the Miami Canal on the northeast, the Tamiami and Comfort 

Canals on the north, and the Coral Gables Canal on the west and 

southwest. (See Brown and Parker, 1945.) 

PRELIMINARY WORK 

Considerable pre lim inary work was required before the first 

study could be attempted. This included a thorough inventory 

of all available wells to determine the areal and vertical distribution of points of access to the ground-water body. 

For purposes of determining the altitude of the water table, 14 

additional wells 2 in. in diameter were driven below the water 

table to insure that they would not go dry during drought periods. 

Wherever possible, the wells were installed adjacent to existing 

fire wells to permit a direct comparison between the true water 

table (as found in the shallow observation wells) and the water 

level in the deeper fire wells. Where both wells of any pair ended 

in ground water of normal chloride concentration (about 16 ppm) 

or, more properly, where the specific gravity of the ground water 

in each well was the same, it was expected that the water levels 

in the two wells would be nearly identical. However, where fire 

wells tapped ground water of high chloride concentration and 

where the specific gravity of the water within the well casings was 

therefore appreciably greater than that of water in the shallow 

observation wells, it was expected, and later confirmed by field 

measurements (p. 602-603 ), that the water level in the deeper 

wells would be appreciably lower than the true water table. 

Figure 170 shows the locations of most of the wells used in the 

Silver Bluff studies. 

To obtain complete data on the tides and sea level in Biscayne 

Bay in order that their effect on the water table could be studied, 

a water-stage recorder was installed in the bay at the foot of 

Aviation Avenue. The record shows that the average sea level 

during the course of this investigation has been higher than the 

mean sea level established by the tJ. S. Coast and Geodetic 

Survey. Also, there has been a tendency for the mean tide stage 

to increase. See pages 441-443 for more detailed discussion of 

this matter. 

Following is a summary of the record for the period preceding 

the studies reported herein: 
CORAL 

0-196 

F-/81 

0 

SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 595 

N 

~"{ 

~ EXPLANATION 

~ natural ~ 

shore line !>--..( 

(, 

\0 0 1 Mile 

~ ~~--~~---

0 

Fire well 

• U.S.G.S. observation well 

Figure 170.- Map of Silver Bluff area, Miami. showing the location of wells used in studies of 

salt-water encroachment. 
596 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Tidal elements and sea level 

[In feet with reference to U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey mean 

sea level datum of 1929] 

Nov. 8, 1940. to July 26, 1941 

229 maximum stages, average ................................... +1. 44 

229 minimum stages, average ................................... -0.66 

Average sea level. ...................................................... +0. 39 

-Nov. 8, 1940. to Feb. 4, 1942 

436 maximum stages, average ................................... +1. 48 

436 minimum stages, average ................................... -0. 59 

Average sea level. .................. , ................................... +0~ 45 

For the period 1941-1946, average water level in Biscayne Bay 

was found to be 0. 61 ft above U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey 

mean sea level. Detailed fluctuations in sea level are shown in 

figures 117-123. 

OBJECTIVES 

Investigations in the Silver Bluff area inyolved determination 

of: (1) The horizontal and vertical distribution of salty ground 

water; (2) the magnitude of cyclic seasonal shifts or changes in 

the position of the salt-water wedge; and (3) whether or not the 

salt-water wedge is gradually moving. inland and contaminating 

parts of the aquifer formerly containing only fresh ground water. 

The first objective could have been reached· through a single 

study; the second and third objectives, however, necessitated repeated studies to cover a variety of seasonal conditions and to be 

certain of long-term trends. In view of the fact that attempts are 

being made' to control water levels and stop salt-water encroachment, the studies actually need to be continued over a much 

longer period of time. · 

PIIOCEDURES 

The first intensive study in the Silver Bluff area was made on 

June 26, 1941. Results of this study were valuable primarily in 

devising efficient and thorough methods of conducting later studies. 

The following field procedures were adopted: 

1. Selection of a date for conducting a study was based on rainfall records for the preceding several days. Because there are 

about 17 drainage wells scattered throughout· the area (and numerous others in adjoining areas) that receive the discharge from 

storm sewers and catch basins, it appeared that the water table 
SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 597 

and isochlor pattern near these wells would be distorted for several days following heavy rains. In effect, the drainage wells act 

as local recharge points for the ground-water body, and, where 

drainage wells end in salt water, fresh water is injected into the 

wedge of salty water. This not only dilutes the body of salt water 

locally but also creates localized mounds on the water table. 

Therefore, no study was attempted unless 3 or 4 days had elapsed 

since the last heavy rain. 

2. All fire wells in the area selected for observation were 

pumped on the day preceding the date chosen for a particular study 

in order to remove the water standing in the casing and to draw in 

new water. In general, the fire wells were pumped in the approximate order of their estimated chloride concentrations-those in 

which the concentration was highest were pumped first. This made 

it certain that if all the fire wells could not be pumped on the day 

preceding the study, those remaining to be pumped on the day of 

the study would be low in chloride content. Thus, there would be 

no appreciable change, due to density differences induced by 

pumping, in the water level within these wells on the day of the 

study €see p. 613). Each well was pumped long enough to insure that the casing would be entirely emptied of water standing 

in the well and would be refilled with waterdrawnfrom the aquifer 

at the known depth of the well. A water sample was collected as 

soon as the pump had removed the standing water. 

3. On the date selected for a study, the water levels in all fire 

wells and other observation wells were measured at hourly intervals over a 13-hour period to make certain that one complete 

tide cycle would be obtained for wells responsive to tidal variations. Drainage wells were not used, either for sampling or for 

observation purposes, because they contained considerable amounts 

of sludge and debris that affect both the quality of the water and 

the water level in the well. 

The field work just outlined supplied data for the preparation 

of a composite cross section showing the profile of the water table 

and that of the isochlor pattern in a direction normal to the general 

trend of the natural shoreline. The profile of the water table was 

based on observations in the shallow wells and the isochlor pattern 

on chloride determinations of samples collected from the deep 

fire wells. 

In compiling the results of the first study the shortest distance 

from each well to the shore was determined, making .use of the 

many man-made irregularities in the shoreline. The composite 

water-table profile resulting from the use of these distances, 

however, appeared excessively uneven, so a smooth curve was 

drawn to represent what was judged to be the original or natural 

shoreline (fig. 170). The shortest distance from a well to this 
598 WATER. RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

original shoreline then became the length, of the normal, erected 

to this line, drawn to the well. Using these distances the watertable profile was readily plotted as a fairly smooth curve. 

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SEA AND GROUND WATER 

Before computations could be made to adjust water levels in 

wells containing different concentrations of salty water, it was 

necessary to determine the relation between chloride concentr~­

tion and specific gravity of sea water, of ground water, and of 

mixtures of the two. 

One of the most exhaustive studies of the relations among 

specific gravity, temperature, chloride concentration, and salinity 

of sea water was made under the direction of Knudsen (1901). 

Empirical equations, based on experimental data, were developed 

whe:reby the salinity and specific gravity of sea water can be calculated at any temperature between -2° C and 33• C if the chloride 

concentration in grams per kilogram is known. These equations 

were developed on the basis of atomic weights of the elements (as 

known in 1900), More recent investigation by Thompson and Wirth 

(1931, p. 232-240) indicates that Knudsen's tables are more accurate if the atomic weights of 1930 are substituted for those of 

1900. There appears to be a marked relation between specific 

gravity and chlorinity in samples of sea water collected from 

many parts of the world. As defined by Thompson and Robinson 

(1932, p, 107), chlorinity is the number of grams of halides 

capable of precipitation by silver nitrate, calculated as chloride, 

contained in a kilogram of sea water. In this report the total halides reported as chloride are considered to be synonymous with 

chlorinity. 

When sea water is diluted with runoff from land areas, thr relation of sp~cific gravity to chloride concentration, as well as to 

other constituents, may vary somewhat. Determinations were 

made, therefore, of the specific gravity of sea water and of several artificial dilutions of sea water with typical uncontaminated 

ground water of the Miami area. As the average temperature of 

ground water in this area is close to 25° C (77° F), the specific 

gravities were determined at 25° C. Computations are greatly 

simplified by assuming that such uncontaminated ground water has 

a specific gravity of 1. 00000 at 25° C; the results are then expressed as specific gravity at 25°/25° C in accordance with the 

usual notation. Table 68 presents these determinations of specific 

gravity, arranged in order of increasing dilution from sea water 

to ground water. 

A plot (fig. 171) of chloride concentration as abscissa and specific gravity as ordinate illustrates the results given in table 68." 
SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 599 

Tah!e68.-Specificgravity of sea watersarnples diluted with uncontaminated ground water 

Sample Gravimetric Specific gravi~ Computed 

no. chloride (at 25 "/25 "C) specific gravity 

(ppm) (at 25"/25"C)h 

lc 19,740 1. 02680 d1.02643 

2 15,940 1. 02Hil 1.02124 

3 13,2ti0 1. 01803 1.01766 

4 10,070 1.01374 1,01337 

5 6,710 1,00922 1,00886 

ti 5,050 1,00700 1,00664 

7 3,340 1,00472 1,00436 

8 2,280 1,00333 1,00297 

9 1,594 1. 00239 1.00203 

10 1,132 1. 00179 1,00143 

11 907 1. 00148 1. 00112 

12 583 1. 00107 1.00071 

13 353 1,00078 1. 00042 

14 214 e1.00057 el. 00021 

15 122 1.00050 1.00014 

16f ................ 1,00036 1,00000 

aDetermined in laboratory and referred to distilled water at 

25"C. as unity. 

~Referred to uncontaminated ground water as unity. 

dSea water. Computation for this value is as follows: 

Specific gravity , i: g~gg~ , 1. 02643 

fcronnd water. 

1.004001--,---,------r---..,------,----,----,-----,----~-,-----,, 03600 

+------+------+---+--v~ -+---+----r- 103200 

t,oo;,oo · 

1.002001-----·· ---l----f--,._""~0::.-----~--A< __ ... ---" ---- ---I 02000 

: 100100 ~ =~------+---+- --+r--£-v 102400 :~N~ v:/-------- v-- .. ·~ I 1,00000~ 0 400 BOO 1~00 1600 -----..1~-~c=! 2000 :2:400 --v -··· ... J-~ 1.02:000 .' ~ 

/: CHLORIDE:, IN PART:S PE;R MH .. L.ION # I 

~ J-- : I.OiijOO·r----+----1- /v._. --- 0.01000 

1,01~00-· /'" ------ 1.01200 

EXPLANATION 

I OOSOOI----+----

v;:/ 

/'' ---1-------JI.OOEIOO 

l00400f-----~'~---/-l--------l----

100000V 

0 2000 4000 6000 eooo 

SOLID ~.INE REPRESENTS SPECIFIC GRAVITY REFERRED TO 

DISTILLED WATER AS UNITY 

OA.SHED LINE REPRESENTS SPECIFIC (;I=IAVITY REFER iRED TO NORMAL GROU~~--A· ASilJNif~.- ~ .. .. I.004

00 

DIMENSION "A" REPRESENTS 0.00036 TO BE SU8TRACIED ~ROM 

SPECIFIC GRAVITY FIE:FERRE:D TO DISTILLEI:I WAII:.R AS l,!NITY 

TO CONVERT TO SPECIFIC GRAVITY AfFEFIREI:I TO NORMAL. 

I GROUNO wyER AS Ul\llr I I 1,00000 

10,000 12,000 14,000 11;,000 "iB;t!Oo 20.000 

CHLORIDE:, IN PARTS PI;:A MI!,.I.IOIII 

Figure 171. --Graph showing relation between specific gravity and chloride concentration in 

artificial mixtures of gronnd water and sea water. 

346881 0-55--40 
600 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

The solid line resulted from direct plotting of the laboratory determinations of chloride and specific gravity values. As expected, 

it does not pass through the coordinate origin because, even with 

a chloride concentration of zero, other dissolved compounds are 

present and the specific gravity therefore remains greater than 

the value of the unit assigned to distilled water as a reference. 

The curve is essentially a straight line above a chloride concentration of about 3, 500 ppm; below this point the curve is slightly 

concave upward. 

The dashed curve shown in figure 171 was derived from the 

solid curve by plotting computed specific gravities, referred to 

normal ground water as unity, against chloride concentrations. It 

passes slightly to the right of the coordinate origin because a 

specific gravity of unity now represents normal ground water 

having a chloride concentration of 16 ppm. It is parallel to the 

solid curve and lies below it by an ordinate amount of 0. 00036. 

SIL Vli:R BLUFF S11JDIES 

Four complete sets ofdata concerning salt-water encroachment 

were collected in the Silver Bluff areafollowing a study of the determinations of June 26, 1941. These data collections were made 

332 U3 z•• -- 296 

Wa~r hlble in shall;,w ...... 29"1-

EXPlANATION 

rservollon wells 

~ ~ 3 

, .. L___ ... -~43-

0 IJS 2Q9~ 

All wells plotted above 0.0 feet are shallow observation wells. 334 

All wells plotted below 0.0 teet are tire wells. Upright numDers are well numbers; slant numbers indicate chloride in parts pe " million. lsochlors represent chloride in parts per milhon 

... - -· ~~ .. -· Bi,.;:ayne Soy T1de Station 

rnean tide level NQY@Mber 6,1940 to Jul)l 26, 

1941. + 0.39 ~ 

... -~~~ 

h~retlcal contoct between salt ond 

fr~h water (IS$Umlng an eQuilibrium~ 

1----· .,_,,_. ~.-- --~~~o of 1:40 ~--- , 

i'i;l,.... ...-r~~ .w 173 191 ...-- ...-~ :-;:;Jfl 174 o,....... :& "S '" 178 18.J 198 ,. _;:../ 

',~t 1 0 157 o" Mo ~v •• 147° - '148 ~~.,.. 2.1.'l: / f--- .;/So......- () !3!5 .......... ~ /4990 

·-· mr o,!J__. 1--.-ic ~** l5a~o~l¥o/ -

w~/ /,~OCHLO~.,.:;;.::.-:;" -o-f79 

-:?!±~ ,.....-..,•,gm ~~~ k246- ~----156 .....- .. f.49 J~o .- ·-- / .. ••. o~~<Ol.- i6pOO '·"".~ ·--

v v--.-t· ,- ........ 143 

/ 1/ Q/.:;~~0 

// ,ro:Jfo 168o 188 ..... 1~,640 11,nJO 

II 10 s 7 6 5 4 3 

DISTANCE FROM SHORE LINE, IN THOUSANDS OF FEET 

2.0 

0,, 

o.o 0 

20 "' '" "' "' "' 40::t '" 

~ "' 

""t;; 

'" u. 

! "" . 

100 

~ 

"' "' 

Figute 172, -composite profile for sa.lt-water encroachment study of July 26, 1941, Silver 

Bluff a.rea, Mia.mi. · 
SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 601 

on July 26, 1941, August 28, 1941, October 25, 1941, and February 

4, 1942, and covered periods during which the water-table levels 

ranged from a stage slightly above average to one that was fairly 

low. Of the four collections, the one on July 26, included the 

highest water-table levels and the one on February 4 included the 

lowest. Data for these two collections are presented in this report 

so that the maximum observed seasonal changes in the salt-wa:ter 

encroachment pattern may be noted. 

Table 69 gives the data collected at the time of the two watertable extremes, and figures 172 and 173 give the resulting composite profiles indicating isochlors and the water table. A line has 

been drawn cin each of these profiles to represent the theoretical 

position of the boundary between fresh water and salt water, as~ 

suming perfect application of the Ghyben-Herzberg principle. The 

position of this line was determined by selecting a value of 1. 025 

as an average specific gravity for sea water (referred to normal 

ground water as unity), thereby developing a ratio of 1:40 for the 

relation between fresh-water head above mean sea level and depth 

to which fresh water extends below mean sea level. Using this 

ratio, computations were then made for enough selected points 

along the water-table curve to insure that the Ghyben-Herzberg 

equilibrium line would be well defined. 

~'theoretical Ht ~;:ontac:t bi!'tween sal! _an~--~----+---+--+--+--+---/~tl fresh w(lter cltsumiog an tq~.nllbnuih ....... ~..,. ..-

1----~•-'!...!_42:::;;;.._ ----- --~----~--~-------- ~ 

;o 60 9 

ill 

l;j 

80"-"' 

! 

£ 

100~ c 

120 10 8 7 6 s • 3 0 

DISTANCE FROM SHORE LINE, IN THOUSANDS OF FEET 

Figure 1'73. -composite profile for salt-water encroachment study of February 4, 1942, Silver 

Bluff area, Miami. 
Table 69.-Salt-watec encroachment data foe Silver Bluff area, .Uiami; July 2'i, 26, 1941, and February 3, 4, 1942 

[Distance from shoreline measured normal to an arb i teary curve drawn to represent the approximate na tmal shoreline. Parentheses enclose the nos. of wells paired at the same location. Elevations are relative to U, S. Coast and Geodetic Survey mean sea level datum. Specific ·gravity referred to tmcontaminated gro=d water as unity] 

Depth of Mean water level Chloride 

Distance Specific gravity from Land-surface well below elevation (feet) (ppm) Well shoreline elevation datum 

no. (feet) (feet) (feet) 7-26-41 2-4-42 7-25-41 2-3-42 7-25-41 2-3-42 

F184 ••••••• ~··········•••••••••••• 14,840 14.7 71.9 0,99 0.40 a2o h2o 1.0000 1,0000 

F180 .............................. 14,240 13.5 48.3 1,45 .83 a17 b16 1,0000 1,0000 

(Fl74) ............................ 10,820 12.7 54.3 2. 24 1,18 a24 b25 1,0000 1.0000 

(G331) ............................ 10,820 ................................ 1.1 ....................... 1.22 ................. . ............... . ................ . .................. F172 .............................. 9,380 12.2 75.3 2.19 1.17 a49 b46 1.0000 1,0000 

F178 ........................... , •• 9,500 10.7 55,6 2.22 1,20 a26 b25 1.0000 1. 0000 

F1ti2 .............................. 8,680 10.7 62.9 2.21 1.1s a555 bl:i20 1.0007 1.0008 

(F1ti3) ............................ 7,760 13,1 48.6 2,23 1. 23 a40 b41 1,0000 1.0000 

(G332) ........... ~ ............... 7,760 ................................... .7 2.24 1,21 ............... ............... ................. . ............... (Fl46) ............................. 5, 680 7.7 100.8 • 29 -.58 a16, 600 b16,700 1.0222 1. 0223 

(G298) ............................ 5,680 ............................. 2.0 2,18 1.31 .............. ................... .................... ...................... 

F164 .............................. 6,800 12.9 65,4 2.16 1,21 a143 b203 1.0002 1.0002 

(F165) ............................ 6, 020 7. 7 53.6 2.14 1,22 113 b163 1,0001 1. 0002 

(G333) ............................ 6,020 ................................... .9 2.19 1,23 ................ .................. . ................. ................. F154 .............................. 5,340 12.2 69.6 2.11 1,22 730 b780 1,0009 1.0010 

F147 .............................. 4,420 10.3 55,8 2.10 1,32 215 b248 1.0003 1,0003 

{F143) ............................ 3,640 10.5 88.7 .51 -.14 15,440 b16,800 1.0206 1.0224 

(G297) ............................ 3,640 ................................ .9 1,98 1,40 . ............................... .................... ................... F166 ............ " .................. 5,060 9.9 50.9 2,10 1.24 86 102 1,0001 1,0001 

F155 .............................. 4,380 7. 0 53.5 2,07 1. 26 157 136 1,0002 1. 0002 

F148 .............................. 3,620 11.1 57.4 2.03 1.34 135 245 1,0002 1.0003 

(F156) ............................ 3, 580 12.4 78.1 1.43 .22 6,120 13,100 1,0081 1,0175 

(G296) ............................ _3,580 .................... ~ ... ,.. ..... • 8 2. 03 1,30 ............... . ................. . ................... ................... 

~ 

~ ::<1 

m 

~ z 

"' 0 

~ > "' 

~ 

~ 

8 

11:1 

.... 

~ 
(Fl92) ••.••••••••••••••••••••••••• 2,080 10.7 65.7 .98 ,33 11,670 13,900 1.0155 1. 0185 

(G294) ........................... 2,080 ....................................... 1.0 1.73 1.28 ................... ..................... . ................... .................. (F149) ............................ 1,480 10.8 73.5 .30 -. 04 17' 940 17.800 1.0240 1.0238 

(G295) •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 1,480 ............................. 2.6 1.64 1.22 .................. ................... .................. . .................... 

G48 ............................... 2,300 10.0 2.7 1.75 1.23 ................ ................ . ........•....... . .................... (Fl58) ............................ 2,560 12.1 11.3 • 53 .04 15,970 16,100 1.0213 1.0215 

(Gl58A) ......................... 2,560 ······~ ....................... 4,1 1. 71 1,20 ................ ............... . ............... .................. (F198) ............................ 1,960 11.8 55.4 1.48 .86 6,120 8,240 1.0080 1. 0109 

(G293) ........................... 1,960 10,4 2.5 1.68 1.20 ............... . ................ ··9············· .................. F199 .............................. 2,020 17.6 71.0 .45 .09 16,600 16,700 1.0222 1.0223 

F213 .............................. 1,320 16.4 52.7 1.30 "' .70 4,990 9,220 1.0065 1. 0122 

F176 F: .............................. 6,540 10.0 76.1 2.04 1.26 508 545 1.0006 1,0007 >-1 F179 .............................. 6,680 8.~ 68.3 2.03 1.15 246 315 1. 0003 1.0004 

F181 .............................. 6,180 5.5 46.9 1.93 ~ 1.21 299 310 1.0004 1.0004 

F173 .............................. 4,680 9.0 51.2 1.97 1.16 458 522 1,0006 1,000o ;;! F177 .............................. 5,120 5. 8 49.7 1,87 1.15 246 272 1,0003 1,0003 

F168 .............................. 3,440 11.6 95,0 ,45 -. 25 15,640 17,100 1,0209 1. 0229 ::<1 

F191 .............................. 3,940 14.0 52.3 1,77 1.17 183 206 1.0002 1.0002 !21 F188 .............................. 2,400 17.1 98.2 .28 -.13 17,750 18,000 1_ 0237 1. 0241 n F202 .............................. 1,860 15.5 46.5 1,53 1.12 450 680 1,0006 1.0008 ::<1 

G43 ............................... 1,800 5.0 5,8 1.50 1.10 .................. • ................. 4 • . ..................... .................. F159 .............................. 1,900 16.1 69,4 .43 • 03 16,790 17,100 1.0224 1. 0229 ~ :r: 

(Fl60) ............................ 840 14.5 49.4 1.33 .72 2,220 8,000 1.0028 1.0106 ~ (G292) ............................ 840 ................................. 1.9 1.45 1.11 . ................ .................. .................. . ................. ~ 

G334 .............................. 180 4.3 2.1 1.34 1,06 ................ . ................... . .................. .................. ~Sample collected July 26, 1941. 

Sample collected February 4, 1942, 
604 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUI'HEASTERN FLORIDA 

In selecting the 1:40 ratio the ranges in specific gravity, as 

observed in the nearby ocean water, in the water of Biscayne Bay, 

and in the salty ground water of the Silver Bluff area, were taken 

into account. On the basis of the specific gravity of sea water the 

ratio would have ,been 1:37. 8, but ratios ranging as high as 1:42 

were noted for the bay and for the encroaching salt-water wedge 

in the Silver Bluff area. These facts, coupled with ease of computation, prompted use of an average ratio of 1:40. 

The mean water level in Biscayne Bay for the periods of investigation in each case were above U. S. Coast and Geodetic 

Survey mean sea level datum. On July 26, 1941, the mean water 

level was 0. 47 ft, and on February 4, 1942, it was 0. 49 ft above 

mean sea level. However, the mean gage height for any given day 

is not satisfactory for use as a datum in correcting for salt waterfresh water balance as of that day; rather, the average sea level 

for a considerable time preceding the collection of data should be 

used. Thus, tor the July 26 and February 4 data, average bay 

levels of +0. 39ft and +0. 45ft, respectively, were used. 

Because the ratio of scales used in plotting the water table and 

the isochlors was 1:40, the Ghyben-Herzberg equilibrium curve is 

very nearly an exact inversion of the water-table curve. The inversion would plot exactly only if the actual observed mean tide 

level in Biscayne Bay agreed with the established mean sea level. 

It is significant to note that on the profile for J.uly 26, the GhybenHerzberg equilibrium line parallels the entire isochlor pattern inland to about 2, 500ft and lies below the 1, 000 ppm isochlor inland 

to about 4, 800 ft; whereas on the profile for February 4, it lies 

above the entire plotted isochlor pattern. In spite of this great 

difference there is no proportionate shift in the isochlor pattern. 

This is a graphical illustration of the fact that a change in elevation of the water table does not immediately cause a change 40 

times as great in the elevation of the isochlor pattern. Superimposing the two composite profiles (fig. 174) shows that the 

elevation of the water table on February 4 ranged from 0. 3 to 1. 0 

ft lower than on July 26. The elevation of the isochlor pattern for 

February 4, however, averaged only about 4 ft higher than that on 

July 26. This had been anticipated, for Wentworth (1939) had 

previously shown that an adjustment of the equilibrium between 

salt and fresh water, in response toa change in wate'r-table elevation, lags far behind the time of water-level change because it involves actual changes in "bottom storage•, which take place slowly. 

In figure 174, chloride data are given for three drainage wells 

drilled in the Silver Bluff area prior to July 26, 1941. Water 

samples were carefully collected as the wells were being drilled, 

but were not obtained as part of the July 26 and February 4 studies. 

The data for the two drainage wells, D 196 and D 350, indicate 

sharp downward trends of the isochlors about 8, 000 ft from the 

shoreline. It is therefore evident that, in general, as of the date 
SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 

Water table July 26, 1941'-.._ 

r--- -~---

-·- ~ 

··~ ater table February 4, 1942......-

--~ Metm tide level November S, 19401 to Febi'UCJr'y 4 1 1942 

0-196 0-350 M@on tide le-vel November 8, 1940, to July 26, 1941............,_ 

c~~o~~i1ti~~t~a~ Cllloride diJto os G-189 

of drilling ~U!s Chloride: dato as of drilling lllay 1-6, 1941 Jgn, 15-21 ,1941 F-146 dates Dec. 10-18,1940 

37 - Theoretical contact between salt and fresh water anumln~ an equilibrium Ei& ~-4 ....__-- ~e ·- -- _.!"'~of 1•40,Fobruary 4,194~.::::,_ "--·- --- ) >o - -:: c;. I!-- 1-- - - -:':o ..... ~ ...... ,~·-44 --"' .... -:::.- .... ;...--v yliJ!" --~10 -- ~:;;.:" k::..,.. .... 21 of)' --- l---- 1-;;;-:.;. ..., -- -....-.:::::_ '"'" --- / 

T~r:~:' tr~~':te~·~:~- ~o _-w~ o- rr,,..::;;; ~;; ··-·-

~(oOo "/ 

j;' _.:._ J--- I-~:";,; 11',800 1--. ....-o 

-- lng on equilibrium ratio of 

1•40, July 26, 1!41__:_~ -:7~ .... f#' &rPl- r_:::....- '"'~--

1 ·; 88 ...... ..-:/ ;-- ,_ -- f.- .... ....- ~:=~~=eoo:: FE.BRUAfff 4 1 1942 

,., ..... J-:, ooo::- 14,380 JUI.Y 261 1941 

~I'PM ATI44.1' / -'/ .•. 1-_;'-" PPP<II .T 15~ I' '/ 16,70~ ;.;.r;;:;lo I 18,370 PPM AT 119 I I 1 

II 10 8 1 6 5 4 '3 

DISTANCE FROM SHORE LINE, IN THOUSANDS OF FEET 

605 

2.0 

0.0 0 

eo -:1: 

100 

!;: 

"' c 

FigUI'e 174. -composite profiles for salt-water encroachment studies of July 26, 1941, and 

February 4, 1942, Silver Bluff area, Miami. 

of these studies, the inland extent of salt-water encroachment in 

the Silver Bluff area at depths below 80 ft was about 8, 000 ft. The 

maximum inland penetration of chloride in a concentration com~ 

parable to that of sea water is not known, but on the basis of the 

data obtained from the drilling of well D 196 it is evident that it is 

less than 9, 600 ft, and samples pumped from well F 146 indicate 

that it is more than 5, 600 ft. Somewhere between these bound-· 

aries, therefore, is the line of maximum inland penetration of 

high-chloride concentration within the Biscayne aquifer. 

The chloride data for test well G 189 fit in satisfactorily with 

the isochlors as drawn for July 26. Although inspection of these 

data suggests that, except for the 16, 000 ppm isochlor, the 

isochlors have been drawn at too low an elevation, it should be 

noted that the test well was drilled in December 1940, at a time 

when the water table was lower than on July 26, 1941. Thus the 

chloride pattern, as indicated by the well samples, would be expected to appear at an elevation slightly higher than shown by the 

isochlors. 

The data collected for the studies of August 28 and October 25, 

1941 (not presented in detail in this report), covered a shift in the 
606 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

isochlor pattern from low to high water-table conditions. On 

October 25 the water table averaged from 0. 2 ft to 0. 6 ft higher 

than on August 28, and the isochlor pattern on October 25 averaged about 2ft lower than on August 28. Although this 2-ft shift is 

admittedly slight and could, to some degree, be accounted for by 

experimental error, it is believed to be significant. 

Although only four comprehensive encroachment studies were 

undertaken in the Silver Bluff area, considerable supplemental 

data are available through periodic water-level observations and 

chloride analyses of well water. In figure 175, chloride results, 

plotted against time, are given for water samples collected from 

wells in the Silver Bluff area. Also shown on the graph, for comparison, is a hydrograph of F 179, a well on which a continuous 

water-stage recorder is maintained. F 179 is 6, 680ft inland from 

the bay. This is the greatest distance, in this area, at which a 

recognizable tidal effect has been noted in wells. The fluctuation 

of the water level in F 179 may be taken as representative of the 

other wells in this area. 

The record of chloride changes in wells of high salinity (F 146, 

F 156, F 160, F 198, and F 192) during the period of 1940-46 is 

shown in figure 175. (Descriptive data for these wells, and all 

others referred to in this section, appear in table 69.) ln general, 

the trend in chloride concentration in all wells was the same; they 

rose and fell in unison. Furthermore, these changes in chloride 

concentration seem to have occurred in response to changes in the 

water table-that is, when the water table was low, the chloride 

content tended to rise, and when the water table was high, the 

chloride content tended to fall. The net trend, however, was for 

an increase in chloride content. 

Figure 175 also shows comparable datafor wells of low salinity 

(F 147, F 162, F 163, F 164, F 165, F 174, and F 202). These 

wells are more distant from the bay or are shallower than those of 

the first group; therefore their chloride content was much less. 

The chloride in the water of these wells also responded to movements of the water table and, as in the wells of high salinity, also 

showed a net increase for the period of record. 

The fact that the chloride content in the water of some wells 

changed more rapidly and to a greater extent than that in other 

wells is due to factors such as: {1) distance from the bay; (2) depth 

below mean sea level; (3) location with respect to nearby drainage 

wells that may introduce relatively large volumes of fresh water 

directly into the body of the salt-water wedge at depth, thus diluting the ground water locally and temporarily upsetting equilibrium; and (4) the presence of solution channels that may allow 

salt water easy access to the area or, conversely, may allow 

fresh water to discharge freely to the sea. 
>- ,_ 

z 

--' "' U> 

;. 

0 

...J 

... 

0 

!J) 

--' ...J 

"' "' 

SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 607 

18,000 ~--,4-6:::-r------,------,-------r-------r-------r-----~ 

•o.ooo ... ----======1:::::::::::::::::::=+~ ::::-:::::-::-:::t-:====1=::;:::. =::;:_ :_ -=~-;::::;~~':::'3.;,;:i;. .... ~_..:.-s,;;.:~o.:·:;-;,~::J ,4:.----- --/---:::./ /~ --~ 14,000 [---··- - _)~,----·----V:/ j ' --[7 _.-=:-=c:::--~ 

12,000 __ J'_In, /'\_r·' · '\-\ r•-''V /-;:::------ __t:::____l,. ... ..£\.. ____ _____: 

-- 1 \ v / F ~v / ~ / \ 10,000 F'I6Ci\---- Fi567\ I ~\ __./ / / -'-""" / / \ 

8000 ',, --- \ I I I I - ···-- / ' II\{_ I \ ......... / // <"" 

6000 l--->c,-+--+-k--ft-->.-..::0..-.£-+-..,..:.'---------+----,?--+-----1-·-.--"·------' \ / 1"\,'1 \ , 4000 f----------~::-+·~ AVJ __ , t~/ v /' /F 202 2000I-----I---~---4---~--4-----+~'----------+-----+---­ f-<'200ppm) 0 L_ ___ ...l..._~ _ ______l ____ .l_ ___ _!__j__ ___ .L_ __________ . --- ·- ... ---

1 

1800,----------,-----------,-- I 

1700f-----------l-----~------+-----+-+----+-----+----~ 

i

l 

1600f-----------f-----------+------+--· ---~~---+---~-+----~ 

Fl47 

I 1500f----------~l------~-----+-----+-+l----+----+}--+----~ 

1400 1--·----+----+-----+--,11 .-- ·t---- ---~--:+: r-- ---··.·;:r;·i-62"" 

1300f-------F_2_0_2f~~-t----+--;--~f--------,rl---t~----+--+'~'-'+-1'~+~'~---~ I I ! ! I I : I ' I 

1200 f---------+--;'-.~1-----~---l~i----+---+l-+-- +c<'3.2.0-RP.~ ----1-- --+----j' c...•"_·'----4 

I 1 II 1 \ 1 / I I 0 0 f-----+-·j -----;·-- ------

1 I It I \I ~ 1000 1---'-· -+------------

~ ! I\ I A - 900I--f--"l----jl------+-~---+-f----t--~- / )\ I ' -1' a: 

w 

"--

!J) 

,_ 

a:: 

"' "--

z 

w 

Q 

0: 

9 

:X: 

u 

BOO 1----'------+- t-----f-+

1 

---il--------1f------clf---·--·--t··--- ·-·-· ( ------

'700 , .. --~~ +~-·~···--"" -- --r-- /\ 1 

6oo l--------"-,h1'---''r--· ..:::::: 1:::.:-·, ... · ·-1---. ------........ 1\. / Jd,/'"- / I 

\,!'/ I J I / I 

,:- '" I I ----·=.;1:;:;:'""--- V ~~ 400---+-- .. -J I ~-#>7 I ---_-::. ·-· "T\ 

300 ~+y-·\- ·-- .. r-----:'L~ ~ I 1_..;:::.::::.__ / .....,.-.:~<?§:>...-- . \...- -v-

::: /.:-- £~~--~-=-~=-~:---· -~--- -·-·-· __ ___. .. !'.LI?_3;;o-,_ ... 

,·-------- ----·---· F 174--.. 

o~-~-ffi--·~--~---ill·---~--~illfu~~~~~~~ 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 

500 

1946 

Figure 175.--Graph showing correlation between fluctuation of water level in well F 179 and 

chloride content in 12 wells of the Silver Bluff area, Miami, 1940-46. 
608 WA TEll RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN Fl.OlUDA 

EFFECT OF &AINFALL ON mE ISOCHLOR PATTERN 

As indicated previously, it was difficult to select the optimum 

times to secure data for the salt water-fresh water studies in the 

Silver Bluff area. Heavy rains . just before, or during, an investigation would cause local distortions in the water table and 

isoclilor pattern sufficient to upset the most carefully collected 

data. Nevertheless, ·it was important to obtain information for 

conditions following heavy rains. Accordingly, the study of July 

26, 1941, was conducted just after the rainy-season ground-water 

peaks that occurred about July 13. Figure 175 suggests that, even 

though a rainy-season peak had just passed, the time of the survey 

covered a period during which the water table had already declined 

to near-average level, or slightly below. Furthermor~ examination of the chloride graphs for wells in this area shows that at the 

time of the study not all ground water was declining in chloride 

content, although in most parts of the aquifer this was true. 

The composite profile in figure 172 indicates that at many points 

the isochlor pattern does not represent the chloride concentrations 

shown for the various wells. Apparently, therefore, even though 

the study was made several days following the last heavy showers, 

the large part of the year's total rain that had fallen during the 

preceding few weeks had a considerable and lasting ·disruptive 

effect on the regularity of the isochlor pattern. Especially tending 

to upset the regular plotting of the observed data was the direct 

discharge into the salt-water wedge- of relatively large quantities 

of rain water from drainage wells. At the time of the study therefore, there was still a tendency towards a smoothing-out or stabilizing of conditions, but at the same time, water levels were declining. Postponing the study until the varying factors became 

stabilized, however, would have meant losing the opportunity for 

observing the nature of the factors bearing on salt-water encroachment during periods of high water-table conditions. In any 

study contemplated for a period of high water levels, therefore, 

unusual precautions should be taken to insure an ample collection 

of precise and complete data because of the difficulties that may 

later be experienced in attempting to fit the results together into 

one comprehensive picture. 

In contrast to the study of July 26, 1941, conducted during a 

comparatively unstable high water-table period, the study of 

February 4, 1942 was made under conditions of a fairly low and 

gradually declining water table. The composite profile given in 

figure 173 reveals well-stablized conditions with good agreement 

between the chloride concentrations shown for the different wells 

and a smoo'thly-drawn isochlor pattern. Inspection of the chloride 

graphs in figure 175 shows that, without exception, chloride was 

increasing in all wells sampled at this time, and that the increases 

were apparently the direct result of the lowered water level. 
::;; 

::J 

!;;_ 

0 

>-

w 

> 

0:: 

::J •o 

"' '-' f= oo w 

0 

0 

w 0 

"' 0 

z -00 <t 

00 

~ 

... ,._ 

' u. 

~ 

' 

... "' 

DISTANCE FROM SHORE LINE, IN THOUSANDS OF FEET 

7 6 4 

CORAL WAY ANO 

SOUTHWEST 320 AVE 

~ 11 !!! u. .... 

MEAN 

"' 

~ .. "' 0 ' "' "' "' 

SEA 

:::: ;I LEVEL 

_10 !1'1')1;.0 

~~ ~:! 

l&..h.. U...I.L 

INGRAHAM HWY ANO 

SOUTHWEST 27TH AVE. 

m 0)«) ~mm~ m IQ o !!!~~~~(\1 ~(:j ~ 

ISOCHlO RS, IN PARTS 

PER M!U.JON 

SSE. 

SLANT N U MERA.lS AND EIROKE N 

LIN'E REPRESENT CHLORiD<E 

CONTENT IN OCTOEI ER 1940 

VERTtCAl NUMERALS ANO SOLID 

LINE RE"PRESEtH CHLOR I O'E 

CONTEN-T lN CEC EMBER 19 4-6 

Figure 1'16. -Generalized cross section showing isochlar pattern in the Silver Bluff area, October 1940 and December 19'\6. 
610 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Figure 176 is a generalized composite cross section through the 

Silver Bluff area showing the change in isochlor patterns in the encroaching salt-water body as of the end of October 1940 and 

December 1946, the beginning and end of the month-end sampling 

program. 

The cross section shown is more than 11, 000 feet long in a general north-northwest direction, oriented normal to the bay shore, 

and all wells are shown as though they were situated along one 

line intersecting the bay. Actually, some are as much as several 

city blocks apart (in a general east-west direction) but theyhave 

been placed on the drawing at their correct normal distance from 

the bay. Locations of these wells are shown infigure 170, Most of 

the wells have been sampled monthly since 1940, and it was from 

these pumped samples that data for this plate and figure 175 were 

obtained. 

One of the obvious characteristics of the isochlors drawn for 

October 1940 and December 1946 is their irregular or wavy shape. 

This is a characteristic frequently found, but it is especially pronounced following heavy rains in accordance with the information 

already offered. Some of the irregularity in the isochlor pattern 

is due to plotting the chloride data for each well at a point corresponding to the bottom of the well whereas actually, water is free 

to enter a well from any part of the open-hole section below the 

bottom of the casing. 

The isochlors in the cross section actually may be shown less 

d'istorted than they would be if the conditions they represent in the 

aquifer were more precisely known. This is the result of incomplete sampling of the cross section. Enough points of access to the 

ground-water body are sampled so that a generalized cross section 

of the salt-water wedge can be drawn. The limitations of the data, 

however, must be realized. 

CHARACTERISTICS AND CIIANGES IN POSITION OF THE SALT•WATER WEDGE 

It will be noted in figure 176 that the principal changes of the 

isochlor pattern between October 1940 and December 1946 took 

place at and near the inland margin of the salt-water wedge. 

There, the 1, 000 ppm isochlor moved inland approximately 2, 000 

feet in the 1940-46 interval. There was also a considerable rise of 

the upper surface of the salt-water wedge, averaging perhaps 15 

feet over the distance of more than 9, 000 feet that the wedge extends inland from the· bay. 

The wedge is very blunt-nosed, as shown by the 1, 000 ppm 

isochlor of 1946 and the 50-ppm isochlor of 1940. It will be noted 

that a knob-like shape in these two isochlors appears below well 

F 162. It is believed that this shape is due largely to differential 
SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 611 

dilution of the wedge seaward from F 162, and that a truer picture of the shape the wedge would assume if no such dilution effect 

occurred is shown by the light dashed-lineA-A'. Similar straightening out probably could be done on each isochlor to gain an idea 

of how such an encroaching wedge would appear in a place not affected by fresh-water recharge directly into the salt-water body. 

Comparatively small changes took place in the salt water of 

higher chloride concentration, the greatest changes taking place 

in the water containing less than 1, 000 ppm chloride. For both 

1940 and 1946, the 1, 000-:-ppm isochlor lay near the center of the 

salt-water wedge, and the change from water of 50 ppm, or less, 

to water of 16, 000 ppm, or more, took place within a thickness of 

70 to 80 feet. These conditions are comparable to those found by 

Pennink (1904, p. 183-238) along the Netherlands coast where the 

diffusion zone averaged 20 meters (65. 6 feet) in thickness. 

The studies of salt-water encroachment made in the Silver Bluff 

area give evidence of the magnitude -of seasonal and long-term 

changes in the elevation of the water table and in the shift of 

isochlor patterns. The fact that these patterns can show movement 

first in one direction and then in the other is of considerable 

significance. Equilibrium conditions {approximate) have not been 

reached over the whole area, and the isochlor pattern is probably 

destined to occupy, at some future date, a new position some 

distance inland from its present position. However, this movement, persistent as it may be, will be materially slowed down by 

the seasonal high-water periods of years of heavier-than-normal 

rainfall. 

It has been pointed out that changes in the elevation of the water 

table do not immediately provoke changes 40 times as great in the 

position of the isochlor pattern. Indeed, there seems to be so 

much lag before adjustment can be made to one change in watertable elevation a new and possibly reverse change has occurred; 

therefore, a complete adjustment may not ever occur. Seasonal 

changes in the position of the isochlor pattern are therefore 

smaller than might be expected. The changes in salt-water contamination reflect long-term trends of the water table rather than 

overnight variations, Etnd the observed relation between salt and 

fresh water in the Silver Bluff area is a reflection of conditions 

existing during preceding years. 

Referring to the profile for the study 'Of July 26, 1941 {fig. 172), 

representing near-average conditions, note that the line showing 

the theoretical contact between salt water and fresh water parallels the isochlor pattern and lies slightly above the 6, 000-ppm 

isochlor at a point about 2, 500 ft inland. This indicates that equilibrium, based on average yearly values, is probably established 

in accordance with the Ghyben-Herzberg principle over that distance, Beyond 2, 500ft, the theoretical line graduallyflattens out, 
612 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

and at about 4, 800 ft, it crosses the 1, 000-ppm isochlor. Thus, 

equilibrium is almost reached at a point 4, 800 ft inland. Inland 

beyond this· point, however, the divergence between the theoretical 

line and the isochlors is great. 

Figure 174 shows the relatively smallamount of actual shift involved in the isochlor pattern between very low and near-average 

water-table stages and supports the conclusion that equilibrium, 

based on average yearly water-table elevations, has been reached 

at least 2, 500ft inland. However, the relation of low-water 

levels, such as those of February 4, 1942, to the position of the 

isochlor pattern is significant primarily to show existence of unbalanced conditions favorable for inducing inland movement of 

salt water. Certainly the isochlor pattern and the theoretical balance line as of February 4, 1942, show no direct correlation, 

whereas there is good correlation as of July 26, 1941. 

The position of the salt-water wedge at any given time is a result of conditions prevailing over a relatively long period of time. 

The wedge may be moving very slowly inland, but it is constantly 

subject to advances and retreats. The leading edge probably can 

never advance inland beyond the average yearly position occupied 

by the particular water-table contour that is 2~ ft above true 

average sea level. This follows, inasmuch as a fresh-water head 

of 2~ ft above the true average level of salt water in the bay would 

depress the top of the encroaching wedge to the relatively impermeable sandy marls of the Floridan aquiclude that underlie the 

highly permeable Biscayne aquifer, and the salt-water advance 

would halt there. 

It might be assumed that ground water flows approximately 

parallel to the dip of the highly permeable formations in the Silver 

Bluff area and that there would be a slight downward, as well as a 

horizontal, component of motion as the water approached the 

shore area. However, study of water-table maps for the entire 

area shows that this is not true, because the greatest flow is not 

down the dip-instead, it is toward the canals. A minor part of 

the total quantity of water moves seaward in the aquifer throughout the year and is effective in limiting the inland progression of 

the salt-water wedge-particularly at the leading, or inland, edge 

during the rainy season when the water table becomes fairly hig!:t 

and seaward ground-water movement is pronounced. 

The seaward flow of fresh water over the wedge of salty water 

has a depressive effect on the shape of the wedge, and it probably 

accounts for most of the rapid vertical descent of the isochlors at 

a point more than 7, 000 ft inland. The factors that are involved in 

this phenomenon are not known at present, but there is a possible 

association with the dissipation of the anterior part of the saltwater wedge through mixing with, and being swept away by, 

seaward-moving fresh water. The present shape of the inland 
SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 613 

front of the salt-water wedge at Silver 'Bluff may be compared 

with the steeply dipping isochlors of the inland front of the saltwater wedge in the Cutler area (see fig, 201). It is believed that 

in the Cutler area the present conditions are comparable to those 

in the Silver Bluff area before encroachment began, and that they 

sho.w the normal salt water-fresh water relationship for this 

coastal zone (at localities where drainage and the consequent 

lowering of the fresh-water head do not distort conditions). 

The pattern at Silver Bluff probably will retain its general shape; 

however, it is only the sweeping away of the inland front of the 

wedge that prevents advance farther inland, until, as previously 

noted, the encroachment would stop at the place where the average 

annual position of the water table is 2! ft above true average sea level 

(about 3-ft above U. S, Coast and Geodetic Survey mean sea 

level), 1 

It has been pointed out (above} that the water level in a well 

tapping a section of the water-bearing strata containing highchloride concentrations would be lower than the true water table, 

as indicated by the water level in an adjacent shallow observation 

well. By referring to table 69, a comparison of the water levels 

for paired wells can be made. Parentheses have been used to 

single out each combination of fire well and adjacent shallow test 

well. For any such pair of wells, in an area where only water of 

normal or near-normal chloride . content is present, the water 

levels should be practically equal. Where the chloride concen-· 

tration of the ground water tapped by the fire well is several 

hundred parts per million, or more, there will be an appreciable 

divergence between the water levels in the two wells. This divergence increases in proportion to the increase in chloride concentration. The maximum divergence on both July 26 and February 4 

was for wells F l46 and G 298 and amounted to 1. 89 ft. This divergance is associated with a chloride concentration of 16, 600 to 

16, 700 ppm in well F 146. 

To show how large a proportion of the divergence in levels can 

be accounted for through adjustme-nts for density differences only, 

computations are presented for two selected distances from the 

shoreline utilizing data taken in part from the composite saltwater-encroachment profile (fig. 173) for February 4, 1942, and 

in part from two pairs of observation wells (F 158-G 158 A, and 

F 198-G 293). The maximum chloride concentrations determined 

in the two fire wells are about 16, 000 ppm and 8, 000 ppm, 

respectively. 

In each of the two sets of sample computations the adjustment 

method, as devised, involved the necessity of converting to an 

1Since this report was written, several additlonal years of observation and collection of data 

have OCCUlTed. N. D. Hoy and Francis A. Kohout, geologists of the Miami office, have as- sembled data that Indicate that the observed position of the salt-water wedge is in near- equilibrium with presently known hydrologic conditions, 
614 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

equivalent water level for normal ground water the mean water 

leve 1 for the day of the study as observed in the fire we 11 and the 

average corresponding level of the water table as taken from the 

composite profile (fig. 173). Thus, computations were made for 

each fire well to indicate the level at which the water would stand 

if the well casing contained water of normal chloride concentration 

instead of the salt-contaminated water. This involved the determination of the pressure on a unitarea at the bottom of the well by 

means of the known specific gravity of the water in thewellmultiplied by the observed length of the water column. The length of the 

new column was computed by equating this pressure to that at tile 

base of a column of normal ground water having a specific gravity 

of unity. Thus, for well F 158 the mean observed water level on 

February 4, 1942, was 0. 04 ft above mean sea level. The bottom 

of the well was 71. 3 ft below mean sea level (see table 69), and the 

length of the water column in the casing was 71. 34 ft. The chloride 

concentration was 16, 100 ppm, indicating (see fig. 171) a specific 

gravity of 1. 0215. The figure 71.34 multiplied by the ratio of this 

specific gravity to that for normal ground water, i~ ~~~~· gives 

72. 87 ft as the length of an equivalent column of normal ground 

water. The difference in lengths of the two columns, 1. 53 ft, 

added to the mean observed water level, gives the level at which 

normal ground water would stand, Thus, 1. 53 ft plus 0. 04 ft 

equals 1. 57ft above mean sea level. On the composite profile 

shown in figure 173, however, the average water-table elevation 

for a site at this distance from the shoreline appears as 1. 30 ft 

above mean sea level. To convert this to an equivalent elevation 

for normal ground water obviously requires the consideration of 

chloride concentrations ranging from 16 ppm at the water table 

(1. 30ft above mean sea level) to 16, 100 ppm at a depth of 71. 3ft 

below mean sea level. In figure 177, two curves, obtained from 

the isochlor pattern drawn in figure 173, show the variations in 

chloride concentration with depth at the sites of the two fire wells 

used in these sample computations. The curves are terminated at 

the depths penetrated by the fire wells. Each curve applies only 

to one particular site, therefore its upper limit is determined by 

the average water-table elevation at that particular site as taken 

from the composite profile in figure 173. A normal chloride concentration of 16 ppm was arbitrarily assigned to the upperlimit 

of each curve. 

The computations for adjusting the average water-table elevation of 1. 30ft (at well F 158) to an elevation for an equivalent 

column of normal ground water are then resolved essentially into 

a determination of the area, shown in figure 177, bounded by the 

curve of chloride versus depth (the abscissas being drawn through 

the limitiug chloride concentrations of 16 and 16,100 ppm)and the 

vertical coordinate axis. Therefore, to obtain the length of the 

equivalent column of normal ground water the curve was divided 

into short segments, an average chloride concentration was determined representative of each segment, and the specific gravity 
SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 615 

(fig. 171), indicated by each chloride concentration, was then 

multiplied by the height of vertical projection of the segment, and 

these products then were totaled. These computations are assembled in table 70 for each of the two selected sites. 

-+--~~- WELLF-198 

__L_~-L....--__L __ ..J...._~~::-::-::-----:-=-=-:-:-_-~-::-:-:-- ----- 2000 4000 sooo 6ooo 1opoo 12poo 14poo 1spoo 16,000 

CHLORIDE, IN PARTS PER MILLION 

Figure 177. -Variation of chloride with depth in selected wells in Silver Bluff area, Miami, 

February 4, 1942, 

In figure 177 the short, heavy bars cutting across the curves 

indicate the manner in which they were arbitrarily divided into 

segments. Also shown in this figure is a stippled zone representing the area between the vertical axis of the graph and a typical 

segment of the curve. The lettered dimensions for this area will 

explain the notation appearing in some of the column headings in 

table 70. In this table the total of column 1 (72. 60ft) is the length 

of the water column in the ground, and the total of column 6 

(72. 82 ft) is the length of an equivalent column of normal ground 

water that would have a weight about the same as that in column 1. 

An elevation of 1. 52ft is obtained by adding the difference in 

length of the two water columns, 0. 22 ft, to the average watertable elevation of 1. 30ft, selected from figure 173. This compares very closely with the elevation of 1. 57ft previously obtained 

by adjusting the observed water level in fire well F 158. Before 

adjustments were applied, the water level in well F 158 differed 

from the average water-table elevations by 1. 26ft. After adjustment only for specific gravity, however, the difference has been 

reduced to 0. 05 ft. 

In similar fashion, computations were made (table 70) to adjust 

the water levels at the other selected site using data from well 

F 198. Before making the adjustment, the levels differed by 

346881 0-55--41 
616 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 70,-Data and computations -for adjusting water-table elevations at two 

selected sites in Silver Bluff c ,a, February 4, 1942 

[See figure 177 for explanation ot symbols) 

Site 2, 560 feet from shoreline Site 1, 960 feet from shoreline 

(Well F 158) (Well F 198) 

Average- Equivalent Average- Equivalent 

intervals intervals 

Depth Chloride Specific of Depth Chloride Specific of 

interval concentration gravity normal interva• 

cf:e:~rn ~~ normal 

(b) ( h1·+ ~ 1 th.l_; ~-1 ground (b) ground water water 

r 2 -I [b (sp. gr.)) - [b(sp. gr. )) 

Feet Ppm (l) Feet I' Feet Ppm (1) Feet~-

. (1) (2) (3) (4) (1) (2) (3) (4) 

111.30 18 1,0000 11.300 •n. 2s 20 1,0000 11.2110 

10 32 1.0000 .10,000 10 42 1,0000 10.000 

10 62 1.0001 10.001 10 82 1.0001 10,001 

10 117 1.0001 10.001 10 160. 1,0002 10,002 

10 249 1.0003 10.003 5 289 1.0003 5,002 

2.5 400 1.0005 2.501 2.5 835 1,0010 2, 502 

2.5 1,240 1.0016 2.504 2,5 2,595 1,0034 2,508 

2.5 3,540 1.0046 2.512 2,5 4,810 1.00114 2,516 

2.5 6,100 1.0080 2.520 2,9 7,120 1.0095 2,928 

2.5 8,470 1,0112 2.528 ~ 511.719 

2.5 10,520 1,0141 2,535 

2.5 12,415 1.0166 2,542 

2.5 14,260 1.0191 2.548 

~ 15,1145 1,0211 1.327 

72.60 72,822 

Adj1151:ment of average water-table elevation Adjustment of average water-table elevation 

of +1. 30: of +1. 211: 

Length of Wll.ter column in the ground : 72, 60 Length of water column in the ground : 56. 66 

feet, total of (1). feet, total of {1). 

Length of an equivalent column of normal Length of an equivalent column of normal 

ground water = 72, 82 feet, total of (4). groundwater: 56.72 feet, total of (4). 

Adjusted water-table elevation is 1. 30 + Adjusted water•table 'elevation is 1. 26 + 

(72. 82 - '12. 60} ,. +1. 52 feet. (56. 72 - 56. 66) ~ 1. 32 feet. 

Adjustment of observed fire well water-level Adjustment of observed fire well water-level 

elevation of +0. 04: elevation of +0, 86: 

Actual length of water casing = 71, 34 feet. 

column in well Actual length of water column 

casing = 56, 26 feet, 

in well 

Length adjusted to an equivalent column of Length adjusted to an equivalent column of 

normal ground water, (71. 34Xl. 0215} normal c,ound water, (56, 26}(1, 0 109} = 72. 8'1 feet. =56, 87 eet. · Adjusted water~table elevation is 0,04 + Adjusted water-table elevation is o. 86 + (72. 87 - 71. 34} = 1. 57 feet. (56, 87 - 56, 26) : 1. 47 feet, 

1computed from value in (2) and use of figure 1 '11. 

ZProduct of corresponding values in (1} and (3}, divided by specific gravity of unity, 

IBased on average water-table elevations for the two sites, +1, 30 and +1, 26 respectively, 

taken from figure 173. 

0. 40 ft; after adjustment, the difference was reduced to 0. 15 ft. In 

view of the number of factors (already discussedTthat tend to complicate work with data in the Silver Bluff area, the close agreement 

(within 0. 05 ft) between the adjusted water levels in the first sample computation. may be partly fortuitous. However, the adjustments effected in both sets of computations show the degree of importance that may be attached to the specific-gravity factor alone. 

Undoubtedly, other adjustments should be applied to (\Ccomplish 

. complete reconciliation of the divergence ill water levels indicated 
SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 617 

by the pairs of wells scattered throughout the Silver Bluff area. 

However, differences in specific gravity easily account for a 

major part of the divergence, and these are the only adjustments 

that have been considered in this repo_rt. 

TIDAL-STORAGE CHANGES 

Computations were made of the approximate order ofmagnitude 

of the maximum amount of salt-water movement inland that could 

occur during the short space of time elapsing between low tide and 

the following high tide. The accompanying sketch (fig. 178) represents a schematic profile in which the shaded area •• A • indi- · 

cates the wedge-shaped zone in which ground water is alternately 

stored and drained as a result of tidal fluctuations in Biscayne 

Bay. The length of this wedge was considered as 6, 410 ft, the 

average distance from the shoreline to the three nearest wells in 

which tidal fluctuations became so small that they approached the 

limits of accuracy {nearest 0. 01 ft) of the field water-level 

measurements, as determined during the study of June 26, 1941. 

The height of the wedge is 0. 7 ft, which represents the amplitude 

!""'. EIO--------6 410 ft 

Figure 178. -Schematic profile to illustrate method of computing theoretical bulk change in 

groimd·water storage due to tides, . 
618 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

of the tidal fluctuation in well G 334, located 180ft from the 

shoreline, The shaded area "B .. indicates a zone whose shape 

has been assumed for purposes of convenience in making the com• 

putation. Its height of about 120 ft is based on the known average 

thickness of the highly permeable Biscayne aquifer in this locality, 

and its width, "X• ft, equals the amount of inland movement of 

salt· water to be computed, assuming for convenience that the 

movement is entirely horizontal-as a solid wallofwater. Therefore, for a unit length of shoreline, measured normal to the plane 

of the sketch, the volume ofwater stored in the wedge "A• may be' 

equated to the volume of sea water moving in horizontally through 

the zone "B• Thus, 

t(o. 7) (6, 410) (1) = 12ox (1) 

X = 18. 7 ft 

This computation ignores the part of wedge "A • supplied by ground 

water flowing toward the sea. Therefore, the distance computed 

exceeds the actual average distance that salt water moves under 

the influence of tides. The same value, with opposite sign, would 

apply to the other half of the tide cycle so that the net movement 

of salt water for one complete cycle would be zero, provided that 

recharge to the ground-water body remained constant. If the recharge were decreasing, the zone "B• would not be pushed seaward as much as it moves inland each cycle, and there would be a 

steady advance inland of the salt water. Increasing ground-water 

recharge would have the opposite effect. 

ENCROACHMENT IN THE TIDAL CANALS 

By D. U. Bogart 

The study of encroachment of salty water in the canals and 

canalized natural streams connected with tidal estuaries and bays 

has been an important phase of the investigations in southeastern 

Florida. In Broward and Dade Counties, most of the canals empty 

into the marine sloughs close to, and parallel with, the ocean 

beach, or into Biscayne Bay and its extensions to the southwest. 

The marine sloughs, prior to canalization for navigation, probably 

were brackish for most of the time, except near the ocean inlets 

or where they broadened into bays. Waterway developments, however, facilitated fresh-water runoff and inland movement of salty 

water, and the sloughs essentially became arms of the sea. The 

bottoms of the canals near the coast were excavated to below sea 

level, and salty water thus had access to them except where 

attempts were made to control flow. 

Uncontrolled canals drain off water that would naturally oppose 

inland movement of salty water and also provide an easy path for 

salt-water encroachment because sea water is free to enter during 

the drier periods of the year. The canals thus perform an adverse 
SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 619 

dual function, but at the same time they are the key to the solution 

of the problem. It is only by controlling the canals that salt-water 

encroachment can be stopped in the canals and in the land. 

As discussed previously, contamination of part of the municipal 

water supply of Miami focused attention on the problem of saltwater intrusion. That was sufficient reason for the investigation, 

but contamination of the canals and waterways is in itself undesirable for various reasons. Commercial vessels and yachts are 

moored in the fresh-water canals to discourage or destroy marine 

growths and organisms attached to their hulls. Water is pumped 

from the canals to the fields for farm and urban irrigation, and 

because many plants have a low salt tolerance, even mildly salty 

water usually cannot be used. Fresh water is preferred for cooling 

purposes in power stations and industrial establishments, and often 

the canals are used directly as sources of fresh water. 

SALINITY INVESTIGATIONS 

AREAS STUDIED 

In view of the nature of the problem, the area of most intensive 

study was in the lower reaches of the Miami Canal. The secondary 

tidal canals of the Miami area, from Snake Creek Canal on the 

north to Snapper Creek Canal on the south, were also studied, 

starting in the spring of 1940. Data were collected to show the 

changing position of the salt front as affected by various water 

conditions. 

Continuo·us drought conditions in 1943 and 1944 aroused interest 

in salt-water contamination in the Fort Lauderdale area. A reconnaissance sampling program was started in the tidal reaches of 

the lower New River basin in 1944 and was continued through 1946. 

The destruction of crops by salty water in the marl flats east of 

Homestead activated interest in the contamination problem, and 

salinity investigations were started there in 1945. These studies 

also included the area to the south and southwest of Homestead. In 

addition, a number of special studies were made of smaller 

sections within the areas mentioned above. 

SAMPLING PROCEDURE 

Observation stations were established along the canals at fairly 

uniform intervals, particularly at bridges, to facilitate field work. 

Where bridges were not available, samples were taken from the 

canal banks. Locations other than the regular stations were used 

when additional detail was wanted. Observations were also made 

in lakes (usually in rock pits) connected with the canals and open 

to contamination. 
620 WATER RESOURCES IN SOT.TI'H£ASTERN FLORIDA 

Sampling procedure was simple. A sampling device holding a 

small corked bottle was lowered or thrown in the water. At the 

desired depth, the cork was withdrawn by jerking the line attached 

to the sampler, and the bottle was filled with water. Most of the 

samples were taken near the bottom of the canals, where salty 

water appears first and where the highest chloride concentrations 

occur. For special studies, samples were taken at other depths 

and at the surface. The samples ordinarily were collected at or 

near the time of high tide at the particular sampling station. The 

rriost difficult phase of the sampling procedure was the problem of 

coordinating the time of the collection with the time of high tide at 

numerous locations in a relatively large area. 

DENSITY CURRENTS AND HYDRAULIC RELATIONSIDPS 

Two or more miscible solutions of different specific gravities 

tend to remain unmixed when brought together under non-turbulent 

conditions, even when the difference in specific gravity is very 

small. The difference may be the result of suspended material 

{sediment) in one of otherwise similar solutions; it may be the 

result of temperature differences between identical solutions; or 

the solutions may be different in composition. When two such solutions are brought together, one will stay above or sink below the 

other, but motion will continue until hydrostatic balance has been 

established. When a liquid enters another liquid of slightly different density, the two liquids tend to maintain their separate entities, and the resulting relative motion of one of these liquids to 

the other is known as a density current. The phenomena of density 

currents have been described by a number of observers; one of the 

better general references is a paper by Bell (1942). 

DIVIDED FLOW AND SHAPE OF DENSIT\' CURRENTS 

The density currents discussed here are those occurring in 

natural waters, particularly where fresh and salt waters meet. The 

fresh water considered here is assumed to have a specific gravity 

of 1. 000, and ordinarily this will be nearly correct. Normal sea 

water at Miami has a specific gravity of 1. 027 (seep. 573 ), but it 

may be as high as 1. 032 in shallow water where evaporation has 

increased the concentration; it will be lower where mixing with 

fresh water has occurred. Normal sea water in this .area contains 

about 19, 800 ppm of chloride. The surface waters of the Miami 

area range in chloride concentration from 15 ppm for fresh water 

in the Everglades to as high as 26, 000 ppm where pools of highly 

contaminated water have partly evaporated. 

Where a stream enters a body of salt water, the fresh-water 

discharge does not immediately mix with the salt water; instead, it 

may keep its identity as fresh water for a considerable distance. 
SALT·WATER ENCROACHMENT 621 

The fresh water moves over the top of the larger body of water in 

a layer of decreasing thickness until it fans out and is dispersed 

by wind and wave action. 

When fresh-water discharge in a tidal canal decreases below 

some critical quantity, salt water enters the mouth of the canal 

and moves upstream in a halting fashion underneath the outflowing 

fresh water. The salt water moves as a long tongue and is quite 

sharply separated from the fresh water, except for a narrow zone 

of intermixing. The tongue of salty water has a fairly steep front 

a~d the activity at the front is caused by friction ·and the impact 

with the fresh-water current. The interface between fresh and 

salt water extends toward the bay with an increasingly thick zone 

of mixed water. Depending upon the amount of fresh-water runoff, 

the interface disappears either at some point downstream or in the 

bay. Some mixing occurs as a result of wind and wave action, irregularities in the channel, and the effect of tributaries. Under 

the conditions just described the flow in the canal may be divided into 

two currents moving in opposite directions. Under other conditions, as discussed in the next section, both currents may be 

inland, or both toward the bay, but not necessarily with the same 

velocity. 

A most interesting effect has been observed near Miami in 

Snapper Creek Canal. which is tidal in its lower reaches. This 

curious effect occurred when the canal was rising as a result of 

tidal rise in ~ayne Bay. A surface layer of fresh water about 

0. 8ft deep was flowing downstream at a velocity of about 2 fps, 

and underneath this layer, 2ft of strongly salty water was flowing 

upstream at 1. 5 fps. The two currents seemed to be quite uniform, as indicated by small pieces of suspended material. In the 

surface between the two layers of water (the interface) were a 

number of small yellow elliptical leaves, roughly 9 in. apart 

horizontally. These leaves defined a plane and were motionless 

despite being only a fraction of an inch from waters moving swiftly 

in opposite directions. ' 

'UIE MECIIANICS OF SALT CONTAMINADO!l! 

The inlp.nd movement of salty water in tidal canals is based upon 

the relative' densities of the waters, the quantity of fresh-water 

runoff, and tidal action. Salt water, as compared with fresh water, 

has a "density head .. of 0. 027 ft for each foot of depth; that is., it 

takes 1. 027 ft of fresh water in a U -tube to balance 1. 000 ft of 

sea water. This means that where a fresh-water stream 10ft 

deep meets a bay, the fresh water must have a head of 10. 27 -

10. 00 = 0. 27ft if the salt water is to be kept out of the stream. 

The flowing stream, in turn, has a head that is a function of the 

velocity; that is, the energy of the stream's motion is equivalent 
622 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

to a certain amount of static (or vertical) head. This is expressed 

in the relationship: velocity head, h = ~· in which v is the velocity 

and g is the acceleration due to gravity. 

In the case cited above, the mean velocity of the stream would 

have to be 4. 2 fps to keep the sea water out of the canal. If the 

velocity were less, the sea water would move upstream to where 

the velocity head plus the elevation head (the difference in elevation 

between the stream and bay at that point) equalled the density head 

of the bay. Thus, the salt water moves inland as fresh-water runoff decreases below the critical amount necessary to keep the 

stream fresh. Each location along the stream, in turn, has a 

critical rate of discharge which decreases inland. 

The actual situation is not nearly so simple as this discussion 

implies because the stage of a tidal bay changes continually and 

movements of fresh and salt water are complicated by friction, 

obstructions, and tidal variations. 

Tidal variations affect the stage and discharge of a tidal canal, 

and therefore the movement of the salt tongue also varies. Thus, 

with decreasing runoff, the tongue moves farther and farther inland with an intermittent motion. Upstream from the tongue, and 

over it, the fresh water alternately slows and accelerates toward 

the sea. 

When the flow of fresh water decreases below another critical 

rate, reverse flow begins in the entire cross section near the 

mouth of the canal. The action of reverse flows and negative 

slopes is described in detail starting on page 444. When negative 

slopes occur in part of each tide cycle, the inland movement of the 

tongue is accelerated, but the mass of salty water does not move 

so fastas the reversal points, which travelas a function of storage 

rates. The same principles ofvelocity, elevation, and densityhead 

still hold as the salty water continues inland. The ultimate condition is reached when discharge from the upper reaches is less 

than the losses along the lower reaches, which result from evaporation and use. No fresh water reaches the sea; instead, the fresh 

water retreats and a net flow inland occurs. When this happens, a 

tidal canal will soon become contaminated throughout unless salinity controls are installed and operated. 

When rains cause increased runoff after the end of a dry period, 

the salt tongue moves downstream in the same manner that it 

moved upstream and in response to the same natural laws. At a 

specific rate of increased discharge, reverse flows cease and all 

flow is positive. At a greater specific rate of discharge, the canal 

is cleared of all salty water. 

Salt-water intrusion in tidal canals is retarded by constrictions, 

which increase the velocity of the fresh water and thus check the 
SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 623 

inland movement of salt water. Shoals affect flow the same way, 

but, in addition, they also act as submerged dams and delay the 

progress of the salt tongue along the bottom of the canal. If a 

shoal decreases the channel depth say, by about 25 percent, the 

salty water may be held back for a period of several weeks depending also upon other factors. 

Aquatic vegetation retards the flow of both fresh and salty water 

and may be a beneficial factor in drought periods. The dense 

masses of bottom-rooted aquatic weeds that infest the canals of the 

Miami area act as dams, literally thousands of them, which individually are unimportant but which in the aggregate constitute an 

effective barrier. This damming effect reduces runoff and wastage of fresh water and blocks the inland movement of salty water. 

In the drought year of 1945 the aquatic weeds undoubtedly delayed 

the inland movement of salty water and shortened the period of 

high-chloride concentrations that existed at inland locations. 

Dams in the Miami area can be used effectively to stop the intrusion of salty water. The problem is complicated, however, by 

the highly permeable nature of the rock formations through which 

the canals were mainly excavated. If a dam lacking a cut-off wall 

in the aquifer is closed so late in a drought period that negative 

heads develop at the dam during each tide cycle, salty water tends 

to seep through the porous rock beneath and around the ends of 

the dam and thus re-enter the canal above the dam. This may also 

occur if the drought is unduly prolonged, even though the dam may 

have been closed at a time when positive heads could be held. 

REO 

ROAD 

WATE;:R MIAMI SPRINGSF'"LANT HIAI..E:AH e!RIDGE 38 .. 59 ____ ·- 86 ' ______ ,_ 

~ ~I 

NORTHW!::ST 

J6TH ST. 

/J6 -~- - 240~~0 

ChlOride concentrotion '" 

w Separate figures are below dam essentially 

u >I----t--chloride concentration--·~-·----· 

~ at locat1on j 

.. ·--that of sea water, at-~ 

all depths 0 

a: lsochlors indicate chloride 

~ concentrotion 1n ports 

~ 41-----!.!8 per million r 114 

B ------~~9;7~----------------r- ~ •1---·?"F--

£ 

>-

"-

"' " 

7.0 7.0 6.5 

DISTANCE, IN MILES ABOVE MOUTH 

0 

5.0 

Figure 179, -Profile of Miami Canal above NW. 36th Street Dam showing chloride concentrations on May 15, 1945, 
624 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

A condition that existed above the NW, 36th Street Dam in 

Miami Canal, on May 15, 1945, is shown in figure 179. At that 

time, the dam was temporary, consisting of interlocking steel 

piling. Negative heads occurred every high tide, and the water had 

almost the same concentration as sea water at the downstream 

face of the dam; therefore a sizable amount of leakage and seepage 

occurred that contaminated the canal for about 2 miles above the 

dam. It is fortunate that the rate of contamination was relatively 

slow because the situation with respect to the well fields was 

highly critical, Above the dam, the elevation of the water was 

0. 55 ft, while the tidal stage below the dam averaged 0, 42 ft. The 

downstream stage at high tide on May 15 was 1. 62ft, and a few 

days earlier it had reached a high of 1. 93 ft. The profile shows 

that salty water was still passing the dam, because the isochlors 

sloped inland, The typicat rounded front also shows that a condition of hydrostatic balance had not been established, In this 

case, the trend of the intrusion was in one direction (inland), but 

the pattern observed resembles the patterns found where the salt 

front moves a cpnsiderable distance back and forth during each 

tide cycle, Notethemore orless uniform gradationfromrelatively 

uncontaminated water to contaminated; this was also found along 

other profile planes parallel to the centerline of the canal, 

Chloride concentrations in a .canal are lowest at the surface and 

grade to the highest at the bottom. The gradation occurs whether 

the salty water in a canal is moving or still. Figure 180 illustrates 

the manner in which chloride concentrations varyfrom the bottom 

to the surface of a canal at a given location. The data for the 

sections were obtained at the same time as the data for figure 179, 

The nearly horizontal layering of the salty water is evident. The 

variations in· the figure from truly horizontal layering may have 

several explanations. The effect of wind on the relatively still 

pool that existed at the time may have caused enough turbulence to 

mix the water in some degree. This is supported by the fact that 

moderate chloride concentrations are found in the upper half of 

the canal prism, indicating that the fresh water from upstream, 

which was normally low in chloride, was mildly contaminated, 

Another possibility is that the cone of depression that extended 

from the center of the nearby well field to the canal bank at that 

time induced seepage from the canal toward the wells. This view 

is supported by the fact that the isochlors dip downward on the 

side toward the principal well field. 

It should be remembered that any mixture of salt a'nd fresh 

water is a true solution, Salt water will not •settle out• in a still 

pool of contaminated water, and whatever degree of mixing has 

occur·red is irrevocable. This does not contradict the fact that a 

gradation of increasing chloride concentrations occurs with depth. 

The gradation results from the fact that waters of varying degrees 
SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 

Surface, elev. 0.~5 ft. 

Nonheur 

~""~ 

/UO 280 

SEA LEVEL-------------------

625 

~·~~--~----~------~===---~~ ill 

~· 

"' 0 

A 

IOL---------------------------------------------------------------------J 

8 

10 

NORTHWEST 36TH STREET, MIAMI 

SEA 

------------------------------------90·------------------~--~ 

0 

80 

MIAMI SPRINGS - HIALEAH BRIDGE 

Separate figures ore chloride concentration il'l portt pet miiOon at location ahown 

lsochtors repre&ent chloride In ports per miUion 

• t 

~ 

"' _j 

"' 

80 F•ot --~--~-----L----~--~----~ 

Figure 180. -c<oss sections of Miami Canal, at NW, 36th Street and at the Miami ·springsHialeah bridge showing approximate horizontal layering of salty water on May 15, 1945, 
626 WA 'I'ER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

of contamination ordinarily do not have the opportunity to thoroughly intermix-turbulence is usually too small. 

VABIA'DON OF CHLORIDE CONCENTRA'DON WITH '11DES 

The variation of stage and discharge of tidal canals is discussed 

in detail in the section on Surface water, where it is shown that 

ordinarily the stage and discharge hydrographs are nearly opposed. At a location where the salt front is in a state of flux, 

chloride concentrations vary with tides in much the same manner 

as the stage hydrograph. 

The vertical variations of chloride concentration in a tidal canal 

are shown in figure 181. Concentrations ranged between 2 and 70 

percent of that of sea water, indicating the wide variation in contamination that can exist in a reach where the salt front is alternately advancing and retreating. At low tide, a small and nearly 

uniform degree of contamination was present. The curve for the 

high-tide condition shows that fresh-water discharge was completely 

stopped by the salty water; in fact, the flow was reversed. At the 

time of the observation, the net fresh-water runoff was quite small 

and the salt tongue was progressing inland. 

CHLORIDE CONCENTRATION, IN 

PERCENT OF SEA WATER CONCENTRATION 

r----.--.-.,----'TI-------.--.;20'i-------.="3i'O,----- 40 50:..__ __ _:6:.r0 ---·-· 70 \I ~- ~~-=-~~1 --------~ 

·~ I I ----l- ~~~d~J 

-++--------h\-----· ~- +-'P..------IH 

_J 

f'! 

0 i 0 

• f-------+--r -

~ Low I tide II I 

~0.6 ~ Dolo jl-- ore tor B1scayne Conal *' at ~-~ ~ US. Highway I an March 24, I r~b~~~ s~~~~~ is 048 mile 

O.Br----t--~1-- i --1 

BattL I I I 

1·0o -·.zo~o 4ooo -------.6.-,JooLo=-------:a:-:o":o-:-o------::-:'-

cHLORIDE CONCENTRATION, IN PARTS 

II 

\I 

I 

12poo 14,000 

Figure 181. --Graph of vertical variations of chlOI'ide concentration in Biscayne Canal at four 

phases of a tide cycle. 
SALT'-WA TER ENCROACHMENT 627 

The relationship among stage, velocity, and chloride concentration for Snapper Creek Canal at Coral Gables, Dec. 11, 1946, is 

illustrated in figure 182. As discharge is principally a function of 

velocity, the velocity curve can be considered essentially the same 

as discharge. The chloride and velocity observations were made at 

the bottom of the canal in the center of the breached salinitycontrol dam. The graph shows that the chloride varied in the same 

general form as the stage, but, more strikingly, the chloride varied inversely with the velocity, even to the minor variations. 

a: 16,000 

UJ 

a. 

"' 14,000 1-..J 

cz:<r: 

~ ~12,000 u z 

-LL 

.zo 10,000 

o::;: 

-o 

!;[ ~ 8000 a:o 

~co 

UJ 1- 6000 U<( 

z " oz 

u Q 4000 

w..J 

o..J 

a: i 2000 0 

..J 

:I: 

u 0 

v 

) 

-I/ r---.. 

v \ 

I \ 

I ··~- I 

\V\ / 

v -·-

Ooto ore for Snapper Creek Canol at Coral Gobles, Florida,Dec 11/1946. 

Observations were made in center of breached salinity contra 

2.5 

L,U..J 

>0 2.0 oa: 

cot- <(Z 0 

Gav,~heivhty ~ 

L_ "" j-U 

IJJ>-

~!:: 1.5 

z~ -_J 

j-!"<( 

:rU"I 

~0 

ww 

I 

\ 1/ 

~ I 

I ' 1/ 

:r:I: 1.0 

,u 

w<r: 

<!)IJJ <(a: 

<!>CO 

0.5 

1\ I 

\ /velocity 

1'--... / 

O.O 7am 8 9 10 II 12 

('\ __,_ 

I \../ 

I 

I 

'(\ 

\ 

1'\ 

\ 

1\. 

r"-

2 4 6 

1.4 z 

0 

t- 1. 2 <( 

1-

"' 

1.0 ~ 

::::i 

a. 0.8::;; <( 

rJl 

0.6 t-

<( 

o" 

0.4z 

0 

u 

0 2 ~ 

a: 

w 0.0 a. 

1-

UJ -0.2 w 

LL 

z -04- ·-; 

1-

-0.6 g 

..J 

w 

> 7pm 

Figure 182. -Variations of stage, velocity, and chloride concentration in Snapper Creek Canal 

during one tidal cycle. 
628 WATER RESOURCES IN S01JTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

LOCA'110N OF SALT FRONT 

The • salt front• of a tongue of salty water. in a canal has been 

arbitrarily fixed as the location of the 1, 000 ppm chloride concentration (about 5 percent of average sea water). Although. lower 

concentrations often are significant, this degree of contamination 

is held to be critical. The salt tongue alternately advances and 

retreats as affected by tidal action and therefore the salt front 

likewise fluctuates. The 1, 000 ppm concentration ordinarily is 

situated close to the inland end of the salt tongue, and thus it is an 

indicator of the extent of the contamination. 

The salt front moves inland as discharge decreas.es, and it 

moves toward the sea as discharge increases. Just as tidal discharge may be expressed as a mean value for a day, the location 

of the salt front has a mean position that is related to mean discharge. For instance, it was found that a discharge of about 400 

cfs in Miami ca:nal was required to hold the salt front below the 

site of the NW. 36th Street Dam (without the dam in place). 

The change in the location of the salt front during a tide cycle 

may be considerable, as is demonstrated in figure 183, The distance travelled by the salt front was about 2 miles, and, at the lowest downstream location, the chloride concentration ranged between 600 and 14, 000 ppm. 

The high-tide profile shows an ai-ea of uneven chloride distribution at the surface near station 2. This may have resulted from 

turbulence connected with the point of reversal of flow, which was 

moving. upstream at the. time; or it may have been, in part, connected with the effect of wind. A strong area of contamination 

appears in the low-tide profile near station 5. This may have resulted from salty water being trapped upstream behind some high 

point or obstruction in th~ canal. 

The movement of the salt front with tidal action illustrates 

the care needed to determine its position, espec'ially the extreme 

inland position. Where canal water is used directly in an industrial 

process, the first salty water at the point of intake may disrupt the 

processing, even though the salty water may be present only a 

short time. 

In the .vicinity of well fields that are inducing infiltration from 

canals, contamination of the ground water may not be identified 

in the wells until an appreciable period has elapsed and a considerable volume of ground water has been affected, It is therefore especially important to know where the salt front is located 

and to take steps to stop its inland movement at a safe distance 

from the point of water use. In some cases, for example where 

pumpage from wells near the salt front is small, it may be satisfactory to permit salty water to penetrate to the vicinity of the well 
...J 

<X: 

b 

~ 

u. 

0 

~ 

z 

w 

u 

a:: 

w 

0 

20 

40 

60 

80 

100 

a. 0 

z 

9 

West 

Dixie 

Highway 

' 

8 7 

I 

OBSERVATION STATION 

6 

Northeos1 

6th Avenue 

5 

Near hlgb.....lli!J; flow inland nt 

stations 1-3; changed to Inland 

at other stations shortly after ---~.L------+---1 

obse rvalion s were made 

Florida Eos1 Coast 

Railway + 0.01 miles 

' 

t 

U.S. Highway 1 

I 20 ~ 

AI low tide; flow to word I I I / / a. 

w 

0 40 

60 

80 

!00 

2.2 

Biscayne Bay at all stations 

I soc I hi ors indicate chI or Jd e /_ I v L 

content, in parts per million / / 0 

~ I ~ L ..l. 1 

/ / I I ~ t::::::-:-.. I IV 

2.0 1.8 1.6 1.4 l2 LO 0.8 

DISTANCE, IN MILES ABOVE MOUTH 

Figure 183.-Profile of Biscayne Canal showing illochlors at high and low tide on March 24, 1948. 

0 0 0 0 0 0 ... ., .. 

0.6 0.4 
630 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

field, as long as the average location of the front is safely downstream from the field. Where the cone of depression in the water 

table extends to the banks of the canal, the existence of salty water 

in the canal for any length of time ,will cause some degree of contamination, and the amount will increase with the length of time 

salty water is in the canal. This may occur even if salty water is 

present in the canal for only part of a tide cycle. 

RESIDUAL CONTAMINA'I10N 

When drought conditions continue, runoff in uncontrolled tidal 

canals decreases to the point where salty water moves inland essentially unopposed, and net flow may be inland. This occurred 

in the Miami area in 1944 and 1945, when several of the shorte,r 

canals became contaminated throughout. Fresh-water runoff 

ceased, and seepage of salty water to the water table occurred 

along the canals. During the extreme condition in the spring of 

1945, highly saline water was observed entering the ground with 

visible velocity at points where the bottoms of the canals were 

above the existing water table. That condition was not merely 

contamination of a small zone of ground water by contact, but was 

a direct pouring of salt water into the highly porous formation. It 

occurred continuously in the period when ground-water levels 

were below the bottom of the stub canals. 

Drought conditions in southern Florida usually are relieved by 

the heavy rains of the summer and fall. Fresh-water runoff is 

resumed in considerable volume and salty water in the canals is 

usually flushed out. Sometimes, when water levels rise slowly, 

aquatic growth in the upper reaches of a canal may restrict runoff 

and cause salty water to remain in the upper channel for some time 

after the lower reaches have been cleared. This may continue until 

discharge is such that the weeds are beaten down and a flushing 

action occurs. 

Either with or without the presence of weeds, salty ground water 

from the permeable formations along the upper reaches of a canal 

may contaminate the canal water. The ground-water levels rise 

in the formations that previously received salty water from the 

canals, and seepage toward the canals again occurs. Salty water 

then contaminates the fresh-water runoff in the canal and chloride 

concentrations may be found that are greater than those farther 

downstream. Not all of the salty ground water returns to the canal; 

some of it may gradually percolate through the formations to form 

a body of contaminated water beneath and adjacent to the canals. 

Such a contaminated body of water would be dissipated very slowly. 

The extent to which salty water may remain in a canal channel, 

trapped either by weeds or a constriction, is shown by conditions 
SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 631 

that existed in 1945 in Opa Locka Canal, a tributary of Biscayne 

Canal: 

Chloride concentration (ppm) 

Location 

June 29 July 18 July 31 

Opa Locka Boulevard .•. ......... 2, 700 1, 100 

NW. 27th Avenue ....... 21, 900 19,700 10,000 

Seaboard Air Line 

Railroad ................. 42 1, 800 73 

The contaminated area in the vicinity of NW. 27th Avenue ultimately was flushed of highly saline water, but contamination 

existed there long after the salt front had been forced far downstream in all canals in the area; a sizable body of ground water 

probably remained in a contaminated state for a longer period. 

MIAMI AREA 

MIAMI CANAL 

As all of the canals in the Miami area are connected with 

Biscayne Bay, salty water can move inland easily, the distance 

depending upon the amount of fresh-water runoff and the condition 

of the canals. During periods of moderate to heavy runoff the salty 

water usually is within 1 or 2 miles of the bay. During an extended 

dry period, however, salty water has moved inland more than 

11 miles in Miami Canal, and two of the shorter canals have become contaminated throughout. 

Miami Canal was uncontrolled between 1931 and 1943, and the 

secondary canals were not controlled until 1945-46. Samples from 

Miami Canal were collected periodically by the Miami Department 

of Water and Sewers during the period 1939 to 1946, the frequency 

of collections depending upon water conditions. In April 1940, the 

Geological Survey began a sampling program in which semimonthly 

series of samples were collected from Biscayne, Little River, 

Tamiami, and Coral Gables Canals. In April 1941, the work was 

extended to include Snake Creek and Snapper Creek Canals. 

Surface and bottom samples were collected from about six 

regular sampling stations along each canal. Beginning in October 

1942, only bottom samples were collected, because, with very few 

exceptions, bottom samples contained the maximum amount of 

chloride at each location. No effort was made to obtain complete 

records of concentrations at every station; instead, the series of 

samples were collected to locate the position of the salt front. 

346881 0-55~~42 
632 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

In the first several years, samples were collected from the 

six secondary canals without regard to tidal stages. The records, 

therefore, do not necessarily represent the maximum chloride 

concentrations. It is believed, however, that the data obtained 

define the trend of salt-water encroachment in the canals. Starting 

in 1944, the records were improved by collecting all sa~les.,.. 

from the tidal canals at times as close to that of high tide as was 

practicable. .. The maximum chloride concentrations observed in the Miami 

area during the extreme drought of 1945 are shown in figure 184. 

The condition was serious and the only reason it was not worse in 

some of the canals is that their bottoms were exposed in places 

and salty water could not flow inland. Heavy weed growth also 

retarded movement of the salty water, and the dam in Miami Canal 

was partially effective. 

The heavy contamination of Opa Locka Canal endangered the 

municipal wells atOpa Locka, and many smaller supplies throughout the Miami area were threatened or actually became salty for 

lengthy periods. 

The most significant observation of the drought period in 1945 

was at the western ends of Biscayne and Little River Canals. 

Water in Red Road Canal extended only about i mile north and 

south of the ends of the two canals, and Red Road Canal was 

otherwise dry. Strongly salty water was observed running inland 

and sinking into the ground at the end of the wetted channel; thus, 

water with a chloride concentration three-quarters that of sea 

water poured directly into the aquifer. (Also seep. 630.) 

The contamination of Miami Canal at Miami Springs was a real 

threat to the municipal well field. Fortunately, rainfall eventually 

forced the salty water in the canal downstream from the vicinity 

of the wells, but not before several of them were showing increased chloride content. The detection of the contamination of 

some of the wells in Miami Springs (ultimately, six of these 15 

wells were significantly affected) naturally caused a large degree 

of concern, and arrangements were made to evaluate the problem 

and to explore for possible other sources of supply. The obvious 

source of salty water in the wells was Miami Canal, and a sampling program was established to observe the extent and degree of 

intrusion. Reconnaissances were made of all possible sources of 

water, reaching as far afield as Lake Okeechobee. In the meantime, the contaminated wells were pumped to waste, and a careful 

watch was kept on the chloride content of the other wells. 

The first series of samples from Miami Canal, obtained April 

25, 1939, showed a chloride concentration of 6, 700 ppm at Water 

Plant, which is 7. 7 miles upstream from Biscayne Bay, and decreasingly salty water was found,as far as 2 miles farther inland. 
N 

1 

I 

38 

SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 

E:XF'LANATJON 

~0 

C(II'IOI 

F"IOUfti:S th(lw (:hl(lrid~t conc•ntrgfion 

lnpdrtt:p!!;:rmilliQn 

633 

Figure 184. -Map of Miami area. showing maximum obsetved chloride concentrations In the 

tidal canals, May-July 1945. 
634 WATER RESOURCES IN SOU'IliEASTERN FLORIDA 

The advance of salty water in the canal continued until early in 

May when the chloride concentration in the canal at Water Plant 

reached 13, 450 ppm and at NW. 36th Street reached 17, 000 ppm. 

The farthest inland point at which salinity in excess of normal was 

found was about 4 miles upstream from Water Plant, or about 11. 5 

miles from Biscayne Bay. 

The chloride concentrations determinedfrom samples collected 

at three locations on Miami Canal in 1939 are listed in table 71. 

The variations in location of the salt front inland correspond to 

variations in the fresh-water runoff of the canal. Rains during 

May and June of 1939 caused increased runoff and forced the salt 

front downstream. Salty water moved inland again to a moderate 

degree during August but the usual heavy runoff in the fall forced 

the salt front downstream to a more satisfactory location with 

respect to the public water supply. 

Table 71.-Chloride in Miami Carra} during spring and summer of 1939 

[Bottom samples, Analyses, in parts per million, made by Miles R. Mountien, city chemist, 

Miami] 

Date of 

collection 

Apr. 20 

25 

27 

May 2 

8 

11 

19 

23 

26 

June 8 

19 

27 

July 19 

26 

Aug, 1 

7 

14 

21 

28 

Sept. 5 

12 

Oct. 2 

9 

23 

30 

NW. 36th Street Water Plant, Hialeah 

(5. 7 miles from (7. 7 miles from 

Biscayne Bay) Biscayne Bay) 

14,900 6,700 

14,700 6,700 

12,450 800 

15,350 10,850 

17,050 13,450 

7,500 600 

10,750 750 

2,050 300 

...................... 300 

...................... 88 ..................... 44 

8,150 34 

144 111 

92 32 

340 34 

60 43 

1,900 33 

1,100 34 

35 27 

80 1335 

111 77 

45 23 

45 22 

····················· 22 

····················· 32 

3 miles NW. of 

Water Plant, Hialeah 

(10. 7 miles from 

Biscayne Bay) 

26 

25 

25 

180 

1,800 

37 

27 

25 

............................. 

............................. 

'''"'''"''"''""it""""""""'"'""" 

............................... 

.... 111111111·················· ............................. 

............................. 

.............................. 

........................ ,. ..... ····························· 

····························· 

····························· 

.............................. 

····························· ··················"·········· 

····························· 

............................. 1

Caused by salty water in city supply wells 13, 14, and 15 being pumped 

into canal. 
SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 635 

Some of the data collected by the MiamiDivision of WaterSupply 

are plotted in figure 185, which shows the most extreme condition 

of salt contamination in the Miami area that has been observed by 

the city or the U. S. Geological Survey. Irregularity of the curves 

may be due in part to the sampling procedure employed but may 

als'o be ascribed to variations in the cross section of the canal. 

The curve for May 11 shows that, although the main body Of contaminated water had moved about 4 miles downstream {as compared with the condition of 3 days before), an appreciable degree 

of contamination remained in the canal above the main body of 

salty water. 

Several hundred feet below the dam site at NW. 36th Street, at 

the head of the channel improvement completed in 1932, the channel of the canal becomes wider and deeper. There is a 4-foot step 

at the bottom of the canal where the change in depth occurs, which 

has a considerable effect on the movement of salty water in the 

channel. Salty water, moving along the bottom of the canal, is held 

by the step until the quantity and velocity of the overlying fresh 

water decreases to the point where the depth of the salty water 

becomes great enough to pass the step. Once past a barrier of this 

type, the salty water will move inland relatively swiftly unless 

checked by increased runoff or some other barrier. The proportions of the cross-section of a submerged barrier have little 

bearing on its effectiveness because it is the height of the barrier 

that is the important factor. 

20,000 Fl.ORIOA"eAs_T_;;:r-E_R_P-LA-NT _____ -····-·· ~ORTHWE·s-rl. 

COAST RAILWAY HIALEAH 36TH STREET 

• • • 

//;. --April ~~-

~· I 

'May II 

II 4 

Figure 185. -era ph of chloride concentrations in lower Miami Canal during drought period 

of 1939. 
636 WATER RESOURCES IN SOtrniEASTERN FLORIDA 

LOCATION OF SALT FRONT 

The relation of the position of the salt front in Miami Canal to 

the fresh-water runoff is shown in figure 186. The record to June 

19~3 includes the combined discharge of Miami Canal at Water 

Plant and Tamiami Canal at Red Road. Also included on the graph 

is a continuous log of the installation and operation of dams at 

NW. 36th Street. In ·regard to the periods in which the dam is indicated as being partly open, no attempt was made to record the 

amount of the opening, which varied from nearly closed to widely 

breach~d. 

The principal characteristic of the salt-front discharge graph 

is the opposing effect of the two quantities-the salt-front curve 

drops when the discharge curve rises, and-vice versa. This demonstrates the effect of increased discharge in forcing the salt front 

downstream, the effect of the dam operation at NW. 36th Street; 

and the steady inland advance of the salt front during drought 

periods. It will be noted that in the period of record the farthest 

downstream location of the front was just below NW. 12th Avenue. 

From information obtained during the study it appears that when 

the combined discharge of Miami Canal at Water Plant and 

Tamiami Canal at Red Road is in excess of about 1, 000 cfs, salty 

water is flushed out of the canal as far downstream as NW. 27th 

Avenue. When the sum of the discharges atthe two gaging stations 

is 1, 000 cfs, it is probable that the discharge at NW. 27th Avenue 

is greater than 1, 000 cfs, owing to the intermediate ground-water 

inflow. Further study shows that a discharge of approximately 

400 cfs is required to hold the salty water at NW. 36th Street. 

The differences in the quantities of flow at the two locations is a 

reflection of the relative areas of the channels. 

In discussing figure 186, the yearly graphs are taken in chronological order. It should be remembered that the locations shown 

for the salt front represent the point of the salt tongue as it lay in 

the bottom of the canal but do not necessarily indicate that the entire cross section of the canal was contaminated. The discharge 

curves were plotted from daily mean discharges, which do not indicate the ·tidal variations of discharge but which give a truer picture of runoff conditions. The discharge curve for Miami Canal at 

Water Plant is the same as that appearing in figures 117-123. 

1940. -With the usual dry winter conditions developing, the 

Miami Division of Water Supply started a sheet-steel piling dam 

at NW. 36th Street in mid-January. Construction of a boat lift to 

move small craft around the dam was carried on at the same time 

and the dam was not closed until April 26 according to A, B. 

DeWolf, of the Miami Board of Waters and Sewers. Early in May, 

the crest of the dam was lowered from 2. 0 ft to 0. 5 ft at the request of farmers adjacent to the canal upstream. Hinged wooden 
UV\1 

t--t--+-1 -~.1-:--+----...,.~---l 

_It -- ' " :-... 

19144 

, 

" ll 

KEY TO Cft:RATION 

OF rtORT-HWEST 36TH ST DAM 

(SI'IO'III!IGIM>;Iop.or-gro~sl 

-

,~..., 

........ PorifrO.Ptlll 

Cliletl.orovt = 

5 

Ffgure 186. -Graph of location of 1, 000-ppm chloride concentration and discharge of Miami Canal, 1940-46. 
638 WATER RESOURCES IN SOtrrHEASTERN FLORIDA 

gates were installed on the dam to permit overflow toward the sea 

and to prevent reverse flow at high tide. The effect of this activity 

may be observed in the chloride graph. Some salty water passed 

the dam and reached the Miami Springs-Hialeah bridge, where a 

concentration of 800 ppm was observed, but no salty water reached 

Water Plant: 

On May 24, County Line Dam, 16 miles upstream, was breached 

to release water from the reservoir area above the dam-the 

effect shows on the graph. Heavy rains at the end of May alleviated 

the ·situation and early in June the 36th Street dam was removed, 

Rainfall in the early part of the summer was very light and in July 

the salt front again reached the vicinity of NW, 36th Street. However, increasing amounts of rain, starting in August, forced the 

salt front downstream to the vicinity of NW. 12th Avenue, and no 

further threat occurred. The fall and early winter period was 

relatively wet and was noteworthy because the peak discharge of 

Miami Canal did not occur until early in November. 

1941. -With sizable carryover of water in the hinterland from 

the preceding year and with rains in the normally dry winter 

period, the inland movement of salty water did not become significant until June. The salt front reached the vicinity of NW. 36th 

Street only briefly in June and was no problem during the remainder of the year. It will be noted on the discharge graph that 

runoff was consistently above the 400 cfs re-quired to hold the salt 

front below NW. 36th Street. 

JQ42. -Following a rather dry winter period, the salt front 

reached the vicinity of NW. 36th Street several times but was 

never a threat to the municipal well field. The great storm of midApril, one center of which was in the Hialeah area, forced the salt 

front far downstream, but the lack of sustained runoff soon allowed 

the salty water to move far inland. The increasingly heavy rains 

in the summer produced large runoff which reached a maximum 

early in September. However, rainfall in the remainder of the year 

was very scanty, runoff decreased, and by December the salt front 

was far inland, although the situation was not critical. It is suggested that the great drought of 1943-45 actually started in the 

last quarter of 1942. 

1943.-With the salt front relatively near the well fields for the 

early part of the year, and with no large rainfall anticipated for 

several months, the Miami Department of Water and Sewers late 

in January started the construction of a pneumatic dam for NW. 

36th Street. A temporary emergency dam was constructed to provide protection while the new steel dam was being installed and a 

large gate was provided to permit boat passages. Becaus~ of boat 

traffic and a sizable amount of leakage around the dam, salty 

water moved inland to a point more than a mile upstream from 

Water Plant. Moderate rainfall, augmentation of the available 
SALT·WATER ENCROACHMENT 639 

water by release of supplies from the upstream reservoir, and 

the completion of the new dam improved the situation, but a critical condition existed until mid-April. The usual rains in the 

spring and summer gradually forced the salt front downstream 

from the critical zone, but at the end of the year it was still far 

inland. The maximum chloride concentration observed in samples 

collected from Miami Canal opposite Water Plant was 7, 800 ppm 

on March 6. 

1944. -The salt front progressed steadily inland early in the 

year and the pneumatic dam was operated starting in midFebruary-the chloride graph shows the effectiveness of this operation. However, a certain amount of leakage occurred through 

and around the dam structure and probably a much smaller amount 

seeped through the rock and beneath and around the ends of the 

dam. This permitted quantities of salty water to move inland 

nearly to Water Plant. This action was caused by the occurrence 

of negative heads on the dam as great as 2 ft at low tide. The 

pneumatic dam was lowered to the bottom of the canal in July and 

was not operated thereafter. Rainfall and runoff were only moderate, however, and at the end of the year a near-critical condition 

existed. 

194'i. -With salty water in the vicinity of NW. 36th Street, the 

dam was operated in a partly opened position starting early in 

January. OnMarch 17, the damfailed, and, untilatemporarysheet 

piling dam was installed 10 days later, a condition ofunobstructed 

flow occurred. In this critical period, salty water moved upstream 

to the vicinity of Water Plant and despite the emplacement of the 

temporary dam, remained there for a period of 3 months and even 

moved farther inland, nearly to the Florida East Coast Railway 

bridge. Rains at the end of June flushed the salty water downstream as far as NW. 36th Street, where it remained at the downstream face of the dam until the last part of August when a short 

incursion occurred. The second period of contamination above the 

dam was short, and soon afterwards the salty water started 

moving downstream. By the end of the year it was in a favorable 

location insofar as the protection of the public water supply was 

concerned. 

1946, -A nearly water-tight temporary sheet-piling dam was in 

operation from mid-February to the end of July. Despite the fast 

decline in runoff early in the year, the salty water was held effectively at the downstream face of the NW. 36th Street dam for more 

than 2 months. Increasing runoff in the remainder of the year 

obviated any further need for the dam. 

From the preceding discussion it is apparent that properly constructed barriers can effectively hold the inland movement of salty 

water. Despite the inevitable leakages that occur and the tendency 

of the salty water to by-pass the dams through the permeable 

formations, the dams were highly effective. 
640 WATER RESOURCES IN SOU'IHEASTERN FLORIDA 

The chief problem in the operation of any dam at NW. 36th 

Street was that of protecting the municipalwater supply and at the 

same time meeting the water-level demands of land owners adjacent to the canal above the dam. Because of the legal aspects of 

the problem, emplacement and operation of the dams was sometimes delayed longer than the technicalaspects of the problem indicated, with the result that too much water was· lost to the sea and 

not enough remained to hold the desired water levels above the 

dam. In 1945 the problem was resolved, in part, when Dade County 

was constituted by legislative action as a water control district and 

took over the operation of the 36th Street dam. 

The dams at NW. 36th Street can be considered to be experimental to a large extent and to have shown that, despite the wellknown permeable nature of the adjacent limestone formations, a 

useful and important degree of water control can be achieved; in 

fact, properly built and properly operated structures are the only 

way that satisfactory water control and reduction of contamination 

can be accomplished. The problem and its solution concerns not 

only the canals and waterways but also the contamination of 

underground water. 

PALMER LAKE 

Just east of the Seaboard Air Line Railroad and south of Miami 

Canal is Palmer Lake, a rock pit area of about 20 acres that is 

connected to Miami Canal (see fig. 184). As it is uncontrolled, the 

lake is subject to unimpeded tidal action. Palmer Lake has a 

maximum depth of about 30 ft, and much of it is more than 15 ft 

deep. Its connection with Miami Canal is about 9 ft deep, When 

salty water moves up Miami Canal to the Seaboard Air Line 

Railroad and NW. 36th Street some of it enters Palmer Lake. The 

~ake is much deeper than the canal; therefore this salty water 

tends to remain there after the canal and upper part of the lake are 

free of contamination. 

The chloride concentrations in the lake often show a gradation 

from lowest at the surface to highest at the bottom, However, 

in periods of extreme drought, as in June 1945, the entire body of 

water becomes uniformly contaminated and may have chloride 

concentrations as high as 80 percent of that of sea water. Palmer 

Lake is significant, therefore, not only in the problem of contamination of ground water in the immediate vicinity, but it is also 

associated with the problem of protecting the municipal well field, 

In dry periods, only a low ground-water divide exists between 

Palmer Lake and the cone of depression around the wells. If, 

under continued drought conditions, this low divide should be dis-

"sipated, the lake would be another potential source of contamina-· 

tion for the wells. 
SALT-WATER Eli{CROACHMENT 641 

TWIN LAI<ES 

Twin Lakes is a small abandoned rock pit, now used only as 

a scenic attraction, in the center of Miami Springs (see fig. 189). 

Although smaller than Palmer Lake, it is even more of a threat 

to ~he municipal water supply because it is very close to the well 

fields, Fortunately,, its connection to Miami Canal lies above 

the NW. 36th Street Dam. In periods when contaminated water 

moved above the dam, some of it entered Twin Lakes and moved 

toward the well fields. The entrance to the lakes is shallow, 

ru:lwever, and no serious situation has occurred there. For the 

most part, Twin Lakes: has remained fresh or only mildly 

contaminated. 

SNAKE CREEK CANAL 

Because of its weed-choked .channel and numerous constrictions, 

Snake Creek Canal has never offered an easy rQute for salty 

water to move inland. Thus, the salt front fluctuated over a 

relatively short reach of canal during most of the 6 years of observation. The chloride concen.trations observed are presented 

in table 72. The lower reaches of Snake Creek Canal, s·outh and 

east of the ·center of North Miami Beach, are normally contaminated during much of the year. In the wet season, however, the 

salty water usually is flushed completely out of the canal as far 

as its mouth at Oleta River. The most notable event shown by 

the record occurred in 1945 when salty water was detected at 

State Highway 7, which is 4. 4 miles by canal from Oleta River. 

This occurred despite the heavy weed growth that existed in much 

of the canal, and the salty water must be credited with killing 

much of the growth. The salt front was stopped in 1945 by construction of a temporary dam in Snake Creek Canal at U. S. 

Highway 1. 
642 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 72.--chloride concentrations in Snake Creek Canal, Miami 

[Parts per million. Before October 1, 1941, the values are the highest obtained from either surface 

or bottom samples (11$ually the latter); after October 1, 1941, the values are from bottom 

samples. Mileages in parentheses indicate distance from mouth of canal at Oleta Riverl 

Miami 

U. S. Highway 1 

(0.18 mile) 

Prior Below ~bove 

Dixie Flagler Miam1 Gardens State 

Date Highway Boulevard Drive Drive Highway 7 

to control control (0. 38 mile) (0. 76 mile) (1. 02 n1ile~ (2. 41 mil~) .(4.39 miles) 

ontrol 

1941 

Mar, 1 11,370 '···~···· ........... ............... lo ••••••••••••• 

Mar. 14 780 .......... •••~~~o••···· ............... . ............. Apr. 3 10,350 ......... .......... ··········"···· .............. Apr. 18 165 . ........ .......... ··············· .............. May 1 11,670 .......... ···········••t .............. May 20 11,470 ......... .......... .............. ................. June 4 17.560 ......... .......... .............. ............... June 17 18,890 ......... .......... .............. ............... July 3 17,650 .......... ......... .............. ............... July 17 205 .......... .......... ·············· ................ July 30 14,140 .......... .......... .............. Aug. 18 13,320 ··············· ••~~~o•····· .......... . ............. .................. Sept. 3 15,250 ......... ............ . ............. . ............... Oct. 1 11,100 . ......... ........... . ................. ................ Oct. 17 11,500 ........ .......... ............... ............... Oct. 31 14,900 ......... ........... ............... ············••~~~o• Nov. 14 8, 780 . ....... ......... ·············· ................. Nov. 28 11,800 .......... ......... .............. . ............... Dec, 26 1,130 ......... ............ .............. ················ 1942 

Jan. 3 15,300 ......... ......... . ............. ................. Jan. 16 12,600 ........ .............. ................ Feb. 4 13,700 ........ ............... .................... Feb, 17 17,700 ........ ............... .................. Mar. 4 14,100 ........ ............... . .................. Mar, 19 17,500 ........ ............... ............... Apr. 2 17,000 ........ . ............. . ............... Apr. 28 74 """" . ............... ................. May 8 75 ......... ··~ ............ . ............... May 22 5,680 ......... .............. . ............... June 9 160 ........ ......... .................. .................. June 24 122 ......... ........... . .................. ................. July 9 135 ........ ......... ................ .. ............... July 24 880 .......... ......... . ................... .................. Aug. 6 12,000 .......... .............. ................... 

Aug. 22 15,100 . ............ ........... ................. ................. Sept. 4 12,100 .. ........ .......... ............... ................ Oct. 7 13,750 . ......... ........... . ............... ................ Nov. 9 16,000 . ........ .......... . ............... ................ Nov. 14 . .......... .......... ........... ................ .................. Nov. 24 12, 600 .............................................. .. Dec. 10 16,000 ............................................... . 

Dec. 23 9, 200 .................. "'"""""" '""""""" 

1943 

Jan. 6 

Jan, 24 

Feb. 8 

Feb. 26 

Mar. 15 

14,55( 

15,35( 

16,12( 

'i6','45( ·:::::::: :::::::::: ::::::::::::::. ::::::::::::::: 

45 

37 

37 

42 

31 

36 

37 

660 

61 

33 

35 

34 

33 

31 

37 

34 

27 

33 

37 

34 

34 

35 

402 

32 

55 

385 

30 

35 

42 

37 

38 

43 

31 

31 

26 

23 

24 

35 ................ 35 

36 

32 

34 

36 

30 

30 

210 

Apr. 2 12,200 

Apr. 17 

May 5 

May 15 

June 1 

11,90( 

19,20 

14,80( 

18,30( 

15,80( 

:::::::: :::::::::: ::::::::::::::: ::::::::::::::: """"36(i' 164 

36 

33 

37 

35 

30 

31 

29 

27 

23 

21 

29 

29 

31 

27 

33 

32 

23 

34 

32 

35 

33 

38 

30 

32 

34 

31 

30 

33 

36 

26 

27 

28 

27 

29 

26 

22 

23 

23 

31 

............... 27 

27 

28 ................ 26 

28 

25 

3,380 

2,400 

155 

98 

109 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

20 

20 

21 

20 

13 

18 

17 

20 

17 

19 

17 

17 

17 

18 

18 

18 

20 

18 

19 

19 

19 

15 

17 

19 

16 

14 

17 

19 

19 

18 

14 

15 

17 . .............. 

20 

13 

16 

18 

18 

16 

17 

17 

24 

30 

17 

15 

17 
SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 643 

Table 72.-Chloride concentrations in Snake Creek Canal, Miami--Continued 

U. S. Highway 1 

(0.18 mile) 

Dil<ie Flagler 

Date Prior Below Above Highway Boulevard to control control (0. 38 mile) (0. 76 mile) 

control 

t~~~-qW' 19,200 ·······~~· .......... ..... " .......... ............... July 4 14,200 ·•••••il'tilo tilott••········· ··············· 1945 

June 

July 

July 

Sept. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Oct. 

Oct. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Nov. 

Nov. 

Nov. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

29 ......... ········· ••••••• il' •• . .............. ............... 20 

········· .......... 12,200 . ............. 31 12,800 ········· ................ .............. 3 14,000 ......... ········· ............... 24 12,400 ···"'······"''"'"' 

········· ········· 358 .............. 4 9,620 ............................................. .. 10 11,100 .............................................. . 15 13,100 ............................................. .. 23 12,000 ............................................. .. 1 298 ......... ......... 255 ............. . 

6 272 ............................................. .. 13 260 ............................................. .. 20 10,100 ......... ......... 225 ............. . 27 10,100 ............................................. .. 4 12,700 ............................................. .. 

Dec. 10 13,000 ......... ......... 8, 780 ............ .. Dec. 19 16, 600 16, 200 ........................... .. Dec. 26 1~, 200 86 ........................... .. 

1946 

Jan. 

Jan. 

Jan. 

Jan. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Feb. 

Feb. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Mar. 

Mar. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

Apr. 

Apr. 

Apr. 

May 

May 

May 

May 

May 

June 

June 

June 

June 

July 

2 13,800 

9 15,800 

16 17,300 

23 17,500 

30 16,600 

6 17.500 

13 18,000 

20 18,200 

27 18,700 

6 18.700 

13 ......... 18,000 

20 ......... 19,:200 

26 19.700 

3 19,100 

12 ......... 19,800 

17 ........... 20,400 

24 ......... 20,200 

1 4•••····· 20.800 

8 ... ....... ~· 19,800 

15 ......... 19,300 

22 ......... 18,300 

29 ......... 19,000 

5 ......... 15,200 

12 13,800 

19 .......... 15,400 

26 

3 

40 78 .............. 56 • •• ~"'"'"~ tfo+••• • .............. 45 ................ 108 ····"········· 

··············· ............... 129 ···"'·•••oil'••••·· .............. 

220 ·······••!'••••• .............. 235 ............... .............. 245 ............... .............. 275 ................ .............. 250 ............... .............. 

250 . .............. .............. 265 . .............. . ............. 8,000 . ~'"'"'""'"'"' ........ .............. 970 ............... .............. 860 . .............. ............... 5,680 ··············· ............... 4,920 • •••••• lllo!tot+ ..... ............... 9,670 ............... .................. 1,550 ................. ............... 260 ............... ~ ·············· 

250 ............................ . 255 ............................ . 255 ........................... .. 55 ............................ . 81 ............................ . 

140 ............................. . 92 ............................. . 

Miami 

Drive 

1.02 miles) 

8,680 

165 

16,400 .............. 940 

420 

232 

440 

Miami 

Gardens State 

Drive Highway 7 

2.41 miles) ( 4, 39 miles) 

102 20 

149 17 

8,000 2,500 

9,000 1,500 

900 230 

378 34 

199 19 

130 17 

""'""i'65' .......... 6i'' .......... 26" 

117 69 19 

101 100 72 

35 34 19 

54 28 19 

40 32 24 

68 38 17 

328 54 20 

315 50 24 

380 75 32 

65 63 23 

.. ......... 3ii" ......... s-2 ............ 3.o .. 

86 46 

July 10 

......... 17' 200 ......... 13,500 ......... 15,900 ......... 16,400 

96 ....................................................................... .. 

July 17 

July 24 

July 31 

Aug. 14 

Aug. 28 

Sept. 11 

Sept. 25 

82 ........................................................................ .. 18,000 110 ............................ . 

1,400 40 ........................... .. 

17,200 140 ............................ . Hi,500 20 ........................... .. .. ...... 13,600 13,400 ............................ . .................. 13,700 ........................... .. 

40 

30 

50 

61 

40 30 

30 20 

""""'52" .......... 22" 
644 WA "''!R RESOURCES IN SounmASTERN RORIDA 

Table 72.-Chl«ide concentrations in Snake Creek Canal, Miami--continued 

Date 

U, S, Highway 1 

(0.18 mile) 

Dixie Flagler Miami 

Prior Below to control 

control 

Highway Boulevard Drive 

Above (0, 38mile) (0.'76mile) (1.02mlles 

control 

~t~-<:.r ......... 10,800 249 .......................................... .. Oct, 23 ......... 14, 500 14. 500 ............... 50 40 

Nov. 6 12,200 12,000 ............... 50 ............ .. Nov, 13 13,000 14,500 ............... 50 ............. . Nov. 20 14,500 14,500 ............... 50 50 

Nov, 27 14,000 14,000 ................ -. 50 50 

Dec. 4 15,600 14,000 ............... 6,600 50 

Dec. 11 16,300 15,900 ............... 5, 780 57 

Dec. 18 15,000 5,100 ................ 40 50 

Dec. 24 14,500 14,000 ............... 50 40 

Dec. 31 17,000 14,000 ............... 50 50 

Miami State 

-Garden• ~ighway 7 

Drive (4.3_9 miles) 

(2.41 mile. 

60 50 

50 10 

.......... """'·• ............... ··············· . .............. 34 17 

. .............. ··············· . ............... .............. 50 30 
645 

BISCATNE CANAL 

The longest of the stub canals in the Miami area is Biscayne 

Canal, which heads at Red Road and extends 10 miles to Biscayne 

Bay at Miami Shores. The channel is generally about 70ft wide 

and 8 ft deep, but its conveyance capacity is reduced by a number 

of constrictions and by sections containing shoals. 

Table 73 presents the observed chloride concentrations. As 

compared with Snake Creek Canal, the salt front in Biscayne 

Canal moved over a longer reach. This is a measure of the rel-· 

ative size and conveyance capacity of the channels. 

Heavy weed growth in the middle and upper reaches was usually 

effective in holding the water in the canal and retarding upstream 

movement of sal~ water, but in 1945, during the extreme drought, 

the channel became completely contaminated. No large supplies 

are obtained from the canal or from wells nearby. 

Opa Locka Canal is a tributary of Biscayne Canal that serves 

an area in the vicinity of Opa Locka. It becomes contaminated 

along with the main canal despite the presence of weeds and constrictions. In 1945 contamination extended to the Seaboard Air 

Line Railroad, which is about at the head of the large channel of 

the canal. This strong concentration was a real threat to the 

supply wells of Opa Locka. 
Table 73.-Chloride concentrations in Biscayne Canal, Miami 

[Parts per million. Befcxe October 1, 1941, the values are the highest obtained from either surtace or bottom samples (usually the latter); after October 1, 1941, the 

values are from bottom samples. Mileages in parentheses indicate distance from mouth ot canal at Biscayne Bay] 

Northwest i31st Street 

(2. 84 miles) 

Date u. s. Northeast Dixie 154th Northwest Northwest LeJeune Red 

Highway 1 6th Avenue Highway Prior Below Above Street 7th Avenue 27th Avenue Road Road 

(0.48 mile) (1. 52 miles) (2. 16 miles) to control control (4. 29 miles) (4. 88 miles) (6. 91 miles) (8. 41 miles) (9. 97 miles) 

control 

1940 

Mar. 16 15,780 10,010 56 ............... .................. ....................... 27 24 2ti 16 

Apr. 3 11,760 51 47 . ............... .............. ..................... 25 23 25 15 

Apr. 14 2, 750 11,860 46 . ................. .................. ................... 25 23 25 16 

May 3 17,410 16,450 10,740 ............... ·············· ................... 25 22 24 15 

May 16 lti,3ti0 17 '750 12,930 ................. ............... .................. 3,280 17 21 15 

Juae 5 6,080 290 378 ................ .................. ................... 24 22 23 18 

June 17 9,320 97 65 ............ .............. . ............... .................... 23 24 24 17 

July 1 14,960 7,260 60 ........... ............... .................. .................. 24 23 24 16 

July 18 1,390 6,520 62 ............ ............... ................ ................... 23 21 22 15 

Aug. 1 8,640 13,990 520 ............ .............. ................... .................... 22 20 22 15 

Aug. 16 14,480 165 71 ........... ............... ................ .. ................ 19 21 21 13 

Sept. 4 15,680 13,120 5,140 .......... ................. ........ 8 ....... .. ................. 26 20 22 14 

Sept. 18 12,680 70 57 ........... .............. ...................... ...................... 24 18 18 12 

Oct. 3 13,5ti0 63 62 .............. .. ................ . .................. .................. 27 13 15 10 

Oct. 18 14,040 64 49 .. ............ .............. ................. ..................... 20 18 19 19 

Nov. 1 13,900 63 52 ............. .............. ............... ............ .., ....... 23 17 19 17 

Nov. 15 15,040 59 52 ............... ................. ................. .................. 22 20 20 18 

Dec, 3 16,600 10,980 92 ............. ............... ................... . ................. 25 21 21 17 

Dec. 17 12,150 215 69 .............. ................. ................ ..................... 24 19 21 17 

1941 

Jan. 18 11,320 71 48 ............ ................ . ............... ........................ 21 18 19 15 

Jan. 31 17,600 8, 540 780 ............. .................. ................. .......................... 23 19 21 16 

Feb, 19 15,010 54 43 ........... ................ .., .. .. ............... ..................... 20 18 18 17 

Mar, 1 16,690 11,320 37 ............ ............... .................. .............................. 19 18 18 17 

Mar, 14 2,025 12,250 40 ............. ............... ................ .................... 18 17 18 lti 

Apr. 3 233 11,080 13,750 ............ . ................ .................. ....................... 22 19 19 16 

Apr. 18 9,520 92 50 .................. ................ ...................... 22 19 19 15 

~ 

~ ::u 

G 

0 

~ "' z 

"' 

~ "' i;i 

~ 

~ ~ 
------

May 1 16,740 14,040 10,980 .................... ................ •••a••••••••••••• 23 20 20 16 

May 20 15,540 10,010 56 ................. ............... ..................... 19 19 19 16 

June 4 11,910 12,490 3,750 .............. ............... ..................... 21 19 19 16 ... "' 0> June 17 18,700 17,080 13,850 ............... ................... 31) 19 19 15 "' ................. 2! July 3 2',550 315 83 ............. .............. ..................... 19 19 19 16 

0 July 17 95 67 40 .............. .............. .................. 17 16 17 12 

I July 30 14,140 10,790 36 ............... ................ ................. 19 19 18 16 

"' Aug. 18 13,370 8,730 35 17 17 17 16 "' ············· ............... I ················· 

I Sept. 3 10,740 7,260 31 ............... ................. ·····-··········· ... 20 18 18 17 

"' Oct. 1 15,400 54 38 ........... ................ ................ ................. 17 17 18 17 

Oct. 17 15,100 11,200 142 ............ ············· .............. . ..................... 17 18 17 16 

Oct. 31 11,300 10,501) 32 ............ ·········~·· .. . ................... ··········~······ 18 17 17 16 

Nov. 14 13,600 45 35 .......... ............... .................... . .................... 18 18 18 H; 

"' 

Nov. 28 17,800 13,000 34 ............ ............... . ............... . ········~······· Dec. 26 15,100 9,860 31 ............. ................ .................... . ................. 17 

17 17 

19 

17 

18 16 

17 ~ 

1942 ~ Jan. 3 13,300 14,800 7,260 . .............. .................. .. ........... ~·· .. .................... 17 17 19 16 ~ 

"' Jan. 16 18,000 16,900 12,100 ............... . ................ .. ................ . .................... 17 17 16 16 

Feb. 4 18,200 17' 200 13,900 19 18 19 15 1'1 ........... ................ . .................... . .................. z Feb. 17 17,300 16,200 11,900 ................ .................. ................ ........................ 20 17 17 16 (') 

Mar. 4 17,400 14,100 3,250 ............. ............... ................. ...................... 19 17 17 17 "' g 

Mar. 19 17,500 15,500 11,100 ............ ................ ................. .. ..................... 21 19 16 18 (') 

Apr. 2 18,500 17' 600 14,000 3,620 19 17 18 :I: ........... ·············· ·~······· ..... ..................... ~ Apr. 28 68 48 35 ............ ............... .................... . .................... 16 15 14 16 

May 8 93 45 37 ............ ................. ................... ................... 19 16 17 19 ..:j May 22 8,640 4,350 37 ............. ................ ................ ................... 18 18 17 19 

June 9 86 29 24 ............ ................... ................ .................... 16 13 15 14 

June 24 66 41 37 ............ ............. ............... ....................... 14 15 13 11 

July 9 61 43 36 ............ ............... ............... ..................... 17 14 15 15 

July 24 1,975 670 29 .......... ~-· ............. ~········ ......... .................... 19 20 20 18 

Aug. 6 10,900 6,961) 29 ............ ................... ............... ......................... 19 20 18 25 

Aug. 22 2,300 51 23 ............. ................ ............... ················· 15 17 16 17 

Sept. 4 278 32 21 .......... ................ . .............. . ................... 13 13 11 12 

Oct. 7 5, 620 11,600 32 ............. . ................... .................. . ...................... 15 16 16 16 

Nov. 9 15,81)0 17,200 13,900 ........... ................ ................. ..................... 24 17 14 15 0) 

Nov. 24 10,800 12,900 2,450 ................ .................. .............. ....................... 18 17 18 15 .... 

~ 
Table 73.-c1iloride concentrations in Biscayne Cmal, Miami-Continued 0) 

. . ~ 

cc Northwest 131st Street 

Date u. s. Northeast Dixie (2. 84 miles) 154th Northwest Northwest LeJeune Red 

Highway 1 6th Avenue Highway Prior Below Above Street '7th Avenue 27th Avenue Road Road 

(0.48 mile) (1. 52 miles) (2. 16 miles) to control control { 4, 29 miles) ( 4. 8.8 miles) (6. 91 miles) {8. 41 miies) (9. 9'7 miles) control 

1942 

Dec. 10 17,300 15,200 9,900 ............... .................. ..................... .................... 25 20 15 15 

Dec. 23 13,100 13,35{) 4,020 . ................. .................. .................... .............. ,. .......... l'7 16 16 14 ~ 1943 ~ Jan. 6 18,600 15,050 6,350 25 19 15 15 ~ ............... .............. ................... ....................... Jan. 24 17,940 15,490 9,910 . .............. ................ .................... ...................... 18 1'7 16 14 

Feb, 8 14,380 14,770 605 ............ ................ ................. ..................... 15 15 14 14 ~ Feb, 26 18,030 15,250 11,080 ................... -. .. 17 15 14 16 0 ................ .................. 

a Mar. 15 1'7,1'70 16,11i0 11,'710 ............... ............... .................. ...................... 5,140 19 15 13 

Apr. 2 14,000 14,700 10,900 ............... .. ................... .. .................. .......................... 5,180 23 16 15 .... Apr. 

May 

16 

5 

17,500 

'7,510 

1'7,800 

4,900 

13,500 

4,050 ................. 

.. ............... ................ 

.................. .................... .................... ..................... 1,325 19 15 14 ~ ......................... 55 16 15 14 .... May 15 15,400 12,800 1,340 .................. ..................... . .................... 35 16 15 ................... I June 1 11i,400 13,900 4,100 ....................... .................... ..................... 15 15 15 14 

June 19 15,400 12,400 8,930 .................... ................. . ...................... 32 1'7 16 ................... July 4 1'7,800 5,040 '7,260 ................. ....... .~ ............... . ..................... 21 15 15 11i .... July 18 1'7,600 16,100 8,640 ................ ................. . .................. 23 14 15 15 ~ Aug. 4 14,600 '7,210 63 .................. ....................... .................... 28 15 15 14 

Aug. 21 635 55 41 .................. . ................ . ..................... 21 16 15 17 ~ 

Sept. 6 99 '71 55 ................. ................. .................. 21 16 1'7 17 

Sept. 

Oct. 

21 

6 ......................... 1,090 

4,420 

49 

35 

38 ................. ............... 

.................. . .................... 

................ . 

.................... 

................... 16 

1'7 15 

13 14 

15 

13 

15 ~ Nov. 2 15,400 83 55 ............... .................. . .................. .. .................... 18 15 15 16 ~ Nov. 24 16,100 13,900 43 . ................. ................... .................... 14 13 1'7 12 

Dec. 2'7 1'7,400 5,140 275 .............. ................. .................... .. ................... 19 19 1'7 16 

1944 

Jan. 18 14,100 7,460 40 ............... ................ .................... ...................... 16 1'7 15 15 

Feb, 5 18,100 14,100 7,400 .............. .................. . .................... . ..................... 19 16 16 14 

Feb. 23 11,900 13,900 10,400 .............. ................... .................. . .................. 30 9.0 16 15 
Mar, 9 

Mar. 28 

Apr. 18 

May 8 

May 30 

June 21 

July 26 

1945 

May 11 

June 15 

June 29 

July 18 

July 31 

Sept. 2 

Sept. 24 

Oct. 3 

Oct. 10 

Oct. 15 

Oct. 23 

Nov. 1 

Nov. 6 

Nov. 13 

Nov. 20 

Noir. 27 

Dec. 4 

Dec, 10 

Dec. 20 

Dec. 26 

JaJ:9462 

Jan. 9 

Jan. 1ti 

Jan, 23 

Jan, 30 

Feb, 6 

Feb. 13 

Feb, 20 

17,700 

17,200 

18,500 

19,300 

10,200 

11,800 

17,600 

17,800 

15,400 ...................... 15,600 

5,230 

11,500 

16,900 

lti,OOO 

8,340 

13,900 

9,670 

15,600 

12,300 

. ........................................ . 15,900 229 

16,200 12,200 

132 

........................ ..................... . 16,200. 14,000 

16,400 15,400 

2,100 

7,900 

14,000 

9,030 

55 

7,460 

320 

...................... 2,200 

12,800 

4,720 

. ................ .. 7,600 

.................. 232 

212 

128 

. ................... . 7,5ti0 

11,000 

............. ! .............. . . .................................. . 

..................................................................... 

472 

402 ............................................................ 282 160 

27 

25 

2,950 

31 

17 

18 

38 

12,800 

21,400 

16,900 

9,700 

980 

900 

550 

405 

345 

245 

242 

179 

191 

161 

123 

121 

117 

125 

91 

81 

83 

80 

81 

74 

68 

65 

66 

64 

16 15 14 

17 1ti 15 

18 lti 16 

19 16 15 

17 16 15 

17 16 15 

18 ........................ ................... 

5,900 300 50 

22,400 21,100 14,900 

14,700 8,000 5,200 

980' 900 640 

600 530 340 

290 240 125 ~ o-1 432 388 43 ' ....................... 272 ......................... 265 . ................... 29 ~ i;l ...................... . ....................... .................... , ............................ . ........................... .. .......... '19' 135 106 

, 

~ ............................ ............................ .. ...................... ............................ .......................... . ....................... ~ 111 107 23 0 

:c .......................... ........................... ....................... ........................... ........................... .. ..................... § 89 203 106 ....................... ............................ ...................... 

77 73 21 ........................ ............................ ....................... . .................... ........................... ................... 99 70 22 ......................... ......................... . ...................... 

.......................... ....................... ....................... 62 55 19 Ol 

.... ....................... .......................... ....................... CD 
Date 

1946 

Feb. 27 

Mar. 6 

Mar. 13 

Mar. 20 

Mar. 26 

Apr. 3 

Apr. 12 

Apr. 17 

Apr. 24 

May 1 

May 8 

May 15 

May 22 

May 29 

June 5 

June 12 

June 19 

June 26 

July 3 

July 10 

July 17 

July 24 

July 31 

Aug. 14 

Aug. 28 

Sept. 11 

Sept. 25 

Oct. 9 

Table 73,-Chloride concentrations in Discayne Canal, Miami-Continued 

U. S. Northeast Dixie 

Highway 1 6th Avenue Highway 

(0. 48 mile) (1. 52 miles) (2.16 miles) 

........................ ...................... .......................... 18,500 15,700 14,400 

...................... ....................... ........................... .......................... ..................... . ....................... 18,900 17,900 17,600 

···········~····· ................... ....................... .................. .................. ...................... 19,700 18,600 17,800 .................. ...................... ....................... 20,400 18,700 18,100 

......................... ................... ....................... •••••!lrt••········· ..................... ........................ 

18,300 15,700 14,200 

..................... ..................... ......................... ..................... .................... . ...................... 16,200 6,570 1,000 

................... ................... ..................... ..................... ................... ....................... 16,100 178 115 

.................... .................... ........................ ................... ................... ..................... 16,200 9,500 110 

11,500 90 90 

16,000 13,900 4,200 

13,000 15,600 9,600 

13,400 9,000 50 

16,000 12,900 4,320 

16,500 12,700 99 

North west !31st Street 

(2. 84 miles) 

Prior Below 

to control 

control 

. ............ 13,600 

............. 11,400 

. .......... 10,400 

. ........... 12,900 

.......... 15,700 

................. 13,500 

............ 14, 5{10 

.... ~······ 16,400 

............. 16,600 

................ 16,400 

............. 12,000 

........... 11,300 

............ 9,080 

............. 13,900 

............... 10,100 

........... 134 

........... 85 

........... 115 

............. 99 

.............. 70 

........... 83 

60 

70 

60 

50 

50 

55 

70 

Above 

control 

154th Northwest 

Street 7th Avenue 

(4. 29 miles) (4. 88 miles) 

Northwest 

27th Avenue 

(6. 91 miles) 

990 ................ . 62 ••••••••••••••••••• 1,500 43 35 37 

Le Jenne 

Road 

(8. 41 miles) 

31 

Red 

Road 

(9. 97 miles) 

16 

198 .................. 48 ....................................................... . 174 ............................................................................................ .. 2,150 2,350 935 34 34 18 

925 .................. 278 ....................................................... .. 645 .................. 36 ....................................................... .. 

1,580 67 35 47 36 15 

860 ................ .. 39 .. ...................... 2,300 77 39 42 34 17 

157 ................. . 43 . ....................... 35 ................ .. 37 . ..................... 36 32 34 41 39 16 

395 ................. . 35 . ...................... 675 ................ .. .47 . .................... 670 62 31 33 31 19 

91 ................ . 47 . ................... 101 .................. 46 

85 39 42 37 39 18 

72 .................. 40 

76 .................. 40 

60 .................................... . 

70 ................. 40 30 20 20 

60 .................................... . 

40 ................. 20 20 20 20 

50 ................................... .. 57 .................. 31 31 29 13 

57 ............................................................................................. .. 

(j) 

Ul 

0 
Oct. 23 18,400 15,900 9,500 70 70 .................. 10 70 60 

Nov. 6 ..................... 14,300 90 60 60 .................................... . Nov. 13 ...................... 12,000 100 70 10 ................................... . .. ................... . Nov. 20 18,500 15,500 6,600 60 60 ................................... . 40 30 10 

Nov. 27 ··········~······ 7,500 80 60 10 .......................................................................................... .. Dec. 4 . .................. 17,000 12,000 250 330 ............................................................................................. . Dec. 11 17,000 14,900 10,500 410 342 ................. 40 3ti .32 18 

Dec. 18 . ,., .................. 14,500 . .................... 70 80 .......................................................................................... .. Dec. 24 .................. 15,000 8,000 . ........... 130 120 ............................................................................................ . 

Dec. 31 11,000 9,400 400 60 60 ................ . 40 40 80 20 
652 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTiiF.ASTERN FLORIDA 

LITn..E IUVER CANAL 

Little River Canal is fairly large and the lower reaches are 

moderately free of weeds-the pattern of movement of the salt 

front resembles that of Miami Canal. Table 74 presents the observed chloride concentrations. Little River Canal was uncontrolled until 1946, and the salt front generally was located between the Florida East Coast Railway and NW. 95th Street. No 

large supply was dependent upon its freshness although a number 

of adjacent small wells were contaminated and rendered unusable 

for periods of varying length. 

As with Biscayne Canal, Little River Canal was contaminated 

in 1945 from Biscayne Bay to Red Road, a distance of 8. 4 miles. 

Although the canal channel could have been quickly flushed out in. 

the succeeding wet period, the continuing moderate contamination 

in the westerly reaches indicated that some contaminated ground 

water was entering the canal. 

A dam was installed at NW. 7th Avenue in 1946 to reduce loss 

of fresh water to the bay and to act as a barrier to salty water. 
Table 74.-Chloride concentrations in Little River Canal, Miami 

[Parts per million. Bet ore October 1, 1941, the values are the highest obtained from either surtace or bottom samples (usually the latter); alter October 1, 1941, the 

values are from bottom samples. Mileages in parentheses indicate from mouth of canal at Biscayne Bay] 

Date 

1940 

Apr. 3 

Apr. 14 

May 3 

May 16 

June 5 

June 17 

July 1 

July 18 

Aug. 1 

Aug. 16 

Sept, 4 

Sept. 18 

Oct. 3 

Oct. 18 

Nov. 1 

Nov. 15 

Dec. 3 

Dec. 1'1 

1941 

Jan. 18 

Jan. 31 

Feb. 19 

Mar. 1 

Mar. 14 

Apr. 3 

Apr. 18 

Northeast North 

U. S. Miami 

Highway 1 79th Street 2nd Avenue Avenue 

Northwest 7th Avenue 

(2. 65 miles) r---~.-----~----~ North~st Northwert 

Prior Below Above 95th Street 27th Avenue 

(0. 74 mile) (0. 99 mile) (1. 60 miles {1. 85 miles) to control control {3. 75 miles) (5. 34 miles) 

control 

14,910 .................. 45 ... ................. 37 34 .................. 13,990 ................... 11,320 ... ................... 750 34 ..................... 18,230 .................. 15,010 . ................... 10,9?0 8,880 ................... 18,890 ................ 17,170 .. ................ 11,910 9,080 ................. 14,620 .................... 125 . ................. 96 109 ..................... 14,720 ................ 59 . .................. ~. 46 . ......... 39 . ............... 14,720 ········~······ 5,360 ................. 50 . .......... 46 .................. 15,640 ................ 8,930 . ................. 1, 680 ·42 

17,170 .................. 13,370 . ................ 6,420 . ........... ·--:······· 3,500 21 

14,670 ................. 125 .................... 101 . ........... 48 17 

15,100 ................... 7,700 .................. 1,130 .......... •••••I•••• 32 21 

12,540 .................... 52 .................. 43 . ........... 42 21 

11,280 ................... 52 •••••••e••••••••• 68 ............. ............. 41 19 

15,970 .................. 7,410 .................. 55 . ......... 37 18 

7,560 . .............. 42 .................... 38 

·········· 

30 19 

15,830 .................... 46 . ................... 37 31 18 

13,320 ................. 2,310 . ................. 32 29 19 

15,250 .................. 10,200 . ................. 261 24 18 

15,640 ................. 9,910 ..................... 37 . ......... ............. 24 17 

16,500 ................. 13,270 .................. 9,030 . ........... .. ........... 770 21 

13,510 ..................... 1,730 .................... 27 .. ......... 23 16 

14,860 .................. 7,560 ................... T-···- .. ........... 26 17 

14,380 ................... 9,320 ................... 31 .......... . .......... 25 17 

14,620 ................. 6,170 .................... 267 ......... . .......... 24 17 

13,940 ............... 7,750 ....................... 28 ......... 25 . ................... ···~······· 

Eart 

LeJeune ~th Avenue. 

Road · Hialeah 

6. 88 miles (7. 38 miles) 

19 .................... 19 . ................. 18 . .................. 18 . ................ 18 ................. 18 .................... 19 . .................. 18 ..................... 18 ................. 18 . ................. 18 ................. 16 ................. 13 . ..................... 18 ....................... 17 . ..................... 18 . ................. 17 . ..................... 17 . ................... 

17 . .................. 17 . ............... 18 .. ................... 18 . ................. 11 . ................... 17 .. .................. 17 . ...................... 

Palm Red 

Avenue Road 

{7. 88 miles) (8. 38 miles) 

..................... 20 

. ................ 21 

.................. 19 

................... 19 

.................. 16 

········~·--·· ... ·· 18 

..................... 21 

.................... 20 

.................... 20 

.................... 19 

................. 18 

..................... 15 

.................... 15 

• ............... 1 18 

................... 17 

................... 17 

.................... 18 

................... 19 

.................... 19 

................... 18 

.................. 18 

. .......... '"; ....... 19 

..................... 18 

.................... 17 

................... 19 

> "'

t"~ 

~"" I 

~ 

~ 

"' 

~ 

"' g 

0 

I 

0) 

Ul 

c.:l 
Table 74.-Chloride concentrations in Little River Canal, Miami-Continued 0) 

t11 

Northwest 7th Avenue ""' 

North (2.ti5 miles) East 

Date u. s. Northeast Northeast Miami Northwest Northwest LeJeune 4th Avenue, Palm Red 

Highway 1 79th Street 2nd Avenue Avenue Prior Below Above 95th Street 27th Avenue Road ~ ~ialea!l Avenue Road 

{0. 74 mile) (0. 99 mile) (1. 60 miles) {1. 85 miles to control control (3. 75 miles) (5. 34m iles) (6. 88miles ( 7. 38 miles) (7. 88 miles) (8. 38 miles) 

control 

1941 

May 1 17,270 ·····4········· 13,120 ••• •• 4 ••• ~····· 11,180 2,080 19 18 ...................... ................. 18 

May 20 15,780 ..................... 10,590 . ............... 6,030 1,260 17 17 . .................... ..................... 17 ~ June 4 16,400 ................... 12,930 . ................. 10,150 3,620 17 18 . ................ ................... 18 ;! 

l" 

June 17 18,660 .................. 15,040 ............... 13,170 9,030 20 19 . ................. ................ 17 

July 3 16,400 .................. 9, 030 . .............. 130 1,120 16 17 . ................ .................. 11 ~ July 16 3,820 ................. 33 . .............. 25 22 15 16 . ............... ................... 15 g July 30 15,490 ,.. .................. 9,270 ...................... 208 29 17 16 . .............. ................... 19 

Aug. 18 16,210 ................. 5,930 . ............... 28 23 17 11 .................... . ................. 15 jj 

Sept. 3 14,670 "' ···········*••• 9,910 .................. 558 21 16 16 ................. ................... 16 

Oct. 1 13,300 ................. 250 .. .................. 25 22 16 16 z . ................ . ................ 1ti 

Oct. 17 15,700 ................. 11,500 ................ 870 19 16 15 . ................ ..................... 16 "' Oct. 31 11,800 . .................... 9,860 ................... 1,110 21 16 17 . .................. . ................ 16 I Nov. 14 15,400 ··············· 4,780 ................ 39 20 17 17 ............... ................... 17 

Nov. 28 15,100 .................. 8,930 .................. 245 21 16 18 . ............... ..................... 16 

Dec. 24 16,900 ................. 12,400 .................. 8,640 21 16 lti . ................... ................ ,., .. 16 ;! 

1942 ~ Jan. 3 16,300 ................ 12,900 ................ 5,730 ·······-=· . .......... 37 17 16 ·············~·· ................... 16 I Jan. 16 15,900 ................... 13,300 . ................ 5,980 ............. ............. 590 17 16 . ................... . ....................... 16 

Feb. 4 1ti,800 ................... 14,500 ................ 10,300 . ......... . ............ 4,520 20 19 . ................ . .................... 19 

Feb. 17 17,300 ... ,. ............. 13,200 ..................... 6,370 . ......... •••••••••a• 3,850 16 18 . ···~ ............. . .................. 17 

Mar. 4 17,000 ..................... ~.-8so . ................ 1,480 .......... ............ ................... 1ti 1!i . .................. . .................. 17 

Mar. 19 17,600 .................... 13,500 ~·············· 7,060 ............. ............ 5, 180 16 18 . .................. . ................. 19 

Apr. 2 18,100 ..................... 15,ti00 ................. 10,400 . ............ ............. 6,860 133 18 . ................. . ................. 17 

Apr. 28 308 ................... 29 . ....... ,., ......... 22 ............. .. .......... 18 13 12 . ................. .. .................. 13 

May 8 5,930 ................ 171 . ............... 24 ............. . .......... 23 16 15 .. .................. .................... 14 

May 22 13,300 .......... ,., ........ 1,460 ................. 26 ........... . ............ 24 18 11 . ................ .................. 18 

June 9 12,400 ..... ,. .......... 630 ................. 20 . ......... ............. 17 14 16 . ................... ................. 13 

June 24 5,830 ................... 28 . .................. 24 ............ ............... 19 15 15 . .................... ................. 14 
July 9 9, 670 ..................... 29 ······~ ......... 25 19 17 17 ... .................. ................. 17 

July 24 13,100 ................... 9,520 ............... 1,200 23 17 17 . .................... ............... 15 

Aug. 6 13,000 ............... 9,220 . .............. 4,650 21 21 19 .................. . ................ 17 

Aug. 22 13,800 ··············· 10,300 .............. 4,500 . ........... 17 ················ 15 ................... .................. 17 

Sept. 4 15,200 ................ 9, 670 . .............. 26 14 14 13 . .................. ................ 14 

Oct. 7 15,350 ............... 13,250 . ............. 8,200 .......... ............ 720 13 15 . ............... . ................ 16 

Nov. 9 12,800 ................. 14,500 -~ ............... 10,100 . ........ ............. 8,050 26 16 . .................. .................. ll:i 

Nov. 24 15,750 ··············· 13,700 . ............ 3,920 .......... .. ............ 29 15 18 ................ ..................... ll:i 

Dec. 10 16,550 . ................ 13,900 ................. 8,750 ............ ············ 3,520 16 17 . ............... . ............... 17 

Dec. 23 14,600 ................ 14,200 .................. 6,800 ......... . ........... 285 . ................. 17 . ................. ..................... 18 

1943 

Jan. 6 15,650 ................... 9,300 ............... 5,650 ........... . .......... 119 14 17 .................. ... ................ 17 

Jan. 24 17' 270 ................... 14,330 .............. 11,810 ......... . ........... 8,190 130 19 .................. . ................ 17 "' 1:: Feb. 8 16,020 ............... 12,730 ................... 730 .......... . ............. 33 14 15 ................. . ................. 15 .., Feb. 26 17,560 .................. 13,800 ................. 10,890 .......... ............ 5,980 17 15 . ................ . ................... 18 I 

Mar. 15 ....................... ................ 14,910 ............... 9,470 ........... ............. 10,590 820 18 . ................. . ................. lb ~ Apr. 2 14,000 .................. 15,300 .................. 11,200 ............ . ........... 8,930 4,020 1,010 ................ . ................... 18 ~ 

"' Apr. 16 15,100 . .................. 16,500 ... .............. 10,.400 ........... . ........... 9,710 840 125 . ................ ................ 18 1"1 May 5 10,500 ..................... 11,000 ................... 6,420 . ......... .................. 3,650 68 23 . ................... ................ 16 

May 15 9, 570 .................. 15,700 ............... 7,510 ........... . ............. 3,700 33 17 .. ............... .................. 13 fi 

June 1 12,900 10,000 182 198 20 15 24 "' ................ ............... ......... . ................ ...................... . .................. ~ June 19 17' 200 ................. 14,300 .............. 7,410 .............. .............. 2,220 57 1b . ................ . .................. 18 n 

:I: July 4 17,600 ................ 8, 880 .................. 6, 720 ........... .............. 58 18 15 ················ .................... 15 

Aug. 

July 18 

4 

17,500 

16,700 ................. 

.................... 9, 

7,560 

670 ............... 

.................... 7,600 

4,580 

............... 

............. ............. ............. 37 

45 17 15 

15 23 . 

. .................. 

.................. . 

.................. 

................. 14 

16 .., 

~ Aug. 21 13,100 ................. 12,000 . ................. 2,500 .......... .. ............... 25 14 15 . ................ ................... 13 

Sept. 6 14,400 .................... 755 ............... 41 . ........ ................. 27 15 15 ................... . ................ 16 

Sept. 21 12,800 ...................... 8,340 ................ 3,300 .......... ................. 26 14 14 .................... .. ................... 14 

Oct. 6 12,700 10,100 2,020 ................... 27 ......... ............. 24 12 12 ................ . ............... 13 

Nov. 2 12,800 ................. 9,180 ................. 30 ............ ... .............. 23 24 14 .................. . .................. 16 

Nov. 24 15,900 ................ 12,900 .............. 3,820 ............. ................ 17 12 13 . ............... ················ 12 

Dec. 27 17,300 .................. 13,100 ................... 8,540 . .......... ............... 520 15 1o ..................... . ................ 16 

1944 

Jan. 18 15,600 ................ 11,000 ................... 5,140 . .......... ............. 980 15 16 . ................... . ............. .., ..... 16 

Feb. 5 15,500 ................ 12,200 .................. 8,290 ............. . ............... 5,100 16 16 .................. ················ 

19 0) 

Feb. 23 15,400 ................ 13,900 . .............. 9,710 . ......... ................. 5,980 19 17 ..................... .................... 19 01 

Mar. 9 18,100 . , ................. 11,800 . ................ 9,470 6,620 23 17 . ..................... ................... 16 01 

Mar. 28 12,500 .................. 14,200 ................. 9,220 .......... .............. ................... 20 18 .. ................. .................. 16 
Date 

1944 

Apr. 18 

May 8 

May 30 

June 21 

July 26 

1945 

May 16 

June 15 

June 29 

July lli 

July 31 

Sept. a 

Sept, 24 

Oct. 3 

Oct. 10 

Oct. 16 

Oct. 23 

Nov, 1 

Nov. 6 

Nov. 13 

Nov. 20 

.Nov. 27 

Dec, 6 

Dec. 10 

Dec. 20 

Dec, 26 

1946 

,.... 2 

Jim. 9 

Table 74.-Chloride concentrations in Little River Canal, Miani--continued 

North 

U. S. Northeast Northeast Miami 

Highway 1 79th Street 2nd Avenue Avenue 

(0. 7 4 mile) (0. 99mile) (1. 60 miles (1. 85 miles 

18,300 ................... 16,400 . ............... 17,600 .................... 7,110 ................... 12,700 .................. 13,900 .................... 17,000 ..................... 8,390 ........................ 14,800 ...................... ~ 7,410 .................... 

................... ................. ............... ................... 23,200 .................. 22,700 ................... -·············· .................. .................. ................... ................... .................. . ................ .................. ,. 

................... .................... 14,700 .. ................ 19,100 ............... 16,000 ................ 13,800 ................. 9,1170 ................... .................... .................. .................. ................... 15,400 . ................. 13,500 . .................... ................. ................... ................... ................. ..................... ................ .................... ................... 14,600 ..................... 332 ................... .................... ....................... . ................ . .................. . ..................... ................... .................... ................. 15,600 .................. 12,600 . .................. 

.................. ...................... .................. . 15,400 ................ 12,100 

...................... . ............................................................ . 

14,300 196 

Northwest 7th Avenue 

(2. 65 miles) East 

1---T"""--...----i Northwest Northwest Le Jeune ~5th Street 27thAvenue Road 

4th Avenue, 

Hialeah 

(7. 38 miles) 

Palm Red 

Prior 

to control 

12,400 

7,510 

7,850 

1,090 

562 

15,600 

22,400 

15,600 

7,300 

10,400 

530 

540 

6,820 

2,220 

1,100 

300 

3.60 

305 

542 

280 

5,730 

6,820 

5,680 

415 

171 

165 

Below Above 

control control 

.. ........... 

.............. 

........... 

. .......... 

Avenue Road 

(3. 7~miles) (5. 34 miles) (6. 88 miles (7. 8 8 miles) ~ 8. 38 miles) 

11,300 

3,850 

3,250 27 

418 

14,000 

22,400 

14,400 

10,000 

1,100 

5,900 

465 . .............. . 860 

560 

'""'""252 

................. 192 

162 

312 

16 

15 

16 

39 

8,200 

21,100 

11;400 

2,800 

760 

520 

482 

16 

16 

15 

16 

16 

4,400 

19,100 

12,200 

1,200 .................. 440 

552 

3,200 2,100. .................... 17,400 ......................... 13,100 

1,100 920 ................. ................... .. ................... 332 ................... ................... 

16 

16 

15 

17 

350 

15,600 

12,000 

980 

640 

400 

243 

. .................................................................................................. .. 368 440 ................ ................ 260 . ........................................................................................................... .. . .......................................................................................................... . 370 415 ................ ................. 145 

....................... .................... ...................... . ....................................... . 265 322 ................ ................. 159 

170 177 62 
Jan. 16 

Jan. 23 ................. .................................... ................ .......... . 16, 501) ••••• .-.......... 13, 8(}1) ••••••••••••••• Jan. 30 

Feb. 6 . ..................................................... . Feb. 13 15, 8(}1) ............... 12,400 

Feb. 21) 

Feb. 27 . ................................................... . Mar. 6 17,100 ................ 12,300 

Mar. 13 ................... .................. ................ . ................ Mar. 20 .................. ................. ................ ................ . .......... Mar. 26 18,700 . ................ 16,000 . ............... Apr. 3 ................... ............... .................. . ................. Apr. 12 .................. . ............... ............... . ............... Apr. 17 19,800 .................. 17' 700 . ................ Apr. 24 .................. ................ .................. ...................... May 1 19,81)0 ..................... 17' 200 ... .................. May 8 .......................... ................ .................. .................... May 15 ...................... ................. ..................... ............... May 22 18,700 ..................... 13,51)0 ... .................. May 29 .................... ................... .................. ................. June 5 .................. ................ .................. ..................... June 12 17,600 ·············~·· 11,001) .................. June 19 .................... ................... .................. ...................... 

June 26 ···~·· ·········~ .................. ····~ ........... ................. July 3 15,900 ...................... 123 ..................... July 10 ..................... ................. ................... ................... July 17 ...................... ................... ................. . ................. July 24 19,300 18,01)1) 10,800 ................. July 31 11,000 16,000 440 180 

Aug. 14 16,61)0 16,200 12,900 10,700 

Aug. 28 14,100 14,801) 12,700 12,000 

Sept. 11 14,801) 14,501) 10,100 7,200 

Sept. 25 12,500 13,600 10,41)0 8,730 

Oct. 9 16,400 16,300 12,200 10,300 

Oct. 23 16,400 16,700 13,900 12,000 

·Nov. 6 ..................... . ....................... .................. 10,100 

6,720 

12,101) 

11), 51)1) 

8,1)51) 

11,31)0 

11,31)0 

13,401) 

10,601) 

11,100 

~4.000 

15,700 

12,900 

14,400 

15,401) 

14,600 

15,000 

14,21)0 

12,000 

10,200 

14,700 

11,600 

7,850 

69 

86 

65 

77 

92 

350 

90 

6, 51)0 

9,31)0 

150 

490 

330 

4,100 

110 

1, 261) 

1,370 

201) 

425 

380 

155 

138 

172 

116 

119 

227 

122 

167 

321) 

220 

540 

440 

132 

71 

422 

432 

120 

68 

83 

68 

81 

87 

160 

70 

5,500 

8,200 

140 

412 

275 

1,700 

13o-

. ....................................................... . 232 66 68 71 

106 48 51) 57 

53 48 43 48 

53 40 42 43 

52 42 38 36 . ................................................ . 12 44 35 33 

............................................ ···········~·· ................... ..................... . ................. . 49 41 45 47 

49 35 32 41 ··········'!••••• ........................................................................................... . ................................................................................................................................ 57 67 71 40 .......................................................................................................................... 

70 . ................ 660 

70 

17 

76 

80 

60 

11) 60 60 

60 70 71) 

. .................................................................................................... . 11 74 ................. ................ 83 

. .................. ... 110 110 ................................ . 120 
Date 

1946 

Nov. 13 

Nov. 20 

Nov. 27 

Dec, 4 

Dec. 11 

Dec, 18 

Dec, 24 

Dec, 31 

Table 74.--Chloride concentrations in Little River Canal, Miami-continued 

North 

U. S. Northeast Northeast Miami 

Highway 1 19th Street 2ndAvenue Avenue 

(0. 14 mile) (0, 99 mile) (1. iiO miles) (1. 85 mile) 

4 ................... .................. ................... 4,800 

16,000 15,500 12,000 9,!100 

....................... .................. . ................... 6,500 

~·· ~·· ~········· ..................... ....................... 13,000 

16,800 1ii,600 13,600 12,200 

················ .................. .................. 9,600 

················ .................. ....... -........... 11,000 

16,000 15,000 9,400 10,000 

Northwest 1th Avenue 

(2 •. 65 miles) 

Prior 

to 

control 

········: 

Northwest 

Below Above 95th Street 

control control (3. 15 miles) 

100 90 70 

3,200 3,100 70 

100 100 60 

9,500 8,800 90 

7,260 6,340 180 

2,200 1,500 60 

5,800 5,000 70 

1,800 1,700 50 

East 

Northwest Le Jeune 4th Avenue Palm Red 

27thAvenue Road Hialeah Avenue Road 

(5. 34 miles) (6. 88 miles) 7. 38 miles) (7. 88 miles) (8. 38 miles) 

50 50 ................................ . 50 

49 44 38 

40 50 60 
SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 659 

TAMIAMI CAN..U. 

The contamination of TamiamiCanal is directly associated with 

that of Miami Canal, which it joins just above NW. 27th Avenue. 

Table 7 5 presents the observed chloride concentrations. The fluctuation of the salt front is less than that of most of the other large 

secondary canals, owing to the sustained flow in Tamiami Canal 

and to the relatively steep gradient. Tamiami Canal is a threat to 

the municipal well field in Miami Springs because it passes the 

well field on the south (fig. 184) and thereby provides a source of 

contamination from that direction. 

Ordinarily, salty water did not progress inland farther than Red 

Road, but in 1945 contamination was found 4. 9 miles above the 

mouth of the canal. The Florida East Coast Railway (F. E. C.) 

Canal, a tributary of Tamiami Canal, extends north toward the 

well fields. A real threat to the water supply existed several 

times during the 1943-45 drought period and Tamiami Canal was 

dammed in 1946 below its confluence with F. E. C. Canal to prevent contamination of the well field via F'. E. C. Canal. 
[Parts per million. 

Date 

1940 

Mar. 8 

Apr. 3 

Apr. 14 

May 3 

May 16 

June 5 

June 17 

July 1 

July 18 

Aug. 1 

Aug. 16 

Sept. 4 

Sept. 18 

Oct. 3 

Oct. 18 

Nov. 1 

Nov. 15 

Dec. 3 

Dec. 17 

1941 

Jan. 18 

Jan. 31 

Feb. 19 

Mar, 1 

Mar. 14 

Apr. 3 

Apr. 18 

Table 75.-Chloride concentrations in Tamitr~i Canal, .\liami 

Before October 1, 1941, the values are the highest obtained from either surface or bottom samples (usually the latter); after October 1, 1941, the 

values are from bottom samples. Mileages in parentheses indicate distance from mouth ol canal at Miami Canal] 

Northwest 

South River 

Drive 

(0. 09 mile) 

205 

95 

395 

1,175 

2,475 

111 

90 

88 

89 

39 

39 

161 

29 

33 

31 

29 

20 

32 

25 

21 

23 

26 

21 

27 

25 

28 

Northwest 

37th Avenue 

(0. 90 mile) 

75 

27 

29 

til 

730 

61 

157 

91 

67 

33 

27 

45 

22 

23 

25 

28 

17 

21 

21 

18 

21 

20 

20 

21 

23 

23 

LeJeune 

Road 

(1. 27 miles) 

26 

26 

43 

478 

205 

191 

111 

61 

34 

26 

30 

18 

19 

20 

22 

17 

21 

21 

18 

18 

_18 

20 

21 

2!l 

2!l 

Red 

Road 

(3, 21 miles) 

Florida East Coast Railway 

(4. 64 miles) 

PriOr 

to 

control 

19 ............... .. 2!l 

18 

19 

19 ............... .. 18 

18 

17 

19 

Below 

control 

16 ................................ .. 

17 .................................. . 

Hi .................................. .. 

13 ................................ .. 

17 ................................. . 

11i ................ . 

16 

17 

17 

Above 

control 

West Flagler 

Street 

(4. 87 miles) 

19 ....................................................................................... .. 17 

18 

19 

17 

......................................................................................................... 

18 ....................................................................................... .. 2!l 
May 1 20 19 19 19 ...................... ...................... ............................ ....................................... May 20 69 23 21 18 .................... ..................... ........................ ........................................ June 4 1,420 395 285 18 ................... ..................... ............ -. ........ ...................................... June 17 tiSO 57(} 300 19 ....................... .................... ..................... .......................................... July 2 9(} 1(}1 42 17 .................. ..................... ......................... .................................. July 15 29 23 21 15 .................... ................... ...................... .................................... July 3(} 27 24 22 15 ................... .................. ........................ ..................................... Aug. 18 19 2G 20 16 ..................... ....................... ......................... . ................................... Sept. 3 23 22 18 17 ....................... .................. ......................... . .... ,., ............................ Oct. 1 23 19 19 1ti ..................... ..................... ......................... . ................................... Oct. 17 21 19 19 18 ................... ...................... .......................... . .................................. Oct. 31 21 19 19 lti ..................... .................. ........................ . .................................. Nov. 14 21 19 19 18 .................. ............. ,., ........ ......................... "' .................................... £! 

Nov. 28 19 18 19 17 >-1 ................... .................... ......................... . .................................... Dec. 24 24 18 19 17 ................... ................... ..................... . ................................ ,., .. ' 

~ 1942 ~ Jan. 3 24 20 19 19 ......................... . .................................... .................... :0 ..................... Jan. 1ti 72 33 21 18 .................... .................. ........................ . ................................... Feb. 

Feb. 17 

4 

470 

620 129 

28 

23 

24_ 

19 .................. ..................... ........................ . .................................... ~ 19 .................... .................... ........................ . .................................... :u Mar. 4 ti3 22 19 18 .................... .................... ......................... . ................................ Mar. 19 ~ 520 38 32 2(} .................. .................... ........................ . .................................... ~ Apr. 2 60(} 207 163 18 ....................... .................. ....................... . ................................... Apr. 28 38 25 23 1ti ................... .-.................. .......................... . .................................... May 8 47 34 29 18 >-1 ................... .................. ... , ..................... .................................. May 22 ti5 42 31 19 .................... .................... ....................... ...................................... June 9 23 22 27 17 .................. .................... ......................... .................................... June 24 22 21 25 17 ..................... ·······~ ............. .......................... .................................... July 9 23 2(} 22 11 ................... .................... ........................ ..................................... July 24 23 22 21 1ti ....................... ..................... ......................... ...................................... Aug. 6 23 17 23 19 ...................... ....................... ......................... . ................................... Aug. 22 21 ........................... 18 1ti ........................ ...................... ......................... . ...................................... Sept. 4 21 ............... ,., ............ 19 15 ..................... ....................... .......................... . .................................. Oct. 7 15 ········~····· , ........... 17 15 ..................... .................... ......................... . .................................... Nov. 9 159 ........................... 23 18 ........................ ...................... .......................... .................................... 0') 

Nov. 24 2(} ........................... 18 17 ..................... ............... ., .... ......................... . ................................... 0) 

... 
Date 

1942 

Dec, 10 

Dec, 23 

1943 

Jan. 6 

Jan, 23 

Feb. 8 

Feb, 2o 

Mar. 15 

Apr. 2 

Apr. 16 

May 5 

May 15 

June 1 

June 19 

July 4 

July 18 

Aug. 4 

Aug. 21 

Sept. 6 

Sept, 21 

Oct. 6 

Nov, 2 

Nov. 24 

Dec. 27 

1944 

Jan. 1~ 

Feb. 5 

Feb, 23 

Table 75.-Chloride concentrations in Tamiami Canal, Miami-Continued 

Northwest 

South River 

Drive 

(0. 09 mile) 

1,500 

1,800 

132 

2,700 

525 

5,380 

7,750 

8,830 

11,300 

2,450 

1,390 

1,9'10 

8,000 

1,970 

755 

2,150 

6ti0 

425 

74 

163 

63 

33 

Northwest 

37th Avenue 

(0. 90 mile) 

40 ..................... .. 

29 

182 

2,420 

Le Jenne 

Road 

(1. 27 miles) 

147 

138 

34 

740 

So 

187 

4,250 

5,530 

9,080 

2,125 

1, 780 

372 

5,090 

495 

210 

255 

222 

63 

53 

44 

27 

29 

32 

22 

26 

750 

Red 

Road 

Florida- East Coast Railway 

(4. 64 miles) 

(3. 21 miles) 

Prior 

to 

control 

Below 

control 

Above 

control 

16 .............. .. 

17 

18 .............. .. 

18 

1o 

lo 

16 

17 ............... . 

33 

29 

15 

16 

17 

19 .............. .. 

17 

17 

18 

19 ............... . 

1ti 

14 

26 

Hi 

18 .............. .. 

19 .............. .. 18 

18 

West Flagler 

Street 

(4. 87 miles) 
Mar. 9 

Mar. 28 

"' Apr • 18 ... 

a> 

"" May 8 ~ May 30 

0 June 21 I July 26 "' "' I Sept. 11 I 

... Oct • 4 ... Nov. 8 

Dec. 21 

1945 

Jan. 2b 

Feb, 27 

Apr. 7 

Apr. 1b 

Apr. 27 

May 23 

June 14 

June 28 

July 17 

Aug. 1 

Aug. 30 

Sept. 24 

Oct. 4 

Oct. 11 

Oct. 16 

Oct. 23 

Nov. 2 

Nov. 14 

Nov. 21 

Dec. 11 

194b 

Jan. 3 

Jan. 24 

Feb. 14 

6,030 

12,200 

3, 850 

10,900 

1,180 

9, 570 

3,800 

9,860 

11,000 ...................... .. 

418 ....................... . 

1,750 

7,900 

3,100 

8,540 

378 

1,700 

180 

318 

2,600 

5,800 

12,200 

13,700 

13,900 

5,600 

4,400 

318 

18 ....................................................... . 21 

17 

92 

17 ....................................................... . 19 

18 

41 

130 

20 

19 

20 

22 

5,980 

5,090 

10,500 

10,000 

3,500 

200 

19 .................................................................... .. 

20 ..................................................................... .. 

················· ........................................................................... . 280 ..................................................................... . 121 

95 

76 ................. ................... .................... 28 

21 30 ...................................................................... . ......................... ......................... ......................... ...................... 21 ..................................................................... .. 620 ....................... . 

75 ...................... .. 

28 ...... ~····· .............. 53 ............................. 

29 ............................. 31 .......................... 900 .......................... 

275 

1b3 

8b 

3b 

87 

67 

247 

29 ................. ................... .................... 19 

25 

27 

23 

19 

22 

21 

20 ..................................................................... .. 

19 ....................................................................... . 18 

18 

19 

27 

20 ....................................................................... . 21 

22 
Date 

1946 

Mar. 7 

Mar. 21 

Mar. 28 

Apr. 4 

Apr. 11 

Apr. 18 

Apr. 25 

May 2 

May 9 

May 16 

May 23 

May 30 

June 6 

June 13 

June 20 

June 27 

July 4 

July 11 

July 18 

July 25 

Aug. 1 

Aug. 8 

Aug. 15 

Aug. 23 

Aug. 29 

Sept. 12 

Sept. 26 

Oct. 10 

Northwest 

South River 

Drive 

(0. 09 mile) 

1,510 

13,400 

11,500 

13,300 

7,210 

520 

85 

120 

110 

150 

570 

80 

40 

30 

31 

32 

Table 75.-Chloridc concentrations in Tarmami Canal, :

1fiami-Conlint1ed 

Northwest 

37th Avenue 

(0. 90 mile) 

LeJeune 

Road 

(1. 27 miles) 

755 

8,440 

8,100 

11,000 

2,260 

288 

137 

220 

120 

160 

70 

50 

24 

45 

Red 

Road 

{3. 21 mile•) 

19 

23 

260 

4,280 

27 

21 

30 

20 

20 

20 

20 

Florida East Coast Railway 

{ 4. 64 miles) 

Prior 

to 

control 

19 

.;. ................... .. 

Below 

control 

21 

20 

32 

19 

19 

18 

19 

19 

20 

23 

20 

20 

25 

20 

19 

20 

19 

30 

20 

20 

Above 

control 

19 

20 

29 

19 

22 

32 

19 

18 

19 

21 

20 

19 

20 

20 

19 

25 

19 

18 

20 

20 

20 

West Flagler 

Street 

{4. 87 miles) 

................................................... 

.................................... 

................................ 

...................................... 

.................................... 

... , .............................. .................................... 

...................................... 

...................................... 

..................................... 

.................................. 

........... ,., ....................... ···~···························· ................................... 

.................................. 

................................... 
Oct. 

Nov. 

Nov. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Dec. 

Dec. 

Dec. 

Jan. 

24 

14 

21 

28 

5 

12 

19 

26 

1947 

3 

50 

40 

40 

30 

40 

50 

40 

60 

40 

. .............. ~ ........ . 50 20 20 . ................................ . ··~····~····· ...................... ~ .......... ····~·············· ............................................................... . 20 .••••.••.••.•••. 20 20 ..•.•....••••.•••...••••••....•.. ···················3o·· 

40 30 10 10 

40 30 20 20 
666 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

SEMINOLE LAKE 

Just east of Red Road and connected with Tamiami Canal, is 

Seminole Lake (fig. 184), a rock pit covering an area of about 

100 acres. Like Palmer Lake, it becomes contaminated throughout in extremely dry periods and offers another means for salty 

water to approach the well field. In dry periods, only a low 

ground-water divide exists between Seminole Lake and the municipal supply wells. If this divide were dissipated in a prolonged 

dry spell and if the cone of depression in the water table extended 

to the Lake, it would supply salty water to the well field. 
SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 667 

CORAL GABLES CANAL 

Table 76 presents the. observed chloride concentrations in Coral 

Gables Canal Ordinarily, the canal is strongly salty upstream to U.S. 

Highway 1 (2. 2 miles from Biscayne Bay), which is at the head of 

the targe channel. The channel narrows at this point, and farther 

upstream it has a fairly low capacity because of shoals and constrictions. The typical upstream limit of contamination is in the 

vicinity of BirdRoad (3.18 milesfromthe bay). In 1945, however, 

salty water was found at the Florida East Coast Railway bridge 

west of Red Road (5. 4 mUes by canal from Biscayne Bay). 

On either side of U. S. Highway 1, stub canals branch off from 

Coral Gables Canal to form scenic waterways, which have contributed to the salt-water contamination of the adjoining areas. 
Table 76.-Cliioride concentrations in Coral Gables Canal, i!iami 

[Parts per million. Before October 1, 1941, the· values are the highest obtained from either surface or bottom samples (usually the latter); after October 1, 1941, the 

values are from bottom samples. Mileages in parentheses indicate distance from mouth of canal at ~iscayne Bay] 

Red Road 

(4.06mil~) F.E.C. 

Date Ingraham Hardee Miller u. s. East Spur Granada Bird ,_ West Spur Ludlum Railway Coral 

Highway Drive Road c~::fes west end Boulevard Road Prior Below

1

1Above south end Road ·Bridge Way (0. 84mile) (1,44 mile~ (1, 9 6 miles) (2,34mil~ 2. 78 miles) (3,18miles to pontrol control ( 4,51} miles (4,96 miles) (5.41 mile~) (5. 63 m ile1) 

E_ontrol 

1940 

Apr~ 3 15,010 2,900 410 322 ................ 55 16 15 ......... ................. ................. ................... ............... Apr. 14 16,360 16,260 2,850 1,150 .................... 129 19 16 ........... ................ ................. ................ . ................ May 3 11,890 16,550 2,920 2,580 ................... 358 20 15 ........... ................... ................ ................. ................ May 16 18,230 17,120 4,820 4,350 ................. 3,000 790 15 ......... ................ ..................... ..................... ......................... June 5 12,730 8,880 292 255 ................. 47 17 15 .............. ...................... ................... ...................... ................... 

June 17 14,170 11,310 350 288 ....................... 57 17 16 ............. .................... .................... ........................ ................... July 1 16,020 13,150 465 368 ...................... 57 16 15 ............. .................... ...................... ................... .. ................... July 18 17,120 14,140 780 530 ..................... 109 17 15 ............. .................... ..................... ...................... .................. Aug. 1 19,410 16,740 13,560 10,590 ..................... 4,420 28 16 ................ ................... ...................... .................. . ................... Aug. 16 17,750 15,300 167 101 ........................ 39 15 15 ............. ..................... ...................... ..................... . .................. 

Sept. 4 14,480 15,150 4,180 1,(}40 ..................... 85 17 15 .............. .............. ...................... .................... ................... . .................... Sept.18 14,240 12,930 9,180 1,780 ...................... 697 17 17 ............ ............ ..................... ..................... ...... ,. ............ .................. Oct. 3 12,830 10,400 5,730 820 .................... 69' 18 15 ........... ............ .................. ........................ ..................... . ...................... Oct, 18 15,400 13,700 10,790 6,270 ..................... 94 18 15 ............ .............. ..................... ...................... .................... ...................... Nov. 1 13,420 11,470 7,410 1,550 ...................... 102 17 15 ........... .............. ....................... .. .................. ......................... . ....................... 

Nov. 15 13,320 10,890 2,500 452 ..................... 67 17 16 ......... ............. .................... ····-········ .. .................... ...................... Dec. 3 14,280 13,700 542 425 ..................... 76 19 17 ........... ................ ...................... ........................ ...................... .. ...................... Dec. 17 12,830 10,590 1,770 1,580 ...................... 61 19 16 ............ ................ ..................... ,. ................... ........................ ...................... 

1941 

Jan. 18 15,130 13,120 302 190 ...................... 47 18 15 ............. ............. ................... ..................... . .................. ...................... Jan. 31 16,020 13,610 6,470 5,330 ..................... 62 18 15 .............. ............. ......................... ........................ ...................... . ..................... Feb. 19 15,680 11,470 9,520 1,750 ...................... 47 19 15 ............... .............. ..................... ....................... ..................... .. .................... Mar. 1 14,140 11,910 368 318 ...................... 47 19 15 ............ .............. ......................... ................... ,. ...................... . ..................... Mar. 14 15,250 13,510 6,520 522 ..................... 57 17 15 .............. ............. .................... ......................... .................... ..................... 

Apr. 3 15,350 14,140 1,260 680 ........................ 51 18 15 ............. .............. ................... ....................... .................... .. ........................ Apr. 18 12,830 11,710 950 320 .......................... 41 19 15 ............... ............. ......................... . .................. ....................... . .......................... 

~ ;;! 

~ 

~ 

§ 

a 

~ 

"' I 

;;! 

~ 

I 
May 1 14,670 12,060 228 143 .................... 28 17 16 ................ ................ . ................. ..................... May 20 15,100 13,070 3,300 428 ................. 64 21 16 ................. ................. ................... ................... June 4 18,940 16,980 7,650 8,440 ..................... '170 20 18 .................. .............. ................... .................... June 17 18,850 17,120 11,710 5,040 ................. 990 28 15 ................. ................ ................. ................ July 2 15,830 13,510 612 405 .................. 47 17 16 ................. . ............ ............... .................... July 14 17,170 15,200 348 315 ............... 37 18 15 ............... .................. ................. .................. July 30 16,120 13,420 680 320 ............... 39 17 16 ................... .............. ................. ................ Aug. 18 18,850 17,750 1,210 203 .................. 33 16 15 ................. ................ ................ . .................. Sept. 3 18,700 17,460 14,820 2,225 ................... 30 18 15 .................... ................ ................. .. .................. Oct. 1 12,600 13,000 2,780 610 ···~ ................ 18 16 15 . .......... ................ ................. .................... ..................... Oct. 17 14,800 12,100 3,300 820 .................... 17 16 15 .................... ............... ..................... ................... Oct. 31 14,700 14,000 2,800 310 ................... 21 17 15 .................... .... ,., .......... ................... . ................... Nov. 14 15,300 15,300 2,250 500 ..................... 19 16 18 ................ . ............... ................. . ............... "' Nov. 28 15,600 16,000 10,.100 9,910 ................. 18 17 16 ................... ................. ...................... .,., ................ ~ .... Dec. 24 15,200 14,400 3,350 352 ..................... 20 17 15 .................. .. ............. ................. ................... I 

1942 ~ i;l Jan. 3 16,900 15,800 9,370 3,380 .................. 45 18 15 ............ .................. ................ ................ ..................... :<I Jan. 16 17,000 15,500 12,800 8,640 ..................... 136 18 15 . ......... .................... ............... .................. .. .................. ~ Feb. 4 17,600 16,800 15,400 9,620 .................... 54 23 15 . .......... ...................... ................ ................... ...................... Feb. '17 16,700 16,600 7,160 3,320 ..................... 790 21 15 ............. .................. ................... . ............... . ................. Mar. 4 17' 600 16,300 7,410 2,000 :<I ................ ,.,. 38 17 15 . ........ ................ ·····~········ .................... ................... Mar. 19 18,000 11,100 11,900 4,820 ............... 136 25 15 . ......... ................. ................. ............... ...................... ~ Apr. 2 17.000 15,900 ::c 11,400 7,900 ................... 710 23 15 . ........... ................. .. ............... . .................. ................... § Apr. 28 14,100 13,300 1,020 119 ................... 36 16 13 . ......... ........... ..................... ................. .................. . .................... May 8 12,500 10,000 2,125 365 ................... 33 19 15 ........... .......... ................... ................ ................. ..................... May 22 13,900 12,700 2,300 392 ..................... 71 20 18 ........... ........... ................. ................. ................. ................... June 9 12,600 10,600 161 89 ................... 18 17 14 ......... . ........ . ................ ................. ................ .................... June 24 13,500 11,600 442 348 .................... 22 18 16 ........... ........... ................ ............... .................. . ................... July 9 12,800 11,700 3,150 206 ..................... 49 18 17 ............ ........... . .................. ·······;o.······ ··~············ .................... July 24 16,400 14,800 ................... 1,050 .................... 33 19 16 . ......... ········· ............... _ ...... . .............. .. ................... .................... Aug. 6 14,600 14,200 ................... 570 .................... 57 20 16 . ......... ............ .. .................... ...................... ................. ..................... Aug. 22 15,900 14,300 ........................ 2,400 .................... 29 17 15 .. .......... ................. . ................ .................. ................... Sept. 4 16,400 16,400 ...................... 163 ................... 14 14 14 .. ......... .................... ..,., ................ .................. ................... Oct. 7 15,300 14,350 ................... 6,100 ................... 17 14 16 . .......... ................. ................. ................ ....................... Nov. 9 16,800 15,750 ......................... 9,400 ................... 2,100 16 15 . ........... ................. ··········~··· ................. .................... Ol Nov. 24 15,350 13,550 .................... 255 ................... ................. 17 15 .. ............. .. ......... ~ ........ ................. . ........................ . .......... ,., ........ Ol 

tO 
Date 

1942 

Dec. 10 

Dec. 23 

1943 

Jan. 6 

Jan. 23 

Feb, 8 

Feb. 26 

Mar. 15 

Table 76 --chloride concentrations in ::Oral Gables Canal, Miami-Continued 

Red Road 

(4. 06 miles) 

Ingraham Hardee Miller U. S. East Spur Granada Bird West Spur Ludlum 

Highway Drive Road Hil!;hway west end Boulevard Road Prior Below Above south end Road 

(0. 84 mile) (1,44 miles) (1,96 miles) (2,21 miles_ (2. 34mUes (2. 78 miles (3,18 miles to control ontrol (4.5v miles 4.96 miles 

ontrol 

15,750 

12,850 

15,000 

13,400 

17,450 ............. . 18,180 17,410 

16,120 15,920 

16,500 17' 460 

18, 270 16, 690 

15,200 

19,000 

15,600 

···~·········· .................. 

................. 

5,600 ·············· 4,380 .............. 

4,420 . ............. 11,860 ................ 2,075 ............... 3,120 ............... 5,580 .............. 

7,900 ................. 10,800 ................ 7,900 ................. 

138 

111 

680 

3,100 

83 

199 

2,650 

5,040 

4,350 

5,040 

15 

15 

17 

17 

16 

15 

23 

2,700 

3, 250 

2, 720 

13 ............................................. .. 15 

15 ................ . 14 

14 

14 

14 

15 ................. . 15 

16 

F.E.C. 

RaHway Coral 

Bridge Way 

(5.41 miles) ( 5. 63 miles) 

Apr. 2 

Apr. 16 

May 5 

May 15 

June 1 

17' 200 

19,700 

18,400 

19,400 

19,800 

19,200 ............... 2, 600 ............... 915 56 15 

14 ...................................... ··············· ··············· 

June 19 18, 500 

July 4 19. 500 

July 18 16. 900 

Aug. 4 ............ .. 

Aug. 21 ............. . 

Sept. 6 ............ .. 

Sept. 21 ............. . Oct. 6 ............. . Nov. 2 ............. . 

Nov. 24 ............ .. 

Dec. 27 

1944 

Jan. 18 

Feb. 5 

Feb. 23 

12,700 

17,000 

16,600 

17' 100 

16,900 

16,800 

6,860 

15,300 

16,000 

16,900 

14,200 

9,080 

12,200 

11,300 

14,600 

12,700 

16,700 

14,600 

15,600 

............... 5,380 

·············· 10,200 

............... 2,425 

............... 935 

.................. 4,280 

.............. 9,810 

................ 2,270 

................ 1,280 

................ 2,980 

.............. 418 

............... 565 

............... 2,300 

6,520 

1,830 

10,400 

................ 2,750 

.............. 7,560 ................. 700 

.............. 370 

. ............. 2,000 

. ............... 4,900 

. ............... 428 

.. ................ 55 

. .............. 113 

............... 95 

. ................ 111 

............... 740 

................ 111 

.............. 610 

................. 5,180 

93 

3,880 

145 

17 

58 

1,630 

22 

37 

16 

20 

17 

51 

20 

25 

1,660 

21 ................ .. 14 

14 

13 

18 

13 ............... .. 14 

13 

14 

14 . ............... · ........................... . 

15 ................................ . 

15 ............................... .. 16 

15 ............ · ............................. ... 
Mar. 9 

Mar. 28 

Apr. 18 

May 8 

May 30 

June 21 

July 26 

Sept. 11 

Oct. 3 

Nov. 8 

Dec. 21 

1945 

Jan, 25 

Feb. 26 

Feb, 27 

Apr. 6 

Apr. 27 

June 14 

June 28 

July 17 

Aug. 1 

Aug. 30 

Sept. 24 

Oct. 4 

Oct. 11 

Oct. 16 

Oct. 23 

Nov. 

Nov. 

.Nov. 

Nov. 

Nov. 

2 

7 

14 

21 

30 

Dec. 5 

Dec. 11 

Dec. 19 

Dec, 27 

16,400 14,400 .................. 18,800 .................. ................. 18,800 17' 500 ................. 19,700 18,200 ................... 17,500 16,700 ................... 20,800 18,700 ............... 19,100 18,500 ............... 700 ................ ................. ............... ................ ..................... ................. ................ ............... 16,900 15,700 ................. 

............... ............... ............... .............. ............. ................ ................ .................. ................... ................ .................. . ............... ............... .................... . ................. .................... ................. ................ ................. ................. ................. ................... .................. ................... 19,100 18,000 .................. ................. ................ . ................... 

15,000 11,600 ................................................... 16.900 16, 000 ............ .. 

13, 800 13' 800 

. ............................. . 14, 700 13.900 

14,400 10,500 

4,720 ................ 11,500 .................... 4,300 . .................. 13,600 .................. 6,270 .................... 12,900 ............... 4,120 .................... 8,600 ................. 12,600 

8,540 ................. 10,100 ................. 

11,420 ................... .. ............... . ............... 10,100 . ................ 11,400 . .................. 13,800 . ............... ,.. 

16,400 .................... ····~ ........... .................... 14,000 .................. 11,000 ................. 14,000 . .............. 3,150 .............. . 3,320 ............. .. 11,500 .............. . 10,100 .............. . 5, 630 ............. . 

1,050 ............. .. 3,450 ............. .. 1,890 ............. .. 6, 720 ............. .. 6,420 ............. .. 

8,830 .............. . 2,350 .............. . 9, 710 ............. .. 5,280 .............. . 

860 

8,440 

3, 280 

7,560 

820 

6,920 

815 

3,300 

10,000 

2,280 

5,280 

4,950 

6,080 

5,700 

6,220 

8,490 

13,400 . ................. 10,400 

8,400 . ............... 760 

2,560 

154 

328 

5,680 

1,110 

5,330 

245 

2,800 

35 

1,080 

6,700 

30 

1,850 

710 

2,720 

3,000 

3,250 

9, 700 

9,800 

6,200 

5,700 

7,300 

51 

40 

16 

17 

6,0 

19 

16 

16 

17 

22 

20 

28 

15 

19 

37 

25 

1,800 

,200 

,100 

,200 

640 

230 

60 

28 

25 

. ........................................... . 2, 550 74 21 

358 60 19 

. ............ 

. ......... 

.......... 

........... 

.......... 

............. 

............. 

......... .................. ............... .................. . ............ ............ ................. ................ ................. . ................ 

............ .. ................ ................ . ............... ............... .......... .................. .. ............. .................... . ................ ......... ................. . .................... ................. ................... ............ .................. .. ............... ··········G···· ............... .......... .................. ................ .................. .. ................. .......... ................... ............... ................... . ............... ......... ............... ................. ................ . ............... .......... ................ .. .............. ................ . ................. 

7,200 1,100 19 

5,100 680 ................. 3,000 ................. 21 

160 .. .................... 67 

60 .. ............. . .................. 43 

22 .............. . 

19 

18 ............................ . 

19 
Table 76.-Cnloride concentrations in Caral Gables Canal, Miami-Continued 

Date Ingraham Hardee Miller U. S. 

Highway Drive Road Highway 

(0,84 mile) (1.44 mile& (1,96 miles) (2,21 miles 

1946 

Jan, 3 16,100 14,400 

Jan. 10 ........................... . 

Jan. 17 .......................... .. Jan. 24 18, 200 16, 700 

Jan. 31 ........................... . 

Feb. 

Feb. 

Feb, 

Feb, 

Mar. 

Mar. 

Mar. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

Apr. 

Apr. 

Apr. 

May 

May 

May 

May 

May 

June 

June 

June 

7 ........................... .. 14 17.600 15,600 

21 .......................... .. 

28 ............................ . 7 17.200 14,800 

14 ............ .. 

21 ............. . 28 19,400 17,500 

4 .............. . 

11 ............ .. 

18 19,700 18,300 

25 ................. .............. 2 19,200 17,400 

9 ............... ................ 16 ................ .. .., ........... 23 19,800 18,800 

30 ............... ................. 6 ................. ................ 13 14,900 13,300 

20 ............... ................. 27 .... ; ...................... . 4 17,400 15,800 

11 ........................... .. 18 ............................ . 

.................... 

··············· ............... 

................ 

............... 

.................. 

................. 

................. 

................ 

................ 

4,200 

3,180 

6,270 

9,860 

8,640 

6,770 

11,700 

8,540 

6,720 

8,490 

8,930 

15,200 

5,830 

13,900 

13,300 

14,200 

10,100 

13,200 

15,400 

8,290 

10,800 

11,400 

6,170 

1,800 

2, 720 

1,840 

3,120 

2,580 

East Spur Granada Bird 

west end Boulevard Road 

(2_34 mileS) 2, 7 8 miles) ('3 ,18 miles 

770 52 

3,920 1,390 

. .............. ............... . ............. . ............... 8,500 4,800 

. .............. ............... . .............. ............... ............... . .............. . ............... 5,630 4,100 

4,220 2,480 

. .............. 9,520 5,280 

............... .. ................ .............. ............... 9,960 7,160 

···~·········· ................ ................. .. .............. ................ ···~ .......... 4,480 1,720 

390 57 

Red Road 

(4.06 miles} F.E,c. ~---,r---~--'---1 West Spur Ludlum Railway Coral 

Above south end Road Bridge Way 

control (4,50 miles (4.96 mileS) (5,41 mj.les} (5.63 miles) 

Prior Below 

to control 

control 

17 ............................... .. 17 

.......... 

......... 23 

32 

21 

37 

48 

21 

33 

31 

32 

1,180 

565 

66 

422 

175 

560 

230 

56 

40 

32 

18 

17 

16 

. .......................................................................... . 18 .............. 18 

18 ....................................................... .. 

18 ........................................................ . 

17 .............. 17 ......................... .. 17 ....................................................... . 

19 ........................................................ . 19 ............... 15 ........................... . 

17 ............ .. 

17 ............. . 

16 ............ .. ,28 ........................... .. 

22 ............ .. . ............. :::-. .. ................................. . 20 ............ .. 

19 .............. 18 

38 ........................... .. 24 ............... 20 

19 ........................... .. 

17 ........................... .. 

25.............. 18 ............ .. 

19 ......................................... .. 

27 ......................................... .. 19 ........................ 19 ............. . 

23 ......................................... .. 

17 ....................................................... .. 795 310 ....... .. 16 .............. 15 ........................... . 15 ..................................... _. ................. . 

16 ....................................................... .. 

June 

July 

July 

July 

July 25 ............... 16,700 1,200 .............. . 370 30 ......... 

16 

17 

15 

.18 

20 20 ........................................................ .. 
Aug. 1 16,000 13,000 ...................... 700 . ................... 260 30 20 

Aug. 15 16,500 14,300 ···········":.··· 8,600 ................ 1,200 1,100 20 

Aug. 29 17,700 14,800 ............... 4,300 . ................. ................. 70 20 

Sept. 12 15,600 12,600 . ............... 1,800 . .............. ............... 20 20 

Sept. 28 15,800 13,400 ............... 15,200 . .............. 4,120 104 21 

20 ............ .. 20 ............ .. 20 ............ .. 20 ............ .. 18 ............ .. 

. ................. -................................ . .. ............................................... . 

Oct, 10 16,200 12,800 ··············· 6,320 ............... 1,440 64 16 17 ............. . Oct. 24 15,000 14,100 ................ 8,600 .. .............. 5,000 100 20 20 ............ .. Nov, 7 ............... ................ ............... 10,100 10,400 . .................. 3,100 20 20 330 

Nov, 14 .............. ................. ................ 10,500 . .............. 6,800 1,000 20 20 ............. . Nov. 21 16,000 15,000 ............... 13,500 . ............. 5,500 900 10 10 ............. . 

Nov. 28 ................ ............... ................. 5,500 . ................ 2,800 80 10 10 ........................................................ . Dec. 5 ............... . .............. ............... 11,500 . ................ 7,800 4,100 40 10 ....................................................... .. Dec. 12 14,000 13,000 ............... 9,400 13,500 6,200 2,300 10 10 880 ................. ; ........................ . Dec, 19 ............... ............... ............... 10,500 . ............. 3,900 350 20 20 ........................................................ . 

Dec. 26 ................ ................. ................... 13,000 . .............. 5,800 1,000 20 10 ...................................................... .. 

1947 

Jan. 3 14,500 11,500 ................ 2,800 11,000 960 100 20 10 150 ........................................... . 
674 WATER RESOURCES IN SCIJTH£ASTERN FLORIDA 

SNAPPER CREEK CANAL 

Snapper Creek Canal is the southernmost of the secondary canals 

and it traverses one of the least populated sections in the area. 

Its channel is relatively small, and it is constricted at a number 

of locations. Table 77 presents the observed chloride concentrations. The intersection of Red Road and North Kendall Drive was 

usually the farthest inland point of contamination. In 1945, however, salty water moved upstream, despite the shoals and weeds, 

and was found at Palmetto Road, 4, 8 miles inland and west of 

U. S. Highway 1. A control was placed in the canal at Ingraham 

Highway in 1946, which effectively stopped inland movement of 

salty water despite the cavernous nature of the limestone in the 

area. 

In most years, the channel is flushed completely of salty water 

during the wet period. 

Table 77.-Chloride concentrations in Snapper Creek Canal, Miami 

[Parts per million. Bdorc October 1, 1941, the values are the highest obtained for either surface 

or bottom samples (usually the latter); after October 1, 1941, the values are from bottom 

samples. Mileages in parentheses indicate distance from mouth of canal at Biscayne Bay] 

Date 

1941 

Mar. 2 

Mar. 14 

Apr. 3 

Apr. 18 

May 1 

May 20 

June 4 

June 17 

July 2 

July 14 

July 30 

Aug. 18 

Sept. 3 

Oct. 1 

Oct. 17 

Oct. 31 

Nov, 14 

Nov. 28 

Dec, 24 

1942 

Jan. 3 

Jan. 16 

Feb. 4 

Feb. 17 

Mar, 4 

Mar, 19 

Apr. 2 

Apr. 28 

May 8 

May 22 

Ingraham Highway 

(0. 91 mile) 

Prior Below Above 

to control control 

control 

5,330 ~ .......... .......... 37 . ......... ... ... ~·· .. 151 . ........ .......... 234 . ........ .......... 272 ......... .......... 1,100 t•M•+t+++ ............ 17,460 ......... ............ 17,030 ......... .......... 650 ......... .......... 153 ......... ........... 412 .......... ........... 1,180 .......... .......... 15,590 .......... ........... 187 . ........ .......... 10,100 . ........ .......... 322 .......... .......... 2,290 ......... .......... 14,400 ......... .......... 378 ......... .......... 

15,200 . ........ .......... 15,200 . ........ .......... 3,280 ......... .......... 1,940 ......... ......... 335 ......... .......... 

1,550 ......... 3,380 ............. ·-········ ........... 4,180 .......... .. , ........ 278 •••••~"••• ........... 412 ......... .......... 

North 

Parrot Huttig Kendall U. S, Palmetto 

Jungle Bridge Drive and Highway 1 Road 

(1,33 miles (2.03 miles) Red Road 3. 79 miles) (4, 78 mile') 

2.70 miles) 

............... .............. 15 15 14 

··············· .............. 14 14 15 

............... ·············· 

14 15 15 

.................. .......................... 15 16 ••••~"••········ ..................... ................. 14 14 14 

............... "' ... ................. 16 14 15 

................. ................. 16 17 . .................. ............... ............... 16 15 . ............... ............... ............... 17 15 15 

............... .............. 15 13 14 

............... ................ 17 15 14 

............... ............... 15 16 14 

................ .. ·~ ............ 15 13 14 

............... ................ 13 13 13 

............... ................ 14 14 14 

. ................ . .............. 15 16 14 

. .............. ............... 15 14 15 

............... . .............. 14 14 13 

............... ............... 14 14 13 

............... ................ 15 14 12 

............... ............... 13 13 13 

............... ............... 13 13 13 

............... . .............. 14 13 13 

............... . .............. 14 14 14 

. ............... ................ 15 13 13 

. .............. ······M····••'It+ 14 13 13 

............... ............ l!lo ••• 15 15 15 

········~~······ . ............... 16 15 16 

................ ••••••• !tl!lo ......... 17 18 16 
SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 675 

Table 77.--Cllloride concentrations in Snapper Creek Canal, Miami-Continued 

Ingraham Highway 

(0. 91 mile) North 

Parrot Huttig Kendall U. S. Palmetto 

Date Prior Below Above Jungle Bridge Drive and Highway 1 Road 

(1,33 miles) (2,03 miles) Red Road 3, 79 mile•) (4. 78 mileS) 

2.7{) miles) 

1942 

June 9 

June 24 

July 9 

July 24 

Aug. 6 

to control control 

control 

116 

155 

145 

7,310 

2,425 

Aug. 22 2, 700 ................................................ .. Sept. 4 211 ........... _ ..................................... .. Oct. 7 10,550 .................................................. . 

Nov. 9 15,950 ................................................. . 

Nov. 24 880 ................................................ .. 

Dec. 10 1, 450 

Dec. 23 1, 430 

1943 

Jan. 6 15,100 

Jan. 23 16, 550 

Feb. 8 1,050 

Feb. 26 1,460 

Mar. 15 15, 680 

Apr. 

Apr. 

May 

May 

June 

2 15,000 

16 20,000 

5 18,700 

15 4,680 

1 19,700 

June 16 .................. . June 19 17,500 

July 4 9, 270 

1944 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

7 18,200 

3 18,400 

9 14,100 

......... ·········· ............................... . ......... .......... 14,900 4, 850 ......... .......... 35 20 

21 1,850 ......... .......... 50 24 

1945 

Jan. 25 15,500 ................. .. Feb. 26 ............................ , Feb. 27 16, ooo .................. . Apr, 6 17,700 .................. . 

Apr. 27 20,400 ................. .. 

34 

8,540 

2,400 

11,700 

13,400 

21 

33 

27 

53 

6,600 

Jj 15 

14 14 

16 15 

16 15 

17 14 

13 13 

13 14 

14 14 

15 15 

15 14 

15 13 

15 14 

13 14 

14 14 

14 12 

14 12 

17 15 

16 13 

17 13 

17 12 

14 14 

16 13 

............................ 16 16 

15 15 

22 

26 

16 

14 

14 

23 

15 

14 

14 

15 

18 

13 

14 

13 

16 

13 

14 

14 

12 

12 

13 

11 

13 

12 

15 

13 

14 

14 

14 

14 

•••••••••••••• ............................ lo •• 

15 ............................ .. 17 ............................ .. 245 ............................. . 

May 1 21,600 

June 12 .......... ::::::::: :::::::::: ""22.'2oo" '"i·7:·4oo ... "'i'a:·ooo'" ..... 9:·2cio'" ......... 29" 

June 28 .......... ......... .......... .............. 16,700 3,900 5,900 20 

July 17 .......... ......... .......... 14,900 ............. 2,400 1,800 2, 700 

Aug. 1 3,600 ......... .......... 1,400 560 420 1,300 160 

Aug. 30 .................. ., ........ 13,400 1,600 1,000 560 17 

Sept. 24 10,800 ......... ......... 200 90 57 23 18 

~~: lf 1~: ~~g ::::::::: :::::::::· ""'"'i45"' ......... 6i"' ......... 4i"' '""""iii'" ......... i'8" 

Oct, 16 1,480 ......................................................................................... .. 

Oct. 23 14,600 . ........ ··"······· """"i'2i'" .............. ............. "' ••••'~~~••········ Nov. ·············· 2 302 ......... ''"''"'··- 75 35 21 23 

Nov. 7 300 

········· ......... ,""···· ............... .............. ................ Nov. 14 275 . ........ ·············· ........ i'o9'" ·············· ········""····· ............... .............. Nov. 21 6,080 50 28 20 19 
676 WATER RESOURCFS IN SOUTHEASTERN Fl.ORIDA 

Table 77.--'-Chloride concentratiorts in Snapper Creek Canal, Miami-Continued 

Ingraham Highway 

(0. 91 mile) 

Parrot 

North 

Kendall H~tttig Drive and U. S. Palmetto 

-:late Prior 

to 

control 

Below Above Jungle Bridge Red Road HighwaY. 1 Road . control control (1,33miles) (2.03 mile~ (2, 70 mile'] (3,97 mllet (4. 78 miles) 

1945 

Nov, 

Dec. 

Dec. 

Dec. 

Dec. 

1946 

Jan. 

Jan. 

Jan. 

Jan. 

Jan, 

Feb, 

Feb. 

Feb. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Mar, 

Mar. 

Mar, 

Apr, 

Apr. 

Apr. 

Apr. 

May 

May 

May 

May 

May 

June 

June 

June 

June 

J~tly 

July 

July 

J~tly 

29 

5 

11 

19 

27 

3 

10 

17 

24 

31 

7 

14 

292 

21 ....... .. 28 

7 

14 

21 

28 

4 

11 

18 

25 

2 

9 

16 

23 

30 

6 

13 

20 

27 

4 

11 

18 

25 

4,400 

8,730 

4,100 

1,700 

13,400 

9,220 

15,000 

14,700 

13,900 

14,000 

17,100 

15,400 

17,200 

12,400 

17,500 

18,800 

16,800 

18,200 

18,100 

16,900 

19,400 

20,500 

17.600 

6,770 

3,85( 

14,300 

5,180 

5,430 

4,180 

3,050 

123 

7,850 

11,020 

230 

ii:'7oo· 

19 

32 

19 

19 

21 

24 

32 

25 

22 

76 

42 

29 

18 

30 

240 

38 

260 

74 

220 

237 

2,320 

52 

31 

39 

40 

54 

45 

46 

52 

32 

42 

57 

40 

AilS, 1 .......... 350 40 

30 

30 

A~tg. 15 ......... ,14,400 

Allg. 29 .......... 11, 100 

Sept. 12 ..... ..... 830 630 

Sept. 26 .......... 15, 900 640 

Oct, 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Nov. 

Nov. 

Nov, 

Dec. 

Dec. 

Dec, 

Oec. 

10 .......... 16,300 1,590 

24 · .......... 14, 500 6, 200 

7 .......... 15, 500 610 

14 .......... 15, 500 16, 000 

21 .......... 15, 500 15,000 

28 .......... 2,100 3,000 

5 .......... 14,000 14,000 

12 ........... 14, 50.0 13,000 

19 .......... 6,8QO 11,000 

26 .......... 15, 000 13,000 

1947 

Jan, 3 190 130 

.. ........ i'8" .......... iii' 18 20 ............... . 

··"············ ·········-:···· 

18 16 19 17 

'""""'32': ::::::::::::::. ""'"'."'i9" ...... ; .... iii' ........... i7"' 

........... 23" :::::::::::::: ............ i9" ........... i7" ........... iii" 

.. ........ 17" :::::::::::::: ............ iS' ........... i5' ........... i6" 

.. ........ 2.9 .. :::::::::::::: •........... 2o" ........... 2o ............. i7'" ............................................... ··············· ................ . 

38 .............. . 21 14 16 

................................................ ··············· ···········"···· 35 .............. 30 37 26 

37 ............ .. 20 21 15 

.................................................................................. - . . . ~-~ -- . 

............................. ··············· ............................... . 39 ............. 19 25 32 

............................................................ 33 ' ............. . 16 16 """""'i'5"' 

40 20 20 

............................................. ·············· ............... . ···············j·············· ·············· ............................... . 50 .............. 60 ............... 38 27 . ................. 43 •••••II•••••+++ 27 17 ................ 36 .............. 21 25 ... ............... 40 ............... 80 ................ 20 ............................. .. 

40 ............... 20 20 .............. .. 

60 ............... 40 .................... 40 ............... 40 40 ............... .. 50 ................ 50 ................ 

30 ................. 30 20 ............... . 
SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 677 

FORT LAUDERDALE AREA 

LOWER NEW RIVER BASIN 

When drought conditions became extreme in the spring of 1945, 

salty water moved steadily inland in the tidal portion of New River 

basin. Extensive areas of swamp and slough were contaminated 

and some of the native jungle growth was killed. The water in the 

tidal channels could not be used for irrigation, with the result that 

groves and farms suffered from excessive dryness. It was feared 

that the municipal well field of Fort Lauderdale might become 

contaminated because some of the wells are located only about li 

miles north of the tidal section of North New River Canal. The 

Florida Power and Light Company developed a new well farther 

away from Dania Cutoff Canal to obtain feed-water for the power 

plant near Dania when the chloride content of the original well 

became excessive. 

The power company had made regular salinity observations in 

fhe vicinity of the power plant since the plant was built but these 

observations were too limited to indicate the entire intrusion 

pattern. In 1945, the Geological Survey started periodic observations, their frequency depending upon local conditions. Samples 

were taken at the bottoms of the channels at various strategic locations and as near as possible to time of high tide. 

The worst period of salt contamination occurred in 1945 when 

strongly salty water was found for several months in the whole 

tidal portion of the basin. Closed controls and locks in North New 

River and South New River Canals prevented the salt front from 

penetrating farther inland. Concentrations at the downstream side 

of these controls were 40 to 60 percent of that of sea water, and 

essentially normal sea water occupied the lower reaches. Water 

that was about 25 percent as salty as sea water was found above 

the easternmost controlln South New River Canal and was believed 

to extend a short distance upstream. This was a result of the occurrence of negative heads and condition of the control, which was 

not constructed to hold negative heads. Runoff in both canals was 

limited to a small amount of leakage through the controls. 

The 1945 condition was considered to be the extreme of the 

period of observation, but the highest chloride concentrations were 

found in April 1946 (see fig. 187). Slightly higher concentrations 

were observed at a few of the stations at other times but the series 

of samples collected for this date contained the maximum concentrations at the most locations. The control and lock in South 

New River Canal at Davie had been repaired since the 1945 intrusion, and the concentration upstream was relatively low. The 

concentration of 75 ppm upstream from the control and lock .in 

North New River Canal was higher than that of water from the 
Figures are chloride concentrotiofls 

in parts per minion. 

Normal sea water in til i-s area con toLils 

o bou 1 I 9,8 0 0 ports per miU!on 

and 

lock 

/--, J ' Fort \ I' !Lauder- \ . 

ldole wett\ ; 

\field 1 

I 

\ 

' ---..... 

/ 

~1" ~II .,, SOUTH NEW RIVER CANAL / 127 ~00 -J Con t ro7 11 • 

200 14'

600 / II 5,5 oo 

and D A V I E 

lock 

FORT LAUDERDALE 

).. 

~ Q: 

~ 

~ 14,500 

" 0 '!(-

Figure 187.- Map showing chloride concentrations at sampling stations in lower New River basin, April 3(), 1946. 

~ 

~ "'t i;l 

l&J ::a 

'-l gJ 

"' C) 

~ z 

"' 0 

~ (.,) i;l 

~ ' 

~ " ~ ~ g 

" 
SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 679 

Everglades to the west but was not an indication of local contamination, When ice -age seas withdrew from southern Florida, large 

quantities of salty water were t~apped in the rock and remained 

there throughout the ensuing centuries. This residual salty ground 

water seeps into the middle reaches of the canal and causes a 

small amount of contamination under most conditions of flow. The 

degree of contamination varies inversely with the discharge of the 

canal. 

Heavy rains and subsequent large fresh-water runoff force the 

salty water downstream and in flood periods the salty water may 

be completely flushed out of the basin. Salty water, however, is 

usually present in the channels in the vicinity of Fort Lauderdale. 

No samples were collected from New River Sound and the Intracoastal Waterway but it may be assumed that they are nearly 

always salty, although they could become brackish under extreme 

flood conditions, 

MlUDLE RIVER BASIN 

No regular sampling was done in Middle River basin but miscellaneous observations of North Branch and South Branch at the 

West Dixie Highway showed chloride concentrations as high as 

15 percent of that of sea water; this was undoubtedly not the maximum. These channels are not controlled and are connected with 

networks of canals and ditches, thus making a sizable area vulnerable to salt contamination-an area that is used for farming 

and where municipal supplies ultimately may be developed. 

HOMESTEAD AREA 

The marl lands, stretching in an increasingly wide zone along 

the coast from Cutler to Cape Sable, are generally below an elevation of 4 ft and slope gradually into Biscayne Bay and its extensions to the southwest. The marl overlies very permeable 

oolitic limestone; water control in this area is difficult where the 

canals and ditches are excavated into the limestone. Despite the 

high productivity of the soil, a small to moderate amount of rainfall is required for farming during the winter growing season, 

which is normally quite dry. Owing to the need generally for a 

low water table, the area is subject to contamination by salty 

water, particularly along the large east-west canals. 

The Homestead area is much like the main Everglades farming 

area near Lake Okeechobee in that there is excess water in wet 

periods and a scarcity of water during droughts. 

In the drought years of 1943-45 extensive areas of crop land 

were rendered useless by salt contamination. Salt concentrations 

346881 0-55--45 
680 

~ 

~ ~ 

CITY 

N 

WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

PRIN!rON 

!l: 

~ 

"' 

kiJRfH 

GOULDS 

24, 300 

F'IGURI!:S ARE CI-IL.ORIO!Z CONCENTRATIONS 

IN PARTS PER MH.l.ION. ~ORWU.. $1';./t 

WATER IN THIS AREA C:ONTAIN$ ABOUT 

19,800 PARTS PER MILLION 

SI.AN1 Flt;/.1111!$ AlrE FOR rEB. 22-2S, IHI 

VERTICAL f'l!iUReS ~A! FOR JUNEr.lULY 19-4S 

Figure 188. -Map of Homestud area, showing cblQride conc;:ent%ations In canals, February 22, 

23, 1941, and ]>me and July 1945, 
SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 681 

in the soil exceeded the salt tolerance of many plants, and crop 

failure was the inevitable result. Salt crystals were found on the 

leaves of several varieties of plants and even on the fruit of cucumber vines. Where ground water and soil moisture were contaminated, evaporation resulted in the formation of thin surface 

crusts of highly salty soil. Fortunately, the salty soil condition 

was dissipated annually in the wet season, but grounn-water and 

canal contamination continued in varying degrees. 

Although reconnaissance observations of chloride concentrations 

in the Homestead area were made in 1945, a regular series of observations was not started until 1946. Therefore, it is not possible to show the variations of chloride contamination with the change 

of water conditions. 

Figure 188 shows the chloride concentrations found in some of 

the canals in the Homestead area. The general reconnaissance in 

1941 was made when there were fairly high water levels for the 

time of the year. The winter of early 1941 was marked by continued high runoff, following a wet fall. The concentrations less 

than 20 ppm of chloride represent uncontaminated water of the 

area, which was found only at the head ends of the canals. Of all 

the canals identified on the map, only North and Florida City 

Canals were controlled. The heavy concentrations undoubtedly 

show contamination directly from the sea. The lesser concentrations may have been a result of direct intrusion, but it is more 

likely that they indicate contamination from salty ground water 

that was residual from the intrusion of the previous dry season. 

The borrow ditch along the east side of the old railroad embankment in this area (now the alignment of U. S. Highway 1) is 

deeper to the south and connects with Barnes Sound (see fig. 188) 

in a shorter distance than the borrow ditchon the west side. Contamination was found to extend a miles farther north in the east 

borrow ditch than it did in the west borrow ditch. The embankment 

is partially effective in preventing salty surface water in the east 

borrow ditch from penetrating to the west side. The vegetation 

suggests that the difference in chloride concentrations is more 

' than a temporary condition. Mangroves, which thrive only in salty 

and brackish waters, were observed about 2 miles nearer to Florida City on the east side than on the west side of the embankment. 

The extent of salt-water encroachment in the Homestead area in 

the extreme drought of 1945 is also shown in figure 188. All of the 

canals, whether controlled or not, became contaminated with salt 

water, which i,n places exceeded the normal concentration of sea 

water by about 30 percent. At the time, ground-water levels were 

very low-below sea level in some areas. As a result, net flow in 

the canals probably w.as inland and the canals supplied salt water 

to the porous. formations. Water that was more salty than sea wa-
682 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN' FLORIDA 

ter extended to Florida City and the outskirts of Homestead, more 

than 9 miles from Biscayne Bay. 

Most of the salty water in the canals was flushed out by the late 

summer rains but contaminated water from the ground continued 

to seep into the canals. No samples were taken along the new 

route of U; S. Highway 1 in 1945, but later observations indicated 

that the shallow borrow ditches along the highway fill probably 

were strongly contaminated to a point less than 6 miles from Florida City. This location is at the northern end of the continuous 

ditches and borrow pits and it is possible that ground-water contamination continued even farther inland. It was observed also 

that chloride concentrations were higher along the east side of the 

highway fill than on the west side', the same situation that was 

found when only the railroad embankment was there. 

Starting in 1946, series ·of samples were taken from the borrow canal along Ingraham Highway southwest from Royal Palm 

Park (formerly Royal Palm State Park and now part of Everglades 

National Park), which is 11 miles southwest of Homestead. Thirteen miles by road, west-southwest from the ranger station in 

Royal Palm Park, a concrete bridge crosses the borrow canal and 

the road changes from an east-west to a northeast-southwest 

course for a distance of 1 mile, arid then to a north-south course 

foradistanceof Smiles. About 2miles south on the 5-mile northsouth reach, mangroves occur, showing that the soil and water in 

the area are salty to a considerable degree and for a major part 

of the time. This essentially continuous contamination is also 

shown by the sampling program in the canal. The salt front was 

never found below the lower end of the north-south reach 14i miles 

southwest of the ranger station in Royal Palm Park. 

In dry periods, strongly salty water moves inland to the end of 

the canal near the ranger station at Royal Palm Park. The canal 

is not controlled, and its value for drainage is limited; however, 

it is an avenue for salt-water encroachment in the area between 

Whitewater Bay and Homestead. 

SALT-WATER CONTAMINATION OF THE AQUIFER FROM TIDAL CANALS 

By Garald G. Parker 

The amount of salt water that escapes from a tidal canal into 

the adjacent rocks is dependent upon several factors: The salinity 

of the canal water itself; the coefficient of transmissibility of the 

rocks through which the canal is cut; the presence or absence of 

a layer of sediment, which, if present, may be relatively impermeable and thus prevent free movement of water from the canal 

to the adjacent rocks; and the stage of the water table adjacent to 

the canal compared to the stage of the water surface in the canal. 
SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 683 

Rocks of the Biscayne aquifer in the Atlantic coastal ridge, 

through which the canals are cut, are of very high permeability 

and transmit wa.ter readily. (See p. 269-270,) The amount of 

sedimentation in the canals is variable in time and in place. In 

some parts of the canals the bottom appears to be well sealed by 

deposits of calcareous mud, organic material, and very fine sand: 

In other parts, sealing material is absent and canal and ground 

water are freely exchanged. These conditions lead to the salting 

of some areas along the canals, whereas other areas remain unsalted or receive only a small amount of salty water. A further 

complication may result from the pumping of wells. Where the 

effects of the draft on ground water extend to the canal, pumping 

may induce or increase the movement of can.al water into the 

aquifer. 

For an understanding of the process of salt-water contamination 

of a fresh-water inland aquifer, a study was made in the area of 

the Miami well field (see figs. 13 and 189), through which the Miami Canal runs. In all respects, except for the pumping, this 

area is typical of the coastal area in southeastern Florida. The 

method of salt-water contamination of the aquifer is the same as 

would be found in any other tidal canal in which salt water has 

penetrated into an area of fresh ground water. Pumping from the 

nearby city-supply wells influences the flow of the ground water 

in the aquifer and thereby distorts the chloride-contamination 

pattern. 

The following generalizations on' salt-water contamination are 

based on ground-water studies made along Miami Canal between 

NW. 36th and NW, 54th Streets. A part of this area of study is 

usually intersected by the cone of depression formed in the water 

table by draft from the Miami well field. Figure 189, a map of 

the area, shows a pair of typical cones of depression in the water 

table. 

Figure l90A is a cross section of this same area, showing 

ground-water conditions as they were before salt water made its 

appearance in this segment of the canal in 1939. 

When salty water first reached this area in large quantities, it 

moved through the canal bottom, where it was not too heavily 

silted, and downward toward the bottom of the Biscayne aquifer. 

In doing so, it constantly encountered fresh water and was steadily diluted until it finally reached the top of the relatively impermeable Floridan aquiclude. When salt water had remained long 

enough in"the canal, all fresh water directly under the canal disappeared (fig. 190 8) and saline water, lessening in chloride 

concentration as the bottom of the aquifer was approached, completely occupied the former fresh-water zone. An average pu!Jlpage of 30 mgd in the nearby Miami well field caused a general 

southwestward movement of the salted body of water. 
684 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUlliEASTERN FLORIDA 

FLIJIIIOA EASr COASr 

Deep • well 

0 

Active supply well 

Shollow obs:votion well \-" 

0 .,.. 

Figure 189. -Map of Miami well-field area showing shape of typical cones of depression 

in the water table. 
SN. Won field MIAMI 

Point af SN. 

WeH fiel NE 

-----Will!I -----E--

• .E.~IJE----~___-:__-----------.... -- -- ·--..P.r~.TA==----~-0~ 

50 

~ - A ~ffji~~~ r-l FLORIDAN AQUICWOE ~ 11 

Of'OIIlld-woter flow 

IE. sw: Point of NE.I 

Figure 190. -Geologic cross section near the Miami well field: A, pr\or to salt-water intrusion; B , the beginning of the intrusion; C, several months later; 

D, a late stage. 

"' 

~ 

~ ;:;! 

::a 

~ '"" 

::a 

~ n 

:I: 

o-j 

~ 

m 

00 

(,11 
686 WATER RESOURCES IN SOU'IHEASTERN Fl.ORIDA 

At the close of the drought period in 1939, the fresh-water 

discharge in the canal increased, and salty water in the canal was 

swept downstream beyond the new zone of contamination. However, the salty water in the ground under the canal was not removed so quickly. It continued to sink toward the bottom of the 

Biscayne aquifer, to move toward the well field, and to create a 

salt-water mound on top of the Floridan aquiclude {fig. 190 B, c, 

D). As it was drawn toward the well field, the mound of salty water was diluted by. the overlying fresh water from the canal and 

the· surrounding fresh water. Finally, it was entirely isolated 

from its original source. Owing to its greater density, the water 

of greatest chloride content moved to the bottom of the aquifer. 

This mound is shown as an "island" of salty water on the map, 

figure 193. 

Figure 190D shows a still later stage in the history of the saltwater encroachment. The salty water is continually, but slowly, 

being diluted by fresh ground water and being removed by pumping from the well field. If no further contamination had occurred 

through the· canal, the final stage would have been reached with a 

return to original conditions, as shown in figure 190 A. 

However, salty water again gained access to this reach of the 

canal in 1940, 1943, 1944, and 1945 {see fig. 192). As a result, 

new patterns of salt-water encroachment were imposed .on the 

altered patterns of preceding encroachments. A more extensive 

discussion of encroachment in the Miami Springs-Hialeah well 

field i~ given in a later section of this report {see p. 691-705). 

Encroachment of salt water also takes place in areas along 

canals that contain salt water continuously. In such areas, however, the manner of encroachment is the same ·as that which occurs directly from the ocean at depth in the aquifer. 

CONTAMINATION OF CANALS BY RESIDUAL SALTY GROUND WATER 

Figure 191 shows how residual bodies of salty water may contaminate fresh water in an overlying canal or other stream. The 

illustration represents a section of North New River Canal in its 

upper reach, south of Bolles Canal. When the level of North New 

River Canal is lower than the adjacent water table, ground water 

flows into the canal, and salty water from the Fort Thompson formation and the Caloosahatchee marl percolates upward into the 

canal. Water from the land surface and from Lake Okeechobee is 

relatively low in dissolved minerals, and the amount of chloride 

in the water, which may be used as a measure of contamination, 

is generally less than 20 ppm. However, under effluent conditions, as outlined above, it is not unusual for the canal water to 

contain as much as several hundred parts per million of chloride. 
w 

0 

~ u:: 

::::> 

(J) 

c 

2 

_. 

o<J: 

il' 

c 

_. 

w 

Ill 

1-

w 

w 

.... 

!: 

£ 

1-

a. 

w 

c 

10 

20 

30 

SALT·WATER ENCROACHMENT 687 

Solution holes 

I 

/ Sondy 

Alternoting marine and fresh~ 

\ woter limestones 

shell morl 

""-Theoretical lines of / 

ground -water flow 

40,~------------~------------------------~--------------~ 

Figure 191. -Geologic cross section under North New River Canal showing residual salty 

ground water contaminating fresh canal water. 

During times when the canal is influent (when the canal level is 

higher than the adjacent water table, and water is lost to the 

ground) it often carries water with less than 10 ppm of chloride. 

SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT IN THE MIAMI WELL FIELDS 

The development of the water sources used by the city of Miami is described in the section on Ground water (Occurrence), p. 

163-165. The abandonment of some of these sources was not because of failure of the wells to yield sufficient quantities of water; it was always because of salt-water encroachment. 

SPRING GARDENS WELL FIELD 

The Spring Gardens well freld occupied the site at NW. 11th 

Street and lOth Avenue, where the present storage tanks are located (see map, fig. 168). H. H. Hyman and H. D. Wright, of the 

Florida Power and Light Company, reported that when this field 
688 WATER RESOURCES lN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

was first put into use, about 1907, it yielded typical hard limestone water with no salty taste, The depths of the wells are from 

80 to 90 ft, which is near the base of the Biscayne aquifer. At 

that time, therefore, salty water was absent from the aquifer of 

this part of the coastal ridge. 

As the city grew and more water was required, additional wells 

of the same depth were drilled, Then, gradually, the effects of 

the drainage program began to be felt, The water table declined 

so much that the wells, which had been flowing into a sunken reservoir, ceased flowing or were so reduced in flow that by about 

1918 it was necessary to install pumps. At this time there were 

about 11 wells, 

Shortly after the pumps were installed the water became brackish in the easternmost wells; then, one by one, the other wells 

became brackish also, It was decided to plug the bottoms of the 

wells and develop them at shallower depths, where fresh water 

might be obtained, This was done, and the wells began producing 

fresh water from about 40 to 45 ft below the land surface. More 

wells were added, one or two at a time, all located to the north 

and west, In the latter part of 1918 a total of 24 wells, with average depths of about 40 to 45 ft, constituted the well system {Hyman, 1943), Gradually, however, even these shallow wells were 

contaminated by salt water, and by January 1919 only 13 were 

still in service. They were the wells located farthest to the north 

and west. 

At the request of the Florida State Board of Health, Clyde P. 

Ross {1919) of the U, S, Geological Survey prepared a report on 

the water supply at Miami (table 78), 

The composite sample of ground water reported above is a 

combination of water from 13 pumping wells and is therefore representative of neither the saltiest nor freshest water from this 

field. Although the water is hard and contains 269 ppm sodium chloride, it is potable, and most people would not detect the chloride 

by taste. 

After 1919, the salinity continued to increase, Lawsuits were 

brought against both the Miami Water Company and its manager, 

H. H, Hyman, for selling salty water (Bellamy, 1946). Nevertheless, by reducing the pumpage from the Spring Gardens field and 

drilling additional wells elsewhere in the city, the water company 

continued its service until the new municipally owned well field in 

the Miami Springs - Hialeah area was developed and put into operation in the spring of 1925. At present, even very shallow wells 

in the Spring Gardens well field yield only salty water. 
Table 78.-Analyses of ground and surface l<'Dter at .~tiami, ]t:11.1uary 21, JoJQ 

[S.unples collected by C. P. Ross. Analyses, in parts per million, by M. D. Foster and C. M Forman] 

Sodium 

Source Dissolved Silica Iron Calcium Magnesium and Bicarbonate Sulfate Chloride Nitrate Organic 

solids (Si01) (Fe) (Ca) (Mg) potassium (HC03) (S04

) (Cl) (NOs) matter 

(Na +K) 

Spring Gardens we l!s1., ••••• 772 12 0.64 116 18 141 282 56 269 tr. 1. 6 

Miami Canal1 ................ 339 20 . 25 85 8 24 278 23 32 tr. 11 

1 Composite sample from 13 pumping wells, average depth about 45 feet. 

!from middle of stream, tmder Miami Canal bridge (probably the bridge formerly at NW. 27th Ave.). 
0 '" 0 0 0 

'> 

l 

( 

§ "' "' "' "' 0 "' 0 0 0 0 ~ 

If 

( 

,- --

CHLORIDE, IN 

... .. .. '" 0> ., ... ... .. .. 0 "' 0 ~ 0 ~ 0 '" 0 "' 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

PARTS PER MILLION 

;;; "' "' "' .. '" ., ... "' "' 0 b ;;; ~ .. u; ·~ ·'" <0 .g 0 0 0 .o 0 0 0 0 0 "o "o "o ·o "o 0 "o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

Disc avery of salty 1 

f@ water in M iaml we~ ijj 

~~~jl area April 2. 5; "' "' 

:=- Sheet- steel- piling darn closed April 27,1940. Fll p ~ate I on ~op !! ijj I eaked badly , as did piling ilsel f in places 1 .J> I .,I 0 

1"1 

~~ 

~ ijj 

~ 

I 

I ijj I .J> 

I "' I 

Sh et- steel-piling dam . with boat gate insha lied 1 March 3,19 43 . High tides ave rflowed dam 1 ijj in early part oi month . Several openings of 1 gate and serious lea!<ag e allowed so It wot ~~ .J> 

to mof i~land "' 1 bernd d~"\ 1 1 1 1 1 

Pneumatic dam I noll cltinLJY rt.J eLepl 

I I: ijj I .J> 

July II- 20,1944. Some leakage rst I dam arowid I I .J> 

salt water to move upstream 1 I 

Pn eumotic dam at 36 th St. failed March 17, 1945. I 

Sheet· steel· piti::p dam emplaced March 28, ~45. ijj Dam I eo ked on all owed sot! water to cant '"""I .J> 1 inland in canoL Not enough flow in· canal to 1 flush salty water out I "' 

i ijj 

.J> 

i "' 

Figure 192. -Graph showing variation of chloride in> A, Miami Canal at NW. 54th Street; B, wells Fl, F2, F3, and S68, Miami well-field area. 

0) 

<;D 

q 
SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 691 

MIAMI SJ?RINGS-HIALEAH WELL FIELD 

The salting of the water at Spring Gardens made it necessary 

to find a new water source. This was found in the Miami SpringsHialeah area. According to W. L. Black, superintendent of the 

Miami Water Works, it was developed largely in 1924 and put into service in March 1925. The raw water from the new well field 

apparently was quite similar to that first obtained in downtown 

Miami (see p. 163~Hi5) and from the Spring Gardens well fielda hard limestone water containing considerable organic color. It 

continued to yield water of this quality until April 1939, when certain wells nearest Miami Canal began producing salty water. By 

mid-May, the chloride concentration of water from some of the 

wells had increased to 1, 900 ppm. Figure 192A is a graph based 

on data furnished by the Miami Department of Water and Sewers. 

It shows the variation of chloride concentration in water of the 

Miami Canal at the. NW. 54th Street Bridge between Hialeah and 

Miami Springs. The record begins on April 29, 1939, by which 

time the chloride content of the canal water had already reached 

8, 100 ppm; by mid-May it had increased to 14, 400 ppm, equivalent to 73. 8 percent of sea water. 

The U. S, Geological Survey began sampling ground water from 

the well-field area in December 1939, but it did not achieve adequate areal coverage until April 1940; all critical wells since that 

time have been sampled at least once a month, In addition to the 

fire and supply wells already existing in the area, the Survey 

drilled 12 observation and test wells that penetrated to the base of 

the, Biscayne aquifer at an average depth of about 100 ft. Water 

from about 45 wells (-see map, fig. 189), including the 20 city supply wells, was sampled. 

SALT·WATER INTRUSIONS IN THE MIAMI CANAL 

Figure 186 shows the approximate position of water in Miami 

Canal containing 1, 000 ppm of chloride. Figure 192A shows that 

the highest recorded chloride concentration in the canal water at 

the 54th Street bridge sampling station occurred in 1939, The record for 1939 is incomplete, however, for it does not start until 

April 25, and it is probable that salt water had occupied the canal 

at that point for a considerable time before discovery and sampling. By October, the salt had retreated downstream and the 

canal water at the 54th Street Bridge was again normal. (See 

pages 636-640 for a discussion of salt-water encroachment in Miami Canal from 1940 to 1946.) 
692 WATER. RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

CONTAMINA'l10N OF WELLS 

As a· result of the several incursions of salt water in Miami 

Canal in the Miami well-field area, salt water contaminated the 

adjacent ground water. The method of contamination is shown in 

figures 190and 192D, and in map form in figures 193-198. 

Figure 192B is a graph showing variation in the chloride content of ground water. at four wells situated at increasing distances 

from Miami Canal (see fig. 189'). Well F 1 is about 80ft from the 

canal and is about ·50 ft deep; F 2 is about 400 ft from the canal 

and is about 71 ft deep; F 3 is about 900 ft from the canal and is 

about 46 ft deep; and S 68 is about 2, 900 ft from the canal and is 

about 61 ft deep. Wells F 1 and F 2 are adjacent to Twin Lakes. 

It was not until December 1939 that samples were collected 

from these wells and the water in Twin Lakes was analyzed for 

chlorides. Therefore, a direct comparison cannot be made with 

the Miami Canal record, which begins in April 1939. 

Figure 192B shows that in1940 the salinity was greatest in well 

F 3, less in F 2, and still less in F 1. The plate also shows that 

while F 3 was declining in salinity, the other two were increasing, 

and the amount of increase was less in F 1 (farthest from F 3) 

than in F 2. This suggests that a pocket of saline water, probably 

trapped in the deepest part of West Twin Lake, was slowly seeping downward and outward. Months after the adjacent Miami Canal 

water had returned to normal, this salty water was further contaminating the ground water immediately adjacent to it. The occurrence of such an isolated pocket of salty water in Twin Lakes 

is possible because the canal connecting them with Miami Canal 

is much shallower than either the lakes or Miami Canal. When 

this salty water entered the lakes it could leave only by relatively 

slow underground seepage. 

Later incursions of saline water in the Miami Canal (1940 and 

1943-45) were all of a lower concentration than that in 1939 (fig. 

192 A). This saline water occupied only the canal bottom and did 

not spill over the shallow entrance into Twin Lakes (as in 1939 ), 

Therefore, it did not create a local source of contamination in the 

lakes. The truth of this statement is illustrated by the fact that 

the increase in chloride concentration was not significant in wells 

F 1 and F 2 after the removal of the contamination in Miami Canal, 

whereas the increase was "significant in 1940 following the incursion of 1939. The incursion of 1943 was moderate, but typical: 

F 1 responded first and in greatest amount; F 2, next and in lesser 

amount; and F 3, still later and in least amount. These responses 

indicate that the salt water seeps downward and outward from Miami Canal, and that it becomes progressively diluted as it moves 

farther from the canal. 
c 0 JANUARY 25. !941 .$6TH ST FEBRUARY 2!5, 1942 

I 0 N 

---..20--------- ., ISCloCH\.OR, INDICATING GROUNO WATER , WITH SALT CC»>TEfU OF .2:-D- PARTS Pflft MILLIC* MIAMI M~IOPAL. WATER-SUPPLY WE'LL. 1 

Figure 193, -Isoehlar map of the Miami well-field area: A, December 1939; B, June 1940; C, January 1941;.and D, February 1942. 
694 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

The response of well S 68, which is 2, 900 ft from the canal, 

was entirely different from that ofF 1, F 2, and F 3, which are 

nearer the canal. For example, the increase in chloride caused 

by the 1939 incursion did not reach a maximum inS 68 until May 

1940---a lag of about 6 months. Similarly, the incursions of March 

1943 and June 1944 caused small increases in chloride in S 68 

that did not reach their peaks until August and December, respectively. The extensive incursions that occurred from March 

to June 1945 resulted in an increase in salinity at S 68 that did 

not reach its peak until early in 1947. However, most of this increase had taken place by May 1946. A period of about 6 months 

to a year was thus required for the salt water to move approximately 2, 900ft, which is at the rate of 8 to 16 ft per day. This 

variation was chiefly due to changes in the rate of pumping in the 

well field. 

Chloride maps (figs. 193 -198) were prepared as a result 

of regular month-end studies that were made in the well-field 

area from the time the U. S. Geological Survey began its investigation. These 24 maps (selected from 96 maps) are considered 

necessary for a full understanding of the history of salt-water 

encroachment in the well-field area. 

As the investigation proceeded, it became apparent that certain 

critical spots in the salt-front area were not adequately covered. 

Therefore, additional observation and test wells, penetrating to 

the bottom of the aquifer, were drilled from time to time. Each 

month, water levels in these wells were observed and water 

samples were collected for chloride analysis. These data were 

then plotted on topographic base maps, Which gave month-end information on the shape of the water table, including the extent of 

the cone of depression and the concentration of salt in the ground 

water. Only isochlors are plotted in figures 193-198. 

Figure 193A. shows chloride conditions in December 1939, six 

months after the salt-water incursion in Miami Canal reached the 

54th Street bridge. The oval-shaped body, or "island•, of salty 

ground water (maximum chloride content slightly more than 450 

ppm), extending from the Twin Lakes area to the lower well field, 

is notable in the figure, The map indicates the role that Twin 

Lakes played in the original salting of this· area (see p. 692 ). It 

shows that the salty water did not come directly from the tongue 

of salty ground water in the vicinity of NW. 36th Street, as has 

much of the salty water of later invasions. From its source at 

Twin Lakes, the salty water, in response to pumping in the lower 

well field, was drawn in almost a straight line into the well field. 

Another island of contamination that is notable in figure 193 A 

is in the upper well field, It now has a maximum chloride content 

of slightly more than 250 ppm; at one time, ~owever, its chloride 
SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 695 

content was more than 1, 000 ppm. This contamination is directly 

related to pumping in the upper well field; 

Figure 1938 shows chloride conditions in the well-field area in 

June 1940. A slight incursion of salty water occurred in Miami 

Canal in May, but it did not greatly change the chloride pattern of 

December 1939. In the lower field, the pattern widened somewhat 

and moved much farther into the well field. In the upper field, the 

pattern became smaller and the salinity decreased considerably. 

Figure l93C shows conditions in the well-field area in January 

1941, 19 months after the extensive salt-water incursion of 1939 

had withdrawn and 8 months after the minor incursion of 1940. 

By this time the upper well field had returned almost to normal, 

and the lower well field contained only one small area where 

chloride was in ex~ess of 250 ppm. The entire pattern in this 

area was greatly reduced, and the axis of the pattern shifted from 

approximateiy S, 80°W, {Dec. 27, 1939) to approximately S. 80°E, 

Figure 193D shows conditions in the well-field area in February 

1942. Since May 1940 no new incursions of salt water had occurred in Miami Canal above NW, 36th Street. In the upper well 

field there remained only one small area of ground water that had 

a chloride content slightly above 20 ppm. {Chloride of less than 

20 ppm is regarded as normal for this area. ) In the lower well 

field the ground water that had contained 250 ppm or more of 

chloride had disappeared. Now, for the first time, the tongue of 

salty ground water near NW, 36th Street and Le Jeune Road could 

be related to the salty water in the well field, This tongue was 

merely the westernmost extension of the salt-water wedge that 

extended inland from the western shore of Biscayne Bay along the 

canal, Similar tongues extended from Biscayne Bay along, and 

beneath, each of the tidal canals of Dade County {see fig. 200); 

these tongues were not induced by pumpage in the Miami well field. 

Figure 194A represents salinity conditions in ground water of 

the well-field area at the end of January 1943, New incursions of 

salty water had not taken place in Maimi Canal, and conditions had 

improved in both the upper and lower well fields, where the highest 

isochlor was 150 ppm. The NW. 36th Street tongue had advanced 

only slightly on the south side of NW. 36th Street and west of 

Le Jeune Road. 

Figure 1948 shows conditions in March 1943 immediately following the second of two salt-water incursions up Miami Canal in 

March. As a result of these incursions a new center of contamination developed in the upper well field, The lower field was not 

affected, however, and there the salinity lessened. This continued 

improvement is credited to dilution, a factor that is quite apparent 

when the increased extent of the zone of 20- to 50-ppm concentration 

346881 0--55--46 
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... ~ 5(1;00 Feet 50,00 F-eet 

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~ [~~_M_'?L -~''::--=±\:.:JJffc:=fC~;:::= ,L...,S';E""PT.cE';'M"'B"'~'"'R'c;"2"'9'-'-"f9"'4~3 __ ..,._ _______ _ 

___ LA NATION ,!)_______ . ., ISOCHL.Ofi:, INDIC.tTING GROUND '6\fi.TER 'III'IT:H SAlT CONTENT OF :00 I'!II!RTS PER "Mil.UOrt MIAY -MUNIQP'AL WATER-SUPf'L.1 WELL 7 

Figure 194. -lsochlor map of the Miami well field area: 4., January 1943; B, March 1943; c, May 1943; and D, September 1943. 
"" 

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c SEPTEMBER 29, 1944 ~6TH __ $_! 

----zo~ ., ISQCHL.OR, INOICA-!100 'GROUND \I'ATER WITH SALT COrtTE:NT CIF ;;::o- PARTS PER lllt.Lio.N 

Figure 195. -lsochlar map of the Miami well-field area: A, May 1944; B, July 1944; C, September 1944; and D, November 1944, 
698 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

is considered, Note also the westward advance of the NW. 36th 

Street tongue south of NW. 36th Street and west of Le Jeune Road. 

Figure 194c represents conditions in May 1943, 1 i months after 

the withdrawal of the salt water in Miami Canal. The upper well 

field now shows considerable improvement, and the lower well 

field continues to improve. However, several local pockets of 

salty ground water have developed, principally along the southwest 

bank· of Mia"'mi CanaL Twin Lakes did not act as a focal point of 

contamination this time, as they apparently did in 1939-40. Note 

the initial appearance of a 4, 000-ppm isochlor in the NW. 36th 

Street tongue downstream from the NW. 36th Street dam. 

Figure 194D shows conditions at the end of· September 1943, 

4 months ~ater. Miami. Canal had been free e>f salt water in the 

well-field area since March; therefore, conditions in both the upper 

and lower fields continued to improve. The areas of contamination 

along the southwest bank of Miami Canal have tended to coalesce 

and move slightly toward the lower well field. 

Figure 195A represents conditions in the well-field area 8 months 

later, at the end of May 1944. New incursions had not occurred in 

Miami Canal in this area, and conditions had generally improved. 

For water-supply purposes the upper well field was back to normal. In the lower well field the water of highest chloride content 

was now enclosed in a relatively small area bounded by the 

100-ppm isochlor. The contamination that' occurred on the southwest side of the canal 1 year befor:e (May 1943) had since been 

greatly reduced; however, part of this reduction was at the expense 

of an enlargement of the areas bounded by the 20- and 50-ppm 

isochlors. Slightly west of Le Jeune Road, the NW. 36th Stteet 

tongue had widened, and it was now being diluted by fresh canal 

water. 

Figure 1958 shows conditions only 2 months later {July 1944). 

At this time an offshoot of salty ground water was beginning to 

move directly toward the lower well field from the NW. 36.th 

Street tongue. This offshoot was a remnant of the contamination 

that was initiated in March 1943 on the southwest side of the 

canal. It was drawn toward the well field in consequence of the 

extension of the cone of depression from the field. In the lower 

well field no trace remained of chlorides in exces? of 100 ppm; the 

isochlor of highest value was now only 50 ppm. Note that the NW. 

36th Street tongue was still being diluted, and that it was moving 

west from Le Jeune Road. 

Figure 195C represents chloride conditions in the well-field 

area in September 1944. The continued westward movement of the 

offshoot from the NW. 36th Street tongue is of interest. In 2 

months it had advanced approximately 950ft (475 ft per month or 

5, 700 ft per year), an extremely rapid rate. However, this tongue 

had not moved in the area west of Le Jeune Road. 
ISOCHL.OR,INOICAl!NG ----20------- GROUND- WATER WITH S.IIL T CONTE NT OF :20 PARTS PER- MlLLIQN 

., i!IIAI.tl MUNICF'AL. 'WAlE'R-SUPPL'f 

Figure 196.-Isochlor map of the Miami well-field area: A, December 1944; B, May 1945; C. July 1945; and D, August 1945. 
700 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Figure 195D shows conditions in November 1944, The NW. 36th 

Street offshoot was moving more rapidly than before, During the 

2 months between September 29 and November 30, the offshoot 

had moved westwand 1, 030 ft, which is at the rate of 515ft per 

month or 6, 180ft per year. 

Figure 196A represents conditions in December 1944, The offshoot of the NW, 36th Street tongue had now moved another 1, 400 

ft into the well field at the very high rate of 16, 800ft per year. 

This was more than twice the velocity of the previous month, The 

increased velocity is explained by the fact that the velocity of 

ground-water flow increases as flow lines converge toward the 

center of a well-field cone of depression. The gradient along 

which the movement took place is approximately 0. 6 foot per 

thousand feet (measured on the mapped water table for December 

29, 1944). The average daily pumpage froin the well field at that 

time was about 35 mgd. 

Figure 196B shows chloride conditions in the well-field area 

May 1945, 5 months later.· On ·March 17, salty water had gained 

access to Miami Canal in this area because of the failure of the 

pneumatically controlled tidal dam. It was not until March 28 

that a s):leet-steel piling dam replaced this loss. In the meantime, 

the water levels had continued to decline until the highest altitude 

of the water table between the well field and the dam was 0. 2ft 

above the U, S. Coast and Geodetic Survey's mean sea level. Average sea level in Biscayne Bay was about 0. 4 ft higher than this 

datum plane; therefore, the highest level of the water table referred 

to above was at least 0. 2 ft below the actual observed average sea 

level. These conditions prevented the flushing out of the salt water 

from the canal above the dam, and, by the creation of a strong 

negative hydraulic head at times of flood tide, they caused additional salty water to leak through the dam and into the underlying 

permeable limestone. The result was a major incursion of salty 

water in Miami Canal that lasted until July (see fig. 192 A). 

Figure 196B shows conditions 2~ months after the pneumatic 

dam had failed. The NW. 36th Street tongue now showed a 51 000-

ppm isochlor, All isochlors were elongated upstream, showing a 

strong contamination effect on the ground water. In addition, a 

new offshoot (150 ppm) had made a rapid thrust westward, faJlowing the path of the previously traced 1 00-ppm offshoot. · Since 

December 29, 1944, the 150-ppm offshoot had traveled 2, 750ft, 

which is at the rate of 550 ft per month or 6, 600 ft per year. The 

100-ppm offshoot traveled at the rate of 5, 700 to 6, 180ft peryear 

when it was in the same position. It is noted also that the NW. 36th 

Street tongue showed a strong westward movement beyond Le Jeune 

Road. A new contamination pattern, similar to that of 1943 (see 

fig. 194 0), had developed in the Twin Lakes area, As before, the 

lakes appear to have had no effect on the encroachment pattern. A 

new ''island• of salty water was just beginning to develop in the 

upper well field, 
... 

, .. 

c JANUARY 30,1946 

sr 

54rH sr 

0 

30,1946 

., MIAMI MUNICII':II.l. WUEFI--'SOPPL. 'I' WELL ? 

Figure 191. -lsochlor map of the Miami well-field area: A, September 1945; B, November 1945; c, January 1946: and D, April1946. "" 0 

..... 
702 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Figure 196C represents conditions in July 1945, 1 month after 

Miami Canal in this area had been flushed of its salty water. A 

6, 000-ppm isochlor had pushed into the NW. 36th Street tongue, 

and the entire pattern in that area had moved upstream and laterally. Pockets of salty water, in excess of BOO ppm and 450 ppm, 

had developed near Twin Lakes and in the upper well-field, respectively, and the 150-ppm offshoot had merged with the pattern 

of contamination on the southwest side of the canal. 

Figure 196D shows conditions in August 1945, just 1 month later. 

Nofurther incursions of salty water had occurred in Miami Canal. 

The diluting effect of ground-water movement is apparent from 

the figure, especially in the Twin Lakes and upper well-field 

areas. The 6, 000 ppm isochlor had moved downstream, but no 

other notable change had taken place in the NW. 36th Street tongue. 

Figure 197A illustrates conditions in September 1945. Still 

further improvement is shown, especially in the upper well-field 

area where the 20-ppm isochlor had widened in response to dilution, and where the 400-ppm area of the previous month had 

been reduced to a smaller area of only 150 ppm. The local 

300-ppm isochlor near Twin Lakes and the 300-ppm isochlor of 

the NW. 36th Street tongue, which had been separated during the 

previous month, had now joined. The resulting offshoot of 300 ppm 

or more enclosed an "island• of 400 ppm or more. 

Figure 1978 indicates changes in the chloride pattern that took 

place during October and November 1945. Continued dilution of 

the higher concentrations is evident by the wider spread of the 

20-:~and 50-ppm isochlors, especially in the Miami Springs area. 

Near Twin Lakes the 400-ppm isochlor had.disappeared as a result of the enlargement and southwestward movement (toward the 

lower well field) of the 300-ppm area. 

Figure 197C represents conditions in January 1946, 2 months 

later. Most notable in the figure is the pinching off of the western 

end of the 300-ppm offshoot from the NW. 36th Street tongue. An 

elongated "island" of salty ground water west of Twin Lakes, 

oriented approximately S .. 10• W. (toward the lower well field), was 

thus formed. The upper well field had become cleared of the 

100-ppm zone of 2 months before, largely through dilution. Consequently, the 50-ppm area expanded widely. 

Figure 197D illustrates chloride conditions in the well-field 

area at the end of April 1946. Concentration of contaminated water in the upper well field had lessened considerably, especially 

the smaller area enclosed by the 50-ppm isochlor. The elongated 

.. island• of salty water in the Twin Lakes area had moved considerably to the southwest and had expanded as the higher chloride 

concentrations were diluted. The NW. 36th Street tongue also 
sr 

•r MfL.LION Pill AM MUNICIPAL. WATER-SUPPL. 'f W-EL.L 7 

figure 198. -Isocblor map of Miami well-lield area: A, May 1946: B, June 1946: C, September 1946: and D, December 1946. 
704 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTifEASTERN FLORIDA 

shows dilution effect, particularly where the isochlors approach 

the canal. 

Figure 198A shows conditions on May 29, 1946, In the upper 

well field the area enclosed by the 50-ppm isochlor had been 

greatly reduced and was now isolated. The Twin Lakes •island• 

of salty ground water was reduced both in size and concentration, 

No notable change occurred in the NW. 36th Street tongue. 

Figure 1988 illustrates conditions at the end of June 1946, In 

both the upper and lower well-field areas the contamination zones 

continued to dim in ish in size and concentration, Partial opening 

of the NW, 36th Street dam during this m9nth allowed minor 

amounts of salty water to creep a short distance upstream in 

Miami Canal, resulting in the filling-out of the NW, 36th Street 

tongue once more. Note the change in shape of isochlors near the 

canal, as compared with the previous month. 

Figure 198C shows conditions at the end of September 1946, 3 

months later, The continued decrease of chloride is apparent in 

both upper and lower well-f!eld areas. The "island• of salty 

ground water west of Twin Lakes had now become extremely 

elongated, and the 150-ppm offshoot from the NW, 36th Street 

tongue had retreated seaward about 850 feet. 

Figure 198D shows conditions in the well-field area at the end 

of r'ecember 1946. Note the improvement in the upper and lower 

well-field areas. The 20-ppm isochlor has separated the two 

fields, leaving the upper field entirely isolated from the contamination pattern of the lower field and the NW, 36th Street tongue, 

The area of salty ground water near Twin Lakes had been reduced 

in size and was now surrounded by the 150-ppm isochlor, The 

NW. 36th Street tongue shows little change. 

A comparison of the last map (December 1946) with the one for 

February 1942, when the contamination pattern of the whole area 

was first drawn, reveals that the patterns are remarkably similar. 

The principal difference is in the NW. 36th Street tongue south of 

NW, 36th Street and west of Le Jeune Road. In this area the 

pattern has made a steady westward advance. Using the 500-ppm 

isochlor as a measure of movement, it is found that north from 

the canal, measured along the eastern side of the map, this isochlor 

occupied approximately the same position in 1946 as in 1942; also, 

if measured northwestward to its apex, the position of the isochlor 

is the same for both years. However, if measured due west from 

the 36th Street Bridge the isochlor is found to have advanced 

approximately 1, 380ft. Thus, a westward advance has been made 

on a broad front south of NW. 36th Street rather than along the 

canal. 
SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 705 

The advance of 1, 380ft was made in 4 years and 10 months, 

which is an average of nearly 24ft per month or about 290 ft per 

year. If this rate continues, the NW. 36th Street tongue will reach 

the lower well field in about 20 years. However, as pointed out 

earlier (p. 700), as a salt-water tongue approaches a well field, 

it travels faster; therefore, the time required may be less than 

20 years. 

Another factor to be considered is that this advance of 1, 380ft 

has been made during a relatively dry period, when salt water was 

always free to advance at least as far inland as the NW. 36th Street 

dam in Miami Canal; up the Tamiami Canal to, and beyond, Red 

Road; and into the several rock pits between Miami and Tamiami 

Canals east of Red Road, Thus, salt water has always been available for encroachment into the well-field area. 

When the proposed lock and dam in Miami Canal below the confluence of Miami ancl_ Tamiami Canals is installed, salt water will 

no longer gain access to this area by way of the canals; instead, it 

will be held at some point downstream from NW. 20th Street 

(proposed site of the control). As a result, the ground-water conditions in this area will change favorably, and the life of the Miami 

well field will be prolonged indefinitely. The NW. 36th Street saltwater tongue will then be cut off from its source and will probably 

disappear, as have other high-chloride tongues that have been 

present in the well field. 

COCONUT GROVE WELL FIELD 

The Coconut Grove well field was developed in 1925 near Loquat 

Avenue 'east of Le Jeune Road (see fig. 199). The site is about 

2, 200ft east of Coral Gables Canal and 1 mile from Biscayne Bay. 

Two wells {S 171 and S 172), 10 in. in diameter and 46 ft deep, 

with 1, 000-gpm pumps, served until 1933. In that year, Charles 

Morgan,' Miami City chemist, noted that the chloride content of the 

water, which had normally been 13 ppm (Collins and Howard, 1928, p. 

21 D-211 ), suddenly began to increase. It was decided that a s hallower sourct;! west of the two original wells would alleviate the 

situation. Accordingly, three wells (grouped as S 378), 3 in. in 

diameter and about 35 ft deep, were drilled and coupled by a manifold so that they were operated with a single pump. At first, this 

new source, pumped at 1, 000 gpm, produced water with a chloride 

content of about 16 ppm. However, the salinity soon began to rise 

and by 1937 the chloride content was 500 ppm. 

In an attempt to get better water, a pit 20ft square and 16ft 

deep was dug. Inasmuch as the land surface at the site is approximately 12 ft above mean sea level, the bottom of the pit was about 

4ft below mean sea level (U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey datum). 
706 

z 

0 

~ 

"' ...J 

"' 

10 

A 

10 

15 

WATER RESOURCES IN SOUlliEASTERN FLORIDA 

200 0 

L.w.--' 

... 

~ 

"' <.> 

~ 

iil 

"' "' 

... 

..., 

~ 

ls.ochlors1 in parts per 

million 

"' ..J 

1000 Feet 

Well 

t' 

.!! 

g, 

~ !:'! 

~ .5 

• location 

surface 

.. 

"' 0 

A' 

<!> 

0 

/50 

Figure 199. -Ma.p and cross section of the Coconut Grove well-field area showing location 

and depth of wells and infiltration gallery, isochlor pattern, and water-table profile for 

June 20, 1940. 

According to A. B. DeWolf (1941), water from this shallow source 

was excellent at first, but it, too, soon began to produce salty 

water. With increasing demand the pit would not yield the required 

amount of water, so additional water had to be pumped from the 

old wells. By January 1939 the salinity of this mixed water was 

700 ppm. 

It was known that the water of lowest salinity occurs at, or 

near, the water table. Therefore, an infiltration gallery, or horizontal well, was dug so as to skim the water just below the water 

table. It was 650 ft long, 4ft wide, and 17 ft deep-a size sufficient to yield about 600,000 gpd. This well was put into service 

April 4, 1939. 

Analysis of the water first obtained from this gallery shows tha·t 

it fluctuated in salinity from 112 to 170 ppm, probably in accordance with intermittent recharge from rainfall and with change in 
SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 707 

pumping rates. On December 10, 1939, shortly after the U, S. 

Geological ~urvey opened the Miami district office, a sample of 

the water was analyzed for most of the common minerals. Later, 

samples were taken from several shallow wells in the vicinity. 

Some of these data are given in table 79. 

Table 79.-Arlruyses of water from infiltration gallery and shallow walls in the C<Jccmut , Grove well IielcJ 

(Analyses in parts per million, except as indicated] 

Cal- Magne~ Sodium and Bicar- Sul- Chlo Total hatiiness 

Well Depth Date Iron cium sium potassium bonate fate ride as 

no, (feet) (Fe) (Ca) (Mg) (Na+K) (HC08

) (SOJ (Cl) CaC08 

lnfiltration 

gallel'} 17 12/10/39 0.09 118 5. 106 245 31 223 317 

G 30 19 6/20/40 ...... ...... .......... ··"'········· ........... ....... 17 

G ··············•···· 31 18 6/20/40 ...... ....... .......... ............ ·········· ....... 167 ................... G 32 19 6/20/40 ······ ...... .......... ............ .......•.. ....... 91 ................... G 33 18.2 6/20/40 ...... ...... ····~~~····· ............ ·········· ....... 155 

G 34 19,5 6/20/40 ··················· 

······ ...... .......... ............. .......... ....... 164 ....................... 

Figure 199 shows a cross section (A-A' ) extending in a general 

east-west direction from Coral Gables Canal through the Coconut 

Grove well field, Depths of the canal; the infiltration gallery, and 

wells intersected by the plane of the section are plotted with reference to mean sea level (U, S, Coast and Geodetic Survey,datum 

of 1929). The water-table profile and isochlors for June 20, 1940 

are also shown. The water-table profile is based on measurements made in the wells and gallery, and the isochlors are based 

on values of chloride in samples of ground water pumped from the 

wells and gallery. 

It is important to note the effect of pumping from the gallery 

(which obtains water just below the water table) on the chloride 

pattern. Obviously, Coral Gables Canal is the principal contributing source of salt water, and if it were not for the pumping 

from the gallery the isochlors would slope gently outward and 

downward away from the canal. Pumping, however, induces an 

upward movement of ground water into the gallery, with a resultant 

upward deflection of the isochlor pattern. The highest isochlor 

shown in this section for June 20, 1940, is 250 ppm; it does not 

quite reach the bottom of the gallery. On later dates, chloride 

values of 260 to 270 ppm were observed in the gallery water, 

These values, in excess of U. S, Public Health Service standards 

for public supplies (250 ppm), caused the final abandonment of the 

~oconut Grove well field in August 1941. 
708 WATER RESOURCES IN SOU'I'HEASTERN FLORIDA 

SAL T·WATER ENCROACHMENT ALONG THE DADE COUNTY SHORELINE . 

. OTHER THAN AT SILVER BLUFF . 

The Silver Bluff area (see p. 593-607) was believed to be typical of the coastal area of Dade Coun.ty, and extensive studies of 

salt- and fresh-water relationships have been made there. These 

studies, in brief, show the following: (1) A blunt-nosed wedge of 

salt· water is encroaching inland because of an upset equilibrium 

between salt and fresh water, which is caused by the lowering of 

.the average height of the water table in that part of the coastal 

area; (2) Inland for a distance of about 2, 500 ft the salt-water 

wedge appears to be approaching equilibrium with the overlying 

fresh water; (3) In the nose of the salt-water wedge the isochlor 

pattern dips down rather abruptly; (4) The thickness of the zone of 

diffusion between the 50-ppm and 16, 000-ppm isochlors, measured 

at a distance of about 3, 000 ft from the shore, is about 60 ft 

whereas in the nose of the wedge, the width, measured parallel to 

the base of the aquifer, was about 3, 500ft in 1940 and about 5, 200 

ft in 1946; (5) Only a small amount of movement has been shown 

by the isochlors representing high salinity (the 16, 000- and 

18, 000-ppm isochlors), whereas there has been a comparatively 

large inland movement of the isochlors representing lesser salinity (the 50- to 1, 000-ppm isochlors), 

In December 1946 it was decided to investigate the salt- and 

fresh-water relationship in one of the coastal areas that had a 

comparatively narrow encroachment zone (see fig. 200). The 

Cutler area was selected because it is relatively undeveloped and 

lies seaward from an area that the city of Miami was considering 

as a potential new well field (pumping tests in this area are described 

on p. 249-270). Several test and observation wells were drilled, the 

most important of which are shown in figu~e '201.- In the Cutler 

area the isochlor pattern is much different from that at Silver 

Bluff; a blunt-nosed wedge of encroaching salt water exists, but 

it extends inland from the shore only about 1, 200 ft (measured to 

the 1, 000-ppm isochlor). The vertical thickness of the zone of 

diffusion, measured between the 100- and 15, 000-ppm isochlors, 

is only about 35 ft at a point about 250 ft inland from the shore. 

The horizontal width between these isochlors, as measured along 

the line of 120-ft depth, is about 525 ft. 

The pattern in the Cutler area appears to be little affected by a 

drainage-upset equilibrium, and it is probably quite similar to 

that whic)l existed in the Silver Bluff area prior to drainage. The 

fact that it has not expanded inland, as it has at Silver Bluff, is 

probably due to a locally higher water table. The nearest drainage 

canal, Snapper Creek, which empties into Biscayne Bay about 4 

miles to the northeast, has relatively little effect on the ground 

water of the Cutler area. 
SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 

R.41 E. 

8 ILVER BL~;; 

"~ \) 

EXPLANATION 

IOOOPAR~S PijR MIL~I~,N 

~~~~ ~V~oif;~~~~,n~ ~o~~i~ 9 

ll'l the principal oQulfer 

Wells el!ceedin9 70ft in depth in 11'11111 s.IHHHid zone wi!l produce 

only soH~ 9'01.1nd woter 

J 

1 

709 

Figure 200, -Map of eastern Dade County showingthe area bounded by the 1,000-ppm isoc:hlar 

of ground water in the Biscayne aquifer, Wells exceeding 70 feet in depth in the shaded zane 

will produce only salty water, 
710 

N 

r 

WATER RESOURCES IN SOI.TJ'HEASTERN FLORIDA 

A G 469 

1., 

~ 

~~~~~~~~~--.i¢?-----...!.A' <:., 

VJ 

' <Q 

Topography by Department· of Engineericg, Dode County 

400 Feet 

~~CLon~t~ouLr-i~n~~-,v-a~l~l~fo-o~1~ 

"' 20 ~ 

U S Coast ond G,otlelic Survey 

-«-----ATLANTIC COASTAL RIDGE _____ .;;.m:.:•;;on sso l•vol (fotum of 1929 I 

1

r"'*'-SILVER BLUFF~ TERRACE 

"'A Lana surface 

"' "' 

..J 0 w 

> w 

..J 

<t m 20 

z 

<t 

w 

::!' 

040 

1-

0 

w 

0:: 

0:: 

:;'60 

w 

o:; 

,_,. 

w 

w 

... 80 

<J; 

;{ 

,_ 

a. 

~ 100 

120 

·-·-·2f;"_2!R_ TABLE <t BISCAYNE.' 

EXPLANATION 

• Observotion well 

-200- lsochlor 

BAY A' 

_,__L..._ ___ __,_ _ _J_ _______ ,_, __________ _.j 

Figure 201,-Topographic: map and c:toss section of the Cutl<!l' area, , Dade County, showing 

locations and depths of wells. , isoc:hlot pattel'rl,and water-table ptofile, 
SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 711 

The widest zone of salt-water encroachment occurs in the 

marl flats along the southeastern Dade County coast line where a 

maze of drainage canals has lowered the water table. During 

times of drought, each canal has acted as an artery for inland 

movement of salt water. Samples of canal water, taken during the 

drought of 1945 at the inland limits of tidal canals near Florida 

City and Homestead, contained .chloride in excess of 26, 000 ppm 

(as compared to about 19, BOO ppm for normal sea water). This 

unusual chloride content is due to a high rate of evaporation of the 

· water in the canals, which is replenished by ocean water at each 

high tide and again evaporated and concentrated. The concentrated 

salt water, which seeps outward and downward from the sides and 

bottoms of each canal (see p. 682-686), was the cause of the disastrous crop failure in this area during the 1945 drought. M. H. 

Gallatin! of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, estimated that 

salt-water encroachment had ruil).ed more than 18, 000 acres of 

winter-growing vegetable land in southern Dade County by the end 

of 1945. 

Encroachment in many shallow soils need not be permanent, 

however, because seasonal rains will flush the salted water to 

depths where ii will not affect the growth of most vegetable crops. 

Dams, placed at the coastal limits of the canals to prevent salt 

water from again gaining access to the upper reaches, would aid 

in preserving the soils for farming. However, in the areas most 

damaged by salt-water encroachment it may never again be possible to utilize wells as a source of water for irrigation during 

droughts. 

Elsewhere along the shoreline in Dade County, the inland encroachment zone is narrower than at Silver Bluff or in the marl 

flats discussed above. Inland along each of the principal tidal 

canals, tongues of salty ground water extend for several miles 

(see fig. 200). These tongues are a ·result of the dredging of 

the canals, which have become saline arms of Biscayne Bay. The 

tongues are in no way related to pumping. In 1939 and 1945, 

when, owing to the drought, the inland limits of such canals as 

Biscayne and Little River became dry, salty ocean water from 

Biscayne Bay flowed inland at each high tide and soaked downward 

into the rocks of the canal bottoms in the vicinity of Red Road. 

This process of contamination was taking place along the entire 

length of these canals, but it was visible only at the inland limits 

where, at high tide, salt water moved in over the dry canal 

bottoms. 

a0ra1 c;ommunication. 

3<j.6881 0-55--<j.7 
7.12 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

ELeCTRICAL-RESISTIVITY STUDIES 

By H. Cee&I Spite:r 

INTRODUCTION 

During the study of salt-water encroachment in· southeastern 

Florida, an effort was made to utilize as many techniques as 

possible. Consequently, a series of electrical-resistivity studies 

were made to evaluate the usefulness of a geophysical method in 

mapping the position of the underground fresh- and salt-water 

contact. 

ELECTRIC CONDUCTION 

Nearly all dry rocks and rock-forming minerals are poor conductors, and thus, they are good insulators. The conductivity of a 

rock is dependent upon the following factors: (1) porosity or pore 

space; (2) arrangement of pores or grain packing; (3) amount of 

pore space filled with electrolytes; and (4) conductivity of the 

electrolyte, both native and acquired. 

An equation was given by Maxwell (1904) for spherical grains in 

a regular packing arrangement. Hummel (1935) has shown that if 

the material is completely filled with an electrolyte and if the 

porosity is 50 percent, then the conductivity of the material increases almost in direct proportion to the conductivity of the 

electrolyte. For the work in Florida it was decided that if the 

porosity of the rocks was assumed to be 50 percent, it would be 

justifiable to disregard the conductivity of the rock grains· and to 

consider only the conductivity of the electrolyte filling the pores. 

Chloride determinations and measurements of specific conductance of some Florida waters are given by Collins and others 

(1941-44) and by Howard and Love (1945) for some. canals, 

creeks, and rivers. Values for the preparation of figure 202 were 

selected at random from the above papers and include the low 

range of values with chloride content less than 160 ppm. Figure 

203 was prepared in a manner similar to that for figure 202, except that the maximum chloride content shown was 20, 000 ppm. It 

is apparent from these graphs that the relation between conductivity and chloride content is linear except for the very high and 

very low concentrations of chloride. No attempt has been made to 

separate the interference produced on the chart by sulfate or bicarbonate, these being the other cations of highest conductivity in 

solutions, and thus it is possible that they may be the cause for 

the nonlinearity. 

A more detailed study, perhaps by localities, of the relation of 

conductivity and chloride concentration would also assist in the 

final interpretation of the electrical resistivity data. 
0 

• I() 

140 

IZO 

<N 100 

!¢ 

~ 

" "' ..; 60 0 

"' f! 

0 

:::> 

0 

zeo 

0 

0 

0 

Li: 

0 

~40 

Ul / 

SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 713 

./ 

/_ v 0 0 0 

/ ~ Od 

7 

/ 

zo v 

20 40 60 60 100 120 140 160 

CHLORIDE, IN PARTS PER MILLION 

Figure 202. -Specific conductance of salty water for low ranges of chloride content. 

-

5000 

<.:> 

• "' 

.... 

"' 

<[ 4000 

2 

.. 

"' w" 

<> 3000 

__ , 

~-·· ..-"' 

~ A 0 

0 

/ 0 

--····- /o z 

<[ 

.... 

u 

:::> 

Q 

z 

0 2000 u 

u 

j;: 

8 

0.. 

<f) 1000 

/ 

/ 

v 

7 

/ 

/ 

v 

0 4000 8000 12p00 16POO 2opoo 

CHLORIDE, IN PARTS PER MILLION 

Figure 203. -Specific condw::tance of salty water for high and low rauges of chloride content. 
714 WATER. RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

FIELD MEASUREMENTS 

The Gish-Rooney Earth Resistivity Apparatus. as modified by 

the writer. was used to make the measurements. The electrodes 

were copper-clad steel rods with steel driving heads that were 

pushed or driven into the earth to make contact for the potential 

and current connections to the instrument. The earth around the 

electrodes was wetted and tamped when better contact was needed. 

The character of the formations and the presence of salt water 

were most important considerations in this problem; therefore 

depth profiling was used throughout. A modification of the Lee 

variation of the Wenner electrode configuration was used, and the 

electrode intervals were expanded outward from the. central 

station. With this method, three apparent resistivity curves were 

obtained at each station, one in each direction from the center and 

one over the full interval. These are termed the "P-1", "P-2". 

and "full" curves. Bearings for the line directions {see Appendix) 

are referred to P-1. Power for driving the instrument was supplied by the battery on the truck used to transport the equipment, 

and current to pass through the earth was provided by a bank of 

L.ocotion~ 0.15 mi. we~;~t of Cutl&t Rood on r------+----+--+-1----+-++-H--.f- $OUth side of Ai~;;hmond Drivt, 120ft. west 

.._---+----f---.--1--f---.-J---J--+-J..-I...j. of S. B. T. and T. Co. pole 47, in o ctrhr•way 

100 

ELECTRODE INTERVAL, IN FEET 

Figure 204.- Resistivity curve$ obtained in the Cutler area. 

EXPLANATION 

• Full ,;urve 

P-1 curve 

. P-2eurvt 

1000 
SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 715 

super "B" batteries. The fundamental technique of operation is 

described by the maker of the apparatus and by other authors 

(such as Heiland, 1940, p. 619--824), A set of curves obtained at 

one station in the Cutler area is illustrated in figure 204. 

INTERPRETATION OF THE RESISTIVITY CURVES 

The resistivity curves were interpreted in part by procedures 

explained by Hummel {1931), Roman (1931, 1934, 1941), Tagg 

(1937), and Watson (1934, 1938). The methods described in these 

references are based upon theoretical and mathematical considerations; in most respects they have been found to be more reliable than any other methods proposed. Furthermore, all the 

above methods are based upon the theory of images (Jeans, 192S) 

and apply to two or more layers. 

MEASUREMENTS AT MIAMI 

The electrical resistivity work at Miami was carried out at 

Silver Bluff and Cutler (fig. 200), At Silver Bluff, the area extending from Biscayne Bay northward through Coconut Grove, 

Coral Gables, and Miami proper. At Cutler, these were two 

areas---one north qf Cutler, extending northwestward from Biscayne 

Bay toward the ·intersection of Ludlum Road and Coral Reef Drive, 

and the other at Cutler, extending from Biscayne Bay northwestward 

toward the intersection of Ingraham Highway and Richmond Drive. 

These areas were chosen for the initial measurements because of 

the large amount of subsurface control that was available. This 

control consisted of well logs and chloride data concerning strategically located points throughout the area. 

Because of the proximity of city improvements in the first area, 

such as water pipes and mains, sewers, gas pipes and mains, 

sprinkling systems, and buried telephone cables, considerable 

difficulty was experienced in the location of places to make measurements. A few lines that were started had to be abandoned because of interference on the apparent resistivity curves. Some 

other curves may contain interference from unknown conductors, 

which is attributed in the interpretations· to subsurface geologic 

conditions. Experience has shown that electrical resistivity measurements obtained in and near cities are usually of questionable 

value because of the interference from power distribution networks and buried\Conductors, 

SILVER BLUFF A8EA 

Of the six depth profiles begun in the Silver Bluff area, only one 

was abandoned because of interference from buried conductors. 
716 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTiiEASTERN FLORIDA 

F184 

• 

TAM/AMI TRAIL 

RL29 

WEST FLAGLER ST 

F180 

• 

SOUTHWEST 20TH 

~ D 3e»O ~ "'{ • "'{ 

~ ~ "'{ ~ 

~ ~ l1 

..... .... 

{3 t\j 

ilt 

~ ~ F177 Fl73 a 

II) • • 

N 

t 

ccfCONUT 

GROVE 

(tiS 41) 

ST 

BAY 

2500 Feet 

EXPLANATION 

.-oResistivity line 

• Well 

Figure 205, -Loc:ation of resistivity lines and related wells, Silver Bluff area, Miami, 
SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 717 

All of the apparent resistivity curves of this area were interpreted as three-layer curves. 

The position of the resistivity line centers (RLl, RL2, etc, ) in 

the Silver Bluff area are shown in figure 205. The locations of 

the wells used in correlating the resistivity results are also included in this figure. Well logs and chloride logs are given in the 

Appendix. 

A comparison of the well logs and chloride logs for wells G 519 

and D 350 with the interpretation of resistivity lines 1 and 3 is 

given in figure 206, It appears that the electrical properties of the 

- WELL G 51~ (SI~VER SLUFF) 

Dr~H!;!!r s lo~ 

I~ OolitiC lime5tone, I Ton quartz l Tan cclccreous. sond'!itOne1 with J l1ttle quartz scmd send, hord ond soft layers 1ew '!il'l&ll'!i 

Chloride log, i!'l pclrh per million 

§j ~I ;j ~ gl ~I ~I ~I Res1stiv1ty lnterpretotion:s- line 1 

·~l.ool;te; water of lo:~Oohtic Omestone, •end, ond Calcoreous sandstone; 

$ cl'lloride eoncantroiiO woter of medium-low cl11oride concMtrotlon 

J Calcareous sond•tane; water of 

high cl'llol'ide concentrotior'l 1[ 5' 10' 15' 20' ,.. 30' ,,. 40' 40' 50' ,,. 60' 10 

- ______,_______, 

- White send ond WELL D 350 (SILVER B~UFF) Soff, shelly 1 

ground-up sandstone Dr11ler's log coleoreous sandstone 

M•om; IJ•n sond and !•Tan "~ I " It" ;I Colcocoous I Cole~ I Colcoreou• l / I ool1te Miami oolite on~o~i~t~ml sond- i!iOMstone, sand- sandstone 

stone some sand steM w1tl'l sl'lells -~· J 

ChlOride log, In porh per' tnilllon 

;I ~I ~1~1~1 Resisti11ity u'lterpretotions~line 3 ~,~- . 

dry Th•n oollt~ so", I SoM, oolite~ ond colcoreou!'. sonds.fone, woter of vi!!ry low cl'\lor1de . contenlrOtiOf'l Jl JMorl or cloy 

10' •o' ~0~--~,-.... ,~~~~·~~~?~"~ 70' 80' 90' 100' !40' 15,0' 

Figure 206, -Comparison of drlll<!l''s logs and chloride logs with resistivity interpretations, 

Silver Bluff area, Miami, 

o' 

Miami oolite, the sands, and the calcareous sandstones are essentially the same if wet. The values of resistivity computed for the 

different layers, as given in table 80, reveals that the controlling 

factor in the variation of the resistivity is the chloride content of 

the contained water. In this table, the resistivity lines are' arranged in the order of their distance (farthest to nearest) from 

Biscayne Bay. 

It is apparent that the salty water has diffused to the surface 

and has caused a variation in the resistivities of the upper layers. 

The seemingly low resistivity value for the salt-water layer of 
718 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table SQ.-Resistivities of layers in the Silvez Btuflama, Miami 

[Resistivities in ohm ems; depths are from interpretations of resistivity curves) 

:iurtaee Intermediate ~ottom 

Resistivity layer layerl, layer, Salt-water 

line no. 0-10 feet 10-42 feet 42 feet layet!" 

2 241,000 8,740 486 8,740 

3 122,000 15,850 616 15,850 

4 89,000 113,300 ·········-· ······2:·o2'o"" ..... 47"."2oci·· 2,020 2,020 

6 141,600 ..... ,. ...... ................. 980 980 980 

1 24,500 1,420 42 42 

1

ResistiVity showing that salt water is at bottom of layer, 2Too of salt-water law•• is ~.....,,.. 4? ,.,.,.below ground surface. 

line no. 2, as compared to the value for line no. 3, probably indicates a more permeable layer or'perhaps a localized infiltration 

of salt water. The values of resistivity given for the bottom layer 

have no particular relation to the salt-water encroachment problem because of the wide range of depth from which they were taken. 

CUTLER AREA 

Thirteen resistivity lines were completed in the Cutler area; 

seven were completed in the immediate vicinity of Cutler; five 

about 1 mile north of Cutler; and one near Goulds. Only one line, 

no. 8, was abandoned because of interference. On most of the resistivity curves in the Cutler area another layer is present; therefore, they are interpreted as four-layer 'curves. 

Well record& f(H plotted wells not R.40 

~ included in tl'll!l appe;ndill. are in 

the filu of the U.S. Geoloqleol 

Survey 

~ s l84 ... 

§ 

... RL II 

R~ 

G 449 CORAL R<F:F' ORIVE 22 23. H/6HWAr RL 7 

RLI2 :1!72.6 

EXPLANATION I ;§ 

iii -o- I 

Resistivity 1\l"ie I s RL 10 

• I 

T. Well G 450 I 55 

s. G I 453 

N "' I ~ 

1 

I 

"' I ~ I 

I " .J 

I 0: 

~~-~ RICH MONO OR IV~ 4!:7 ·u CUTLER ~ 

.. 1 .. RL3 'IIi ~~ 

~ .; .. "(, 

0 3000 F'eet "' o/ ~ 
SALT·WATER ENCROACHMENT 719 

Figure 207 shows the locations of the resistivity lines (RLl, 

RL2, etc.) in the Cutler area. The resistivity line near Goulds is 

not included because it is more than 6 miles southwest of the 

Cutler area. Locations of the wells that were used for correlation 

purposes are also shown in the figure. Copies of the well logs and 

chloride logs are in the Appendix or in the files of the U. S. 

Geological Survey. 

Some of the interpretations from the resistivity curves made 

near wells in the Cutler area are compared with well logs and 

chloride logs in figures 208-210. 

In the Cutler area, .as in the Silver Bluff area, the oolite and 

calcareous sandstone are very similar in electrical properties 

near the surface. A layer or bed that probably is rather impermeable and hard, and that is considered to contain some fresh 

water, appears on nearly all the curves. Salt water, where 

present in the formations, controls the resistivity and may even 

eliminate the inherent electrical properties of the beds. This 

control is shown more clearly in table 81, which gives the values 

of resistivity computed for the different layers. These values are 

separated intorelatedareas-cutler, north of Cutler, andGouldsand are arranged in order of their distance from Biscayne Bay, 

those farthest from the bay being listed first. 

A study of table 81 reveals the extent of salt-water infiltration 

in the different layers of each area. At Cutler there is little or no 

W~LL G 449 (CUTLER) 

Driller's log 

""'"to too oolite/ s.olt •Me I~~ ~~::;l~"'""o",'/ Llm•J Coloo"'"' I il S::J.~~ ~~ ca~e;oreou. I tcm~ston@ rn stone $a!'ld:&'l'one stone 15 Sond!iltone :: § ...... - Cl'lloridt!l IOQ 1 tn peds par million 

9 !I ~1~ !I ~I --r--~ Reststlvit y mterpretotions, lme 12 

Oty,•ood1 

soit11nd OQtirt,til'(ltU?¢ne, eotcortous !;gi'JdStOI'Ie, and 5cmd 1 I L.•mtstont ond (:(lict~reous Bandlitone0 

ootitt wuter of low chloride (:Ofl~erlfrotioll 

10' 20' ~o· 40' 50' 

. om'•~ 

WELL 

Crttom to br011111'1 ..;; 

!.oft oolite 

~~~~ Oolite, limestone, colCOI'fOUS sandstone; 

60' 

woter of ver~ low chloride concef!tratlorl 

- 70' 80' go• 1001 

Jm 

l,...imestone and c:olcortol.l' Jondstcmei 

water of very IQW C:l'ilorldt ~onee-nt~atlo"n 

1101 

••...• .,!. . 

OQiite, w11ter of 10111 chloride concentration 

,,, --~_L--~----r---------------------------~ 10' 20' 40' 5o' so· 70' eo· 9o' 1001 110 1 

I 

1~0 1 

1201 

Figure 208, -Comparison of driller's logs and chlotide logs with resistivity interpretations, 

Cutler area.. 
720 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLOlUDA 

WELL G 469 (CUTLER) 

Toptolt, Whlf1~tor~~ 

QOfltlc llm,ahtnll 

C<llcortO~I 

sandston• 

Wldt•, aandr llm•atone 

witl'l quart.~: and pha•pl'ldte 

A:eGittlvity interpretoHon11 lint 4 

Thin •ancty Dolltt 01\d c:olcartoua 

ll:oil, O~y aan(U;Iottf;; wafef Of 

oolite low chlorid11 ec)~ 

CGIGG...OU* .afldatoM and llm•~tone; 

ftlt(ll'iy frtth WCII" 

J...l~on• ond c;oloattWt: sonehtont; .ottt .t tl.ll4Jhtl' Cftiotidt conctnttotlal'l 

thon t!Qwhtrt In w.Ui morl ond Cloy 

10' lQ' 40' ro' oo 90' IOo' 110 12<1 

WELL G 451 (CUTLER) 

OoiHt and CGIC11rfou' tal'ldatOfl•i wottr 

af mod•rattly lllan ciUotldt toRG:eRttotlon 

CGICGrtOut •ondrtoflt i wottr 

of hl9h cht«idt GOnctntratiOII 

lo' 20' (jO' Td 8d too' 110 

Figure 209. -Comparison of driller's logs and chloride logs with resistivity interpretations, 

Cutler area. 

indication of salt water in the surface materia·ls. 

mediate layer may be slightly contaminated 

Biscayne Bay up to, and including, line no. 4. 

by the lower resistivity.. approximately 8, 000 

The upper interwestward from 

This is indicated 

ohm ems. The 

Table St.-Resistivities of layers in the Cutler Mea 

[Resistivities, in ohms ems: depths, in feet, are from interpretations of resistivity curves] 

Upper inter- Lower interResistivity Surface layer, mediate layer, mediate layer, Bottom layer. 

line no. 0-10 feet depth variable depth variable 39-122 feet 

Cutler 

12 126,000 14,000 41,620 6,360 10. 131,000 10,620 51,180 2,720 

3 91,000 13,000 51,180 4,760 4 67,500 7,500 '49,630 3,670 

5 103,000 8,320 50c~-f40 4,990 

2 112,000 7, 780 285 

1 79,000 7,600 (1) 86 

North of Cutler 

··- 9 179,000 16.630 c'> so 

11 120,000 360,000 12,080 750 

7 120.000 360,000 12,080 16 

6 2,260 6, 780 3;110 53 

Goulds 

13 7,350 41,650 C'> 6,540 

1

This layer is not apparent on the resistivity curve. 
SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 721 

~~~~ .. ~~-·,••~-..,~u•~--, 

-·~ -- ·-~-

WELL G 472 (CUTLER) 

Driller's lo; 

OOlitic rlmeston& I Corcote-ous sands'fione J Sondy l;m .. ton• with I with ti(lnd ond pnosphoteo ;rains Shl!ll$ and pho&phat• 

• •• '"""t 

ChiQrld!!' log, in ports per millmn 

_j_ ~I ~I ~I ~I~ ~ ~i Resistivlfy lnterpretati.?ns, line 7, north~:-~ 

s;'n:yJ,HI'!':~~~:H•• ond colcoroous sandstone; .1· COIC:Or!Ous scndstont and limesJone; 

$Oil l~Tru~ ter of hiQher cl\torlde concentr'(ltton wottr of ve-ry high chloride concenuatlon 

10' 20' >a' 4o' 50' 60' 70' eo' 90' 100' 110' 1201 

WELL G 518 (EAST OF PRINCHCN -SEE PL. 23) 

OrlllerliOijJ 

~ Oclitle I Calcareous •and&ton•, oond, p110$phate, ~~~lea- .l~;mo~~~ lirntstone and shells, ~~&ry ptrrMObl• ~ o~l"'t ston@ ; 

Chloride 109, In part.s per million 

~I ~I ~I ~I ~I ~I Ruistivity interpre1otions, line 13, Goulds 

ond sandstone; water of row Soil I Hord ooll!• and calcareous I oolite chloride conc@ntrotlon mode~~~f;ey~! :t.~l3~ 6 

~6'g:~t~tlon; morl, clay 

10' 20' 3o' •o' $0' 6o' 70' eo' oo' lOci 1101 1201 

Figure 210. -Comparison of clrlller's logs and chloride logs with resistivity lnteJ"pl'etations, 

Cutler area and near (;oulds. 

lower intermediate bed appears to be rather hard and impervious; 

near Biscayne Bay, its electrical identity is missing. The bottom 

layer shows that the sea water has infiltrated to a point somewhere between lines no. 2 and no. 5, and that the limestone and 

sandstone beds saturated with salt water are lower in resistivity 

than are the marl and clay lying beneath them. 

The situation north of Cutler is the same, except that here the 

sea-water invasion has extended to the surface materials as far inland as line no. 6. This is apparent from the low resistivity values 

for all of the layers in this line. 

The resistivity line at Goulds was taken just across the road 

from Goulds Canal near well G 518 east of Princeton (see pl. 23). 

The low resistivity of the surface materials indicates the presence 

of chlorides, although no samples were taken in this section for the 

chloride log. It appears that some contamination from the canal may 

have caused the low resistivity in the upper layer. The resistivity 

of the intermediate layer indicates that the chloride content of the 

water there is relatively low. The resistivity of the deeper materials is about the same as is found in the adjacent areas. 

MEASUREMENTS AT FORT LAUDERDALE 

The electrical resistivity measurements at Fort Lauderdale 

were made near the Fort Lauderdale water plant, well field, and 
722 WATER. RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

golf course, located a short distance west of the city. Some control, in the form of well logs and chloride logs, was available, 

but it was not always possible to obtain resistivity measurements 

close to the drill holes because of nearby buried conductors or 

grounded power lines. 

Thirteen resistivity profile measurements were begun in this 

area. One profile was abandoned because it was impossible to get 

sufficient current into the earth through the very dry sand cover. 

Another measurement was temporarily abandoned because of instrument failure, but it was made later with a different instrument. A third measurement was of no value beyond the 15-ft interval because negative potentials appeared with a corresponding 

inequality of the P-1 and P-2 readings. The apparent resistivity 

curves obtained in this small area are widely variable, both as 

to the number of layers and the resisitivities of the layers. 

R. 41 E. 

.o 4!!JG 

N 

1 

-l.l.IS&I II 12 

1413 

EXPLANATION 

-o- R .. lotivity line 

• Well 

I I 

IZ T 

R. 42 E. 

8ROWAR 8011 li:YARO 

-<>- Rl-11 

RL e RL. 10 7 8 &&le 

Rlll~ ...... 

0 Fort Louderdolo wt>ter plant 

0 

Well recoroy for plotted wells not lnclud<ld in the appendix are in the fii.U of the 

U.S. Geological Survey 

1/2 I Mile 

Figure 211.-Location of resistivity lines and related wells, Fort Lauderdale area. 

T. 

50 

s. 
1--

w 

w 

LL 

~ 

I 

1--

Q. 

w 

0 

0 

Figure 212. - Ccrrelation of resisl;ivity layers near F crt Lauderdale, 

EXPLANATION 

79 Ill 

First layer 

II 

Second Ioyer 

E; 

Third Ioyer 

§ 

Fourth Ioyer 19 

[TI 

Fifth layer 

Patterns indicate 

layers correlated 

by resistivity and 

position 

Slant numbers alan g 

columns indi cote 

resistivity in 10 3 

ohm ems 

"' ie 

>-l 

I 

~ 

i::l 

:xl 

~ :xl 

~ 

>-l 

~ 
724 WATER RESOURCES IN SOU1HEASTERN FLORIDA 

The locations of the resistivity lines in the Fort Lauderdale 

area are given in figure 211. The wellsused in the'correlation of 

the resistivity measurements are also shown in this figure. Copies of the well logs and chloride logs are in the Appendix and in 

the files of the U. S. Geological Survey. 

On plate 18 the interpretations of the apparent resistivity curves 

are compared graphically with the well logs and chloride logs of 

the nearest wells. It is apparent from tne interpretations that the 

numerous beds described in the well logs do not have uniquely distinguishing electrical characteristics. Furthermore, the well logs 

and the analysis of the apparent resistivity curves indicate that 

the beds may not be continuous throughout the small area in which 

the resistivity measurements were made. 

The resistivity of the surface material varies between 18, 200 

and 478,000 ohm ems; of the intermediate materials, 14, 100 to 

60, 700 ohm ems; of the deepest materials within the range of observations, 400 to 7, 100 ohm ems. 

A layer-correlation chart, based upon the computed apparent 

resistivities of the layers, is presented in numerical sequence 

from left to right in figure 212. The layer just below the surface 

layer varies greatly in thickness; however, it is missing at locations 7, 9, and 12, and appears greatly thickened at location 10. 

The next deeper layer, the third from the surface, changes electrical characte:rli.s!ics at locations 9 and 10, becoming respectively about three times and two times as resistant; however, this 

layer is missing at location 11. 

The three uppermost layers probably contain water of very low 

chloride concentration, but the next deeper layer, the fourth,,is 

considered to contain water of moderately low chloride concentration. The latter zone is variable both in the amount of chlorides present and the depth to which it extends. According to the 

interpretations of the. resistivity curves, the bottom of this zone 

was not reached at locations 3, 7, 9, 10, 12, and 13. A very low 

resistivity was determined for the bottom layer at locations 1, 2, 

6, and 11. Any water that is present in this layer would be expected to contain a high concentration of chlorides, perhaps nearly as much as sea water. 

Locations 1, 2, 3, and 6 probably contain more chlorides in the 

water near the surface than any of the others. 

Vorhis (1948) states that well G 512 contained salt water at 42 

ft and that well G 513 contained salt water at 10 and 52 ft. The 

concentrations of chlorides are rather low, 180 ppm in the first 

well and 59 and 52 ppm, respectively, in the other. Resistivity 

line no. 1 was completed a short distance west of well G 512. The 
SALT-WATER ENCROACHMENT 725 

only possible salt-water contamination zone indicated by the resistivity interpretationsistheonebetween 2. 7 and 3.1 ft. Resistivity line no. 2 was centered about 700ft east of well G 51.3. Resistivity interpretations indicate that a possible zone of salt-water 

infiltration is between 2. 5 and 14ft. There is, however, no indication of salt-water contamination corresponding to the measured 

depth of 52 ft. The bed of black muck near the surface probably 

masks the interpretation of the salt-water zone to a certain 

extent. 

The resistivity interpretations indicate that the zone of nearsurface infiltration of salt water has not extended as far west as 

resistivity line nos. 11, 13, and 12. 

EVALUATION OF THE METHOD 

It has been demonstrated that salty ground water can be located 

in the coastal area near Miami by a very careful selection of 

sites for resistivity lines. The brief study near Fort Lauderdale 

clearly shows the possibility of carrying out resistivity surveys 

to trace salt-water encroachment in that area also. To keep a 

record of the advance and retreat of the salt water, a series of 

resistivity line centers would have to be laid out and observations 

would have to be taken at regular intervals. The apparent resistivity curves could be interpreted, a chart of the resistivity prepared, and the entire problem then followed graphically. Furthermore, with more field measurements it should be possible to 

correlate the formations and determine the geology in the areas 

between the drill holes. Some difficulties would be encountered, 

such as interference from power lines, buried mains, pipes, and 

cables. The very dry mantle of sand would also give trouble. 

However, with more time and careful planning, these difficulties 

could be overcome. 
QUALITY OF GROUND AND SURFACE WATERS 

By S. K. Love 

INTRODUCTION 

The wide range in composition of waters available, or in use, 

in southeastern Florida is indicated by analyses of several hundred samples of surface and ground waters made during the course 

of this investigation. Except for its color, sorne of the water in 

the area would be classed as excellent for all ordinary uses. Some 

of the water can be made entirely satisfactory for all uses by 

fairly simple treatment, but water from other sources cannot be 

made suitable for general use by any practical treatment. 

Because the most urgent need for information about the quality 

and quantity of water in southeastern Florida is in connection with 

municipal supplies for the cities of Miami, Miami Beach, and 

other nearby communities, most of the intensive analytical work 

has been done on samples from sources in, or near, the metropolitan area of Miami. The work has included determinations of 

the general character of surface water and its contamination by 

salt water. Information has been obtained about the general character of shallow ground water and of artesian water in the Miami 

area. A large number of determinations were made on samples 

of water from test wells, and analyses were made to show the .extent of contamination of the public supply wells. Looking to the 

possibility of obtaining supplies at a greater distance from the 

Miami area, attention was given to the character of surface water 

and ground water in the Lake Okeechobee area and in the coastal 

areas of Broward and Palm Beach Counties. · 

EARLIER REPORTS ON QUALITY OF WATER 

A few analyses of ground waters in southeastern ]florida are reported by Sellards and Gunter (1913, p, 103-290), and by Matson 

and Sanford (1913). These analyses indicate that shallow ground 

water in the permeable aquifers near the coast (where uncontaminated with salt water) was hard, but otherwise suitable for domestic and industrial use. The authors of both reports point out 

that artesian water obtained from deep wells in West Palm Beach 

and farther south were highly mineralized and unsatisfactory for 

most uses. 

A report by Collins and Howard (1928, p. 177-233) includes 

analyses of practically all of the public supplies in southeastern 

346881 0-55--+8 727 
728 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Florida, together with analyses of several privately owned wells 

and of a few surface waters. 

Prior to this investigation, a considerable number of chloride 

determinations were made by the cities of Miami and Miami Beach 

in an attempt to determine the extent of salt-water contamination 

in the Miami area. All of these records were made available to 

the Geological Survey and have proved invaluable in providing a 

background for the comprehensive investigation of water resources. 

During the course of the investigation, information about the 

quality of surface waters was released in a progress report 

(Cross, Love, Parker, and Wallace, 1940), and in a paper by 

Cross and Love (1942, p. 490-504). A paper by Love and Swenson 

(1942, p. 1624-1628) gives analyses of the 25 public supplies in 

southeastern Florida. 

The chemical character of ground water in the EvergJades has 

been discussed by Stringfield (1933a), by Parker (1942, p. 47-76), 

and by Parker and Hoy (1943, p. 33-55). 

METHODS OF INVESTIGATION 

COLLECTION AND EXAMINATION OF SAMPLES 

The general survey of southeastern Florida included a systematic study of the chemical character of all of the major streams, 

lakes, and canals. On the larger streams and canals, complete 

analyses were made of 10-day composites of samples collected 

daily for a period of a year. Less frequent analyses were made 

of samples collected from smaller and less important streams. 

Two surveys were made of the quality of water in Lake Okeechobee by making analyses of samples collected from about 40 points 

in the lake; one survey was made in 1940 when the lake was at a 

low stage, and another was made in 1941 when it was at a comparatively high stage. 

Semimonthly samples were collected from several tidal canals 

in, and near, Miami throughout most of the period of the investigation in order to follow the trend of salt-water intrusion from 

Biscayne Bay. 

Chloride was determined in a large number of samples collected 

in 1939 and 1940 from wells in the Miami area in order to determine the extent of contamination by sea water, and every month 

thereafter chloride was determined on samples collected from a 

group of keywells that would adequately reflect significant movements of salt water in the aquifers. 
QUALITY OF GROUND AND SURFACE WATERS 729 

More complete analyses were made of several hundred samples 

from wells both in Miami and in other parts of southeastern Florida to obtain reliable information about the character of the ground 

waters. 

A series of analyses were made of water samples collected 

from .a large number of test wells that were drilled to obtain information on the geologic and hydrologic properties of the waterbearing formations and about the chemical character of the waters at different depths. 

In addition to the regular program of sampling and analyses, 

several hundred chemical examinations and analyses were made 

of water samples that might furnish relevant information. 

EXPRESSION OF RESULTS 

·The analyses are reported in parts per million for all mineral 

constituents. Specific conductance is reported in reciprocal 

ohms (mhos); pH is reported in standard pH units; and color is 

reported in dimensionless units defined by standard platinumcobalt scale. 

The analytical results obtained in chemical analyses are, strictly speaking, in milligrams per liter. For all practical purposes, 

however, for waters having a total.. concentration of dissolved 

mineral matter of less than 10, 000 mg per liter, the units "milligrams per liter" and "parts per million" are essentially equal. 

For waters in which the content of dissolved solids is greater than 

10,000 mg per liter, the two units can no longer be assumed to 

be equivalent. The increase in density of the waters having a 

concentration of over 10, 000 mg per liter makes it necessary to 

use a correction factor to report the analysis in parts per million. Because chloride is the predominant constituent of most 

concentrated waters in southeastern Florida, and also because 

sea water is the chief source of mineralmatter in the concentrated waters, it was found satisfactory to apply a correction factor to all waters in which chloride was found in excess of 5, 000 

mg per liter in order that the results of analysis could be expressed uniformly in parts per million. 

CONSTITUENTS AND PROPERTIES OF NATURAL WATERS 

The mineral constituents of natural waters generally reflect 

the composition and solubility of the rock materials with which 

the waters have been in contact. In southeastern Florida the mineral matter found in surface and ground waters is derived not 

only from rocks and rock material, but also through the medium 
730 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

of ion exchange from organic mucks and soils to which mineral 

matter has been adsorbed, It is also derived. in some parts of the 

Everglades from saline residues remaining from former invasions of the sea which have not been completely flushed out by 

meteoric water. Still another source of mineralization is sea water that has contaminated some surface and ground waters near 

the coast and along the tidal canals, 

OOLOR 

In water analysis the term "color" refers to the appearance of 

water that is free of suspended matter, Water for domestic use 

and for some industrial uses should be free from perceptible 

color, All of the surface waters and most of the ground waters in 

southeastern Florida are colored, 

Natural color in surface and ground waters is caused almost 

entirely by organic matter extracted from leaves, roots, arid 

other substances in the ground, The platinum-cobalt standard 

proposed by Hazen (1892, p. 300-310) is the commonly adopted 

standard for measuring color in water (Am. Public Health Assoc., 

1936, p, 12-14) in the United States, the unit of color being that 

produced by 1 mg of platinum per liter, dissolved as platinic 

chloride, with the addition of enough cobalt chloride to give a 

color matching the shade of the natural water. The figures for 

color given in the table of analyses represent. units on this platinumcobalt scale, 

Color was determined of almost all samples of surface and 

ground waters for which analyses are given in this report. 

SPECIHC OONDUCTANCE 

The specific conductance of a water is a measure of its ability 

to conduct an electric current, Specific conductance, which is the 

reciprocal of specific resistance in ohms, is expressed in reciprocal ohms at 25° C (77° F). In order that the use of awkwardly 

small figures may be avoided, the measured values of specific 

conductance are multiplied by 10 5

, as indicated in the heading at 

the top of the column in the tables of analyses, 

The specific conductance of a water is a function of the amount 

and kind of the dissolved mineral matter. It varies with the concentration and also with the degree of ionization of the minerals 

in solution. It is of value in determining the volume to be used for 

analysis and, particularly in southeastern Florida, in determining the extent to which surface and ground water are contaminated 

with sea water, 
QUALITY OF GROUND AND SURFACE WATERS 731 

SIUCA 

Silica (Si02) is dissolved from practically all rocks and rock 

materials, Its state in natural waters is not definitely known, but 

in reports of analyses it is assumed to be in the colloidal state, 

taking no part in the equilibrium between acids and bases. In 

southeastern Florida, the concentration of silica, in those waters 

in which it was determined, ranged from about 2 to 20 ppm, with 

an average of somewhat less than 10 ppm. The silica in a water 

may be precipitated with other scale-forming materials in steam 

boilers, This may be a serious matter in the operation of highpressure boilers. Otherwise, silica is of comparatively little 

importance in determination of water use. 

IRON 

Iron (Fe) is dissolved from practically all soils and rocks and 

frequently from iron pipes. Soft waters low in mineral content 

and other waters of low pH will dissolve iron from iron pipes and 

particularly from hot-water lines and boilers. The quantity of 

iron in ground water is not so uniform over large areas as the 

quantity of calcium and other constituents. Wells, close together, have been found to differ considerably in the quantity of iron 

in their waters. Surface waters in southeastern Florida generally contain less than 0, 1 ppm of iron but ground waters may contain from a few hundredths of a part to 3 or 4 ppm and even larger amounts have been found in some wells, 

Water furnished to consumers by public supplies should not 

contain more than about 0. 2 ppm of iron. Water that contains 

much more than this amount of iron is not suitable because of the 

appearance of "red-water," or reddish-brown sediment caused 

by the oxidation of the iron, The iron will make stains on white 

porcelain, enameled ware and fixtures, and on clothing or other 

fabrics. Many industrial plants, including those manufacturing 

and preparing foods, carbonated beverages, beer, textiles, dyed 

fabrics, high-grade paper, and ice, must have water practically 

free from iron. The excess iron may be removed by simple aeration and filtration from most waters but some waters require 

the addition of lime or some other substance. 

CALCIUM 

Calcium (Ca) is dissolved in large quantities from limestone, 

which is largely calcium carbonate. Corals and shells are also 

nearly all calcium carbonate. Calcium is, therefore, found in 

considerable quantities in all ground waters in southeastern 

Florida. 
732 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Calcium carbonate is not very soluble in pure water, but when 

enough carbon dioxide is available, large quantities of calcium 

carbonate go into solution as the bicarbonate. Calcium is the 

main cause of the hardness of waters in southeastern Florida. 

MAGNESIUM 

Magnesium (Mg) is dissolved from practically all rocks but 

mainly from dolomite and dolomitic limestones. The limestones 

of southeastern Florida contain little magnesium, therefore the 

ground waters carry only small quantities. Magnesium is one of 

the abundant constituents of sea water and therefore will be found 

in large quantities in ground water contaminated with sea water,. 

or with salts embedded in the deposits of ancient seas. Magnesium and calcium are the only elements that cause appreciable 

hardness in most natural waters, 

SODIUM AND POTASSIUM 

Sodium (Na) and potassium (K) are dissolved from almost all 

rocks, but they make up only a small part of the dissolved mineral matter in most of the surface and ground waters in southeastern Florida. As sea water is mainly a solution of common 

salt (sodium chloride), considerable quantities of sodium are 

found in waters contaminated with sea water or in waters with 

salts enclosed in the older marine deposits. The quantity of sodium may be from 5 to 30 ppm in an ordinary surface or ground 

water or several hundred parts per million in a highly mineralized water. The quantity of potassium is generaily comparatively small. Natural waters that contain only 3 or 4 ppm of sodium 

and potassium are likely to contain about equal quantities of the 

two. As the total quantity of these constituents increases, the 

proportion of potassium becomes less. In waters carrying from 

30 to 50 ppm of both of these co-nstituents, the ratio of sodium to 

potassium may vary from about 4:1 to 10:1. For waters that 

carry increasing amounts of sodium, the ratio of sodium to potassium may be even larger. 

A calculated quantity of sodium and potassium is given in many 

analyses-the quantity that is needed, in addition to the calcium 

and magnesium, to balance the acid radicles: bicarbonate, sulfate, chloride, and nitrate. The quantity thus calculated is affected by any errors in the determination of the individual constituents. The calculation sometimes leads to a negative quantity 

for sodium, especially if no nitrate is reported in the analysis. 

In a few such analyses, the sodium and potassium are not reported. 
QUALITY OF GROUND AND SURFACE WATERS 

BICAIUJONATE 

733 

Bicarbonate (HC03 ) in natural waters results from the action 

by carbon dioxide (dissolved in the water) on carbonate rocks. A 

few natural waters contain carbonate (C03), but generally its 

presence in samples is the result of the action of the water on 

the sample bottle or of previous treatment of the water. 

Surface and ground waters that have not been in contact with 

limestone may have less than 20 ppm of bicarbonate. The ordinary surface and ground waters in southeastern Florida, however, have about 150 to 400 ppm of bicarbonate. In some parts 

of the Everglades, concentrations of 500 to 1, 000 ppm of bicarbonate are not uncommon. 

Bicarbonate is the principal acid radicle in nearly all waters 

used for public supplies. Its relationship to hardness is discussed 

below. 

SULFATE 

Sulfate (S04) is dissolved in large quantities from gypsum 

(calcium sulfate) in the rocks and soil. It is also formed by the 

oxidation of sulfides of. iron, and sulfates from this source cause 

serious pollution of streams in parts of the country where the 

opening of mines has exposed large quantities of iron sulfide to 

the action of air and water. The waters in southeastern Florida 

that have large quantities of sulfate appear to have obtained it 

from solution of concentrated deposits of sodium sulfate or calcium sulfate. 

Sulfate itself has little effect on tl;J.e general use of a water. 

Magnesium sulfate and sodium sulfate may be present in sufficient quantity to give a bitter taste. Sulfate in a hard water may 

increase the cost of softening and will form a much more troublesome scale in a steam boiler. 

Cln.OIUPE 

Chloride (Cl) is an abundant constituent of sea water and is dissolved in small quantities from rock materials. Many of the surface waters of southeastern Florida have less than 15 ppm of 

chloride, but ground waters with 100 ppm, or more, are not uncommon. Along the coast, ground waters contain from 10 to 30 

ppm of chloride, and in some parts of the Everglades shallow 

wells may contain several hundred parts per million. Deeper 

wells in the Everglades have been known to contain as much as 

3, 150 ppm of chloride. 
734 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Chloride, like sodium, with which it forms sodium chloride 

(common salt), has little effect on water for ordinary uses unless 

there is enoughpresent togive a salty taste. Waters high in chloride may be corrosive to plumbing and steam boilers and harmful to irrigated crops. 

FLUORIDE 

Fluoride (F) has been reported to be as prevalent as chloride 

in rocks (Shepherd, 1940, p, 117-128). However, the quantity in 

natural waters is very much less than that of chloride. Surface 

waters in southeastern Florida do not contain more than 0, 6 ppm 

of fluoride and usually less than 0. 3 ppm was found. Fluoride 

concentrations in public supplies ranged from 0 to 0. 3 ppm, except for one small supply obtained from a deep artesian well that 

contained over 2 ppm. (See analysis of public supply at LaBelle, 

Hendry County.) 

Fluoride in water is associated with the dental defect known as 

mottled enamel (Dean, 1936, p. 1269-1272) if children drink the 

water during the calcification or formation of their teeth, Normally formed teeth have not been known to become mottled later, 

regardless of the fluoride content of the drinking water. Teeth 

having mottled enamel become a dull chalky white color, which, 

in many cases, later takes on a characteristic dark-brown stain, 

It is generally recognized that water containing 1 ppm, or less, 

of fluoride will have no deleterio-us effect on tooth enamel and 

waters with slightly higher concentrations are used for public 

supplies without noticeable effect. Except for the single public 

supply mentioned above, there is no evidence to show that fluoride concentrations in potable surface and ground waters in southeastern Florida are sufficient to produce mottled enamel on children's teeth. It has been reported (Dean, Jay, Arnold, and Elvove, 1941, p. 761-792) that quantities of fluoride not sufficient 

to produce mottled enamel may have a beneficial- effect on teeth 

by reduction of the incidence of dental caries (decay). ' 

NITRATE 

Nitrate (N03 ) is a relatively unimportant constituent of most of 

the analyses given in th1s report. Nitrate may indicate previous 

contamination by sewage or other organic matter because it represents the final stage of oxidation in the nitrogen cycle, Most 

waters in southeastern Florida carry less than 2 ppm of nitrate. 

This small a_uantity has little effect on the value of water for ordinary uses. 
QUALITY OF GROUND AND SURFACE WATERS 735 

DISSOLVED SOUDS 

The residue, on evaporation, of a water consists mainly of the 

rock materials reported in the analyses. A small quantity of organic materialand a little water of crystallization are sometimes 

included. The amount of dissolved solids in the surface and ground 

waters of southeastern Florida range from less than 50 to several 

thousand partspermillion. Waters with less than 500 ppm of dissolved solids are generally entirely satisfactory for domestic 

use, except for the difficulties resulting from their hardness. 

The waters with more than 1,000 ppm are likely to contain enough 

of certain constituents to produce a noticeable taste or to make 

the water unsuitable for many domestic and industrial uses. 

HARDNESS 

Hardness of a water is most commonly recognized by a lack of 

suds i~ washing. Most of the figur~s for hardness given in the 

tables of analyses were calculated from the determinations of 

quantities of calcium and magnesium. In some of the less complete analyses, the hardness was determined by the soap method. 

In addition to causing trouble in the use of soap, these constituents 

are active agents in the formation of scale in steam boilers and 

other vessels in which water is heated or evaporated. 

Hardness may be of two kinds-carbonate and noncarbonate. 

Carbonate hardness, sometimes referred to as temporary hardness, is caused by calcium and magnesium bicarbonate. Much of 

the carbonate hardness can be removed by boiling or by treatment 

with lime. Noncarbonate hardness, often called permanent hardness, is caused by calcium and magnesium sulfate (chloride and 

nitrate) and is more difficult and costly to remove. Both forms of 

hardness may be entirely removed bypassing the water through a 

zeolite-type of water softener, but water softened by this method 

still contains approximately the original quantity of dissolved min.:. 

eral matter. 

Water with a hardness of less than 60 ppm is generally rated 

as soft, and its treatment for the removal of hardness is rarely 

justified. Hardness between 60 and 120 ppm does not seriously 

interfere with the use of water for most purposes, but it does 

slightly increase the consumption of soap, and its removal by a 

softening process is profitable for laundries and allied industries. 

Hardness between 120 and 200 ppm is troublesome for many industrial processes and requires treatment for the prevention of 

scale in boilers. Hardness above 200 ppm is objectionable for 

most industrial and domestic uses. Water having a hardness of 

from 200 to 400 ppm is used by many people who obtain their water supplies from privately owned wells and is also furnished by 
736 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

some of the larger public supplies. There is an increasing tendency, however, for cities to soften their water supplies if the raw 

water has a hardness in excess of 150 ppm. Where municipal water supplies are softened, an attempt is generally made to reduce 

the hardness to about 85 ppm. 

Waters of widely differing degrees of hardness are found in 

southeastern Florida. The surface waters flowing into Lake Okeechobee are very soft, but surface waters in canals and streams 

south and east of Lake Okeechobee have a hardness ranging from 

about 100 to 400 ppm. Practically all ground waters are decidedly hard, ranging from about 150 to 500 ppm. 

HYDROGEN SULFIDE 

Hydrogen sulfide (~S) was not detected in any samples of surface water and was found in only a few samples of ground water. 

Therefore this constituent is not shown in the tables of analyses. 

Hydrogen sulfide is a gas that gives the characteristic odor to 

sulfur waters. It is formed during the decomposition of eggs and 

other organic materials that contain considerable sulfur. Hydrogen sulfide in ground waters is commonly believed to be formed 

by the reduction of sulfates. 

Many ground waters in Florida carry small quantities of hydrogen sulfide, but it usually disappears quickly when the water is 

allowed to stand in an open vessel. Treatment for the removal of 

iron will insure the removal of hydrogen sulfide from most of 

these waters. 

HYDROGEN-ION CONCENTRATION (pH) 

The degree of acidity or alkalinity of a water, as indicated by 

the hydrogen-ion concentration (Clark, 1928), is of importance 

with reference to the corrosiveness and the proper treatment for 

coagulation at the water-treatment plant. The hydrogen-ion concentration is commonly reported as pH. 

Technically, pH is the number of moles of ionized hydrogen per 

liter, or to put it more simply, it is a number denoting the degree 

of acidity or a.lkalinity. A pH value of 7. 0 represents neutrality, 

which means that the water is neither acid nor alkaline. Values 

higher than 7,0 denote increasing alkalinity; values lower than 7.0 

denote increasing acidity. Waters that have a pH of less than 7. 0 

are likely to be corrosive, while waters that have a pH of more 

than 7. 0 are less likely to be corrosive. Other factors entering 

into chemicalequilibrium, however, make it impossible to correlate corrosive characteristics of waters on the basis of pH alone. 
QUALITY OF GROUND AND SURFACE WATERS 737 

Inasmuch as most of the surface and ground waters in southeastern Florida are decidedly hard and are, therefore, generally 

noncorrosive, pH was not determined on most of the samples. 

However, pH is reported for practically all of the public water 

supplies. 

CORROSIVENESS 

The corrosiveness of water is that property which makes the 

water aggressive to metal surfaces and frequently causes trouble 

by the appearance of "red-water. " The disadvantages of iron in a 

water supply have been previously discussed. However, in addition to the trouble caused by iron in water, corrosion causes the 

deterioration of water pipes, steam boilers, and water-heating 

equipment. Many waters that do not appreciably corrode cold-· 

water lines will aggressively attack hot-water lines, because 

raising the temperature of the water greatly increases its corrosivity. Corrosion of pipe lines, resulting in tuberculation (Alexander, 1940, p. 371-385), causes economic losses due to increased friction and loss of flow. Speller (1935), in his book on 

corrosion, presents a comprehensive inventory of available information on the general principles, causes, and prevention of corrosion. Oxygen, carbon dioxide, free acid, and acid-generating 

salts are the principal constituents in water that cause corrosion. 

A method has been developed by Langelier (1936, p, 1500-1521) 

for computing the corrosive tendency of a water, providing that 

the content of calcium and dissolved mineralmatter, the total alkalinity, and the pH of the water are known. 

In a general way, very soft waters tend to be corrosive and hard 

waters tend to be noncorrosive. Most of the soft waters in southeastern Florida are found in the Kissimmee River and in smaller 

streams to the north and west of Lake Okeechobee. Although no 

factual data are available, it is probable that these waters are 

corrosive to plumbing and boilers. Generally, the hard surface 

and ground waters to the south and east of Lake Okeechobee are 

not noticeably corrosive. Waters containing appreciable amounts 

of sea water, however, and waters in which sodium chloride is 

present in moderately large amounts, are likely to be corrosive. 

Corrosion may be checked by protective coatings, by the addition of lime, soda ash, or other chemicals that adjust the pH, 

and by the addition of sodium hexametaphosphate, sodium silicate, 

or certain other chemicals. 

CHEMICAL CHARACTER OF SURFACE WATERS 

Surface waters that discharge into Lake Okeechobee from the 

north and west are soft, low in dissolved mineral matter, and 
738 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTiiEASTERN FLORIDA 

highly colored. South and east of Lake Okeechobee, surface waters, which usually flow away from the lake, are variable in character but are usually hard, contain moderate to large amounts of 

dissolved mineral matter, and are also highly colored. The 

amount of dissolved matter in Lake Okeechobee is intermediate 

between the soft inflowing water to the north and west and the hard 

water flowing seaward to the south and east. 

KISSIMMEE RIVER 

Complete chemical analyses were made on 10-day composites 

of daily samples collected from the Kissimmee River at Harding 

Bridge on State Highway 70, about 10 miles west of the town of 

Okeechobee, for a period of a year ending February 28, 1941 

(see table 82). The analyses show that there was little variation 

in concentration of any of the chemical constituents throughout 

the year. Dissolved solids ranged from 61 to 80 ppm. The Kissimmee River is the largest source of soft water in southern 

Florida. The hardness ranged from only 17 to 26 ppm during the 

period of record, and it is probable that the hardness seldom exceeds 30 or 35 ppm. The river water is, however, highly colored 

with organic matter, the color remaining practically constant at 

110 through the year. Although the Kissimmee River is the largest 

tributary to Lake Okeechobee, the composition of the river water 

is very different from the composition of the lake water. An explanation will be presented in the section on Lake Okeechobee~ 

,. 

" 3 

i 

ffi 

400 

D. 300 .. 

I< 

: 

100 

0 

~ ~ 

~ ·---~~~~~~-•!OL.!f!~--· 

MAR. APR. MAY 

""' V\ 

DISCHARGE l \ 

;v ~ ~ J P--

'-J ---., 

-··~""' ""V .. ,'-.. ,_A~""\ _ ... _ ..... ~·~ '-"""- _ ..._..,., ·-........ ~ .. , ...... ~ ....... -~ ... .,. .. 

IIUNE +JUI...Y AUG. S!PT. OCT. NOV. Df.C. JAN. P"EB. 

1940 1941 

4000 

"' I 3000 ~ 

~ 

~ 2000 ~ 

' 000 

0 

Figure 213. -Graph showing discharge and dissolved solids in the Kissimmee River near 

Okeechobee, 1940-41, 
Table 82.-Analyses, in parts per million, of water from the f(issimmee River neac Okeechobee 

Specific Total Date Mean Color conductance Silica bon Calcium Magnesium Sodium Potassium Bicarbonate Sulfate Chloride Fluoride Nitrate Dissolved hardness of discharge (K x 105- (Si~) (Fe) (Ca) (Mg) (Na) (K) (HCOJ (S04) (C1) (F) (No,) solids as collection (cfs) at 25•q caco1 

1940 

Mar. 1-10 1,454 110 9.1 1. 2 0,02 6.4 2,4 8. 6 1.1 14 6.6 15 o. 2 0.1 80 26 

Mar. 11-20 1,410 110 8.9 1. 3 .02 6,2 2.3 8. 6 .6 15 6.5 14 .2 .1 79 25 

Mar. 21-31 1,534 110 8.4 1. 3 .02 6. 0 2.2 8.4 • 8 15 5.8 13 .2 .1 77 24 

Apr. 1-10 1,560 110 8.1 1.5 .02 6.0 2.1 8. 2 .6 15 5,3 13 • 2 .1 76 24 

Apr. 11-20 1, 545- 110 8.4 1.5 .04 5.9 1.7 8. 6 • 6 16 6,3 12 .2 .2 72 22 

Apr. 21-30 1,384 110 8. 3 1.4 .03 5.9 1.9 8.1 .6 15 6.5 12 • 2 .2 73 23 

May 1-10 1,242 110 8.6 2.0 .02 5. 8 1.4 8.9 .5 16 6.7 12 .2 .2 76 20 May 11-20 1,113 110 8.7 1.6 .02 6.4 1.4 8. 5 • 6 14 7.2 12 .2 .2 76 22 

May 21-31 1,011 110 9. 2 1.3 .02 6.1 . 1. 7 9.2 .6 15 7.6 13 ,2 .2 79 22 

June 1-10 1,088 110 8.9 1.7 .02 6,3 1.3 8. 8 .5 15 7.2 14 .2 • 2 76 21 

June 11-20 1,050 110 8.8 1. 6 ,02 6.3 1.4 8. 6 .7 15 7.4 12 .2 ·• 2 76 22 

June 21-30 989 110 9.1 2, 2 .02 6.4 2.0 8. 5 • 6 15 8.1 13 .2 .2 79 24 

July 1-10 1,232 110 8.1 1. 6 . 04 5. 7 1.5 8.0 .7 15 6.3 12 .2 • 2 73 20 

July 11-20 1,429 110 7.6 1.6 .02 5.8 1.8 7. 6 • 6 14 8.6 12 .2 • 2 72 22 

July 21-31 1,505 110 7.2 3,3 .15 5. 7 1.8 7. 3 .8 14 4.8 9,5 .2 .2 66 22 

Aug. 1-10 1,935 110 6,2 2.4 .13 5.2 1.6 6. 6 .7 11 5,2 9.0 .2 .2 60 20 

Aug. 11-20 1,765 110 6.5 2.7 ,13 5.4 1.8 6. 5 .7 12 4.6 10 .4 .2 64 1!1 

Aug. 21-31 1,660 110 6.8 2. 6 .12 5. 6 1.9 6.·6 .6 12 5,4 10 .2 .2 66 22 

Sept. 1-10 2,178 110 6.2 2. 7 .14 5.0 1.9 6.9 .6 11 4.9 9.0 .3 .1 62 20 

Sept. 11-20 2,865 110 6.6 3.2 .02 5.1 1.6 4.6 .6 13 4.7 9,0 .1 .1 62 19 Sept. 21-30 3,087 110 6.6 3.4 .02 5.1 1.2 5,5 .6 13 4.3 9.5 .1 .o 63 18 

Oct. 1-10 3,284 110 6.6 3.4 .02 4.8 1.4 5. 8 • 6 12 3.8 10 .1 .o 63 18 

Oct. 11-20 2,753 110 6.6 2. 5 ,02 4,7 1.2 5.9 .6 12 3.8 9.5 .1 • 2 61 17 

Oct. 21-31 1,991 110 7.2 4.7 .02 5.0 1,6 6. 6 .6 12 4.6 12 ,1 .1 66 19 

Nov. 1-10 1,741 110 7.8 2. 2 ,02 5.2 1.4 7.1 .7 13 4.9 12 .1 .o 69 19 

Nov. 11-20 1,533 110 7.8 2. 2 .02 5,2 1. 7 7.1 .6 13 5.6 12 .1 .o 70 20 

Nov. 21-30 1,380 110 8.2 1,9 .02 5.4 1.8 6.9 .8 12 6.0 13 .1 .1 70 21 

Dec. 1-10 1,255 110 8.3 2. 0 .02 5.4 1.6 7. 0 .8 13 5.8 13 .1 .2 70 20 

Dec. 11-20 1,158 100 8.6 1. 8 .03 5.4 1,5 7. 6 1.0 13 5.9 13 .1 .3 72' 20 

Dec. 21-31 1,241 100 9.4 3,4 .07 5. 8 2.1 9.0 1.1 16 6.9_._ 16 ,1 .1 75 23 
T a hl e 82 .-Anal lyses, m Darts 11er m1 10n, o f water from I h e r >~ssrmmee River near Okeecho bee-continue d 

Specific Total 

Date Mean Color conductanc< Silica Iron Calcium Magnesi'UIJJ jsodium Potassium Bicarbonate Sulfate Chloride Fluoride Nitrate Dissolved hardness 

of discharge {K X lOS (SiC! (Fe) (Ca) {Mg) (Na) (K) (HC03

) {SO,) (Cl) (F) (NOS) solids as 

,.,.,llection (cfs) at 25" C) CaCO s 

1941 

Jan. 1-10 1,347 110 10.1 3.3 0. 07 5. 6 2.1 10 1,0 16 7.1 17 9·1 0,1 80 23 

Jan, 11-20 1,418 100 9.2 2. 5 ,05 5.5 2,0 9.0 1.2 15 6.3 lti .1 .4 71 22 

Jan. 21-31 1,704 110 9.1 2.8 .07 5.3 1.8 9.4 1.0 15 6.3 lo .1 .1 73 21 

Feb. 1-10 1,660 110 8.7 1.9 .04 5.4 1.8 8. 6 1.1 15 5.1 15 .1 ,2 70 21 

Feb. 11-19 1,846 110 8,3 l.ti .03 5.0 1. 7 8.2 1.1 13 5.5 14 .1 .2 67 19 

Feb. 20-28 1,718 110 8.4 1.3 • 05 5.2 1.8 8.0 1.2 14 5.4 14 .1 • 2 69 20 

Average ·······g··· 109 8.1 2.2 0.04 5, 6 1. 7 7.7 o. 8 14 5.9 12 o. 2 o. 2 71 21 
QUAUTY OF GROUND AND SURFACE WATERS 741 

The range of dissolved solids in the samples analyzed during 

the year ending February 28, 1941, together with the daily discharge is shown in figure 213. 

OTHER STREAMS CONTRIBUTING TO LAKE OKEECHOBEE 

In addition to the Kissimmee River, the principal streams that 

flow into Lake Okeechobee are Fisheating Creek, Indian Prairie 

Canal, and Taylor Creek. Analyses of samples collected at irregular intervals from these streams indicate that Fisheating and 

Taylor Creeks are similar in composition to the Kissimmee River. 

(See table 101.) A single sample collected from Indian Prairie 

Canal contained considerably more dissolved matter than samples 

collected from the other two streams. Color in samples collected 

from three streams ranged from 180 to 380, whereas color in the 

Kissimmee River averaged 110. 

LAKE OKEECHOBEE AND PRINCIPAL OUTFLOW CANALS 

LAKE OKEECIIOBEE 

It would be reasonable to suppose that the composition of the 

water in Lake Okeechobee would be similar to the composition of 

the inflowing water. Actually, however, the concentration of dissolved matter in the lake is about three times as great as the concentration in the major tributary streams, and the hardness is 

about five to seven times as great as that of the inflowing water. 

In order to study the composition of the water in different parts 

of Lake Okeechobee two series of samples were collected (fig. 

214). The first series of samples was collected in July 1940, and 

the second series of samples was collected in March 1941, corresponding to a low stage and a relatively high stage, respectively 

(see table 83). Analyses of both series of samples show that the 

composition of the lake water during each of the two sampling 

periods wa·s fairly uniform. An exception was observed in the 

1941 series at sampling stations 59 and 60 near the mouth of the 

Kissimmee River. At these stations the concentration· of dissolved 

solids in the lake water was lowered by the very dilute water from 

the river. In the 1940 samples, dissolved solids ranged from 189 

to 207 ppm and hardness ranged from 134 to 148 ppm, In the 1941 

samples, dissolved solids and hardness ranged from 167 to 197 

and from 124 to 144 ppm, respectively, not including the results 

for samples collected near the Kissimmee River. 

Several explanations have been advanced for the large difference 

in concentration of dissolved matter ordinarily found in the lake 

and the concentration found in the main tributary streams. It has 
742 

N 

1 

WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

..................................... --~·~·-

42 

41 • 40 • 

~9 tJ 0 

@ 83 84 

0 

85 

8238 

@ 

81 

37 

@ 

80 36 

@ 

79 3~ 

@ 

78 34 

@ 

77 ~~ 

@ 3 

76 2 @ 

44 

43 • • 

I~ • 

12 • 'is 

0 0~ 0 

86 87 ss 

10 • Q 9 

•o 53 

8 

•o 52 

b 0 

74 

510 32 

6 75 • 

@ 

50 

4 s· @ @ 

4S 49 

0 

72 

0 ~0 

73 • 31 • 

0 27 70 • 

0 28 

71 • 

29 

• 

EXPLANATION ;;, ~ "-' 

'!? 47 ~ • SURVEY OF JULY 30-31,1940 ~'i'\ 

0 SURV<;Y OF MARCH 11-12, 1941 v• 

@ E:AMPLING POIN:TS COMMON TO BOTH SURVEYS H ....... =""--- ----=~..;:.~ 

__j MILES :0.. ~ - t~ ~ '---'~~~__j_--·-- ~ ~" "' ,. 

l"'" H<3 

Figure 214. -Location of sampling stations in Lake Okeechobee. 

been suggested that it is a result of springs in the bottom of the 

lake that contain much larger quantities of dissolved matter than 

is found in the inflowing water. If this were true, it is probable 

that the water near the springs would be more concentrated than 

at some distance from them. Analyses of surface and bottom 

samples from over 40 points in the lake did not suppor·t such 

an explanation. 

Another view is that the high concentration of dissolved mineral 

matter in water discharged into the lake during short rainy periods 

from the Hillsboro and North New River Canals (and at times from 

the West Palm Beach Canal), may account for the increase in the 
QUALITY OF GROUND AND SURFACE WATERS 743 

concentration of dissolved matter in Lake Okeechobee. It is true 

that these canal waters are rather highly mineralized at certain 

times during the year. High and variable concentrations in the 

Hillsboro Canal have caused the town of Belle Glade much trouble 

in treating its public water supply during periods that the canal 

discharges into the lake. However, the amount of water discharged 

int.o the lake from these canals is relatively small and is considered to be insufficient to account for the concentrations of dissolved matter found in the lake. 

Still another factor to be considered is the concentration resulting from evaporation. Tremendous quantities of water are 

evaporated from the lake during the course of a year. Measurements show that evaporation ranges from about 40 to 45 in. per 

year. Precipitation averages about 50 to 55 in. Hence, evaporation is more than counterbalanced by precipitation. Evaporation cannot, therefore, account for any large increase in concentration of dissolved solids in the lake. 

The most probable explanation for the concentration of dissolved 

matter in Lake Okeechobee seems to be as follows: 

The inflowing water is normally low in concentration because 

the rivers and creeks drain sandy soil which is relatively insoluble. When the water enters the lake it soon comes in contact 

with shell marls or other limestone formations, which are known 

to lie at or very near the surface of the ground over much of the 

area covered by the lake. The lake is very shallow even at the 

highest stages. The deeper parts of the lake are little more than 

15 ft deep and the average is much less. As a result of its shallow 

depth, the surface of the lake is quickly affected by winds, and 

agitation of the water throughout probably takes place during relatively short periods of moderate wind velocities. The water becomes very turbid during storm periods and has noticeable turbidity even during extended periods of relative calm. The almost 

constant motion of the water brings it in ever-changing contact 

with the shell marls on the bottom of the lake; this facilitates solution of the calcium carbonate, thereby increasing the concent;ration of dissolved matter in the lake. Organic matter, growing, 

dying, and finally decaying on the lake bottom, also promotes solution of the limestone. It may be that this organic matter and the 

carbon dioxide dissolved from the air effectively controls the 

maximum concentration of dissolved matter, which is principally 

calcium carbonate. 

Analyses of samples collected from Kissimmee River, Fisheating Creek, and Lake Okeechobee are shown graphically in 

figure 215. 

346881 0-55--49 
table 83.-Analyses, in parts per titillion, of water from Lake Okeechobee -:1 

~ 

~ 

Specific Sodium Total 

Date Stationl Color conductance Calcium Magnesium and Bicarbonate Sulfate Chloride Nitrate Dissolved hardness 

of (K x 105 (Ca) (Mg) potassium (HC03

) (S04) (Cl) (NO,) solid§ as collection at 2S C) (Na + K) CaCO, 

July 30, 1940 1 4S 43.1 ............... ······ .. ····rr·· ................. 14S 34 : ............... ................. ............... Do ••••••••••• 2 40 31.6 41 22 138 21 0.4 201 148 

Do ••••••••••• 3 40 37,1 ................ ...................... ................ 132 23 38 ................. ................. . ............... Do ••••••••••• 4 4o 36.7 .............. ....................... .................. 130 27 37 ................ .................. .. ................. ~ Do ••••••••••• s 4S 36.8 ............... ................... ................ 131 26 37 ............... ................ .. ................ ;! 

;.1 

Do ••••••••••• 6 4S 36.S ............... ············io'" ................... 131 24 37 ·········:'8' ................. ................. Do rg ••••••••••• 7 4S 36.S 40 22 132 27 37 202 14L "' Do ••••••••••• 8 4S 3S.8 ................ ...................... .................... 131 26 36 . .............. ............... ................ 

~ Do ••••••••••• 9 4S 36.7 ............... ...................... ................. 130" 26 38 . ............... ................. . ............... Do ••••••••••• 10 4S 36,6 ............... .................... ................ 130 26 38 . .............. ................. . ................ Do ••••••••••• 11 so 36.2 ................... ············ri ... ................... 131 23 37 .. ............... .................. . ................ Do ••••••••••• 12 50 36.2 41 20 134 27 37 .8 203 148 z 

Do •••• ·~ •••••• 13 so 36.9 ............... ..................... .,. ................... 133 23 38 . ............ ................. .................. Do ••••••••••• 14 50 36.7 ................ ................... ................. 133 23 37 ................ "' .................. .. ............... g Do ••••••••••• lS so 36.2 .................. ....................... ................. 130 23 37 . .............. .................. ................... Do 

Do 

••••• 

••••••••••• 

~ ••••• 16 

17 

4S 

4S 36.1 

37.0 40 10 22 131 27 38 • 2 202 141 ~ 131 26 38 .... ................ ........................ .. ~ ............... . .............. ..................... . ..................... Do i;i ........... 18 4S 37.0 ................... ......................... . .................. 133 23 31 . ............. ................... . ....................... Do 

Do 

••••••••••• 

••••••••••• 

19 

20 

4S 

4S 

36.4 

36.S .................. ..................... ................... 131 2S 36 .............. ........................ . ................. ~ ................. .......................... ................... 130 23 37 .................. ..................... . ................. Do ••••••••••• 21 4S 36.4 40 9.9 22 131 21 37 . 6 201 141 g Do ••••••••••• 22 4S 36.S ................... ......................... .................... 130 23 38 ................... .................... ................. Do ••••••••••• 23 40 3S.7 ............... ........................ ..................... 128 22 36 ............... .................. . ................... ~ Do ••••••••••• 24 4S 3S.O ................. .......................... ................... 12S 23 35 .................. .................... . ................. Do ••••••••••• 2S 4S 34.S 38 9.6 20 122 2S 36 .4 189 134 

Do ........... 26 4S 3S.O . ................ 124 25 35 . .................. ..................... ............... .................. .. ................ Do ••••••••••• 27 4S· 3S.9 ................. ................... .................... 128 2S 36 ................. ..................... . .................. Do ••••••••••• 28 so 36,3 ................ .......................... ................. 132 28 36 ................ .................... . .................. Do ••••••••••• 29 4S 36.2 41 11 17 131 26 38 • 2 196 148 

Do ••••••••••• 30 40 36.2 ................... ........................ ..................... 129 24 37 .............. ................. . .................. Do ••••••••••• 31 40 36.3 ................. ......................... ..................... 130 26 37 ................. .................. . .................. Do ••••••••••• 32 40, 36.8 ................. ....................... ..................... 128 2S 37 .. ............... .................. . ................. 
July 31' 194{1 

Do .......... . 

Do ......... .. 

Do .......... . 

Do .......... . 

Do ......... .. 

Do ......... .. 

Do ......... .. 

Do ......... .. Do ......... .. 

Do ......... .. Do ......... .. Mar. 11, 1941 

Do ......... .. Do ......... .. Do ......... .. Do ......... .. Do ......... .. 

Do ......... .. Do .......... . Do ......... .. 

Do ......... .. Do ......... .. 

Do ......... .. 

Do ......... .. Do ......... .. Do .......... . Do ......... .. 

Do ......... .. Do .......... . 

Do., ....... .. Do .......... . 

Do .......... . 

Do .......... . 

Do ......... .. 

Do ......... .. Do ......... .. Do .......... . 

33 

34 

35 

36 

37 

38 

39 

4{1 

41 

42 

43 

44 

45 

46 

47 

48 

49 

50 

51 

52 

53 

54 

55 

56 

57 

58 

59 

60 

61 

62 

63 

64 

65 

66 

67 

68 

69 

10 

40 

45 

40 

4{1 

4{1 

4{1 

4{1 

4{1 

4{1 

4{1 

45 

45 

50 

80 

60 

60 

65 

60 

10 

60 

15 

65 

70 

65 

60 

120 

110 

100 

100 

100 

80 

70 

65 

75 

85 

80 

65 

37,0 

36,4 

36.3 

36.4 

36.8 

36,6 

37.1 

36,9 

36.7 

37.6 

36.1 

36,0 

35.0 

33,7 

33,0 

33,0 

33,3 

33,8 

33,3 

33,5 

34,2 

33.9 

33,7 

33,7 

32.5 

33.7 

13,3 

23.3 

27,3 

28.3 

30,4 

33,2 

35,3 

37,3 

36,1 

33,6 

39,9 

39,5 

40 10 20 

41 11 20 

41 11 19 

38 11 17 

38 11 16 

37 10 19 

15 5,5 5,5 

34 9,4 15 

36 10 20 

132 

134 

131 

131 

131 

131 

132 

132 

132 

130 

129 

130 

124 

121 

119 

120 

120 

119 

122 

121 

123 

120 

121 

120 

115 

122 

38 

76 

104 

107 

108 

118 

122 

127 

124 

120 

134 

134 

23 

28 

24 

25 

23 

25 

27 

23 

23 

27 

26 

25 

25 

29 

27 

20 

28 

20 

28 

18 

29 

26 

24 

22 

20 

20 

16 

13 

15 

17 

25 

22 

23 

23 

25 

25 

25 

23 

37 ............ . 37 

37 

39 

37 

,4 

38 ............ . 39 

38 

31 

33 

.2 

. ............. . . 203 

................ 201 

33 .4 188 

34 .......................... .. 33 .......................... .. 33 • 5 186 

34 ........................... . 

33 ........... .. 33 ............ . 34 ........... .. 34 . 7 

34 ........... .. 

33 ............ . 31! 

34 

17 

25 

.2 

27 ........... .. 27 ............ . 30 . 2 

33 ........... .. 36 ........... .. 

39 ........... .. 37 ........... .. 35 .2 

43 ............ . 41 ............ . 

. ............. . 186 

78 

167 

186 

148 

148 

14{1 

14{1 

133 

60 

124 

131 
( 

Table 83.-Analyses, in parts per million, of water from Lake Okeechobee-Continued 

Date 

of 

collection 

Mar. 11, 1941 

Do ••••••••••• Do ••••••••••• 

Do .......... . 

Do ........... . 

Do .......... . 

Mar. 12, 1941 

Do .......... . 

Do .......... . 

Do ......... .. Do ......... .. 

Do ......... .. Do ......... .. 

Do ......... .. Do .......... . 

Do .......... . 

Do .......... . 

Do ......... .. 

Station! 

71 

72 

73 

74 

75 

76 

77 

78 

79 

80 

81 

82 

83 

84 

85 

·86 

87 

Color 

70 

75 

75 

70 

70 

90 

100 

90 

75 

80 

95 

100 

90 

80 

90 

70 

75 

Specific 

conductance 

(K X lOS 

at 25 C) 

36.8 

36.0 

34.2 

33.3 

33,2 

32.1 

31.2 

31.8 

32.1 

32,1 

31,8 

29.3 

30.9 

31.9 

33.0 

33.(} 

32.1 

Calcium 

(Ca) 

.................. 38 ................ 

............... 

............... 

................. 

................ 32 ................ 

................... 

................ 

.................. 30 ............... 36 

................ 

. ............. :. .. 1 Numbers refer to locations of sampling stations in figure 214. 

Sodium 

Magnesium and Bicarbonate 

(Mg) potassium (HCOs) 

(Na + K) 

.................. . ................ 126 

12 19 126 ....................... . ................ 122 ..................... ................. 122 ..................... . .............. 122 

.................... ................ 116 .................. .................. 117 

12 16 112 ..................... . ............... 119 ................... ................ 117 

................... . .............. 117 ......................... . .............. 106 

12 17 116 .. ...................... ................ 115 

11 20 124 

....................... ................. 119 ................... ................. 117 

Sulfate 

(SO~) 

24 

28 

22 

22 

22 

23 

23 

Z(i 

24 

22 

20 

22 

24 

18 

28 

20 

23 

Chloride 

(Cl) 

37 

37 

33 

33 

33 

31 

31 

33 

33 

32 

32 

29 

29 

31 

33 

32 

33 

Nitrate 

(NOs) 

................ 1.0 

. .... ,., ....... ~····· ....... ................. 

............... 

. ............. .6 .............. 

............... 

............... 

.................. .3 .................. .4 

.............. 

................ 

Dissolved 

solids 

. ............... 197 ................ 

................... 

................. 

... .............. 

. ................ 174 .................. 

................. 

. .............. 

................... 170 ................ 190 

................ 

................. 

Total 

hardness as 

CaCOs 

.................. 144 

................ 

. .............. 

. ................ 

. ................ 

··············· 129 

. .............. 

. ................ 

.................. 

.. ............... 124 . ................. 135 

. .................... 

... ................ 

~ i;l 

,. 

~ g 

i!: 

I" 

"' !Z! 

"' 

~ "' i;l 

~ 

8 

~ 

§? 
4 

QUALITY OF GROUND AND SURFACE WATERS 747 

EXPLANATION 

D SODIUM ~ CHLORIDE AND AND 

POTASSIUM NITRATE 

~ MAGNESIUM ~ SULFATE 

~CALCIUM m aiCARaONATE 

LAKE OKEECHOBEE 

(APPROX. CENTER OF LAKE) 

FISHEATING CREEK 

AT PALMDALE 

0~.-'~~WL~~~~~~~~--~~~~--~~~~~~~~--~ 

Figure 215. -Graph showing analyses of waters of the Kissimmee River, Fisheatlng Creek, and 

Lake Okeechobee, 

ST. LUCIE CANAL 

Daily samples were collected from the St. Lucie Cana] about 

200ft from Lake Okeechobee during the 2~year period ending 

February 28, 1942 (table 84). Inasmuch as there is no tributary 

to Lake Okeechobee near the St. Lucie Canal, it is believed that 

the composition of the water flowing from the lake into the canal 

is fairly representative of the composition of the main body of 

the lake during a large part of the time. Analyses of 10-day 

composites of the daily samples show that dissolved solids ran~ed 

from 142 to 297 ppm, and that hardness ranged from 102 to 

163 ppm during the period of record. The dissolved mineral 

matter consists chiefly of calcium and bicarbonate as well as 

relatively large amounts of sodium, sulfate, and chloride. Color 

ranged from 35 to 130 and averaged about 50, which is about 

one-half that of the color found in the Kissimmee River. 
Table 84.-Analyses, in parts per million, of water from St. Lucie Canal at lock 1, Lake Okeechobee 

Specific Total 

Date Mean Color conductance Silica Iron Calciun Magnesimn Sodimn Potassimn Bicarbonate Sulfate Chloride fluoride Nitrate Pissolved hardness 

of discharge (K x 1os (Si01

) (Fe) (Ca) (Mg) {Na) (K) (HC01

) (SOJ (Cl) (F) {N(1) solids as collection (cfs) at 25 C) CaCO, 

1940 

Mar. 1-10 488 45 35.2 8. 7 0.03 36 9.2 25 1.8 128 27 36 G-;2 0.1 227 128 

Mar. 11-20 764 45 32.8 6.7 .04 35 8.4 22 1.8 121 23 34 .4 .1 211 122 

Mar. 21, 

24-31 1,406 45 34.1 8. 2 • 08 35 8,9 24 1,6 123 25 35 .2 .1 220 124 

Apr. 1-10 3,554 50 36.0 11 .05 39 9.3 24 1.9 132 23 35 .2 .6 226 136 

Apr. 11-20 4,007 50 35.0 9,0 .05 39 9.0 23 2.3 132 22 32 .2 . 6 220 134 

Apr. 21-30 3,618 45 36.0 8. 6 .05 40 9.1 24 1.9 134 23 33 .2 . 6 225 137 

May 1-3, 

5-10 3,263 45 36,3 9.0 .04 40 9.3 25 2.1 132 24 35 .2 . 6 230 138 

May 11-20 595 45 34.9 8.1 .08 39 9,1 23 1. 7 132 23 35 .2 • 6 225 135 

May 21-31 62 45 36.6 7.9 .06 40 9.5 25 1.8 132 24 35 .4 .6 230 139 

June 1-10 422 45 35.5 9.9 .05 38 9.1 24 1. 7 128 24 35 .2 .6 227 132 

June 11-20 2,206 50 33,7 9.8 .07 36 8.6 23 1. 8 119 22 33 .2 .5 215 125 

June 21-28 

30 2,534 45 35.9 8. 6 .05 38 9.2 24 1.9 125 25 36 .4 .3 229 133 

July 1-10 1,411 45 35.2 8. 0 .05 38 9.0 24 1. 6 125 24 35 .4 .4 224 132 

July 11-13 

15-20 131 45 35.9 8. 2 .10 39 9.2 24 2.1 128 26 36 . 2 .5 227 135 

July 21-31 293 50 35,4 8. 5 .08 38 9.0 24 1.9 125 24 36 .2 .6 226 132 

Aug. 1-10 402 45 35.1 14 .06 38 8.9 25 2.1 126 24 35 -. 2 . 6 229 131 

Aug. 11-20 441 45 34,4 7. 6 .08 37 8. 6 24 1.9 122 24 34 .4 .4 217 128 

Aug. 21-31 50 50 31.7 4,9 ,08 34 7,9 22 2.0 111 23 31 .1 .3 201 117 

Sept. 1-10 1,523 55 36.4 7.2 .05 36 9.1 24 1.6 126 24 36 .3 .4 219 127 

Sept. 11-18 3,438 70 42.5 10 ,08 41 11 30 2.0 146 30 45 .4 .6 270 148 

Sept. 21-30 3,502 70 46,7 12 .05 44 13 34 1.9 160 34 49 .4 .6 297 163 

Oct. 1-10 3,858 45 41.3 9.6 .05 42 11 26 2.1 146 29 42 .2 .2 257 150 

Oct. 11-20 3,731 40 38.2 9.1 .06 41 9.6 24 2.1 142 26 37 .3 .3 236 142 

Oct. 21-31 1,865 35 37.3 8.1 .02 40 9. 7 25 1.2 137 24 35 .1 .6 231 140 

Nov. 1-10 1,258 35 38.8 8. 0 .01 41 10 25 1,0 142 24 36 .1 .7 239 143 

Nov. 11-16 275 35 38.6 .9".4 . 01 41 10 25 1.1 142 24 35 .1 .6 241 143 

Nov. 26-30 496 35 38.2 6. 2 .05 40 9. 7 25 1.4 137 24 36 • 2 1.0 238 140 

Dec. 1-10 1,178 40 38.6 6. 2 .03 40 10 25 1.0 139 26 35 .2 .9 243 141 
Dec. 11-17 528 40 38.1 6.3 ,02 40 10 24 1,0 136 25 35 . 2 .6 232 141 

Dec. 23-31 59 45 37.1 9.6 .04 41 10 24 1.0 136 25 34 0 2 .8 237 J.43 

1941 

Jan. 1-10 303 4S 38.4 11 .04 40 10 25 1. 0 137 25 36 .2 1.0 243 141 

Jan. 11-20 233 45 37.9 11 .04 41 9.9 24 1.1 140 24 35 .2 1.2 244 143 

Jan. 21-31 1,909 70 42.8 12 .12 42 12 31 1.4 144 28 44 .2 2.2 278 154 

Feb. 1-10 3,157 55 42.0 8.6 .03 42 11 30 2.2 144 30 43 .2 1.0 263 150 

Feb. 11-19 2,788 55 38.1 9.5 .04 39 9.4 26 2. 0 135 24 38 .2 1.1 239 136 

Feb. 20-28 2, 718 50 44.7 11 ;03 44 12 32 2.5 1S5 31 45 .2 2.1 282 159 

.Q 

Average 47 37.4 8.9 0.05 39 9.7 25 1. 7 134 25 37 0.2 0.7 236 137 c: ................. ,.. ... 

1941 ~ 

Mar. 1-10 2,620 65 38.3 . ........ ......... 38 10 ·24 128 27 39 • 6 . 202 136 ~ Mar. 11-20 2,476 100 37.3 .......... . ........ 38 10 26 132 26 41 0 6 207 136 

Mar. 21-31 665 ~0 38.5 ......... . ......... 38 11 26 136 28 40 ~ 0 6 211 140 

Apr. 1-10 652 75 37.7 ........ ....... 36 10 28 138 23 38 2.0 205 131 n 

Apr. ::a 11-20 3,311 90 38.4 ........ ........ 32 13 28 131 27 41 0 6 206 133 

~ Apr; 21-30 3,404 130 32.,3 ......... ......... 32 10 23 118 27 33 .7 184 121 

May 1-10 3,427 50 34,() .......... ........ 34 9,0 23 121 211 36 .3 184 122 

~ May 11-20 3,357 50 34.2 .......... ....... 3S 8. 'l' 20 120 20 34 .3 177 123 

May 21-31 3,025 80 34.3 .......... ....... 35 9,2 22 126 20 3S .3 184 125 

June 1-10 186 9() 30.8 ' ....... ........ 32 9.3 17 114 17 31 .3 163 118 

June 11-20 36 60 30.8 ....... .......... 32 9,1 18 114 20 30 .3 166 117 "' 

June 21-30 77 60 33.0 ......... ....... 35 8.7 2() 120 20 33 .3 176 123 ~ ~ July 1-10 410 45 32.4 ......... ....... 35 8,5 18 115 21 32 .5 172 122 l'>1 

July 11-20 1,435 45 34.3 ......... ....... 36 9,0 20 120 23 34 • 6 182 127 

July 21-31 3,309 60 29.2 ......... .......... 30 7.0 19 104 18 29 .3 154 104 ~ Aug. 1-10 3,631 80 28.1 ......... ......... 29 6,9 18 99 18 28 .2 149 102 ;I Aug. 11-20 3,569 60 30.8 ......... ....... :. . 32 8,6 17 111 19 30 .2 162 115 ::a 

Aug. 21-31 3,495 70 27.9 29 7. 6 14 98 17 26 .2 142 104 "' ............ ........ .. .......... Sept. 1-10 3,345 65 32.2 . .......... ........... 33 9.3 17 113 21 31 .2 167 121 

Sept. 11-20 1,470 60 32.9 .......... ......... 33 8. 6 21 117 22 32 ,2 174 118 

Sept. 21-30 3,483 70 36.9 ........... ........ 36 10 24 127 25 38 .6 196 131 

Oct. 1-10 2,695 100 42.2 . ......... ......... 40 13 25 144 27 43 1.0 220 153 

Oct. 11-20 1,449 70 38.2 . ........ ......... 39 11 24 136 26 39 ,4 206 143 

Oct. 22-31 3,383 65 33.9 . .......... ....... 34 9.7 19 118 22 33 .2 176 125 -:I 

Nov. 1-7 3,884 100 27,0 . ........ ....... 30 7.4 14 99 15 27 .2 142 105 ~ 

Nov. 8-20 3,482 90 -30,8 32 8,1 19 110 19 32 .5 165 113 (0 . ........ ....... 
Table 84.-Analyses, in parts per million, of water from St. Lucie Canal at lock 1, Lake Okeechobee-Continued 

Specific Total 

Date Mean Color conductance Silica Iron Calcium Magnesium Sodium Potassium Bicarb on ate Sulfate Chloride Fluoride Nitrate Dissolved hardness 

of discharge (K x 105 (Si02

) (Fe) (Ca) (Mg) (Na) (K) (HCO,) (S04

) (CI) (F) (NO,) solids as 

collection (cfs) at 25 C) CaC01 

1941 

Nov, 21-30 559 100 35.3 

········ ......... 36 8.8 25 126 24 36 . ......... . 0. 5 192 126 

Dec. 1-10 824 70 36.5 .......... ....... 38 11 21 130 26 37 . ......... .4 197 140 

Dec. 11-20 464 70 3'1.4 .... ~··· ......... 38 11 23 133 28 37 .4 203 140 

Dec. 21-31 732 70 36.6 .......... ...... .., 38 11 22 130 27 37 ......... .4 199 140 

1942 

Jan. 1-10 386 70 33.2 .......... ...... 35 9.2 24 123 25 35 ... ......... .4 189 125 

Jan. 11-20 573 90 36.5 . ........ ...... 38 12 20 133 26 37 . ........ .4 199 144 

Jan. 21-31 311 60 34.5 . ....... ...... 35 9.4 23 124 26 33 . ......... .3 188 126 

Feb. 1-9 1,723 70 34.2 ......... ...... 36 8.7 23 124 26 33 .. ........ .3 188 126 

Feb. 10-20 600 70 33.8 ........ ........ 34 9.2 22 122 23 33 . ........ .2 182 123 

Feb. 21-28 997 70 32.8 ········ ........ 33 9.1 24 124 22 33 . ........ .1 182 120 

Average ............. 74 34,1 ........ ......... 35 9.5 21 122 2,3 34 . ......... 0.4 183 126 
QUALITY OF r.ROUND AND SURFACE WATERS 751 

Ci\LOOSAHATCHEE CANAL 

Analyses of daily samples collected from the Caloosahatchee 

Canal at Moore Haven show that the water discharging from 

Lake Okeechobee at this point is variable in composition (see 

table 85). At times, the concentration of dissolved matter is 

similar to that in the main body of the lake, while at other times 

the concentration drops until it is little more than that found in 

the main tributary streams. Investigation showed that water 

discharging through the locks at Moore Haven does not come 

directly from Lake Okeechobee, instead, it comes from the deep 

floodway channel just inside the levee to the northwest and southeast of Moore Haven. Directly in front of the canal entrance is a 

dense growth of saw grass, covering several square miles, which 

effectively prevents discharge direct from the lake. A series of 

samples was collected from the floodway channel on October 27, 

1941. Analyses of these samples (see table 86) show that the concentration of dissolved matter was progressively smaller north 

of Moore Haven and that it approached the low concentration found 

in the water in Fisheating Bay. They show also that samples 

collected from the channel southeast of Moore Haven contained 

about as much dissolved matter as is normally found in the main 

body of the lake. 

It appears, therefore, that the water discharged from Lake 

Okeechobee into the Caloosahatchee Canal is composed of water 

from the lake, flowing through the floodway channel from the 

southeast, and of water from Fisheating Creek, flowing through 

the channel from the north, without mixing to an appreciable extent with water in the main body of the. lake. Variations in the 

composition of the canal water are caused by changes in lake 

stage, direction of the wind, the amount of water discharging 

from Fisheating Creek, and, to some extent, the operation of the 

locks. 

The ranges in concentration of dissolved mineral matter in 

samples collected from the Caloosahatchee and St. Lucie Canals 

are shown graphically in figure 216. 
Table 85.-Analyses, in parts per miUion, of water from Caloosahatchee Canal at />foore Haven 

Specific Total 

Date · Mean :Color conductance Silica Iron Calcium Magnesium Sodium and Potassium Bicarbonate Sulfate Chloride Fluoride Nitrate jDissolved hardness 

of· discharge (Kx 1()5. (SiC\) (Fe) (Ca.) (Mg) (Na) + (K) (HCO,) (SO .f.) (Cl) (F) (NO,) solids as 

collection (cfs) at 25 C) caco1 

1941 

Mar. 4-10 3,971 90 33.5 . ....... ........ 36 9.0 19 118 26 31 . ............ 0.6 180 127 

Mar. 11-20 3,773 95 32,8 . ....... ...... 38 10 17 117 29 33 . ............ .3 198 136 

Mar. 21-22, 

27-28 ............... 95 32.2 ......... ........ 32 10 21 118 23 32 .. ............ .2 176 121 

Apr. 1-10 . .............. 100 41,4 ......... . ..... 47 10 24 144 35 39 . ............ ,6 227 158 

Apr. 11-20 . .............. 120 29.9 . ........ ...... 35 7,5 14 104 22 28 . ............... .4 158 118 

Apr, 21-30 4,062 120 33.1 ......... ...... 34 9.8 24 118 ~ 34 ............... 2.0 191 125 

May 1-10 3,503 70 34.0 ........ ...... 36 9.2 21 121 25 34 . ............. .3 185 128 

May 11-20 ................. 70 33.5 ....... ...... 35 9.2 19 114 24 33 . ............... .3 171 125 

May 21-31 ............... 60 34.2 ........ .. ..... 34 8.7 21 116 21 35 . ............ .3 177 121 

June 1-10 ............... 50 31.6 .. ...... ...... 32 8.7 19 108 20 34 . .......... .3 167 116 

June 11-20 ............... 45 31.6 ......... . ..... 30 8.6 22 110 20 33 .. ............ .2 168 110 

June 21-22, 

26-30 ............... 50 30.5 . ......... ....... 28 8.1 21 103 17 33 .. ......... . 2 158 103 

July 1-10 ................ 140 19,2 ....... ····· 

21 4.2 11 68 9.1 20 ............ • 7 100 70 

July 11-20 ............. 200 19.3 .. ....... ...... 23 3.6 11 72 13 16 .. ........... . 8 104 72 

July 21-31 3,655 170 24.6 ........... ...... 28 5.8 13 90 18 21 . ........... .4 130 94 

Aug. 2-10 3,940 180 30.2 ......... ..... 32 7.8 18 105 25 27 . ........... .4 162 112 

Aug. 11-20 .............. 200 24.7 ....... .. ...... 26 6.9 12 85 17 22 .4 126 93 

Aug. 21-31 .............. 240 13.0 . ...... ...... 14 3.1 6.1 45 5,2 13 . .............. .4 64 48 

Sept. 1-10 .............. 240 8.0 ........ .. ...... 8.1 1.8 4.3 27 1 9.5 . ........... .5 38 28 

Sept. 11-20 .............. 180 9.2 ...... ............ ............... ..................................... 32 3.9 10 ............... ................ ............... . .......... Sept. 21-29 3,096 110 23,3 ......... ...... 24 6.4 9.8 81 12 20 . ........... .6 113 86 

Oct. 5-20 ............ L'lO 13.8 ......... . .... 14 3.4 6.9 45 1.4 18 . ........... .2 66 49 

Oct. 21-31 3,975 110 27.9 .......... ...... 30 7.5 13 98 16' 26 . ........... .4 141 106 

Nov. 1-10 3,976 80 33.4 ........ ...... 36 9.2 16 114 23 32 .. ............ .4 173 128 

Nov. 11-20 ............... 100 30,6 . ....... ...... 31 7.9 19 104 20 31 . ............. .4 160 110 

Nov. 21-30 ............. 90 38.1 . ........ ..... 40 9.9 23 133 28 37 . ............ .5 204 141 

Dec, 2-10 .............. 70 42.4 . ...... ...... 46 12 22 154 30 39 .. .......... .4 225 164 

Dec. 12-20 ............. 70 43.1 .. ...... ...... 47 12 25 159 32 41 .. ............ • 5 236 167 

Dec. 21-25 ............. 70 43.0 .......... ...... 45 12 26 153 33 41 .. ......... .4 233 162 
1942 

Jan. 7-10 ............. 10 39.7 . ....... ·r··· 41 13 20 143 30 36 ............ .4 211 156 

Jan. 11-19 ............. 60 38.9 . ....... ..... 38 11 27 143 25 39 ··········· .4 211 140 

Jan. 22-31 ............ 90 32.4 . ........ ..... 30 7.6 25 114 19 34 . ......... .2 112 106 

Feb. 1-10 ............ 110 26.6 ......... ····· 

26 6.1 18 88 16 29 . ........... .1 138 90 

Feb. 11-20 ............ 90 27.4 . ...... . ..... 28 7.1 18 97 15 30 .. ............ .1 146 99 

Feb. 21-27 ............. 60 32.6 ........ . .... 33 8.2 23 128 15 33 .. .......... .1 175 116 

Average ............ 111 29.1 ....... ..... 32 8.0 18 101 20 30 . ........... 0.4 161 113 
754 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLOlUDA 

Table 86.-Analyses of water from Lake Okeechobee floodway channel near Moore Haven, 

October 27, JQ41 · 

[Constituents In parts per milliom] 

Distance Specific 

Station of source from Sample Color conductance Bicarbonate Sulfate Chloode 

Moore Havenl (K x 105. (HC05

) (SO,) (Cl) 

(miles) at 25 C) 

1 0 Composite 100 28.6 98 15 29 

.. 

2 2 NW. Surface 140 17.0 50 10 20 

Bottom 140 17.8 56 10 20 

3 4 NW. Surface 140 16,6 49 10 21 

Bottom 140 16.8 49 9 20 

4 5.5NW. Surface 150 16.7 49 10 20 

Bottom 160 16.8 49 12 20 

5 7.5NW. Surface 160 15.3 42 10 20 

Bottom 160 17.6 50 11 21 

6 9 NW. Surface 120 22.7 71 14 25 

Bottom 130 20.4 61 12 23 

7 11 NW. Surface 95 25.5 84 14 27 

Bottom 100 25.1 82 14 27 

28 10 NW. Composite 240 6. 2 10 1 13 

9 2 SE. Surface 7Q 38.5 140 27 35 

Bottom 70 38.6 140 26 35 

10 4.5 SE. Surface 75 43.4 153 34 39 

Bottom 80 45,3 163 38 39 

~Distance measured along flood way channel. 

Near mouth of Fisheating Creek. 
QUAIJTY OF GROUND AND SURFACE WATERS 755 

8 

EXPLANATION 

DSODIUM ~CHLORIDE AND AND 

POTASSIUM NITRATE 

~MAGNESIUM ~SULFATE 

6 ~CALCIUM m BICARBONATE ST. LUCIE CANAL AT 

LAKE OKEECHOBEE 

CALOOSAHATCHEE CANAL z AT MOOREHAVEN MAXIMUM 0 

:::i SEPT. 21-30, 

~ 1940 

::;: 

0: 

IJJ 

0.. 

4 

"' 1-

z 

IJJ 

..J 

~ 

3 

0 

IJJ 

2 

MINIMUM 

Figure 2Hi. ·-Graph showing analyses of waters from Caloosahatchee and St. Lucie Canals. 

MAJOR EVERGLADES DRAINAGE CANALS 

WEST PALM BEACJI CANAL 

Samples were collected from West Palm Beach Canal at irregular intervals except for those collected monthly at the gaging 

station at West Palm Beach beginning in March 1941 (table 87). 

The composition of water in the West Palm Beach Canal varies 

over a rather wide range, depending on the amount of rainfall in 

the area, the operation of large drainage pumps, and the point at 

which the samples are taken. Two series of samples were collected from the canal at points about 5 miles apart between Canal 

Point and West Palm Beach (see table 88). In the series collected 

on July 31, 1940, the hardness ranged from 124. to 471 ppm, and in 

the series collected on March 14, 1941, the hardness ranged from 

158 to 281 ppm. The composition of the water at Canal Point was 

essentially the same as that of Lake Okeechobee, but at points 

5 to 20m iles southeast of Canal Point the concentration of dissolved 
756 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 87.-Analyses, in parts per million, of water from West Palm Beach Canal at West 

Palm Deach 

Specific Total 

Date conduct- Cal- Magne- Sodium Bicar- Sul- Chlo- Ni- Dis- hardof Color ance cium sium and po- !bonate fate ride ~te solved ness . 

collec- (K l< 105 (Ca) (Mg) tassium {HC08

) (S04

) (Cl) 08) solids as 

tion at 25C) (Na + K) CaC03 

1941 

Mar. 14 220 75.0 54 19 75 224 42 105 ....... 405 213 

Apr, 2 140 89.1 67 25 90 259 69 127 4.0 510 270 

Apr. 23 170 75.8 60 20 76 230 53 107 2.0 431 232 

May 21 190 87.2 65 25 84 258 56 125 2,0 484 265 

July 17 220 17,4 20 2,5 13 73 6. 2 16 .o 94 60 

Aug. 21 280 41.3 40 11 30 144 20 50 .4 222 145 

Sept. 19 280 42.6 36 9.4 36 137 16 54 3,1 222 128 

Oct, 23 160 24.1 27 5,8 14 102 7.0 22 ,2 76 91 

Nov. 26 130 67.9 51 13 72 196 32 101 2,0 400 181 

Dec. 26 130 86.4 57 18 98 233 42 138 1. 2 469 216 

1942 

Jan .• 22 110 71.4 57 17 72 230 34 103 .4 392 212 

Feb. 19 130 70.6 54 17 73 221 36 103 .5 392 205 

Apr. 8 180 77.1 58 18 80 230 49 108 1. 0 427 218 

May 7 180 67.3 51 15 69 200 30 101 .4 366 189 

June 4 140 18.0 19 3.6 15 61 14 22 ,2 104 62 

July 9 240 23,7 22 4.6 19 9:4 5. 8 22 ,1 120 74 

Aug. 7 280 79,1 58 20 76 245 34 110 .4 419 226 

Sept. 3 200 71.0 57 18 60 207 31 101 1, 2 370 216 

Oct. 8 so 79.9 55 18 84 212 47 121 1. 2 431 212 

Nov. 11 150 101 67 25 103 252 67 153 1, 6 541 270 

Dec. 10 65 91.3 56 19 105 214 50 154 2.2 492 218 

1943 

Jan. 7 75 85.2 56 17 99 211 50 141 1,5 468 210 

Feb. 4 60 75.5 54 16 77 194 45 ll5 ,6 403 201 

M,.r. 4 65 78.4 59 16 79 210 46 116 .7 420 213 

Apr. 1 42 60.6 56 14 47 188 36 77 .6 323 198 

May 5 50 68;4 59 16 58 200 40 94 ,8 366 213 

June 2 55 74,5 58 16 72 206 41 110 ,,2 399 210 

July 7 160 110 R8 28 108 320 70 158 13 623, 334 

Aug. 5 180 70.7 63 17 56 218 39 92 1.4 376 227 

Sept. 2 190 51,8 46 12 41 160 25 68 .4 271 164 

Oct. 7 160 29.4 34 6.6 12 98 10 33 ,3 144 112 

Nov. 2 58 67,7 52 16 63 184 37 102 ,8 361 196 

Nov. 30 120 85.6 54 17 101 222 36 145 1.0 463 205 

Dec. 31 95 107 62 22 132 252 58 188 • 8 587 245 

1944 

Jan. 31 70 R5,7 59 17 97 220 49 138 1, 0 469 217 

Mar. 1 70 84.6 60 18 89 204 53 138 1. 5 460 224 

Mar. 31 65 88.8 62 17 100 222 54 144 1. 5 488 224 

May 3 55 64,3 57 13 60 196 37 89 .4 353 196 

May 31 30 51,0 53 12 35 178 28 58 ,4 274 182 

July 1 70 105 60 20 133 272 49 175 .2 571 232 

1945 

May 26 70 I 77.8 52 16 83 202 38 121 .o 410 196 

Sept. 22 320 21,5 24 5.9 6.0 82 8 15 1,3 101 84 

solids increased rapidly. The increase appears to have resulted 

from mixing with concentrated drainage waters that are discharged 

into the canal by large pumps. These pumps are located on ditches 

that are used to drain large areas planted with sugar cane. Analyses of samples of water collected from three of these drainage 

ditches show that the waters contain large quantities of dissolved 
QUALITY OF GROUND AND SURFACE WATERS 757 

Table 88.-Ana.lyses, in parts per million, of water from West Palm Beach Canal from 

Canal Point to West Palm Beach 

Distance Specific 

~al- ~ul- Total 

of souree conduct- Magne- Sodium Bicar- Chlo- Ni- Dis- hardfrom Color ance ~ium slum and po- b~ate fate ride trate solved ness 

Canal Point (K X 105 (Ca) (Mg) tassium (Hco, so4

) (Cl) (NO, solids as 

(miles) at 25C) (Na +K) Caco8 

July 31, 1940 

0 55 37.8 ....... ·········· ......... 146 22 37 ······ . ........ 150 

5 360 177 ...... ·········· ......... 450 128 252 ...... . ........ 471 

10 380 93.7 ....... .......... .......... 240 56 149 ...... ········· 237 

15 280 48.1- <11111111 .......... ......... 133 36 68 . ...... ........ 124 

20 190 69.9 ······· .......... ......... 154 46 116 . ..... ......... 150 

25 210 88.0 ...... .......... ......... 260 53 126 . ..... ""'······· 231 

30 140 66.9 ...... .......... ......... 175 40 98 . ..... ········· . ....... 35 140 65.6 ...... ........... ......... 1'7'7 38 97 . ..... ......... 147 

40 95 55,0 ······ .......... ......... 169 30 72 . ..... .......... 138 

M arch 14, 194C 

0 80 42.1 42 13 27 141 37 45 ······ 234 158 

5 180 102 62 28 115 292 62 153 ······ 564 2'70 

10 190 89.0 66 27 80 236 84 119 ······ 492 276 

15 220 87.8 62 26 83 248 62 123 ...... 478 262 

20 260 74.7 54 21 70 224 43 103 ...... 401 221 

25 200 66.6 52 17 60 196 43 89 ...... 358 200 

30 280 92,4 68 2'7 90 274 78 121 ...... 519 281 

35 260 81.4 52 21 88 234 45 119 ...... 440 216 

40 230 72.5 54 20 64 216 39 98 ······ 381 217 

mineral matter, and are particularly high in bicarbonate (table 

101). Bicarbonate ranged from 632 to 728 ppm and hardness from 

605·to 843 ppm. The waters were also highly colored, the color. 

ranging from 280 to 440. 

It .has been observed that high concentrations of dissolved matter 

in the West Palm Beach Canal in the vicinity of Canal Point may 

be expected during rainy periods. This is probably accounted for 1 argely by the increased discharge of the drainage pumps during 

periods of high water. When the normal direction of flow toward 

the ocean is reversed toward Lake Okeechobee the high color of 

the water flowing into the lake frequently interferes with the 

operation of the plant that furnishes water from Lake Okeechobee 

to the town of Canal Point. 

Analyses of samples collected about once a month from the West 

Palm Beach Canal at West Palm Beach from March 1941 to July 

1944 (table 87) indicate that the concentration of dissolved matter 

at the sampling station ranged between rather wide limits. The 

minimum observed concentration of dissolved solids was 76 ppm 

in October 1941 and the maximum was 587 ppm in December 1943, 

It is probable that the concentration fluctuated considerablybetween sampling periods. In a general way, increases in concentration occurred at times of low discharge and decreases occurred 

at times of relatively high discharge. Hydrographs of the discharge of West Palm Beach Canal at West Palm Beach and at Canal 

Point are in the section on "Surface water." 
758 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Hn.LSBOBO CANAL 

Analyses of monthly samples collected from the Hillsboro Canal 

near Deerfield Beach from March 1941 to July 1944 (table 89) indicate that the range in composition was similar to that in the 

West Palm Beach Canal. Dissolved solids determined in samples 

collected during the period ranged from 98 to 841 ppm. The 

Tl:ible 89.-Analyses, m parts pet million, o{water from Hillsboro Canal near Deerfield 

Beach 

Specific Total 

Date conduct- Cal- Ma.gne- Sodium Bkar- Sul- Chlo- Ni- Dis- hardof Color ance cium sium and po- bonate fate ride ~ate solved ness 

collection (K X lOS (Ca) (Mg) tassium (HCO~ (S04

) (Cl) (NOa) solids as 

at 25 C) (Na + K) CaC03 

1941 

Mar. 19 140 67.5 53 17 65 213 28 98 2.0 3ti8 202 

Apr. 23 100 61,7 52 13 85 19ts 21 97 . 5 366 135 

May 21 200 84.0 58 18 96 256 21 139 • 5 459 219 

July 3 220 60.0 52 12 58 210 14 83 1. 0 323 179 

Aug. 22 240 34.4 32 9.2 26 131 6.6 42 • 8 180 118 

Sept. 19 ······ 3ti, 3 29 8.1 35 130 6. 6 48 1,1 192 106 

Oct. 23 180 37.8 32 10 34 143 11 47 .4 205 121 

Nov. 26 130 49.9 42 12 45 164 15 72 1. ti 268 154 

Dec. 26 110 65.4 52 15 69 217 22 100 • b 3!;iti 191 

1942 

Jan, 22 100 17.8 22 1, 6 14 69 6.4 20 .1 98 ti2 

Feb. 19 110 78.4 62 14 83 239 25 12 1. 0 482 212 

May 7 180 35.7 32 9.2 26 122 5.3 48 .4 1~1 11~ 

June 4 120 21.9 22 4,4 17 81 9.9 24 .1 117 73 

July 9 180 22.0 22 5. 5 14 84 3.3 25 . 1 111 78 

Aug. 7 240 99.4 72 23 98 314 21 148 . 2 517 274 

Sept. 3 180 59.0 56 17 33 205 14 71 . 3 292 211 

Oct. 7 160 114 89 27 114 365 42 167 2.4 620 333 

Nov. 11 100 94.7 80 21 88 307 30 138 1. 2 509 286 

Dec. 10 90 94.4 85 21 86 329 31 129 1. 0 516 298 

1943 

Jan. 7 100 94.7 80 21 90 325 22 136 • 2 509 286 

Feb. 4 90 llti 98 23 113 374 34 172 • 5 625 339 

Mar. 4 tiS 103 98 17 95 336 37 147 • 2 560 314 

Apr. 1 65 123 103 22 125 360 43 198 .3 669 348 

May 6 80 120 104 22 121 377 3t> 188 .4 657 350 

June 2 120 147 106 27 182 384 52 285 . 0 841 376 

July 7 90 144 106 26 166 395 47 255 • 9 796 372 

Aug. 5 1St> 115 102 29 104 442 21 152 • 0 626 374 

Sept. 2 170 105 99 26 86 394 34 134 • 2 573 354 

Oct. 7 300 51.2 55 13 30 190 lti 60 .4 268 191 

Nov. 2 240 59.3 54 15 43 194 16 80 .4 304 196 

Nov. 30 190 113 25 7.4 12 72 5.6 38 • 2 124 93 

Dec. 31 150 52,2 4ti 12 40 15ti 12 79 .2 26!5 164 

1944 

Jan. 31 120 79.4 70 15 74 242 23 123 • 8 425 236 

Feb. 29 82 103 99 17 97 334 33 15o • 5 56'/ 317 

Mat. 31 66 94.6 82 18 92 288 39 144 .1 517 278 

May 2 80 83.8 91 15 69 319 2o 106 .1 4!54 288 

May 31 90 131 92 26 147 388 34 216 • 2 706 336 

July 1 180 106 97 29 89 430 19 129 • 2 575 361 

1945 

May 26 160 156 121 21 186 412 57 280 • 0 868 388 
QUALITY OF GROUND AND SURFACE WATERS 759 

principal constituents of these samples were calcium, bicarbonate, sodium, and chloride. Hardness ranged from 62 to 376 ppm, 

and color, which was relatively high, ranged from 65 to 300. A 

single sample collected in 1945 showed dissolved solids of 868 

ppm and a total hardness of 388 ppm, 

NORTH NEW BIVEil CANAL 

Daily samples were collected for analysis from the North New 

River Canal at 26-Mile Bend from March 1 to October 5, 1941, 

and at the lock and dam near Fort Lauderdale from October 22, 

1941, to February 28, 1942. It was intended that daily samples 

should be collected at 26-Mile Bend throughout the year ending 

February 28, 1942, but because of inability to keep an observer 

at this isolated place the station was abandoned early in October. 

The station near Fort Lauderdale is about 19 miles downstream 

from 26-Mile Bend. Analyses of several series of samples collected all along the canal indicate that the composition of the water 

at the lock and dam is probably similar to the composition of the 

water at 26-Mile Bend. 

Generally, analyses of 10-day composites of the daily samples 

show that the composition may fluctuate rapidly and between wide 

limits. (See tables 90 and 91.) Ranges in concentrations of dissolved mat'ter and their relations to changes in discharge are 

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Figure 217. -Graph showing discharge and dissolved solids in North New River Canal at 

26-Mile Bend and near Fort Lauderdale, 1941-42, 

346881 0-55--50 
Table 90.-Analyses, in parts per million, olJO-day composite samples of water lr01:1 North New River Canal near Fort Lauderdale 

Specific Total 

Date Mean Color conductance Silica Iron Calcium Magnesium Sodium Potassium !Bicarbonate Sulfate Chloride Fluoride Nitrate Dissolved hardness 

of discharge (K x 10 5 (SiOz) (Fe) (Ca) (Mg) (Na) (K) (HC03

) (SOJ (Cl} (F) (NOt} solids as collection at 25 C) CaCO, 

At 26-Mile Bend 

1941 

Mar. 1-10 ~······· ... ··· 170 110 20 0.06 106 38 11 5.1 382 99 119 0.5 2. 2 738 421 

Mar. 11-20 . ............ 180 98.5 16 .06 89 31 14 5.3 356 62 115 .5 1.3 641 350 

Mar. 21-24. 

28-31 ............... 180 100 16 .08 91 33 81 4.5 366 57 119 .3 1.1 648 3ti2 

Apr. 1-8 . ............. 160 97.1 15 .08 86 32 79 4.5 360 48 118 .4 1. 2 62ti 34ti 

Apr. 14-lti, 

19-20 ............. 240 58.1 1.8 .12 72 20 31 3.2 245 48 43 • 2 1.7 420 2ti2 

Apr. 21-27, 

29-30 4 ............. 180 93.8 16 .12 94 31 10 4.5 358 68 98 .4 1.1 637 362 

May 1-3, 

5-9 ············ 

170 98.6 16 .08 94 33 14 5.1 363 64 112 .4 1. 5 ti51 370 

May 11-13, 

16-11, 

19-20 ................ 190 92.0 17 .10 91 31 65 4.6 358 69 95 .3 1.9 619 354 

May 21-31 ............. 180 105 18 .14 97 35 82 4.5 396 52 124 .4 1.4 682 386 

June 2,4-7 

11 ............ 180 125 22 .12 112 43 101 5. 6 462 66 154 .5 2.0 813 456 

June 17-19, 

21, 23 ............... 180 86.1 12 .18 85 27 62 5.3 330 38 93 .4 1.ti 5ti2 323 

July 3-9 ............ 340 55.2 9.4 .14 60 19 37 3. 5 218 30 51 .1 1. 3 395 228 

July 11-20 ............ 320 26.4 5.6 .12 39 7.6 8.9 2. 5 138 6.0 13 .2 1.2 210 128 

July 21-21, 

29-31 .............. 320 25.8 8.3 .14 38 7.5 8.8 2.2 140 5.2 12 .3 • 8 205 126 

Aug. 2-7 . .............. 310 27.7 8.1 .14 39 8.4 10 2.6 145 4.9 1ti .2 .7 211 132 

Aug. 11-12, 

14-20 ............ 300 47.8 13 .16 58 15 24 4.1 228 14 38 .4 • 6 344 206 

Aug. 22-25, 

27, 

29-31 ............ 260 77.4 18 .28 83 26 52 5.9 326 37 76 . 6 1.0 537 314 
Sept. 1-10 ............ 220 95.7 19 .18 96 33 70 5.9 376 57 103 .6 1.4 642 375 

Sept. 11-13, 

16-20 ............. 180 102 21 .16 9"9 36 75 6.7 392 65 110 .6 1,5 681 395 

Sept. 21-26, 

28-30 ............ 260 72.2 14 .16 75 25 47 5. 6 267 56 69 .6 2. 2 498 290 

Oct. 1-5 260 80.8 18 .14 -79 27 38 6.2 310 51 85 .5 1,1 551 308 

Near Fort Lauderdale - Oct. 22-31 1,070 180 68,1 12 0,16 80 21 43 4.8 273 52 58 0.4 1.6 471 286 

N 

Nov. 3-10 790 170 65,3 12 .22 77 18 40 2.6 278 34 58 .5 2,2 449 266 ov. 11-20 -642 160 69.6 12 ,19 80 20 45 2.6 284 39 66 .5 2.2 475 282 

Nov. 21-26 582 160 73.4 14 ,16 21 47 6.9 310 42 72 • 6 .7 491 294 

Dec, 1-8, 480 130 77.2 15 .14 87 23 52 6.1 324 39 79 . 5 1. 1 509 312 

10 

Dec. 11-20 310 120 76,3 15 ,08 81 23 53 5,3 306 46 80 . 5 1.0 496 296 

Dec. 21-31 337 110 69.3 13 ,1)6 74 20 46 5~3 279 40 70 .4 . 8 448 266 

1942 

Jan, 1-6 311 95 75.7 15 ,12 77 24 54 5,4 294 54 79 .5 .8 498 290 

Jan. 7-20 388 100 80.3 19 .01 83 23 56 3.4 313 40 8ti .4 1.1 514 302 

Jan, 21-31 745 110 69.4 13 .04 77 19 45 2.6 281 30 69 .4 1,4 447 270 

Feb, 1-10 473 110 68.6 12 .09 77 18 44 2.4 281 27 69 .4 1. 2 438 266 

Feb, 11-19 239 90 70.9 12 .02 76 19 47 2.6 282 35 71 ,3 1.1 452 2ti8 

Feb. !00-28 433 90 51.5 8.0 .02 . 62 13 28 1.5 218 27 42 .2 1,1 330 2011 
762 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 91.-Analyses, in parts per million, of water from North New River Canal near 

Fort Lauderdale 

Specific Total 

Date cODduct- Cal- Magne· Sodium Bicar• Sul- Chlo- Ni- Dis- hardof Color ance cium sium and po- bonate fate ride trate solved ness collectiOD (K x 105 (Ca) (Mg) tassium (HC03

) (S04

) (Cl) (NOs) solids as at 25 C) (Na + 19 caco, 

1941 

Mar. 19 150 78.7 82 27 56 324 37 94 2.0 458 31ti 

Apr. 22 220 63.3 78 20 35 282 39 56 2.0 3b9 277 

May 21 220 92.8 94 33 64 372 60 101 • 8 53ti 370 

July 3 320 42.9 52 13 19 182 16 41 • 5 231 1!l3 

Aug. 1 360 27.7 42 8.5 .9 148 3.3 12 ,2 140 140 

Aug. 22 320 48.4 61 15 23 23ti 11 42 • 8 2b9 214 

Sept. 26 280 50,0 55 16 34 237 30 37 .4 289 203 

1942 

Apr. 9 160 103 108 3ti 62 387 83 105 1.6 5~6 418 

May 7 220 74.9 88 21 41 320 30 72 1. 5 411 306 

June 4 220 88.7 99 30 5ti 348 7ti 90 .4 523 370 

July 9 360 31.9 46 7.4 5. 0 1ti0 3.7 15 .1 156 145 

Aug. 6 240 79.0 90 24 37 329 44 63 • 2 420 323 

Sept. 3 220 84.2 93 29 3ti 315 70 69 .1 452 351 

Oct. 8 180 94.4 106 33 48 3ti8 81 83 1. 8 534 400 

Nov. 11 100 72.2 74 21 47 280 37 74 .4 391 271 

Dec. 10 50 50,8 54 1ti 29 190 36 50 .4 279 201 

1943 

Jan. 7 75 68.5 72 20 43 2ti9 33 70 .4 .371 2ti2 

Feb, 4 50 59.3 64 17 34 227 38 56 ,2 '321 230 

Mar. 5 50 65.9 67 19 95 250 36 148. • 5 489 245 

Mar, 31 40 52.5 58 17 26 204 38 4ti .4 286 214 

May 5 40 51.9 60 16 23 203 34 45 • 2 278 216 

June 3 85 81.3 83 27 49 318 42 86 . 2 444 318 

July 8 120 104 106 36 67 384 78 llti ,3 592 412 

Aug. 5 150 95.2 94 31 64 362 50 109 • 0 526 362 

Sept. 2 1ti0 75.1 82 24 20 300 38 78 .4 391 303 

Nov, 30 90 58.1 79 16 21 268 26 44 • 6 319 263 

1944 

Jan. 7 80 53.5 67 1ti 23 232 26 46 . 5 293 233 

Jan. 31 70 55.2 76 16 14 248 23 42 .3 294 25tl 

Feb. 29 85 64.2 91 17 23 312 22 49 .3 35ti 297 

Mar, 31 62 62.9 84 16 28 286 29 51 • 2 349 276 

May 1 85 70.8 79 23 42 290 54 63 .2 404 292 

June 1 50 54.5 60 14 34 220 29 50 .2 296 207 

June 30 90 79.1 89 22 47 342 36 69 .2 /.f32 312 

1945 

May 25 45 58.8 60 15 42 222 40 58 • 8 326 216 

Sept. 21 280 74.ti 100 2tl 14 262 107 43 .4 420 35ti 

Note. -For analyses of 10-day (generally) composite samples Oct. 22, 1941, toFeb. 28, 1942, see table 90. · · 

shown graphically in figure 217. When the discharge is high, the 

concentration of dissolved matter is generally low, and when the 

discharge is low, the concentration of dissolved solids increases 

to high values. 

At irregular intervals, series of samples were collected at 

several points along the North New River Canal between South Bay 

and State Highway 7 (table 92). Chloride was the only constituent 
QUAUTY OF GROUND AND SURFACE WATERS -763 

Table 92.-Analyses, in parts per million, of water from North New River Canal from South Bay to State flighway 7 near Fort Lauderdale 

Distance Specific Total 

oi source conduct- Cal· Ma.gne- Sodium Bicar- Sul- Chlo- Ni- Dis- hard· 

from Color ance ciu:m sium and po- bonate fate ride trate solved ness South Bay (K x 105 (Ca.) (Mg) tassium (HC03 (SOJ (Cl) (NOs) solids as (miles) at 25 C) (Na + K) CaC03 

July 28, 1940 

0 65 52.4 57 15 20 172 28 54 ........ 259 204 

14 65 48.6 52 15 15 162 24 47 ........ 233 192 

8 150 55.7 62 15 28 204 34 53 ··41-···· 292 21ti 

13 150 62.2 69 19 35 236 40 65 ....... 344 250 

18 150 78.8 78 21 59 278 50 92 ....... 437 2Ml 

20 150 81.5 78 24 58 290 44 9ts ....... 443 293 

21 150 82.2 80 23 59 294 46 95 

······· 

448 294 

23 150 85.5 82 27 53 304 46 I 103 ....... 4til 3lti 

27 150 91,8 8ti 28 63 318 44 114 ....... 492 330 

32 160 87.0 83 27 61 316 40 106 ....... 473 318 

35 160 86,ti 84 27 64 316 50 105 ....... 48ti 321 

38 160 87.0 86 26 59 318 36 103 ....... 467 322 

41 160 85.1 83 24 55 318 34 91 ....... 444 306 

49 160 78.6 82 24 48 302 36 87 ....... 426 303 

54 150 73,8 84 24 55 30ti 46 91 ....... 451 308 

So 140 7ti.8 83 22 51 304 36 87 ....... 429 298 

Feb. 13, 1941 

0 110 .......... 119 52 108 446 168 ·146 ······· 813 511 

14 190 .......... 184 65 52 41its 310 95 . ...... 936 726 

18 260 .......... 105 34 22 268 139 61 . ...... 493 402 

23 260 .......... 104 34 16 264 131 58 ·11'····· 473 399 

27 250 ····••t••· 100 34 18 268 ll!i 63 ....... 463 389 

32 250 .......... 84 14 67 276 92 64 ....... 457 267 

35 250 .............. 75 25 4.8 224 36 57 . ....... 307 290 

41 220 .......... 77 25 12 232 51 55 . ........ 334 295 

49 220 

·········· 82 24 20 224 81 56 ....... 373 303 

54 210 .......... 88 24 20 240 80 58 . ..... .,. 388 318 

Sti 200 .......... 74 21 19 208" 67 51 . ....... 334 271 

Marc:h 10, 1941 

0 75 79.4 64 25 66 244 70 93 1. 6 440 263 

14 220 140 174 63 48 468 274 88 5,0 882 693 

10 240 92.0 104 36 43 312 130 77 1. 6 545 408 

15 220 92.7 95 34 55 304 110 93 1,0 538 377 

20 260 84.8 82 31 51 287 70 94 4.0 473 332 

25 260 79.9 78 28 47 288 51 86 3.0 435 310 

30 240 79.4 75 28 58 292 55 92 2. 0 454 302 

35 220 85.8 79 30 68 310 70 100 1.4 501 321 

41 160 90.4 88 20 59 332 49 105 .6 495 343 

49 150 84.3 86 2'/ 57 324 4ti 9ts 1, 2 473 326 

54 180 88.0 91 29 55 334 56 94 1,2 491 346 

56 170 75.8 81 25 48 29ti 49 82 1,2 432 305 

Aug, 1, 1941 

7 280 29,3 4ti 8.3 2,9 170 u 9 .2 153 149 

16 440 32,{1 48 12 2,6 188 6. ~ 10 • 2 172 169 

26 440 30.4 42 11 3,6 166 4.~ 12 • 2 155 150 

35 360 27.0 38 8.7 4.3 150 1. 11 .2 137 131 

46 280 33.8 54 8.7 4.£ 190 8. ~ 11 1.0 181 171 

54 360 27.7 42 8.5 /9 148 3.3 12 .2 142 140 

1 About 500 ft north ot Bolles Canal. 
764 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN fLORIDA 

determined in most of the samples, but the wide range in chloride 

concentration at different times and between different sampling 

points in a single day indicate that all of the chemical constituents 

varied similarly. The range in chloride is shown graphically in 

figure 218. 

Figure 218. -Graph showing chloride concentrations In North New River Canal between South 

Bay and State Highway 7. 

Several suggestions have been offered to explain the high concentration of dissolved mineral matter in the North New River 

Canal. Probably, several factors should be considered in arriving 

at the correct explanation. 

One factor is indicated by analyses of water samples (collected 

during the drilling of test wells), which show that highly mineral'-

ized water lies underneath large areas of the Everglades. At many 

places it is only a few feet beneath the surface of the ground. 

During periods of high discharge in the canal, very little of the 

underlying mineralized water discharges from the ground, and, as 

a result, the concentration of dissolved matter in the canal is relatively low. When the canal discharge is low, however, a fairly 

large proportion of the war.er comes from the ground, including 

some of the more highly mineralized water. As a consequence, the 

concentration of dissolved matter in the canal is relatively high. 

The available data indicate that there is an area reaching 10 to 15 

miles along the canal north from 20-Mile Bend where the concentration is slightly higher than it is in either direction from this 
QUALITY OF GROUND AND SURFACE WATERS 7'65 

area, particularly during periods of low flow. A decrease in concentration is especially noticeable in the vicinity of Okeelanta, 

which is about 4 miles from South Bay. This decrease near 

Okeelanta presumably is caused by the lower concentration of 

dissolved matter that is usually found in inflowing water from 

Bolles Canal and in water released from Lake Okeechobee. (See 

table 101.) A more complete discussion of the composition of 

ground water in the Everglades is given on pages 818-822. 

A second factor that affects the composition of water in North New 

River Canal is water discharged from Lake Okeechobee. Records of 

discharge at South Bay show that the flow at this point is only a 

small proportion of the flow at the lock and dam near Fort Lauderdale and that during periods of high water the direction of flow at 

South Bay is reversed so that some of the water flows toward Lake 

Okeechobee. During periods of moderate to low flow, however, 

some lake water is discharged through North New River Canal. 

When this occurs, the concentration of dissolved matter at 26 -Mile 

Bend is rather high. It seems probable, however, that the water 

from Lake Okeechobee has a beneficial effect on the quality of the 

canal water at 26-Mile Bend because it has a diluting effect on the 

more .concentrated inflowing ground water. Inflowing water from 

Bolles Canal, as mentioned above, apparently has a similar diluting effect. 

A third factor that affects the quality of water in the North New 

River Canal is the quantity and composition of water discharged 

from drainage pumps in the agricultural area near Lake Okeechobee. During the growing seasons large pumps are operated to 

lower the water table in the cultivated fields. The water discharged by these pumps is usually much more concentrated than 

water from the surface of the Everglades, as shown by analyses 

of a few samples. (See table 101). There are several of these 

drainage pumps in the vicinity of South Bay and Okeelanta and on 

the Hillsboro Canal in the vicinity of Belle Glade. At times, concentrated water from Hillsboro Canal flows into the North New 

River Canal through a connection on the landward side of the levee 

on the southeast side of Lake O~ceechobee. 

A fourth factor that has an effect on the quality of the water in 

the North New River Canal is the surface inflow from the Everglades during rainy periods. Most of this water flows from the 

surface of the muck and saw grass areas and although it is usually 

highly colored, it generally contains only a small amount of dissolved mineral matter. During these periods, the volume of surface flow is large in comparison with ground-water discharge and, 

as a result, the concentration of dissolved matter in the canal is 

relatively low. 

It is readily seen that changes in the composition of water in 

the North New River Canal are the results of several variable factors. In a general way, however, when the discharge is high the 
766 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

concentration of dissolved matter is relatively low, and when the 

discharge is low the concentration is relatively high. Any development in southeastern Florida that involves the use of large quantities of water from North New River Canal must make allowance 

for rapid and large changes in the composition of the water. 

SOUTH NEW RIVER CANAL 

No regular series of samples was collected from South New 

River Canal. Analyses of occasional samples indicate that the 

water in this canal is usually similar in composition to water in 

Miami Canal north of the dam at the Dade-Broward County line. 

The two canals are connected at a pointabout 8 miles west of State 

Highway 25 and about 10 miles northwest of the Dade-Broward 

County line. Partial analyses (table 93) suggest that both the concentration of dissolved solids and the hardness of water in the canal 

west of State Highway 25. ranges from about 150 to 200 ppm. A dam 

about ! mile east of Highway 25 prevents free flow throughout the 

canal. Analyses of a few samples collected from South New River 

Canal near Davie, which is about 7 miles east of Highway 25, indicate that water in this pari of the canal may contain slightly more 

dissolved mineral matter and may be a little harder than water 

west of Highway 25 (see table 101). 

Table 93.-Analyses, in parts per million, of water from South !lew River C8l!al west of 

bridge on State liighway 25 

Distance 

of source Specific Sodium Total 

from bridge conduct-leal- ~agne andpo- Bicar- Sui-ichlo- Ni- Dis- hardDate on Color ance ium sium tassium ~onate fate ride tra.te solved ness 

Highway 25 (K x 105 Ca) (Mg) r-a.+K) (HCq) (Sq) (Cl) (NOJ solids as 

(miles) at 25C) caeca 

1941 

Feb. 19 0 110 34.2 60 6.1 2.9 197 1. 2 13 . ..... 180 l75 

Apr. 25 0 110 35.7 61 6. 8 5.4 207 1 15 o. 2 191 180 

June 5 0 ........ 40.3 ...... ........ "'······· 239 ..... 19 . .... ..... "'' ....... July 29 0 

······· 

29.1 ...... ........ ········· 

158 ..... 9 . .... ......... ........ Aug. 28 0 ....... 32.2 ...... ········ ......... 178 

····· 

13 ..... ........ . ...... Oct. 8 0 ....... 25.1 ...... ........ . ........ 136 ..... 13 ..... ........ . ...... Dec. 31 0 39.3 ...... ·····,r6 ......... 220 . ···~ 19 ··:·i . ....... ....... Apr. 25 2 110 36.6 60 10 214 1 16 199. 177 

Aug. 28 2 ....... 29.5 ...... ........ . .... ··~· "165 ..... 12 ..... . ....... ••••t•• 

Oct. 8 2 

······· 

25.3 ...... ........ ......... 127 ..... 19 . .... ........ . ...... Nov. 25 2 ........ 36.7 ...... ········ ......... 191 ····· 26 ···~~~· ····~~~··· . ...... Dec. 31 2 ....... 40.3 ...... ........ . ........ 226 . .... 18 . .... Feb. 19 5 110 34.2 59 10 ········· 196 1.0 16 . .... 188 188 
QUAUTY OF GROUND AND SURFACE WATERS 767 

MIAMI CANAL 

Miami Canal is not excavated in rock north of a point about 

i mile north of its junction with the South New River Canal. Consequently, the discharge of the canal consists largely of runoff derived from areas south of the junction with South New River Canal. 

During rainy periods, considerable surface water flows from the 

Everglades through breaks in the rock spoil banks into the exca•;ated part of Miami Canal and also into South New River Canal. 

There is a dam in Miami Canal at the Dai:le-Broward County line 

that prevents direct flow from the upper to the lower part of the 

canal. The excess water spills into the Everglades at this point 

and some of it probably finds its way back into the lower part of 

the canal through the ground. Gates have been placed in the dam 

so that water can be discharged directly from the upper to the 

lower part of the canal. Normally, however, all of the flow in 

Miami Canal, as measured at Water Plant, Hialeah, is derived 

from surface and ground water inflow below the County Line Dam. 

Analyses of 10-day composites of daily samples collected from 

Miami Canal at Water Plant during the year ending February 28, 

1942, show that the composition of the water was fairly uniform. 

(See table 94. ) Dissolved solids ranged from 282 to 328 ppm and 

hardness from 207 to 254 ppm. Color rangedfrom 80 to 120 in the 

same period. Table 95 contains additional analyses for the period 

August 1943 to June 1948. Variatiors in dissolved solids and discharge are compared graphically in figure 219. 

00 0 

A \ h \''' ~ \ I~ 1)\ (\ ~CHARG! ~ ,!\~ ' ~ j ~. ~ "\~OL.VI!D SOLID (I'S ~~·-· ,.,. __ ,..,...., "v'- --- '1rr· -.r-"J"f' 0 

\ h~ ·v'""v , 

v~\ ff~ ~ 

00 

lP '1 

100 

0 

WAR. A~R. MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SI!:PT, OCT. MOV. DI!C. +JAN. FEB. 

1941 1942 

I 

I 

200 

000 

" ., 

8 

.. • 00., 

: 

'" ~ $00 i,.'i 

ii 

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,; 

400; 

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0 

Figure 219. -Graph of discharge and di.Jsolved solids in Miami Canal at Water Plant, Hialeah, 

1941-42. 
Table 94.-Aaalyses, in parts per million, of 10-day composite samples of water from Miami Canal at Water l'lant, Hialesb 

Specific Total 

Date Mean Color conductance Silica Iron Calcium Magnesium Sodium Potassium Bicarbonate Sulfate Chloride Fluoride Nitrate Dissolved hardness 

of discharge (K x 105 (SiOt) (Fe) (Ca) (Mg) (Na) (K) (HC03) (SO.tl (Cl) (F) (NO,) solids as collection (cfs) at 25 C) eaco5 

1941 

Mar. 2-10 925 90 47.4 ... ....... 0.08 84 7.1 14 1.0 266 5.4 21 0.1 1.4 32ti 239 

Mar. 11-20 862 80 46.8 7.5 .05 84 6,5 13 1,0 264 5.4 21 ,1 1.4 308 23ti 

Mar. 21-31 9ti0 85 46.1 6. 0 .12 83 6. 8 12 .9 258 5.0 21 .1 1.4 303 235 

Apr. 1-1G 965 85 45.7 4.6 ,12 81 6.4 13 1.0 257 5.1 22 .1 1.3 300 2211 

Apr. 11-2G 992 90 45.4 5. 6 .14 80 6.3 13 .9 256 4.7 21 .1 1.1 299 22ti 

Apr. 21-30 796 90 45.8 5. 6 .18 82 6.6 13 1.0 259 4.8 21 .1 1.1 303 232 

May 1-10 926 9G 45.9 5. 2 .20 82 6.6 12 1.0 259 4.7 21 .1 1.5 3G4 232 

May 11-20 787 9G 46.6 6.8 • 27 83 6.4 12 1. 0 2ti2 4.8 21 .1 1.4 3G9 233 

May 21-31 459 90 47.4 4.5 .22 85 6. 8 12 • 8 267 4,9 22 .1 1.7 314 24G 

June 1-10 347 90 47.8 6.3 .21i 86 7. 0 13 1.1 271 4.2 25 .1 2.1 317 243 

June 11-20 409 90 48.3 8.3 .G4 85 7.0 13 1.2 270 4.8 24 .2 1. 2 316 241 

June 21-30 532 85 49.5 7.8 .10 87 7.1 13 1.1 278 3.0 22 .2 1.0 324 246 

July 1-10 606 90 49.6 8.2 ,10 86 7.0 13 1. 2 271i 10 20 .2 1.0 326 244 

July 11-20 861 90 46.1i 9.0 • 07 82 5.9 11 1.2 254 13 1~ .2 1.1 314 229 

July 21-23, 

25-31 853 110 45.9 7.9 .03 83 6.7 11 1.2 262 10 18 .2 1.0 315 234 

Aug. 1-4, 

6-10 814 110 45.8 8.1 .05 82 6.ti 11 1.1 2ti3 7.0 20 .1 • 7 311 232 

Aug. 11-20 7ti7 110 45.7 8.3 • G6 81 6.8 12 ·1.2 261 5:1 20 .2 • 8 311 230 

Aug. 21-31 688 110 45.2 11 • 02 80 6.7 13 1.3 259 4.7 20 .2 .9 311 227 

Sept. 1-10 655 110 44.3 7.1 .05 78 6.4 12 1.1 253 4,1 19 • 2 1.0 302 221 

Sept. 11-20 648 110 44.0 5.5 ,04 78 6. 5 12 1.0 258' 3.9 20 .2 .9 298 221 

Sept. 21-30 · 796 120 40.7 6. 2 .13 73 6.1 10 1.1i 23ti 4.0 lt; .3 .9 282 207 

Oct. 1-10 1,010 120 41.8 5.8 • 02 7ti 6.3 11 1.3 239 4.9 18 .3 1.0 287 216 

Oct. 11-18, 

20 922 120 43.1 5. 3 .13 78 7.0 11 1.3 249 4.3 20 .3 .9 29ti 224 

Oct. 21-31 837 110 44.0 5.6 .08 79 6.6 12 1. 2 253 4.0 19 .3 .9 304 224 

Nov. 1-10 797 110 44.8 6.6 .07 80 6.3 12 1. 2 255 5.1 20 .3 1.5 308 22ti 

Nov. ll-20 869 110 44.8 7. 2 .13 81 6.4 12 1.2 257 5.4 19 .3 1.3 30ti 228 

Nov. 21-30 848 95 44.6 8.3 .07 81 7.2 12 2,0 257 5.0 20 • 2 1.0 305 232 

Dec. 2-10 781 95 45.0 6.0 .08 82 6.9 12 1.9 261 5.0 20 .2 1.4 313 233 
D 

D 

ec. 11-20 ec. 21-31 

J an. 

1 

1 

F 

F 

F 

an. 

an. 

eb. 

eb. 

eb. 

1942 

1-10 

11-20 

21-31 

1-10 

11-19 

20-28 

Average 

698 95 

643 90 

602 90 

602 90 

526 90 

477 90 

440 90 

494 90 

............... 97 

46.1 6.1 ;12 84 

46.6 6.0 .13 85 

46.5 5.6 .17 85 

48.9 5.9 .08 87 

49.3 5. 7 .07 88 

49.1 5.5 .09 88 

48.9 5. 7 .10 88 

49.8 5. 2 .1o 90 

46.2 6.6 lo.11 83 

7.3 12 1.4 268 5.2 20 .2 1.4 310 240 

7.0 11 1.5 269 5.2 19 • 2 1. 7 314 241 

7.3 12 1.8 275 5.2 20 .2 1.6 316 242 

6. 7 13 1.3 277 5.2 20 .1 1.8 318 244 

6.9 12 1.4 279 5.1 20 .1 2.0 322 248 

6.9 13 1.4 281 4.7 20 .1 1. 8 321 248 

7.0 12 1.4 280 4.3 21 .o 2.0 320 248 

7.2 12 1. 2 289 5. 5 20 .1 2.0 328 254 

6.7 12 1.2 263 5.4 20 0.2 1.3 310 235 
770 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTiiEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 95.- Analyse-s, in parts per m~llion1 of water from Miami Canal ar Water Plant, 

llrsleen 

Specific Total 

Date conduct- Cal· Magne- Sodium Bicar- Sul- Chlo· Nl- Dis~ hardof Color a nee dum slum and po• bonate fate ride trate solved ness 

collection (K X lOS (Ca) (Mg) tassium (HC(\) (SOJ (Cl) (N(\) solids as at 25 C) (Na+K) CaCO 

1943 

Aug. 3 60 52,2 97 8.3 . .......... 294 16 17 0,2 .. ......... 276 

Sept. 2 55 51.7 97 9.4 . ........... 288 19 18 • 5 . ........ 280 

Oct. 8 100 47.7 91 8. 7 ........... 2tsti 19 15 • 2 . ........ 263 

Nov. 4 105 50.1 9.6 8.1 288 13 lti • 3 ......... 273 

Pee, 2 90 48.5 90 9.2 1.4 2'/8 11 18 ,ti 267 262 

Pee. 30 90 52.1 96 10 2,1 30ti 6.ti 18 1. 7 285 280 

1944 

Feb. 1 90 55.8 99 12 . ......... 292 7.2 20 1,3 . ....... 297 

Mar. 1 90 52.8 96 10 3,9 308 7.2 20 1, 3 290 280 

Mar. 31 63 51,9 94 8.3 5,8 302 3,1 21 1,1 282 268 

May 3 60 50,1 87 9,2 ' 8. 0 282 4,5 26 • 8 274 255 

May 31 65 53.8 94 8,2 10 306 7.4 22 .5 293 268 

June 30 65 51.7 91 7,2 9.0 292 5. 3 22 .3 279 256 

Aug, 4 80 51.8 90 7.6 8. 7 284 13 19 1.0 279 256 

Sept, 5 100 54 102 "'·"' 2,3 304 10 19 .2 290 282 

Dec, 11 90 52,5 96 7.2 7.6 308 3 20 2, 2 288 269 

1945 

Jan, 11 64 53.5 97 7. 6 8.3 320 3 18 • 5 292 273 

Feb. 1 62 53.8 96 7.3 8.3 314 1 20 1. 2 288 270 

Mar. 1 65 53.5 94 7.3 9.0 310 1 20 1. 2 285 264 

Apr. 5 65 52.5 91 7.4 9,0 298 1 22 1. 2 278 258 

May 71 60 303 90 32 509 264 13 800 

······ 1,670 35ti 

June 21 50 823 108 137 1, 600 228 68 2,650 ...... 4,980 833 

July 13 60 53,3 92 8,3 a. 5 308 1 20 • 6 282 264 

July 30 65 54.9 98 8.3 6.4 315 4 21 1.4 294 278 

Aug. 31 60 53,8 94 8. 2 9.0 307 4 22 1.3 290 268 

Sept. 24 75 57.2 102 8,3 8. 7 308 20 24 . 2 315 288 

194ti 

Apr. 22 80 54.2 97 8.3 5,5 29ti 14 22 . 2 293 276 

May 23 75 55.4 98 6. 8 7,8 304 1ti 17 .2 29ts 272 

July 1ti 95 56.2 98 7.0 11 320 10 18 ,2 302 274 

Sept. 24 100 53,5 98 7.2 4,4 314 6 14 ti 285 274 

Oct, 31 100 52,5 93 7.4 8, 5 300 9 18 • 2 284 262 

Dec. 20 90 52.9 94 7. 2 5,1 29ti 4 20 • 6 277 2ti4 

1947 

Mar. 31 80 54.5 94 8.2 8.0 300 4 24 2,0 288 2ti8 

July 27 95 54,7 95 8,4 6.2 300 10 20 • 8 288 272 

Aug. 7 110 46,2 81 6.2 4.1 264 1. 3 13 • 2 23ti 228 

Dec, 4 60 36,5 64 5.1 3.9 212 2.0 10 • 2 190 180 

1948 

May 6 62 49.4 94 6. 8 2.4 292 4,1 17 ,4 268 262 

June 15 94 52.1 92 7.5 12 310 5, 8 18 ,3 288 260 

1 Graph of discharge ot Miami Canal during this period shows that net discharge was zero. See 

figures 117~123. 
QUALITY OF GROUND AND SURFACE WATERS 771 

The nearly uniform composition of the water in Miami Canal 

may be explained as follows: 

The saline ground waters known to be present in the vicinity of 

North New River Canal and also along the middle reaches of Miami 

Canal apparently have been flushed out of the shallow strata south 

of South New River Canal. Consequently, the only source of mineral matter is the limestone rock through which most of the water 

percolates before reaching the canal. Since there is little direct 

runoff into the canal, except during rains of high intensity, most 

of the surface water travels at least a short distance through the 

permeable limestone and becomes charged with a fairly uniform 

amount of calcium bicarbonate and other soluble constituents. 

See table 96 for analyses of samples north of the dam at the 

Dade-Broward County line and table 97 for samples between 

Biscayne Bay and Pennsuco, Analyses of samples at Lake Harbor 

are given in table 101. The ranges in concentration ofdissolved 

mineral matter in Miami and North New River Canals are shown 

graphically in figure 220. 
Table 96.-Analyses, in parts per million, of water from Miani Canal rwrthol dam at Dade-Bwward County line -.I 

-'1 

l\:1 

Distance 

of source Specilic Sodium Total 

Date from Color conductance Calcium Magnesium and Bicarbonate Sulfate Chloride Nitrate Dissolved hardness 

dam (K X 105, (Ca) (Mg) Pot:a•sium (HC03

) (SO~) (Cl) {N(\) so_ lids as 

(miles) at 25 C) (Na + K) caco1 

1941 

Feb. 19 0.1 100 34.0 55 7.0 5.4 183 1.0 19 ..................... 178 1t;t; 

Apr. 25 .1 100 3t;.O 58 6.1 8.1 19ti 1 20 0.1 190 172 ~ June 5 .1 41.8 ................. ......... ~··········· .................... 239 .. ................ 23. . .............. ............... July 29 • 1 30.4 ................... ~ ··············"!'···· ................... 166 .................. 13 ................ ................. Aug. 28 • 1 33.2 ................. ........................ .................. 180 . .............. 18 .. ............ ................. ~ Oct. 8 • 1 32.7 ................. ......................... . .................. 172 . ............... 21 . ................ ............... § Nov. 25 • 1 36.7 ................. .. ...................... . ................... 198 ............... 21 . .............. ....................... Dec. 31 . 1 41.9 .................. .................... .................. 228 . ................ 22 . .............. . .................... Feb. 19 15.6 100 34.6 56 6.2 6. 7 185 1.4 19 ................. 180 165 

Apr. 25 15. a 105 35.ti 59 ij,ti 7.1 194 1 21 .2 190 174 '2! 

June 5 15.6 43.4 ..................... ·················- .................. 243 . .............. 23 ................. .................... . ............... Aug. "' 28 '5.6 34.5 .................. ....................... . ..................... 181 . ................. 20 .................. . ................. ................ 

~ Nov. 25 15.6 37.3 .................. . ........................ ................... 202 . ................. 19 .................. . ..................... .............. Feb. 19 210.1 100 29.8 48 5.8 5.4 160 • 2 17 ................ 155 144 

Apr. 25 11(). 1 100 35.5 59 6.1 1.4 196 1 19 .1 189 172 "' 

June 5 1 1o 1 45.6 262 25 PI 210:1 .................... ........................ .................... ············· ............... .................... ................ 1}! July 29 25.9 ................ ....................... .................. 143 .. ................ 10 . .................. ................... ............... Aug. 28 210.1 29.3 .................. ........................... ................... 159 .............. 14 . ............. ...................... .............. 

~ Oct. 8 210.1 60.6 ................... . .................... ....................... 169 . .............. 18 . .............. ...................... ............... Nov. 25 210.1 33.9 ................... ..................... ................. 185 . ............... 18 .. ............. ................. . ................ Dec. 31 210.1 39.2 ................... . ...................... ....................... 220 . ................. 20 ................. . ...................... . .............. ~ Feb. 19 3 1o. 3 100 20.0 21 4.1 7.3 91 • 6 18 ............... 102 84 

Apr. 26 •1o. 3 110 23.0 32 5. 8 6. 8 114 1 17 .1 119 104 

June 5 '10.3 29.6 ..................... ...................... ................... 204 .. ............. 2ti ............. . ................... July 29 s1o.3 23.4 ................. ....................... . ................... 120 . .............. 12 .. ............. ................ 
Aug, 28 '10.3 26,6 ................ ..................... .................... 131 ............... 19 . .............. . ..................... Oct. 8 310.3 27.2 ................... ...................... ................... 142 . ................ 17 ···········- . ........................ Nov. 25 310,3 28,1 .................... ....................... .................. 143 . .............. 19 . ............... . ................... Dec, 31 '10,3 44.6 ................ ................... . ................ 252 

·······-····· 

23 ,., ............. .................... 
Table 97.-Analyses, in parts pee million, of water from ~fia11i Canal between Royal Palm Dock in Biscayne Bay tmd Pennsuco, near Hialeah 

Distance 

of source Specific Sodium Total 

Date from Color conductance Calchnn Magnesium and Bicarbonate Sulfate Chloride Nitrate Dissolved hardness 

Royal Palm (K x 105 (Ca) (Mg) potassium (HC03

) (SO~) (Cl) (NO,) solids as 

Dock at 25 C) (Na + K) CaC01 (miles) 

1939 

Dec. 10 ·.to . ............. 1,740 188 400 3,240 239 828 5,750 .. ........... 10,500 2,110 

Dec. 10 I, 2 .............. 683 128 143 1,130 261 294 2,020 . ............ 2,830 907 

Dec, 10 I, 7 ............... 469 115 97 737 264 210 1,320 ................. 2,600 686 

Dec. 10 11.6 ............ 196 102 35 246 268 81 446 . ............ 1,040 398 

Dec. 10 3.8 ........... 55,3 91 9.5 14 269 24 36 . ........... 308 266 

Dec. 9 7.6 ............ 50.5 90 8.0 8,5 277 20 20 ................ 283 258 

Dec, 13 15,0 .............. 49.2 87 7.9 6. 8 273 12 20 ············· 268 250 

1 Contaminated with sea water. 
z 

0 

:J 

..J 

i 

a:: 

"' 0.. 

"' .... 

z 

"' ...J 

;; 

5 

0 

"' 

QUALITY OF GROUND AND SURFACE WATERS 

ISr------------------------------------------. 

14~------------------------

EXPLANATION 

DSODIUM 

••• POTASSIUM 

C!-ILOI'I:IO! 

• •• NITA.6.T! 

NORTH NEW RIVER CANAL AT 26· MILE BEND 

12 ~ ••GNESIUM ~ SULFOT! ----------j 

m BltAABON.ATE 

10~----------------------·------~ 

Figure 220. -Graph showing analyses of waters of Miami and North New River Canals. 

775 
776 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUnmASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 98.-Analyses, in partE> per million, of water rrom Cypress Creek Canal, at 

Pom;un.o 

Specific Total 

Date conduct- Cal- Magne- Sodium Bicar- Sul- Chlo- Ni- Dis- hardof Color ance cium sium and po- bonate fate ride trate solved ness 

collection (K x 105 (Ca) (Mg) tassium (HC03

) (S04

) (Cl) (No,) solids as at 25 C) (Na + K) caco3 

1941 

Mar, 26 70 50,4 92 6,1 14 254 35 29 0,4 302 255 

Apr, 22 70 44.2 84 3.5 8. 8 238 16 22 • 5 307 224 

May 21 50 44.1 83 3, 5 10 242 13 21 2,5 252 222 

July 3 100 52,o 102 3,9 7.4 257 33 29 .5 302 271 

Aug. 22 120 50.1 93 4.ti 11 264 23 25 ,4 287 251 

Sept. 2o 240 28.2 40 3.1 20 147 13 15 • 0 164 113 

Oct. 23 90 46.9 9ti 3.3 9,2 268 20 23 .4 284 253 

·Nov. 2ti 90 48.3 88 2.8 14 245 21 27 .5 274 231 

Dec. 2o 70 47.7 89 3,3 11 258 14 23 ,3 268 236 

1942 

Jan. 22 100 2ti.l 38 1. 6 14 102 24 16 ,6 144 101 

Feb. 19 90 44.5 80 3,1 12 235 15 21 • 2 247 212 

Apr. 8 60 49.2 93 3.5 8,3 258 16 26 ,2 274 246 

May 7 90 45,4 80 4.1 11 234 16 22 .4 249 216 

June 4 130 44,2 74 3,7 17 204 33 ll5 • 0 253 200 

July 9 110 43.9 79 3.1 11 232 12 22 .1 242 210 

Aug. 6 95 47.1 86 4.1 4.5 247 10 20 ,1 246 231 

Sept. 3 120 40.0 67 6,tj 2. 8 160 39 21 • 2 216 194 

Oct. 8 45 48.8 90 2.ti 10 2ti0 14 21 ,3 266 235 

Nov. 11 45 45.2 86 2.2 7.8 244 12 20 ,3 248 224 

Dec. 10 150 47,4 70 7. 0 21 187 38 38 2.6 269 204 

1943 

Jan, 7 60 48.3 87 4.4 9,2 258 12 22 .1 262 235 

Feb. 4 60 64.5 90 8. 7 33 282 18 59 .4 348 2ti0 

Mar. 4 45 45.3 86 3.3 5.3 252 10 16 • 2 245 228 

Apr. 2 40 44.4 86 3,9 3,ti 246 12 17 ,4 244 231 

May 6 40 44.6 86 4.1 3. 8 252 8,ti 17 . 2 244 232 

June 2 60 57.5 98 5. 9 16 286 16 38 .o 315 2t;9 

July 7 55 50.9 93 4.4 9.4 265 15 27 • 2 280 250 

1945 

May 26 40 46,9 89 2.5 6.4 2ti4 7 lti .o 251 232 

Sept, 21 80 66.2 99 5,5 35 256 59 53 ,1 378 270 

CYPRESS CREEK CANAL 

Analyses of monthly samples collected from Cypress Creek 

Canal at Pompano, covering the period March 1941 to June 1943, 

indicate that the composition of the water varies considerably but 

not so- extensively as that of West Palm Beach, Hillsboro, or 

North New River Canals (see table 98), Dissolved solids during 

that period ranged from 144 to 315 ppm, and hardness ranged from 

101 to 271 ppm, Color v-aried inversely with dissolved solids and 

ranged from 40 to 240, Samples taken during the drought of 1945 

showed higher dissolved solids. 
QUAUTY OF GROUND AND SURFACE WATERS 777 

TJIMJAMI CANAL 

· Sg,mples were collected from Tamiami Canal at Krome Road, 

10 miles west of Coral Gables, from March 1941 to September 

1944, and at a point t mile west of Coral Gables from Marett 1941 

to June 1948. (See tables 99 and 100.) Analyses of these samp.les 

indicate that the concentration of dissolved solids usually was 

somewhat lower at Krome Road than at Coral Gables. At Krome 

Table 99.-Analy.ses, in parts per million, of water from Tamiami Canal at /(rome Road, near Miami 

Specific: Total 

Date conduct· Cal· Magne· Sodiwn Bic:ar· Sul· Chlo· Ni- Dis- hard• 

of Color anc:e c:iwn siwn and po- bonate fate ride trate solved ness 

collection (K x lOS (Ca) (Mg} ta.Si~ (HC~ (SO.,) (Cl) (NO;) solids as 

at 25 C) (Na+ CaCOa 

1941 

Mar. 25 90 27.3 48 5,0 6, 0 149 4,9 18 1. 0 15ti 140 

Apr. 29 80 28.2 48 4.8 15 150 23 18 .5 183 140 

May 27 70 34.0 57 7. 2 B. 6 181 9.1 23 • 5 195 172 

July 15 70 24.4 38 3,1 11 126 4,7 14 3,1 13ti 108 

Aug, 25 160 30.0 48 4.8 7.7 156 1 19 .8 158 140 

Sept, 24 70 26.2 42 3.5 7. 8 134 33 16 .4 169 119 

Oc:t, 23 60 24.6 40 3,7 9.3 132 4.1 16 .2 138 115 

Nov, 18 60 27.8 44 4.1 9.3 139 5. 8 18 2. 0 152 127 

Dee. 27 60 31.5 52 5. 5 6,5 162 3.7 21 ,3 169 152 

1942 

Jan, 20 100 33,5 54' 4,1 13 177 1.9 23 .3 184 152 

Feb, 1ti 70 42,7 70 5,7 14 233 4,9 23 .4 233 198 

Apr, 9 60 53,5 95 4.8 13 301 1.6 2o .5 289 25ti 

May 20 40 51,0 88 7,0 14 286 7.0 2ti .2 283 248 

June 4 70 37,4 64 4,8 11 206 4.9 20 ,2 216 179 

July 15 120 27,0 42 3,3 9,8 150 1 11 .1 142 118 

Aug, 5 90 28.0 45 4,8 ,8 143 1 11 .1 134 132 

Sept, 1 100 27,5 46 8,6 .......... 134 2,5 15 .1 . ........ 142 

Oct, 1ti 40 28.4 48 3,7 5,1 150 2,7 14 .4 148 135 

Nov. 3 50 33,3 57 4,4 5,3 175 2.7 17 1.1 174 ltiO 

Dec, 9 50 53,7 97 7.0 11 312 4.9 23 2. 8 299 271 

1943 

Jan, 5 50 56,0 101 7,4 12 327 4.7 23 4.2 313 2ll2 

Feb, 5 35 57.3 104 8,3 6,9 332 5.8 20 2.9 312 294 

Mar, 8 35 58.5 108 7,4 6,2 340 4,3 20 3.2 317 300 

Apr. 2 3ti 58.5 110 8,3 4,1 342 3,9 21 4.ti 320 308 

May 7 38 55.7 103 8,3 3,9 324 3, 5 20 2. 9 301 291 

June 5 40 61,6 107 9,2 12 338 7,2 32 2. 2 33ti 305 

July 6 37 52,0 90 7, 6 9,4 2ti4 14 31 2.1 284 25ti 

Oct, 11 35 44,ti 8ti 6,8 1. 2 25ti 13 15 • 6 249 242 

Nov. 7 45 44,5 84 7.2 ......... 254 8.0 15 .5 . ......... 239 

Dee. 8 60 . 44,7 83 8,3 ......... 252 8,4 18 .8 ·········· 

241 

Dec, 30 58 44,0 81 8,7 ........... 248 8.4 18 .6 ·········· 238 

1944 

Jan, 27 53 42,4 79 7,4 2,3 242 6,4 Hl .ti 234 228 

Mar. 1 57 46,7 88 7.4 2. 3 272 6, 0 18 • 8 25ti 250 

Mar, 28 40 44,6 82 6,3 4,6 252 6,4 19 .8 243 230 

May 3 34 41,4 78 5,9 6,0 238 8.8 19 1. 3 23ti 219 

May 30 30 48,0 88 5,9 5,5 268 10 18 ,4 2ti0 244 

July 3 35 44,4 79 5, 6 6,9 246 9.3 17 • 3 239 220 

Aug, 10 65 49.2 86 6,3 13 274 9,3 24 • 5 274 240 

Sept, 6 60 48,0 88 8.5 1,2 274 5,6 18 1. 0 257 254 
778 WATER. RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 100.-Analys(•s, in parts per million, of water from Tamiami Canal, near Coral 

Gables 

Specific Total 

Date conduct- Cal- Magne- Sodium Bicar- Sul- Chlo- Ni- Dis- hardof Color ance cium sium and po- bonate fate ride trate solved ness eollection (K X 105 (Ca) (Mg) tassium (HCOs) (S04) (Cl) (NO,) solids as at 25 C) (Na+K) caco, 

1941 

Mar, 25 70 42,5 78 4,6 \11 246 9.9 18 1.0 228 214 

Apr. 21 60 40.8 77 6. 3 5, 8 238 7. 0 19 2. 0 234 218 

May 26 ....... 41.8 ........ ........... ······•'!.11:• 240 ....... 19 . ...... . ........ ........ July 15 70 41.4 76 5,7 4.3 238 7.4 14 • 0 225 213 

Aug. 25 60 42,3 86 5. 0 7.0 256 18 15 • 8 258 235 

Sept. 24 90 40,8 73 4.1 8,2 232 2,9 16 1, 5 220 199 

Oct. 23 65 37,8 70 5, 0 8,0 223 5,1 17 ,8 226 195 

Nov, 18 70 40.5 73 5. 2 11 236 8.6 17 . 2. 0 233 204 

Dec, 27 90 42,7 77 5. 7 7. 3 245 4.9 18 .3 234 216 

1942 

Jan. 20 120 43.3 79 5.0 8, 0 251 2.5 .19 .1 237 218 

Feb. 17 110 45.5 82 5. 7 7.8 2oti 1, 6 18 .1 24ti 228 

Apr. 9 80 47.0 8ti 5, 0 7.4 2o9 4.9 18 ,3 254 235 

May 20 70 45.2 80 5. 9 7.3 250 13 15 2' 245 224 

June 5 70 46.3 Bo 5. 2 9.7 2ti8 16 15 . 2 2o4 23o 

July 15 120 41,4 74 3.5 10 232 9,1 15 • 2 22ti 199 

Aug. 5 90 41.5 72 ti,1 2.5 22ti 3,5 15 .2 211 205 

Sept. 1 100 41.5 72 7.4 2.3 228 2,3 18 .1 214 211 

Oct. 16 70 41.6 74 4.6 4,8 232 3.5 14 1. 2 21o 204 

Nov, 3 65 43.0 79 3,1 7.4 243 5,6 14 1.4 230 210 

Dec, 11 70 44.7 82 5. 7 7.1 258 4.9 18 3.2 248 229 

1943 

Jan. 5 80 45.0 84 6.1 6,2 263 7.6 16 2.7 252 234 

Feb. 5 60 46,4 87 6, 6 1, 2 268 4.5 15 1.8 248 244 

Mar. 8 55 44.9 84 6. 6 2.1 258 7.4 15 1. 2 243 236 

Apr, 2 60 42.1 80 5.4 1,1 238 5.3 16 1, 3 22ti 222 

May 7 70 45.0 84 5,7 3.8 257 7.2 1ti • 8 244 233 

June 8 38 46,6 88 7.0 .9 267 9.5 15 .4 252 248 

July 6 45 45...8 88 7. 0 1.4 260 12 18 • 7 255 248 

Aug. 2 33 46,7 87 7.0 3.2 264 13 16 .6 257 24ti 

Sept, 4 32 46.5 90 7. 2 .......... 260 16 15 ,4 ........ 254 

1944 

Oct, 4 oO 49.8 ........ ........... ............ 272 5 17 1.0 ••••••If• 268 

1945 

Jan, 11 43 52,0 92 5, 2 8.0 288 9 16 ,8 273 251 

Feb, 1 40 49.9 91 5. 2 5.3 286 2 16 1, 0 261 248 

Mar. 1 42 50.1 92 5, 2 6.4 292 2 16 1, 2 267 251 

Apr. 5 42 46.1 83 5, 2 6.9 2ti4 2 17 1, 5 246 228 

May 2 35 39.3 68 5, 2 6.2 216 4 16 1.0 207 191 

June 4 32 41.7 70 5. 0 12 228 6 20 • 8 226 195 

July 3 35 39,2 66 5. 5 9,0 212 8 17 .4 210 187 

Aug. 1 37 44,2 80 6.0 2,3 228 17 17 .7 235 224 

Aug. 30 37 48.2 8ti 6,1 7.4 251 24 17 1, 0 265 240 

Sept. 24 38 55.3 118 6.3 1.4 292 54 19 1, ti 344 320 

1946 

Apr. 18 75 50.6 90 5,4 6,0 264 18 17 ,4 2ti8 24ti 

May 23 100 51.7 92 5.4 7,6 292 7 15 .2 273 252 

July 16 55 50,7 94 5. 5 2.3 272 16 16 • 2 268 257 

Sept, 27 65 46.7 84 5. 8 6.7 260 12 lti .2 253 234 

Oct, 31 80 47,5 84 6, 2 4.4 264 4 17 • 2 246 235 

Dec, 20 55 48.2 88 6.7 ............ 266 4 17 • 8 ........ 247 

Feb. 27 50 49.6 92 6.7 2. 3 280 5 19 • 8 264 257 

M!-r. 31 50 49,7 90 6.1 9.4 27ti 15 20 • 8 277 250 

1947 

June 5 38 51,1 90 5. ti 8,5 28ti 5,8 18 .2 2ti9 241:l 

Aug. 7 54 45,4 80 4:9 7.6 252 8,2 15 .2 240 220 

Nov, 26 40 38,2 68 4.0 4.8 2lti 2.6 12 .2 198 186 
QUAUTY OF GROUND AND SURFACE WATERS 779 

Table 100.-Analyses, in parts per million, of.water-frorn Tamilillli Canal, near Coral 

Gables-Continued 

Specific Total 

Date conduct- Cal- Magne- Sodium Bicar- Sul- Chlo- NiC Dis- hardof Color a nee cium sium and po- bonate fate ride trate solved ness 

collection (K x 10? (Ca.) (Mg) ta.ssium (HC01) (S04) (Cl) (NOa> solids a$ 

at 25 C) Nil+ K) CaCOs 

1948 

Feb. 5 52 43.2 82 5.7 2.9 254 6.0 14, .3 236 228 

May 6 132 4ti.7 91 5. 8 ,8 274 4.9 16 ,5 254 251 

June 24 42 47.o 91 5.9 5.5 280 12 15 ,3 268 251 

Road,dissolved solids ranged from 134 to 336 ppm and total hardness ranged from 108 to 308 ppm. At Coral Gables. dissolved 

solids ranged from 198 to 344 ppm, and total hardness ranged 

from 186 to 320 ppm. Presumably, the slightly greater concentration at Coral Gables during most of the period of record was 

caused by the higher mineral content of ground water that seeped 

into. the canal between these two collection points. 

MISCELLANEOUS SAMPLING 

The results of analyses of miscellaneous samples collected 

from the major canals at points other than regular sampling 

points and from the smaller streams and· canals are given in 

table 101. Additional analyses of samples from the major canals, 

made for special studies in regard ·to effects of drought, are 

given in table 102. 
Table 101.-Analyses, in parts per million, of miscellaneous surface waters in southeastern Florida, 1939-42 

Specific Sodium 

Source Date Color conductance Calcium Magnesium and Bicarbonate Sulfate Chloride Nitrate 

{K x 10 5 (Ca) (Mg) potassium (HC01) (S04) (Cl) (NO I) at 25 C) (Na + K) 

Fisheating Creek at Palmdale •••• Dec. 2(}, 1939 9.1 .................. ............... 10 1 19 ............ Do .......................... Feb. 12, 1941 180 ................. 3.5 1.3 7.ti 5 1 18 . .......... Do .......................... Oct. 27, 1!141 240 6,0 2. 5 1, 7 6. 3 9 2.3 12 0;3 

Indian Prairie Canal near 

Okeechobee,, •••••••••••••••••••• ,, Feb. 12, 1941 380 ................ 42 12 ............... 12 87 21 .......... Taylor Creek near Okeechobee,. Oct. 27, 1941 240 7.2 7.0 1.2 6.0 22 2.9 10 .3 

Arbuckle Creek near De Soto 

City,, .............................. Dec. 18, 1939 ........ 7. 5 ............. ............... .............. 10 12 8 . .......... Istokpoga Canal near Cornwell. .. l>ec, 19, 1939 ........ 9.1 "''"82'" ................. .............. 9 10 10 . ......... Bolles Canal at Okeelanta ......... July 28, 1940 320 61.4 21 5.8 250 42 39 ............ Do .......................... Feb. 13, 1941 240 ................. 54 15 ............... 122 37 30 

Do .......................... Mar. 10, 1!141 280 79.3 94 30 26 248 115 64 1,6 

South New River Canal near 

Davie •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• Dec. 8, 1939 ....... 51.5 91 8.0 9,0 292 -13 19 . .......... Do .......................... Mar. 26, 1941 70 50.1 90 B. 5 8.3 278 13 24 3.0 

Do.,, ....................... Apr. 22, 1941 70 33.0 44 12 13 188 8.2 17 '2.0 

·Do .......................... May 21, 1941 65 47.4 82 9.2 8.5 262 14 22 • 8 

Do .......................... July 3, 1941 110 35.3 54 5. 7 15 194 12 13 1,4 

Miami Canal at Lake Hamor ..... Dec. 18, 1939 42.5 45 13 22 152 32 39 ........... Oo.,,.,,,,.,,,, •• , •• , ••••••• JulY. 28, 1940 190 66,6 .............. ................ .............. ,. 231 108 50 ........... Do .......................... Mar. 10, 1941 200 35.1 49 11 8.3 152 23 2ti .4 

Do .......................... Oct. 2ti, 1941 280 19.4 28 5.2 2.9 94. 5.8 10 .6 

Deep Lake near Immokalee ....... Dec. 1ti, 1939 ··~···. 47.4 85 5.8 9.2 277 2 19 . ........... Lake Trafford near Immokalee ... ..... do ............ ......... 11.5 13 1.7 7.0 47 2 10 . .......... Still Lake near Fort Myers ......... May 11, 1943 22 .................. 52 9.9 31 192 6.3 52 .0 

Twelvemile Creek near Fort 

Myers, ............................... Dec. 1ti, 1939 . ......... ti8.4 93 20 27 351 18 47 . ......... Imperial River near Bonita 

Springs, ••••••••••••• ,,,,., •• , •• , •••• ..... do ............ .. ........ 44.4 76 4.8· 11 241 1 25 .. ....... ,. Shark River Canal at Tamiami 

Trail Bridge 169 .................. Dec. 9, 1939 ........ 30,0 48 3.7 8.2 153 2 18 .. .......... 

Dissolved 

solids 

. .............. 34 

30 

.................. 31:1 

.............. 

............. 313 

................ 453 

284 

284 

189 

266 

197 

226 . ... , ........... 270 

99 

254 

57 

253 

378 

~ 

236 

155 

Total 

hardness 

as 

CaC01 

16 

14 

13 

154 

22 

22 

34 

291 

196 

358 

260 

260 

159 

242 

158 

166 

273 

168 

91 

236 

39 

170 

314 

209 

135 

.... 

00 

0 
Boynton Canal at Boynton ••••••••• May 7, 1942 130 29,2 48 

Drainage ditch 2. 4 miles southeast Ol: Canal Pointl .............. Mar. ·14, 1941 280 223 147 

Drainage ditch 5. 5 miles south- east of Canal Pointl .............. ..... do ............ 440 240 178 

Drainage ditch 8, 7 miles southeast of Canal Pointl .............. ..... do ............ 440 201 132 

Drainage ditch at South Bay! ..... Mar. 13, 1941 280 153 200 

Drainage ditch at Okeelanta3 ..... Mar. 10, 1941 220 158 208 

Drainage ditch 18 miles south of 

South Bay4 .......................... Feb. 13, 1941 440 4 .................. 33 

Drainage ditch 27 miles south of 

SouthBay4 .......................... July 28, 1940 ltiO 92.2 110 

Do .......................... Feb. 13, 1941 220 .................. 29 

Borrow ditch 41 miles south of 

South Bay ............................ July 28, 1940 150 64.2 104 

Do .......................... Mar. 10, 1941 120 29.8 44 

1 At pumpbouse on State Highway 716. 1 At ?umphouse 0,1 mile north of railroad bridge over North New River Canal. 

3 West of State Highway 25 and south of Bolles Canal, 

4Along SCS dike west of State Highway 25. 

5Along west side of State Highway 25 at 20-Mile Bend. 

3, 9 

84 

97 

67 

74 

68 

8.1 

24 

9.0 

11 

9.2 

6, 8 132 12 21 .4 151 136 

236 649 267 294 ........... 1,350 712 

231 728 308 303 ........... 1,480 843 

210 632 120 297 ........... 1,140 605 

51 554 336 87 1.6 1,030 803 

57 506 340 109 1.0 1,030 799 

. .............. 76 11 29 . ........... ................. 118 

56 390 34 99 .......... 515 373 

1. 0 7ti 9.5 28 . ............ 114 109 

18 338 8 41 . ......... 349 305 

4,0 156 5,3 16 .5 156 148 
Table 102.-Analyses, in parts per million, of mi scellmeous surface waters in southeastern Florida, May and September 1945 -1 

00 

[',) 

Specific Sodium Total 

Source Date Color conductance Calcium Magnesium and Bicarbonate Sulfate Chloride Nitrate Dissolved hardness 

{K X lOS (Ca) (Mg) potassium (HC03) cso,> (Cl) (NO,) solids as 

at 25 C) (Na + K) caco3 

Miami Canal at Lake Harbor ................ , May 29 180 147 168 39 99 568 69 178 8,3 841 580 

Do ............... " ••••••••••••••• " ... Sept. 23 190 41.8 65 11 12 186 57 14 ,4 251 207 

North New River Canal at South Bay ....... May 25 50 52.8 52 15 32 1oo 48 53 7,0 286 192 ~ Do.,, .. ,, .............................. Sept. 21 300 111 147 48 6. 7 380 212 22 20 643 564 ;l 

North New River Canal at Okeelanta ...... May 25 60,7 204 55 58 210 ·········~ ...... "' ............... . .............. Do.,, ...................... ,,,,,,.,,,,. Sept. 21 134 . ............... ............... ................... . ......... 85 .. .............. f:l 

"' 0 

North New River Canal 16 miles south o 

South Bay ............... """""'"'"'""' May 25 50 52,1 49 15 37 180 36 56 .2 282 184 

Do ........... ,,, ....................... Sept. 21 340 93,8 125 36 28 308 173 52 18 584 460 ~ "' 

North New River Canal at Palm Beach- z 

Broward County line ........................ jMay 25 ........ 55.6 . ............. ................ .................. 204 50 56 .. .......... . ................. 180 

Do, .................................... Sept. 21 . ........ 111 . ............... .............. ................... .......... 110 . ......... . ............. "' 

North New River Canal at 26-MileBend .. May 25 50 54.7 54 

~ 15 35 202 26 57 • 0 '286 196 

.Do, ................................ "" Sept • 21 320 82.7 109 31 22 280 133 47 16 496 400 ..., 

North New River Canal at 20-Mile Bend •• May 25 61.1 ................. ............. 240 50 57 ... ......... ...................... ;l 

Do ..................................... Sept, 21 82.2 ............... ..................... . .................. .................. 52 . ............... .. ............... ~ 

North New River Canal 8 miles west of 

State Highway? ............................. May 25 62.7 ............... .................. ............. 282 34 58 . ........ ,.. .. ................ 216 5 , Do ...................................... Sept. 21 92.3 .................... ............... .................. . ........... 88 . ............ ................. . ............ i:2 

~ North New River Canal near Fort 

Lauderdale, .. ,,,,,,,,, •• , ..................... May 25 45 58.8 60 16 42 .222 40 58 • 8 326 216 

Do ... , •• ,,,,,,,,,,,, .. ,,,,,,,,,, .. ,,,,. Sept. 21 280 74.6 100 26 14 262 107 43 .4 420 356 

South New River Canal at State Highway 

25 ............................................... May 26 60 34,5 51 7.6 6.4 172 5 18 • 7 173 158 

.Do ..................................... Sept. 27 110 52.9 90 7.9 12 224 63 22 2.8 308 257 

South New River Canal above lock and 

dam, near Davie ................................ May 25 140 55.2 84 10 19 288 10 32 .o 297 250 

Do ..................................... Sept. 21 82 60,2 102 8.8 20 310 32 29 5. 6 350 290 
South New River Canal above Snake 

Creek Canal, near Davie ................... May 25 55 44.7 65 9. 0 16 224 10 28 . 6 239 199 

Do ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• Sept. 25 55 57.8 102 7. 6 11 311 18 22 4.3 318 286 

Hillsboro Canal at Belle Glade ••••••••••••• May 25 50 52.7 54 17 28 168 44 54 9.0 289 205 

. Do ..................................... Sept. 23 400 148 154 61 95 504 238 122 12 930 635 

Hillsboro Canal at june ti on with Cross 

Canal. ......................................... May 25 52.6 . ···~· .......... 188 30 52 .......... . ............. 162 

Do ..................................... Sept. 23 119 . ... ..... .... ~ ... . .............. .............. 115 . ........ . ............. .() 

Hillsboro Canal at Shawano ................. May 25 560 122 101 38 110 520 10 150 • 2 665 408 ~ .Do ..................................... Sept. 23 360 119 108 43 99 520 44 129 8.4 688 446 I:: 

llillsboro C ana I at Indian Run .............. May 26 80 216 160 39 244 488 72 435 1. 2 1,190 560 ~ 

Do ..................................... Sept. 23 400 50.0 47 15 36 196 20 52 2. 6 269 178 ~ 

Hillsboro Canal at State Highway 7 ....... May 26 227 450 110 490 435 Q ........ ................ . ............. . ......... .............. :<! 

. Do ..................................... Sept • 23 ........ 49.7 . ............... . ................ ................ 62 . ............ Hi lis boro Cana 1 near Deerfield Beach •••• May 26 160 156 121 21 186 412 57 280 .0 868 388 ~ Do ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• Sept. 23 320 47.8 52 11 27 178 20 48 .2 246 175 

West Palm Beach Canal at Canal Point ••• May 26 30 46.0 43 12 38 164 32 50 1.4 257 157 ~ Do ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• Sept. 22 640 78.3 83 29 40 286 76 71 .2 440 326 c: "' 

West Palm Beach Canal at Big Mound ~ 

> Canal ••••••••• , •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• May 26 64.9 ........... ...... ,.. ........ . ............. 256 24 68 . .............. 186 n .Do ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• Sept. 22 38.2 32 t'l ............. . .............. . ............. .............. . ............ West Palm Beach Canal at Range Line ••• May 75.1 .............. ................... . ............. 224 52 106 . ......... ............. 192 ~ Do ................................... , Sept. 22 22.0 18 >-1 .............. ................ .............. . ............ . ... ,.. ......... , t'l 

West Palm Beach Canal at West Palm "' 

Beach •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• May 26 40 67.5 56 14 64 200 40 92 • 7 365 197 

.oo ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• Sept. 22 200 21.6 28 4. 0 7.1 84 10 16 .1 107 86 

Cypress Creek Canal at Pompano •••••••••• May 26 40 46.9 89 2.5 6.4 264 7 16 • 0 251 232 

Do ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• Sept. 21 80 66.2 99 5. 5 35 256 59 53 . 1 378 270 

-:r 

co 

w 
784 WATER RESOURCES IN SOU1HEASTERN FLORIDA 

EFFECT OF DROUGHT CONDITIONS ON CHEMICAL QUALITY OF EVERGLADES 

CANALS 

Drought conditions in southeastern Florida during 1945 resulted 

not only in unusual inland penetration of salt water from the ocean, 

but also in increased concentration of dissolved salts in the 

Everglades canals. Owing to greatly deficient rainfall during this 

period the runoff in the major drainage canals was derived largely 

from ground-water storage, which generally contains higher concentrations of dissolved salts than does direct surface inflow. 

By May 1945, the accumulated deficiencies in precipitation for 

the year amounted to more than 11 inches in the Miami area. Because the summer rain ordinarily begins in late May or early 

Jtine, it was decided to collect a series of samples of surface 

waters in the major Everglades canals prior to the rainy season, 

Another series was scheduled for collection in the early fall, 

which normally coincides with the end of the rainy season, It was 

anticipated that the samples collected in May would contain much 

larger amounts of dissolved salts then would the samples collected 

in September. 

The results of the analyses of the two series of samples are 

shown in table 102. Contrary to expectation, the .concentrations 

found in the September samples, for a majority of the sampling 

locations, were considerably higher than the concentrations found 

in the May samples. Because the two series of single samples 

could not possibly reflect all the changes that took place in the 

Everglades canals during the period, it is impossible to explain 

satisfactorily why most of the September samples were more concentrated than the May samples and, at the same time, to explain 

why the reverse was true for other sampling locations. 

During the extremely dry months· it is possible that the heavy 

draft on the water table by vegetation resulted in an accumulation 

of salts at, or near, the surface of the ground as a result of 

transpiration. With the coming of the rains and the rising of the 

water table to the surface of the ground, the accumulated salts 

would have been dissolved and gradually discharged into the 

canals. It is probable that many other factors were to some degree responsible for the increase in concentration in the canal 

samples in September over that in May, but the above explanation 

may account for a part of the increase, 

CHEMICAL CHARACTER OF NONARTESIAN GROUND WATERS 

Nonartesian ground waters along the low coastal ridge in Dade 

and Broward Counties are, in general, moderately hard waters in 

which the dissolved mineral matter consists largely of calcium 

and bicarbonate. Hardness ranges from about 150 to 300 ppm. 
QUALITY OF GROUND AND SURFACE WATERS 785 

Shallow ground waters in the Everglades are generally harder and 

more concentrated than the shallow coastal ground waters because 

of remnants of saline residues resulting from former invasions 

of the area by the sea, Maps showing the locations of the wells 

that were sampled are in the Appendix. 

METROPOLITAN AREA OF MIAMI 

Most of the public and private supply wells in the Miami area 

are less than 100 ft deep and, of those over 100 ft deep, not many 

exceed 120ft. The dissolved mineral matter in the water, unless 

contaminated with salt water, consists essentially of calcium and 

bicarbonate with smaller amounts ofmagnesium, sodium, sulfate, 

chloride and other constituents. From 70 to 80 percent of the dry 

residue remain-ing after evaporation of the water consists of calcium carbonate. (See table 103.) 

The calcium ordinarily ranges from about 90 to 110 ppm and 

the magnesium ranged from about 4 to 8 ppm. Hardness ranges 

from about 200 to 300 ppm (expressed as calcium carbonate), 

Sulfate in the uncontaminated ground water ranges from about 30 

to 50 ppm, and the chloride ranged from about 15 to 25 ppm. 

Sodium and potassium are usually present in concentrations that 

are nearly equivalent to the chloride. Iron is present in amounts 

that range from 0, 1 ppm (or less) to about 3 ppm. 
Well 

no. 

s- 1 

S- 2 

s- 3 

s- 4 

s- 5 

s- 6 

s- 7 

s- 8 

s- 11 

s- 12 

s- 13 

S- 14 

S- 15 

S- 16 

s- 17 

s- 23 

S- 35 

S- 52 

s- 58 

s- 10 

S- 72 

s- 73 

S- 89 

S-112 

S-145 

S-150 

S-153 

S-278 

S-301 

S-304 

S-376 

S-384 

Table 103.----Analyses, in parts per million, of n;,nartesian \Vaters in the Miami metropolitan area 

[See plates 21 and 22] 

Specific 

Date Depth Tern- conduct Iron Cal- Magne- Sodium Bicar- SuiLocation of (feet) pera- Color ance (Fe) cium sium and po- bonate fate 

collection ture (K X lOS (Ca) (Mg) tassium (HC03

) (S04

) 

('F) at 25C) (Na + K) 

Miami Springs, Hialeah we II field •• Sept. 25, 1940 67 77 60 64,2 ........ ........ . ....... ~·· ............. 268 . ....... •••••••••••• dp ............................. ..... do ........... 96 78 65 54.7 ...... ······ ··········· "''"27" 266 .......... ............ do ............................. ..... do ........... 62 77 60 74.5 .......... 117 8. 0 258 61 

•••••••••••• do ............................. ..... do ........... 94 78 65 138 ........ 142 11 125 264 67 

............ do ............................. ..... do ........... 100 76 65 59,8 ........ 105 6.4 15 274 47 

............ do ............................. ..... do ........... 62 77 65 53,0 ...... ...... ··········· ............. 273 . ....... •••••••••••• do ............................. ..... do ........... 62 78 60 53.3 ............. ........ 5:·, 276 ........ ............ do ............................. June 30, 1941 64 ······· 45 51.0 0. 8 94 6,8 266 31 

............ do ............................. Sept. 26, 1940 91 78 65 54.1 ••• ~-4 96 6.9 11 276 38 

............ do ............................. ..... do ........... 90 77 80 56.1 4.4 .... 4 99 7.8 10 274 41 

............ do ............................. ..... do ........... 55 76 65 77.3 .......... 97 12 48 278 44 

............ do ............................. ..... do ........... 73 76 75 76.1 4-··· 97 12 45 282 47 

............ do ............................. ..... do ........... 85 76 65 85.9 ••• 4.4 118 10 44 281 47 

............ do ............................. ..... do ........... 90.5 76 65 56.2 4 •••• 4 •••• 4. .4 ••• ··4~ .4 .......... 4 ...... 271 • .... 4 ~·· 

............ do ............................. ..... do ........... 87 77 90 59.0 ··~· .... 104 6.8 10 2[11 43 

NW. 32d Ave. and 79th St. ......... Sept. 26, 1940 64 79 50 47.3 ..... 4 .... 92 4.0 2.( 238 42 

2741 NW. 27th Ave ................... July 17, 1940 51 77 3 70.0 . 56 115 5. 0 29 291 52 

7580 NE. 4th Ct ....................... Sept. 26, 1940 60 80 5 69.4 ••4••• 104 5. 0 36 297 31 

U. S, Hwy. 1 and Sunny Isles Road, Nov. 15, 1940 36 77 30 151 ~····· ~4 .... 4 ... ... 4.4 .4. •4 ~4 4 ....... 4 ..... 444 318 ~·4 •• 4 •• 

47NW. 6th St ........................... Jan. 23, 1941 100,5 •••• 4 •• 5 59.0 .... 4.44- ~·4 ••4 ... •• 4 .4 .... 4 ~4 66 .4 ... ~·44. 

70NW. 11th St ......................... Oct. 4, 1940 32 82 5 1,050 ....... ~ .... 183 220 1,790 206 655 

N. Miami Ave. and 16th St ......... Oct. 19, 1940 37 80 25 818 .... 4 .... 4 155 168 1,37(1 290 348 

92-99 NW. 7th Ave .................... July 25, 1940 50 80 5 48.3 1. 0 92 3.6 5. 235 37 

NW. 11th Ave. and 22nd St .......... Oct. 2, 1940 90 80 5 104 4 ~ ..... 4 106 9.0 97 248 40 

............ do .............................. Oct. 2, 1940 63 79 5 202 4 ....... 102 35 256 264 70 

Dixie Hwy. and DonglassRoad ...... Oct. 3, 1940 66 79 5 132 4 •• 4 •• 124 8.5 132 252 21 

SW. 6th Ave. and 8th St .............. Jan. 18, 1941 45- .4 •• 4 •• 5 63.7 44-.4 ~· 90 4.2 37 251 22 

50 

Ojus, Greynolds P«rk. ................. Oct. 11, 1940 80 77 15 94,4 ....... 135 5.4 50 284 25 

North Miami, U. S. Hwy. 1, 0, 2 

mile North of NE. 111th St ....... Oct. 15, 1940 100 ......... 20 89.2 ... ...... 116 10 58 269 83 

North Miami Beach, public supply .. Jan, 31, 1944 60 ··4···· 35 167 ....... 4 150 14 167 296 44 

NW, 10th Ave. and 76th St ........... Nov, 4, 1940 75 ............ 35 51,5 4 ..... 4 101 3.5 5, 0 274 29 

Biscayne Gardens, NE. 2d Ave. 

and 143rd St .......................... Oct. 24, 1940 63.5 76 75 57.8 .4 •• 4. 101 6.8 19 324 5,3 

Total 

Chic- Ni- Dis- hardride "'ate solved ness 

(Cl) ~o,) solids as 

CaCO 3 

46 ........ . .......... ... ........ 20 ...... ......... ········· 77 . ..... 417 325 

273 . ....... 748 400 

33 , ...... 341 288 

19 ...... ......... . ........ 18 . ..... ............ ........... 17 1. 3 288 263 

19 .......... 307 268 

24 ......... ~ 317 279 

86 4 ~·4 .... 424 291 

78 4 -~··4 418 291 

108 4 ···~· 465 336 

21 • •• 4 ~· 4.4 ....... 4 •4+4 ......... 

19 ··~· .. 326 288 

9.• .. ~ ..... 266 246 

55 .4 400 308 

59 ~4 •• 4. 381 280 

308 ~4 •• 4 4 44 ~-4 .4 ~· 4 ...... ~-44 

1,640 .4 ...... ....4••••4• ....4 .4 .... 44 ~ 

3,120 .4 ... ··~ 6,070 1,360 

2,450 ··4··· 4,620 1,080 

17 . 6 272 244 

189 4•4+4 ... 563 302 

472 4 ....... 1,060 398 

285 .. ......... 695 344 

67 4.44.4 344 242 

148 .4.4 .... 503 359 

106 • ....... 4 506 331 

358 1. 8 881 432 

16 290 266 

35 • ..... 4+4 327 280 
F- 1 Miami Springs, Canal St. and 

The Parkway ......................... Jan. 25, 1941 52,7 .......... 50 53.5 . ...... . ..... ........... .. ........... 258 . ...... 33 . ........ ......... F- 2 Miami Springs, Riverside and De 

Leon Drives ........................... ..... do ............ 73.4 ... ...... 70 51.2 . ..... ........ ··········· .....•.• 4. 254 .. ........ 21 

F- 3 Miami Springs, De Leon and 

Morningside Drives ................. ..... do ............ 43,2 ........ 70 90.0 . ............ ............ 256 ........... 132 

F- 4 Miami Springs, South and Pinecrest Drives ........................... ..... do .. ~ ......... 68.2 ....... 120 110 .............. .......... 262 . ...... 191 

F- 5 Miami Springs, La Villa and Pinecrest Drives ........................... ..... do ............ 53 120 92.6 . ..... . ............ ........... 254 . ...... l44 

F- 6 Miami Springs, La Baron and De .() 

Leon Drives ........................... ..... do ............ 47.7 ........... 60 54.4 . ....... ................ . ......... 272 . ...... 11 c: 

F- 7 Miami Springs, Minola and La > 

Baron Drives ......................... ..... do ............ 54.8 ...... 120 58.4 . ..... . .......... ........... 267 . ...... 33 t: 

F- 8 Miami Springs, Mokena and :;! 

Oakwood Drives .................... ..... do ............ 54,8 ...... 10 54.2 ... ...... 263 ....... 17 

F- 9 Miami Springs, DeSoto and ~ Oakwood Drives ..................... ..... do ............ 43,8 ...... 60 49.7 . ..... 236 . ...... 13 Cl 

F- 10 Miami Springs, Oakwood and , 

Palmetto Drives ..................... ..... do ............ 80.7 ...... ,... 70 50.4 . ..... 257 13 g F- 11 Miami Springs, Eastward Drive be- ei tween De Leon and De Soto 

Drives .................................. Aug. 31, 1940 59.3 77 105 55.2 ...... 100 6. 9 9,7 263 49 23 0 318 278 

F- 12 Miami 

Drive 

Springs,Hunting 

and The Esplanade 

Lodge 

......... ..... do ........... 56.9 76 160 135 156 9.1 106 255 71 265 0 133 477 ~ F- 13 Miami Springs, Hunting Drive Lodg "' c: 

and Sunset Way ...................... Jan. 25, 1941 73.3 90 54.8 ... ...... 272 . ........ 17 e:: F- 14 Miami Springs,Hunting Lodge and > 

Melrose Drives ....................... Aug. 31, 1940 59.7 74 115 52.6 ........ 94 6.2 11 268 33 21 0 297 260 n 

F- 15 Miami Springs, Hunting Lodge and M 

Glendale Drives ..................... Jan. 25, 1941 73,1 110 53.4 . ....... ....... 295 . ..... 19 

F- 53 NW. 6th Ave. and 79th St ........... ~ Jan. 2, 1941 110 80 15 45.6 ...... 277 ........ 19 ;:;! F- 62 NW. 9th Ave. and 54th St ........... ..... do ........... 82.9 ······· 5 45.0 253 15 , F- 64 NW. lOth Ave. and 36th St ........ July 20, 1940 114 78 10 57.4 ,8 94 3.8 22 262 13 49 *3 312 250 

F- 80 NW. 15th Ave. "' and 14th Ter ........ Jan. 22, 1941 95.4 ......... 90 ............ . ............ 227 . ........ 12,000 

F- 85 NW. 15th Ave. and 77th St .......... ..... do ............ 58.6 ....... 5 ··········· . .......... 254 ......... 20 . ........ ........ F-102 NW. 18th Ave. and 19th St .......... July 17, 1940 118.8 76 10 102 4.0 23 289 1 59 . 2 332 271 

F-109 NW. 19th Ave. and 79th St .......... Jan. 9, 1940 51.4 79 ··········· ............. 250 28 16 . ......... ·····~··. F-117 NW. 22d Ct. and 20th St ............. Jan. 5, 1941 55.4 77 170 . .............. ........... 285 . ...... 372 . .......... ........... F-120 NW. 23rd Ct. and 7th St ............ July 20, 1940 120 78 5 45.7 82 3,3 12 250 6 23 • 3 250 218 

F-131 NW. 34th Ave, and 17th St ......... Mar. 12, 1940 49.7 78 69.9 254 89 

F-155 SW, 24th Ave. and 24th Ter ........ Jan. 9, 1940 60.5 80 83.6 ........ 258 30 124 . ....... 279 -.] 

F-158 SW. 27th and Andros Avenues ...... Oct. 31, 1940 83.4 78 15 4,400 460 1,070 8,810 230 15,800 ........ 28,400 5,540 co F-168 sw. 27th Ave. and 28th Lane ....... Jan. 21, 1941 107.1 ........ ...... 4,480 ...... ....... 139 ......... 16,400 ········ -.] 

F-172 SW. 30th Ave. and 16th St .......... Oct. 12, 1940 87,5 78 5 50.6 ...... 96 3,3 9.5 254 21 31 . ...... 286 253 
Table 103.-Analyses, in parts per million, of nonartesian waters in the Miami metropolitan area-Continued > 

Specific Total 

Well Date Depth Tem- conduct Iron .011- Magne Sodium Bicar- Sui· Chlo- Ni- Dis- hard- no. Location of (feet) pera- Color a nee (Fe) cium sium and pb· bonate fate ride trate solved ness collection tu:re {K X 1()1 (Ca) (Mg) tassium (HC03 (SOJ (Cl) (NOS solids as (~F) at 25C) (Na+K) CaCO 

F-173 SW. 30th Ave. and 27th St .............. Oct. 12, 1940 60,2 78 5 180 ........ 157 9,4 204 258 29 448 ........ 974 430 

F-174 SW. 31st Ave. and 12th St .............. Jan. 9, 19~0 67.0 80 .......... 49.1 ...... ......... ........... .. ........... 252 28 24 ....... ... ....... 240 

F-186 SW. 58th Ave. and 4th St. .............. ..... do ........... 63,1 78 ........ 49.9 ....... ....... ............. ............ 268 30 14 ....... 249 

F-188 Bird Road and Mary St ................... Jan. 21, 1941 115.3 ........ 140 4,880 ...... ....... ............ ............ 79 ........ 18,000 . ........ . ....... ....... F-202 Shipping Ave. and Mary St ............. Jan. 18, 1941 62 .......... 5 204 ...... ........ ............. ............. 264 ....... 502 . ....... ......... . ........ F-205 N. Miami Ave, and 59th St ............. July 17. 1940 50 80 5 50.6 • 52 94 2.9 14 254 37 21 .0 295 247 

F-212 LeJeune Road at Municipal Airport. ••• Aug. 24, 1940 53 78 95 48,4 ...... 89 3.3 8,4 254 25 14 .o 265 236 

F-219 NE. 2d Ave. and 61st St ................. July 19, 1940 90 79 5 56,6 .97 97 2,9 21 262 42 29 .1 322 254 

F-223 NE. 2d Ave. and 82d St ................. July 25, 1940 48.9 78 5 52 3 ,58 96 3.3 13 261 37 20 ,4 299 253 

F-225 NE. 3rd Ct. and 76th St .................. July 19, 1940 70 78 15 59.6 .76 102 2.8 23 260 45 40 .3 342 266 

F-226 NE. 4th Ave. and 59th St: ............... Aug. 24, 1940 85,8 79 5 67~ 6 1,7 127 3.6 18 391 7 31 .o 381 332 

F-228 NE. 4th Ave, and 108th St .............. ..... do ........... 114,1 78 65 56.0 .70 101 3,5 16 271 53 17 .o 325 266 

F-233 NW. 31st Ave. and 8th St ............... July 5, 1940 48,9 78 44.9 .12 84 2.8 11 248 18 17 .1 255 221 

F-245 Hialeah, E. 5th Ave. and 54th St ...... Aug. 24, 1940 93.1 76 95 55,3 1.0 95 8. 0 10 304 13 21 298 270 

F-248 Hialeah, Palm Ave. and 51st St ....... July 5, 1940 56.2 77 50 53.0 1.1 94 11 6.8 287 27 20 305 280 

F-263 Hialeah, E. 2d Ave. and 4th St ......... Aug. 24, 1940 101.7 77 100 52.4 .60 94 6. 7 11 272 37 17 300 262 

F-266 Hialeah, E. 2d Ave, and 17th St ....... Nov. 22, 1940 45 77 ........ 53,3 ......... ........ .......... ................ 269 . ..... 16 . ........ F-268 Hialeah, E. 1st Ave. and 5th St ........ Dec. 21 1940 54.6 77 60 50,8 ........ ....... ........... .............. 257 ...... 15 . ....... . ........ F-275 North Miami, NE. lOth Ave, and 

128th St ................................... Aug. 24, 1940 51.7 78 45 54.2 .43 104 3.5 8.3 231 77 16 .o 323 274 

F-284 North Miami, NW. 11th Ave. and 

128th St. •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• July 5, 1940 59.2 78 4(} 44.0 ...... F-296 North Miami, U.S. Hwy, 1 and NE. 

84 4,4 5.8 255 8 16 • 5 244 228 

138th St. .................................. ..... do ............ 46,7 79 20 66.4 3,(} 108 4.4 25 284 2 75 1. 0 358 288 

F-297 North Miami, NE. lOth Ave. and 132d 

132d St .................................... ..... do ............ 85.5 78 120 57 •. 2 8. 8 115 4.0 11 301 52 19 • 8 359 303 

F-299 Biscayne Park, NE. 8th Ave. and 

119th St ................ : •••••••••••••••••• Aug, 24, 1940 204.5 76 30 106 1,2 

F-300 North Miami Beach, Flagler Blvd. 

108 111 95 320 1(} 177 .o 560 315 

and Arriola Way._ ..................... July 5, 1940 91.1 77 20 49.2 2.3 95 2.9 16 279 21 21 5.6 301 249 

F-301 Coral Gahles, Menores.Ave. between 

Galiano St. and Douglass Road ...... Oct. 4, 1940 57.5 80 3 49.8 ....... 96 3.7 7.4 267 27 17 ....... 283 256 

F-304 Coral Gables, LeJeune Read and ...... C-oral Way ................................ ..... do ........... 18.0 82 3 48,9 . ...... 94 3.7 5.6 263 23 16 ....... 272 250 

F-307 Coral Gables, San Antonio Ave, and ....... Segovia St. ............................... ..... do, .......... 18,3 80 3 48,3 ........ 94 3.3 6.8 267 18 18 ...... 272 248 
F-309 Coral Gables, Riviera Drive and 

Toledo St ................................. ..... do ............ 13,9 82 3 53,0 98 4.3 9.3 278 28 18 ........ 294 262 G- 42 North Miami Beach, at gas plant ....... Oct. 31, 1940 14,3 100 560 184 34 3.1 357 464 110 268 . .......... 1,000 93 G-48. Abaco Ave, and Lucaya St .............. ..... do ............ 13,1 79 5 54,1 94 3.6 14 260 19 3 .......... 293 249 

G-158 SW. 27th and Andros Avenue• .......... .. ~ .. do ............ 16.7 82 3 61.3 105 3.8 24 302 17 46 ........ .,. 345 278 G-l82 Miami Springs, Morningside Drive 

and The Parkway ........................ Aug. 27, 1940 19.0 82 78.2 108 4.3 63 279 102 63 .o 418 281 ............ do .................................. ..... do ............ 24.4 78 132 152 6.4 120 286 76 250 .o 745 406 ............ do .................................. Aug. 28, 1940 50.4 80 133 130 12 127 236 60 280 725 374 ............ do .................................. Aug. 29, 1940 88.8 .. .......... 121 123 13 101 229 57 236 .o 643 360 ............ do .................................. ..... do ............ 104.1 78 91.8 132 17 48 487 12 65 .o 514 399 ............ do .................................. Aug.30, 1940 162.4 77 73.1 56 32 55 338 14 70 .0 394 271 '2 ............... do ...................................... Aug.31, 1940 218.8 78 81.8 81 31 53 409 19 13 • 0 257 208 

~ ............ do, ................................. Sept, 4, 1940 291.6 78 78.8 30 25 108 340 29 74 .o 434 178 

NE. 2d Ave. and 65th St .................. Sept.10, 1940 5.9 80 46.4 78 3.3 18 256 19 13 ....... 257 208 ............ do .................................. ..... do ............ 28.6 80 50.0 84 3.1 23 278 18 18 ....... 283 222 ............ do,,, ............................... ..... do ............ 45.4 81 49.4 67 3,9 24 220 21 23 ........ 247 183 !il ............ do .................................. Sept, 11,1940 50.6 81 53,1 85 3.5 27 253 38 27 .......... 305 277 (l 

............ do ................................. ..... do ............ 90.7 80 47.9 82 4.4 14 234 26 25 .. ,., ..... 26? 223 :xt ............ do .................................. ..... do ............ 98.8 80 49,6 86 3.7 16 242 2ti 28 ........ 279 230 

~ ............ do ................................. Sept. 12, 1940 101.2 81 47.2 78 5, 2 14 226 19 30 ........ 258 216 ............ do ................................. ..... do ............ 105,0 82 82,3 100 7.1 57 241 23 129 ....... 435 279 ............ do .................................. ..... do ............ 108,3 80 118 124 6.1 105 253 34 227 ......... 621 335 ............ 

............ do do .................................. .................................. Sept, 

..... do 

14, 

............ 

1940 

111.9 

128.8 

81 

80 ........ 863 

88.3 

351 

107 

113 

6.0 

1,380 

84 230 

269 293 

34 

2,700 

146 ....... 470 292 ~ . ........ 4,970 1,340 "' ............ do .................................. Sept. 17, 1940 174.6 80 ........ 2,130 342 436 3,950 274 874 7,160 . ........ 970 2,650 c: ............ 

............ do do .................................. .................................. ..... do ............ 178,4 80 2,230 352 463 4,170 289 19 7,560 ....... 3,600 2, 780 ~ ..... do ............ 182.5 80 ......... 2,280 354 479 4,480 301 949 7,700 .. ...... 4,100 2,850 ............ do ................................... ..... do ............ 18ti.4 80 ........... 2,1;30 341 433 3,920 276 61 7,120 f1 ........ 2,800 2,630 r.; ............ do .................................. Sept. 18, 1940 275.4 78 150 46 3 224 359 03 255 ........ 844 275 

~ ............ do .................................. Sept, 20, 1940 306.9 79 578 94 114 965 270 83 1,620 ........ 3,210 703 ............ do .................................. ..... do ............ 331.2 79 318 38 44 578 318 01 680 ....... 1,AOO 276 

~ Miami Gardens Drive and Douglass 

Road. ...................................... Oct. 22, 1940 52,6 76 110 39,0 74 5, 2 3,6 225 12 12 ....... 218 206 ............ do ................................. ..... do ............ 57.1 77 120 39.0 74 5.2 1.4 221 12 11 "' ........ 212 206 ............ do .................................. Oct. 23, 1940 68.3 7'1 80 42,3 74 6.1 7. 0 236 14 12 ........ 229 210 ............ do .......... , ....................... ..... do ............ 86,4 78 30 46.4 81 7.3 9,2 256 19 16 ........ 259 232 ............ do .................................. ..... do ............ 99,0 77 75 58,8 102 8.ti 12 322 19 23 .......... 323 290 ............ do .................................. Oct. 25, 194{1 113,0 77 85 59.0 104 9,0 11 327 20 23 ........ 328 297 ............ do .................................. ..... do ............ 120,7 78 30 72.7 110 14 55 394 6. 2 50 ....... 429 280 ............ do .................................. Oct. 26,1940 198.4 78 20 188 52 39 303 416 85 368 ........ '1,050 290 G-l86 NW. 17th Ave. and 55th Ter ............ Nov. 1, 1940 41.6 78 3 47.5 89 2.8 9.8 256 19 18 ...... 265 234 ~ ............ do .................................. ov. 2, 1940 68.2 77 15 47.2 87 4,3 8.0 257 17 17 260 235 C)) 

............ do .................................. ..... do ............ 88.9 77 10 48,5 90 4,3 9,0 267 17 18 ....... 270 242 ~ 

............ do ................................. Nov, 4, 1940 109,2 77 15 51.ti 95 5,1 11 298 4.7 23 ....... 286 258 
Table 103.-Analyses, in parts per million, of nonartesian waters in the Miami metropolitan area--Continued 

Specific Total 

Well Date Depth Tem- conduct•. Cal- Magne- Sodium Bicar- Sul- Chlo- Ni- Dis- hard- no. Location of (feet) pera- Color a nee Iron cium sium and po- bonate fate ride trate solved ness collection ture (K X lOS (Fe) (Ca) (Mg) assium (HC08) (SOJ (Cl) (NO,) solids as ("F) at 25 C) (Na+ K) P,co3 

G-186 NW. 17th Ave. and 55th Ter ... Nov. 4, 1940 130,2 77 10 53,0 ...... 97 5. 5 11 305 4.9 24 ........... 293 265 

.......... do ........................... ..... do ........... 144.3 77 5 54.1 ............. 96 6.2 16 318 3. 3 25 . ......... 303 265 

SW. 27th Ave. and Dixie Hwy .. Dec. 11, 1940 34.4 79 5 66.4 .......... 104 3.8 45 316 52 43 ....... 404 2•76 

.......... do ........................... ..... do ............ 48.0 79 5 64.6 . ..... 95 3.4 49 279 43 60 .5 388 251 

.......... do ........................... Dec. 12, 1940 63.6 79 5 208 ........ 146 20 260 272 65 512 ....... 1,140 447 •••••••••• do ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• Dec. 13, 1940 81.6 79 10 3,140 .......... 428 689 6,010 259 1,380 10,900 . ...... 19,500 3,900 

.......... do ........................... Dec, 17. 1940 143.0 79 5 5,060 .......... 444 1,230 0,4,00 148 2t500 18,400 . ....... 33,000 6,150 

.......... do ........................... Dec. 18, 1940 217.2 79 5 3,090 .......... 439 701 5,950 235 1,590 10,700 ······· 19,500 3,980 

G-193 NW. 36th St. and Miami Canal. Dec. 21, 1940 17.7 76 60 73.4 ........ 94 12 48 277 38 87 . ...... 416 284 .......... do ........................... Dec. 24, 1940 49.4 76 40 151 ........ 103 25 183 2li3 100 310 ....... 851 360 

•••••••••• do ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• Jan. 2, 1941 66.2 76 30 225 ...... 123 35 305 288 128 528 . ....... 1,260 451 

.......... do ........................... ..... do ............ 77.0 77 30 1,260 ....... 229 246 2.1'20 289 577 3,950 . ...... 7,360 1,580 

G-195 NW. South River Drivet 0.8 

mile NW. of 36th St ........... Jan. 11, 1941 62.4 77 ....... 118 ........ 109 16 HJ 256 67 215 . ...... 646 338 

.......... do ........................... ..... do ............ 68.7 77 ......... 118 ...... 112 16 110 268 64 212 . ....... 646 345 .......... do ........................... Jan. 13, 1941 71,9 77 .......... 106 ........ 107 14 ............. 257 181 . ........ . ........... 325 .......... do ........................... ..... do ............ 82.1 77 ........... 91.7 ...... 101 14 66 264 47 133 .......... 491 306 

.......... do ........................... ..... do ............ 83.1 77 .... .., .. 86.2 98 13 ~ ............ 264 121 ....... .. ............ 298 

.......... do ........................... ..... do ............ 89.1 77 ........ 116 ........ 111 16 102 268 45 211 .......... 617 343 

G-196 Le Jenne Road, 0. 2 mileS. of 

NW. 36th St ..................... Feb. 28, 1941 11.8 77 65 51,9 • 43 92 5.5 11 232 48 26 ......... 297 252 

.......... do ........................... ..... do ............ 42,0 76 95 54.2 ,30 90 7.4 16 238 44 35 . ...... 310 

.......... do, .......................... Mar. 1, 1941 65 77 55 130 • 80 122 14 122 249 62 255 ........ 698 

.......... do ........................... Mar. 3, 1941 75.6 77 70 290 . 31 162 37 384 259 116 750 . ...... 1,580 556 .......... do, .......................... Mar, 5, 1941 92 77 ............ 810 • 35 219 141 1,300 276 317 2,410 ........ 4,520 1,130 

G-197 Hialeah, SE. 1Oth S t, and 14th 

St ................................... Mar. 11, 1941 52 77 ....... 50.7 . 25 92 .2 2(1 250 35 23 ......... 294 230 

•••••••••• do ........................... Mar. 15, 1941 67.2 77 50 85.0 • 20 84 13 78 254 47 125 ......... 472 263 

.......... do ........................... Mar. 18, 1941 90,5 77 50 840 • 20 200 156 1,380 294 342 2,520 ....... 4, 740 1,140 

C-198 Coral Gables, 0. 2 mileS. of 

Coral Way and 0, 7 mile W. 

of Ludlum Road. ................ Apr. 15, 1941 41.7 76 ......... 52.7 .20 100 6.3 3.6 278 33 15 • 0 295 275 .......... do ............................ Apr. 16, 1941 58,1 75 ....... 38.9 • 20 76 4,6 1,3 206 22 14 .o 220 209 .......... do ............................ Apr. 17, 1941 73.2 75 ......... 50,2 .30 102 7,0 .9 293 23 15 .o 292 28'3 .......... do ............................ Apr. 18, 1941 84.9 75 ....... 52.8 • 20 102 6.3 4.1 306 14 17 .o 294 280 .......... do ............................ Apr. 21, 1941 101.7 75 ........ 57.3 • 20 101 15 5.8 345 5. 3 27 .o 324 314 
"' ... 

i 

? 

"' 'f' 

I 

"' "' 

G-199 0. 2 mile W. of LeJeune Road 

and 0.1 mile N. ofNW. 

36th St ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• •••••••••• do •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

.......... do ........................... , .......... do ............................ •••••••••• do, •• , •••••••••••••••••••••••• 

June 6, 

June 7, 

June 9, 

June 13, 

June 14, 

1941 56.3 77 .......... 1941 71.2 77 ......... 1941 85.8 77 ......... 1941 888.5 77 ....... 1941 92 78 40 

60.6 . ....... 109 9.6 6.0 244 83 27 .0 355 312 

99.4 . ....... 125 10 6"1 280 59 148 . ....... 547 353 

364 178 46 503 274 136 965 ... ...... 1,960 633 

406 • 15 191 56 576 305 165 1,090 .......... 2,230 707 

486 .15 189 75 728 287 189 1,370 ........... 2,690 780 
792 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN Fl.ORlDA 

COASTAL AREAS SOUTH OF MIAMI 

All of the coastal area south of Miami is within Dade County, 

reaching from the southern edge of the area of Miami near South 

Miami to Florida Bay south of Homestead and Florida City. The 

samples from this area were collected from 4 supply wells, 2 fire 

wells, and 14 test wells in the vicinity of Homestead and Florida 

City. Most of the test wells were drilled in connection with the 

development of a public supply for Key West. 

Analyses of the J.tncontaminated ground waters south of Miami 

show that they contained somewhat less dissolved mineral matter 

and less color than ground waters in the Miami area, (See table 

104.) Dissolved solids in the analyzed samples rangedfrom 187 to 

252 ppm, and hardness ranged from 134 ppm in well G216 to 208 

ppm in wells not contaminated with sea water. The dissolved 

matter consisted primarily of calcium and bicarbonate. Sulfate 

ranged from 2 to 12 ppm and chloride ranged from 10 to 22 ppm 

in uncontaminated water. 

Some test welis encountered salty water at depths of only 20 ft 

at localities several miles south of Florida City; salty water was 

found at somewhat greater depths in the vicinity of Florida City. 

Essentially, these test wells were exploratory wells to determine 

the characteristics of the water-bearing formations and to determine the extent to which the Biscayne aquifer had been invaded 

by salt water. (See section on Salt-water encroachment.) 
Well 

no, 

S-194 

S-381 

S-480 

S-480 

F-378 

F-379 

G- 20 

G- 21 

G-22 

1 

G-187 

G-188 

G-207 

G-208 

G-209 

Table 104,-Analyses, in parts per million, of nonartesian waters in Dade County, outside Miani metropolitm .:rea 

[See plate 6] 

Specific 

Date Depth Tern conduct Iron Cal- Magne- Sodium Bicar- Sui- Chlo- NiLocation of (feet) pera- Color a nee (Fe) cium sium and po- bonate fate ride trate collection ture (K x 1()5 (Ca) (Mg) tassium p-tcOsJ (SO~ (Cl) (NO,) ("F) at 25C) (Na + K) 

Homestead public supply ............ Mar, !i. 1941 62 75 5 37,9 0.02 63 6, 5 6. 8 o. 218 8.3 10 0,3 

Greynolds Park ......................... Oct. 11, 1940 116 ........ 35 52,4 ...... 93 4,7 16 308 1 23 . ........ South Dade Project, F. S. A. , 

near Homestead. .................... Oct. 17, 1941 48 ......... 5 39,9 .04 74 1. 7 8. 8 227 9.3 10 1.1 

57 ............ do ............................. Oct. 13, 1941 46 ........ 5 39,2 .04 73 1.1 11 227 7.4 11 1. 2 

53 

Florida City, Palm Drive and 

Roberts Road ........................ Jan, 9, 1941 24.1 76 5 36,6 71 2,9 3,8 218 3 11 ........... U.S. Hwy. 1, E. of Naranja Rd. ... ..... do ........... 20,7 76 5 39,8 ....... 77 1. ~ 3,8 226 6 11 

U. S. Hwy, 1, 5 miles S. ofFlorida ..... do ........... 7.4 76 5 44.8 ........ 76 4,6 14 244 5 24 . ....... City .................................... ..... do ........... 7,4 76 5 44.8 ........ 76 4,6 14 244 5 24 .. ...... Tennessee Road, 1 miles S. of 

Florida City .......................... ..... do ........... 9 76 5 40,2 ........ 75 3,4 21 266 8 14 . ........ Redland Road, 2 miles S. of 

Florida City .......................... ..... do ........... 8.6 76 5 39.5 ...... 79 2. 6 6.1 244 4 12 . ........ Pennsuco, near Miami Canal ....... Nov. 13, 1940 23.3 75 140 53,5 ........ 96 8. 6 6. 5 305 6,4 23 . ...... ............ do, .. , .. ,,,,,,, ................. Nov, 14, 1940 49,0 75 95 55,0 ....... 91 8. 8 10 312 11 24 . ....... ............ do, ............................. Nov. 15, 1940 91.1 74 50 55,4 .......... 90 9. 9 15 310 5,6 27 . ....... ............ do, ............................. Nov. 16, 1940 105,6 74 40 69.6 ....... 81 19 36 370 6,2 46 . ....... ............ do .............................. ..... do ........... 117,2 74 45 65,4 ........ 88 15 58 350 5,6 42 . ...... ............ do,,,,,, ........................ ..... do ........... 132.6 74 30 79.8 ......... 85 25 55 416 4,9 63 . ......... ............ do •• , ........................... Nov, 18, 1940 171.8 74 15 70,4 ....... 46 31 62 346 12 51 . ...... ............ do .............................. ..... do ........... 222.4 75 20 67.4 ...... 24 24 96 363 10 42 . ...... Krome Road and Tamiami Trail ... Nov, 20, 1940 22.0 77 - 65 5.2. 7 ...... 88 u 16 305 3,5 23 . ....... ............ do .............................. ..... do ........... 44.3 76 80 54,0 ....... 90 7.5 19 320 1 23 . ....... ............ do .............................. Nov. 21, 1940 76.6 17 15 66.6 ....... 74 12 56 321 14 52 . ........ ............ do .............................. Nov, 22, 1940 124.0 77 15 71.2 ....... 46 24 12 298 19 75 . ........... ............ do .............................. ..... do ............ 164.2 76 15 81.7 ....... 36 29 99 308 30 99 . ....... ............ do .............................. Nov. 23, 1940 200 77 15 79.6 ....... 26 26 113 358 24 71 . ...... Florida City ............................. Jan. 28, 1941 48.2 ....... ....... 35.9 .. ..... 10 2,1 5,3 215 2 12 ........ 1 mile SW. of Florida City .......... Feb, 22, 1941 48,2 77 5 36.5 .05 68 2.1 6.5 • 4 214 3, 7 11 .o 

U. S. Hwy. 1, 6. 0 miles SE. of 

Florida City .......................... Mar. 18, 1941- 24.1 75 ....... 343 . 20 110 65 504 252 129 920 .. ...... 

Total 

Dis- hardsolved ness solids as 

CaC01 

206 184 

289 251 

217 192 

217 187 

199 189 

211 199 

244 209 

244 209 

252 201 

224 208 

291 275 

304 278 

300 265 

376 295 

376 226 

438 315 

378 242 

315 159 

288 250 

298 255 

369 234 

383 213 

445 209 

436 172 

. ...... 184 

201 181 

1,850 542 
Table 104.-Analyses, in parts per million, of nonartesilltl waters in Dade County, outside Millmi metropolitan area-Continued 

Specific Total 

Well Date Depth Tern- conduct Iron Cal- Magne Sodium Bicar- Sui- '-hlo- tNi- Dis· hard- no. Location of (feet) pera- Color ance (Fe) cium sium and po- bonate fate ride trate solved ness collection tnre (Kx lOS (Ca) (Mg) tassium. {HCO,) {S04

) {Cl) (NO,) solids as {'F) at 25C) (Na + K) pco3 

G-209 U. S. Hwy. 1, 6. 0 .miles SE. of 

Florida City .......................... Mar. 18, 1941 37.1 76 ........ 2,370 0.39 840 158 4,520 230 1,060 7,990 . ...... 1,470 2,750 ............ do .............................. Mar. 20, 1941 59 77 ........ 4,120 ...... 410 986 8,310 198 1,990 14,800 . ........ 26,600 5,080 

G-210 5 miles S. of Florida City and 1 

mile W. of U. S. Hwy. 1 .......... Mar, 27, 1941 45.6 75 ...... 41.8 ...... 67 6.3 12 216 12 21 0.1 225 193 ............ do .............................. ..... do ........... 53.3 76 ••••• 4 37.7 ...... 60 5. 5 19 209 11 22 .1 221 172 

G-211 1. 5 miles S. of Florida City and 

0. 05 mile W. of Florida East 

Coast Ry. grade,,, .................. Mar. 29, 1941 33,9 76 ........ 34.9 ........ 67 5, 0 • 2 204 5. 3 11 .1 189 188 •••••••••••• do .............................. Mar. 31, 1941 45.1 76 5 36,2 .24 73 3.7 .3 218 3.7 11 .1 199 197 •••••••••••• do .............................. Apr. 2, 1941 59.4 76 ...... 34.5 ...... 73 3.7 2,3 220 6. 2 11 .1 205 197 ............ do .............................. ..... do ........... 72 77 ...... 35.4 73 4.4 • 8 220 4,5 12 .l 203 200 ............ do .............................. Apr. 3, 1941 81.9 77 5 36.5 ,30 71 4.6 2.2 218 3.7 13 ,1 202 196 

G-212 U. S. Hwy. l:, 1. 4 miles SE. 

Florida City .......................... Apr. 10, 1941 35.0 77 ...... 37.9 . ..... 72 4,8 9,6 227 14 14 • 0 226 199 ............ do ............................. Apr. 11, 1941 53.3 77 ...... 36.1 ...... 72 4.8 2.6 214 9. 9 14 • 0 209 199 •••••••••••• do ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• Apr. 12, 1941 72.2 77 ....... , 42.7 ...... 67 7. 6 18 223 13 29 .o 244 198 ............ do ............................. Apr. 15, 1941 78.6 76 5 108 ........ 76 18 116 221 31 215 ... ...... 565 264 

G-213 0. 45 mile SE. of Florida City and 

3 miles E. of U. S. Hwy. 1 ....... Apr. 16, 1941 22 76 ........ 56,6 . ..... 68 4,8 31 212 17 53 .8 281 198 ............ do ............................. Apr. 18, 1941 55.9 76 ...... 71.4 ...... 67 7.6 57 186 23 104 . ...... 350 198 ............ do ..... : ....................... Apr. 19, 1941 77.6 76 5 104 ...... 86 13 109 228 33 201 . ...... 554 268 

G-214 Longview Road, mile N. of 

Lucille Drive, SW. of Florida 

City .................................... May 14, 1.941 37.2 76 ...... 37.6 ........ 70 4.4 .4 202 6.6 15 . ...... 196 193 •••••••••••• do, ............................ ..... do ........... 50.8 76 ....... 38.5 ······ 68 3. 1 12 224 5.3 13 .o 212 182 •••••••••••• do ............................. May 15, 1941 61.4 76 ........ 39.2 ...... 66 4.8 6,7 210 8.2 13 .o 202 184 

G-216 South Campbell Drive and Tallahassee Road, 3 miles E. of 

Homestead. ........................... Aug. 11, 1941 25,5 76 ......... 38.5 . ..... 74 3, 9 5.5 219 16 11 1.3 220 201 ............ do .............................. ..... do ........... 43,5 76 ...... 37.2 ...... 70 3.3 4.8 208 11 11 1.5 204 188 ............ do .............................. Aug. 14, 1941 71.1 76 ...... 38.9 . ..... 70 3.5 8.6 219 8.6 13 1,2 213 189 ............ do .............................. ..... do ........... 82.0 76 ...... 38.7 ...... 60 4.4 17 205 16 14 .3 213 168 

G-217 U.S. Hwy. 1, 1, 6 miles N. of 

Campbell Drive ..................... Aug. 20, 1941 45.7 76 ...... 37.3 . ..... 68 1.7 12 214 9.5 11 1. 2 209 177 ............ do ............................. Aug. 22, 1941 67.8 .76 ........ 36.2 ...... 62 2.6 8,6 193 7.4 12 1. 5 189 165 ............ do ............................. Aug. 26, 1941 87.8 76 ....... 37.6 ..... ~ 67 3.5 7.2 212 8.2 10 1. 0 201 182 
••..•••••••• do ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• Aug. 27, 1941 108.5 76 38.8 ·····~ 64 5.5 14 219 17 11 .8 220 182 

G-218 Near Russian Colony Canal, 7 

miles W. of Hialeah ............... Aug. 28; 1941 19,6 76 70 53.5 ,03 97 6.3 15 328 5. 8 19 . 0 305 268 ............ do ............................. Aug. 28, 1941 64.4 74 70 52.7 . 03 93 6.8 11 312 2.5 18 .0 285 260 ............ do ............................. Aug. 29, 1941 96.3 77 5 63,1 .03 48 16 36 255 3,3 48 .o 277 186 ............ do ............................. Aug. 30, 1941 105,2 75 5 '17. 2 .03 61 25 69 351 1,0 78 .0 413 255 ............ do ............................. Sept. 2, 1941 141.4 77 5 98.8 .03 73 32 98 450 5.3 108 • 0 538 314 ............ do ............................. ..... do ........... 158.8 '17 5 99.4 . 03 58 36 108 436 10 114 .o 541 293 

G-222 U. S. Hwy. 94, 30 miles W. of 

Miami ..................................... Dec, 31, 1941 41.5 77 20 130 160 30 92 688 3.1 110 . 1 1,470 523 

G-224 1. 5 miles W. of Milam Diary Road .() 

and 1. 0 mile N. of Milam c: 

> Dairy Canal. ......................... Mar. 9, 1942 36.6 74 'lO 56.6 .......... 102 9.6 3.7 300 28 19 .0 310 294 t:: ............ do ............................. Mar. 10, 1942 91.3 74 60.6 ...... 99 11 9.7 318 18 24 • 0 ............ do .............................. Mar. 11, 1942 99 76 54.5 ...... 76 11 18 253 19 33 • 0 282 234 ~ ........... ,do .............................. ..... do ........... 102 76 69.6 ......... 69 9.6 58 275 12 71 • 0 355 212 

G-225 Dade-Broward Levee .................. Apr. 7 1942 23,7 72 100 48.4 • 15 88 8.'1 5. 8 284 5. 8 19 ~ 2.5 270 256 ............ do .............................. Apr. 8, 1942 43.8 72 130 51,4 • 20 92 7.9 6.0 296 1.2 21 2.5 277 262 n 

:;>;! ............ do .............................. Apr. 28, 1942 100 75 10 121 . 10 77 34 142 524 11 141 • 2 663 332 0 G-270 NW. 103rd St. , 2, 6 miles W. of 

G-271 Near 

Miami 

Snapper 

Canal 

Creek 

......................... Canal, 5. 3 

Mar, 6, 1941 4.6 .......... 46,6 .. ··~. 82 4.4 13 268 3.3 18 2. 0 255 223 ~ miles N. of U. S. Hwy. 94 ........ ..... do ........... 7.3 52.0 ...... 93 6.2 11 304 2,'1 3,0 285 258 ~· G-272 1. 0 mile W. of Milam Dairy Road 

and 3 miles N. of Flag! er St ....... ..... do ........... 5. 5 51.1 ••••-t• 96 6.3 8, 5 289 22 16 2,0 293 265 

G-273 2. 5 miles W. of Milam Dairy Road "' c: 

and 3 miles N. of Flag! er St ....... ..... do ........... 5.5 ........... 42.0 . ..... 100 5, 2 5. 6 304 17 11 1,0 290 271 ~ G-274 1. 0 miles W. of Milam Dairy Road f; and 2 miles N. of Flagler St ...... ..... do ........... 5.1 ........ 48.9 . ....... 95 4.9 5.7 274 25 13 1. 0 280 257 

G-275 Near Snapper Creek Ca mi.!, 2 miles "' 

N. of Flagler St ..................... ..... do ........... 5.4 .......... 39.8 . ....... 76 4.7 6.5 237 6, 2 15 1.5 227 209 ~ G-276 2. 6 miles N. of U. S. Hwy. 94 and ;;! 2 miles E. of Krome Ave .......... ..... do ........... 7.0 ......... 33.5 . ....... 60 4.7 7. 0 189 3.7 17 2.0 188 169 ::<! G-447 w. of Kendall .......................... Ang. 28, 1946 30 15 .3 81 3.2 4.5 16 10 254 215 "' .. _ ...... -do ............................. Aug. 29, 1946 40 15 . 8 80 3,5 3,0 9.9 11 247 211 ............ do ............................. Aug. 30, 1946 60 18 ·~ ..... ~.4 ~· • 6 81 2. 8 5.0 13 9 250 21', ............ do ............................. Sept. 4, 1946 80 5 . 2 79 4,6 7.0 5. 8 13 

r:::::: 

264 216 

G-448 W. of l;loward .......................... Ang. 21, 1946 37,8 13 . 8 100 4,0 8.0 46 13 327 265 •. ~ ........ do ............................. Aug. 26, 1946 68.1 11 .5 94 4,0 8.0 23 11 ~·· .... 282 251 ............ do ............................. Sept. 23, 1946 81.2 10 • 5 92 4.0 3.0 13 11 285 246 

G-449 Rock<!ale_ .............................. Sept. 11, 1946 .40 3 .1 80 2. 8 4.6 1. 6 14 250· 211 ............ do ............................. Sept. 13, 1946 80 3 • 05 78 2.4 4.0 0.5 12 225 206 ~ G-450 E. of Rockdale ........................ Sept. 15, 1946 40 5 .45 91 2.7 13 22 18 301 238 (0 

............ do ............................. Sept. 16, 1946 60 3 ~ ............ 4 .15 84 2. 0 29 4,5 15 257 218 <:n 
Table 104,-Analyses, in parts per million, of nonartesian waters in Dade County, au( side Miami metropolitan area--Continued 

- -- -- -

Specific ~ Total 

Well Date Depth Tern- onduct- Iron Cal- Magne- Sodium Bicar- Sui- Chlo- Ni- Dis- hardno. Location of (feet) pera- Color a nee (Fe) sium sium and po- bonate fate ride trate solved ness collecti Oll ture (K X lOS (Ca) (Mg) tassium (HC0,) (SOJ (Cl) (NO,) solids as 

("F) at 25C) (Na + K) caco3 

GS-14 12-14 miles N. of 40 Mile Bend 

in U, S. Hwy. 94 ••••••••••••••••• , Sept. 24, 1942 <'> 94 50 27,0 0,10 41 3.1 8,6 125 1,4 20 2, 2 138 115 

............ do ............................. Sept. 25, 1942 18.5 77 20 90,0 .10 140 10 78 523 5,8 51 .2 543 390 

............ do ............................. ..... do ............ 40.4 77 20 111 .10 128 14 99 480 29 120 . ........ 621 377 

............ do ............................. Sept. 26, 1943 51 . ........ 10 Vi7 .10 108 18 205 508 49 228 ,5 859 344 

GS-30 13 miles S. of Royal Palm State 

Park on Cape Sable Road. ....... Sept. 7' 1943 16,3 78 10 199 ,04 94 33 262 224 62 490 ........ (050 370 

............ do ............................. Sept. 8, 1943 28 76 '1 951 ,05 254 149 1,580 234 364 2,920 ............ 5,380 1,250 

............ do ............................. ..... do ............ 34 '16 '1 1,190 .02 272 218 2,030 242 475 3,750 .......... 6,860 1,580 

....... , .... do, .................... ,,,,,, .. Sept. 10, 1943 64 ....... 75 256 ,10 70 47 368 122 99 685 . ......... 1,230 368 

1 Surface sample from Everglades near site of Well GS-14. 
QUALITY OF GROUND AND SURFACE WATERS 797 

COASTAL AREAS NORTH OF MIAMI 

BROWARD COUNTY 

Most of the wells in the coastal area in Broward County from 

which samples were collected are located on the low sandy ridge 

that occupies a narrow strip about 10 miles wide between the 

Everglades and the· ocean. Most of the population and all of the 

urban communities, including Deerfield Beach, Pompano Beach, 

Fort Lauderdale, Dania, and Hollywood, are in this area. (See 

fig. 222. ) All of the public supplies for these towns are obtained 

from wells. 

The composition of ground water in the coastal strip in Broward 

County is similar to that in Dade County .. except that the total 

mineral content is somewhat less. (See table 105.) The dissolved 

matter was composed primarily of calcium and bicarbonate. 

Concentrations of magnesium were usually less than 5 ppm, and 

concentrations of sulfate and chloride were usually less than 

25 ppm. 
Well 

no. 

S-332 

S-333 

S-336 

S-337 

S-340 

S-341 

S-342 

S-366 

S-369 

S-372 

S-393 

S-427 

S-427 

S-428 

S-440 

S-441 

S-452 

S-454 

S-455 

S-463 

F 

F 

G 

G 

-292 

-294 

-184 

-190 

Table 105.-Analyses, in parts per million, oi nonartesiBtJ waters in Broward Cou;~ty 

[See plates 19 and 20] 

Specific 

Date Depth Tern- conduct- Iron Cal- Magne- Sodium BicarLocation of (feet) pera- Color ance (Fe) cium sium and po- bonate 

collection ture (K x 105 (Ca) (Mg) tassium (HC03 ("F) at 25 C) {Na + K) 

Hollywood, public supply(raw water) •••• Dec, 10, 194 70 

40 53.1 103 2. 6 11 301 70 ........ 0.24 

Oakland Park, Old Dixie Hwy. opposite 

Florida East Coast R y. station ..•. 4 ....... Nov. 19, 194C 60.9 ~7 130 46.8 ......... 89 3.1 7,6 265 

Fort Lauderdale, Old Dixie Hwy. and 

Middle Rive~ ............................... Oct. 18, 1940 72 ....... 50 64.3 ......... 113 3.1 18 297 

Pompano Beach, puhlic supply ............ Nov. 29, 194 170 76 20 26.8 .16 47 2.3 8.5 136 

190 

Pompano Beach, NE. Ave. and 4th St ... Oct. 18, 1940 189 ...... 20 30.7 ....... 56 2. 5 5.8 173 

Deerfield Beach, public supply .......... Nov. 29, 1941 72 79 25 28.0 • 65 51 3.1 5.!i 153 

Fort Lauderdale, puhlic supply ........... Dec. 4, 1941 81 110 45.8 1.9 88 3.3 12 266 106 ... ~··. 

Pompano Beach, old race track .••..••..• Oct. 18, 194( 120 ....... 40 38.9 ..:2·o· 74 2. 7 5.4 226 

Dania, public supply ........................ Dec. 10, 194 103 . ......... 100 56.6 107 4.0 14 307 

Davie Air Field ............................... Jan. 27' 1941 99,2 77 ....... 34.5 . ...... 52 6.6 6. 5 177 

............ do .................................... Jan. 29, 1941 1113.2 76 140 49.5 ....... 92 7. 8 6.9 292 

............ do ............ : ....................... Jan. 30, 1941 92 77 ~ • a~ •~ a~ 43.8 ·~a~' •~ 80 6. 9 4.0 245 

............ do .................................... Jan. 31, 1941 53.2 ....... ........ 36.2 ....... 69 5.2 .3 216 

............ do .................................... Feb. 1, 194 53 77 ...... ~- 31.9 ....... 62 2.9 14 212 

Perry Air Field ................... ~ ............ Feb. 21, 1941 52.2 77 ......... 40.0 1.8 82 2. 8 .9 210 

North Perry Air Field, ....................... Feb. 24, 1941 100.4 77 ........ 52.0 2.4 98 8.1 3.5 295 

............ do .................................... Mar. 3, 1941 '18.5 17 90 34.6 . 80 65 5.6 3.0 210 

............ do .................................... Mar. 12, 1941 67.0 17 110 42.0 .90 81 5.5 . 2 247 

Hollywood, 24th Ave, and Adams St .... July 5, 1940 72.4 78 40 55.6 1.9 110 3.7 14 296 

Hollywood, 24th Ave. and Hayes St ...... ••••• do .......... 133.4 ....... 30 50.4 2. 5 100 5.7 13 294 

Hollywood Blvd. , 7 miles W. of State 

Hwy. ? ....................................... Oct. 15, 1940 46.1 77 45 71.8 ....... 128 11 15 386 

............ do .................................... ..... do .......... 62.2 78 20 56.1 ......... 90 11 16 282 

............ do .................................... Oct. 16, 1940 78.5 78 25 55.1 ....... 86 9.4 18 285 

............ do.~ .................................. ..... do .......... 92.4 78 25 48.8 ....... 68 10 22 243 

............ do ................... ; ................ ..... do .......... 108.0 75 30 60.6 ........ 103 8.6 15 343 

............ do .................................... Oct. 17' 1940 144.7 77 20 104 ....... 97 22 102 487 

State Hwy. 25, 12 miles N. of 20-Mile 

Bend .......................................... Nov. 27' 1940 17.1 78 35 71.2 ....... 79 26 40 365 

Sul- Chlofate ride 

(S04

) (Cl) 

19 17 

5. 8 20 

1 64 

11 15 

1 14 

7. 6 13 

2.4 18 

1 15 

27 24 

7.4 13 

21 11 

17 13 

4.4 9 

12 8 

32 9 

19 17 

8 8 

.7 11 

42 23 

24 23 

43 25 

33 27 

16 30 

15 31 

1 31 

2 108 

28 44 

Ni- Distrate solved 

(N(\ solids 

0,1 333 

. ....... 256 

345 

. 1 165 

11:i4 

.0 164 

2.1 294 

···:i· 209 

355 

. ..... 173 

. ..... 282 

. ··~ .. 242 

. ..... 194 

. ..... 203 

. ..... 230 

. ..... 291 

······ 193 

. 0 226 

. 5 339 

3,0 314 

. ...... 412 

. ........ 316 

. ...... 300 

. ...... 266 

. ...... 328 

. ...... 571 

. ........ 397 

Total 

hardness 

as 

CaC03 

268 

235 

295 

127 

150 

140 

233 

196 

283 

157 

262 

228 

194 

167 

216 

2'18 

185 

225 

290 

273 

365 

270 

253 

211 

292 

333 

304 

-J 

c.o 

co 
•••••••..••• do ••••••.••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• Nov. 30, 194 55.0 76 20 350 110. 87 523 710 56 800 ~···~ .. 1,930 632 •••••••••••• do .................................... Dec, 1' 1940 103,4 77 25 408 102 95 641 674 74 1,000 2,240 645 ............ do,. .................................. ..... do .......... 129,3 77 25 475 115 108 769 746 81 1,210 2,650 731 ............ do ............... ; ..................... Dec. 2, 1940 154.8 75 40 485 116 111 775 728 96 1,230 2,690 746 ............ do .................................... Dec. 3, 1940 225.0 77 35 808 77 97 1,600 840 338 2,140 ··4···· 4,670 591 

State Hwy. 25, at South New River 

Canal. ......................... ; .............. Dec. 6, 1940 66.1 74 170 58,3 101 9.1 12 336 5.3 25 .......... 318 289 ............ do .................................... Dec. 7' 1940 117.8 77 35 384 102 67 618 389 206 950 . ...... 2,130 530 ............ do .................................... ..... do .......... 158.7 77 25 419 83 76 693 358 243 1,050 2,320 520 ............ do .................................... Dec . 9, 1940 203.6 76 25 411 74 82 675 371 237 1,020 2,270 522 

G-219 Near Miami Canal at Dade-Broward .() 

County line dam.. .................... _ .... Sept. 18 , 1941 32.1 83 110 39,8 _07 61 10 5.0 214 1 19 202 193 c::: 

.... _ ........ do ... : ................................ Sept. 19, 1941 55,8 77 110 42.6 .04 70 8.3 8.2 242 1 19 . ...... 226 209 ~ ............ do .................................... Sept. 23, 1941 90,5 77 20 87.7 50 28 91 321 25 105 ······· 457 240 ............ do .................................... Sept. 24, 1941 134,0 76 20 143 .04 48 48 202 444 26 230 . ....... 763 276 ~ ............ do .................................... Sept. 25, 1941 173.3_ 76 20 164 . 03 42 42 257 458 33 2b:.: . ........ 875 249 !:6 ............ do .................................... Sept. 26, 1941 198,3 77 20 213 ·:·iii' 33 33 378 518 39 408 1,150 218 G-220 State Hwy. 25, at 20-Mile Bend .......... Oct. 23, 1941 36,6 73 160 58.0 94 9.4 18 325 6, 6 28 ,3 316 273 C'l 

............ do .................................... Oct. 25, 1941 62.3 73 120 59.4 .10 96 9.4 18 326 5. 3 31 • 3 321 278 ,. ............ do .................................... Oct. 28, 1941 133.4 75 20 218 . 07 70 34 351 558 43 408 . ...... 1,181 314 

G-221 F 

............ 

crt Lauderdale 

do .................................... , near Fort Lauderdale 

Oct. 30, 1941 190.3 76 20 238 56 45 407 672 31 445 . .......... 1,315 

1,315 

325 

325 ~ water plant ..... , .. , ........................ Dec. 3, 1941 124 7'1 5 43,6 .35 84 1. 7 9.5 252 12 13 • 0 245 217 ............ do; ................................... Dec, 5, 1941 147.1 77 5 48.4 .25 80 22 11 250 2 18 • 2 257 209 ~ ............ do: ................................... Dec. 6, 1941 171.2 76 5 50,0 .15 71 2. 6 13 226 2.1 21 .2 221 188 ............ do .................................... Dec. 17, 1941 227.5 77 5 96.0 82 19 98 332 2.7 157 • 0 522 283 c::: "' ............ do ........... ; ........................ Dec . 18, 1941 263 77 5 362 69 57 572 342 2,3 970 ......... 1,840 407 1:; ............ do .................................... Dec. 23, 1941 313,9 76 5 894 110 13tl 1,650 300 333 2,720 ....... 5,100 846 > () G-261 Everglades near spoil banks of Miami t<l 

Canal, ! mile NW. of South New 

River Canal ................................. Mar, 3, 1941 11 37.0 1.4 62 7.9 6. 8 209 1 :;:I 202 187 ~ ............ do .................................... Mar. 4, 1941 20 44.3 1.1 76 7. 2 11 256 1 23 244 219 ;;l ............ do .................................... Mar. 5, 1941 2o 42,4 • 70 74 7.6 5. 8 238 1 23 229 216 ,. G-262 Everglades near spoil banks of Miami 

Canal, "' 6 miles NW. of G-261 .......... Mar. 14, 1941 11.5 •••• 4 .. 46.3 .26 83 8.5 5. 6 264 9.1 20 . 2 257 242 ............ do .................................... ..... do .......... 21 62.1 .16 109 13 16 386 5.8 26 . 2 360 325 ............ do .................................... Mar, 15, 1941 31.3 . ~ ..... 95.8 .14 130 23 56 526 8.2 71 .2 548 419 

G-263 Everglades near spoil banks of Miami 

Canal, 12 miles NW. of G-261 ........ Mar. 23, 1941 10 55.0 . 22 92 12 11 315 7.0 27 .2 305 11 ............ do ................................... Mar. 24, 1941 20 70.4 . 27 119 14 18 407 9,5 35 • 3 397 355 

G-264 Everglades near spoil banks of Miami 

Canal, 18 mHesNW. of G-261 ......... Apr. 1, 1941 (1) 220 47.3 75 11 9.6 259 2.7 27 . 2 253 232 ............ do .................................... ..... do .......... 11 120 67.2 102 12 28 344 19 45 376 304 -1 

<:o ............ do .................................... ..... do .......... 20 70 95:2 148 12 47 495 15 71 . 2 537' 419 <:D 

............ do .................................... Apr. 2, 1941 30,7 .. ..... 70 95.8 149 12 47 494 12 75 . 2 538 421 
Table 105.-Anaiyses, in parts per million, of nonartesian waters in Broward Co~ty-Continued 

Specific 

Well Tern- conduct Sodium 

no. Location Date Depth pera- Color a nee Iron Cal- Magne·_ and po- Bicar· Sui· 

of (feet) ture (K X 105 (Fe) sium sium tassium bonate fate 

collection ("F) at 25 C) (Ca) (Mg) (Na + K) (HCO,) (S04) 

-- G-269 Near Miami Canal at Dade-Broward 

County line dam .................... Mar. 2, 1941 20.1 ~~ ........ ......... 36.6 0.10 64 7.6 2.0 203 2 

G-340 5 miles NW. of Dade -Broward 

County line, ......................... Feb. 21, 1942 8.0 72 ....... 41.0 ....... 68 6.6 9.7 224 3.1 

G-341 mile NE. of G-340 ................ Feb. 25, 1942 17.1 72 ......... 43.3 ......... 72 5.7 13 239 3,7 

............ do ............................. Feb. 27' 1942 34.2 72 ....... 44.8 72 7.6 15 255 2.7 

G-342 mile NE. of G-340 ................. Feb. 28, 1942 10.1 58 ........... 48.5 . .......... 16 6.6 11 253 4,3 

G-343 mile NE. of G-340 ................ Mar. 4, 1942 4,4 70 ......... 106 . ...... 222 15 12 593 104 

G-344 1 mile NE. of G-340 ................. Mar. 7, 1942 11.0 ....... .......... 58.8 ......... 97 6.1 20 315 6.8 

G-345 1 miles NE. of G-340 ............. ..... do ............ 9.8 ......... ········ 87.0 ........ 164 10 21 522 25 

G-346 1 mile SE. of G-344 ................. Mar. 4, 1942 (1) 60 90 60.9 ........ 98 10 17 316 10 

G-347 1 mile NW. of G-344 ................ Mar, 5, 1942 5. 7 68 ........ 58.0 ...... 94 11 14 316 7.6 

GS- 1 State Hwy. 25, 6 miles N. of 20-

Mile Bend ............................ June 3, 1942 14 74 140 75.6 .05 105 19 29 366 52 

............ do ............................. ..... do ............ 39.9 76 ......... 93.0 ....... 112 21 59 396 56 

............ do ............................. June 4, 1942 55 76 ......... 173 . ...... 168 31 165 669 7.8 

GS- 9 State Hwy. 7, at Hillsboro Canal .. July 2, 1942 32.5 76 ........ 84.5 ······~ 161 5.5 17 492 12 

GS-10 Near Hammonsville, 5. 9 miles W. 

of State Hwy. 149 at Cypress 

Creek Canal ......................... July 7, 1942 21,4 •••••• 4 100 50.1:i .30 94 3.3 12 294 2,1 

GS-13 Jet. Miami and S. New River 

canals ................................. Sept. 4, 1942 48.4 74 70 58.1:i .08 97 11 11 322 9,1 

GS-15 Broward-Palm Beach County line, 

11 miles W. of State Hwy. 25 ... Jan. 12, 1942 7.9 76 65 83.2 .05 142 16 18 502 1. 6 

............ do ............................. Jan. 13, 1943 18.3 73 30 116 ,05 154 25 64 568 4.9 

1 Surface water. 

Chlo- Niride trate 

(Cl) (NO,) 

19 . ......... 22 'o.I 

22 .1 

23 • 1 

29 • 8 

34 .1 

33 .1 

30 .1 

38 .1 

31 .1 

37 .1 

79 .o 

248 .......... 33 • 0 

22 • 0 

27 .1 

33 .1 

111 .1 

Dissolved 

solids 

195 

220 

234 

246 

258 

679 

31!3' 

507 

329 

313 

422 

522 

949 

471 

278 

314 

458 

639 

Total 

hardness 

as 

CaCQa 

191 

197 

203 

211 

216 

616 

267 

450 

286 

280 

342 

366 

547 

424 

248 

288 

420 

488 

co 

0 

0 
QUALITY OF GROUND AND SURFACE WATERS 801 

PALM 8EACII COUNTY 

The chemical character of ground water in coastal areas in 

Palm Beach County differs considerably from the character of 

ground water in coastal areas of Dade and Broward Counties. 

(See table 106.) In an area about 10 miles inland from the coast 

and about 35 miles north and south, extending from the Broward 

County line to near the Martin County line, water samples were 

collected for analysis from about 80 wells. The wells range from 

a few feet to over 100ft in depth. 

There are a large number of wells in the coastal area of Palm 

Beach County, most of which are used by owners of small farms 

for domestic purposes or for watering stock and for irrigation. 

The public supplies of Lantana, Lake Worth, Boynton Beach, 

Delray Beach, Boca Raton, Riviera, and Lake Park are taken 

from wells. The public supply of West Palm Beach is obtained 

from surface sources, In West Palm Beach, ground water is 

used by several light industries. Some of the wells near the coast, 

both in West Palm Beach and in other places in the county, have 

been contaminated with sea water. 

Wells, less than 50 feet deep, within 1 to 3 miles from the coast 

usually yield relatively soft water-less than 100 ppm hardness; 

farther inland, they are likely to yield somewhat harder water. 

Water from wells over 50ft deep, both near the coast and farther 

inland, is usually harder than water from shallow wells. 
s 

s 

s 

s 

s 

s 

s 

s 

s 

s 

s 

s 

s 

s 

s 

s 

Well 

no. 

- 359 

- 360 

- 361 

-1000 

-1002 

-1003-

1008 

-1009 

-1011 

-1012 

-1018 

-1020 

-1025 

-1026 

-1027 

-1028 

-1030 

s -1037 

s 

s 

s 

s 

s 

s 

s 

s 

s 

-1038 

-1039 

-1041 

-1050 

-1053 

-1056 

-1059 

-1063 

-1065 

Table 106.-Analyses, in parts per million, of nonartesian waters in eastern Palm Beach County 

[See plates 19 and 24] 

Specific 

Date Depth Tern- conduct; Iron Cal- Magne Sodium Bicar- SulLocation of (feet) pera- Color a nee (Fe) cium sium and po bonate fate 

collection ture (Kx·lOS (Ca) (Mg) tassi":':,' (HC08 (SO~ ("F) at 25 C) {Na+K) 

Lake Worth, public supply ....................... Mar. 15, 1941 135 ........ 40 43,7 0. 15 74 3.1 20 220 20 

Boca Raton, public supply (raw water) ....... Oct. 21, 1941 104 ........ 10 32,1 • 06 59 3,1 30 168 2,0 

Lantana, public supply ........................... Oct. 24, 1941 65 ............ 10 30,5 • 06 54 3.3 3.9 152 3.0 

Boynton Beach, public supply .................. Oct. 24, 1941 57 ......... 30 37.2 • 04 66 2.8 7. 9 178 16 

Delray Beach, public supply ................... Oct. 31, 1941 . ............ ....... 35 38.8 • 20 70 2.8 8. 8 205 4.9 

Riviera, public supply ........................... Mar. 14, 1941 165 .. ...... 15 30,5 .12 48 1.9 17 153 2. 8 

Yamato .............................................. Apr. 10, 1941 20- 60 35.8 .02 64 4.4 6. 7 159 39 

25 

Boca Raton Road. ................................. ..... do ............ 150 74 25 49.5 • 02 93 4.1 18 286 2. 5 

State Hwy. 7, 6. 1 miles N. of Hillsboro 

Canal .............................................. ..... do ............ 84 74 50 57.0 • 02 100 4.8 20 315 2. 5 

State Hwy. 7, 6. 2 miles N. of Hillsboro 

Canal .............................................. Apr. 17, 1941 25 73 160 66.6 .25 130 5.0 18 389 2. 5 

Germantown Road and canal E-1. ............. ..... do ............ 67 . ..... .., 15 34.9 . 02 64 3,3 9.0 196 2. 5 ............ do ................................... : ..... ..... do ............ 20 74 80 10.8 • 50 12 7.4 2.1 24 23 

Germantown Road at South Bend .............. ..... do ............ 20 74 220 32.2 .10 42 5.2 13 48 56 

Delray Beach Country Club ..................... ..... do ............ ....... ........ 25 37.8 .10 73 5.7 3.1 212 1. 2 

Barwick Road, 1, 5 miles N. of Atlantic 

Ave ................................................ ..... do ............ 30 72 280 20.8 ,15 16 5.0 22 60 4.1 

U. S. Hwy. 1, 3 miles S. of Delray Beach .... Apr. 18, 1941 80 79 30 31.5 . 20 69 4.8 0. ~E 202 6. 0 

U. S. Hwy. 1, 3 miles S. of Delray Beach .... ..... do ............ 55 . ...... 20 43.3 .40 77 6.3 7.3 186 40 

MUitary Trail and Atlantic Ave ............... ..... do ............ 111 . ........ 40 57.6 .10 108 6,3 18 335 2,1 

Atlantic Ave., -1 mile W. of Canal E-3 ...... ..... do ............ 34.! 76 25 23.4 • 50 7 8. 7 26 27 3,3 

Atlantic Ave. , 0. 4 mile W. of canal May 16, 1941 15-

E-2 ................................................. May 16, 1941 20 73 100 49.5 .40 73 7. 0 26 212 51 St~te Hwy. 7, 1. 1 milesN. of Atlanti·c Ave,. ..... do-.......... 20 74 180 35.8 .30 63 4.4 14 202 7. 8 

0. 4 mile E. of Military Trail and 0. 2 mile 

N. of lateral No. 30 ........................... ..... do ............ 38 . ...... 10 29.1 .15 32 4.6 21 91 6. 6 

0, 3 mile W. of Military Trail and 0. 2 mile 30-

N. of lateral No. 29 ........................... .. ••• do ............ 40 75 40 24.6 .12 12 8. 5 18 4.0 69 

Military Trail and Boynton Road .............. May 17, 1941 100 76 50 57.8 '15 97 5.2 22 270 8. 6 

Boynton Road, 0. 3 mile W. of Military 

Trail ............................................... ..... do ............ 25 74 190 42.0 .15 80 3.7 4.1 185 44 

Chlo- Niride trate 

(Cl) (N(\) 

25 4,0 

18 .7 

20 .2 

21 .5 

22 • 8 

25 1. 0 

13 4,0 

36 • 0 

37 .2 

44 • 2 

21 

15 

37 7. 0 

23 6. 0 

39 . 3 

15 ,3 

28 .5 

40 2, 0 

60 .1 

3. 5 

27 3. 5 

23 • 2 

45 . 6 

21 . 0 

56 2. 0 

17 3.0 

Dissolved 

solids 

287 

195 

182 

227 

234 

194 

209 

295 

320 

392 

196 

72 

184 

216 

116 

195 

251 

342 

119 

292 

292 

212 

155 

131 

324 

243 

Total 

l:iardness 

as 

CaC08 

197 

160 

148 

176 

186 

128 

178 

249 

269 

345 

173 

60 

126 

206 

60 

192 

218 

295 

53 

211 

211 

175 

99 

65 

263 

215 

00 

0· 

w 
S-1066 U. S. Hwy. 1, 1, 4 miles S. of Boynton Road 35-

Road ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• June 27, 1941 50 . 10 30.6 .40 49 2.0 12 146 7.0 21 ,2 164 131 

S-1067 u. s. Hwy. 1, 1. 8 miles S. of Boynton 

Road ............................................... ••••• do ............ 50 40 42.2 . 50 74 5,0 7,1 220 7.4 23 .2 226 205 

S-1069 u. S. Hwy. 1, 3, 3 miles S. of Boynton 40-

Road. .............................................. ••••• do ••••••••••• 42 5 18.1 . 20 30 2.8 5.3 81 14 12 .1 104 86 

S-1071 Gulfview Drive, 2 miles S. of Boynton 

Beach. ............................................. June 27, 1941 20 75 20 158 ,20 134 1.1 189 250 69 335 852 339 

S-1073 State Hwy. 7 and L.antana Road ................ June 30, 1941 30 52.9 .20 101 4.4 6.0 271 25 24 1,5 296 270 

S-1074 Lantana Road, 1. 2 miles W. of canal E-3 ... ..... do ............ 11 79 120 91.2 .20 120 5,2 71 312 77 98 1.2 526 321 

S-1078 0. 2 mile W, of Military Trail at lateral .Q No. 18 ............................................ .... ;do ............ 25 75 50 61.6 .20 95 2.4 34 298 1 54 .0 333 247 

S-·1080 Military Trail at Ia teral No. 14 ............... July 3, 1941 75 70 62.4 .10 87 4.6 42 300 1.2 57 .0 340 236 ~ S-1083 Lake Worth Road, t:: 0. 2 mile W. of Military 

Trail :;! ............................................... ..... do ............ 43 77 100 30.5 1.1 46 3.3 15 160 2.9 19 .8 167 128 

S-1085 Lake Worth Road, 1 mile W. of canal E-3 .. ..... do ............ 40 75 80 46.2 .15 72 3,5 20 225 2.7 35 . 0 244 194 l;j S-1088 Lake Worth Road and Deweese Road ......... ..... do ............ 36 230 21.8 ,23 22 2.4 18 60 18 25 1.8 117 65 

S-1090 North Lake Worth Road and Deweese Road. ..... do ............ 204 10 86.6 • 03 120 8.7 61 432 1.4 80 • 0 484 335 C'l 

S-1091 Greenacres City,4th St. and Swain Blvd. .... ..... do ............ 50- 60 41.9 .55 66 3.9 21 224 1~ 16 5,3 ?31 181 

60 "' 

S-1093 State Hwy. 7, 0. 8 miles N. of Lantana Ro July 7. 1941 35 75 30 61.6 .06 114 2.4 12 318 4.3 38 3.0 330 294 @ 

S-1096 State Hwy. 7, 2, 2 miles S. of StateHwy. 80. ..... do ............ 28 74 10 67.6 .10 124 5,5 15 382 8.6 30 1.7 373 332 

S-1099 Military Trail, 0. 5 mile N. of Lake Worth 

S-1100 0. 2 

Road 

mile ............................................... W. of State Hwy. 7 and 0. 8 mile 

July 9, 1941 49 45 60.0 .60 92 5.9 29 299 1.4 50 .o 326 254 ~ N. of Boynton Road "' ............................ June 19, 1941 80 75 50 70.0 .20 80 4.8 74 360 5.3 56 .o 398 219 G 

S-1101 ............ do ......................................... ..... do ............ 18- 75 75 86.2 .60 70 2.0 136 443 30 60 . o 517 . 183 . "' .., 20 f; S-1102 State Hwy. 7, 1. 2 miles N.of Boynton Road. ..... do ............ 80 75 60 75,9 .30 116 3.7 52 377 12 68 . 0 438 305 I'> S-1104 State Hwy. 7, 1. 5 miles N. of Boynton Road ..... do ............ 15 74 150 65.4 .20 115 2,0 32 399 6.2 23 • 0 375 295 

S-1105 Boynton Road, 0. 2 mile W. of canal E-4 .... June 20, 1941 82 70 83,0 .15 131 7.4 42 336 33 25 .2 504 357 ·~ S-1106 Boynton Road, 0. l:i mile E. of Military >-i Trail ............................................... ..... do ............ 68 60 39.6 .35 58 2.2 26 194 9.1 30 .o 221 154 I'> 

"' S-1108 Boyton Road and State Hwy. 7 ................. ..... do ............ 90 40 62.7 .20 78 . 7 68 329 6.2 49 • 0 364 197 

S-1110 0. 3 mile N. of Boynton Canal and 0. 3 mile "' 

E. of Lawrence Road .......................... . .... do ............ 35 75 •70 22,9 .20 36 5.9 4.4 120 9.5 11 .o 126 114 

S-1114 U. S. Hwy. 1, 2.1 miles S. of Boynton Road June 21, 1941 60 50 40.6 .35 71 5. 5 8,1 212 12 22 .2 224 200 

S-1115 Davis Road and lateral No. 14 ................. July 9, 1941 32 40 46.2 1.3 72 6.1 15 234 4.1 30 • 0 244 205 

S-1116 Military Trail and lateral No. 8 ............... . .... do ............ 75 78 50 66.6 .22 100 11 27 317 2.3 65 • 0 362 295 

S-1118 0.1 mileS. of West Palm Beach Canal and 

0.1 mile E. of canal E-3 ..................... July 10, 1941 68 77 45 50.8 . 60 82 4.6 21 256 31 19 . 0 284 224 

S-119 0. 1 mile S. of West Palm Beach Canal and co 300 feet E. of canal E-3 ...................... ..... do ............ 28 78 35 56.4 .40 90 5.5 20 275 14 35 2. 5 303 247 0 

S-1125 State Hwy, 80, 1. 3 miles E. of State w 

Hwy. 7.4 .. 4~········..-····················••.o-••••• July 11, 1941 65 75 45 101 • 20 134 10 67 382 11 139 1. 6 551 376 
Table 106.-Analyses, in parts per millicm, of nonartesian waters in eastern Palm Beach Coupt)'-Continued 

Specific 

Well Date Depth Tern- conduct- Iron Cal- Magne- Sodium Bicar- Sui- Chlo~ 

no, Location of {feet(! pera- Color ance (Fe) ciwn sium andpo- bonate fate ride 

collection ture {K x 105 {Ca) {Mg) tanium {HCO~ (so4

) (Cl) 

("F) at 25C) (Na+K) 

S-1126 State Hwy. 80, 1. 7 miles E. 'of State Hwy. 7 •• July 11, 1941 61 76 40 73.0 0,25 110 6,3 11 274 3,9 75 

S-1130 StateHwy, 80, 1, 5 miles W. of cal).alE-3 ..... ..... do .......... 40 77 45 28.0 ,15 44 1. 7 15 164 6. 2 6.0 

S-1131 State Hwy. 80 and West Trail Drive ............ ..... do .......... 57 ......... 90 69,4 .40 117 5.0 13 325 2.1 50 

S-113> East Palm Beach Canal, 0.1 mile E. of 

S-11~ 

canal E-4 extension ............................. ..... do .......... , 50 ......... 100 10.7 2.4 10 4.8 2,6 11 22 13 

N. of Belvedere Road and canal E-3 ........... ..... do .......... 45 77 60 66.6 1.6 106 4,6 26 341 2,3 41 

S-113f West Palm Beach, 1403 .Georgia Ave ........... Sept. 26, 1941 49 .......... 5 19.3 .05 27 3.1 6.0 52 28 10 

S-114 Lake Park, public supply .......................... Oct. 31, 1941 49.5 ........ 10 32,9 .04 58 2,3 8.4 162 9.5 17 

S-1144 Lake Worth, Dixie Hwy. and N. 18th St ....... July 23, 1941 58.5 79 20 35.3 . 00 57 2.4 12 165 12 19 

S-114! Intracoastal Waterway, 2. 8 miles N. of -

S-115> 

Canal Road ........................................ Sept, 5, 1941 28 ......... 45 

0, 6 mile W. of State Hwy. 7 and 1 mile S. 

87.2 .oo 120 10 63 442 4.1 79 

of Indiantown Road ....... , ...................... ..... do .......... 35 ....... 50 101 .00 146 12 56 437 4,1 123 

S-115E State Hwy. 18, 2. 6 miles W. of Post Office 

Road ................................................ ..... do .......... 20 ....... 40 65.0 ,20 132 5. 7 ,5 340 14 43 S-115~ Jupiter, Seminole Golf Club ..................... ..... do ........... 182 76 45 67.2 • 05 102 7.0 41 336 6.6 63 

S-116 Lake Park, 0. 2 mile E. of Dixie Hwy. and 

2. 8 miles N. of State Hwy. 811 ............. ..... do .......... 40 ......... 100 42.4 .02 58 5,0 23 168 8.6 47 

S-111( West Palm Beach, North Poinsettia Blvd, 

and 25th St ........................................ Sept. 8, 1941 ........ 79 5 40,0 .02 58 2.4 25 170 22 33 

S-117 West Palm Beach, 500 Datura St ................ ..... do .......... 10 79 40 24,6 .52 38 1.3 4.8 109 4,1 12 

S-1172 West Palm Beach, North Sapodilla Ave. 

and 2d St. ......................................... ..... do .......... 85 18 110 52,7 1.0 90 4,1 40 270 71 24 

S-1173 West Palm Beach, Okeechobee Road and 

Seaboard Ry ...................................... ..... do .......... 116 18 70 46.0 ,05 80 3.1 14 234 11 25 

S-111E West Palm Beach, Charlotte Ave. and 

Frederick St ....................................... ..... do .......... 100 76 120 36.7 ,08 62 3.1 10 179 8. 6 22 S-117~ West Palm Beach, Flamingo Drive and 

S-118~ 

Florida East Coast Ry ........................... ..... do .......... 84 79 20 36,2 .04 55 2,4 30 139 63 23 

West Palm Beach, North Railroad Ave. and 80-

S-118( 

11th St ............................................. Sept. 9, 1941 85 79 5 44,0 .10 66 3, 7 19 162 48 21 W~st Palm Beach, 504 Railroad Ave ....... : ••• ..... do. .......... 30 

······· 5 129 ,05 79 19 148 215 80 239 

S-1181 West Palm Beach, 1115 North Poinsettia 

l24f Ave ....................... :··•·--·--··••"''"'"''''' ..... do .......... 64 .......... 20 49.4 .05 60 3,4 39 160 49 47 

S-1 Loxahatchee, packing plant. ..................... Oct. 24, 1941 44 ...... 40 40,7 .15 100 3.3 14 273 17 37 

S-1241 Loxahatchee, public supply "Wi'U....-.... - _. ..... do .......... 126 - ........ 30 58.2 ,05 110 7.9 49 339 19 82 

S-1241 Loxahatchee, Negro quarters .................. ;, ..... do .......... 19 76 10 41.9 .20 96 3,5 15 227 69 20 

Ni- Distrate solved 

(NOt< solids 

2, 7 350 

. 2 154 

3,2 351 

.o 60 • 0 350 

9,0 109 

6,5 200 

4.8 188 

.o 494 

.o 556 

.2 363 

1.0 386 

3,6 228 

,3 224 

.2 115 

.o 363 

5,7 254 

3,4 191 

.6 243 

1, 6 245 

....... 671 

• 6 218 

.2 306 

.2 435 

.2 316 

Total 

hardness 

as 

F:aco3 

300 

117 

313 

45 

283 

80 

154 

152 

341 

414 

353 

283 

165 

155 

100 

241 

212 

167 

147 

180 

275 

164 

263 

307 

254 

cc 

0 

"" 
PB 93 Feb. 2, 1945 32 76 35 35.8 ......... ........ ··~······ . ......... 202 . ...... 8 ... ...... .......... ......... Feb. 3, 1945 43 78 80 35.5 . 08 66 .8 176 16 16 • 2 193 168 

Feb. 5, 1945 53 77 70 36.2 . ....... ...... ········· 170 . ........ 14 .. ...... .......... . ....... Feb. 5, 1945 63 78 80 32.5 . ...... ...... ......... 114 . ...... 10 . ...... ........ ........ Feb. 6, 1945 74 78 80 33.2 . ...... ........ ......... 175 . ...... 13 ....... . ....... ........ Feb. 6, 1945 85 78 50 34.1 .10 60 1.3 11 171 10 19 1. 0 187 155 

Feb. 7' 1945 95 78 40 37.4 ....... ...... ........... ......... 189 . ...... 19 ...... . ...... ........ GS- 8 State Hwy. 80, 0.3 mile W. of State 

Hwy. 7 ............................................ June 30, 1942 44.1 76 ...... 163 ...... 143 17 175 473 13 288 ······ 869 427 

GS-12 6 miles W. of State Hwy. 7 and 4 miles 

N. of Hillsb<><o Canal .......................... . Aug. 13, 1942 29.8 75 60 95.0 ...... 160 9.4 22 470 9:~ 63 .1 496 439 

............ do .......................................... Aug. 14, 1942 50.2 77 40 77.6 • 03 121 6.6 23 390 9. 35 .1 387 330 
806 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

AREAS SURROUNDING LAKE OKEECHOBEE 

In the areas adjacent to Lake Okeechobee private water supplies 

for domestic use and for watering stock are generally obtained 

from wells less than 100ft deep. The town of Moore Haven obtains 

part of its public supply from three wells, 28ft deep, near the 

Caloosahatchee Canal. Most of the wells start in muck soils, 

although nearly all of them terminate in shell marl or lime rock 

beneath the muck. In Okeechobee County, on the north side of the 

lake, the muck layer is very thin, or entirely absent, and the 

surface soils ·are sandy. 

As indicated in the following discussion of counties, the ground 

water in wells within a few miles of Lake Okeechobee usually 

contains considerably more dissolved matter than is found in the 

ground water in the coastal areas of southeastern Florida or in the 

lake. The lake water is not readily available to individual farms, 

which must, therefore, use the less desirable well water. 

GLADES COUNTY 

Samples were collected from 20 wells in Glades County near the 

northwestern,. western, and southwestern border of Lake Okeechobee. (See table 107.) Most of the wells are less than 100ft 

deep. Dissolved solids ranged from 366 to 2, 276 ppm and hardness ranged from 255 to 833 ppm. The most characteristic constituent of the dissolv;ed mineral matter in these samples was 

bicarbonate, which ranged in concentration from 250 to 632 ppm. 

Samples collected from wells north of Moore Haven were usually 

less concentrated than samples collected south and southeast of 

Moore Haven. 

Water from wells south and southeast of Moore Haven contained 

relatively large amounts of sodium, sulfate, and chloride, in addition to bicarbonate. Sodium concentrations in these well waters 

ranged from 47 to 559 ppm, sulfate ranged from 27 to 212 ppm, 

and chloride ranged from 133 to 1, 008 ppm. Chloride was sometimes present in amounts more than equivalent to the sodium. 

Although specific information as to the corrosiveness of these 

waters was not available, waters that contain more chloride 

than sodium are frequently corrosive to plumbing. The concentration of dissolved solids was so high in many of the wells that 

the water probably would not be used for domestic purposes if 

more suitable water were readily procurable. 
Well 

no. 

GL 12 

GL 13 

GL 14 

GL 6 

GL 7 

GL 15 

GL 16 

GL 17 

GL 20 

GL 8 

GL 9 

GL 10 

GL 4 

GL 3 

GL 18 

GL 19 

GL 11 

cs 18 

GS-28 

Table 107.-Analyses-, in parts per million, of liOllarlesian waters in Glades_ ~ty 

[See plate 20] 

Specific Sodium 

Date Depth Tem- conduct- Iron Cal- Magne- and po- BicarLocation of (feet) pera- Color ance (Fe) cium shun tassium bonat~ collection ture (K X lOS (Ca) (Mg) (Na+K) (HCO, ("F) at 25C) 

Brighton Indian School, 1 miles S, of 

Brighton ..................................... Sept, 24, 1941 120 14 120 111 0.05 110 22 113 351 

State Hwy. 18, 13,3 miles W. of 

Kissimmee River .................................. Sept. 25, 1941 48 11 240 128 • 25 176 14 86 425 

0.1 mile W. of State Hay. 18, 1. 9 

miles S, of Brighton Road. .............. ..... do ........... 35 -16 80 226 .10 51 31 414 512 

State Hwy. 18, 100 feet N. of south 

line of Section 22 ......................... State Hwy. 29, 150 feet S. of north Sept, 23, 1941 22 11 ....... 68.2 .05 93 21 33 325 

line of Section 27 ......................... ..... do ........... 18 76 ........ 66.8 .05 98 19 28 385 

Lakeport, at post office .................... Sept. 25, 1941 20- 16 160 89.2 .25 89 22 13 349 

25 

State Hwy. 78, 8 miles N. of Moore 

Haven ........................................ ..... do ........... 25 15 100 110 . 05 114 32 84 632 

State Hwy. 25, 2.1 miles W. of State 

Hwy. 78 ..................................... ..... do ........... . ....... n 360 132 .10 104 10 193 501 

Moore Haven, public supply (part) ....... 

State Hwy. 25, 0.5 mile N. of State 

Sept. 24, 1941 28 18 110 63.2 • 50 90 11 30 250 

Hwy. 78 ..................................... .. ... do ........... 104 76 .. ...... 352 • 50 172 46 528 460 

StateHwy. 78, 1 mile E. of StateHwy. 

67 ............................................. ..... do ............ 52 76 ....... 212 • 05 140 33 268 465 

Gramling Village, U. S. Sugar-Corp ..... ..... do ........... 85 . ...... ....... 204 . 05 128 32 261 387 

Benbow Village, U. S. Sugar Corp ....... ..... do ............ 80 ......... 40 339 • 05 148 61 504 528 

Gramling Village, U. S. Sugar Corp ..... ..... do ........... 92 .. 74 30 366 • 05 149 55 558 403 

Liberty Point Village, U. s. Sugar 20-

Corp .......................................... ..... do ............ 30 80 412 • 05 217 n 559 616 ........... ,do .................................... ..... do ............ 20- 76 100 388 • 05 181 66 518 492 

30 

0. 8 mile E. of State Hwy. 78 and 1, 5 

miles N. of State Hwy. 80 .............. ..... do ............ 102 

······· 10 99.0 .05 153 13 47 393 

NE. of Lakeport .............................. July 21, 1943 35 ......... 80 154 0 02 134 33 166 534 ............ do ................................... July 22, 1943 75 ....... 45 179 .10 103 40 241 528 

Moore Haven ................................. Aug. 28, 1943 17 ....... 65 109 .03 156 13 66 484 ............ do ................................... Aug. 28, 1943 47 ....... 90 95.4 .05 144 12 175 468 

Sui- Chlo- Nifate ride trate 

(SOj (Cl) (NO, 

101 153 3,0 

96 163 6.0 

133 422 ......... 87 21 3. 6 

31 20 2.7 

14 121 • 6 

10 49 .4 

83 159 .2 

n 37 3.3 

110 905 . ....... 125 395 . ...... 53 458 . ........ 201 762 .. ...... 212 895 ....... 

118 1,010 . ...... 162 905 . ........ 

27 133 .o 

113 195 . 2 

129 268 • 0 

79 75 3. 8 

10 280 . ..... 

Dissolved 

solids 

675 

151 

1,300 

419 

394 

492 

601 

196 

366 

1,990 

1,190 

1,120 

1,940 

2,070 

2,280 

2,070 

567 

904 

1,041 

631 

852 

Total 

hardness 

as 

CaC01 

365 

497 

255 

318 

323 

313 

416 

301 

270 

618 

485 

451 

620 

598 

833 

723 

435 

470 

422· 

443 

409 

00 

0 

-:t 
Table 107.-Analy.ses, in parts per million, of nonartesian waters in Glades County-Continued ~ 

Specific 

Well Date Depth Tern- conduct Iron Cal- Magne- Sodium 

no. Location of (feet) pera- Color ance (Fe) cium sium and po- Bicar- Suicollection ture (K X lOS (Ca) (Mg) tassium bonate fate 

("F) at 25C) (Na+K) (HC03

) (SO,) 

GS 28 Moore Haven ................................. Aug. 28, 1943 63 ............ 42 115 o. ()2 156 17 83 476 88 

cs 29 ............ do ................................... Aug. 31, 1943 33.7 . ........... 9() 161 .06 174 31 135 464 154 

•••••••••••• do, .................................. Sept. 1, 1943 51 ········ 20 153 .07 78 36 201 384 96 

............ do ................................... Sept. 1, 1945 75 ........ ....... 16() . ....... ....... ........... . ........... 374 . ........ 

Chlo- Niride trate 

(Cl) (NO, 

11~ 0.2 

211 9. 6 

25! .1 

27( 

Dissolved 

solids 

691 

950 

858 

Total 

hardness 

as 

CaCOz 

46() 

562 

342 

. ......... 

~ 

0 

~ 
QUALITY OF GROUND AND SURFACE WATERS. 809 

HENDRY COUNTY 

Water samples from wells near Lake Okeechobee contained 

moderately large amounts of dissolved matter and generally contained much less sulfate than was shown in samples from wells in 

Glades County. (See table 108. ) Dissolved solids ranged from 238 

to 1, 230 ppm and hardness ranged from 233 to 469 ppm. Calcium 

and bicarbonate were the characteristic constituents. Calcium 

ranged from 67 to 165 ppm and bicarbonate ranged from 253 to 

683 ppm. Chloride exceeded sodium in two samples by small 

amounts. 

WellGS 4 is about 12 miles southwest of Lake Okeechobee, and 

well GS 5 is .about 20 miles southwest of the Lake. Water collected 

when wellGS 4 was 18.9 ft deep contained 292 ppm of calcium, 

31 ppm of bicarbonate, 628 ppm of sulfate, and 45 ppm of chloride. 

Calcium and sulfate concentrations decreased with depth, while 

sodium bicarbonate and chloride increased with depth. 

The concentration of dissolved matter in samples collected 

from weUGS 5 did not change appreciably with depth, as indicated 

by results of preliminary ..examination of the samples. Only one 

analysis is given in the table. The concentration of dissolved 

solids in this sample was 455 ppm. 
Table 108.-Anaiyses, in parts per million, of nonartesian waters in Hendry eou;uy 

[See plate 19} 

Specific Total 

Well Date Depth Tern- conduct Iron Cal- Magne- Sodium Bicar- Sui- Fhlo- Ni- Dis- ' hard- no. Location of (feet) pera- Color a nee (Fe) cium sium. and po- bonate fate ride trate solved ness collection ture (K x 105 (Ca) (Mg) tassiurn (HCO~ (S04) (Cl) (NOs) solids as ("F) at 25C) (Na + K) caco1 

HE 15 Intersection State Hwys. 80 al)d 2 5 .•••• Sept, 24, Bl4t 130 77 ~··4 ... 59.8 0.40 111 9.0 19 380 5. E 26 1.2 360 314 

HE 13 State Hwy. 8, 1, 6 mHes W. of 

Atlantic Coast Line R. R. crossing ... ..... do ............ 34 76 ·4····· 40.8 . 70 79 8. 7 1,5 253 13 10 • 8 238 233 

HE 14 0. 8 mile S. of State Hwy. 80 and 5. 6 

miles W. ·of Atlantic Coast LineR. 

R. R. crossing .. .. ~ ............................... • .... do ............. 315 ....... ............ 154 .05 67 56 161 329 00 264 .4 811 397 

HE 16 Clewiston, u. s. Sugar Corp ............ Sept. 23, 1941 114 74 80 81.0 .10 121 11 23 367 7. ~ 63 ,0 407 347 

HE 10 ............ do ....... : ........................... ..... do ............. 87.5 77 80 69.4 .05 88 9.4 68 390 4.1 58 .o 420 258 

HE 12 ............ do ................................... Sept. 24, 1941 107 75 ........ 89.6 .05 106 12 201 683 30 113 1. 5 800 314 

HE 18 ............ do. .................................. Mar. 13, 1941 110 . .......... 240 99.2 .27 165 14 48 568 20 62 .o 589 469 

HE 11 Hookers Point ................................ Sept, 23, 1941 55- ........ 80 103 • 07 92 11 123 558 2. c 58 • 1 562 275 

60 

HE 7 Bare Beach Village ......................... ..... do ............ 70 74 40 223 . 05 129 17 310 333 86 425 ...... 1,230 392 

cs 4 w. of Clewiston ............................. June 16, 1942 50 79 ........ 83.8 . .... 144 11 45 440 2. s 59 .1 457 350 

GS 5 ............ do ................................... June 17, 1942 25.7 76 82.3 . ..... 126 12 39 466 1. 47 .1 455 364 

HE 4 ............ do ................................... Apr. 23, 1943 96 ......... 22 ............ • 03 144 19 52 512 17 80 . ........ 565 438 
QUAUTY OF GROUND AND SURFACE WATERS 811 

PALM BEACll COUNTY 

Samples were collected from 20 supply wells in Palm Beach 

County in the vicinity of Lake Okeechobee (see table 109), Concentrations of dissolved mineral matter in these samples were 

among the highest found in shallow ground water in southeastern 

Florida. Dissolved solids ranged from 557 to 5, 670 ppm and in 

9 of the 20 samples the amount of dissolved solids was in excess 

of 1, 000 ppm. Only two of the wells are over 50ft deep. 

Bicarbonate is the most characteristic constituent of the dissolved matter in all of the samples. Some of the samples contained large amounts of sodium, while in other:; the sodium concentration was relatively low. Several hundred parts per million 

of sulfate and chloride were found in some samples, but in other 

samples these constituents were present in amounts less than 

100 ppm. 

Almost all of the wells from which the 20 samples were collected are located in areas where the top soil consists of several 

feet of muck, and it is possible that some of the most shallow 

wells terminate in the muck, Most of the wells terminate in marl 

or lime rock beneath the muck. 

The maximum, concentration of dissolved mineral matter in 

shallow wells in Palm Beach County near Lake Okeechobee was 

found in a sample collected from wellS 350, which is 66ft deep 

and located at Miami Locks just south of the south border of Lake 

Okeechobee. The sample contained 5, 670 PP.m of dissolved solids, 

2, 300 parts of which consisted of chloride. 

Test wellGS 3 was drilled to a depth of 50ft nearwellS 1212 

about 1 mile south of Florida Highway 80 and 3 miles west of 

Florida Highway 25. Analyses were made of three samples collected during the drilling operations at depths of 18. 9, 34. 6, and 

50 ft. The maximum concentrations of dissolved solids and sulfate, and the maximum hardness were found at 18. 9ft. Concentrations were less at 34, 6 ft and were least at 50 ft. Sodium and 

chloride increased with depth. The water in all three samples 

was reported to have a strong odor of hydrogen sulfide, It seems 

probable that reduction of sulfate by decomposing organic matter 

or by bacterial action was responsible for the decrease in sulfate 

concentration and also for the presence of hydrogen sulfide. 
Well 

no. 

s- 35o 

s- 35~ 

s- 355 

s- 356 

s- 3~~ s-n8a 

S-1189 

S-1190 

S-1201 

S-1202 

S-1203 

S-1204 

S-1205 

S-1208 

S-1209 

s -121() 

S-1211 

S-1212 

s 

s 

-1215 

-1216 

Table 109.-Analyses, in parts per: million, of nonartesian watei'S' in westem Palm Beach County 

[See plate 19] 

Specific 

Date Depth Tern- conduct- Iron Cal· Magne Sodium Blear- SuiLocation of (feet) pera- Color a nee (Fe) clum sium andpo bonate fate 

collection ture (K X lOS (Ca) (Mg) tassium (HCO.) (S04J 

("F) at 25 C) (Na+KJ 

Miami Locks Camp, U.S. Sugar Corp ........ Sept. 23, 1941 66 ......... 50 908 0.05 160 148 1,761 769 925 

Belle Glade, State Prison Fann ................. Sept. 22, 1941 35 76 360 254 .05 114 83 371 776 295 

Belle Glade, 0. 2 mile E. of Hillsboro Canal 

and 0. 6 mile N. of State Hwy. 15 ......... ••••• do ........... 47 75 180 148 .05 124 50 130 484 149 

•••••••••••• do ......................................... ..... do ........... 47 74 180 209. .05 118 50 276 520 181 

Ritta Village, U. S. Sugar Corp ................ Sept. 23, 1941 36.4 .......... 320 388 .25 225 145 452 725 579 

State Hwy. 15 between Pahokee and Canal 

Point .............................................. Pahokee, State Hwy. 15, 1.6 miles S. of Sept. 10, 1941 20 ............ 140 92,2 ,10 Ill 46 29 480 96 

Pahokee water tower .......................... ..... do ........... 18 ....... 520 543 .05 237 128 862 849 661 

State Hwy. 80, 1 mile E. of Hillsboro Canal ..... do ........... 45 . ....... 280 156 .10 84 61 159 582 77 

State Hwy. 15, 0. 8 mile. S. of Martin 

County liDe ....................................... Sept. 12, 1941 14 ......... 260 116 .10 166 64 94 952 66 

State Hwy. 15, 0, 9 mile N. of West Palm 

Beach Canal. ..................................... ..... do ........... 20 . ....... 260 263 .10 80 130 372 1,319 25 

State Hwy. 15, 3, 8 miles N. of West Palm 

Beach Canal ...................................... ..... do ........... 13 71 220 143 .10 221 62 36 744 143 

State Hwy. 15, 3, 9 miles N. of West Palm 

State 

Beach 

Hwy. 

Canal. 

15, 4.1 

.................................... miles N. of West Palm ..... do ............ 22 75 180 182 .33 201 143 38 609 ~ 

Beach Canal ..................................... ..... do ............ 20 77 400 143 .10 166 90 29 761ii 127 

State Hwy. 80, 0.4 mile E. of North New 

River Canal ...................................... Sept, 22, 1941 60 ......... 60 138 .10 80 76 143 751 57 

Torry Island, N. of Chosen ...................... ..... do ............ 12.5 73 280 126 .10 152 75 42 740 77 

Belle Glade, G. 9 mile N. of Belle Glade 

water plant ....................................... ..... do ............ 20 80 280 127 .07 137 1, 7 154 414 ~70 South Bay, 2()0 feet N. of intersection of 

South 

State 

Shore 

Hwys. 

Camp, 

80 and 

1 mile 

25 ......................... 

S. of State Hwy. ..... do ............ 20 ........... 280 138 .10 160 67 91 S88 ~ 

80 and 3 miles W. of State Hwy. 25 ....... ..... do ............ 35,5 76 80 181 .15 80 90 229 622 ~70 Miami ~Locks, Plantation ........................ Sept. 23, 1941 31 76 180 .212 .07 44 59 396 621 ~19 Lake Harbor, at Atlantic Collst Line R. R. 

station ............................................. ..... do ............ 20 .......... 36() 103 .u 84 50 64 .550 M 

Total 

Chlo- Ni- Dis- hardride trate solved ness 

(Cl) (NOs) solids as 

caco, 

2,300 . ........... 5, 670 1,008 

340 13 1,598 626 

169 9.'6 sn 515 

340 7. 5 1,229 500 

670 ·--·· 2,428 1,158 

41 _o 560 466 

1,140 ... ..... '"""' :3,451} 1,118 

17.7 - 845 460 

23 A 882 677 

2D8 .>I> 1,566 734 

90 .2 919 .ooo 

80 2 . .5 1,302 1,ill!Ml 

62 .4 851 '184 

104 .1 830 512 

65 1.2 777 688 

113 11 791 349 

49 .2 959 675 

123 .2 1,199 570 

265 .2 1,389 352 

34 .3 5.57 415 
G 

G 

G 

G 

G 

G 

G 

G 

s- 2 State H wy. 25 , 3. 5 miles S. of Bolles Canal 

along North New River Canal •••••••••••••••• ............ do .......................................... 

............ do .......................................... 

S- 3 South Shore Camp, 1 mileS. of State Hwy. 

80 and 3 miles W. of State Hwy. 25 ....... ............ do .......................................... 

............ do .......................................... s- 6 State Hwy. 827, 7. 2 miles SE. of State Hwy 

80, along Hillsboro Canal .................... ............ do .......................................... s- 7 State Hwy. 80, 0. 5 mile W. of State Hwy. 

194 ................................................. S-11 S. side of Hillsboro Canal, 11 miles W. of 

State nwy. ? .................................... 

............ do ......................................... S- 24 State Hwy. 15, 3. 5 miles N. of Canal 

Point ............................................... ............ do .......................................... 

............ do .......................................... ............ do .......................................... 

s- 25 State Hwy. 15, 1, 8 miles S. of Pahokee ...... ............ do .......................................... S- 26 Kraemer Island, 8 miles NW. of Belle 

Glade .............................................. ............ do .......................................... •••••••..•.• do .......................................... G S- 27 State Hwy. 80, 1. 7 miles W. of Lake 

Harbor ............................................. ............ do .......................................... ............ do .......................... ; ............... 

June 5, 1942 16.5 75 360 113 

June 8, 1942 30,4 76 ........... 150 

June 9, 1942 50 76 4 ••• 4 •• 189 

June 11, 1942 18.9 75 220 186 

..... do ............ 34.6 76 ....... 197 ..... do ............ 50 77 ......... 166 

June 19, 1942 14.3 74 280 103 

June .24, 1942 55 74 280 120 

June 25, 1942 50 76 615 

Aug, 4, 1942 14 76 220 59.6 

Aug. 5, 1942 50,2 75 70 1,190 

Aug. 13, 1943 23,4 76 380 338 ..... do ............ 30.5 74 380 479 

Aug. 14, 1943 43.3 74 312 642 

Aug. 16, 1943 60.5 ........ 55 315 

Aug. 18, 1943 27 75 320 246 ..... do ............ 45 75 252 306 

Aug. 20, 1943 14.5 76 450 442 

Aug. 21, 1943 41.7 76 240 454 

Aug. 23, 1943 78,5 .......... 95 487 

Aug. 25, 1943 29 ........ 23 58,3 

Aug. 39 ............ 33 161 ..... do ............ 56.5 ........ 25 561 

.15 172 55 7,6 576 144 35 • 2 698 655 . ....... 149 69 80 770 36 115 • 2 828 656 ....... 197 78 107 924 12 195 . ...... 1,044 812 

. 05 292 88 31 538 628 45 .1 1,349 1,090 . ......... 190 102 127 684 406 133 .o' 1,295 894 . ..... 102 68 168 686 101 165 • 0 942 534 

.10 100 34 69 480 17 91 .1 548 390 • 80 88 44 106 563 4,1 117 .1 637 400 

.......... 80 71 ,225 1, 097 305 1,375 ....... 3,600 492 

• 05 89 13 27 322 11 41 ,1 340 276 

.1 218 166 2,299 836 716 3,400 ........ 7,210 1,226 

.09 188 192 378 1,470 400 325 1, 5 2,209 1,258 

• 0' 157 200 758 1,634 326 840 ......... 3, 090 1,214 

.04 232 95 1,222 1,780 254 1,350 ....... 4, 030 970 • 08 154 123 404 1,050 270 445 1,913 890 

,13 210 124 197 1,120 231 215 .9 1,530 1,034 

.20 204 103 1,357 1,155 267 1,885 . ........ 4,390 932 

.20 414 199 343 1,050 639 760 . ...... 2,870 1,852 . 04 176 180 646 1,305 221 910 ....... 2,780 1,179 

.06 184 152 685 640 ~67 960 . ........ 2,960 1,084 

.04 64 22 25 292 10 36 4.0 305 250 

.04 88 44 209 564 84 215 3.7 922 400 

.02 165 98 ,013 882 ~05 ,180 . ....... 3,500 815 
814 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUnmASTERN FLORIDA 

MAR11N COUNTY 

Samples were collected from six wells near the eastern edge of 

Lake Okeechobee in Martin County. (See table 110,) The muck 

soil in Martin County is relatively thin and occupies only a narrow 

strip of land near the lake, Some of the wells from which samples 

were. collected are located in sand lands, and all of the wells are 

less than 50 ft deep. 

Samples from wells located in the muck soil were high in calcium and bicarbonate, while samples from wells -in the sandy soil 

contained much smaller amounts of these constituents. Water 

from the sandy soil was very low in sulfate and chloride. 
Table 110.-Allalyses, in parts per million, of nonartesian waters in Marlin County 

Specific Sodium 

Well Date Depth Tem- conduct- Iron Cal- Magne- and po- Bicarno. Location of (feet) pera- Color a nee {Fe)· cium sium tassium bonate 

collection ture (K x J05 (Ca) (Mg) (Na + K) (HCq.) 

("F) at 25C) 

M 11 State Hwy. 15, 3, 8 miles S. of 

Okeechobee County line,., ........... Sept. 11, 1941 40 77 120 92.5 0.10 156 24 87 616 

M 15 Farm Security Administration 

prOJeCt ..................................... Oct. 3, 1941 40 76 150 88.7 .91 124 10 51 396 

M HI Port Maya ca ........................... , ..... Sept. 12, 1941 48 78 200 30.9 .38 54 2. 6 11 182 

M 17 ............ do .................................. Oct. 3, 1941 32 78 160 32,7 .79 59 5. 0 1.2 189 

M 18 ............ do .................................. Sept. 12, 1941 30 78 50 44.9 .10 83 5. 7 3.2 269 

M g 50ft N. of St Lucie Canal and 150 ft 

E. of Lake Okeechobee ................ ..... do .......... 27 77 140 80.2 .40 148 19 6. 7 489 

GS 23 s. of Indian Town ......................... Aug. 10, 1943 28 ... ··~. 29 63.6 .05 127 4,8 7,6 356 

............ do .................................. Aug. 12, 1943 90. i ....... 12 156 .03 128 26 182 418 

Sul· !cwo- Nifate ride trate 

(S04) (CJ) (Nq.) 

86 56 4.4 

24 79 • 1 

8. E 6. i 1.8 

8. ( 5 • 1 

9.7 5 .o 

39 10 8.2 

31 20 .9 

139 239 • 6 

.Dissolved 

solids 

717 

484 

175 

172 

239 

472 

367 

920 

Total 

hardness 

as 

cacq. 

488 

351 

145 

168 

231 

447 

336 

426 

co 

.... 

Ol 
816 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUlHEASTERN FLOlUDA 

OKEECIIOBEE COIJNTY 

Okeechobee County is north of Lake Okeechobee and only a 

narrow strip immediately adjacent to the lake is. covered with 

muck soil. This strip of muck is usually ver:v thin and it disappears at some places. 

Twelve wells, for which analyses are available (see table 111), 

are located in areas·where the muck layer is thin or nonexistent. 

Dissolved solids ranged from 37 to 1, 800 ppm and hardness 

ranged from 23 to 587 ppm. Most of the samples contained over 

300 ppm of bicarbonate. One sample contained 860 ppm of .chloride. The dissolved minerals in shallow ground waters in wells in 

tP..e sandy areas to the north of Lake Okeechobee consist primarily 

of calcium and bicarbonate. The composition of these waters is 

similar to that of shallow ground water in the metropolitan area 

of Miami. 
Table 111.-Analyses, in parts per miUion, of nonartesian waters in Okeechobee County . -- . Specific Total 

Well Date Depth Tem- conduct- Iron Cal- Magne Sodium Bicar- Sui- Chlo· Ni· Dis- hardno. Location of (feet) pera- Color a nee (Fe). cium sium and po- bonate fate ride trate solved ness collection ture (Kx 105 (Ca) (Mg) tassium (HCo,) so,) (Cl) (NOs) solids as 

('F) at 25C) (Na + K) CaC03 

OK 14 Farm Security Administration proJect •• Oct. 3, 1941 80 75 1'5 59.2 !pi(} 103 6. 6 12 344 2. 19 0. 0 312 284 

OK 15 •••••••••••• do ................................... ••••• do ............ 95 73 30 55.7 .10 108 4.1 6.1 343 2.S 11 .o 301 286 

OK ~ State Hwy. 15, 1 mile E. of State 

Hwy. 78 .................................... Sept. 11, 1941 75 74 25 313 • 05 99 40 499 286 170 770 ~······ 1,720 412 

OK 9 State Hwy. 15, 0. 4 mile E. of Taylor 

Creek ....................................... ..... do ............ 48 ...... 60 122 • 05 105 14 147 381) 34 207 .2 694 320 

OK 1o State Hwy. 78, 3.2 miles W. of State 

Hwy. 15 ................................... Sept. 25, 1941 65 74 21) 135 .10 109 15 152 390 32 221 .2 721 334 

OK H State Hwy. 15, 1. 2 miles E. of levee 

crossing .................................... Sept. 11, 1941 100 74 61) 82.8 • 05 90 12 87 371 44 80 .2 496 274 

OK 1 State Hwy. 15, 4.9 miles E. of levee 

crossing .................................... ..... do ............ 57 74 520 142 .38 21)1) 28 72 543 86 168 .4 822 614 

OK U State Hwy. 15, 7. 5 miles E. of levee 

crossing .................................... ..... do ............ 105 75 40 326 .10 110 68 492 411 71 860 ........ 1,800 554 

GS H Fort Drum .................................... July 12, 1943 6 ........ 850 7.7 • 02 3.6 4.3 6, 0 4,( 24 8 .3 48 27 ............ do .................................. ..... do ............ 19.9 ......... 175 4.4 .04 5.2 2,5 4.5 18 9.2 6 .2 37 23 ............ do .................................. Jt.ly 14, 1943 90 ....... 20 46.3 • 07 90 7.0 . ............... 278 11 10 .1 255 254 

GS 17 s. of Okeechobee .......................... July 16, 1943 44 79 300 31.7 -2.5 41 7.2 5 122 5 4 ,0 .......... 132 ............ do .................................. July 17. 1943 49 78 38 206 .08 184 31 225 730 5 335 .o 1,140 586 ............ do .................................. July 19, 1943 90,3 ........ 35 307 .04 120 38 501 470 ~88 610 ,0 1,789 456 ............ do .................................. July 20, 1943 131 78 60 166 .15 92 24 233 376 ~16 288 .o 938 328 

GS 19 SE, of Okeechobee ......................... July 23, 1943 19 78 55 155 .05 168 35 129 514 ~09 218 2.8 915 564 ..... do ............ 49 ......... 32 304 ,03 139 55 424 392 63 785 . ..... 1,659 573 
818 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

SUMMARY OF QUALITY OF GROUND WATEk IN LAKE OI'EECIIOREE AR)l:A 

Analyses of samples collected from about 80 wells, located in 

five counties near the shores of Lake Okeechobee, show that 

most of the ground water in this region is highly mineralized. 

Most of the wells are less than 100ft deep and terminate in lime 

rock or shell marl. With few exceptions, the surface soil consists of muck ranging from a few inches to several feet in depth. 

It appears that high mineral concentrations in the ground waters 

are related to the occurrence of the muck soils and to the low 

permeability_ of both the muck and the underlying marls. 

Saline waters and residues left by Pleistocene invasions of the 

area by the sea have never been completelyflushed out of the formations in much of the Everglades, particularly in areas near the 

borders of Lake Okeechobee. Saline waters are present in the 

formations, and it is probable that the muck and rock contain 

much soluble material clher than carbonates. Some wells less 

than 50ft deep yield water high in sulfate and chloride. 

The high concentrations of bicarbonate cannot be explained by 

entrapment of ancient sea· water, because brines ordinarily contain only small amounts of bicarbonate. The high concentrations 

of bicarbonate found in most of the ground walers near Lake 

Okeechobee are associated with the presence of muck soils that 

have high percentages of organic matter. The decaying organic 

matter facilitates the solution of calcium carbonate by furnishing 

carbon dioxide, which, when it reacts with water to form carbonic 

acid, reacts with calcium carbonate to give soluble calcium 

bicarbonate. 

It has long been known that certain organic soils play an active 

role in cation exchange. It is probable that the organic muck soils 

have played a large part in transforming calcium -bicarbonate 

waters into sodium-bicarbonate waters. Because large concentrations of calcium bicarbonate are not ordinarily found in natural 

waters, it is possible that several stages of solution of lime rock, 

and subsequent transformation into sodium-bicarbonate by cation 

exchange, have been necessary to produce the high concentratlon 

of bicarbonate found in some of the waters. 

The phenomenon of cation exchange is discussed more fully 

below under the heading "Source of Mineralization of Ground 

Waters in the Everglades." and in the section on "Salt-water 

encroachment. " 

THE EVERGLADES 

The chemical character of ground water in the Everglades has 

been discussed briefly by Stringfield (1933a), Parker (1942, p. 47-

7,6). and Parker and Hoy (1943, p. 33-55), and is touched upon 
QUALITY OF GROUND AND SURFACE WATERS 819 

in this report in the discussion of ground waters in the vicinity of 

Lake Okeech,obee. Outside the Lake Okeechobee area, most of the 

information about the character of the ground water was obtained 

from test wells, drilled for the purpose of collecting samples of 

water and rock and for determining the geologic and hydrologic 

characteristics of the water-bearing formations. 

Water samples were collected at intervals of only a few feet 

while the wells were being drilled. Chloride and specific conduct.-

ance were determined on all samples,and more complete analyses 

were made on samples that seemed {from the chloride and conductance values) to represent different types of water. 

Analyses of a large number of samples collected from wells 

scattered over the Everglades indicate that the most concentrated 

waters are found in the Lake Okeechobee area and that the least 

concentrated waters are found in the southern and southeastern 

parts of the Everglades. In general, water from wells less than 

2o ft deep contains less dissolved mineral matter than water from 

greater depths. Some very shallow wells, however, yield rather 

highly concentrated water. 

In the vicinity of Lake Okeechobee, some well waters contain 

large, but variable, amounts of sodium and bicarbonate and others 

contain relatively large amounts of sulfate and chloride. Farther 

south, calcium and bicarbonate are the major constituents of the 

dissolved matter in many well wa-ters, although chloride may be 

present in relatively large amounts. 

To show in a general way the range in concentration of dissolved matter in ground water in the Everglades, the range in 

chloride concentration for different depths was chosen to represent approximate ranges in the degree of mineralization. It is 

recognized that other constituents, particularly in water from 

wells near Lake Okeechobee, may make up a greater part of the 

dissolved mineral matter than chloride, Considering the Everglades as a whole, however, it is believed that ranges in chloride 

concentration give a more reliable index to the various degrees 

of mineralization. 

Figure 221 shows, in a general way, the ranges in chlorid€ concentration that may be expected in three depth intervals in all except the western part of the· Everglades. The metropolitan area 

of Miami and the eastern part of Palm Beach County are not included because the character of ground water in these areas is 

treated more fully in other sections and also because very little 

of these coastal strips lies within the Everglades proper. 

Lines between any two chloride ranges in figure 221 indicate 

the approximate boundaries between chloride concentrations in the 
-8>-

\ I @ \" 

\1, ~H~~~· \t"~ PER MIWON '\~: 

OJ] \a . LESS lHM 3Q I ·~ I 

~-"" ~ ·~I 

~-100 1 GIJI]I 

~I " 

I 

L......f tf!Mo!es " ~ 0 tp'lolie$ 

\ _r-,o;')_ ~- ........ ~ CHLORtDE IN wn.LS I 

A ~ """""'"' LESS THAN 20 FEET DEE!' LI_B ___________________ _ ( HLORIDE IN W£. LLS 

2.0 TO 50 FEET DEEP 

I 

..... """ 

....... 

'" (1-Wies 

CHLORIOE IN WflLS 

5f TO !00 FEET DEEP 

Fig~e 221. -Maps showing chloride concentrations in ground water at different depths in the Everglades: A, wells less than 20-ft deep; B, wells 21-50 ft deep; C, 

wells 51-100 ft deep. 

0:1 

t-.:1 

0 

~ 

~ 

~ g 

s 

!2! 

I 

~ 

~ ~ 
QUALITY OF GROUND AND SURFACE WATERS 821 

two areas. Exceptions to the concentrations generally found within an area are shown as islands of a different concentration. Undoubtedly, many other exceptions would be found with the drilling 

of additional wells. It is entirely possible that the shading of a 

whole area might be changed as a result of additional information. 

It is believed, however, that the three illustrations give an approximate representation of the distribution of 'Chloride in the 

three depth ranges. 

The hachures on the fringes of the main body of the shaded area 

have been left without boundary lbes to indicate that chloride concentrations in the several ranges may be found for some distance 

beyond the areas already shaded. Boundary lines have been placed 

around small islands outs ide the main shaded area, not to convey 

the idea that these islands may not be of larger extent, but instead, 

to make the different concentration ranges more discernible. 

It should be emphasized that the chloride concentrations in 

ground water in the Everglades are not the result of recent seawater contamination but rather that saline residues of ice-age invasions of the sea have not been entirely flushed out. 

Figure 221 does not show the effect of present sea-water contamination of ground water near the coast except to show the approximate boundary atdifferentdepths in the vicinity ofHomestead 

in the southeastern part of Dade County. This area is outside the 

border of the Everglades. 

SOURCE OF MINERALIZAUON OF GROUND WATERS IN THE EVERGLADES 

The mineral content of ground waters in the Everglades has resulted partly from remnants of saline residues that have not been 

completely flushed out of the ground and partly from cationexchange processes. In the Miami area, it is postulated that organic colloids, saturated with sodium and magnesium from ancient 

brines, were brought in contact with calcium -bicarbonate solutions 

derived from rainwater, lime rock, and carbon dioxide, with the 

result that the adsorbed sodium and magnesium were exchanged 

for calcium. All of the saline residues were completelyflushed 

from the formations and were replaced withfresh ground water in 

which calcium and bicarbonate were the chief constituents. 

In the Everglades area, the organic matter and rocks were undoubtedly exposed to the same processes, but the. action is not 

complete. Because the muck and rock of the Everglades are much 

less perm~ble than the sandstones and limestones of the Biscayne 

aquifer, the saline residues have not been entirely flushed out, and 

the organic colloids are still partly saturated with sodium and 

magnesium, presumably adsorbed from ancient sea water. Calcium bicarbonate is readily brought into solution in the presence 
822 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUnmASTERN. flORIDA 

of carbon dioxide furnished, in large part, by decomposing organic 

matter. When brought in contact with sodium and magnesiumbearing clays, the calcium in the solution is exchanged for sodium 

and magnesium in the clays. The water then comes in contact 

with more lime rock, which dissolves to form more calcium bicarbonate. Repetition of the process increases the bicarbonate 

concentration t'o high values. In many waters, bicarbonate is 

present in concentrations in excess of 500 ppm and concentrations 

of 1, 000 ppm are not unusual. The cations in solution may consist 

largely of sodium, or sodium and magnesium, but in some waters 

they consist largely of calcium. The proportion of each cation in 

solution is apparently determined, in part, by the composition of 

the exchangeable clays and organic colloids and, in part, by the 

number of times that the solution and exchange cycle is repeated. 

The high concentrations of sulfate and chloride in many of the 

ground waters in the Everglades are apparently derived from 

saline residues from earlier invasions by the sea. 

COLLIER COUNTY 

Only seven samples of ground water were collected from shallow aquifers in Collier County. The analyses show that dissolved 

solids ranged from 70 to 115 ppm and hardness ranged from 25 to 

62 ppm (see table 112). Except for the high color-60 to 160-

these waters are suitable for almost all purposes. Unfortunately, 

large yields are not obtainable from shallow aquifers in Collier 

County. See table 113 for analyses of artesian waters. 
Well 

no. 

c 20 

c 18 

c 17 

c 15 

c 16 

c 12 

C43 

Table 112.-Ailalyses, in parts per million, of nonartesian waters in Collier County 

DaL- Depth 

Location of (feet) 

collection 

Marco Isle.................................... Oct. 28, 1940 12 

............ do ........................................ do .................... . 

Collier City.................................. • .... do............. 22 

Caxambas. ... ...... ... ..... ... ... ....... ..... • .... do............. 13 ............ do ........................................ do............. 6.9 

Hoar's Isle.................................... .. ... do............. 16 ............ do ........................................ do............. 12 

Ternperature 

Cf) 

76 

78 

78 

77 

81 

81 

Color 

60 

160 

160 

85 

65 

140 

Specific 

conduct>- Iron Cal- Magne- Sodium Bicar- ance (Fe) cium sium and po- bonate 

(K x 1<f (Ca) (Mg) tass:ium (HC08 at 25C) (Na+K) 

19.5 12 3.2 18 24 

13.9 6. 0 2. 5 18 28 

24.2 6. 6 7. 3 27 18 1~0 22 1,7 4.7 63 

28.5 ..................... .. 8. 0 

19. 3 • ..... 7. 6 3, 1 22 22 

19.0 ...................... . 16 

Sul- .... hlo- Nifate ride trate 

(SO~ {CI) (NOs) 

6 40 

4 26 

6 59 

2 13 

12 70 ····~·. 10 37 

14 39 ......... 

Total 

Dis- hardsolved ness 

solids as 

CaC(\ 

91 43 

70 25 

115 46 

74 62 

34 

90 32 

56 

.() 

c: 

~ 

~ 

~ 

Cl 

"' 

@ 

~ 

c: ""

~ 

~ t'<l 

~ ..j 

toj 

:a 

"" 

0::0 

N 

w 
Table 113.-Analyses, in parts per million, of artesiaa waters in southeastern Florida 

Specific Total 

Well Date Depth Tern- conduct- Iron Cal- Magne Sodium Bicar- Sul· Chlo- Ni- Dis· hardno. Location of (feet) pera- Color ance (Fe) cium Sium and po- bonate fate ride trate solved nen collection ture (K x lOS (Ca) (Mg) tassium {HC0s) (S04) (Cl) (NO,) solids as 

('F) at25C) (Na + K) CaCOs 

Dade County 

s- 125 NW. Miami Ct. and 14th St ••••••• Oct. 15, 1940 1, 950 76 15 1,950 214 464 3,650 129 1,030 6,520 ........ 11,900 2,440 ~ s- 142 47 NW. 6th St ........................ Mar. 15, 1940 1,165 71 585 154 1,580 ...... i;l s- 144 3250 S. Miami Ave ................. Oct. 14, 1940 1,000 71 15 576 183 1,480 ...... ........ ......... :<I s- 155 Miami Beach, Palm Island .... ; ... ..... do ........... 1,000 70 10 554 150 1,470 ........ .......... ........... s- 158 Miami Beach, Jefferson Ave. (;: 

and 17th St ....... ~ ................ ..... do ........... 1,066 70 5 913 161 199 1,520 148· 575 2, 700 5,230 1,220 "' ......... 0 s- 1so Miami Beach, Blacldtawk Ave. c: 

and 51st Ter ....................... , ..... do ........... 1,000 79 20 615 82 133 1,010 29 370 1,800 3,410 752 8 s- 161 0. 5 mile S. of Kendall, ............ ..... do ........... 5,432 76 10 692 78 133 1,190 65 379 2,040 ...... 3,850 742 

s- 450 Everglades No, 2, Dade-Collier 

County line ......................... Feb. 4, 1941 585 78 140 80.: ......... 15 16 155 447 21 37 .. ....... 464 103 2! 

F· 152 SW. 24th Ave, and 16th Ter ...... Oct. 14, 1940 990 72 5 593 ......... ............. 182 1,540 . ...... ......... .. ........ G· 101 Miami, W. Flagler St., 3 miles "' 

~ W. of Red Road. ................ -. June 14, 1940 534 216 21 16 451 419 292 320 ........ 1,310 118 

............ do ............................ June 15, 1940 552.6 ~······ 324 22 33 666 444 507 725 ....... 1,980 191 

............ do •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• June 18, 194~ 607 425 20 49 887 409 791 725 ...... 2,670 251 •••••••••••• do ............................ June 25, 1940 716,8 ....... 473 22 67 928 366 748 900 . ...... 2,850 330 

............ do ............................ "' July 1, 194~ 785,1 ........ ........... 524 48 107 952 303 594 1,250 . ...... 3,100 560 i;l •••••••••••• do ............................ July 8, 1940 812 72 579,3 ....... 77 121 1,020 313 619 1,420 3,410 690 Sl •••••••••••• do ............................ Jan. 13, 1942 113.8 77 77. ........ 84 24 39 397 12 39 • 0 394 308 

............ do ............................ Jan. 21, 1942 234,1 77 56.2 35 21 60 319 5. 8 21 • 0 306 174 .... ............ do. ........................... Feb, 3, 1942 411 78 47,4 12 . 7.9 89 267 4.5 23 • 0 268 62 ............ do. ........................... Feb, 27, 1942 600 80 58.1 20 14 84 233 4.9 67 .o 305 108 ~ Palm Beach County ~ 

s- 353 Belle Glade, University of Florida 

Everglades Experiment Station .. Sept, 12, 1941 1,332 78 10 616 o.bs 166 131 864 22 5.8 1,9~~ ............ 3,170 953 

s- 382 West Palm Beach ..................... Oct. 28, 1940 1,080 73 5 810 ...... 140 181 1,354 186 481 2,40 .. ........ 4,ii50 1,094 

s- 383 ............ do ............................ ..... do ........... 1;o5o 73 5 802 ........ 141 180 1,320 182 479 2,35~ .. ....... 4,560 1,092 

S-1184 West Palm Beach, North Rail· 

road Ave •. and 4th St ............. Sept. 9, 1941 1,035 73 5 726 ,10 127 161 1,207 194 449 2,11~ ........... 4,150 979 
Okeechobee Com~ty 

OK 16 Farm Security AEhninistration 

projecl ••••••••••••.••••••••••••••.••• Oct. 3, 1941 996 so 20 142 0,20 62 42 156 120 160 285 . ......... 764 327 

OK I Okeechobee, block 134, lot 5 ..... Sept, 11, 1941 718 19 5 210 .05 102 57 210 129 233 5~; ...... 1,240 489 

OK 1 Okeechobee School .................. ..... do ........... .......... 78 5 181 • 05 59 48 254 129 228 39 . ......... 1,040 345 

Hendry County 

HE 2 La Belle, Everett Hotel ............. Sept, 24, 1941 650 81 ··~··· .. 224 0,05 55 44 344 118 323 450 . ....... 1,210 318 

HE 14 0, 8 mile S. of State Hwy. 80 

and· 5. 6 miles W. of Atlantic 

Coast Line R. R. crossing ...... ..... do •••••••••••• 315 ·····~ . ......... 154 .05 67 56 161 329 1(H) 264 0.4 811 397 

Collier County 

c 21 State Hwy. 29, 0. 7 mileS. of 

Hendry -collier County line •••• Dec, 15, 1941 566 82 5 331 0,10 108 99 433 180 302 82( ........ 1,850 677 

c 222 Humble Oil Company concession. 

60ft E. of West line of 753-

Section 33 .......................... Dec, 11, 1941 775 81 5 430 .12 78 87 741 255 645 91{ ......... 2,590 552 ............ do ............................ Dec; 12, 1941 786 81 5 425 1.4 79 89 -711 255 633 98( ......... 2,520 563 •••••••••••• do ............................ Dec. 13, 1941 819 ......... 5 420 .12 101 114 640 182 558 98{ ••••;o.•• 2,480 721 ............ do ............................ ..... do ••••••• : .... 829 81 5 420 .12 98 113 650 196 556 98{ ......... 2,490 709 •••••••••••• do ............................ Dec. 15, 1941 845 82 5 420 .14 98 113 650 192 560 98( ......... 2,500 709 

c 37 Immokalee ............................ Sept. 22, 1940 590 ......... 5 422 . ...... 92 109 624 74 488 1,04( . .......... 2,390 678 

c 19 Marco Isle ............................. Oct; 28, 1940 800-

900 80 5 1,280 ......... ,., 258 286 2,150 183 749 3,95( ........... 7,5SO 1,820 

c 14 -Caxambas ............................. ..... do ............ 376 78 5 770 .. ...... 88 103 1,370 17 114 2,48J 4,160 643 

c 13 ............ do ........................... ..... do. ........... 200-

300 78 5 S66 ........ 177 19'1 1,390 193 505 2,S5C ........ 4,910 1,250 

c 11 Kice's Island .......................... ..... do.' ........... 78 35 894 ............ 180 207 1,450 189 49'1 z;68C ......... 5,110 1,300 

c 36 Ochopee ................................ loct. 29. 1940 446 72 5 566 ......... 101 122 917 231 465 1,~ 3,190 154 

c 4 EvergladesCity, ;>ublic supply .... jAug. 11, 1941 521 .......... 5 141 .02 32 44 199 308 91. 0.1 '164 261 
826 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTiiEASTERN FLORIDA 

CHEMICAL CHARACTER OF ARTESIAN WATERS 

Artesian water of the Floridan aquifer is encountered in wells 

at depths of 800 to 1, 000 ft in, and near, Miami, and at somewhat 

shallower depths north of Miami. Much of this water is brackish 

and unfit for domestic use and most other purposes. In general, 

the chloride concentration ranged between 500 and 4, 000 ppm. 

The higher concentrations in some wells may have resulted from 

a mixture of sea water through leaky casings. 

The public supply at La Belle, Hendry County, is artesian and 

it contains 2. 4 ppm of fluoride, the highest found in samples taken 

in southeastern Florida. See pages 188-196 for a discussion of 

artesian water. Table 113 contains analyses of artesian waters 

from various wells in southeastern Florida. 
QUALITY OF GROUND AND SURFACE WATERS 827 

PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES 

In 1941-42, chemical analyses were made on water samples 

collected from 25 public water supply systems in Broward, Dade. 

Glades, Hendry, Okeechobee and Palm Beach Counties. In 1948, 

these public supplies were resampled and additional samples were 

collected from six towns in Collier, Indian River, Martin, Monroe, 

and St. Lucie Counties. Results of analyses for the two periods 

are shown in tables 114 and 115. 

Miami, the largest city in southeastern Florida, obtains its 

water supply from wells and furnishes water to Miami Beach, 

Coral Gables, Miami Shores, El Portal, Surfside, Indian Creek 

Village, Hialeah, and Miami Springs. Other places using ground 

water are: Boca Raton, Boynton Beach, Dania, Deerfield Beach, 

Delray Beach, Everglades, Fort Lauderdale, Hobe Sound, Hollywood, Homestead, Indian Town, Key West, La Belle, Lake Park, 

Lake Worth, Lantana, North Miami, North Miami Beach, Opa 

Locka, Pompana Beach, Riviera, and Stuart. 

Key West had no public supply system prior to 1942 and was dependent on rainwater and on water that was transported from the 

mainland for domestic use. A few privately owned shallow wells 

yielded small quantities of relatively fresh water during periods 

of heavy rainfall, but nearly all these wells became salty soon 

after the end of the rainy periods. A supply of fresh water is now 

piped to Key West from near Homestead (where it is obtained from 

wells). The ground water is softened before transmission to Key 

West. Several fishing camps, and other private users, along the 

pipe-line route over the Florida Keys obtain water from the Key 

West supply. 

West Palm Beach is the largest city in southeastern Florida 

that uses surface water. Palm Beach is also supplied by this 

system. Other towns supplied with surface water are: Belle Glade, 

Canal Point, Clewiston, Moore Haven, Okeechobee, and Pahokee. 

These six towns are located on, or near, Lake Okeechobee and are 

normally supplied with lake water. Fort Pierce obtains about 80 

percent of its supply from surface water and obtains the remainder 

from wells. The hardness of the finished water from 25 supplies 

sampled in 1941-42 is indicated in figure 222. 

The largest use of water from the public supplies is for domestic 

purposes; agricultural use of water from public supplies is very 

small. Irrigation is practiced during dry periods, but water for 

this purpose is usually obtained from shallow wells or "drainage 

canals. 

There is practically no heavy industry in the southeastern part 

of the State. Most of the industrial plants in the coastal cities are 

connected directly, or indirectly,with the building trades or public 
Table 114.-Analyses, in parts per million, of public water supplies in souf}lem Florida, 1941-42 -

Specific Total 

Date Type conduct- Silica Iron Calcium Magne- Sodium ~otassiurn Bicar· Snl- Chlo- Fluo- Ni· Dis- hardMunicipality of of Color pH a nee (SiOz) (Fe) (Ca) sium (Na) (K) bonate fate ride ride trate solved ness collection water (K X lOS (Mg) {HCOvJ so.) {Cl) (F) (NO,) solids as at 25C) CaCO, 

Broward County 

Dania ................. Dec. 10, 194 D 90 7:s 56.2 7.6 0.12 104 3.5 17 302 25 25 o. 3 0. 7 365 274 

Deerfield Beach. ••• Nov. 29, 194 D 25 7.4 28.0 s.o .65 51 3.1 

r·6 

153 1.6 13 .2 .o 164 140 

Fort Lauderdale ..... Dec. 4, 194 R 110 7.3 45,8 11 1.9 ·sa 3.3 11 266 2.4 1S .1 2.1 294 233 

Do ................ ••••• do •••••••••. F 35 7,7 18.0 6. 8 .05 21 2.9 10 44 16 IS .2 3.2 .. 5 64 

Hollywood ............ Dec. 10, 194 R 40 7.1 53,1 3.2 .24 103 2.6 11 301 19 17 .2 .1 333 26S 

Do ................ ..... do .......... F 40 7. 7 55.0 4.0 40 1.0 91 307 20 20 .2 .1 437 104 

Pompano .............. Nov. 29, 194 D 20 7.2 26,8 4.S .16 47 2.3 S.5 136 11 15 .4 .1 165 127 

Dade County 

Homestead ........... Mar. 5, 194 D 5 ...... 37,9 2.S .02 63 6. 5 '·{ ·' 21S S.3 10 .2 .3 212 1S4 

Miami ................ Feb. 3, 194 R S5 6. 8 57.7 7.4 1.3 94 9.6 22 2. 2 266 34 3S .1 1.5 370 274 

Do ................. ..... do .......... F .20 8. 5 31.8 8. 5 .01 27 6.1 25 2.0 2.4s 3S 48 .2 .1 204 92 

North Miami_ ....... Dec. 10, 194 R 60 7. 5 51.6 5. 2 .32 99 3.S .5 255 47 16 .2 .1 363 263 

Do .............. : .. ..... do ........... F 20 8.4 21.9 7.6 .12 29 2.4 9.9 ass 47 16 • 3 • 5 17S S2 

North Miami Beach. ..... do ........... R 40 7.1 155 1. 6 1. 5 176' 3. 3 132 285 25 340 • 2 .0 82.6 453 

Do ................. ..... do ........... F 20 s.o 107 10 .os so 2.4 114 417 26 295 . 3 .0 536 210 

Cpa Locka ............ ..... do ........... R 10 7. 2 39,7 6,0 .6S 72 4.5 5.5 216 16 11 .3 ·J,ol 244 19S 

Do ................. ..... do ........... F 40 7. 8 20.0 6,0· • OS 30 4.2 ,1.3 70 20 11 .3 . 5 13S 92 

Glades County 

Moore Haven ........ Mar. 12, 1941 R 80 ...... 64.5 S.4 2.2 104 13 25 312 44 43 .3 5.0 487 313 

Do ................. ..... do ........... F 30 ........ 79.0 7.2 .15 S8 12 70 282 11 45 .o 5.0 534 269 

Hendry County 

Clewiston ............. Oct. I 27' 1941 D 5 7. 0 40.5 3.5 . 03 41 9. 7 24 2.0 76 75 36 .1 2.1 24S 142 

La Belle .. ; ............ Mar. 12, 1941 D 5 ...... 233 26 .16 65 53 

'I 

118 p2s 500 .2.4 ....... 1,600 380 

Okeechobee County 

Okeechobee .......... Oct. 27, 1941 D s 6.8 18.S 1.3 .06 19 3.1 9. 1. 6 22 40 17 .1 .2 114 61 

Palm Beach County 

Belle Glade .......... Mar. 13, 1941 D 40 ...... 92.0 13 • 09 91 31 218 85 83 .1 5,0 692 355 

Boca Raton ........... Oct. 21, 1941 R 10 1.2 32.1 9.6 '06 59 3,1 3.0 168 2.0 18 • 3 .7 195 160 

Do ...................... do ........... F 10 7.4 16.8 5.2 .02 22 1.6 8.7 56 9.1 17 ,3 .2 97 61 
Boynton Beach ....... Oct. 24, 1941 D 

Canal Point .......... Mar. 13, 1941 D 

Delray Beach. ....... Oct. 31, 1941 D 

Lake Park ................. .•••• do ........... D 

Lake Warth. .......... Mar. 15, 1941 D 

Lantana ••••••••••••••• Oct. 24, 1941 D 

Pahokee ••••••••••••••• Mar. 13, 1941 D 

Riviera .................. Mar. 14, 1941 D 

West Palm Beach .... Oct. 22, 1941 R 

Do ................. ..... do ........... F 

lo, delivered; R , raw; F , finished. 

2Jncludes equivalent of 3. 9 ppm of CO,. 

IJncludes equivalent of 9. 8 ppm of CO,. 

'Includes equivalent of 4. 9 ppm of CO,. 

SF'ormerly Kelsy City. 

6Jncludes equivalent of 6. 9 ppm of CO,. 

30 

25 

35 

10 

40 

10 

35 

15 

55 

5 

7.3 37.2 5.2 .04 66 ........... 45.1 3.8 .13 46 

7.6 38.8 3.2 .20 70 t 

7.5 32.9 6.4 .04 58 ......... 43.7 4.8 .72 74 

7. 2 30.5 6. 8 .06 54 

_. ...... 51.6 7. 6 . 06 56 

7. 8 30.5 6. 8 .17 48 

6.4 6.51 1.0 .04 7,0 

9.0 13.5 3.6 .02 17 

2.8 7.9 178 16 21 .3 • 5 227 176 

12 29 127 54 47 .1 1. 0 311 164 

2. 8 8. 8 205 4.9 22 .2 .8 234 186 

2.3 8.4 162 9.5 17 .2 6.5 200 154 

3.1 20 220 20 25 .1 4.0 287 197 

3.3 3.9 152 3,0 20 .3 .2 182 148 

16 30 160 67 47 • 3 371 206 

1.9 17 153 2.8 25 .3 1.0 194 128 

.9 4.~li .9 16 1. 6 9.5 .1 1. 0 49 21 

1.1 5. 2 . 1.1 

626 23 11 .1 • 0 87 47 
Table 115.-Analyses, in parts per million, of public water supplies in southern Florida, 1948 .. 

Specific Total 

Date Type conduct- Silica Iron Calcium Magne- Sodium Potassium Bicar- Sui- fchlo- Flue- Ni- Dis- hardMunicipality of of Color pH a nee (SiCJ:2) {Fe) (Ca) sium (Na) (K) bonate fate ride rille trate solved ness collection water (K X I!f (Mg) (HC(\ (S04l {Cl) {F) (NO,) solids as at 2flC) CaCO, 

Broward County 

Dania ..•••..••.••••••• Mar. 29, 1948 R 86 6.9 56,9 ······· 0,12 104 4,3 16 308 25 23 o. 2 1.8 326 277 

Do ••.••.•.••••••• ••••. do •••••••••••• F 57 7.4 57.5 . ...... .04 103 4,4 19 314 22 25 .0 ,1 328 275 

De erfi e Jd Beach ... Mar. 25, 1948 D 6 7.4 31.2 . ...... . 04 58 2.1 7. 8 176 5. 8 14 .1 -3 175 153 

Hollywood .......... Mar. 29, 1948 R 25 6. 8 63,2 . ...... -08 102 4,4 31 306 28 42 ,1 -7 359 273 

Do ............... ..... do ............ F 19 6.7 62.0 .. ........ • 06 30 2.7 116 300 35 40 . 0 -3 372 86 

Pompano ............ Mar. 29, 1948 D 4 7. 6 27.1 ....... . 04 46 2.0 12 138 9.7 15 • 2 .4 153 123 

Collier County I Everglades .......... Mar. 22, 1948 D 4 7.4 142.0 ......... . 01 34 43 204 312 94 245 1.4 2.4 779 262 

Dade County 

Homestead .......... Mar, 31, 1948 D 1 7.2 42.4 ....... .02 80 2.6 L 3 232 11 12 -0 1, 6 228 210 

Miami ............... November 1948 R 80 7.3 ............. 9.0 .9 98 7.1 27 266 37 35 ....... ······· 350 250 

Do ............... ..... do ............ F 23 8.7 9.0 . 02 25 4.0 27 55l 40 35 ....... ....... 190 80 

North Miami ....... Mar. 30, 1948 D 27 7.2 53.7 ....... .04 98 5.2 17 268 30 36 .1 1.2 319 266 

North Miami Beach Mar. 29, 1948 R 17 7.2 51.7 ....... . 08 103 3,8 4,1 280 28 16 .1 .4 293 273 

Do ............... ..... do ............ F 4 10.2 32,9 ....... . 02 43 1. 6 19 10 33 18 .2 . 1 167 114 

Cpa Locka ........... Mar. 30, 1948 R 52 7. 2 37.6 ....... .23 66 4.9 5. 9 196 18 12 .2 1.6 205 185 

Do ............... ..... do ............ F 17 7. 2 40.3 ···~ ... -03 40 4.4 8,9 118 21 12 .2 2,2 147 118 

Glades County IJ 

Moore Haven ....... Mar. 22, 1948 D 4 5,9 42,6 ......... -05 34 1. 7 55 22 145 29 .1 ,8 276 92 

Hendry County ........ 

Clewiston ............ Mar, 22, 1948 D 7 7,4 41,6 ....... -02 46 9,8 L 84 80 38 .2 1.2 243 155 

La Belle ............. Mar, 22, 1948 D 3 7.1 230.0 ....... .09 70 51 352 122 351 480 2,4 1.2 1,370 384 

Martin County 

Hebe Sound ......... Mar. 24, 1948 D 6 7.1 23.3 ....... • 01 39 2.1 19.7 120 5.1 16 .1 .6 132 106 

Indian Town ........ Mai-. 23, 1948 D 13 7.0 16.9 ~ ~····· .12 12 2,7 19 60 -6 22 .0 1.0 87 41 

Stuart ................. Mar, 24, 1948 R 7 6.9 70.1 ·~ ..... . 04 102 4.6 35 224 12 108 . 1 -8 373 273 

Do ................ ...... do ............ F 6 7.0 71.1 . ....... . 01 100 4,5 39 218 14 112 ,1 .5 378 268 

' Monroe County I 

Key West ............ !Apr. 2, 1948 R 1 7.4 38.1 ........ .02 68 2,9 16 222 14 14 ......... .1 224 182 

Do ............... ..... do ............ F 3 7. 2 26.8 ....... .04 44 2.9 ............................... 134 8.8 14 .1 .1 144 122 
0 keechobee County 

Okeechobee •••••••• Mar. 23, 1948 D 3 7. 0 

Pa lm Beach County 

Belle Glade ••••••••• Mar. 22, 1948 D 8 9. 3 

Boca Raton ......... Mar, 25, 1948 R 11 7.4 

Do ............... ..... do ............ F 4 7. 6 

Boynton Beach ..... ..... do ............ D 17 7. 2 

Canal Point ......... Mar. 23, 1948 0 11 6. 5 

Delray Beach ....... Mar. 25, 1948 R 17 7. 3 

Do ............... ..... do ............ F 16 7. 7 

Lake Park. .......... Mar. 24, 1948 D 37 6.9 

Lake Worth ......... Mar. 25, 1948 D 12 7.4 

Lantana .............. ..... do ............ 0 11 7.1 

Pahokee ............. Mar. 22, 1948 0 18 7.9 

Riviera .............. Mar. 25, 1948 0 18 7.2 

West Palm Beach .. ..... do ............ 0 6 7.0 

St. Lucie County 

Fort Pierce .......... Mar. 24, 1948 R' 58 7,1 

Do ............... ..... do ............ ~ 6 9.2 

10, delivered; R , raw; F , finished, 

!JncludBS. equivalent of 5. 0 ppm of COs. 1Sample contained 14 ppm of OH and 33 ppm of C03 'Composite of two wells. 

SApproximately SOCII> surface water; 2~ groWld water. 

25.1 .......... .01 

31.5 ...... .02 

33,5 ........ .18 

33.2 ...... .30 

40.4 ...... .15 

31.0 ....... • 0 

41.5 ....... .05 

40.3 ....... .12 

44.3 ....... • 61 

33.3 ....... • 01 

31.8 ...... .14 

39.4 ........ .03 

36.5 ........ • 05 

15.4 ....... • 02 

64,9 ...... .. 16 

38.9 ...... .02 

30 4,4 10 26 67 17 .1 .1 141 93 

38 4.2 11 52 59 22 .2 1. 0 161 112 

58 2.4 12 174 10 19 .1 .3 187 155 

58 2. 7 10 174 8. 0 19 .1 .4 184 156 

68 2. 6 16 198 20 22 . 1 .2 226 180 

35 9.4 33 86" 73 36 • 0 1.0 230 126 

70 2.3 22 286 12 24 .1 1. 0 272 184 

68 3,1 14 204 12 23 . ....... . 2 221 182 

71 2. 6 46 240 55 24 .0 .1 318 188 

57 2.5 25 164 16 40 • 0 .4 222 152 

54 2.2 11 170 12 20 ,1 • 0 189 144 

54 9,9 15 118 53 39 .1 .1 230 175 

63 2. 6. 28 202 33 21 .1 .1 247 168 

'18 2.5 10 32 22 20 • 0 • 0 88 55 

98 3.3 42 316 5.6 60 ,1 .4 364 258 

38 4.3 43 88 57 52 • 0 • 0 238 112 
832 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

---N-----; ----1 ____ _ ..._ I 

1 

~OKEECHOBEE! ... I "'..- I 

""!....:.. OKEECHOBEE 1 "" ~ I 

_I 

I r--___ j 

I I GLADE 

I ' 

I H E N D 

----, I 

I 

I 

I 

R y I 

I 

I 

I 1- I '---------1 

I 

I 

I 

I 

B 

TAM/AMI 

HARDNESS, IN PARTS 

PER MILLION 

0 

Less than 60 

~ 61 to 120 

() 

121 to 200 

More thon • 200 

10 

D A D 

HOMESTEAD() 

0 40 Miles 

Figure 222, -Map showing hardness of public water supplies in southeastern Florida, 1941. 
QUALITY OF GROUND AND SURFACE WATERS 833 

services and a large part of the water t!Sed by them is obtained 

from private(y owned wells. 

Several Army and Navy air fields and training bases were established during the war along the lower east coast of Florida and 

in the north-central part of the area covered by this report. Existing public supplies furnish water to some of them and others 

have installed their own supplies. Water from public supply systems is also furnished to shipping at Miami, Port Everglades, and 

the Port of Palm Beach. -
APPENDIX 

WELL RECORDS 
Table 116.-Records of wells in :Jrowacd County co 

w 

m [See plates 19 and 20) 

Eievation 

Depth (measuring Water-level Chemical 

Well no General location Map location (feet) Measuring point ·point re- measurements! analyses Use Remarks 

ferred to 

m.s.l.) 

F 292 Hollywood PI. 20D6 72 Lip of hydrant 12.13 ....................... Table 105 F 

F 294 .......... do ...................... ...... do, ......... 133 • •••••• do •••••••••••• 16.08 ........................... ...... do ......... F 

G 184 w. of Hollywood PI. 20A6 300 ........................... ~ ·······8····· . ..................... ••••• do ......... T Well log, table 126. 

G 190 NW. of Fort Lauderdale Pl. 19 F4 225 ......................... ............. . ...................... ..... do ......... T Do. ~ G 191 w. of Hollywood PI. 19 G5 204 ..... do ......... T Do • ::cl ....................... .............. . ...................... G 219 NW. of Pennsuco PI. 19 G5 205 ........................ ············· . ..................... ..... do ......... T Well log, table 126, pis. 5, 9. 1ll 

G 220 W. of F oct Lauderdale ...... do ... ~ ...... 200 ....................... ............. ..................... ..... do ......... T Well log, table 126. 

G 221 Fort Lauderdale Pi. 20 C4; 330 "' .......................... ............. . ................... ..... do ......... T Do. 

~ fig. 211 

G 261 NW. of Pennsuco Pl. 19 F5 26 .......................... .................. ·····~············· ..... do ......... T 

G 262 .......... do ....................... ...... do .......... 34 ....................... ............... .................... ..... do ......... T 

G "' 263 •••••••••• do ....................... ...... do .......... 20 ...................... ................ ..................... ..... do ......... T !Z! G 264 .......... do ....................... PI. 19 F4 31 .......................... .............. .................... ..... do ......... T 

G 269 .......... do ....................... PI • 19 G5 20 Top d casing ..... do ......... T "' ................. .................... g G 340 •••••••••• do ....................... ...... do .......... 8 .......................... .............. ..................... ..... do ......... T 

G 341 .......... do ....................... ...... do .......... 34 ......................... ............. ...................... ..... do ......... T Well log, table 126. 

G 

G 342 

343 •••••••••• 

.......... do, 

do, 

...................... 

...................... 

...... 

...... <lo 

do .......... 

.......... 

11 

4 ....................... 

........................... ................. ................. ...................... 

··············-··· ..... 

..... do 

do 

......... 

......... 

T 

T ~ G 344 ••••••••• ,do ....................... ...... do .......... 11 ........................ .............. ....................... ..... do, ........ T "' 

~ G 345 .......... do ....................... ...... do .......... 10 ...................... .................. ... .................... ..... do ......... T 

G 347 .......... do ....................... S! ...... do .......... 5 .......................... ..... , ......... . ...................... ..... do ......... T 

G 512 F oct Lauderdale PI. 20 C5; 175 ............................ ................... .. .............................. Chlol'ide log, ········ ~······ Well log, table 126. i fig. 211 pl. 18 

G 513 .......... do ....................... PI. 20, C4; 224 ................................. ............... ......................... ..... do ......... . ................ Do • fig. 211 

G 515 .......... do ....................... Pl. 20 C4; 211 ............................ .................... ..................... .. ... do ......... . ................. Do • fig. 211 

G 516 .......... do ....................... Pl. 20 04; 200 ......................... ................ ....................... ..... do ......... . ................. Do • fig, 211 

GS 1 w. of Fort Lauderdale Pl. 19 G5 55 .......................... ................ . .................. Table 105 T Well log, table 126, 

GS 9 W. of Deerfield PI. 22 G4 52 ......................... .............. ....................... .. ••• do ......... T Do. 

GS 10 w. of Hammondville PI. 20 B1 50 .......................... ............... . .................... ..... do ......... T Do. 

GS 13 NW. of Pennsuco PI. 19 F5 50 ............................ ............. . ..................... ..... do ......... . T Do. 

GS 15 w. of Deerfield PI. 19 F4 20 ............................ ············· . ...................... ..... do ......... T Do • 
s 329 F on Lauder<ble Pl. 20 C4 68 Top of casing 10.42 W.S.P. 1017 .................... 0 Hydrographs, sect. on Ground 

Water. 

s 330 w. of Dania Pl. 20 D5 35 ••••••• do •••••••••••• 'h_:ll •••••• do •••••••••• ················· T a~d 0 

s 332 Hollywood Pl. 20 D 6 70 ......................... ................ ..................... Avail~biel PS 

s 336 Oakland Park Pl. 20 E3 61 ........................ .............. ....................... ••••• do ••••••••• u 

s 337 •••••••••• do •••••••••••••••••••••• •••••• do •••••••••• 72 ........................ .............. ........................ ••••• do ••••••••• Irr • s 340 Pompano PI. 20El 180 ........................ ............... .................... ••••• do •.••••••• PS 

s 341 .......... do ...................... •••••• do .......... 189 ............................ .............. . ................... ..... do ••••••••• Ind • s 342 Deerfield Beach Pl. 19 B4 l2 .......................... ............. ·~················· ••••• do •• : •••••• PS 

s 366- Fort Lauderdale Pl. 20 C4 100 ......................... ............. ··················· ••••• do ••••••••• PS 

369 

s 372 Pompano Pl. 20 D1 120 ......................... .............. ....................... ••••• do ••••••••• Dom • s 393 Dania Pl. 20E5 103 ............................. .................. ....................... ••••• do ••••••••• PS 

s 427 Davie Pl. 20 C6 103 .................... 4 ••••• ............... ..................... ••••• do ••••••••• Irr • Well Jog, table 126. 

s 428 •••••••••• do ••••••••••••••••••••••• •••••• do •••••••••• 100 ............................ ............... .. ....................... ..... do ••••••••• Irr. Do • s 440 •••••••••• do ....................... ...... do •••••••••• 53 .............................. 4 .............. . ........................... ••••• do ••••••••• Irr. Do • s 441 ............. do ..................... , ........ ...... do .......... 53 ........................... ................ .. ....................... • .... do ••••••••• Irr. Do • s 452 s. of Davie Pl. 20 C7 52 ............................. ............... ........................ ..... do ••••••••• Irr. Do • s 454 .......... do ....................... ...... do •••••••••• 100 ......................... ................ .......................... ..... do ••••••••• Irr. Do • s 455 .......... do ....................... PI. 20 C6 79 .......................... ............... . ....................... ••••• do ......... Irr • Do. 

s 463 .......... do ....................... Pl. 20 C7 67 ............................. ..................... .. ..................... ••••• do ......... Irr • Do. 

lU. S. Geol, Survey Water-Supply Paper, 

ZF, fire; T, test; 0, observation; PS, public supply; U, unused; 1rr. , irrigation; Ind. , industrial; Dom. , domestic. 

ISection on •Quality of ground and surface water.~ · 
Table 117.-Records of wells in Collier County 

c 4 

Cll 

c 12 

c 13 

c 14 

c 15 

c 16 

c 17 

c 18 

c 19 

C 2n 

c 21 

c 22 

c 36 

c 37 

C43 

General lee a tion 

Everglades 

Kice's Island 

S. of Caxambas 

Caxambas 

••••.••• do ••••••••••••••••• 

•••••••• do ••••••••••••••••• •••••••• do ••••••••••••••••. Collier County 

Marco Isle 

•••• , ... do ............... ,, 

........ do ............... .. 

N. of Immokalee· 

........ do ................ . Ochopee 

Immokalee 

S. of Caxambas 

Map location 

Depth 

(feet) 

Pl. 19, 06 521 

PI. 19,·c6 ............. .. 

...... do............... 15 ...... do............... ann ...... do............... 376 

...... do............... 13 

...... do............... 1 

...... do,.............. 22 

...... do ............................. .. 

...... do............... 9nO ...... do............... 12 

Pl. 19, 04 566 

...... do............... 845 

PI. 19, 06 446 

Pl. 19, 04 590 

PI. 19, C6 12 

lU. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper. tPS, public supply; U, wtused; Dom,, domestic; T, test. 

IS ection on •Quaii ty of ground and surface water. n 

[See pia te 19-) 

Measuring 

point 

.......................... 

........................ 

.......................... 

.......................... 

........................ 

. ........................ 

......................... 

........................... 

............................ JO 

....................... 

......................... 

........... ~ .............. ..................... 

............................ 

.......................... 

.......................... 

Elevation 

(measwing 

point referred to 

m, s •. l.) 

............................ 

........................... 

............................. 

............................. 

.............................. 

............................ 

............................ 

............................ 

............................. 

............................... 

............................ 

............................ 

......................... 

........................... 

........................... 

............................ 

Water-level 

measurementsl 

............................ 

................................... 

............................ 

............................... 

............................... 

. .................................... 

................................ 

................................... 

.................................... 

................................... 

. ................................... 

.............................. 

.. ................................. 

.......... ,., ...................... ............................... 

................................. 

Chemical 

analyses 

Availablel 

..... do .......... 

..... do .......... 

..... do .......... 

..... do .......... 

..... do .......... ..... do .......... ..... do .......... 

..... do .......... 

..... do .......... ..... do .......... 

..... do .......... 

..... do .......... ..... do .......... ..... do .......... 

..... do .......... 

Use! 

PS 

u 

Dom • 

u 

Oom • Dom, 

PS 

Dom. 

Dom • 

Dom. 

T 

T 

Dom. 

Dom • 

Dom. 

Remarks 

co 

c.,) 

co 
Table 118.-Record's ol wells in Dade Cou!lty 

{See plates 19, 21, 22, and 23] 

Elevation 

Well General Map Depth Measuring (measuring point Water-level Chemical Usel Remarks .. .. no • location location (feet) point referred to measurements!. analyses 

~ m.s.I.) 

:! 

:) D 196 Coral -Gables ....................... PI. 21B9 225 ....................... ................................ ......................... .................... Ind. Well log, table 127. 

I D 350 Silver Bluff ••• ................... Pl. 22C9 .93 ....................... ........................... -...... .......................... Chloride log . ......... !Figs. 205, 206, 

"' "' fig. 206. 

I F 1 ..... .Miami Springs •••• - •••••• _ Pl. 22E4 52 Lip of hydrant.. 8,'11 w.s.P •. 1o11 Availablea ••• F !chloride graph, fig. 192, I F 2 ...... ••••••••••••••• do •• _ •• _ •••••• Pl. 22E5 '13 ••••••••• do •••••••• 9,10 • •••••••• do •••• - .... • •••••• do •••••• F Do. "' "' F 3 ••••• •••••••••••••••do •••••••••••••• ••••••• do ........ 48 ••••••••• do •••••••• '1,35 •••• · ...... do .......... • •••••• do •••••• F Do. 

F 4 ...... ·····-········do. ........... _ . ........ do ••••••• 68 ............ do ......... 9, 25 • ......... do ............. .. ........ do ••• -. F 

F 5 ....... ··-···········do ............... ........ do ........ 53 ............. do .......... 8.39 • ......... do ••••••••• • ....... do.. ••••• F 

F 6 ....... ·····-·······-do. ............. Pl. 22 E6 48 .......... do .......... 9.16 ··-·····do. ......... • •••••• do •••••• F 

F '1 ..... ••••••••••••••• do •••••••••• _ •• Pl. 22F6 55 • •••••••• do •••••••• '1.91 ••••••••• do ........... • ........ do. ••••• F 

F 

F 9 

s ..... 

....... .................. 

•••••••••••••••do-••••••••-•• 

do... ............... Pl. 

........ 22E6 do-...... 49 

55 

.......... 

•••••-••do 

do. ......... •••• _. 8.19 

7,56 ........... 

• ........... do 

do .......... 

••••••••• 

........ 

• •••••• 

do 

do. 

....... 

••••• F 

F ~ F 10 ...... ••••••••••••••• do ............... ......... do ....... 81 ·-·•••••do .......... 8,22 ........... do .......... ........ do ....... F 

F 11 ..... -······· .. ····do ................. .......... do.-··· 59 ......... ~do. ..... _. 8.92 • •••••••• do ...... _,._ • •••••• do ........ F ~ F 12 ...... ••••••••••··-..do •••• - ......... Pl. 22 C5 5'1 ····-···do ......... 10.10 .......... do .......... j.... ...... do ....... F 

F 13 ......... ................. do ................ .......... do_,. ..... '13 ........... do •••••••• 9.84 .......... do .......... .. ....... do. •• -. F ~ F 14 ••••• ................ do. ................ Pl. 2285 60 ••••••••• do •••••••• 9,89 -·····-do. ......... ••••••• do. ••••• F tl> 

F 15 ..... ............... _do •••••••••••••• · Pl. 22 B6 73 .......... do ......... 9.21 .......... do. ......... .......... do. ...... F 

F 18 ..... (')JJa. Locka ..................... Pl. 21C4 53 .......... do ... , ••••• 10.68 • •••••••• do .......... . ..................... F 

F 22 ••••• •••••••••••••••do •••••••••••••• ........... do •••••• 96 .......... do ......... 10.14 .......... do ••••••••• ····-·········· 

F 

F 25 ...... ................... do •••••••••••••• .......... do •••••• 100 ........... do ......... 10.04 • ....... ~.do ........... ·-············· 

F 

F 53 ..... Miami ........................... Pl. 21D6 110 ........... do .......... 14.89 . .......... oo ..•.....• Available' F 

F 62 ..... .................. do .................. PI. 21D'1 83 .......... do. ........ 13,26 • .......... do ••••••••• • ........ «<a. ....... F 

F 64 ••••• ••••••••••••••• do ............... ......... do ......... 114 .......... do.. ••••••• 13,'1'1 •••••••• .do ........... ......... do •••••• F 

F 69,. ... ·····-········do ................ ., ..... , •• do ........ 82 ••••••••• do •••••••• 12.09 ••••••••• do. ......... A:;ii~bi~·i·· F 

F so ..... •••••••••••••••do ......... _ •••• Pl. 21.D8 95 ............... oo ......... 8,13 . ........................ F 

F as ...... ................. do .................. Pl. 21D6 59 ............. do .......... 13,89 . ....................... ........ do •••••• F 

F 102 ....... ................ do. ••••••••••••• Pl. 21C8 119 ........................ .............................. ....................... ........... do. ...... F 

F 109····· .................. do ••• ,. ........... Pl. 21C6 51 Lip of hydrant .. 11.20 w.s.P. 1017 ••••••• do ....... r 

F 112. .... ................. do ................ PI, 21C'1 68 ............ do ......... 11,28 • ••••••••• do. ••••••• ..................... F 

F 11'1 ..... .................... do ................. Pl. 21C8 55 .......... do .......... 8.35 • ••••••••• do •••••••• Available' F 

F 120. •••• .................. do ............... -···-do ••••••• 120 .......................... ............................... ........................... .. •••••• do ........ F 

F 124. .... ••••••••••••••• do ............... ........ do. ........ 8'1 Up of hydrant.. .12, '/3 W.S.P. 101'1 .................... F co 

F 131. •••• ................ do ................ .......... do .......... 50 ................ -..... ............................. ........................... Available' F to>) 

co 
Table 118.-Records of wells in .Dade County-Continued co 

of>. 

0 

Elevation 

Well General Map Depth Measuring (measuring point Water-level Chemical Use2 Remarks no. ·location location (feet) point referred to measurementl analyses m.s.1,) 

F 131 ..... .................. do ............... Pl • 21D9 88 Lip of hydrant, •• ll. 79 W.S.P. 1017 .................. F 

F 146.,. ... Miami .......................... Pl. 21C9 108 Lip of hydrant,., 9.73 ............................ . ................... F Chloride graph, sect, on salt- water encroachment, 

F 147 ..... ................ do.. ••••••••••••• · ........ do ••••••• 66 •••••••• do .......... 11.80 ......................... F Do, ~ F 152. .... ................ ® ................ ....... do. ...... 990 ........................ ........................... .•.....•..... ,. ........ A-~~bi;;u F Flowing artesian well, ~ F 155.. •••• •••••••••••••••do ••• - .......... ........ do ••••••• 60 Lip of hydrant ... 8.48 w.s.P. 1017 ••• ,.. ••• do •••••• F ::0 

F 156. .... •••••••••••••••do ••• -••••••••• ....... do ••••••• 90 • ..... _ .... do •••••••••• 13,75 ...................... , .... ........................ F Chloride graph, sect, on salt- water enroachment. ~ 

~ F 158 ..... ................. do •••••••••••••• ·Pl •. 21 C10 83 ........... do ............. 13,72 ............................... AvaUabJel F 

F 16.0 ..... .......... - ••• do ............... .. ~ .... do. ...... 64 •••••• _do,. •• _ •••• 16.19 ............................ .................. F Chloride graph, sect, on saltwater encroachment. 

F 162 ..... ·········-···do ............... Pl. 21C9 74 ....... do •••••••••• 12.29 ......................... ................... F Do. 

F 163 ..... ••••••••••••••do .......... - ...... ....... do. ...... 62 ........ do. •• _ ...... 14.81 ........................... ..................... F Do • "' 

F 2! 164 ..... •••••••••••••• do-••••••••••••••• ••••• __ do ••••••• 78 .••••••• do ............ 14.70 ............................. ................... F Do. 

F 165 ..... ............... do ••••••••••••••• ••••••• do ........ 61 ••••••• do.. ............ 9.70 ............................... F Do, "' F 168 ..... ..................... do ................. ........ do ........ 107 ........ do.. ........... 13,57 ................................. A~ii~bi~s·· F g 

F 172 ..... ....... _ ....... do ••••••••••••••• ••••••• do ........ : 87 ••••••• do •••••••••• 14 .. 18 ............................. ......... do. •••••• F 

F 

F 173 

174 ••••• 

..... ········-····do 

.................... do ............ ................ _ .. ••••••• 

······~do. do ••••••• ....... 60 

6.7 ·-····do 

........ do 

.............. 

..... _ •••• 11,45 

14,67 •••!I••··············· w.s.P. 1017 ....... 

........ do. 

do. ...... 

•••••• F 

F Chloride graph, sect, on salt- ~ F 179 ..... ........... _ ••• do ................ ••••••• do. ....... 77 Top of casing,., 11.17 water encroachment. "' 

~ ••••••••• do ••••••••• ...................... 0 Hydrograph, fig. 39; graph, 

fig. 54; 175. ~ F 186 ....... ............... do ........... - ..... PI . 21A9 63 Lip of hydrant,., 13.90 ......... do. ........ AvaUableB F ... F 188 ........ ................. do. ............... Pl. 21C10 115 ·-····do. .... _ ...... 18,50 ........................... ••••••• do ........ F 6 F 192 ..... ~ .............. ·.oo ................... Pl. 21C9 76. ........ do ............. 12.56 ........................... ......................... F Chloride graph, sect. on salt- i!! water encroachment, 

F 198 ..... .................. do ................. ........ do. ........ 6.1 ••••••• do. ••••••••• 13,79 ....................... . ................... F Do, ~ F 202 ..... .................. do ................. Pl. 21C10 62 ........ do •••••••••• 17.89 ............................. Available3 F Do, 

F 2<15,,.;. ••••••••••••••do ••••••••••••••• Pl. 2106 50 ••••••• do. •••••••• 12.19 .. ........................ ••••••• do ••••••• F 

F 2~o ••••• •••••••••••••• do. ................ ........................ 112 Top of casing., 10,77 w.s.P. 1017 .. ................... 0 Hydrograph, fig. 39; graph, 

Lip of hydr.i~t. .. 

fig, 54. 

F 212 ..... •••••••••••••• do ................. Pl. 2185 53 11.00 .. ....................... Availab1e3 F 

F 2:1.3, .... •••••••••••••• do ••••••••••• _ •• Pl. 21 C10 69 Top of casing,., 18.38 w.s.P. 1011 ................ ~ 0 

F 214 ........ .••••••••••••• do. ................. Pl. 2107 117 Lip of hydrant. .. 13.49 ••••••• do .......... ........................ F 

F 218 ...... ••••••••••••••do ................ Pl. 2106 123 ........ d.O. ........ ~. 11.99 • •••••• do •••• ,. •••• A·;;;ibblel .... F 

..1: 219 ........ ................. do..-·-······ ... .......... do ........ 90 ••••••• do ........... 13,02 ......................... F 
F 223 ••••• ................ do,., ............... .......... do ....... 49 • ••••• .do ............ 10.11 ........................ ••••••• do ••••••• F 

F 225 ••••• ••••••••••••••do ................... •••••••• do •••••• 70 .......... ·do •••••••••• 10.59 .s.P. 1017 ........ do ••••••• F 

F 226 ..... .............. do ••••••••••••••• PI. 21 E6 86 • ._ ••• do ............ 19,52 •••••• do ........ • ........ do ••••••• F 

F 228 ••••• ........................................ PI, 21 E5 114 Lip of hydrant ... 15,99 .s.P. 1017 Available3,., F 

F 233 ..... .............. do ............... Pi, 21 cs 49 ••••••• do ••••••••••• 12,34 •••••• do •••••••• • ....... do.~ ......... F 

F 234 ..... ................... do ••••••••••••••• Pl. 21 C7 45 •••••••• do •••••••••• 7,87 • ••••• do •••••••• .................... F 

F 235, •••• Hialeah •••••••••••••••••••••• PI, 22 H6 57 ••••••• do •••••••••• 10.83 ...... do ........ Available3 •• F 

F 236 ..... -

:::::::::::::::d~:::::::::::::: PI. 22G5 59 ip of hydrant .... -9.65 W.S.P, Tin7 ................ F 

F 237 ..... •••• :.do ....... 55 ......... do .......... 9. 77 •• : ...... do •••••••• .................. F 

F 238 ••••• ............... do, ............. Pl. 22 F2 57 ••••••••• do •••••••••• 10.29 ......... do ......... .................... F 

F 239 ..... ............... do .............. ··-··do .......... 53 •••••••• ,do ........... 10,50 • •••••• -•• do ••••••••• ....................... F 

F 240 ..... ............... do •••• ~ ••••••••• PI. 21B6 60 .. •••••• ,do .......... 10,55 .. ...... ,do ......... .................... F 

F 243 ..... .............. ,do .............. PI. 21 B5 65 • •••••••• do ............ 11,38 • ........ do, ....... ................... F 

F 245 ..... •••••••••••••••do ................. ...... do ........ 93 .. ••••••• do .......... 11,09 • ........ do •••••••• AvaitableS F 

F 246 ..... ............... _.do ............... ...... do •••••••• 61 • •••••••• do .......... 10,75 ......... do ........ .................... F 

F.248 ••••• ............... do, ••••••••••••• •••••• do, ....... 56 ......... do,, ........ 10.28 .. ....................... Available3 F 

F 253 ..... ............... do .............. Pl. 21 A6 47 ........... do ............. 9.27 W.S.P. 1017 ..................... F 

F 257,. ... ............ , •• do .............. Pl. 21 B6 58 •• .-... ;.,do .......... 9,69 ......... do ......... ................. F 

F 260., ... ................ do ............... Pl. 22 E1 51 • ........ do .......... 10,22 • ........ do, ••••••• ..................... F 

~ F 261 ..... ............... do .............. Pl. 22 F3 53 • •••••••• do .......... 9.69 ......... do •••••••• A ;,;i i;t;i~s · F F 263., ... .......... ; •••• do .............. PI. 22 E4 102 • ........ do .......... 9,85 • ........ do ......... F 

F 264 ..... ........... · •••• do~ ............. Pl. 22 E2 54 .. ....... do .......... 9.65 • ........ do ......... .................. F "' F 265 ..... ............... do. ............. ...... do ....... 53 ......... do .......... 10.34 • ........ do ......... i:;;ii;i;i:,;'" F Pi F 266 ..... ••••••••••••••• do .............. PI, 22El 45 ......... do .......... 10,31 • ........ do ......... F 

F 

F 

268 

270 

..... 

..... ............... ............... 

do. 

do ............... 

............. Pl. 

Pl. 

22E3 

22 E2 

55 

52 ••••••••. 

• ......... 

do 

do 

••.••••••• 

•••••••••• 

8.48 

8,80 ......... 

.......... do 

do, .......... ••••••• .................. 

. ••••• do, •.••• F 

F (II 

~ F 271 ••••• ............... ·do •••••••••••••• ....... do ........ 48 ; •••••••• do .......... 9,96 • ........ do ......... ................... F 

F 273 ..... North Miami ............... Pl. 21E4 73 ......... do .......... 14.86 ......... do ......... ................. F 

F _275 ..... · ................. do •.••• ~ ......... ........ do ......... 52 ........................... ............................. . ......................... Available3 F 

F 279 ••••• .............. ;do .............. ...... do ••••••• 117 Lip of hydrant ••• 9,40 w.s.P. 1011 ................... F 

F 281 ..... ............... do •••••••••••••• •••••• do ........ 63 ........... do ............. s.n • .......... do, •••••••. .................. F 

·r 283,. ••• .............. ·.do, ............. PI. 21 03 69 ••••••••• do .......... 10,70 • •••••••• do ••••••••• .................... F 

F 284 ..... ............... .;.do ................. Pl. 21 04 59 • •••••••• do ......... 13,28 •••.••••• do .......... Available3 F 

F 288 ..... N. Miami Beach .......... Pl. 21.03 63 • •••••••• do ......... 10.89 • ........ do~······t• A~"rlhi:i:,;·· F 

F 296 ..... •••••••••••••••do., ............. PI. 21F4 47 .......... do ••••••••• 11.70 .. ....... do ••••••••• F 

F 297., ••• North Miami ................ Pl. 21 E4 85 ........... do .......... 10,64 ......... do ......... •••••• do •••.•• F 

F 299 ••••• Biscayne Park. ............. Pl. 21 E5 204 ...... '!' •••• do ........... 9.60 • ......... do .......... ...... do ...... F 

F 300, •••• N. Miami Beach. ......... Pl. 21E3 91 • ••.••••. do ••••••••• 12,44 • .......... do ......... •••••• do •• , ••• F 

F 301 ..... Coral Gables ............... Pl. 21 B9 57 ............................. ................................ ........................ •••••• do •••••• F 

F 302 ..... •••••••••••••••do ............. ....... do ........ 19 Lip of hydrant. •• 11,33 w.s.P. 1011 A;.;ibbi~S ... F 

F 304 ..... ••••••••••••••• do ••••.•••••••• •••••• do ••••••• 18 .............................. ............................. ......................... F 

CP 

""' ..... 
Table 118.-Records of wells in Dade ~ty-Continued cc 

~ 

N 

Elevation 

Well General Map Depth Measuring (measuring point Water -!eve I Chemical Use2 Remarks no. location location {feet) point referred to measurement! analyses 

m.s.l.) 

F 307 •••• • ••••••••••••• do •••••••••••••• PI. 21 B10 18 Lip of hydrant,,, 14,40 W.S.P. 1017 •• ., ••• do ...... F 

F 309 .... • .............. do ................ PI. 21 B9 14 ......... do ......... 11,80 ......... do ........ ...... do ..... F 

F 310-.. • ................ do ............... •••••• do ........ 18 ••••••••• do ••••••••• 11,30 .. ....... do ........ ................. F 

F 317 .... • ............... do •••••••••••••• •••••• do ......... 16 ......... do ......... 11,05 • ......... do.. ••••••• .................. F ~ F 319 .... South Miami .............. Pl. 21All 14 See remarks, .... 11,12 .. ....... d<> ........ .................... 0 Top of concrete cover. ~ F 322 .... .. .............. do ................ Pl. 21 A10 15 .. ....... do ......... 14,02 ......... do ........ ................ F Do, ::<1 

F 331 .... ............... do ............... Pl. 22D54 11 • ........ do, ........ 9,72 ......... do ........ .................. F Do. E F 332 .... Hialeah ..................... Pl. 22 D2 79 Lip of hydrant ... 8. 76 .......... do ......... .................. F 

F 334 .... Homestead. ................ PI. 23 C57 37 ........... do ••••••••• 11.51 .. ; ...... do ........ .................. F g F 358 .... •• · ............. do ............ ~ •• Pl. 23 B 57 54 Top of casing ... 10.66 ......... do ........ . ............... 0 

F 364 .... •••••••••••••• do ............... ....... do •••••• 33 Up of hydrant. .. 11,99 • ............ do ........ ~ 

A~'::ii~bi~· F 

F 378 .... Florida City .................. ••• ...... do •••••• 24 Top of casing ... 9,14 • ......... do ......... 0 ~ F 379,. .. Naranja ........................... Pl. 23 C56 .21 Up of hydrant. .. 12,27 .......... do. ........ • ••••• do. ...... F "' 

F 380 .... Princeton ..................... ....... do ......... 20 • •••••••• do .......... 13,34 ............ do •••••••• . ................ F z 

F 381 .... ................... do .................. •••••• do ........ 18 See remarks. .... 12,92 .......... do •••••••• ············- F Top of concrete cover, F 384 .... w. of Goulds. "' ............. ........ do ........ 15 • •••••••• do •••••••• 10.94 ••••••••• do ......... ................ F Do, 0 

c: F 385, ... Goulds ......................... ........ do ••••••• 18 • ........ do ........ 11,32 ............ do. ........ ................... F Do, 

~ F 387 .... SW of Florida City ...... Pl. 23 A58 9 Top of casing ... 6,24 • •••••••• do. ........ ............... F 

F 393 .... Miami Springs •••••••••••• Pl. 22E5 55 Up of hydrant ... 7,20 • ......... do .......... ................... F 

F,3!14,_. ••••••••••••••do ............... •••••• do ........ 81 .......... do •.•••••• 8,14 • ......... do •••••••• F "' ............... F 396 .... ................. do ................. Pl. 22 A5 53 ••••••••• do:. ••••••• 7.66 ......... do ........ ............... F ~ F 397 .... ••••••••••••••do ............... Pl. 22A6 55 ........... do •••••••• 8,59 • •••••••• do .......... ................ F ~ F 398 .... ···-·········do ................ • ...... do ••••••• 48 ••••••••• do ......... 8,75 .. ....... do. ....... .......... ,. ..... F 

~ F 399 .... • .............. do ................. •••••• do ........ 52 ••••••••• do •••••••• 9,54 .. ....... do. ....... ................. F 

G 2 •••• • ......... ~ •••• do •••••••••••••• PI. 22B3 8 Top of casing ... 4,37 ••••••••• do ......... .................... 0 

G a ...• •••••••••••••• do-•••••••••••• Pl. 22 A2 9 .......... do ......... 8,08 .......... do. ••••••• ...................... 0 Hydrograph, fig. 38 • ~ 

G 4-...... ····-········do ......... -.... PI. 22 A3 9 ••••••.•• do •• .-••••• 6,42 ·-······do ........ ..................... 0 ~ G s .... • •••••••••••• ..do •••••••••••••• Pl. 22 B2 8 ......... do ........ 5,33 .......... do •.•••••• ············- 0 

G 6 .... •••••••••••••• do .............. Pl. 22B3 11 ••••••••• do. ••••••• 8.87 .......... do. ••.•••• ............... 0 

G 7 ..... • .... .;. ••••••••• do-.......... - ••• PI, 22D6 10 ••••••••• do. ••••••• 10,33 ••••••••• do •••••••• .................. 0 

G a •.•• .. .............. do •••••••••••••• PI, 22 B7 11 ••••••••• do.. •••••• 10.31 • •••••••• do •••••••• .................. 0 

G 9 ...... w. of Miami .............. PI, 22D54 6 .. ....... do ........ 7,91 ••••••••• do •••••••• . ............... 0 

G 10 .... ········-····do·······-····· ........ do ........ 6 • ......... do ......... 8,32 ......... do ........ ............... 0 Hydrograph, fig • 38. 

G 11 .... • ••••••••.•••• do ............... •••••• do •••••• 7 ••••••••• do •••••••• 9,45 ••••••••• do.-........ . ............... 0 

G 12 .... w. of Miami Springs .... Pl. 2l.A7 10 ··-•••••do •••••••• 7,18 .......... do ......... ............... 0 

~ 15 .... s. of Miami Springs ..... PI. 21B7 10 ········.:--~··!····· 6,66 ••••••••• do. ••••••• .................... 0 
G 18 •••• E. of rtmestead,,,,,,,,, PI, 23C57 6 • ......... do •••••••• 3,19 ........... do ......... ..................... 0 

G 20 .... S, of lorida City ........ Pl. 23C58 7 ••••••••• do ......... 5,06 ............................ Availablel 0 

G 21.,,, ............... do ................ Pl. 23C57 9 ••••••••• do ......... 5.27 ............................ •••••• do ....... 0 

G 22,,,, ......... -.. ...... do •••.•••••••••• Pl. 23 B58 9 ••••• ~ ••• do,,,,,,,, 4,96 ·····-············· •••••• do ...... 0 

G 23,,,, w. of Peters ............... Pl. 23 B55 8 • ......... do •••••••• 10,72 W. S.P. 1017 ............... 0 

G 24 •••• •••••••••••••• do ............... ....,.do •••••••• 8 • •••••••• do •••••••• 10.88 ••••••••• do,,,,,,,, ................ 0 

G 25.,,, ••••••••••••••do.,.. •••••••••••• ••.••• do ....... 9 ••••••••• do •••••••• 9.88 ........... do ......... ................ 0 

G 28 .... • ••••••••••••• do •••••••••••••• •••••• do •••••• 9 • •••• ,. ••• do ......... 9,91} • ......... do •••••••• .................... 0 

G 36., ... w. of Coral Gables. ...... Pl. 23 054 10 Tcp of casing,. 8.68 w.s.P. 11}17 .. .,. ................ 0 

G 38., ... E. of Naranja ................ Pl. 23C57 8 • ....... do ............ 6.42 .......... do ••••••••• ..................... 0 

G 39 ..... w. of Coral Gables., ..... Pl. 23 054 6 • •••••• do ...... _ ••• 10.08 ••••••••• do ••••••••• A;:ib.j;i~~· 0 

G 42' ....... s. of N. Miami Beach.,. Pl. 21 F3 14 ••••••• do ••••••••• 12.40 ............. ,.. .. ,.. ............ 0 

G 48 ..... Coconut Grove ............... PI. 21C9 13 • •••••• do ••••••••• 10.28 ........................ ....... do. ...... 0 

G 66 ...... w. of Florida City ........ PI. 23 B57 9 ··-···do .......... 7.82 W.S.P. 1017 

······-······· 0 

G 67 ..... w. of Rockdale .......... u PI, 23055 12 • ....... do •••••• ., •• 11,04 -·······-do .......... ..................... 0 

G 69 ..... NW of Pennsuco ........... PI, 23C52 5 • •••••• do ••••••••• 8,44 ··-·••••do ........... ................... 0 

G 70., ... ................. do ................ •••••• do ........ 4 • ........ do_ •• _ ••• 9.40 ............ do ••••••••• ................. 0 

G 71 ..... ............... do ............... •••••• do ......... 6 • ...... do.. ....... 9,6ll ··-·····do ........... ................. 0 

G 72 ...... ................. do ............... ....... oo ......... 5 • ••••• ..do .......... 1G,G2 ••••••••• do ••••••••• .................... 0 Hydrograph, figj. 38, 48, 52. 

~ G 82 ..... Opa Loc.ka. .................... Pl. 21C3 8 • ....... do ••• - •••• 8,72 • ........... do ••••••••• ................. 0 

G 83 ..... ............... do ................ Pl. 21C4 7 • •••••• do •• -·-·· 5,94 .......... do ••••••••• .................... 0 

G 86., ... s. of -Qpa Locka ••• "" •••••• Pl. 21C5 9 .~ ...... do ••••••••• 8.35 .......... do .......... ··-··········· 0 Hydrograph fig. 49; graph. fig, 

G 101.,.,, w. of Miami ................. PI, 23054 812 ........................ .............................. .......................... Available' T Well log, table 127; pls, 5, 6, "' ~ 

9; p. 99. 0 

6.86 "' G 11}3,.,., N. of Opa Locka.,.,., ... , PI, 21C5 7 Top of casing .. W.S.P. 11}17 ................ 0 0 

G 105,.,,. Opa L<x-ka. .................... Pl. 2184 6 • •••••• do. •••••••• 5,65 • ........ do.,, ...... 0 (II 

................. G 1G7., .. , Miami .......................... Pl. 21 E6 14 • ....... do ••••••••• 14.81 .......... do •• ,. •••••• ................. 0 

G 108.,.,, ··········-···do.. .............. •••••• do ........ 8 ......... do .......... 7.44 .......... do .......... ...................... 0 

G 11}9.,.,, ................ do. ............... Pl. 2106 13 ........ do.. ......... 12.21 ............ do ........... ................. 0 

G no .... ; •••••••••••••••do ................. Pl. 21C7 11 .. ..... do ... , ..... 8,28 ......... do ......... ············-· 0 

G 111.,,., •••••••••••••••do •••••••••••••• Pl. 21C6 15 ••• ,. .... do ••••••••• 9,72 ......... do, ........ .................. 0 

G 112.,.,, .................. do ................... Pl. 2107 18 ........ ,.d9········· 17.42 .. ....... do ......... ..................... 0 

G 113 ..... • .............. do ............. Pl. 2107 19 ••••••• do ••••••••• 14,07 • •••••••• do ••••••••• .................... 0 

G 114.,.,, ................... -do ............ ,.. •• PI, 2108 15 ........ do ••••••••• 14.62 ••••••••• do .......... ..................... 0 

G 115,., .. .................... do ................ ........ do ........ 13 • ....... do ••••••••• 12.80 • ......... do ••••••••• ................... 0 

G 116,.,,. •••••••••••-••do ................ ....... do ........ 17 ••••••• do ••••••••• 17,31 .......... do ••••••••• .................. ,.. 0 

G 117 ..... .................. do ............... •••••. do •••••••• 12 ••••••• do ••••••••• 9, 64 •.••••••• do .......... .................... 0 

G 11!! ..... ................ do ................. PI, 21 C7 15 •••·-·do .......... 10.90 • .......... do ••••••••• ................... 0 

G 119 ..... ................ do, .............. Pl. 2108 13 ••••.•• do .......... 13.81 • ......... do ••••••••• ................. 0 

G 120.,.,, ................ do ................. ...... do ....... 11} ........ do .......... -5.64 • .... , ... do ......... ................ 0 

G 121.,.,, ................ do ................. ...... do ....... 11 • •••.•• do .......... 11,61} ••••••••• do ••.••••.• ................ 0 co 

G 122 ..... .................. do. .............. Pl, 2109 17 ••••••• do ••••••••• 18.34 ............ do ••••••••• 0 "" ................ c.> 
Well 

no, General 

location 

G 123.,, •••••• ; ••••••••• do ••••••••••••••• 

G 1S8A •• ••••••••••••••do••••••••••••••• 

G 165..... Hialeah ••••••••••••• ~ •••••••• G 182 ••••• Miami Springs ••••••••••••• G 183,;,,, Miami ••••••••••••••••••••••• G 185,,,,, N. of Opa Locka •••••••••• 

G 180 ••••• Miami, •••••••••••••••••••••• 

G 187, .... , Pen.nsuco ........... ••• .... •••••,. G 188..... W. of Miami,,,, ••••••••••• 

G 189 ••••• Miami ... , ..................... .. G 193..... Miami Springs ............ . 

G 195 ................... do, ............ . 

G 196 ................... do ............. . 

G 197 ..... Hialeah. ................... .. G 198 ..... Coral Gables .............. . 

G 199 ••••• Miami Springs ...... ,; ... .. G 207 ..... Florida City .............. .. 

G 208 ................... do ............ .. G 209 ..... S. of Florida City, ...... . 

G 210 .. ; ................ do ............. . G 211 ................... do ............. . G 212.,, •• E. of Florida City, ...... . 

G 213 ................... do ............. . 

G 214 ..... Florida City, ............. .. 

G 216 ..... E. of Homestead. ....... .. G 217, .... N. of Homestead ......... . G 218 ..... W. of Hialeah .... · ........ . 

G 222..... W. of Miami ............ .. G 223 ................... do ............. . G 224 ... ,. W. of Miami Springs ... . 

G 225, .... W. of Miami ............. . G.226 ..... W. of Perrine ............. . 

G 1!31 ..... S, of S. Miami .......... .. 

G 232 ........ ••••••••••••••do.. .............. . c·235 ................... do ............. .. 

Map 

location 

....... do ...... 

PI, 21 C9 

Pl. 21 A5 

Pl. 22 D5 

Pl. 21 D6 

Pl. 21 B3 

PI, 21 C6 

Pl. 23D52 

PI. 23 B54 

Pl. 21 C9 

Pl. 22 H7 

PI. 22 F5 

PI, 22 G7 

Pl. 22 H6 

Pi, 21 A9 

PI. 22 G6 

PI, 23 B57 

·-····do,,.. ••••. Pl. 23 C58 

Pl. 23 B58 

Pl. 23 C57 

....... do .... .. ~ ....... do ...... . 

Pl. 23 B57 

Pl. 23 C57 

Pl. 23 C57 

Pl. 23 D53 

PI, 23 A54 

Pl. 19 E6 

Pl. 23 D53 

Pl. 23 C53 

PI. 2B C55 

Pl. 23 E55 

PI. 28 D55 

••••••• do ....... . 

Table 118.-Records of wells in Dade County-continued 

Depth 

(feet) 

10 

16 

7 

301 

350 

301 

300 

222 

200 

241 

84 

95 

92 

91 

102 

92 

108 

46 

66 

45 

88 

79 

78 

37 

110 

120 

202. 

77 

604 

104 

100 

100 

15 

21 

10 

Measuring 

point 

......... do ....... ,. 

........ do •••••••• 

......... do •••••••• 

Elevation 

(measuring point 

referred to m,s.l,) 

Water-level 

measurementl 

Chemical 

analyses 

11.16 ......... do ....... . 

12.32 ......... do ....... . Availab:Jel 

6, 70 ......... do ....... . 

.............. -.... AvailableJ 

..................... ••••••, •••••• .do ...... 

••••••••••••••••••••• ........ do ..... . 

••••••••••••••••••••• ........ do ••••• ..................................... do ••••• 

0 

0 

0 

Remarks 

T Well log, table 127;pis. 5, 8, 9. 

T Do.; Pis, 5, 8. 

T Do. ; Pis, 5, 6 

T Do.; Pis. 5, 7, 8, 

T Do.; Pis, 5, 8, 9, ~ 

............................ do..... T Do.; Pls.5, 8,9; fO!Illil Ustta- O 

.................................................... do..... T D!.

1

7 t~~: ~fri>. ~g:~ ~ :r;,p·;,r·~~-;;_-,;g:·. 5, 57 W. s. P. 1017 ....... do..... T and 0 Do. ; Pis, 5, 9. :;: 

....... do......... 6, 65 ......... do ................ do ...... Tand 0 Do. ; Pis, 5, 9, 

....................... .. .......................... do...... T Well log, table 127. 

Top of casing .. 7.97 W.S.P. 1017 ....... do ...... TandO Do. .. .................................................. do...... T Well log, table 127; Pl. 9, 

Top of casing .. 4,89 W.S.P.1017 ....... do ••••• TandO Do.; Pis. 5, 9. 

................................................... do...... T Do.; Pis. 5, 8. 

. .............................. •••••••••••••••••••• ....... do..... T .................................................. do ..... TandO Well log, table 127;pls, 5, 7. 

...................... _ .. .. ................................................. do ..... TandO Do.; Pis. 5, 6. 

....................... .................... ....... do ..... TandO Do.; Pis, 5, 6, 8, 

....................... .................... .. ..... do, ..... T and 0 Do. ; Pis. 5, 8, 

.. ................................................ do ...... TandO Do.; P~ 5, 7, 8. ........................ .................... • ...... do...... T Do.; Pis. 5, 8, ................................................... do ...... TandO Do.; Pis. 5, 7, 8. .. ........................................... AvailableJ , T Well log, table 12'l;pls. 5,6,8. 

Top of casing.. 9. 25 ............................ do ...... TandO Do, ;pis. 5, 8; fig. 63, 

.................................................... do...... T Do.; pls. 5, 9. ........................ .................... ....... do...... T Well log, table 127. PI. 9. 

....................... ................................................... do...... T Well log, table 127;pls. 5,6,8; 

....... do ...... 

... a. ......................... ........................... . 

Top of casing.. 11. 64 W. S. P. 1017 

....... do, ... ;.... 19,30 ......... do ....... . 

••••••• do........... 10.29 ............ do ......... . 

T 

T 

0 

0 

0 

p. 99. 

Do.; pis, 5,8. 

Well log, table 127. 
G 238,,,,, ·Howard •••••••••••••••••••••• ••••••• do ••••••• 9 ••••••• do ••••••••• 12,12 ••••••••• do •••••••• .................... 0 

G 239 .. , .. w. of Howard. ............ • ....... do ......... 8 .,.,,.,do,,,,,.,., 9,80 .......... do,.... ........ ..................... 0 

G 254.,,., s. Miami ........................ Pl. 23 E54 19 ....... do,.,,, .... 16,52 ......... do ........ .................... 0 

G 270.,.,, w. of Hialeah. ............ Pi, 23D53 4 ......................... ............................... . ..................... Available3 0 

G 271 ..... .............. do .............. ....... do ....... 7 ........................ ............................ ........................... ....... do ...... 0 

G 272,..,, w. of Miami Springs ..... • ....... do ......... 6 Top of casing .. 6,38 W,S,P, 1017 ....... do ...... 0 

G 273 ..... ............. ,do .. , ............ ....... do, ...... 6 •••••• do ............ 6,53 .......... do •••••••• ......... do •••••• 0 

G 274 .... w. of Miami Springs .... Pl. 23D53 5 ....... _ ........... :111-•· ............................ ........................ AvailableS 0 

G 275, ... w. of Miami .............. .. .... do ...... 5 Top of casing .. 6,36 W. S.P. 1017 ••••• do ...... 0 

G 276 .... .............. do .............. Pl. 23C53 7 • ........ do .......... 8.02 .......... do ........ ••••• do .•••• 0 

G 277, ... s. of Peters ................. Pl. 23D56 11 • ........ do •••••••• 9,87 .•.••••••• do ......... ................. 0 

G 282,.,, w. of Perers ................... Pl. 23C56 13 • ........ do ......... 11.83 •••••••••• do ......... ................. 0 

G 283., .. E. of Goulds •••••••• ••••• •• Pl. 23D56 6 •••••••• do •••••••• 6,88 • .......... do ......... ............... 0 

G 285 .... w. of Homestead. ........ Pl. 23B57 8 •••~••••do •••••••• 8,46 ............ do ......... .............. 0 

G 348 .... Miami Springs .......... •••• Pl. 22C4 8 ........... d~ ........ 4,20 ........... do •••••••• ................... 0 

G 349 .... ••••••••••••••do ............... PI, 22B4 8 ......... do .......... 4.08 •••••••••• do ......... ................ 0 

G 350, .. , Coral Gables ............... Pl 23054 15 ........ do ........ 9,18 ........... do .......... ................ 0 

G 351,.,. Miami••••••••••••••••••••••• Pl. 21 C7 99 ........ do, ....... 8.11 ............ do ......... ................. 0 

G 352., .. ................ do ............... • •••••• do.. ••••• 80 • ••••••• do •••••••• ~.37 ........... do •••••••• ............... 0 

~ G 353 .. ., s. of Miami Springs ..... Pl. 21B7 65 • ........ do ......... 6,76 • ••••••••• do •••••••• ................... 0 

G 354 .... Miami Springs ................ PI, 22F7 90 •••••••• do •••••••• 8,94 • ........... do ......... ............... 0 

G 355,.,, •••••••••••••• do •••••••••••••• Pl. 22F6 83 ••• ~~ ••• do •••••••• 7.29 •••••••••• -do •••••••• .............. 0 

G 356,.,, ....... ~ ........ do •••••••••••••• Pl • 22G6 91 • ••••••• do ......... 8,44 ••••.••••• do •••••••• ................ 0 ~ n G419 .... N. Miami Beach. ........ Pl. 21 F3 96 • ........ do •••••••• .............................. . ..................... ................ TandO Well log, table 127; pb, 5,,7, 0 

G421..., Miami ......................... PI. 21D6 98 •••••••• do •••••••• ••""-•••••••••••••••••••• ....................... . .............. TandO Do. ; table 127; pis. 6, 'I, 8. ~ G422 ..... .............. do .............. Pl. 21D5 98 • ••••••• do ......... ....................... '! ........ ............................ . ............. TandO Well log, table 127; pb, 5,8. 

G "' 423 .... E. of Kendall .............. Pl. 23 E55 53 • ........ do .......... ............................... . .......................... . ................ TandO Do.; pls, 5, 7, 

G 424, ... .............. do .............. .. ..... do, ...... 96 • ........ do .......... .......................... . ......................... . ................ andO Do.; pls, 5, 7, 

G 425 .... ............... do ............... • ....... do .......... 97 • ......... do •••••••• . ............................. ......................... . ............. Tand 0 Do,; pls, 5, 7. 

G 426 .... Coral Gables ............... Pl. 21 B10 98 • ••••••• do •••••••• ................................ ........................ ................. TandO Do.; pls, 5, 7, 

G428 .... .............. do .............. .. .... do ....... 96 .. ...... do, ....... , ............................. ............................ ................. TandO Do,; pb. 5, 9. 

G429 .... N. Miami ...................... Pl. 2104 99 ........ do, ....... ............................ . ............................. ................ TandO Do.; pls. 5, 7, 

G431 .... Coral Gables ............... Pl. 21 B10 100 •••••••• do ......... ............................ . ....................... ;\;.;u;."hi~'s TandO Do.; pls, 5, 7, 9 • G 447,.,, w. of Kendall ............. Pl. ~3 C55 101 • ••••••• do •••••••• 11.12 . .......................... TandO Do.; pls. 5, 6, 8. 

G 448 .... W. of Howard .............. Pl. 23055 93 •••••••• do ......... 7,68 .. .......................... ....... do •••• TandO Do.: pls. 5, 8. 

G449 .... Rockdale, .. · ................. • ........ do ........ 105 • ....... do ........ 13,50 ........................ ••a•••do •••• Tand 0 Do.; pls. 5, 8; figs, 207. 208. 

G450 .... E. of Rockdale ............ ....... do ...... 104 . ........ do •••••••• 10,44 . ......................... ...... do .... Tand 0 Do.; pls, 5,; figs. 207; 208, 

G 451 .... C\ltler .......................... • •••••• do ....... 107 • ••••••• do .......... 12,37 .......................... ................. TandO Do.; pls, 5, 7, 8; figs. 

207, 209, 

G469,.,. ••••••••••••••do •••••••••••••• ••••••• do ....... 137 • ••••••• do •••••••• 11.11 ........................ . .............. TandO Do.; pb, 5, 8; figs. 20 7 • 209. 

G471 .... E. of Peters ................ ....... do., .... 120 • ••••••• do ......... 13.45 . ...................... . ................ TandO Do.; pls. 5. 7, 

00 

>f>. 

c.n 
Well 

no. 

G 472 •••• 

G474,.,, 

G 491 .... 

G 518 •••• 

G 519 .... 

G 525 .... 

G 527 .... 

G 548 .... 

G 551 .... 

E. 

SE. 

E. 

E. 

General 

location 

of Rockdale ••••••••••• 

of Petei'!O,, ••••••••••• 

of Homestead. ........ 

of Princeton. .......... 

Silver Bluff ................ 

Miami ........................... 

E. of Homestead .......... , 

Miami Springs ................ 

w. of Kendall ............. 

Map 

location 

........ do •••••. 

PI, 23 D56 

Pl. 23 C57 

PI. 23D56 

PI. 21, ClO 

Pl. 21C8 

Pl. 23D57 

Pl. 22E5 

Pl. 23C54 

G 552.... W. of Perrine.............. Pl. 23 C55 

G 553.... Howara...................... Pl. 23 D55 

cs 14 .... w. of Miami .............. PI. \9 E5 

. cs 3o .... sw. of Flcrida City ...... Pl. 19 FB 

s 1 .... Miami Springs ............. Pl. 22D5 

s lA .. ............... do ............... •••••• do ...... 

s 2 .... .............. do .............. Pl. 22 C6 

s 2A .. .............. do .............. • ....... do •••••• s 3 ..... ................. do •••••••••••••• Pl. 22C5 

s 3A •• ................. do ............... • ...... do ....... 

s 4 .... ................. do •••••••••••••• Pl. 21D5 

s 4A .. • ••••••••••••• -do •••••••••••••• • ••••• do ........ s 5 .... ............... do ............... Pl. 22C5 

s 5A .. .. ••••••••••••• do. ••••••••••••• • ••••• do •••• _. s 6 .... .......... ,.. ..... do ................. Pl. 22 B5 

Table ·ns.-Records of wells in Dade County-Continued 

Depth 

(feet) 

99 

108 

38 

90 

44 

101 

51 

97 

98 

87 

127 

Elevation 

Measuring (measuring point Water-level Chemical Use2 Remarks 

point referred to measurementl analyses 

m.s.l.) 

.......... do ......... 15.96 ....................... . ................... !'rand 0 Do.; pis, 5, 7; figs • 20'7, 

!'rand 0 

210. 

........ do ........ 6,74 .............................. .................... Do.; pis,5, 7; 

~ ............... Tand 0 Do,; pis, 5, 8. :::! ............... !'rand o Do.; pis. 5, 7; fig. 210. !ii 

Chlcride ......... Well log, table 127; figs. 205, j:il 

..... 

1

.:: .. ::~.- T We~::~. table 127; pls. 5,7, ~S 9. 

••••••••••••••• T Do, ; pls. 5:~ B ... , .................... I! and 0 Do.; pis. s. 9 . .. ....... ;..... T and 0 Do.; and pumping tf'sts, 

• ........ do •••••••• ........ do ...... .. 

Top of casing ........................ .. 

......... do ......... •••••••••••••••••••••••• ........ do........ 6,35 

• ........ do ........... ••••••••••••••••••••"••• 

........ do .................................................................... !'rand 0 

~: i: ~~!~ J1~t· pis. o~"' 

Do.; and pumping tests, 

p. 258-262; pis. 5, 6; "' 

figs. 61, 09-'12. · ;;! ••••••• do .......... •••••••••••••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••• andO Do.; and pumping tests, ;u 

P. • 26'3-268; pis. 5, 8; Z 

51 ......................................................... . Available' T 

T 

PS 

figs. 61, '73-76. :!t 

Well log, table 127. ~ 

64 

61 

12 

96 

12 

62 

14 

94 

11 

100 

17 

62 

Top of cuing.. 

............................ 

Top of casing .. 

......................... 

Top of casing •• 

.......................... 

Top of casing .. 

................................. 

Top of casing •• 

.......................... 

8.31 

............................... 8,45 

................................ 8.43 

........................... 8,43 

........................... 8,42 

.............................. 

•••••• do •••••• Do. "" ~oss section, fig. 57; test data. §;! 

figs. 5 8-60. 

....... do ...... . 

W.S.P. 1017 Do. 'A.~~lbbl;s 0 .............................. PS 

W.S.P. 1017 ..................... 0 

~~~:••••················· Available! PS 

W.S.P. 1017 .................. 0 

............................ Available' PS 

w.s.P. 1011 ............ .-... 0 

............................ Available! PS 

W.S.P, 1017 ................... 0 

................................. AvailabJe3 PS 
s 6A,, •••••••••••••• do •••••••••••••• .._ •• do ........ 12 Top of casing,, 

s 7 •••• ······-······do .................. Pl. 22B6 62 ........................ s 7A •• ••••••••••••••do ............... •••••• do ....... 12 Top of casing., 

s s ... ................ do ............... Pl. 22 C6 64 .......................... s SA,, ··-··········do .............. •••••• do. ••••• 10 Top of casing .. 

S. 11 ••• :' ............... do •••••••••••••• Pl • 22D3 91 .. ....................... s 12 ...... Miami Springs .............. Pl. 22 D3 90 ......................... s 13 ...... .............. do .............. ...... do ....... ss ............................ s 14 ...... .............. do .............. Pl. 2 C3 73 ............................. s 14A .... .............. do .............. ...... do ....... 11 Top of casing .. 

s 15 ...... .............. do .............. ...... do ....... 8S ........................... s 15A .... ..................... do ............... ....... do ••••••• 11 Top of casing~, 

s 16 ...... .............. do ........ ~ ..... Pl. 22 B3 90 ............................... s 16A ... .............. do .............. ...... do. ...... 11 Top of casing •• s 17 ...... ..... : ........ do ......... ; .... Pl. 22C3 87 ................................ s 17A .... .............. do .............. ...... do ....... 10 Top of casing .. 

s 18 ...... N, of Cpa Locka, ........ Pl. 21C3 52 ........ ,do ........ 

s 19 ...... Miami Springs ............. Pl. 2286 95 ......... do. ....... s 23 ...... Miami ....................... Pl. 21C6 64 ...................... _ .. s 35 ...... .............. do .............. Pl. 21C7 51 ........................... s 52 ...... .............. do .............. PI, 21£6 60 ................................ s 58 ...... N. Miami Beach .......... Pl. 21 F3 36 Top of casing .. 

s 63 ...... J>ennsuco,, .................. PL 23D52 37 ......... do ........ s 68 ...... Miami Springs ............. Pl. 22DS 61 ......... do. ....... 

s 70 ...... .Miami ........ , .................. PI. 2108 100 ........ do ......... 

s 72 ...... .............. do .............. ....... do ...... 32 ... ............................ s 73 ...... .............. do .... _, ....... ....... do. ..... 37 .............................. s 84 ...... .............. do .............. Pl • 21D7 40 Top of casing .. 

s 89., .... .............. do .......... ; .... Pl. 2105 so ............................. s 112 ..... .............. do ............... Pl. 21D8 90 ................................ s 125 .... : .............. do ............... ....... do ...... 1,088 .......................... s 142 ..... .............. do ............... ....... do ...... 1,165 ··-·······,.,········ s 144 .... ······-······dd ..................... PI, 21D9 1,000 . .......................... s 145 ..... .............. do ............... ....... do ...... 63 .............................. s ISO ..... .... - ...... -do ....................... Pl. 21 ClO 66 ............................. s 153 .... .............. do ............... Pl. 2109 so ........................... s 155 ..... Miami Beach. .............. PI, 21 E8 1,000 ............................ s 158 ..... .............. do ............... PI. 21 F8 1,066 .......................... 

8,48 W.S.P. 1017 

.......................... .. .......................... 8,46 W.S.P. 1017 

........................ . ......................... 8,42 W.S.P. 1017 

.......................... . ...................... ................................ .......................... . .......................... ....................... ............................. . ........................ 8.41 W.S.P. 1017 

............................... . ......................... 8,42 W.S.P. 1017 

................................ ............................. 8.41 W.S.P. 1017 

............................... .............................. 8.45 W.S.P. 1017 

10.12 .. ....... do, ........ 8.44 ......... do ......... 

............................... ........................... .................................. ....................... ................................... . ......................... 13,16 .............................. 8. 78 W.S,P. 1017 

9.75 ......... do .......... 

14.69 . ......................... .............................. . ......................... ................................ .............................. 17.50 W.S.P, 1017 

.. ...................................... ................................ ...................................... ............................. ................................. . .............................. . ................................ .............................. ................... , ................ ........................ _ ... ............................... ............................. . .............................. .............................. ................................ ............................ . .............................. . ............................ ................................... ............................. 

·A~ii~b·i~i 

. ;.:~"a:ii;b i~i 

................. 

Available3 

Available! 

..... ;do ..... 

...... do ..... ........................ 

Available3 

A.;;ii_;'bi~ 

:.\~~i;i;i;;s· 

.................... 

.................. 

.................... 

Available' 

...... do ..... 

...... do ..... 

...... do .... , 

.................... 

..................... 

Available! 

...... do ..... 

...... do ..... 

.. ................ 

Available3 

...... do ..... 

...... do ..... 

...... do ..... Available' 

..... ,do ..... 

...... do ..... .. .... do, .... 

...... do ..... ..... ,do ..... 

0 

PS 

0 

PS 

0 

PS 

PS 

PS 

PS 

0 

PS 

0 

PS 

0 

PS 

0 

0 

0 

SP 

Irr . Ind • u 

u 

0 

u 

Ind, 

Ind • 

u 

Dom. 

Ind. 

Ind. 

u 

Irr. 

lrr . Ind. 

Ind. 

PS 

u 

Graph, fig 54, hydrograph, fig 40. 

Do • 

~ 

Graph, fig. 54; cross section, ~ 0 fig. 57 ; chloride graph, El 

fig. 192. "' 

Flowing artesian well, 

DQ. 

Do. 

Flowing artesian well, 

Do. 
Well 

no. General 

location 

Map 

location 

S 160,, ............. ;,,,do.............. Pl. 21 FG s 161 ..... Kendall..................... Pl. 23 055 

S 171 ...... Mnmi.,,,·, .................. Pl. 21 B10 

S 182,., .. Peters........................ PI', 23 D56 

S 183..... W. of Kendall............. Pl. 28 055 

5.185.,,,. W. of Peters,............... Pl. 23 C56 · 

S 186., .. ,' W. of Goulds. .............. Pl. 23 856 

S 187,.,;, N. of Homestead. ............... do ...... . 

S 188 .................... do............... Pl. 23 B57 

S 189,,.,, .............. do ............... Pl. 23 B56 

S 191.,.,, W. of Princeton. ........... Pl. 23 C56 

S 194." ..... Homestead.................. Pl. 23 C57 

S 196,.,., N. of Homestead .......... Pl. 23 856 

S 233',., .. N. Miami Beach. .......... Pl. 21 E1 

S 278,.,., .............. do............... Pl. 21 F3 

S 290.,,., W. of N. Miami Beach.. Pl. 21 C2 

S 301 ..... Biscayne Park. ............. Pl. 21 E5 

S 304..... N. Miami Beach.......... Pl. 21 E3 

S 375,. ... Miami ....................... Pl. 21 D6 

S 381 ..... N, Miami Beach. ......... Pl. 21 F2 

S 384..... N. Miami................... Pl. 21 D4 

S 450~ .... W. of Miami ............... Pl. 19 E6 

S 480 .. ._ E. of Homestead.......... Pl. 23 C57 

S 481 .... , Modello,.................... • .... ,do ....... S 539,, .. , Chapman Field............ Pl. 2 3 D55 

Table 118,-Records of wells .in Dade Cou(lty- Continued 

Depth 

(feet) 

Measuring 

point 

Elevation 

(measuring point 

referred to m.s.l.) 

Water-level Chemical 

measurementsl analyses 

Use! 

1, 000 .................... ........................ ..................... .. ..... do.... • u 

5,432 ........................................................................ do.... T 

40 Top of casing.. 4, 62 W. S. P. 1017 .............. 0 

51 ••..••••• do •••.•••• 13,94 ........... do.. .......... . ............... 0 

15 Top of pitcher 16.96 .......... dq ............ .................. UDom. 

pump, 

14 See remarks ... 10,71 ......... do, ........ ................ Irr. 

15 ......... do; ....... 8,72 ........... do ........... .............. Irr . 17 .......... do ......... 9,08 ,,,,, .... do,,,.,,,,, .. · .................. Jrr_. and 

Dom, 

14 ••••••••• do ••••.••• 10.92 • ........ do.,, .. , ... ............... Irr . 18 Lip of elbow ... 13,05 .. ....... do ......... ................. Irr • 20 See remarks. .. 9,41 .. ....... do,, ....... ;\;..:ib.;;k;· Irr. 

62 .......................... ............................. ...................... PS 

20 Top of casing 10.~2 w.s.P. 1011 ................... 0 

9 ......... do ........ 7,13 • ........ do ......... i:~ik'biii 0 

80 ........................... ................................ .. .......................... PS 

84 Lip of elbow 19,21 w.s.P. 1011 ;\;,.:ij;j;i;,3 u 

100 ......................... ........................... ............................. Dom, 

60 ....................... ............................... ........................... ....... do .... APS 

54 ........................... ............................... .......................... ........... do •••• PS 

116 ........................ .............................. ............................ ....... do .... PS 

63 ........................... .......................... 'I' .. ......................... ....... do .... Jrr • 1,280 ............................... .......... ,. ................... ....................... .•••• ,..do ..... T 

57 ........................... ................................. . .......................... ....... do .... Dom • 53 ............................ ................................ . ............................ ....... do. ... PS 

29 Top Of casing .. 17,27 ............................. .................. 0 

Remarks 

Do. 

Abandoned PS well; isochlorgraph, fig. 199. 

Hydrograph, fig. 39, 51, 53. 

Top of concrete cover • Do, 

Do • 

Do. 

Top of concrete cover. 

Hydrograph, fig. 41, 

1U, S. Geol. Survey Water-supply Paper, 

~Dom., domestic;F,ftte; 0;' observation; T, test; PS, public supply; SP, swimming pool; Irr, irrigation; Ind, industrial; U, unwed; APS, abandoned public supply. 5Section on •Quality .of ground arid surface water", 

00 

""' 00 
Table 119.-Records of wells in Glades County 

Well no. General location Map location 

GL 3 NW. of Clewiston Pl. 19, E3 

GL 4 ........ do ................. ...... do •••••• ; ........ 

GL 6 Lakeport Pl. 19, E2 

GL 7 •••••••• do ................. ...... do ............... 

GL 8 Moore Haven Pl. 19, E3 

GL 9 ........ do ................. ....... do ............... 

GL 10 SE. of Moore Haven ...... do ............... 

GLU w. of Clewiston •••••• do .................... 

GL 12 N. of Lakeport Pl. 19, E2 

GL 13 ........ do ................. ...... do ............... 

GL 14 NE. of Lakeport ...... do ............... GL 15 Lakeport ...... do ............... 

GL 16 s. of Lakeport. •••••• do ............... 

GL 11 Moore Haven Pl. 19, E3 

GL 18 E. of Moore Haven ...... do ............... GL 19 ........ do ... ~ ............. ...... do ............... GL 20 Moore Haven ...... do ............... 

GS 18 NE. of Lakeport Pl. 19, E2 

GS 28 Moore Haven Pl. 19, E3 

GS 29 ........ do ................. Pl • 19, E2 

1U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper, 

Depth 

(feet) 

92 

80 

22 

18 

104 

52 

85 

102 

120 

48 

35 

25 

25 

18 

30 

30 

28 

75 

63 

75 

lOom,, domestic; S, stock; U, unused; PS, public supply; T, test. 

•section on •Quality of ground and surface water.~ 

[See plate 19] 

Measuring 

point 

.......................... 

...................... 

...................... 

...................... 

....................... 

...................... 

...................... 

...................... 

......................... 

........................... 

........................... 

....................... 

.......................... 

......................... 

............................ 

............................. 

............................. 

...................... 

......................... 

......................... 

Elevation 

(measuring 

point re· 

ferred to 

m. s.l~) 

............................ 

........................ 

........................ 

....................... 

.......................... 

.......................... 

.............................. 

........................... 

............................... 

.......................... 

............... -............ ............................ 

............................ 

................................ 

.......................... 

................................ 

............................ 

........................ 

............................ 

.......................... 

Water ·level 

measurementsl 

.. ............................. 

................................ 

·························· . ........................... 

.. ............................ 

................................ 

.............................. 

.................................. 

. ............................... 

. .............................. 

... ............................... 

.................................. 

............................... 

............................. 

.................................. 

............................... 

................................ 

. ............................... 

. ..................................... 

................................ 

Chemical 

analyses 

Available3 

..... do. ......... 

..... do .......... 

..... do .......... 

..... do .......... 

..... do .......... 

..... do .......... 

..... do .......... 

..... do .......... 

..... do ....... ; .. 

..... do .......... 

• .... do .......... 

• .... do .......... 

..... do .......... 

..... do .......... 

..... do .......... 

..... do .......... 

.. ... do .......... 

..... do .......... 

..... do .......... 

Use! 

Dom. 

Dom. 

s 

Dom • 

u 

Dom • 

Dom • 

Dom • Dom • 

s 

Dom • 

Dom • 

Dom • Dom, 

Dom • Dom, 

PS 

T 

T 

T 

Remarks 

~ :u 

"' n 

0 

:u 

t:l 

Well "' log, 

table 128 

Do • 

Do. 
Table 120.-Records of wells in Hendry County 

Well no. General location 

GS 4 w. of Clewiston 

GS 5 •••••• do •••••••••••••••••• HE 2 La Belle 

HE 3 Indian Reservation 

HE 4 w. of Clewiston 

HE 5 ...... do .................. 

HE 7 Bare Beach 

HE 10 Clewiston 

HE 11 Hooker's.Point 

HE 12 Clewiston 

HE 13 w. of Clewiston 

HE 14 ...... do .................. HE 15 • · ..... do .................. 

HE 16 Clewiston 

HE 18 •••••• do .................. 

Map location 

Pl. 19, E3 

••••• do ••••••••••••••• 

PI. 19, D3 

Pl. 19, E4 

PI. 19, E3 

...... do .............. 

...... do .............. ...... do .............. 

...... do .............. 

...... do .............. 

...... do .............. 

...... do .............. 

...... do .............. 

...... do .............. ...... do .............. 

Depth 

(feet} 

50 

50 

650 

12 

107 

6 

70 

87 

56 

107 

34 

315 

130 

1i4 

110 

[See plate 19] 

Measuring 

point 

······~··········· 

........................ 

.............................. 

Top of casing 

.................. 

Top of casing 

..................... 

..................... 

.................. 

...................... 

...................... 

............... ~·· ~ ...... ........................ 

.................... 

....................... 

Elevation 

(measuring 

point referred to 

m.s.l.) 

·4················· 

............................ 

........................ 

.......................... 

............................ 

....................... 

........................ 

............................. 

.......................... 

... ~ .................... ....................... 

........................ 

................. ~····· 

......................... 

......... _. ........... 1

U. S. Geol. Survey Water-5upply Paper. 2T, test; Dom, domestic; 0, observation; S, stock; PS, public supply; U, unused; Ind, i~dustrial. 3Section on •Quality of ground and surface water." 

Water-level 

measurementsl 

.................................... 

.. .., ................................. ............................. 

w. s. P. 1017 

............................. 

w. s . P. 1017 

................................ 

................................ 

. .............................. 

................................. 

. ........ ············ ~······ .................................... 

......... ~··················· 

........................................ 

... ~ .............................. 

Chemical 

analyses 

Available' 

•••• do •••••••••• •••• do .......... 

.................. 

Availablel 

. ...... ,., ........... 

Available' 

.... do .......... .. .. do .......... .... do .......... 

.... do .......... 

.... do .......... .... do .......... 

.... do .......... 

.... do .......... 

T 

T 

Dom. 

0 

s 

0 

Dom • Dom. 

Dom • Dom. 

Dom • PS 

Dom • 

u 

Ind • 

00 

Ql 

0 

Remarks 

Well log, ~ table 129 

Do • ~ Well no. G 138 Gl 

in W.S.P. "' 0 1017 5 Well log, 

table 129 

Well no. G 299 "' inW.S.P. !Z! 

1017 "' g 

~ ;I "' 

~ 

s 

i!:l 

~ 
Well no. Genera! location 

cs 20 SE. of Childs 

Map location 

(pl. and no. ) 

Pl. 19, Dl 

Table 121.-Rccords of wells in Hi,;;[llands CoWity 

[See pia te 19] 

Depth 

(feet) 

125 

Measuring 

point 

~~ ~· ••• 4 ............... 

Elevation 

(measuring 

point referred to 

m.s.l.) 

········••4•••••···· 

Water-level 

measurements! 

···~····--····· ... ········· GS 21 Lake Istokpoga ..... do ................ 65 ......................... ............................ . .................................... GS 22 Ft. Bassinger Pl. 19, 

1U. S. Ceo!. Survey Water-Supply Paper, 

!T, test, 

E1 

ISection on "Quality of ground and surface water," 

101 ..................... ... ,.. .................... ........................... 

Chemical 

analyses 

Available3 

..... do .......... 

..... do .......... 

Use I 

T 

T 

T 

Remarks 

Well log, 

table 130 

Do. 

Do. 

00 

CJ> 

.... 
Well no. General location 

GS 23 s. of Indian Town 

M 8 Port Mayaca 

M 9 ...... do .................. 

M 11 NW. of Indian Town 

M 12 Hobe Sound 

M 15 NW. of Indian Town 

M 16 Port Mayaca 

M 17 ...... do .................. 

Map location 

Pl. 19, G2 

Pl. 19, F2 

...... do .............. 

...... do .............. 

Pl. 19, H2 

PI. 19, F2 

...... do .............. 

...... do .............. 

Table 122.-Records of wells in Mactin CoU1Jty 

[See plate 19J 

Depth 

(feet) 

91 

30 

27 

40 

117 

40 

48 

32 

Measuring 

point 

.......................... 

...................... 

.................. 

...................... 

.................. 

.................. 

.................... 

~ ·~ ............... 

Elevation 

(measuring 

point referred to 

m. s.J.) 

....................... 

................... 

..................... 

···············'-••· 

..................... 

..................... 

·~····· .............. -~ ..................... 

Water-level 

measure..,entsl 

............................. 

.... ·····~··· ............. .......................... 

. ... ~············ ....... ............................ 

........................ 

.. ·~··~·········· ....... . ... ··~······· .............. 

1U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper. 

IT, test; Irr, irrigation; U, unused; Dom, domestic; PS, public supply; S , stock. 3S ection on • Qua 1i ty of ground and surface water. " 

Chemical 

analyses 

Available8 

••.•• do .......... 

..... do .......... 

.. ... do .......... .._.do ............. 

..... do .......... 

..... do .......... 

..... do .......... 

Use2 

T 

Irr. 

u 

Dam. 

PS 

s 

Dam. 

Dom • 

Remarks 

Well log, 

table 131 

Well log, 

table 131 
Well no. 

GS 16 

GS 17 

GS 19 

OK 1 

OK 7 

OK 8 

OK 9 

OK 10 

OKll 

OK12 

OK 13 

OK14 

OK 15 

OK 16 

General location 

Fort Drwn 

s. of Okeechobee 

SE. of Okeechobee 

Okeechobee 

....... do .... a-.-•••••••••••••• 

s. of Okeechobee 

, ••••. do .................. 

SE. of Okeechobee 

•••••• do .................. 

...... do .................. sw. of Okeechobee 

N. of Okeechobee 

...... do .................. 

NW. of Okeechobee 

Map location 

Pl. 19, Fl 

Pl. 19, E1 

Pl. 19~ F2 

Pl. 19, F1 ••••• do .............. 

..... <10 .............. ..... do .............. 

..... do ........... ; .. 

••••• do .............. Pl. 19, F2 

Pl. 19, El 

..... do .............. 

Pl. 19, Fl 

PI. 19, E1 

tu. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper. 

2T, test; U, unused; Dom, domestic; S, stock. 8Section on ~Quality of ground and surface water •• 

Table 123.-Reoords of wells in Okeechobee County 

Depth 

(feet) 

90 

131 

49 

1718 

.................... 75 

48 

100 

57 

105 

65 

80 

95 

996 

[See plate 19) 

Measuring 

point 

............................. 

····~ ..................... ................. , ...... ..................... 

........... ,., ....... ..................... 

...................... 

..................... 

...................... 

............. ,.. ••• '"'!'· 

................... 

.................... 

................... 

Elevation 

(measuring 

point referred to 

m.s.l.) 

......................... 

Water-level 

measurements! 

Chemical 

analyses 

Available3 

..... do ....... .. 

..... do ........ . 

..... do ........ . 

..... do ....... .. 

..... do ........ . 

..... do ........ . 

..... do ....... .. 

..... do ....... .. 

..... do ........ . 

.. ... do ....... .. 

.. ... do ........ . 

• .... do ........ . 

.. ... do ....... .. 

UseZ 

T 

T 

T 

u 

Dom • 

Dom • 

Dom • 

Dom • 

s 

Dom • 

Dom • 

Dom • 

Dom • 

s 

Remarks 

Well log, 

table 132 

Do. 

Do. 
Table 124.-Records of wells in Palm IJeacb County CXI 

U1 

[See plates 19 and 24] ""' 

Elevation 

Map location Depth MeaSuring (mearuring Water-level Chemical 

Well no. General location (pl. and no.) (feet) point point re- meastn"em-entsl analyses UseZ Remarks 

£erred to 

m._s.I.) 

G 300 Loxahatchee PI. 19, G3 8 Top of casing ~ ~·~ ·~· .............. W.S.P. 1017 . .......................... 0 ~ G 303 NW. of Boynton Pl. 24, C5 11 ••• ;.do ................ ................. ..... do ........... . .................. 0 ;;f G 309 NW. of Lake Worth Pl. 24, C3 7 ..... do ......... ; ...... 16.18 ..... do ........... A ;;;ibhi~;---- 0 , 

GS2 NW. ofFt. Lauderdale Pl. 19, F4 50 ............................ .................. ........................ T Well log, table 133 E GS 3 Bean City Pl. 19, F3 50 ................................. ................ . .................... .... do .......... T Do. 

GS6 I S. of Belle Glade Pl. 19, G3 55 ............................. ................ ..................... .... do .......... T Do. 

~ GS7 E. of Belle Glade ., .. do ......... 50 .......................... ................ ..................... .. .. do .......... T Do. 

GS 8 W. of W. Palm Beach PI, 24, A2 51 .......................... ................. .......................... .... do .......... T Do. 

GS 11 w. of Deerfield Beach PI, 19, G4 97 ······4·4··············· .. ~···•4+••••4 .. ·····4··· .. ········· .... do .......... T Do. 

GS 12 .......... do .. ; ................... ••• .do ......... 50 ·············4·······4·· ................ •4+4+••············ .... do .......... T Do. 

GS24 N. of Canal Point PI, i9, F2 61 ........................... ..... 4 ~·······4·· ................. 4 .. .... do .......... T Do • !2! 

GS25 S. of Pahokee Pl. 19, F3 45 ~4 ................ ...... 4 .. 4 ............ ~······· ········~····~·~··4 .... do .......... T Do. I GS 36 Kramer Jsiand .... do ......... 91 ~··~······ .. ·····~······ . 4 ............... ................... .... do .......... T Do. 

GS 27 w. of Lake Harbar PI. 19, E3 56 ............................. ......... 4 ......... ...... ~· .. ·~·········· .... do .......... T Do. 

PB 88 Lake Worth PI. 24, D4 16 Top of casing 15.94 W.S.P. 1017 ~ .......... ._ ... ~.~~ ~ 0 

PB 93 .......... do ....................... .... do ......... 95 ~••+4+ ................ .... .................. .... 4 ....... ~· ..... Availables T Well log, table 133. 

s 350 Lake Harbor PI. 19, •E3 66 .......................... ~ .. ·~···········~·· ~--·~..-··········~··· .... do .......... Dom. Do. 

s 352 Belle Glade Pi. 19, F3 35 ......................... ....... ~.~·4·~· .. ~~ ~~····~ ... 4 ......... 4 ~· .... do .......... Dom • ~ s 353 .......... do ...................... .... do ......... 1,332 Top of casing 18,00 W.S._P.- 773-C .... do .......... u Well No. 10, W.S.P. 773-c 

s 355 .......... do .................. .-... .... do ......... 47 ... .......... 4 ..... ~ ....... ~ ..................... ~···· .... ~ ......... ~· .... do .......... Ind. ~ s 300 .......... do ...................... .... do ......... 47 ·~·······~··· ........... ~ .. ·····4········4· ~~··4··· ............... .... do .......... Ind. 

s 358 Ritta Village .... do ......... 36 5 4+•••····~······· .. ·· ·~·· ··········~····· ···~· ... ···~---··~4·· .... do .......... Dom. 

s 359 Lake Worth PI. 24, 04 135 ................ ~·~·· ·····~ .............. 4. ····~······~ .. ···~·~ .... do .......... PS z:! 

s 360 Boca Raton Pl. 24, ClO 104 ............................... ......... ~ ......... ·~··4 ... ~······••+• .... do .......... PS ~ s 361 Lantana Pl. 24, D4 65 ••4 ....... ~·..-··~·········. ·4···· ···~···•4• ..... 4·~· ·~ ~········ .... do .......... PS 

s 382 w. Palm Beach Pl. 24, D1 1,080 ~--~ ·~··~ ~·· .............. ········~··~···· ........... ···~····4 .. .. do ........... Ind. Flowing artesian well. 

s 383. .......... do ...................... Pl. 24, D2 1,050 Top of -inch 18.00 W.S.P. 773-c .... do .......... Ind. Well No.4, W.S.P. 773-C 

valve 

s 394 Delray Beach Pl. 24, D7 216 ...... ~·······~···~··· .. ··· ···~ .............. ..................... A~ii~hi~--- T Well log, table 133; fig 15 

s 1000- Boynton PI. 24, D6 57 ~··4 ............... _ ........ .., ................ ...................... PS 

1001': 

s 1003- Dekay Beach PI. 24, D7 68 ····~· ~··········· ....... .................. 4···············~·· .... do .......... PS 

1008 

s 1009 Riviera Pl. 19, H3 165 .......................... .................. . .................... .... do .......... PS 
s 1011 N. of Boca Raton PI. 24. C9 25 ................................... ................... ....................... , •••• do •••.•••••• Dom. s 1012 w. of Boca Raton Pl. 24. B9 150 ..... ... ..... .., ... ······~· .................. . ...................... .••• do •••••••••• Dom. s 1018 .•••••.••• do ..•........•.•..•.•••.• PI. 24, AS 84 ............................... ..................... ··················· . - ••• .do ••••••••.• Irr. s 1020 . •.•....••. do •••........•..•..•..•.• •••• do ••••••••• 25 ............................. ...................... . ...................... • ••• do •.••.•..•. lrr. " 

. s 1025 s. of Delray Beach Pl. 24, CB 67 ............................ ....................... . .................... .... do .......... Dom. ~' s 1026 •••••••••• do ••••••••••••••••••••••• •. _do •••..•••. 20 ............................. .................... . ..................... .... do ••.•.••.•. s s 1027 .......... do ............. , .•. _.-•...• Pl . 24, 08 20 .............................. ................ . .................... • ••• do .......... Irr. s 1028 w. of Delray Beach Pl. 24. C7 ............................. .................. . .................... .... do. ......... Dom. s 1030 .......... do ....................... .... do ......... 30 ............................ .. .... ~ ····~· ...... a••••••••aoo-•a•a•••• .... do .......... Dom . s 1037 s. of Delray Beach Pl. 24, DB 80 ............................... •••••••••a•••••• •a•••••••••a••a••a• .. •• do .......... Dom, s 1038 .......... do ....................... .... do ......... 55 ••••a•••a•••••••••a••••+ •••••a•a•+a••••• ... .................... .... do .......... Dom. s 1039 W. of Delray Beach Pl. 24, C7 111 ••••••••••••••••••a••••• •••••••a••a••••• •a•+a••••a•+••••••• .... do •• : ....... Dom, s 1041 .......... do ....................... Pl . 24, B7 35 ••••••~••• ••••••••••+a•• ..................... •a.-.••••••••••••••• .. :.do .......... Dom, s 1042 .......... do ....................... .... do ......... 120 Top of casing ••••••a••••••a•• W.S.P. 1017 a+•••••• ••••+a•~ • 0 s 1050 .......... do ....................... .... do ......... 20 •••••a•••••••••••••••••• ••••••••••a•••• a a•••••a•••••••••+a• Availablel Dom, s 1053 .......... do ....................... Pl. 24, A7 20 • •••••~••• aa•••••••••••• a•••••"~'a••a••••• a•••••••••••••••••• .... do .......... Dom. s 1056 NW. of Delray Beach PI. 24, C7 38 ••a•a•••a••••••••••••••• ••a••••••••••••• .o-a••a•••••••a•+••a• .... do .......... Dom. s 1059 .......... do ....................... Pl . 24, C6 40 ~ ••• a•••••• •••••••••~+•+ a~ a•• ••••••••a~• ~ a••a••••••• ••••••• .... do .......... - Dom. s 1063 W. of Boynton .... do ••••••••• 100 ••••••••••••••••a••a•••• ••••••••••a_.•••• ............................. .... do ........... Dom. s 1065 .......... do ....................... .... do ......... 25 ······~················· ••a••••••••••••• ~··········· ......... .... do .......... Dom. ~- s 1066 s. of Boynton Pl. 24, D6 50 oo-a••a•••••a••••••••••a._• .................... •a••a••••••••••••a~ a .... do .......... Dom, s 1067 .......... do ....................... .... do ......... 50 !=: •••••a••••••~ ••••••••a•+ ...................... ••••••••••••a• a•••• .... do .......... Dom. s 1069 N. of Delray Pl. 24, D7 42 ~•••••••••• a••••a••••••• . ................. •••••••••••••••••a• .... do ........... Dom. "' s 1071 .......... do ....................... Pl . 24, D6 20 ••••••••a••••••••••••••• . .................. s 1073 •a••••••••••••••••• .... do .......... Dam . ~ w. of Lantana PI. 24, A4 7 ••••••••••••••••a••••••• .................... ••••a•••••••••••• a• .... do .......... Dom. 

~ s 1074 .......... do ....................... Pl. 24, B4 11 •~ •••••• a••••••• ••••••a• •• •••a•••• ••••~• . ...................... .... do .......... Dom. s 1078 .......... do ....................... Pl. 24, C5 25 ~••• •••• a••••••••••••••• •• a••••a••••••a~ ~••• •••a•••~•••a••• .... do ...... -.... Dom. (II 

s 1080 .w. of Lake Worth Pl. 24, C4 75 •••••a••aa•••••••••••••• ••••••••••a••••• ...................... .... do .......... Dom. s 1083 .......... do ....................... .... do .......... 43 ••••••••••••~•••••• a•••• •••••••••••a•••• . .......................... .... do; ......... Dom. s 1085 .......... do ....................... Pl. 24, B4 40 •••••••••a•••••••••••••• a•••••••••••~•a• ........................ .... do .......... Dom. s 1088 .......... do ....................... Pl. 24, C4 36 •••a•+•••••••••••••••••• ••••••••._._._,._••a• a••••••••••••••• a•• .... do .......... Dom. s 1090 .......... do ....................... .... do ......... 204 •••••••• ... ••••••a•••••••• ·············~·· a••••••a••••••a•••• .... do .......... Dom • s 1091 .......... do ....................... Pl • 24, C3 28 •a•••'""•••••••••••••••••• ••••a••••••••••• ... ....................... .... do .......... Dom. s 1093 ......... ,do ....................... Pl. 24. A4 35 ••••a••a•••••••••••••••• ••••"a••••••••••• •a•••••••••oo:a••• ... •• .... do .......... Dom. s 1096 NW. of Lake Worth Pl. 24, A3 28 •••••••••••••••a•-t•••••• ........... ., ........ a••••.,•••a••••••••• .... do. ......... Dom. s 1099 w. of Lake Worth Pl. 24, C3 49 a••••••••••••aoo-a•••••••• •a•••••••••••••• ••••••a••••+••••••• • .... dq,...., ........ Dom. s 1100 w. of Boynton PI. 24, AS 80 •••••••••••••••••••••a• a ................... •a••••••••••••••••• .... do .......... Dom • s 11(11 .......... do ..... , ................. .... do ......... 20 ~••••a•••••••••••••••••• ................... . ......................... •.•. do .......... Dom • s 1102 .......... do ....................... .... do ......... 80 ................................ .................... . ...................... • ... do ...... ;· ... Dom • s 1104 .......... do ....................... .... do ......... 15 •••••••••••••••••••a•+•• ... ....................... •••••a••a••••••• .. •• .... do ........ ~. Dom • s 1105 .......... do ....................... Pl. 24, 06 82 ............................... •••••a•••••••••• . ...................... .... do .......... Dom. s 1106 .......... do ............. : ......... Pl. 24, C6 68 ................................ ..................... •• .. •••• .. a•••••••••• .... do • .-........ Dom. s 1108 00 .......... do ....................... PI. 24, A6 90 ••••••••••••••••a••••••• a••• .... •••••••••• .......................... .... do .......... Dom. U1 s 1110 .......... do ....................... Pl • 24, C5 35 ................................ ................. . ......................... .... do .......... Dom. U1 
Well no. 

... 

51114 

51115 

51116 

5:1118 

51119 

51125 

51126 

51130 

51131 

5.1132 

51134 

51135 

s 1141 

51144 

51148 

51152 

51156 

51159 

51163 

51170 

sun 

51172 

s 1173 

51176 

51177 

51183 

51184 

51185 

$·1186 

51188 

51189 

51190 

51201 

51202 

s 1203 

51204 

General location 

5. of Boynton 

w. of Lake Worth 

NW .• of Lake Worth 

w. ofW. Palm Beach 

.......... do ....................... 

.......... do ....................... 

.......... do ....................... 

.......... do ....................... 

.......... do ....................... 

.......... do ....................... 

.......... do ....................... 

W. Palm Beach 

Lake Park 

Lake Worth 

N. of Lake Park 

w. of Jupiter 

.......... do ....................... N. of Lake Park 

.......... cio ....................... 

w. Palm Beach 

.......... do ....................... 

: .......... do ....................... 

.......... do ....................... 

w. ofW. Palm Beach 

w. Palm Beach 

.......... do ....................... 

.......... do ....................... 

.......... do ....................... 

.......... do ....................... Canal Point 

5. of Pahokee 

E. of Belle Glade 

N. of Port Mayaca 

N. of Canal Point 

.......... do ....................... 

.......... do ....................... 

Table 124.-Recon:ls of wells .in Palm Beach Cou~ty-Continued 

Map location Depth 

(pl. and no. ) (feet) 

Pl. 24, 06 60 

Pl. 24, C4 32 

Pl. 24, C3 75 

Pl. 24, C2 68 

.... do ......... 28 

Pl. 24, B2 65 

.... do ......... 61 

.... do ......... 40 

Pl. 24, C2 57 

.... do ......... 50 

.... do ......... 45 

Pl. 24, 02 49 

Pl. 19, H3 50 

Pl. 24, D3 59 

Pl. 19, H2 28 

Pl. 19, G2 35 

Pl. 19, H2 20 

.... do ......... 182 

Pl. 19, H3 40 

Pl. 24, 01 

.... do ......... 70 

.... do ......... 85 

Pl. 24, 02 116 

Pl. 24, C2 100 

Pl. 24, 02 84 

Pl • 24, 01 85 

· .... do ......... 1,035 

.... do ......... 30 

.... do ......... 64 

Pl. 19, F'3 20 

.. .. do ......... 18 

.... do ......... 45 

Pl. 19, F2 14 .. .. do ......... 20 

.... do ......... 13 

.... do ......... 22 

Measuring 

point 

......................................... 

........................................... 

................................... 

............................... 

............................... 

........................... 

......................... 

. ........................... 

~····~·················· ............................. 

............................. 

·~······················ 

·······················~ 

~·······~············· .. ............. ·····~· .. ······· ............. ·~·· ........ ~······················. .............................. 

................................ 

.................................. 

····················~··· .................. ~ ................ ............................ 

.................................. 

··~····················· ...... ., ................... ·~······················ ............................. 

........................... 

........... .......... ·~·· 

...................... ~ ... ............................... 

~······················· ............................ 

............................. 

............................ 

Elevation 

(measuring 

point re· 

!erred to 

m.s.l.) 

.................................. 

............................ 

.................. 

................... 

..................... 

...................... 

..................... 

................... 

·······~··~····· ................. 

.................... 

................. 

................. ; . .................. 

................... 

·····~······~··· 

...................... 

....................... 

........... ·~···· 

................... 

················ ...... ~ ............ .............. ~······ 

··········~····· ....................... 

.. ········~····· 

·········~······ .................. 

················ ................... 

.................... 

...................... 

.................... 

...................... 

...................... 

.................... 

Water-level 

measurements! 

... ............................. 

. ......................... 

.. ........................... 

......................... 

. ..................... 

. ..................... 

. ...................... 

... ....................... 

... ...................... 

. ........................ 

. .................... 

..... ,.. ................... ..................... 

........................... 

~······~··········· 

~--·~········~······ 

. ................... ~. 

···············~··· 

··············~ .... ~ ....... ~··········· 

...................... 

........... ~ ........... ........ ·~········· 

·····~············· ..................... 

~················ .. · ........................ 

··~················ 

··············~···· ..................... 

................... 

....................... 

......................... 

.................... 

......................... 

........................ 

Chemical 

analyses 

...... .do ............. 

•••• do. •••••••••• 

•••• do. .......... •••• do ... · ........ 

.... do ........... 

• ... do ........... 

.... do ........... 

~ ... do ...... ~ .... 

.... do ........... 

.... do ........... 

.... do ........... 

.... do ........... 

.... do ........... .... do ........... 

; ••• do ........... 

.... do ........... 

.... do ........... 

.... do ........... 

.. .. do ........... 

.... do ........... 

.... do ........... 

.... do ........... 

.... do ........... 

.. .. do ........... 

.. .. do ........... 

•••• do ........... 

.... do ........... 

.... do ........... 

.. .. do ........... 

.... do ........... 

.. .. do ........... 

• ... do ........... 

.... do ....... · .... 

.. .. do ........... 

• ... do ........... 

.... do ........... 

Remarks 

Dom. 

Dom. 

Dom. 

Dom. ~ 

a Dom • 

Dom. 

Dom. 

Dom • ~ Dom. 

Dom. ~ Dom 

Dom. 

• e 

P5 2! P5 

"' Dom. 0 

Dom. c: 

Dom. 

Jrr. 

Dom. ~ "' Ind. ;\ Ind. 

Ind • Sl 

Ind • 

~ lnd. ·'Ind. 

Ind. 

Ind • Flowing artesian well. ~ 

Ind. 

Ind . 

Ind. 

Ind. 

Ind. 

Ind. 
51205 •••••••••• do ••••••••••••••••••••••• •••• do ••••••••• 20 ....................................... . ............ ·····~ ..................... • ••• do ••••••••••• 

U208 s. of Belle Glade Pl. 19, F3 60 ............................. ................. ..................... •••• do ........... 

S.1209 Torry Island •••• do ......... 13 ......................... ................ .................... • ••• do ........... 

S1210 N. of Belle Glade .... do ......... 20 .......................... ................... ~ .................... •••• do." .......... 

Sl211 s. Bay .... do ••••••••• 20 ························ .................... ........................ • ••• do ...... ; •••. 

S1212 s. of Bean City .... do ......... ............................. ................. .................... .... do ........... 

S1215 Lake Harbor .... do ......... 31 ······~········· ........... ................. ...................... .... do ........... 

S1216 .......... do ....................... .... do ......... 20 ............................ ................ ··················· . ... do ........... 

S1245 Loxahatchee PI. 19, G3 44 .............................. ................. 4 .............. 4,_ .. 4 ..... •••• do ........... s 1246 .......... do ....................... •••• do ......... 126 .. 4 ............................ .................. ···········4··· ... ··• • ••• do ........... 

s 1247 .......... do ........................ •••• do ......... 19 ............... ············~ .. ................... ·····4············· .. •• do ........... 

1U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper. 

zo, observation; T, test; Dom, domestic; U, unused; lnd, industrial; PS, public supply; lrr, irrigation; S, stock. 

'Section on • Quality of ground and surface water. " 

Ind . 

Dom • s 

Dom • 

Dom. 

Dom • 

D<>I!l. 

Dom . In}i. 

.PS 

PS 
Map 

Well no. General location (pl. 

St. L. 4 Ft Pierce Pl. 19, 

!t'· S. Geol. Survey .Water-Supply Paper. 

T, test; 0, observation. 

location 

and no.) 

G1 

Table 125.-Recorc{ otwell in St. .Lucie County 

[See plate 19] 

Elevation 

Depth Measuring (measuring Water -level 

(feet) point point re- measurements! 

ferred to 

m.s~l.) 

130 Top of casing 21.09 ........................... 

Chemical 

analyses Use I 

. .................. T and 0 

Remarks 

Well log, 

table 134 

co 

t11 

co 
WELL LOGS 

Table 126,-Logs of wells in Droward County 

Well G 184 

Location: Sec, 14, T. 51 s., R; 40 E., 7 miles west of Florida, on xoute 7, Hollywood 

Boulevard. 

Elevation of land surface: 9 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 300 ft. 

Diameter: 6 in. 

Road fill ...................................................................................... .. 

Muck and peat. .................. : ..................... , .. , ................................... .. 

Sand, quartz, gray-white ....................................................... ~ .............. . 

Lime&tone, cream-colored, e>olitic (Miami oolite), fo,.siliferous. Contains ., 

sand in solution caviti••······••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••·•••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

Sandstone, calc:arec>us., and sandy limestone with ocCiiiSional layers or 

pockets of fine white quartz sand. Jligh permeability to 35 ft ................. . 

Sand. quartz, whitt;t, fine, Low penneability .• ~~•u•u••u .. ••••••••••• .. ••••u•••• .... ••• 

S&nd,.tone, grayish-brown, calcareous, with considerable quantltlea of fine 

Wllite quartz sand,ln places. 111gb perme,.bility from 106 to 115, ft .......... .. 

S•ndatone, calcareous, 8helly, ititty, probably a consolidated sandy shell 

marl. Color become& greenish at 135 ft and permeability becomes low ....... 

Sandstone, gray to ire en, calcareous, with occasional layers of soft clayey, 

silty, and aandy marl. Very low permeability ...................... : ............... . 

SaJldstone, dark ... gray, calcareous, fosailiferous. Low permeabilitYuu ......... . 

Marl, darl<-il!"""n• sandy, shelly in places. Practically impermeable ............ .. 

Sand, quart2, green, fine, marly end shelly in places. 'l'he green material is 

a colloidal carbonate ............. ,,, .............. ,, ..................................... . 

Well G 190 

Depth, in feel 

below I at1d sutiace 

0 5 

5 9 

9 10 

10 30 

30 69 

69 79 

79 -130 

130 161 

161 190 

190 195 

195 243 

243 300 

Location: SE't-\~W\1.1 sec. 35, T. 47 S., R. ·38 E.,: 12.2 miles north o£20-Mile Bend in North 

New River Canal, on florida Highway 25. , 

Elevation of land surface: 10.6ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 225 ft. 

Diameter: 6 in. 

Road fill, ..................... _ .................................................................. . 

Muck and peat above; a thin layer of sand and fresh-water gray marl at base .. 

Limestone, gray, dense, hard, of fresh-water origin. Relatively lmpenneable .. 

Limestone and marl, gray, contains fresh- and brackish-water shells. Relatively impe'nneable, ...................................................................... . 

Shell marl, gray, sandy. Low permeability ............................................. .. 

D"P th, in feel 

below land surface 

0 

3 

7 

8 

10 

859 

3 

7 

8 

10 

11 
860 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 126.~Logs of wells in Broward County-Continued 

Well G 190-Continued 

Llrnestone, gl"ay, with tnarl and shells: marin.. Low petine.!ibUity,.., ...... .,.. .. u •• 

LirneBtone, gray~ hard, with nonmarine shell•• Low penne.ability,,.n,, ......... ~ .. .. 

Lime~tone, gray, with marine ahella; probably an indurated ahell marL PumPing teat shows penneabllity to be falriy low ........................................ .. 

Shell marl, gray, indurated in placea to make a hard rock; include" a few thin 

layers of sand. Low permeabllity,., •• ,,.,, ...................... ,,,,,.,,,,.,,,, ,, ,. , •••• 

Sandatone, gray, shelly, calcareous, or an indurated sandy shell marL Low ' 

permeability generally; thin permeable aection at 38 ft ........................... . 

Sand, gray, medium to coarse, inchlC!ea many sh.tll fr•gmenta .... u••u••••••••••••• 

Sandstol\e, gray1 shelly, ca.lcareOua, with aomtt quarlrt ean<L ....... .., ... , ..••... , .. 

Shell bed. Shells are perfectly praeerved, uncemented, and the sample con· 

taint! little sand. This should have been very permeable, but contained 

little water, May have been a sl\e111ena eealed off by adjacent relatively 

impermeable materiala, ............................................. ,,,,, ... ,. ............. , 

Shell marl, Indurated. Low permeability,.,, ............................................ . 

Marl, greenlah-gray, aandy, shelly. Very low !><'rmeability .......................... . 

Sandstone, dark-gray, .,.., ... e-textured, shelly in plac,.a, with beds of s.and 

. intercalated throughout the intervaL Generally of low permeability; thin 

permeable •ections wete found at ISS and 181 ft ................................... . 

Shell marl, greeni•h·gray, and gree11ir•h• sandy. Shell colitent raugea from 

about 95 percent at top to about SO percent at base. ·LOw perme11bllity ........ 

Marl, greenish-gray, .. andy, becoming silty and shelly toward baae. Low 

p,..meabiUty,,., ............. "''"'" ................... ,, .................................. .. 

Marl, greeniBh·gray, silty. Very low permeabi1ity ............. : ....................... .. 

Well G 191 

Depth., m t .. et 

below l.,d wd•c• 

11 17 

17 20 

20 24 

24 29. 

29 so 

so 52 

52 62 

62 68 

68 81 

'81 99 

99 - 181 

181 -198 

1!18 -217 

217 -225 

Location: SEY.,SWY., sec, ·27, T. 50 S., R. 39 E. On Florida Highway 25 at South New River 

Canal,. 

Elevation of land surface:. 6.8 ft above mean sea level, 

Depth : 204 ft. · 

Diameter: 6 in. 

SJ>OlL. ., '~ ,. •• ~~~·; ·~ ........... " ................ I ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ~. 

Muck and marl ..•••.•....•..••••••••••.•... • •• •• • • • •• •• • • •. • •• • • ••• •• ••• •· •• • • • •• •• • • • ••• • • • • ••• • 

Limestone, brownish-gray, very hard and dense. Sllsht permeability due to 

solution holes,,, •..•. ~~,. ••••••• •••••••••••••••• •••••••••••••••• •••••• •••••••••••• ••••••• •••••• 

Sand6tone, gray, calcareous, with sand and sh .. Us. The sand probably occurs 

in $Olution holeBjn the limestone. Low permeability.,, .......................... . 

sandstone, gray, calcareous, and sandy limestone, with beds and pockets of 

white, v"ry fine to medium quartz eand. In this int,.rval, between 49 and 74 

ft, the p"rmeabllity was very high. ..................................................... . 

Shell marl, green to gray, undy at top becoming ailty at base, Vtory lot¥ 

permeability,,, .................................................... ,,,., ....... "'' .......... .. 

Ma.rl, green, clayey, aa:ndy,. very fine, Practically impermeable ................... . 

IJepth tn teet 

belaw land wrllfce 

0 5 

5 8 

8 3:) 

20 27 

27 - 80 

80 - 184 

184 - 3:!4 
WEll. LOGS 

Table 126.-Loga of wella in Drowatd County-continued 

Well G 219 

861 

Location: NE~W~ sec. 33, T, :51 S., R, 39 E. On Dade-Broward Levee at Miami Canal, 

Elevation of land surface: 7.2 ft above mean sea level. : 

Depth: 205 ft. 

Diameter: 6 in. 

Ro•d nlL. ......................................................................... il! ••• ~~ •• ,., ••••••••• 

Peat u.d muck •••••••••••......••••••••• ~~~ •• ··~··•••·••••••·····•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••·•· 

Llmeetone, dark to light, sandy, dense, very hard, Probably altered by oUICOI\do 

ary proeesaes of •olution and redepoaltion. ..•• '! ... ,,,,,,.,, • ., •• ._.,,,,;,.~nu••••••• 

Limestone, wblte to cream, hard, denee, breaks semiconchoidaUy, Solution 

holes give thls rock a hlp ·permeability. Sand pockets near b•e.,.,,., • .,, ... 

Sandatona, whlta, ealeareoua, and white sandy limestone with lensea ·or 

pocl<ete of vary flne to fine white .quartz. sand; tew shella. Madill.;, 

pe:rmeabiUty, ••.•••••• ••••••• , .•..•••• ••••• .•.•.••••••• ••••••· ...•• · ............................ . 

Sand, white,. qu:art*• very line to medium. Low penneabilitY ......... :.,. ... _ ........... . 

Ssndst()ne, white, calea ... ous., potous ............................. ~ ............ ,,. .......... . 

U.meatone, tan.,. sandy, hatd ........................................ ~ •..••••• u .................... . 

Sandetone, white, calcareous, with very fine to medium, white quartz s8nd in 

P')ckets or thin len.aes. Medium pertn.eabllity ..•.••••••••••.••••••••••••• , 11 ............ . 

Shell marl,. darJt.gray, very &andy. Low permeabllity ...................... l'P ............ . 

Sand, greenish, ahelly, with thin iayers of a;raen sandy, clayey marl. Low 

permeability ..................... , ... ,,,,,,,,,,. ....... , .... ,,.,,,,.,.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ... .,,,, 

Sand, green, silty and clayey; few shells, Low penneability., .................... .. 

Shell marl, green., sandy, &ilty. Very low permeability ............. ~,. • .,,._ ............. . 

Sandstone, gray, ealeareous, ahelly, probably a consolidated Iandy shall rnarl. 

Low penneebUity....,...············••••••·•·····•••••••••••···•·•••••······••••"'••••••••••••••··· 

Limestone, gray•White, aandy, with numerous pho&phata grainl, Low 

permeabiUty ................................................................................ ~.•····-· 

Sandstone, gray, calcareous, with streaks of soft gray-white sandy marl; 8lso, 

few thin layer• of green sandstone. Low pen!'le•bllity ...•........ ~·• .. .,.., ........... . 

Sanda tone, greeiu.sh, calcareous, and quartz sand, containin& shells and pho&• 

phate graina. Low permeability .............................................. ,..., .•••••••••.. 

Sand, greanieh, very tine, with phosphate grains. The green color i1 due to a 

colloidal carbonate, Very low permeability ................................ , ......... . 

Marl, gray•green, ellty, shelly, Practically impenneable ........................... .. 

Marl, dark-green, clayey, .,uty, ·Practically lrnpenneab1e. .......................... .. 

Well G 220 

Depth, in ie~l 

below l.,d surface 

0 5 

5 9 

9 16 

16 30 

30 43 

43 48 

48 so 

so 52 

52 '10 

70 86 

86 101 

101 117 

117 121 

121 139 

139 143 

143 158 

158 173 

173 187 

187 191 

191 :lllS 

Location: SW~SW~ sec. 27,· T. :49 S., R. 49 E. At 20-Mile Bend in North New River Canal. : 

Elevation of land surface: 10,6 ft above mean sea \evel. 

Depth: 200 ft. 

Diameter: 6 in. 

Road fill. ........................ ~········~····••••••: .•.••••••...•••••• " ...................... ;. ••••• , 

Peat and muc:k ..•••••.••• : •••••••••••.•••..••••••.••.••••••.. .-...................................... . 

Ma~l, ~alcareous, gray' of freab .. water ortgin. . ............ · ................................. . 

Limestotte. iraYt hard. dense, d£ fresh-water briQ.:.tn." ...................... ~ ..... ~ •••••• 

Sand, quartz, ~ray•whlte, containina; 11m'alllrnmature peleeyPod llbella ......... .. 

Depth, in teet• 

&etr:iw t~~nd lllu.rf•ce 

0 

4 

9 

10 

12 

4 

9 

10 

12 

16 
862 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTIIEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 126.~Logs oi wells in DrowNd County- Continued 

Well G 220- Continued 

Sandstone, gray-white, calcareous, riddled with sol>~tion holes generally 

filled with white, very fine to medium quart2 sand. Medium permeability ••••• 

Sandstone, tan•grayt calcareous, with thin lenses of quartz sard, and with 

few piece a of white chalky marl. Numero\ls Pe<:tene. High permeabqity •••••• 

Sand, dark•gro1y, ahelly, with thin layers of shelly calcareous sandstone; also, 

phoaphate pebbles as large as 'tlo-in. diameter, ••••••••••••••••• •••• ••• •• ••••• ••••••••. 

Sand, dark-gray shelly. Low permeability ............................................... . 

Sand, quarto:, dark•greell\lh-gray, with thin layers of g..,enbh clay, and a 

large amount of phosph11te grains. Low perme11bility .............................. . 

Sand, quartz, ill'een-aray, and c:alc;:arooull sandstone nodllles; also a few thin 

layers of calcareous &andetone, Low penneability .................................. . 

Sand. qua_rtz, whit•, coarse, with calcare'ous ••ndstone nodules, .................. .. 

Sandstone, calcareou• or sandy limestone, with lensea of fine shelly quart2 

sand, Low pertneabUity,._.,<~~••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••u•••••••••••• Sandstone, gray-green, ~alc:areous, shelly, poorly conaolidated, Low 

permeabUity, ~·•••••••~~o.,.,• .. •••••••••·•• ••• ........................... ··~"'•••••••••• •••••• •••• ... . 

Sand, greenish to dark•llf*Y• Low permeability ...................... ,'.,,.,. ............ . 

M11rl, green, silty a~d clayey, with occasional shelly quartz sand layers. Very 

low pertneabllity ... .,"' .. .,"'"'"'"''"., .................................................... ,, •.••••••• ~ •• 

Marl, green, •andy, wlth thin lenees of clay, Very low permeability,.,,., ....... . 

Shell marl, green, sandy, Low permeability ............................................ .. 

Marl, green, c:layey and undy. Practically impermesble ........................... .. 

Well G 221 

D <If> th, In feel 

below land li!Utfaee 

16 38 

38 67 

67 77 

77 84 

84 94 

94 100 

100 - 109 

109 - 151 

151 - 162 

162 - 172 

172 - 184 

184 • 190 

190 - 194 

194 -200 

Location: NWY.,NWY., sec, 18, T. ~0 S., R. 42 E. On Florida Highway 7, 1.0 mile N, of 

North New River Canal, 

Elevation of land surface: 15,6 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 330 ft. 

Diameter. 6 in, 

Sand, white, quartz, partly filling solution holes in the underlying oolitic 

lime8tone .............................................................................................. . 

Lim•stone, cre-amy to tan oolitic· (Miami oolite) .............. ..,...,. ... .., .. .., .. , . ..., ..•. , ...... . 

Sand, quartz, tan--brown; color due to iron oxide atain.. .................... u .. ••ll••uu•• 

Sand, quartz, black, carbonaceous, ve-ry fine to medium. ............................ . 

Sand, quartz, white, very fine to· medium, containin1 shell frapents and ··aand• 

$tone nodules, Low permeability ........................................................ . 

Sand, quartz, gray, very fine to medium. Low permeability ......................... .. 

Sand, quartz, and aome ochre-colored cl"yey material. Contains nodular cal• 

careoua sandstone, corsl$, a.n.d • few aheUs. Low permeability ............... .. 

San~ quart%, tan-gtay, and sandstone nodules. Low permeability ................. . 

Sand, quartz, gray-white, with fine shell particles. Low permeability ........... . 

Sand, quartz, ill'&Y, medium to coarse, and nod\llar c:slcareous sandstone. Low 

permeability ........................................................... , ........................ . 

Sandstone, Ugbt•gray, calcareous, and large q\laQUtiell of very fl,ne to 

medium, white quartz sand. Th• sand appar•nUy fills aolution holes. Low 

permeability .................................................................................. . 

S>Uidstor~e, liilht-ill'aY to tan, calcareous, and ••ndy lime•tor~e with lens•• 

and pockets of quartz aand, Medium permeability .................................. . 

Sand, tan.gray, and nodular calcareous sandatone. Small•mount of shell · 

fragments. Low permeability ........ .' .................................................... . 

Sand, ill'eenish-gray, coarae, 8helly. Low permeability ............................. .. 

Dapth, In feet 

balow land wrf.sce 

0 1 

I 8 

8 11 

11 12 

12 28 

28 83 

83 84 

84 92 

92 103 

103 114 

114 139 

139 199 

199 228 

228 238 
WELL LOGS 863 

Table 126.-LoQa of wells in 11roward County- Continued 

Well G 221-Continued 

Salld, grayish-green, mady, partly consolidated in placea to a shelly calcareoua aandatone. Low pefllle•bility,.,.,.,., .................... , ... , ............ .. 

Sand, green, marly.and clayey. Practically impermeable. ......................... , 

Well G 341 

D"Pih, In feel 

l>elow llltld wrl•c• 

238 - 292 

292 - 330 

Location: NEY.NEW. sec, 14, T. 51 S., R. 38 E., 5 miles northwest of Dade-Broward County 

Line Dam, and 0,3 mile northeast of Miami Canal. 

Elevation of land surface: 8,0 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 34 ft. 

Diameter: 1'14 in. 

Muck and marl,. .............................................................................. . 

Limestone, brown-white, very hard to 7 ft, soft and sandy from 7 to 26 ft. 

Cavity from 26.5 to 28ft ............................................................... .. 

Salid; quartz, gray, with amall amount of loose sandy lirnesto~e .................. . 

Linleatone, gray aandy ................................................................ ~ .•.... 

Well G 512 

Depth, in feel 

below land surface 

0 3,5 

3.5- 28 

28 33 

33 34 

Location: NEW,NEW. sec. 24,T. 50S.,: R. 41 E., w. side of Florida Highway 7 on N, bank 

of North New River Canal.' 

Elevation of land surface: about 10 ft above mean sea level, 

Road fill,. ... ,..,, ................................................ , ........................... . 

Muck, .organic, black. .... ; ................ , ................................................. . 

Limeatone, oolitic, cre•my to white, with layers of q)lart"' sand ............... .. 

Um.est~e, oc>litic, very aand.y and soft ................................................ . 

Oolite, q~~artz aand, fine, Low pefllleabllity,,. ....................................... . 

Sand, quart,., white to greyieh-white, fine-grained.,, ............................... .. 

Sartdii.tone, c:alcareoua,. very hard. •••••••• ~···········••••""•"""""'••••••••••••u••uu••• 

S•nd quartz peppered with colloph•ne and ilmenita.; ............................. .. 

Sends tone, calcareoua, alternating with thin be de of qu•rtz aand., ............ . 

Lim••tone ....••••••••••••••••••••••.••••••.•••.•.•••.•.....•.•...•....•..••..••••••••••••••••• , 

Lim•etotle, sandy and quartz aand ....................................................... . 

Cavity. Large yield. ....................... ,,, ............................................ .. 

Gravel lying on a thin layer of limeetone,,.,.,. .. , ............... ., ................. .. 

C.vity ............. ,, .. ,,,.,,,,,.,. •. ,., ...................................................... . 

Limeatona, •andy with thin layer• of quart.. sand. Medium parmeability,,,., 

Cavity,,,,, .. .,,,,,,.,.,.,,.,, ... , .................... ,.,,.,, .. ,,,,,,,,,.,,.,. ... ,. ........ .. 

Lime•tone, very dena e.. ••••• •••···• ••••••• ···•·····••••·••••••·••••• ••••••••·•··•······ ••••• 

C.vity,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ............................... ,,,,,,,,,,,,,.,,,., ............... .. 

Lim••tone. very dense. ••.......................••• •••••••• ••••••••••••·· ••...............•• 

Depth, In feel 

biOlow llimd surface 

0 

11 

14 

20 

28 

40 

61 

70 

126 

140 

141 

142 

144 

146 

151 

110 

171 

172 

174 

11, 

14 

20 

28 

40 

61 

70 

126 

140 

141 

142 

144 

146 

151 

170 

171 

172 

174 

175 
864 WATER RESOURCES lN SOU'rnEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 126.-Lo.gs of wells in Droward County-Continued 

Well G 513 

Location: SE\4SE\4 sec. 14, T. 50S., R. 41 E., left bank of North New River Canal, 1.1 

miles W. of Florida Highway 7. 

Elevation of land surface: about 6.4 ft above mean sea level. 

Spoil ............................................................................................... . 

Muck, black ...................................................................................... . 

Limestone.oolitic with altemating hard and soft layers ..........•....• ••••••• , ... , .. . 

s~ oolitic with a marine near-shore fauna.ttUt•t••t••••••••••••••UtUtttt•H•••t••t• 

Sand, quart:., fine-grained, angular; some dark colloidal material at the upper 

portion of bed. Medium-low permeability ...• uu•uuu••••••••••••••• .......... ,,., •••• 

Sandstone, calcareous to sandy limestone, light-colored, High permeability ..... 

Sand, quartz, fine .•••• •••••••••• .•..••.••.. ••• ••••••• , ••....•.... ••••••••• ........................ . 

Limestone and calcareous sandstone ............... , .••.. , ......•...••• ••• ,, ••••• •.......•.. 

Sandstone•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

Sandstone, calcareous .•...•••••••••••••.••...•.•..•.••••••••......•.....••..••••••••.•.••.....• 

Sand quartz, ................................................. ,,,,, ...................... , ......... . 

Limestone, shelly with. some quartz sand., Very permeable ................. ~•u•••••• 

Marl, white ... ,,,,,,., •• , ................................... ,,,,,,, ............................... . 

sandstone, calca.reous, shelly. Very permeable ............................................ . 

Limestone, sandy, dense, gr11ding downward 'to a fossiliferous sandy marl. 

Perme11ble,, ..... , ............. , .. ,,,, ....................................... ,., ............ ,,,,, 

Sand., quwh: and sandstone with some yellow...green limestone .. ~ .................. .. 

Clay ........................................................................................ ,,,,,,,., 

Well G 515 

DEipl.'>, In teet 

below land surface 

0 3 

6 10 

10 19 

19 24 

24 58 

58 66 

66 72 

72 93 

93 112 

112 118 

118 122 

122 129 

129 137 

P7 152 

152 180 

ISO 220 

220 224 

Location: NE\4SW'J.\ sec, 12, T. 50s.,· R. 41 E., In center of Fort Lauderdale Golf and 

Country Club, near City well 6. 

Elevation of land surface; about 9,0 ft above mean sea level, 

Sand,' quolilrtz~ grayish·white .•....•••••.•.... , ................................................... . 

Sand, quartz, dark-brown, medium .. grained, containing a large amount of organic 

material. Moderately-permeable., ••... , ......... ~·····•··········••,•••••••••••••••••••••····· 

Sand....!.. q~!"rtz. fii11~0'"f'ainP.~·····~···•··••• .. •••••••••••••••••••·········••••••••• .. ····••••••······• 

Sand, quartz, very fine-grained with some admixed clay. Low penneability.., ..... 

Limestone, sandy, caverous, with some quartz sand. Li.mestone has weathered ~ 

appearance. 1\'loderately permeable .................................. , ..................... . 

Limestone, sandy, and quartz sand. Each ha,.epeppered appearance due to 

presence of collophane, Medium te low permeability, ...................... ; ....... .. 

Sand, quartz, "ery fine-r;rained, peppered with collophane and ilmenite. Low 

permeability ................................................................................... . 

Limestone, sandy, and calcareous sandstone, f-ossiliferous, Very permeable 

between 107 and 123ft; low, between 123 and 167 ft .............................. .. 

San,dstone, calcareous. Penneable ....••••••••••••••••.•••..•.••...••••••••••••....•.......•. 

Sand, quartz, interbedded with thin layers of clay. Low permeability,., ......... 

Marl, clayey, gray-green with thin lenses of quartz s.and containing some 

iltnenite. very low penneability .......................................................... . 

Depth, in teet 

below land surface 

0 3 

3 31 

31 42 

42 61 

61 68 

68 ·g4 

94 104 

104 167 

167 175 

175 204 

204 211 
WELL LOGS 865 

Table 126.-Logs of wells in Browtad County-Continued 

Well G Sl6 

Location: NW'/.NWY., sec. 8, T. 50S., R. 42 E., On Broward Blvd., 1.1 mile.s E. pf Florida 

Highway 7. 

Elevation of land surface: 7,4 ft above mean sea level. 

Soil.,,., ...................•.••...• ,,, .•....................•• ,.,,.,,,,.,,,,, .................•.••.•• 

Sand, quartz, fine--e;rained. ••• ,,,,, .......••.•••..••.••••• ,,,,,,, .... , .••..•.....•••.•••••••••• 

sand, quartz:, with small proportion o£ blue·clay ....... u•u••••••••• .. ••••••••••••••••••• 

sand, quartz, white, very fine•gralned. .............. ,,,,,, ............................... ,. 

Sandstone. calcareous .......•••• ,,.,,.,, .. ,,.,, .... , ...•••• ,,,,,,.,,,,,,, .. ,,, ..•.....•.•••••••• 

Sand, quartz, with some oolitic sandy limestone •.•••• ,,,,,,,,, ...•.•........•.•••••••••• 

;"l:ncstone, sandy, a!>d calcareous sandGtqne beda altemating with thitllayers 

of sand, Very permeable al<cept between 102 and 114 ft. ........... , ............. .. 

Sand, quartz. coarse, with some blue clay; relatively im.penneableu•••••••••••••••• 

Limestone and quartz sand. some blue clay, low penneability .............. u••••••• 

Sand, quartz altemating with thin beds of soft, blue-gray fissile shale; "ery 

low permeability .............. ,,,.,, •• , ................. ,,,.,,,,,,, ................. ,.,,,, ••••• 

Limestone, sandy with few thil> layers of quartz sand; some calcareous sandstone concretiona; very penneable .......................................................... . 

J...irnestone, cavernous; very permeable ........................................ ..., .......... . 

Sandstonet calcareous with thin layers of quartz sand, very penneable, ......... . 

cavity ............................................................................................. . 

Well GS 1 

Dff/>lh, In feet 

bwowlend tJUtlac:e 

0 1 

1 40 

40 42 

42 so 

50 58 

58 65 

65 -114 

114 - 117 

117 - 122 

122 - 127 

127 - 168 

168 - 173 

173 - 199 

199 -200 

Location: SEY.,SEY., sec. 29, T. 48 s., R. 39 E. On Florida Highway 25, 6 miles north of. 

Florida Highway 84, · · · 

Elevation of land surface: 8,6 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: -ss ft. 

Diameter: 4 in. 

Peat••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

Sandstone, calcareous, of fresh-water orig:in.J;..ow permeability ...................... . 

Merl, sandy, shelly, consolidated in places to a shelly calcareous sandstone, 

Very low permeability .. ,,,,,,,,, ....... ,,,,,,,, ......... ,,,,,, ........... ,,,,, ............. , 

Sand, quartz, shelly.,, ........................................ "'" ............ " • ......... ""' 

Sand, quartzt fine. Low permeability ......................................................... . 

Sand, quartz-, foasil~ferous. 'Low pertneabilitY·~···········••u•• .. •••••••••••••••••••••••• 

Merl, dark-gray, shelly snd sall.dy, Very low permeability., ......................... .. 

Depth, in feet 

below I and surf<tca 

0 1 

1 2 

2 

12.5-

14 

12.5 

14 

23.5 

23.5- 40 

40 55 
866 WATER RESOURCES IN SOU1HEASTER.N FLOIUDA 

Table 126.-Logs of wells in IJwwani CoiUlty-Continued 

Well GS 9 

Location: NEY..SEY.. sec. 36, T. 47 s.,'R. 41 E. At Florida Highway 7 and Hillsboro Canal. 

Elevation of land surface: Approximately 15 ft above mean sea level. · 

Depth: 52 ft. 

Diameter: 4 in. 

Sand, quart:o, oceurring in •olution holes or underlying oolitic limestone •••••••• 

Limestol18, oolitic:, riddled wlth solution holea filled with sand. ................. .. 

Sand. quartz. very line. Low penne•bility ................. , ... , ...... ~ ................... . 

Sand, quart:z:, with thin layers or dark-brown sandy clay marl containing a large 

amount of carbonaceous material: evidently atl ancient mangrove swamp. Low 

Depth, in feet 

below lttnd crtace 

0 

3 

8 

3 

8 

24 

penneability ••••••.••••••••••. •• ........................... -. •..• , ... , .• ,,,,, •••• ••••• ••••••••••~• •• ~4 

45 

45 

Sand, quartz, whit•, v•ry fine to coarse, Low penneability ............................ .. 52 

Well GS 10 

Location: Sec. S, T. 49 s., R. 41 E. Approximately 6 miles west of Florida Highway 7, on south side of Cypress Creek Canal. 

Elevation of land surface: Approximately 12 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 50 ft, 

Diameter: 4 in. 

Roek flU ........................................................................................ .. 

Muck .lind fritsb...water marl •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• , •••••••••• ,,,,,,, 

Limestone, .andy, hard; probably of fresh-water origin. ............................. .. 

Sandstone, white,calcareous, hard..,,, ........ ,,.,, .... ,,,,,,,,,,,, ...................... .. 

Sand, quartz, and nodular sandstone ............ ,.,.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ........................ . 

Sandstone, tan, calcareous, and chalky limestone, Low penneability ............. . 

Sandstone, ealc:areous, hard, containing pockets of quartz sand, High · 

permeability ........................................................................ ••••••••• .. 

Sand, quartz .............................. , .•. ,.,,,.,,,.,,, ... ,,.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, •.•••••••..• 

Sand, quartz, shelly; very fine to' fine, Low penneability,, ...................... ~ .. ··· 

Well GS 13 

Depth, in l•.,t 

below land •uri ace 

0 2 

2 .,. 

7 9 

9 to.s 

10,5- 12 

12 16,5 

16.5 - 21 

21 22 

22 so 

Location: Sec, 30, T. 50 S., R. 38 E. Northeast side of Miami Canal, 0.25 mile northwest 

of South New River Canal. · 

Elevation of land surface: Approximately 11.5 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 50 ft. 

Diameter: 4 in. 

Fill. .......................................................................................... ,,,,, .. , 

Mu<>k, .......................... ; ........................................................ : ............ . 

Depth, in teet 

belowlsnd ...,,face 

0 3,5 

3.5- 4 
WELL LOGS 867 

Table 126.-Logs of wells in Broward County-Continued 

Well GS 13-Continued 

Marl, grayish-white .................................................. ••••• ........... , ......... .. 

Limestone, oolitic ......................................•..........................••............ 

Sandstone, tan-gray, calcareous; riddled with solution holes ........................ .. 

Limestone; gray, hard. ....................... ,,, .......... ........... u•••• ...... u••••••••tt••••• 

Sand, quartz, and pieces of calcareous sandstone, May be a solution...riddl~d 

limestone filled with sand. ............................................................... .. 

Limestone, sandy, sh~lly ...... , ...................... , ....... ,,., •........ ,, ...............•. , 

Well GS 15 

Depth, In teet 

below llltld wrface 

4 s 

s 7 

7 22 

22 2s;s 

25.5- 35,5 

33,5- so 

Location: T. 46_S., R. 38 E. Approximately 11 miles west of Florida Highway 7 at the 

Broward-Palm Beach County Line. 

Elevation of land surface: Approximately 15 ft above mean sea level, 

Depth: 19.5 ft. 

Diameter: 4 in. 

Depth, In teet 

below land Sllrface 

Pa .. t ................................................................................................. . 0 3 

Marl, grayish--white, of freah•water origin. .................. ,.,, ••.....•................... 3 3.5 

Limestone and marl, of treah-weter and merlrie origin. ................................ . 3.5- 11 

Sand, quartz containine: a few fresh .. wat.,r she-lltl ....................... ............... . 11 13 

Limestone, whl te, a andy, shelly, very hard .............................................. . 13 19,5 

WellS 427 

Location: NEY..NW\4 sec. 2, T. 51 s., R. 41 E. Davie Air Field, Dania-Davie Road, 1 mile 

west of Florida Highway 7. 

Elevatiqn of land surface: 5.0 ft above mean sea level, 

Depth: 103 ft. 

Diameter: 4 in. 

sand, quart~:, tan to white, medium. .................... h ................................... . 

San<hltone, gray-white, calcareous, "'?ntaining aome land and shells. ............ .. 

Sa-net.. quartz. gray-white, and some loose shelly calcaMous sandstone ............ . 

Sandstone, gr,.yhoh·white,calcareous, ahelly, containing large amount loose 

und. ............................................................................................ .. 

Depth, in lut 

below IBnd wrlace 

0 51 

51 56 

56 77 

77 - 103 
868 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTIIEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 126.-Lo/il.s of wells in Droward County--Continued 

WellS 428 

Location: NE'/.,NW'A sec, :2, T. 51 S,, R. 41 E. Davie Air Field Dania-Davie Road, 1 mile 

west of Florida Highway 7, 

Elevation of land surface: 5.0 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 100 ft. 

Diameter: 4 in. 

Dep 11>. in feel 

below land surface 

Sand, quart:z:, white, medium. •..•.•••••.•.••••••••••......••••••••••••.•.•.••••••••..•.•...••• 0 48 

Sandstone, gray, calcareous, shelly, and quartz sand.,,,, ········•••• •• , ........• •• ••• 48 76 

Sand, q>.tartz, gray, shelly ........................ __ ,,,,_,,., ............................ . 76 82 

Sandsto1:2.e, gr&ly, calcareous, shelly, and some medium to fi~e quartz sand. ...... . 82 - 100 

WellS 440 

Location: NWY.NE% sec, 2, 1'. 51 S., R. 41 E. Davie Air Field, Dania-Davie Road, 1 mile 

west of Florida Highway 7. 

Elevation of land surface: 5 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 53 ft. 

Diameter: 4 in. 

Sand, quartz, white,,, ........ ,,,. ...... ••••., .......... ., ., ..................... ••• ,., .••••••• , 

Limestotte, coralline, with stttall amount of sand and shells ........................ .. 

Well S 441 

Depth, In feel 

balo w I an rl IJUtface 

0 

51 

51 

53 

Location: NW'/.,NEY. sec. 2, T. 51 S., R. 41 E. Davie Air Field, Dania-Davie Road, 1 mile 

west of Florida Highway 7, · 

Elevation of land surface: 5.0 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 107 ft. · 

Diameter. 4 in. · 

Depth, In feet 

below land curt ace 

Sand, quartz, white, mtJdi'um. to c;:oarse .... ...................................................... . 0 52 

Limestone, gray, with sand containing pieces cif chalk and som" gray marlY 

sand. ................................................ ,: ......••••......•••••.....••••.......•••........ 52 53 

Sandstone, calcareous, and some sand ..................................................... . 

Sand, quartz, gray, Small amoun-t of loose calcareoua sandstone and shells,. .... . 

53 58 

58 76 

Sandstonet gray, calcareous, $belly, and sand. ............ "" ......•••......••••.......•••• 76 90 

Sand, quartz, gray, coar~e, containing shells and nodular calcareous sandstone,. 90 - 107 
WELL LOGS 869 

Table 126.- Logs of wells in Droward Cou.(lty-Continued 

WellS 452 

Location: NEY.NWY., sec. 26, T. 51-S., R. 41 E. South Perry Air Field, 0,5 mile south of 

Pembroke Road and 1.0 mile west of Florida Highway 7, 

Elevation of land surface: 5 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 52 ft. 

Diameter: 4 in. 

Sand, quartz, gray .•......•• , •• ,, •. , .. ,,,,,,, .••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.•••..••••••.• 

Sandstone, light-brown, calcareous.. ..................................................... . 

Sand, tan,oolitic,,,,, •• ••• •••• ••• •• ••.••••• ••••••• ••• ••••••• ••••• ••·••··•···• ...•.......•...•.. 

Sandstone, brown, calcareous, and some coralline limestone •.•••.•.. •••••••• ..... 

WellS 454 

D.,P lh, In feel 

below land sutlace 

0 

21 

31 

46 

21 

31 

46 

52 

Location: NEY.,NE\10 sec, 22, T. 51 s., R. 41 E. North Perry Air Field, 0,5mile north of 

Pembroke Road and 2,0 miles west of Florida Highway 7. : 

Elevation of land surface: 5 ft above mean sea level, 

Depth: 100 'ft. 

Diameter: 4 in, · 

Sand,. quartz, white, medium to fine ...................................... ~••uuu~··~••u 

Sandstone, gray, calcareous, soft. and quart:e sand with few shellB ... ~H•••••• 

Sand, quartz, grey and poorly cemented calcareous sandstone. Few shell 

fragments from 93 to 95 ft. ............. ,,.,.,,.,.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, •••••• , ........ . 

Sandstone, gray, CalCiilteOuS; shelly .......................................... ,.~ .. ~~•••••• 

WellS 455 

Depth, in feel 

below land surface 

0 49 

49 61 

61 95 

95 - 100 

Location: NEY.,NEY., sec, 22, T. 51 s., R. 41 E. North Perry Air Field, 0,5 mile north of 

Pembroke Road and 2.0 miles west of Florida Highway 7. 

Elevation of land surface: 5 ft above mean sea level, 

Depth: 78 ft. 

Diameter: 4 in. 

Sand, quartz, e;ray, mediul'Jl,with some poorly eem.ented calcareous $andstone 

and shell fragment£ from 49 to 53 ft. ................................................... .. 

Sandstone, gray, calcareous, soft; and quartz sand. ............................ u .. ••••"" 

Sand., quartz, gray, medium; with shell frapents ............................... u••••••••• 

Sandstone, calcareous, shelly ••...•........•...•.••••••• "' •• "' ••..........••••••.•............• 

Depth, in feet 

below/and 6urface 

0 

53 

66 

74 

53 

66 

74 

78. 
870 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 126.""-l..ogs otwell$ in Broward Cmmty- Continued 

WellS 463 

Location: SE\I.NEI£, sec. 22, T. 51 S., R. 41 E. North Perry Air Field, Q.S mile north of 

Pembroke Road and 2.0 miles west of Florida Highway 7. 

Elevat.ion of land surface: 5 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 67 ft. 

Diameter: 4 in, 

Sand. quart£., g;;ay, ............................. , ........................ ~ •••. ,,.,., ............... . 

Limestone, oolitict and quartz s8nd. ............................ ,,,,,,,,,,, ............... . 

Sand, quart:., gray, medium to fine, with loose qleareous sandstone and 

pieces of blue sandy marl between 37 and 48 n. ................................. .. Sand, q~rt=. it.nd loose calcareous sandatone .................. ,..,.,, ................. ,, 

Umestone, brown, calcareous, hard.., ................... ,, ...................... ,,,,.,. 

Depth, In teet 

be/ow land IIVrl•e• 

0 

5 

20 

53 

65 

5 

20 

53 

65 

67 
WEll LOGS 871 

Table 127.-Logs of wells in Dade County 

Well D 196 

Location: NEY.NE\\0 sec, 17, T. 54 S., R. 41 E. Southwest corner of Douglas Road and 

Coral Way, Coral Gables. 

Elevation of land surface: 10 ft above mean sea level, 

Depth: 225 ft. 

Diameter: 6 in. 

DSf'lh, in feel 

below land surface 

Limestone, brownish-white, oolitic, hard to soft .......... ,, .. ,.,, .. ,u ....... ,,, .. .. 0 

Limestone, coralline, very s.oft,.,, •....•............................. ,,,,,,,,,,u•••••••~• 21 

Sandstone, brown, calcareous, very hard from 39 .to 49 ft .. ,.H, .. , .. ,.,,, .. ,.u ... 28 

Sand, quartz, medium to fine, and pieces of calcareous sandstone, .............. . 49 

Sandstone, calcareous, hard, and coarse quartz sand. Cavity, 6L5 to 63,5 ft 61 

Sand, quartz:, gray ... , .. ,,,,,.,,,,,,,,,,,, •...••••.•••••••.•............•.................. , .. 74 

Limestonll!, sandy, and fine to very fine white 3i:Uld,..~ .. r#•••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 93 

Sandstone, gray, calcareous, soft to hard.~HUHHH ~ .... ~ ............................ .. 101 

Sandj quartz, grayish-white, medium to Cine, •.••.••••• ~ ............................... . 125 

Sandstone, gray, calcareous, and quartz sand. ....... ~ .............................. .. 129 

Sandj quartz, grayish-white, fine to very fine, .... ~ .... ~ ...................... ~·•• .... .. 135 

Sandstone, gray, calcareous, and quartz sand.. ....................................... . 142 

Sand, quartz, gray, ~helly, coarse ••••..•••.••••••.••••••••••• , •• ,,, •• , .•..••••••• , •.••••• 149 

Marl, green, sandy, shelly. Very low permeability ................................... . 168 

Well D 350 

Location: NW\\ONE~4 sec. 16, T. 54 S., R. 41 E., SW 22 St. and 31st Court, Miami, 

Elevation of land surface: about 10. C ft above mean sea level. 

21 

28 

49 

61 

74 

93 

- 101 

- 125 

- 129 

- 135 

- 142 

- 149 

- 168 

-225 

Depth, In fe.et 

be/ow I and s"rface 

l-imestone oolitic (Miami oolite) ......... , ............................ ., ................. . 

Sand, tan, and Miami oolite ................................................................ . 

Sandj tan, and Miami oolite., ................................................................ . 

Sand, white, and some ground .. up sandstone ...... u ........... u••••••••••••••••••••••• 

Sand, white to apptol<lmately 48.50 ft, then reddish-brown sandstone .......... .. 

Sandstone, calcareous, light-gray, and some sand .................................... .. 

Sandstone, calcareous, brownish, hard .................................................... . 

Sandstone, light-gray, shelly, soft, tannish-grey, and shell ...................... .. 

Sandstone, calcareous, light-greyj shellyt ··soft .......................................... . 

Well G 101 

0 

7 

22 

33 

43 

49 

63 

70 

83 

7 

22 

33 

43 

49 

63 

70 

83 

93 

Location: NW'l4SW\\O sec, 3, T. 54 S., R. 40 E· On Flagler Street, 3 miles west of Red 

Road. 

Elevation of land surface: 4,9 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 812 ft. 

Diameter: 6 in, to 435 ft and 4 in. to 812 ft. 

Depth, In feel below land s .. rtsce 

Muck ............ , ..................................................................................... .. 

t1arl, gray. or fresh .. water type ..••.••••••.•••••.••.•• ~············~···· .. ··••··· .. •················ 

0 

1 

1 

2 
872 WATER RESOURCES IN SOU'JHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 127.~ Logs of wells in Dade Coltllty- Continued 

Well G 101-Continued 

Sand, quartz, black to brown organic stain in upper portion, white at base, 

1-"ills solution holes in oolite .............. ~~· .. •••••••••••···••••·•··•·················· 

Limestone, cream-colored, oolitic (Miami oolite), honeycombed and perforated by vertical solution holes filled with white quartz sand. ................. . 

Sand, quartz. white, and oolitic limestone. S$.nd composes 70 percent of the 

sample. Rept¢$ents transition from limestone to sand ........ u ................. . 

Sand, quartz, white, fine, fo:ssitiferous ... u•u••·••· .. ··•····•·•·····················• .. 

Sandstone, grayish-white. calcareous, Iligh penneabiU.ty ........................... . 

Sandstone, grayish to tan, calcareous fossiliferous, with lenses or pockets of 

quartz sand; very high permeability .. .,, .............................................. . 

Limestone, gray-white, dense, hard, and quartz sand; fossiliferous, High 

permeability ... ." ............................................................................ .. 

Sand, quartz, white; fine 1 and pieces of lltnestone-.. ..... u .... u ...................... . 

Lime stone, white, sandy, with occasional small pockets of sand. lligh 

permeability,,,,,, ••................. ••••• ••••••••• ,, .•.................... •••••••••••••••• ,, 

Sand, quartz, fine to medium, and pieces of limestone ............................. . 

Limestone, gray ... whlte1 hard,. with pockets of quartz sand. ........................ . 

Shell marl, dark-gray, sandy, Low permeability ........................................ , 

Marl, greenish, sandy, shelly In places, especially at 174 to 182 and 187 to 

194 ft, Very low permeability., ......................................................... , 

Sand. quartz, white, medium, with thin layers of sandy green marL ............. .. 

Sand, green, fine to medium, marly, The green color appears to be due to 

finely disseminated colloidal carbonate material that coats the quartz grains 

and makes up the marly rnatri:x,,,,., •...........•...•••••••••....•............••••••••..... 

Sand, quartz, grlily-white,. medium. ....•••••••••••••••........•..•••. ~~·••u 11 ................ .. 

Marl, green, sandy, shelly. Very low permeabllity .................................... .. 

Sand, green, very fine to medium,. with occasional thin layers of green clay or 

clayey marl, ..•...........•••••••..••..........•.•.•••••.••••.............•••••••......... ~ ..• 

Sand, green,. fine. Low permeability ...................................................... . 

Marl, green, sandy, fine, with thin layers of green clayey tnarl. ................... . 

Sand, green, very fine to Cine; becomes sUty toward base .......................... .. 

Marl,. green, $ilty, Very low penneabillty ................................................ . 

Marl,. green, clayey, with occasional thin layers of ailty marl .................... .. 

Marl, green, clayey, grade" into gray-white calcareous shelly marl .............. . 

Marl, gray, silty; contains thin layers of chalky white marl and some shells .. . 

Marl, grayish-green, silty, with thin layers of green clay marl. Shells are 

common. Very low permeability ......•••••...........•..•••••........••••.•••......•..••• 

Limestone, white, fossiliferous, impure in part, owing to admixed sand and 

slit. Low permeability .................................................................... .. 

Marl, greeniah-gray to light-gray, silty,. ver:y calcareous toward base ............. . 

Marl, grayish--white, silty,. ealcareous ...................................................... . 

Shell marl, gray, sandy. Low penneabUity .............................................. . 

Marl, gray-white, allty, calcareous, "belly, Last few feet toward base quite 

clayey. Low permeability ••••.......••••••..........•••..........•••••••........•••.••.....• 

Shell marl, gray, sandy, Low penneability ............................................... .. 

LimeStone,. gray.whlte to dark-gray, hard. Low pll!lrm.esbility .......................... . 

Marl, datk-gr•y, clayey. Very low pe~eability ............................................ . 

Shell marl, gray, sandy. Low permeability,. ............................................. .. 

Limestone, gray-white, hard. Medium permeability .................................... .. 

Marl, light-gray, silty, shelly, calcareous, Low penneability ....................... .. 

Marl, light•gray, very shelly .................................................................. • 

Limestone, grayish .. white, hard, fossiliferous. Medium penneabUity .............. .. 

S"'nd• white, calcareous, very fitle •••........ ........... •• ....... ••••• ••••••••• ............. •• • 

Umeatone, white, hard, sandy in places. Medium. permeability. Artesian flow 

at 809. 5 ft below land surface .............................. "' ........................... . 

Depth, in feet 

below land eudace 

2 6 

6 18 

18 25 

25 30 

30 34 

34 61 

61 67 

67 70 

70 88 

88 95 

95 - 111 

111 - 145 

145 - 194 

194 -203 

203 -206 

206 - 212 

212 - 219 

219 -249 

249 -254 

254 -262 

262 -326 

326 -383 

383 -426 

426 -435 

435 -456 

456 -488 

488 -525 

525 -571 

571 -637 

637 -647 

647 -711 

711 - 717 

717 -731 

731 -735 

735 -743 

743 -753 

753 -759 

759 -770 

770 -781 

781 -785 

785 -812 
WELL LOCS 

Table 127.-Lots of wells in Dade County-. Continued 

Well G 182 

873 

Location: NWY..NW\4 sec. 19, T. 53 s., R, 41 E. Morningside Drive and Curtiss Parkway, 

Miami Springs. 

Elevation of land surface: 6 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 301 ft. 

Diameter: 6 in, 

Depth, in te.,t 

below /snd surface 

Satld, quatt.z:, whit•, line to medium, and organic material ............................ . 

Limestone, cream-colored, oolitic (Miami oolite}; and sand as above ............. . 

Sand, quartz, light-colored, fine to medium.. .................. ••• .................. ••• ••• .. 

Limestone, sandy, and tan-brown calcareous sandstone with thin beds of sand. 

Hi&h permeability .................................... ; ....................................... . 

Sendstone, calcareous, and aray-white, foouoiliferous, sandy limestone. Very 

high permeebllity •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

Shell marl, light-gray to greenish-gray, sandy, with sandy nodules in some 

place~. Low permeability from 95 to 107ft, and only slightly permeable 

from 117 to 128 n ........................................................................... .. 

Sand, greenish, n;.e-to coame, marly in upper portion. Very low permeability .. . 

Sand, areen, very fine to medium, marly in places, fossiliferous, with a few 

thin layers of calcareous sandstone and phosphate pebbles between 196 and 

213 ft. Practiclllly impermeable from here to bottom of well ...................... .. 

Marl, dark-gray, •andy, and fine quartz sand. ................... ~ ...................... u .. 

Sand, gr~en, very flne to fine, and green sandy mad .................•. ••••• ....... ••••• 

Clay, green, marly .....................................•.•••••.•.••••••••••••••••••••••••...•...•• 

Sand, green, very fine to fine, and sandy marl ........................................... .. 

Clay, green, marly ....•........................•..•.•..••••••.•••••••••••••••••....•....•......... 

Well G 183 

0 2 

2 20 

20 33 

33 56 

56 83 

83 - 128 

128 - 139 

139 -274 

274 -276 

276 -281 

281 -286 

286 -289 

289 - 301 

Location: SWY.,NW\4 sec, 18, T. 53 S., R. 42 E. At NE. Second Avenue and 65th Street 

Extension, Miami. 

Elevation of land surface: 11.8 ft above mean sea level, 

Depth: 351 ft. 

Diameter: 6 in. 

Depth, In feel 

b..Zo w I sn d surface 

Sand, quartz, white, very fine to medium. ............................................ ••••· .. . 

Limestone, creem•colored, oolitic (Miami oolite), with orange quartz sand in· 

eluded in deep solution holes in the limestone .•.•••••••••••••••.•...........•..••••• 

Limestone, white, sandy, poroua, in places cavernoue, Quartz sand, very fine 

to Cine, white, occurs in £olution holes, or in lenseB in the rock. Very high 

permeability ................................................................................... . 

Limestone, light-tan, very hard. ............................................................. . 

Sand,. qUartz, white, fineJI fossiliferous .......• u••••••••••••••••••••• .. •••••••••••••••••••• 

Sandstone, light•grayiah-brown, calcareou&, and a little quartz sand. lligh 

permeability .......................................................... •••••·· ................. .. 

Limestone, light .. brown. slightly sandy, and some quartz $and. ••• ••••••• ......... ••• 

Sandstone, llght-grliy, calcareous, with pockets or layers of quartz sand. 

Foasilllerous in places, Highly permeable ........................................... .. 

Limestone, whlte to cream-colored, Sllndy, with occasional beds or pockets of 

quartz aand contailling shella ............................................................... . 

0 0,5 

o.s- 18 

18 63 

63 67 

67 69 

69 79 

79 84 

84 - 183 

183 - 216 
874 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORlDA 

Table 127.-Lo&s of wells in DBde County-Continued 

Well G 183- Continued 

Depth, in feel 

be/ow land surface 

Sandstone; light .. green, calcareous. with some loose sand and shells~ 

probably an indurated green sancL Low perm.eability ............ u .............. . 216 - 307 

Marl, light-green, clayey, fossiliferous, with occasional layers of silty and 

sandy marl. Practically impenneable .......................... u ................... .. 307 -351 

Well G 185 

Location: NWY.,NWY., sec. 9, T. 52 S., R. 41 E. Miami Gardens Drive and Douglas Road. 

Elevation of land surface: 7.2 (t above mean sea level. 

Depth: 301 ft. 

Diameter. 6 in, 

Muck ............................................................................................. . 

Sand, quartz. white, very fine to medium .......................................... u••u 

Sand; quartz, b~ack. Color is due to organic Stain which robs off easily •.• u ... 

Sand, quartz, brown to white, very fine to coarse, averages medium.. Changes 

from brown to white at 19 ft ........................................................... .. 

Sand and nodular pieces of white limestone, Low permeability because of 

sand.••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••--•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••··~•••••••••••••••••••••••• 

Limestone, brown, sandy, very hard, and sand as above. Medium penneability .. 

Sandatone, gray, calc.aret>us, very hard in places. Some sand and shell in 

pockets or layers. lligh permeability ...............................•...... ~ ......•.... 

Sand~ quartz;: gray to white, coarse at top but very fine at base.:••v•••••••••• ... 

Shell marl, greenish,. sandy. Sand is quartz, medium. to c;:oa:rse, angular to 

rounded. Relatively impermeable ••.•...........................................•....... 

Sandstone, green, clayey .................................................................. .. 

Shell marl, greenish, sandy. Similar to interval from 131 to 166 ft. ............. . 

Sandstone, light .. green; calcareoUs1 with a few 5-hells. Quartz grains are 

medium to coarse, sharp .to sub rounded. From 212 to 228 ft it becomes 

m~re and more clayey and silty, Practically Impermeable ..................... .. 

Mat11 green, siltyt clayey • .Practically impermeable~ .. · .. ·•••·•~··•H••••••u•u••••• 

Sand, greenisli-gray, medium to coarse. Low penneabili ty . ........................ . 

Marl, green, sandy. ?tactically Impermeable ......................................... .. 

Well G 186 

Dep lh, in feet 

below/and surface 

0 0.4 

0.4- 2.5 

2.5- 3 

3 33 

33 42 

42 51 

51 - 113 

113 - 131 

131 - 166 

166 - 173 

173 - 186 

186 -228 

228 -290 

290 -296 

296 -301 

Location: SEY.,SEY., sec, 15, T. 53 S., R. 41 E. NW. :17th Avenue·and 55th Teuace, Miami. 

Elevation of land surface: 11,9 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 300 ft. 

Diameter. 6 in. 

Limestone, oolitic:, and some white quartz sand, (Miami oolite) .................. . 

Sand, quartz. brown to tan, fine to medium, and some calcareous material. 

Low penneability ........... ~•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

Limestone, brownish..grayt sandy, with pockets or thin lenaes of very fine to 

medium-white quartz sand. Medium permeability ................................... ~ 

Vlilpth, in feet 

below land surtae9 

0 20 

20 37 

37 51 
WELL LOGS 875 

Table 127.-l...ogs of wells in Dade County-Continued 

Well G 186-Continued 

Limestone, corralline. ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••• 

Sandstone, gt"ay, calcareous, with small amount of sand and shells. High 

permeability, ................................................................................ . 

Sand, quartz; gray-white, fine to coarse; contains some shells ...................... . 

Limestone, sandy, and creamy calcareous sa.ndatone. Some pockets or thin 

lenses of sand with shells. Low permeability from118 to 128 ft ............... .. 

Sandstone., $belly, soft,. and greenish shell marl. Very low perrneability ....... u 

Marl, greenish, sandy, shelly in place8, with very thin lenseo of calcareous 

sandstone. Practically impenneable .......................... u ....................... . 

Well G 187 

Depth, In feet 

below llltld 11utlac., 

51 55 

55 71 

71 74 

74 ~ 128 

128 ~ 197 

197 - 300 

Location: SWY.,NEY., sec. :30, T. 52 S., R. 40 E. On Florida Highway 25 at Pennsuco. 

Ele\lation of land su'rface: 7.6 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 222 ft. 

Diameter: 6 in. 

Spoil ........................................................................ ; ..................... . 

Muck. .............................................................................................. . 

Marl, gray, of fre&h•water origin, and quartz ssnd~.,..4 ...... ,.. ••••••••••••••••••••• ; .. .. 

Limestone, oolitic. Very hard and dense, but contains small solution holes. 

(Miami oolite) ........................ , .......................... ,, ........................... . 

Limestone, brown to gray, sandy, very hard, shelly in part, Low permeability .. 

Sandstone, brown to gray, calcareous; very hard in places; becomes sandy and 

shelly toward the base. M"dium permeability ....................................... .. 

Sandstone, gray to white, calcareous, shelly in places; contllitls tbitllenses 

or pockets of white quartz sand. High permeability dowtl to 69 ft, where in· 

creased amount of sand reduces permeability greatly ............................. .. 

Shell marl, gt"ay, very sandy; becomes a sandy marl near bas.,, Low 

permeability ................................................................................... , 

Shell marl, greenish, becoming. silty toward base. Very low penneability ...... .. 

Marl, green, sllty. Very low permeability ..•..••••••••••.•••••••.•• u•••••••u••••••••••••• 

Sandstone, gray, calcareous, shelly. Lc;;w permeability, .. u .. uu•u•u•u .......... .. 

Marl, light-gray; aandy. very low penneability ............. ~ .......................•••.• 

Sand, green, silty s.nd clayey toward baae. Practically impermeable ............. . 

Marl, gt"&en, clayey, $an~y. Practically impenneable.. ............................... .. 

Well G 188 

Depth, In iel>l 

below /Bifid l!l'•rface 

0 3 

3 6 

6 8 

8 18 

18 26 

26 51 

51 - so 

80 - 117 

117 - 133 

133 - 140 

140 - 155 

155 - 172 

172 - 184 

184 -222 

Location: NEY.NEY., sec. 12, T. :54 S., R. 38 E. Krome Road and Tamiami Trail. 

Elevation of land surface: 8.9 ft above mean sea level, 

Depth: 200 ft. 

Diameter: 6 in, 

Spoil,,, ........................................................................................... .. Muck. ............................................................................................. . 

Depth, It! feet 

below /11t1d BUtiace 

0 

3 

3 

6 
876 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 127.-Logs of wells in Dade Co~ty-Continued 

We11 G 188- Continued 

Marl, $andy .•.......•• , ..•••.•. ,., .............................................................. . 

Limestone, gray, den!le, recrystallized; quartz sand probably occulting in 

solution holes. Low penneability .......................................... u.ut••••••• 

Lime•tone, gray-white, o.andy, dense, and some calcareous sandstone. QUartz 

sand occurs in solution holes or in thin lenses. High penneability ........... . 

Shell marl, dark-gray, sandy, and thin beds of sandy mad. In place" about 

90 percent of the sample coMists of el<cellently preserved mollusk ahella, 

Very low permeability down to 145 ft, at which depth the well could be 

pumped at low rate with large drawdown. ............................................. . 

Sand, quartz, gray, fine to medium, with intercalated thin layers of clayey 

marl. Low permeability ................................................................... . 

Marl, grel!n, sandy, with intercalated thin layers of clayey marL Very low 

permeability. ••••• .••.•.............•...•.• ••• ••• •••• ••• ••••••• ........ ·~~· ...• ••• •••• ••••• ••• 

Well G 189 

Depth, In feel 

btillow land surface 

6 7 

7 22 

22 61 

61 . ""'-164 

164" -187 

187 200 

Location: NWY.,SW¥-1 sec, 15, T, 54 S,, R, 41 E. SW, 27th Avenue and Dixie Highway, 

Miami, 

Elevation of land surface: 11.6 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 241 ft. 

Diameter: 6 in. 

Sand ........................................................... ,,,,,,,, ........................... . 

Limestone, creamy, soft, oolitic: {Miami oolite) ........................................ . 

Cavity .......•. ••••• ••••••••••~ •••••••••• •••• •••••••• ••••••••. ••• ••••~ •••• ••••••• ., ••. ••••••• .••. , 

Limestone, creamy, soft,oolitic {Miami oolite) .......................................... .. 

Sand, cream•colored, quartz, very fine to fine, and calcareous materiali 

irregular sandstone nodules included ..................................... ........... , 

Limestone, creamy to tan, coralline, and coral and quartz sand. lligh 

penneability,,. ••••• ...................................................... •••••••••••• ••••••• ••• 

Conglomerate of calcareous rocks:; probably waste frot'\) cora.l reef, Pebbles 

ate subangular .................................................. , ••..•••.•...•.•................ 

Sandstone, creamy to white, calcareous, and considerable very fine to tine 

white quartz sanc:L ................................... , •. , •. , ... , .........................•... 

Limestorte, tan .. brown, very parous hard. High permeability ...................... . 

Sand, quartz, gray, very fine to fine; includes calcareous sandstone mdules.. 

Sandstone, gra.y-wlitej calcareous, and very fine to fine white quartz sand .... 

Limestone, dense, hard.,.~··••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••·~············· 

Cavity. ••• ••••••• ••••• .................................•. ••••••• •••. ~ ••••, ,, ••• •••• ••• ••••• •••• ••. 

Limestone, gray, sandy, hard, Iligh perrneability ..................................... . 

Limeston~, light-colored, hardj fosslli(erous ............................ ,,,,,.,, •• , .• ,,. 

Sandstone, gray, calcareous; fossiliferous; contains scattered grains of 

phosphorite throughout. Very high permeability., .•. , .............................. . 

LitnHtone, grayish, sandy. Iligh permeability ........................................ . 

Sand, green, in places consolidated to form thin layers of calcareouil sandstone. Sand Is very fine to fine and contalna a few shells, Very low 

penneability .................................. , ........................ •••• •••• • • ~ • • • •• • • • •. •• • •• • • • • 

Marl, green, sandy, silty, and clayey, Practically impermeable .................. . 

Depth, in feet 

belowlsnd surface 

0 o.s 0.5- 11 

11 22 

22 25 

25 ~1 

31 42 

42 44 

44 53 

53 66 

66 68 

68 73 

73 79 

79 81 

81 83 

83 84 

84 - 110 

110 - 132 

132 - 164 

164 - 241 
WELL LOGS 877 

Table 127.-Logs oi wells in Dade County- Continued 

Well G 193 

Location: NW~4NE\4 sec, 29, T. 53 S., R. 41 E. NW. 36th Street and Miami Canal, Miami. 

Elevation of land surface: 6.0 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 84 ft. 

Diameter: 2 in, 

Depth, In feel 

be/ow IB!Id wrlace 

Sand, quartz, gray .........••••••.••••••••••.•.•.•.••................ ,......................... 0 

~imestone, creamy, soft, oolitic (.Miami oolite), with quartz sand partly 

filling: solution holes, Medium permeability .. , .•.•••.•.••..•.•.•.................... 

Sandstone, white, calcareous, hard and a little sand. Very high penneabil\ty., 

Limestone, white, sandy, hard, and small amount of coralline limestone and 

quartz sand. lligh' permeability ........................................................ . 

Sandstone, white, calcareous·, and siliceous white limestone that is exceed· 

ingly hard, l!igh penneability .......................................................... . 

Sandstone, white, calcareous, with thin beds of fine white quartz sand. lligh 

permeability except for the &and bedSoooooooo••••••tl4tttiHtlttttttt•Uh•nuu•n• 

Sandstone, calcareous. shelly, and quartz sand•••••t•uuu•u .. •••••••••••••• ....... 

Well G 195 

22 

41 

49 

61 

82 

22 

41 

49 

61 

82 

84 

Location: SWY.,NW1

/.. sec, 20, T. 53 s., R. 41 E., 25ft northeast of South River Drive and 

0.8 mile northwest of NW. 36th Street. 

Elevation of land surface: 5.0 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 95 ft. 

Diameter: 2 in. 

Depth, In feel 

be/ow I and surf see 

Sand, quartz, white •.••.. ~t··~~t•t••t•••~••••••••~··~••••t•••~•••••••••••••••••••••••• .. •••••• 

Limestone, creamy. oolitic {1\.tiarni oolite) ............................................... ... 

Sand, white to gray, very fir'le to coarse, av•raging medium. .....• : ................... . 

Sand and calcareous sandstone, white, and shells. Minor amount of aandstone. 

Sandstone, calcareous, shelly, soft. Riddled with solution holes which are 

filled with quartz sand ...................................................................... ~ 

Well G 196 

0 1 

1 16.5 

16.5- 52 

52 62 

62 95 

Location: NE'/.NW\4 sec, 29, T. 53 s., R. 41 E., 25ft west of LeJeune Road and 0.3 mile 

south of NW, 36th Street, 

l!:levation of land surface: 5.0 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 92 ft. 

Diameter: 2 in, · 

Sand~ quartz, white, fine to medium ................ u ........ u••~•·•••••••••••••••••••••••• 

Limestone, creamy, oolitic, with sand in solution holes ............................. . 

Depth, in feel 

beJ.o w I Bnd surface 

0 

2 

2 

21 
878 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 127.-Logs of wells in Dade County- Continued 

Well G 196-Continued 

Sandstone, white, calcareous ............................................... ~••••••••••••••• 

Cavity ............................................................................................ . 

Sand, quartz, white, very fine to coarse; and nodular pieces of calcElreous 

sandstone,, •••••.• ,, •••••••• , •• ~., •••• ~ ••••••••••••.••••• ,., ••. ,.,,,,,,.,.,,,,,,,, ••••• ,, , •• ,, 

Sand, quartz, white, very fine to coarse, and white sandy limestone. •••H••Hu 

Limestone, tan-brown, coralline, with a few pockets of quartz sand ............. . 

Sandstone, white, calcareous, and very fine to medium white quart2 sand. The 

sand occurs in thin beds or pockets in the rock, Two cavities noted, one is 

0.4 ft deep, the other is 0.5 ft deep, between 89 and 91ft. Very high permeability in consolidated portions of this interval, .................... ••••••••••••• 

Well G 197 

Depth, In feet 

below l811d surf see 

21 24 

24 31 

31 41 

41 46 

46 59 

59 - 92 

Location: SEY.,SEY., sec, 20, T. 53 S., R. 41 E. SE. lOth Court and 14th Street, Hialeah, 

Elevation of land surface: 8,0 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 91 ft. 

Diameter: 2 in. 

Depth, In feel 

below lend 5urls9e 

Sand, quartz, white, very fine to medium, fills solution holes In limestone ..... 0 1 

Lirne•tone, oolitic •••.•.••••••..••.............•................................•......•••••.••• 1 21 

Sand, quartz, white; very fine to fine, and calcareous sandstone ................. .. 21 31 

Sand, quartz, white; very fine to fine ........................................... u•u•••••• 31 42 

Sandstone, white, calcareous, fairly soft, and coarse to very fine white quartz 

sand. lligh pei'n'leability ................. · ..................................................... . 42 49 

Limestone, white, sandy, hard, and minor amounts of quartz sand, probably in 

solution holes. lligh permeability .......................................... Hu~H~·~··•· 49 67 

Sandstone, white, calcar~ous, and sandy litnestone ..................... ~•••••u··~ .. . 67 76 

Cavity ............................................................................................ . 76 80 

Sand:l\itone, gray, calcareous, dense, hard. Very little sand.. ........................ . 80 91 

Well G 198 

Location; NEY.,NWY., sec. 14, T. 54 s., R. 40 E., 0,2 mile south of Coral Way and 0.7 

mile west of Ludlum Road. 

Elevation of land surface; 6.2 ft above mean sea level, 

Depth: 102 ft. 

Diameter: 2 in. 

Sand, quartz, white, fine to medium ........ u .............................. uuu•••• ..... . 

Limestone, oolitic (Miami oolite), solution-riddled and filled with sand. ..... .. 

Limestone. brown, dense, hard, siliceous. Low penneability ........... ~ ......... . 

Sandstone, gray to white, calcareous, porous to dense, contains beds and 

pockets of fine to coarse white quartz sand. !Ugh permeebillty ................ . 

Lbnestone, white, dense, siliceous ................ ~ ...................................... . 

Sand$tOne, white, calcareous, and medium to coarse white quartz sand. Very 

high permeability ......................................................................... .. 

Depth, In feel 

below I and surface 

0 

1 

20 

21 

57 

59 

1 

20 

21 

57 

59 

65 
WELL LOGS 

Table 127.~Logs of weils in Dade County-Continued 

Well G 198- Continued 

879 

Depth, in feet 

below 1 and surface 

Cavity, p...,Uy fllled with sand,.,.,,.,, ...................................................... . 65 70 

Limestone .. ·grayish ... white, sandy, and small amount of fine to medium-white 

quartz sand, .••••• ,,, •••••.••••••••••••.••••••. _ •••••••••••••••• ~····•••··••···••··•··•····~······ 70 75 

Cavity, partly filled with sand.,. ........................................................... .. 75 81 

Limestone, grayish-white, sandy, fairly soft, and sand. Iligh permeability,.,. ... 81 95 

Limestone, white, dense, hsrd,, .. ,,~••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 95 98 

Sand, dark-gray, shelly, Sand is very fine to coarse, averages medium. Low 

permeability •.. ,. ••• •••, , ..... , •.. •• ••• ,. , , ••• •t• ,. , •• , ••••• ••••• •••• ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 98 - 102 

Well G 199 

Location: SE\aSWY., sec, 20, T. 53 S., R. 41 E., 0.1 mile north of 36th Street and 0.25 

mile west of LeJeune Road, Miami Springs, 

Elevation of land surface; 4.5 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 98 ft. 

Diameter; 2 in, 

Depth, in feet 

be/ow/ and surface 

Sand, quartz~ white, fine to medium ......................................................... . 

Limestone, creamy to white, oolitic, with sand in solution hol~s .... .............. ... 

Sand, quartz, white, very fine to medium, averaging Cine. Thin hard layer of 

brown limestone at 37.5 ft .... .-•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

Limestone, white; sandy, and white calcareous sandstone. Pockets of white 

quartz sand and shells ............................•.•••.••••................................• 

Sand, quartz, grayish .. white, very fine to medium, lind nodular sandstone. Few 

shells and phosphate granules ............................... ~.··~················~·········· 

Sandstone, white, calcareous, and a large amount of very fine to fine white 

sand and shells ..... ~···~····~~··t••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

Sandstone, white, calcareous, hard, Very high permeability ................ , .......... . 

Sand, dark-gray, shelly, or sandy shell marl. The sand is very fine to medium. 

Low permeability ............. ~~···~···································•••••·~~~·~············· 

Well G 207 

0 

2 

19 

43 

56 

68 

86 

97 

2 

19 

43 

56 

68 

86 

97 

98 

Location: SWY.,SWY., sec, 25, T. 57 S-, R, 38 E., 0.1 mile north of Lucille Drive and 0,15 

mile east of Redlands Road, 

Elevation of land surface: 7,8 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 108 ft. 

Diameter. 2Y, in. 

Depth, in feet 

below18r:ld tiJU.rl8.ce 

Limestone, oolitic (Miami oolite}, soft, except between 15 and 15.5 ft, 

where it is extremely hard, This hard layer is widespread throu~hout 

the Homestead-Florida City area, and usually occurs in the interval 

between 7 and 9 ft below mean sea level. The t:'hard rocku is dense, 

dark to light-colored, and apparently non6olitic ......................................... . 

Limestone, gray, dense, very hard, containing a few solution holes.., ............. . 

Limestone, tan to cream, dense, hard. Medium permeability,,., ...................... , 

Limestone, dark-gray, hard, porous,,~··················••••••••••··.············•·•·••••••••• 

0 

20 

22 

37 

20 

22 

37 

39 
880 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUnmASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 127 ...... Logs of wells in De.de County- Continued 

Well G 207-Continued 

Limestone, white to gray to tan, sandy, g•nerally quite hard, with very Cine to 

medium, white quartz ;and included in pocket~ or lenses. High permeability, 

Cavity from 48 to 49.5 ft ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

Sand, quartz; white. very fine to fine. Low penneability ...........................•• ., 

Shell marl, and large •mount of very fine dark gray sand, Practically im· 

permeable ••••••••••• ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.,,,,,,,,,,,, •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

Well G 209 

Depth, in feet 

below land fiUrface 

39 

57 

63 

57 

63 

108 

Location: NWY.NE~ sec. 21, T. 58 S.,: R. 39 E. On U. s. Highway 1, 6.0 miles south of 

Palm Drive, Flodda City. 

Elevation of land surface: 2.3 ft above mean sea level, · 

Depth: 66 ft. 

Diameter: 2Y, in, : 

Depth, In fe.t 

below land surface 

Marl, gray, calcareous, sticky. Comparatively impenneable ........... u ........... u.u 

L•mestone, oolitic (Miami oolite), altered by secondary processes so that few 

oolltha are preserved. Small amount of very fine to Cine white quartz sand in 

solution holes, Two very h81"d gray limestone layers between 13 and 14.5 ft 

and 16 and 17 ft ............................................................................... . 

Limestone, tan-brown, l!ui.ndy, shelly in places. Solution holes and ca"vititts 

common in this interval; one cavity from 27 to 28ft. High permea.bility •. u ... u 

Sandstone, white to gray, calcareous, with beds or pocket$• Of quart" und. · 

Many small cavities. Very high permeability ......................................... . 

Sand, gray, shelly, or sandy shell mart, S•nd is very fine to fine, Low permu.-

billty,, .......................................... ''' .............. ' '' ......... " ................. .. 

Well G 210 

0 6 

6 17 

17 31 

31 65 

65 66 

Location: NE~NW~ sec. 24, T. -58 s., R. 38 E., 5 miles south of Palm Drive on Roberts 

Road. 

Elevation of land surface: 2, 7 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 62 ft. 

Diameter: 2% in. 

Depth, In feet 

bela w I and autface 

Road fill ................. ,,,,,,,,,,, ••• •••••• ....................................... ,,, ,, ,, '"'' .. .. 

Marl, gray, calcareous, sticky, partly fills solution holes in underlying oolitic 

limestone ...............•...•. ••·•·•••••••••··•••·•·••·························•··••••••••••••••• 

Limestone, oolitic (Miami oolite), soft, porous; with little or no sand. Hard 

layer from 10. 5 to 11 ft.,,,.,.,., ••.... .._ .................................................... . 

Limeatone, light-brown, sandy, and,,Bome coralline limestone, Contalns many 

small cavities. lligh permeabilitY•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

Sandstone, white to tan; calcareous, and sandy white limestone. An exceedingly hard, dark-gray, impure limestone from 33.8 to 36.5 ft, Numerous 

cavities were noted, the largest three being from 39.7 t<> 40.6 ft, 41,7 to 

44. 6 ft, and 48.4 to 49. 2 ft, A thin bed of shells was noted at 49. 2 ft ......... ," 

0 0,5 

o.s- 2 

2 16' 

16 22 

22 - 51 
WEU. LOGS 881 

Table 127.~Logs of wells in Dade County-Continued 

Well G 210- Continued 

Sand~ quartz, very fine to medium, averages Cine. Color is white to 54.1 ft; 

below this depth it Is dark-gray. Small amount of shells. Very low pe,... 

meabilitY·~••••••••••·•··••••··••·············•·•••·••••••••••·•···············•··•••••··•·• 

Well G 211 

Depth, In feet 

below 1 and .surface 

51 - 62 

Location: NWY.SWY-0 sec, 31, T. 57 s., R. 39 E. Near old F. E. C. Railroad efllbankment 

l\1, miles south of Palm Drive, Florida City, ' 

Elevation of land surface: 2.4 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 88 ft. 

Diameter: ~~ in. 

Ro8d fill ......... ,. •• ,.,.,,,,,.,. ......................... ., ....................................... . 

Marl; gray, calcareous, sticky, partly fills solution holes in underlying oolitic 

limestone, •...•••••••.••.•••.•......•............................••...•.•••••••.••..•••.•.•..••••• 

Limestone, creany to white, oolitic (Miami oolite). Contains very hard rock 

layers from 10.9 to 11.6 ft, and from 15,1 to 16ft ................................... .. 

Limestone; creamy, hard. At 21ft it is softer and is ground to a chalky paste 

in drilling. Medium permeability .......................................................... .. 

Limestone, creamy, fairly hard, with dark gray impure limestone layers from 

33. 5 to 33. 9 ft and 35.8 to 39. 6 ft. Medium permeability,. .... ,,. .... , ...... """ .. ,. 

Limestone, white, sandy, with many small cavities and varying amounts of very 

fine to fine white quartz sand. lligh penneability ....... H••••H•••••••• .. ~·H••••••u• 

Limestone; dark-gray, sandyi impure, exceedingly hard, contains sorne shell 

material ........................... ~•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

Limestone, white to creamy, sandy, and shelly sand. Numerous cavities occur; 

the most important being from 63,5 to 64ft; 64,8 to 65.9 ft; 77.5 to 78.4 ft; 

and 78. 9 to so. 9 rt ............................................................................ . 

Gravel, limestone, worn, subrounded, and very fine to fine white quartz sand .. .. Sandstone, white; calcareous; porous; contains considerable very fine to fine 

white quart:z sand in solution holes, Two cavities noted, from 83.7 to 84,4 ft; 

and from 86,6 to 8 7. 8 ft. lllgh permeability ............................................ .. 

Sand, quartz, blue .. gray, very fine to fine, fossiliferous. Low permeability ...... .. 

Well G 212 

Depth, in feet 

below I and surface 

0 0.5 

0.5- 6 

6 16 

16 22 

22 40 

40 61 

61 63..5 

63.5- 81 

81 82 

82 87 

87 88 

Location; SW~,~NWY-0 sec. 31, T. 57 S., R. 39 E., 1.4 miles south of Florida City on east 

side of U. S. Highway 1. 

Elevation of land surface: 4.0 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 79 ft. 

Diameter. 2\1, in, 

D<pth, in teet 

below land surface 

Road fill ........................................................................................... . 0 2 

~tuck••••••••••••••••••••••••••·•·····~··••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••,••••••••• ............... . 2 3.5 

Marl, gray, calcareous, fills solution holes in und~tlying li~estone ...... u ........ 3.5- 5 
882 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 127.-Logs of wells in Dade County-Continued 

Well G 212- Continued 

Depth, in feet 

bel.o w 1 and surface 

Limestone, cream .. colored to white, oolitic, becomes soft and sandy at 20 ft. 

TWo hard rock layers from 11.6 to 12,4 ft and 15 to 16ft ........................ .. 

Limestone, i;ray-tan, sandy, hard, very little sand. Cavity from 30 to 33,6 ft, 

and thin layer of extremely hard, dark•gray, almost black, dense limestone at 

36 ft. Very high permeability ...................... .,,.,,.,.,.,.,, ...................... .. 

Sand, quartz, tan, shelly, very Cine to coarse; averaging fine, and sorne nodular 

~andstone~••••·•• .. ·•·••·····•························•··••••••••••·•········•··················• Limestone, t~n-gray, sandy, and sand. Medium permeability ...................•. u ... 

Limestone, white, sandy, and very fine to medium quartz: sand filling solution 

holes. Cavities from 50.5 to 51ft, 53.3 to 54,8 ft, and 58.0 to 59.5 ft. .......... 

Limestone, dark-gray to almost black, exceedingly_ hard, and a thin bed of small 

subtounded, limestone gravel .......................... ~·····~•••••u•••••••••••••••••••••••• 

Limestone, whi.te "to cream, sandy, containing pocJtets of sand with shells. Small 

cavities at 71, 73; and 76 n. High permeability .................. H .. HttHthooUoou•• 

Sand, quartz, white, shelly, very ':'lne to fine. Low pe..-meability .............. u ..... . 

Well G 213 

5 - 22 

22 36 

36 42 

42 47 

47 61 

61 64 

64 76/-

76 79 

Location: SWY-0NW14 sec. 27, T. 57 S., R. 39 E. Three Mile Road, 0.45 mile south of 

Palm Drive, 

Elevation of land surface: 3,0 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 78 ft. 

Diameter: 2Y, in. 

Depth, in feet 

below land surface 

lt1arl, gray, calcareous, sticky .•..•.....•.•..............................•...............•.•.. 

Limestone, oolitic (Miami oolite), soft, includes two very hard rock layers 

from 10,5 to ll.S ft, and from 14.5 to 15,5 ft,. .. ,, .................................... . 

Limestone, cavernous, white to tan, hard. Very high permeability ................... . 

Chalk, soft, white, Low permeability ................... , .. ,,.,,.,,, .•. :.,, ..• ~ ........ ' .... u.u 

Limestorte, white to brown, sandy, very porous; and some calcareous sandstone; 

cavity from 52.5 to 54.5 ft. Small amount of very tine to fine, white quartz 

sand ...................... ,,., .. , ..••••••••.....................................................•.• 

Well G 214 

0 2 

2 16 

16 41 

41 43 

43 - 78 

Location: SEY.,SWY-0 sec. 26, T. 57 S., R. ;38 E., 30ft west of Longview Road and 0.3 mile 

north of Lucille Drive. 

Elevation of land surface: 8.0 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 61 ft. 

Diameter: 2Y> in. 

Limestone, oolitic, with two very hard rock layers at 14.6 to 15.5 ft and 19 

to 20ft ......................................................................................... . 

Depth, in feel 

below I and liiUtfsce 

0 20 

Limestone, cream to dark .. brown, Bandy, alternately soft and hard, with variable amounts of white quartz sand. Few small cavities, Medium penneabilityu 34.5 
WELL LOGS 

Table 127.-Loga of wells in Dade County--Continued 

Well G 214- Continued 

883 

Depth, in feet 

be/ow land 1i1Url8ce 

Limestone, dark.gray, den,.e, very hard, and a few Abell fragments ............... . 

Chalk, grayish·white, and s.otne quartz sand. Low penneability ................. u .. 

Limestone, sandy, and calcareous sandstone, gray to white. Many small cavities and considerable amount of ·very fine to fitte white quartz sand. ......... . 

Well G 216 

34.5- 37 

37 38 

38 61 

Location: NWV.NWY., sec. 14, T. 57 S., R. 39 E. Campbell Drive and Tallahassee Road, 

Elevation of land surface: 3.6 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 110 ft. 

Diameter: 2Y, in. 

Depth, In feet 

below/and 'IUtface 

Marl, gray, calcareous, sticky, fills solution holes in underlying oolitic limestone, There is 1 ft or more of muck overlying the marl in some places 

nearby •••••••.••••••••••••••.•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••..••.••••••••••.•••••••.•••••• 

Limestone, oolitic (Miami oolite), creamy~ soft. In the intelVal between 11,.5 

and 17ft there are alternate hard and soft layers.H•uuu·~··••••••• .. •••••hu ...... 

Limestonet tan, very hard ............................ ~·•••••••••••••••••••••••••··••~·~··~••••••• 

Limestone, tan to orange, Coralline, and considerable very fine to fine white 

quartz sand which occurs in voids in the rock. Medium permeability ........... .. 

Limestone. tan-gray. sandy, and quartz sand. Medium permeability ................. .. 

Limestone, tan to gray. sandy. hard, and some coralline limestone. lligh per• 

meability ....................... '""""'"'"""""' ................... ,,,, ................ .. 

Limestone, gray to white, sandy, and a large amount of very fine to fine white 

quartz sand from 41 to 48 Ct ................................................................ . 

Sandstone, gray to white. calcareous, phosphatic, and a small amount of 

coralline limestone. Becomes quite fossiliferous at 53.5 ft. Cavity between 

61,1 and 61.6 ft. Very high permeability,, ........................................... .. 

Sandstone, gray-tan, calcareous, and a. large amount of very fine to fine white 

quartz sand with shella~····••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••~····•••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

Sand, quartz, gray-tan, very fine to fine; contains large quantities of shell 

material. Low permeability ...................••••••• ~•·•••••••••••••••••••••t••••••••••••••• 

Shell marl, dart.,;gray, very sandy, Sand is quartz, very fine to fine. Very low 

permeability .......................................................... •••••••••• •••••••••••••••••• 

0 5 

5 17 

17 18.5 

18.5- 23.5 

23,5- 28 

28 37 

37 48 

48 64 

64 71 

71 76 

76 94 

Marl, green, clayey, sticky. Practically impermeable ................................... . 94 - 110 

Well G 217 

Location: SWY..SEY., sec. 5, T. 57 S., R, 39 E. On U. S. Highway 1, 1.6 miles north of 

Campbell Drive. 

Elevation of land surface: 9.1 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 110 ft. 

Diameter: 2% in. 

Depth, in feet 

below 1 and surface 

Soil, clayey, reddish, fills solution holes in the underlying limestone.H·~········· 

Limestone,oclitic: (Miami oolite), soft, creamy ........ ~··············• .. •·•··~············· 

0 

4 

4 

16 
884 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 127.-Logs of wells in Dade County- Continued 

Well G 217- Continued 

Depth, in feel 

below I and surface 

Limestone, composed of two very hard, dense rock layers separated by a soft 

layer between 16.5 and 17ft ............................................................. . 

Limestone, white, liiandy .•............. ,.,, •••..............••.•.••••....••...........••••••.. 

Limestone, tan-orange, sandy .....•.••••••.•.............•.•••••••••••.•............•••••••• 

Sand, quartz, grayish-white, fine to medium ........................................ H ... . 

Limestone, whit8 to tan, sandy, cavernous, Cavity from 25 to 28 ft ..... ,. •• ...... . 

Sand, quartz, tan.orange, very fine to fine, Low permeability, ••.•••...........•••. •• 

Limestone, white, sandy, varying from soft to hard with pockets or thin lenses 

of sand. High permeability ................................................................ . 

Sandstone, calcareous, soft and friable, with some coralline and chalky limestone. Cavities from 56.5 to 57.5 ft and 58.5 to 61ft. Very high permeability .. 

Sandstone, white, calcareous, hard, £os:a.llif~rous .. High permaabilitY····~u ........ . 

Shell marl, gray, sandy, locally consolidated into a shelly calcareous sandstone. 

Sand content ranges from 50 to 80 percent of total sample. Low permeability ... 

Shell marl, dark-gray, sandy, unconsolidated, Sand is composed of quartz and 

shells, very fine to coarse, averaging medium. Low permeability .... u .......... . 

Shell marl, greenish, containing very fine sand and silt. Very low permeability,. 

Marl, green, clayey. Practically impenneableu .......................................... . 

Well G 218 

16 18 

18 20 

20 2L5 

21,5- 25 

25 30 

30 34 

34 53 

53 61 

61 71 

71 90 

90 - 108 

lOS - 115 

115 - 120 

Location: NWY.,NWY., sec. 18, T. 53 S., R. 40 E. East bank of Snapper Creek Canal, 2 miles 

south of Russian Colony Canal. 

Elevation of land surface: 5.1 ft above mean sea level, 

Depth: 202 ft. 

Diameter: 6 in. 

Depth, in f•et 

below I and surface 

Road fill .......................................................................................... . 

Peat and muck. •••••••..•••••••••••.•••••••••.••• •• •••• •••••••••••••.••• , •• •• ••••• ••.••••.•.•• , •• 

Limestone, tan-white, dense, very hard, apparently nonoolitic ... •••• •• ............ . 

Limestone, oolitic (Miami oolite), white, generally quite softutuu ............• u. 

Limestone, light-gray, sandy, with small amount of sand in lenses or pockets. 

Medium permeability ..•........•..• ~·····•·· •••••••••••••••••· ...•..... •••••••••••••••••••• 

Sandstone, light-gray, calcareous, shelly, and a small amount or sand. Rock Is 

porous., with cavity from 42 to 43ft. Vttry high penneability ........... u ......... . 

Limestone, gray, sandy, hard, shelly, and porous. Very high permeability ...... . 

Sandstone; light .. gray, calcareous, soft, and a large amount of very fine to 

medium, quartz sand with shells. Medium permeability, ••.•...............•• ~ .. •t•• 

Shell marl, dark-~ray., very sandy. Low permeability ... u•••••t•u••••••••••••••••••·~~ 

Marl, greenish, sandy, shelly in places, and a few nodules or calcareous sando 

stone. Low permeability .. ,~~··················~••••··•···············~···~~················ 

Sandatone, greenish, calcareous, shellY•••••t••••••••••••••••••••utt~•••••··············· 

Sand; greenish, shelly, an:d shelly calcareous sandstone nodules~ Low pe~ 

meability ....................................................................................... . 

Sand, quartz, weenish, very fine to medium, and green silt with shells. Low 

permeability. ······•·•• ~· •• •........• ••••• ......•......... ••• •• ••••••• ...........• ·~ ••• •• •• •.•... 

Sand; quartz, gray, medium to coa .... e, and a few shells. Medium permeability .... 

Sandt quartz, gray, medium. to coarse., and a few shells., with intercalated layers 

of green silt about \4-inch thick, showing paper-thin bedding. Medium permea• 

bility ............................................................................................. . 

Clay. green, and green clayey tnarl. Practically imperm:eable .... t .................... . 

0 2.5 

2.5- 7 

7 12 

12 20 

20 32 

32 64 

64 74 

74 - lOS 

105 - 111 

111 - 132 

132 - 138 

138 - 149 

149 - 164 

164 - 169 

i69 - 180 

180 -202 
WELL LOGS 

Table 127.-Logs of wells in Dade County-Continued 

Well G 222 

885 

Location: NWY.,NE';t.l sec. 7, T, '54 S., R. 37 E. South side of Tamiami Trail; 30.5 miles 

west of Miami. · ' 

Elevation of land surface: 9,1 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 77·ft, 

Diameter: 6 in. 

Depth, in feel 

below/and filurface 

Road fill .......................................................................................... .. 

Muck and brown tibrous peat overlying a thin layer of fresh-water gray marl. •••• 

Limestone, oolitic (Miami oolite), with marl partly flllilli: aolution holes in the 

oolitic limestone ......••••••••.••••••••••••.••••.••.•.•..•.......•.•........................... 

Sandstone, tan-gray, calcareous, with fine to eoats• quartz sand and sbell fragments. Medium permeability •.•.•..•••..•..........•...........•... ,.,.,, .. , .............. ,., 

Satld, quart%, dark·gray, very tine to medium. Low permeability,., ...••.• u••••• .. .., ... 

Shell marl, g>"ayisb-white sandy. Low permeability .................................... .. 

Sand, quartz, grayish, fine to medium; cont11lns sandstone nodules and thin beds 

of shells. Low permeability,.,.,.,.,,.,, .................................................. .. 

Shell marl, grayish, sandy. Sand Is fine except near base where very c:oarae 

sand and fine subroundl!d gravel was noted. Low permeability .................. .. 

Sand, quartz, dark-green, clayey, silty with thin lenses of friable sandstone. 

Contains few shell fragments~ Low permeability ............... u .............. uHu•••• 

Silt, dark-green, with small amount of very fine sand and thin layers of green 

clay, Shell bed in the silt at 77 ft, Practically impermeabll!,., .................. .. 

Well G 223 

0 

2 

6 

8 

22 

26 

31 

49 

61 

68 

2 

6 

8 

22 

26 

31 

49 

61 

68 

77 

Location: Sec. 27, T. 54 s.,: R, 35 E. South side of Tamiami Trail, 40 miles west of 

Miami. 

Elevation of land surface: 11,5 ft above mean sea level. : 

Depth: 604 ft. 

Diameter: 6 in, · 

D!(Jth, ·In feet 

below t~~nd IIUtf~e 

Fill ............................................................................... , .... , ............. . 

Marl, dark-brown to black, due to admlxtutl! of muck; contains fresh-water 

gastropods ................................................................•..••••••••••••••••••••• 

Limestone, oolitic (Miami oolite), hard, white to tan, most of the oolitha dis· 

solved, leaving a. pock ... marked limestone ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• .............. . 

Sandstone,. cal.c::areous, tan to brown, very hard, or sandy limestone, with 

numerous solution holes. Medium penneability, .................................. , .• ,,,, 

Shell marlJo grayish, and very fine to fine sand. Low perm.eability ....... u .. •u•u• .. • 

Shell marl, light-green, sandy. Some beds of medium sand b""r limited amounts 

of water~ Low permeability ........ ~········~·························•••••••• •••••••••••••••• 

Sandstone~ light-green~ calcareous, shelly. Silt is c:onunon in some places, aand 

elsewhere. Low permeability .. •••••••••••••••••••••••••··•·•• ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

Sandstone, light-green, calcareous, with shell fragmentK, Low permeability ..... .. 

Sandstone, gJ"ay, calcareous, shelly; soft and friable. Low permeability .......... . 

Sand, quartz, ifay .. white, very fine to coarse, contains sandstone nodu.le$; shell 

fragments, and a minor amount of heavy minerals and phosphate grain$, The 

heavy minerals appear to bo m.ainly ilmenite, rutile~ zircon, mona~ite, and 

staurolite ...................... ,,,,,,,,,,,, ••• , ..... , .............................. •• ••• ••••• .... . 

Sand, quartz, and gtl!enish-gray, silt, and shells, Sand Is very Cine to coarse, 

Low permeability ................... ,,,.,.,,,,.,, •• , ...................... ,, .. ,,,,,,,, ... , ... .. 

0 4 

4 5 

5 6 

6 20 

20 42 

42 77 

77 -100 

100 - 151 

151 -ISS 

155 - 182 

182 - 187 
886 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 127.-C.ogti of wells in Dade County- Continued 

Well G 223- Continued 

Depth, in feet 

below lend surface 

Silt and very fine, veen!sh, sand. Contains coarse quart:. sand and phosphate 

grains, generally eubr<>unded, Very low permeability ........ """""""""""" 

Sand, light·vay, with faint greenish tint, fine to coaroe, speckled with phos· 

phate grains and minor amounte of other heavy mineral"' .......................... .. 

C!Qy, green, 11andy and silty, with a few phosphate grains and large quartz 

grains. Practically imp•nn••ble. .............. , ..... , .......... , ......................... . 

Sand, quart,., gray, with thin streaks of i'"een clay. The sand contains 15 to 

25 percent of phosphate grains with other heavy minerals, especially 

ilmenite; zircon., rutile, e~nd monazite. Low permeability .... , ...................... . 

Marl, green, clayey, locally silty or very finely sandy; contains clay nodules 

and many phosphate pebbles or fine phosphate gravel; pebbles are usually 

discoid, with " maXimum diameter of one-half inch, Contains numerous shark 

teeth, crab claws, and £iahbone fragments. Practically impermeable ............. . 

Clay, green, with layerg of silt and clay containing minor amounts of quartz and 

phosphate granules; some are subrounded but most of the phosphate gr11lns are 

oval and flattened. Shark teeth common. Practically impermeable ............... . 

Silt, green, clayey to sandy, fossillferous. Practically impermeable ............... .. 

Silt, green, sandy; generally practically impermeable but occasional shelly beds 

are water bearing, though o£ low permeability ......... u•••••••••••••••••••••• ..... ·uu .. 

Sand, quartz, green, silty. The color is due to the clayey, silty materials, Con• 

tains sorne shell fragments and shark teeth. Practically impermeable ............. . 

Sand~ quartz, green, silty. There are some shell fragments and a few shark teeth. 

Small atnount of water recoverable. Low permeability ................................. . 

Si.lt, green, clayey. Practically i.m.permeable ............... ,. ..................... iluuuuu 

Sandstone, greenish-gray; calcareous, fri.able. Low permeability ..................... . 

Marl, green, clayey, shelly, with occasional thin layers of practically dry clay 

and silt. Shells in some places compose as much as 40 percent of total 

sample, but shells are broken and fJ;agmental as a ~le. At base of this interval Is a bed of very fine phosphate pebbles, a few inches thick. Very low 

permeab\lity, ....................................................................... ""''' .. "'" 

Limestone, white; sandy••••••••·~••••••••••••••••••••••• .. •••·~~···•·················•••••••••••• 

Marl, shelly, green; clayey. Practically impermeable .................................. .. 

Marl, grayish-green, shelly, containing granules and pebbles of black phosphate 

and occasional streaks of gray silty marl. Practically impermeable ............. .. 

Limestone, gray, hard, fossiliferous, and soft gray marl in minor quantities ...... . 

Sand, green1ch, very fine to fine, and silt with shell fragments. Low permeability ........ ,, .. ,, ................................................................... , ........... .. 

Limestone, gray, sandy, friable, with occasional thin gray .. whlte li.mestone 

layers corttsining a few green clay nodules. Low permeability ..................... . 

Limestone, gray to white, sandy in places, contains streaks of green clayey 

sandy silt at intervals. Many casts of fossils noted. Low perm¢ability ......... . 

Limestone, gray, sandy, shelly, intercalatO!d with soft thin sandy marl layers 

toward base. Low permeability •• ~·················•··••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••·•·•··· 

Marl; gray, sat1.d)' and shelly. Very low permeabilitY••~···•················ .......... , .. 

Well G 224 

187 - 200 

200 - 204 

204 - 214 

214 -226 

226 - 278 

278 - 332 

332 -342 

342 -364 

364 - 377 

377 - 417 

417 -468 

468 -474 

474 - 504 

504 -505 

505 -509 

509 - 518 

518 - 532 

532 -534 

534 - 551 

551 - 561 

561 -594 

594 -604 

Location: SWy.iSW% sec, 15, T, 53 S., R. 40 E., 1.5 miles west of Milam Daily Road and 

1,0 mile north of Milam Daity Canal, 

Elevation of land surface: 6,2 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 104 ft. 

Diameter: 4 in. 

Road fill ........................................................................................ .. 

Dt;tpth, In feet 

bdow land surface 

0 1 

1.5 
WELL LOGS 887 

Table 127,-Logs of well$ in Dade County-Continued 

Well G 224-Continued 

Depth, In feet 

oelow land surface 

1\{arl,. gray, of fre&h .. wa.ter origin. ........................................................... . 

Limestone, creamy-white, oolltlc (Miami oolite 1, sort, with quartz sand l'artly 

fi.lliflg solution holes, .•.................••.••.•• ,, .. , .................•.•••.•............... 

Sand, quartz, white, contains sandstone nodules and shtdls cemented to sand. 

Low penneability ..•..••......................••• ,,.,, ................•...• ,,.,,, ............ . 

Sandstone, gray-white, calcareous, and sandy limestone with very line to 

mf!'dium, white quartz sand in cavities. Open cavity noted between 28.9 and 

29.6 ft, lligh permeabillty ................................................................. .. 

Sand, quartz, gray to white, fine to very fine, and calcareous sandstone nodules. Few fossils. Low permeability.~···•··•······· .......... H•••••••••••••••••uuu 

Sandstone, grayish-white, calcareous, and sandy limestone with a few thin 

layers or sand. lligh permeability ...................................................... .. 

Sand, quartz, gray, very fine to fine, and numerous small shells, Low pe.,.. 

meability ...................................... , ,, ............................................ .. 

Sand, quartz, shells, and gray calcareoug sandstone. Low permeability .... u ... . 

Well G 225 

1.5 ~ 2 

2 11 

11 

24 

51 

76 

91 

99 

24 

51 

76 

91 

99 

104 

Location: NE~NE~ sec, 20, T, :53 S.,· R. 39 E. Dade-Broward Levee, 4.4 miles north of 

Tamiami Trail, 

Elevation of land surface: Approximately 9ft above mean sea level, 

Depth: 100 ft. 

Diameter. 4 in. 

Depth, in fset 

below land surfsce 

Fill ....................................... , ...................................................... . 0 2 

~luek, black, and brown fibrous peat, ...................... ,, ................. ,, ..•....... 2 7 

Limestone, hard, of &esh•water origin. ..... u ......... , .............. , .................. .. 7 9 

Limestone, creamy ... white, oolitic (Miami oolite) .............................. h ...... . 9 12 

Sandstone, tan-gray; c::alcareoust hard, High permeability ..................... , ..... . 12 17 

Limestone, whitet sandy, or calcareous sandstone containing a few fosails. 

Very high J;>ermeability ....... , .... , ........................................................ , 17 33 

Limestone, creamy-white, sandy, with chalky limestone layer about a foot 

thick.,, ........... ••• ••.....•....•....••. ••• ••••• , .......... ••• •• ••••• •. ··~··· ... ••• ••• ........ . 33 35 

Limestone, creamy to white, and hard &andy limestone, cavity between 47 and 

48.9 ft, Very high permeability ........................................................... . 35 so 

Sand, quartz, white, very fine to fine; contains broken bits of shells .......... , .. . 50 52 

Marl, tan to gray, shelly, sandy. Low permeability ................................ u•••• 52 85 

Marlt shelly and sandy, partly consolidated. Low parmeabllity ............ , ....... . 85 - 100 

346881 0-55--58 
888 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTiiEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 127,-Logs of wells in Dade County- Continued 

Well G 226 

Location: SE~ sec. 26, T, 55 S., R. 39 E., 3% miles west of Perrine and 0.2 mile north 

of Richmond Drive. 

Elevation of land surface: 12 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 100ft. 

Diameter: 3 in. 

Depth, in feel 

below I and surface 

sand, quartz, gray, partly fills solution boles in underlying oolitic limestone .. .. 0 3 

Limestone,. oolitic {Miami oolite) ............................................................... . 3 15 

Sand, quartz, white, containing a £e.w calcareous sandstone nodules. Medium 

permeability.,, .. ,,,,, ..................... ·•. '''''""'' .......... •• ·••" ••• •• •• •····" ••••• .. , 15 26 

Umestone, brown, dense, very ha,d. ......................................................... . 26 28 

Umestone, reddish-brown, hard •......................••••••.•..................••.••••••••.. 28 32 

Limestone, whit• to tan,. sandy .. riddled with solution holes. Cavity between 

38,5 and 39.5 Ct. Higb permeability ............................................. · ........ .. 32 40 

Sand, quartz, white, very Cine to medium. .............. ~··• .. .............................. . 40 42 

Limestone, white; sandy, shelly in places. llle;h permeability .................... u .. 42 54 

Limestc;ne, brown, porous, shelly. Highly permeable ................................... . 54 57 

Limestone, sandy, alternating with thir,. sand layers. High permeability ......... . 57 67 

Sand, quartz, white, medium-grained ........•.••••••........................•.•••••••.•••... 67 72 

Sandstone, gray, calcareous, with alternating thin layers of sand, High permeability ...•..............•.••••••••.•............•.•••••••........................•.•••••••..•.. 72 80 

sandstone, wbite, shelly, or sandy coquina; very soft between 85 and 90 ft.,, .. so 90 

Marl, dark-gray, sandy, shelly. Low pertneal ility ...................................... . 90 - 100 

Well G 419 

Location: NW~NE~ sec, 16, T. 53 S., R. 42 E. East of U. S. Highway 1 and south of 

Snake Creek Canal. 

Elevation of land surface: 5.0 ft above mean sea level. : 

Depth: 95 ft. 

Diameter: 2 in. 

Road fill a.nd material left from bridge construction ..................................... . 

Sandstone, calcareous, soft, with some sand and shells ............................... . 

Sandstone, gray, calcareous, very hard to 38 ft, alternately soft and hard, with 

small amount o£ sand £rom 38 to 47 ft ................................................... . 

Sandstone, white, calcareous, porous. liard layer £rom 86,5 to 87.5 ft. Alternating soft and hard layers containing a few shells from 86 to 95 ft ............ . 

Depth, In feel 

below land surface 

0 

16 

36 

47 

16 

36 

47 

95 
WELL LOGS 889 

Table 127.-Logs of wells in Dade County- Continued 

Well G 421 

Location; NW'/.INWY., sec, 12, T. 53 S.,· R. 41 E. South of Little River Canal and NW, 7th 

Avenue. 

Elevation of land surface; 5.0 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth; 97 ft, 

Diameter. 2 in. 

Depth, In teet 

below I and surface 

Road fill,., ........................................................................................ . 0 3.5 

Muck and marL·············•·••••~••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 3,5- 6.5 

Limestone,. oolitic, shelly at bottom ...........••• Ht ...................................... . 6.5- 17 

Sand,. quartz, fine to mediutn. . .......•.....•.• •• ••.....•....... •• ••• ••••••• ............ •• •• •.•. 17 39 

Sandstone,. brownish, calcareous, hard ..................................................... . 39 40 

Sandstone, calcareous, soft and friable, witb a sand layer from 49 to 52 ft. .... .. 40 62 

Limestone, white, sandy, soft. !lard layer .from 91 to 93 ft, High permeability,., 62 97 

Well G 422 

Location; SEY..SEY., sec, 2, T, 53 S., R. 41 E., 0,3 mile west of NW. 7th Avenue on north 

side of Little River Canal, 

Elevation of land surface; 5,0 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth; 98 ft. 

Diameter; 2 in, 

Muck•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••········ 

Limestone, oolitic, with very little sand. Some calcite and shells at bottom of 

section. ...............•••••.•................. ··•••·•··············••••······ ..... ·•·•••·••······ 

Sand, oolitic, shelly .....•..••• t••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

Sand, quart:!!:, and soft, loose sandy limestone ........................................... . 

Sand, quart~ and small amount of soft calcareous sandstone ............ u ......... •• 

Limestone, white, sandy, porous, with some sand and phosphate pebbles in 

cavities. Iligh permeability .................................. ~~·············~···············•••• 

Limestone, sandy, soft, with several hard layers.. High perrne:ability .............. .. 

Well G 423 

Depth, in teet 

below land surface 

0 

2 

19 

23 

33 

50 

63 

2 

19 

23 

33 

50 

63 

98 

Location; NEV..SW\~ sec, 6, T. 55 s., R. 41 E., 0.5 mile south of Kendal Drive and 0,4 

mile east of Red Road. 

Elevation of land surface; 4.0 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth; 52 ft. · 

Diameter. 2 in, 

Marl ....... , ...................................................................................... .. 

Depth, in feel 

below land surface 

0 1,5 

Limestone, oolitict very soft and porous from 11 to 23 ft. ............................. . 1.5- 23 
890 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 127,-Logs of walls in Dade County-Continued 

Well G 423- Continued 

Depth, In feet 

below land !Juri see 

Sand, ~u..n.,. fine to medium-............................................................... . 

Limestone; light-brown;, sandy, very hard,. soft from 28 to 32ft ..................... . 

Sand, q"uart~, fine.,.., ••••••........... ,,,,, ••••..•.........•.•••••............. , ...••••...•.....•. , 

Limestone, white,. sandy, very hard•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

Limestone, sandy, porous, and small amount of sand. High permeability,., ....... . 

Well G 424 

23 

25 

32 

38 

46 

Location: NEY.,SW~J, sec, 7, T. 55 s., R. 41 E. West of Snapper Creek Canal, east of 

Ingraham Highway. 

Elevation of land surface: 12.0 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 95 ft. 

Diameter: 2 in. 

25 

32 

38 

46 

52 

Depth, In feel 

below I Btld ••ufa'ce 

Umestone, oolitic, sandY··••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••·•••••• 

Cavity ............................. , •• ,,,,., ................................................ , •• ,., .. , 

Sand, quartz, with considerable arnount of organic material .................... ,u ... 

Limestone, gray-brown, very hard, Soft layers with small amount of chalky 

marl from 33 to 43 ft, and soft sandy limestone from 43 to 60 f~. High permeability,,.,,, •••••••••••••••••••• , ... ,, ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• , ... , .... , ••••••••••••••••••• , ... , 

Sandstone, calcareous, soft, and some fine quartz san~ lligh penneability ...... . 

Limestone, white, sandy, shelly, Alternately soft and hard with pocketa of 

sand. liard layer from 92 to 95 ft. lllgh permeability ..................... , ..... ••••• •• 

Well G 425 

0 

22 

25 

28 

60 

72 

22 

25 

28 

60 

72 

95 

Location: SWY.,NW~ sec, 7, T. 55 S., R. 41 E. West of Red Road, 0.4 mile north of intersection with Ingraham Highway, 

Elevation of land surface: 6.0 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 97 ft. 

Diameter: 2 in. 

Depth, In feel 

below land BUtfsc:e 

Limestone, oolitic, sandy, porous, ••••• ••••· •.•................................... ··•·••• .•• 

Sand, quartz, white ••..............•••••••••..••••.••....•••.•........•...•......•..••....... ,,,, 

Limestone, brown-gray, very hard•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

Sand, quartz, with small amount of aandy lim.estont'l ..............................•.••. 

Limestone, brown, hard. ....... 44•••4•••••·•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••4• 

Sand, quartz, fine to medl~.4•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••4 ....... . 

Limestone, tan, shelly. Alternate soft and hard layers. High permeability •••••••• 

Sand; quartz, fine to medium ....... 4•••4•••4••••••••••·••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

Limestone, white, sandy. High permeability ••.............................................. 

Sandstone, calcareous, soft, and flne quartz sand, High permeability •••••••••••••• 

Limestone, white, sandy, shelly, Alternate soft and hard layers from 68 to 81 ft, 

hard from 81 to 97 ft. lligh permeability .................................................. . 

0 15 

15 19 

19 '20 

20 28 

28 30 

3Q 33 

33 51 

51 60 

60 64 

64 68 

68 97 
WEll. LOGS 891 

Table 127.-Lo.\!s of wells in Dede County-Continued 

Well G 426 

Location: SWY..SW\4 sec. 20, T. 54 S., R. 41 E. Southwest of intersection of U, S. Highway 

No. 1 and Coral Gables Canal. 

Elevation of land surface: 11 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 98 ft. 

Diameter: 2~~ in, 

Depth, in feet 

below land surface 

Limestone, oolitic, with large amount of loo•e sand from 15 to 21 ft ............. . 0 21 

Sand, quartz, medium ........••••• ~~····••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 21 28 

Limestone, sandy. soft~ and a small amount of coralline limestone ............... . 28 32 

Sand, quartz; medium to fine ............................ ••••• ....... •••••••••••••••••••••••••• 32 36 

Limestone, shelly, sandy. very hard. Few soft lay•rs and small amount of 

phosphate pebbles. lllgh permeability ................................................ .. 36 61 

Limestone, sandy, soft, and quartz sand. Medium permeability ..................... . 61 69 

Limestone, sandy, porous, very sort. Cavernous between 77 and 98 ft. Small 

amount of loose sand. Few casts of shells. High permeability .................. ., 69 98 

Well G 428 

Location: SWY.,SE1

4 sec. 18, T. 54 S., R. 41 E. West of Coral Gables Canal and north of 

ilird Drive, Coral Gables. 

Elevation of land surface: 12 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 96 ft. 

Diameter: 2~ 2 in. 

Depth, in feet 

below/and surface 

Limestone, oolitic. sandY••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 0 

Sand, quartz:, tan.white, medium, with shells and pieces of calcareous sand· 

stone from 2() to 35 ft •....................•..............•••••............ •• •.............. •• 

Limestone, light-tan, shelly, sandy. Very porous and permeable from 35 to 40 

ft. Texture changes from medium to coarse quartz sand from 52 to 60 ft ........ . 

Limestone, white, hard•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• .. •••• 

Sandstone, calcareous, shelly, end small amount quartz sand, ...................... . 

Limestone. sandy. Alternate soft and hard layers with large amount of sand in 

soft sections. Few shells. Very hard white limestone from 94 to 96 ft ........ .. 

Well G 429 

9 

35 

60 

66 

80 

35 

60 

66 

so 

96 

Location: NW .~NW~4 sec. 30, T. 52 S., R. 42 E. East of lJiscayne Canal and NE. 13lst 

Street, North Miami, ,_ 

Elevation of land surface: 3,0 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 99 ft. 

Diameter: 2112 in. 

Road fill ............................................................................................ . 

Muck ................................................................................................. . 

Depth, In feet 

below land surface 

0 1 

9 
892 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 127.-Logs of wells in Dade County-Continued 

Well G 429- Continued 

Depth, In feet 

below land autface 

Limestone, oolitic, soft, with quartz sand and loose coralline limestone from 

21 to 26 n ........................................................................... ; .......... . 

Limestone, brown, sandy, hard. ••..................... ~•·•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••; •. 

Sandstone,· calcareous, soft, with fine quart:~!: sand. Alternate soft and h.ard 

layers frotn 40 to 51 ft. lligh penneability .............................................. . 

Sand, quartz, n~edium to coarse, with some loose calcareous sandstone .......... . 

Sandstone, calcare~')US, soft, and quartz sand. ....................... u••••••u••••••••••• 

Well G 431 

9 

26 

32 

75 

85 

26 

32 

75 

85 

99 

Location; NE~,4NE~~ sec, :20, T. :54 S,, R. 41 E. Lejeune Road and Bird Drive, Coral 

Gables. 

Elevation of land surface; 12ft above mean sea level. 

Depth; 100 ft. 

Diameter; 2% in, 

Depth, in feet 

below land surface 

Road fill, .......................................................................................... .. 0 3 

Limestone, oolitic~ very hard from 5 to 6ft ....................... u .... , ................... . 3 17 

Sand, quartz, tan-white, with small amount of soft sandy limestone at 41ft ....... . 17 46 

Limestone, brownish .. white, hard. Soft and sandy from 50 to 59 ft, and very hard 

from 59 to 67 ft. lligh pe:rmeability ........................ uuu•••••••••• .. •••••••••••••u• 46 67 

Limestone, light-tan; sandy, shelly, soft••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ... ••• 67 78 

Cavity ................................................................................................ . 78 82 

Sand, quartz, medium, and shell fragments with some loose sandy limestone ..... , 82 90 

Limestone, white, shelly, soft ..................••.•......................••••.••.••...••....... 90 - 100 

Well G 447 

Location; NW\'.INW'!. sec, 11, T. ~5 S., R. 39 E. Lindgren Road, 1 mile south of N, Kendall 

Drive, 

Elevation of land surface; 10.4 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 104 ft, 

Diameter; 2% in. 

Depth, In teet 

below I and surface 

Rock fill .................... ,,,,, .................................................................. .. 

Limestone, oolitic, soft ................................. •••••·•·•··•·•···········••·•••••• •.•••. 

Limestont9, sandy, ;;ery hard, dense •••..••• ••• ••••• •••••••••••••.•••••••••••••• •• ....... ••• •• 

Limestone, oolitic, tJoft ............•• t••t••••·•························•••••••••·•··············•· 

Limestone, sandy, with alternating hard and soft layers. !Ugh permeability ....... 

Cavity ............................................................................................... . 

Sandstone, white, calcareous, with hard and soCt layers. Cavities at 52 to 54, 58 

to 59, 62 to 63, and 70 to 72 ct. Very high penneability ............................... . 

Sandstone, calcareous, shelly, soft, with a cavity at 77 to 79 ft. Very high pertrieability .•...........•..•.•••••••••••••..•.....................•.••••••.•.•.....................•• 

Marl, greenish-gray, and greenlgh•gray calcareous sandstone, Contains small 

pieces of obBidian. LOW' penneability ••.••..•.............. ................................ 

0 2 

2 13 

13 15 

15 18 

18 47 

47 48 

48 72 

72 84 

84 - 104 
WEU LOGS 893 

Table 127.-Loga of walla in Dade County-Continued 

Well G 448 

Location: NW%SW% sec. 18, T. 55 s., R. :40 E., 3 miles west of Howard. 

Elevation of land surface: 7,5 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth; 96 ft. 

Diameter: 2% in. 

Depth, in feel 

below I Bnd ...,,face 

Limestone, oolitic, with q\lllrh: aand filling solution holes .......................... . 

Limestone, oolitic with intermittent beds of fine quartz sand, ....................... . 

Limestone, tan, dense, hard. Fracture& conchoidally .................................. . 

Sandstone, calcareous, hard with soft layers; cavity at 34 to 36 ft. High permeability to 95 ft. ............................................................................. . 

Sandstone, white to tan, calcareous, hard. Oslre" sp. and PeciGII sp. very 

common. sffiatl amount of Hexacorslla sp. and Heliaoma sp ..... 4 ................... . 

Sandstone, white, calc..-eouw, soft ••••....••• ·••••••••••·•·••··•·•••···••····················· Lbn•ston$', white, sandy. II-.. rd. and soft layerH .......................................•••••• 

Sandstone, white, calcareous .................................... ·••••·••• ••••• •••• •·•••·•· •••.. 

Ss.ildstone, ealeareous. containing pockets or quart% aand ••. ., ..•.....•............... 

SMdstone, calcareous, very hard. •...•.•.....•.................................•••.•••••••••• 

Cavity ............................................................................................... . 

Marl, gteenish-1ray, shelly. Low permeability ............................................ . 

Well G 449 

0 12 

12 26 

26 28 

28 39 

39 48 

48 49 

49 68 

68 82 

82 91 

91 92 

92 95 

95 96 

Location: SWY4SW% sec, 22, T. 55 S,, R. 40 E. North of Coral Reef Drive, 0.5 mile east of 

U, S. Highway 1, 

Elevation of land surface: 13.0 ft aboye mean sea level, 

Depth: 105 ft. 

Diameter: 2'h in, : 

Depth, in teet 

below land 6Urface 

Limestone, oolitic ....................... ••• ...... , ............................................ . 0 ·19 

Limestone, white, sandy, &oft ............................ .,.,"' •................•..........••••• 19 32 

Sand, quartz ...........•.••••••••••••••••••••••••• "'"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""•••··•·•••••••••••• 32 35 

Limestone, white. •andy. hard ................. "'"""""""""'" .................................... . 35 41 

Sandstone, ce.lcareous. hard. ••••••••••• , ....................................................... . 41 50 

Limestone. dense, harct. ••• ., •• ., •••.•.....•.........................•••••••••••••••••••.• .,., .•.• so 53 

Sandstone, calcareous, with hard and soft l•yera. cavities at 57 to 58 and 70 

to 73ft ......................................................................................... .. 53 73 

Sand, quartz, very fine ..•••••••••••••••••••••••••••...•..•.•.......... ·········•····••••••••••••• 73 74 

Sandstone, calc.,..eou!l, bard and denae. Cavitiea from 80 to 82 and 87 to 88 ft .. . 74 95 

Sandsto~, c::alcareou:t. hard,. contains some sheila ........... ••• ........... ••••••• ••• ...... . 95 - 105 
894 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 127.-Logs of wells in Dade County-Continued 

Well 0 450 

Location: NEY.,SW';4 sec. 27, T. 55 S., R. 40 E. Kuhn Road 0.5 mile south of Coral Reef 

Drive. 

Elevation of land surface: 9.2 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 104 ft. 

Diameter; 2Y2 in. 

Depth, in feet 

below I and surface 

Limestone~ oolitic •..................... •• •••••••••••••••• •. ••• , .................... •• ..•..•..•.• 

Sandstone, calcareous, hard. Cavity from 19 to 20 ft. ........................ u ....... .. 

Sandstone, calcareous, soft, with pockets or layers of fine quartz £S:nd.. .. , .• H••• 

Sandstone, calcareous, hard••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••·••••••••••••••••••••••••·· 

Sand, quart%. fine •••..••••.•........•.•.•••••.•.••••••••.•••• •••.•...•...........•..•.....••••••• 

Sandstone, white to tan, calcareous, hard. Cavities from.47 to 48 and 59 to 61 

ft .................................................................................................. . 

Sandstone, calcareous, containing pockets or layers of quartz sand ... uu••••••·•~ 

Sandstone, calcareous. with hard and soft layers, e'wity at 83 to 84 ft ........... . 

Sand, quartz, and small amount Qf loose calcareOus sandstone .............. " ...... . 

Well 0 451 

0 16 

16 21/ 

21 32 

32 33 

33 39 

39 61 

61 82 

82 96 

96 - 104 

Location: NWY.,NEY., sec. 35, T. 55 S., R. 40 E. Southeast corner of Cutler Road and 

Richmond Drive. 

Elevation of land surface: 12,3 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 107 ft. 

Diameter; 2% in, 

Depth, in feel 

below I litld surface 

Limestone, oolitic, with qmrtz sattd filling solution holes. ................. ~···•···· 0 19 

Sandstone, calcareous,. with pockets of quartz sand ................................... . 19 28 

Cavity .......... ,,, .................... ,,,,, ..................... ,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ............... ,,,,, 28 29.5 

Sandstone, calcareous, and quartz sand ............................. ~············ .......... .. 29,5- 38,5 

Sand, quartz. fine to mediutn. .....••••.•••.•••.................•.•••.••...•.....•.....•••••••• 38,5- 41 

Sandstone, grayish-white, c~careou$, hard. ............................... ~·········•··•· 41 59 

Sand, quartz, tan, fine to medium. ContainB shell fragments and phosphate 

grains••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 59 68 

Sandstone, calcsreous, with pockets of medium-grained quartz sand containing 

shell fragment& and phosphate grains ................................................... . 68 - 107 
WELL LOGS 895 

Table 127.-Logs of wells .in Dade County-Continued 

Well G 469 

Location: SE\iaSW\4 sec. 26, T. 55 S., R. 40 E.,: 20 ft east of Ingraham Highway and 640 ft 

north of Richmond Drive, Cutler, 

Elevat~on of land surface: 10.5 ft above mea11 sea level. 

Depth: 137ft. 

Diameter: 2Y~ in. 

Depth, In feet 

below I and surface 

Limestone, white-tan, oolitic, soft to medium hard. ...................................... . 0 21 

Sandstone, brnwnish, calcareous, hard, containin.g small amount of fine to 

medium quartz grains••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 21 48 

Limestone, white, sandy, soft. Contains shells and phoaphate graina .......... u .. 48 52 

Sandstone, gray•white, calcareous, hard, with fine to medium quartz aand filling 

solution holes•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••t••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• .52 74 

Limestone, white, sandy, shelly, and some quartz sand, Alternating hard and 

soft layers ............. ,.,, ..................................... ,.,., ........................... . 74 - 111 

Sandstone, gray-white, calcareous, shelly, and some quartz un.d in pockets .. .. 111 - 117 

Shell marl, grayish-green, sandy. Low permeability ................................... .. 117 - 126 

Marl .. greenisht clayey, sandy, and shell fragments. Very low permeability.u•••• 126 - 137 

Well G 471 

Location: SE\4SE\4 sec. :34, T. :55 S,, R. 40 E.,: 30 ft west of Ingraham Highway and 60 ft · 

north of Eureka Drive. 

Ele.vation of land surface: 12.5 ft above mean sea Level. 

Depth; 119 ft. 

Diameter: 2Y, in, 

Dlaek topsoil,,,,,. ... ,.,,,, ................. ,,,,,,,.,,,. .................. ,,,,,, ................ . 

Limestone, white to light tan, oolitic, soft to medium hard, becoming: sandy 

towards base •••••••••••••••••••••••••• ,,.,;;,, •••••••••••••••• ,,,,,, •••••.••••••••• ,,.,,,, •••••• 

Limestone, grayish-white, sandy, hard, containing quartz sand In solution 

holes. High penneability to 108 ft,. .................................................... .. 

Limestone, white, sandy, shelly, containing pockets of white quartz sand ...... . 

Sandstone; gray and white~ cs.lcareoua, very hard,,., ......................... , ......•••.• 

Sandstone, grayish-white, calcareous, hard, and some fine to medium quartz 

sand .....•• ••• ,. ~· ............... •• ••••• •• •••·• ·· ·· ·······.• ••••••• •· •····· ······ •• ••••• ••··· ·· ···· Marl, greenish, sandy, silty and shelly. Low penneability ............................. .. 

Depth, In feet 

be/ow I and s.ulacll 

0 0.5 

0.5- 31 

31 66 

66 68 

68 - 107 

107 - 111 

111 - 119 
896 WATER RESOURCES IN SOU1HEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 127 .-Lots of wells in Dade COU!Ity-Continued 

Well G 472 

Location: NW\mWY-1 sec. 25, T. 55 S., R. 40 E., 25 ft south of intersection of Coral Reef 

Drive and Ludlum Road. 

Elevation of land surface: 15.7 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 98 ft, 

Diameter: ~in. 

Depth, In feel 

below land aurlace 

Dlack topsoil, ....................................................................... ••• ......... ••• 

Limestone, light-tan, oolitic, becoming ssl\dy toward bal!iie .......... u ................. . 

Sandstone, grayift.b-white, calcareous, and some quartz sand in solution holes. 

l!igh penneabillty .................... ,,,,,,,,,,.,,.,, ........................................... . 

Limestone, white, aandy, containing pockets white fine to medium, quartz sand, 

and phoaphate grains, High penneability ................................................. . 

Limestone, white, sandy, shelly, containing pockets white fine to medium, 

quart" sand. lilgh permeability, ........................................................... .. 

Well G 474 

0 

1 

30 

76 

88 

1 

30 

76 

88 

98 

Location: SWY..NW~4 sec. 10, T. :56 S., R, 40 E.,: 0.2 mile south of Ingraham Highway and 

20 ft south of Tenella Boulevard, 

Elevation of land surface: 4.5 ft above mean sea level, · 

Depth: 107 ft. 

Diameter: 2~'2 in. 

D6pth, in faet 

below l•md rmrface 

1'opsoil and muck .........•••••••........ , .......................................................... . 0 1,5 

Limestone, light·tan, oolitic, soft to medium hard .............................................. . 1. 5 18 

Sandstone, tan to brownish, calcareous, containing some fine to medium, quartz 

sand. Sand mere abundant toward base ............................................. ~ ........ ... 18 26 

Sandstone, grayish.white, calcareous, very hard ............. , .......................... ,,.,, .. 26 31 

Sandstonet light-tan to grayish-white, calcareous, soft, with aome fine to 

..-;ediumt quartz sand. lligh permeability .... ,... ............................................... .. 31 44 

Limestone, white, Bandy, shell~ containing white fine to medium, q~rt:e sand in 

pocket~, with grains of phosphate throughout. lligh penneability .................. .. 44 - 106 

Marl, gray-green, shelly, sandy, sprinkled with phosphate grains. Low penneability •• ,, ......................................................................................... .. 106 - 107 

Well G 491 

Location: NEV.NEY., sec, 24, T, 57 S., R. 39 E, Intersection of Mowry Drive and Six Mile 

Road. 

Elevation of land surface: 3.0 ft above mean sea level. · 

Depth: 38 ft. 

Diameter: 2\1 in. 

Depth, in feet 

beto w I and autfsce 

Fill .................................................................................................... . 0 4 
WELL LOGS 

Table 127.-Logs of wells in Dade Coupty-Continued 

Well G 491- Continued 

897 

Depth, in feel 

bela w I lind surface 

Limestone, oolitic, with sand filling solution holes .................................. ,., 6.5- 23 

Limestone, white, hard. ........................................................................ . 23 26 

Limestone, tan, very hard••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••••••••• 26 38 

Well G 518 

Location: NE14NWY.. sec. 30, T. 56 S.,: R. 40 £, South Allapattah Road and Coconut Palm 

Drive, 

Elevation of land surface: 5.0 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 90 ft. 

Diameter: 4 in. 

Depth, in teet 

below I and suttace 

Road fill ...................................................................... , .. ,, •• , ............ .. 

Limestone, cream colored, oolitic. Soft to hard,., .. , ..................................... . 

Sandstone, light-tan, calcareous. liard, with pockets of fine white quartz san<L. 

Sandstone, light .. tan to white,_ calcareoust shelly, soft, containing quartz sand in 

solution holes. lligh permeability.~ .................... : ... ~~~ ........................... .. 

Sandstone, white, calcareous, hard, with pockets of qua~;tz: sand. High permea:• 

bility .......................................................... : ................................. .. 

Cavity •...•• •• ~ ••.•........... •••• •••• ~· ·~· •• •• •··~·· •••••• •• • •••• •• • •••~ ••• •• •• ••• •• ···•• •• ••• •• ~· ~· 

Sandstonet poroust shelly, calcareous, with some quartz sand in solution holes. 

l!igb penneabillty ............................................................................ .. 

Limestone, hard, shelly, with some soft sandy limestone. Little sand In solution holes. Iligh permeability .. , ...............•..••••• ~················•••••••••••••••••••• 

Marl, gray, shelly, sandy. Low penneability .............................................. . 

Well G 519 

0 

1 

17 

30 

46 

62 

63 

75 

79 

1 

17 

30 

46 

62 

63 

75 

79 

90 

Location: SW'/.1 sec. 21, T. :54 S.,: R. 41 E.,: Coconut Grove Park, 450ft NW. of Biscayne 

Bay, Miami, 

Elevation of land surface: about 9,0 ft above mean sea level, · 

Depth: 44.5 ft, 

Diameter: 

Depth, in teet 

below I and liUrfsce 

Topsoil, black. .................... ,,,.,., ........................... ,,,,,,,,,,. ....... ,,,,,,,, ... . 

Limestonet oolitic with small amount of quart~ tulnd. ................................. .. 

Sand, quartz, light-tant and few $hells .............. ,. .................................... .. 

Sandstonet light-tan, c~lcateous, IJard and soft layers ................................ . 

0 

0.5-

18.5-

25,5-

0,5 

18.5 

25.5 

44.5 
898 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTiiEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 127.-Lol!s of wells in Dade County-Continued 

Well G 525 

Location: NEY<!NEY., sec. 33, T, 53 S., R. 41 E., 0,2 mile west of NW. 27th Avenue and 

50 ft south of NW. South River Drive, Miami, · 

Elevation of land surface: 7.0 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 113 ft. 

Diameter: 2 in. 

Deptll, in feel 

below /1111 d surface 

Road fill and topsoil .......................................................................... .. 

Limestone, white to light-tan, oolitic, sort, increasing in fine quartz sand 

toward base,.,, ................................................................................. . 

Sandstone, white to grayish-white, and lla:h'-tan, calcareous. Contains small 

solution holes filled with fine to medium quartz a and; increasing number toward baee ..................................................................................... .. 

Sandstone, white to gray-white, calcareous, hard. Several small solution holes, 

filled with sand, between 64 and 66 ft. ............................... """""""'"" 

Sandstone, grayish-white, ·calcareous, shelly, soft, Riddled with solution holes. 

Increaalng amount of shells and sand toward base, Several small cavities between 72 and 78 ft ............................................................................. . 

Sandstone, light-tan, calcaraous. Very hard .............................................. . 

Sandstone, white to gray-white, calcareous, containing few shells at top, increa•ing amount of sand and shells toward bottorn .. u•••u ........... u ............. . 

Well G 527 

0 3.5 

3. 5 - 25 

25 56 

56 70 

70 - 98,5 

98,5- 101 

101 - 113 

Location: NWY.,NWY., sec, 20, T. 57 S., R. 40 E.,: 2.1 miles east of Six Mile Road on south 

side of North Canal. 

Elevation of land surface: 3 ft above mean sea level, 

Depth: 51 ft. 

Diametet: 4 in. 

Road fill and marl ................................................................................. . 

Limestone, white, oolitic, soft ................................................. ~ ....... u ...... . 

Sandston.,, gray to tan, calcareous, with quartz sand filling solution holes, Very 

hard dense layers from 22 to 27 ft and 33 to 37 ft .................................... .. 

Well G 548 

Depth, in feet 

below land surface 

0 

7 

14 

7 

14 

51 

Location: SE'/.NEV.. sec, 19, T. 53 S., R. 41 E. Pinecrest Drive and La Villa Drive, 

Miami Springs, 

Elevation of land surface: 6.5 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 97 ft. · 

Diametec 2 in •. 

Topaoll. ........................................................... , .... ,,,,,,,,,,,,,.,,,,,,,,,,,,, 

LitnestoQ, white to tan, oolitic, with sand filling solution holes, ................. . 

Depth, in feet 

below land ao.rface 

0 

3 

3 

19 
WELL LOGS 

Table 127.-Logs of wells in Dade County-Continued 

Well G 548-Continued 

899 

Depth, In feel 

below land surface 

Sand, quartz, tan, and few shell fr~gment.s ..................... u ....... ~H••u•••••••••••• 

Sandstone, grayish ... white, calcareous, Riddled with solution holes parUy filled 

with quart>: sand, Very high penneability ............................................... .. 

Sand, quartz•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••"'••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

Sandstone, grayish-white, calcareous, shelly. Cavity from 75 to 77 ft. lligh permeability ••. ••••• •••••••••••••••• ...•......•....••....•.•...••...........•••........••.•.. ~ ..•..•. 

Limestone, white, shelly, soft. High penneability ...................................•.... 

Sandstone, calcareous, shelly, with hard and soft layers, and pockets of quart% 

sand, Several small cavities between 86 and 92 ft. lllgh permeability .......... . 

Well G 551 

19 

36 

60 

65 

83 

85 

36 

60 

65 

83 

85 

97 

Location: NW';iiSW';ii sec. 36, T. 54 S., R. 39 E.,: 5\1, miles west of U. S. Highway 1 and 

0.3 mile north of North Kendall Drive, 

Elevation of land surface: 8 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 98 ft. 

Diameter: 24 in. to 30 ft and 18 in. to 98 ft. 

Depth, in teet 

below land sutisce 

Limestone, white, oolitic, hard, solution-riddled, with gray marl fi'ling holes .... , 

Limestone, tan-brown to gray .. white, sr.andy, cavernous, den:se, bard, with a soft 

calcareous layer from 18 to 19 ft. Alternate sort and bard layers from 19 to 84 

ft, and numerous molds of fossils from 36 to 40 and 46 to 49 ft. Very high per• 

meabi1lty ........................ , ... ,,,, .. ,,,,, .. ,, ........................... ,,,,,, .. , ......... .. 

Sandstone, gray .. white, c.alcareous, soft, and quartz sa:nd. ..... u.uu•u••••••••••••••• 

Marl, gray, sandy, shelly, very soft, Low permeability ........... u .................... . 

Well G 552 

0 - 15 

15 84 

84 88 

88 98 

Location: SW';iiNW';ii sec. 27, T. 55 S., R. :39 E., 1.5 miles north of Eureka Drive and 300 

ft east of N aranj a Road, 

Elevation of land surface: 9.0 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 87 ft. 

Diameter: 24 in. to 30 ft and 18 in. to 87 ft. 

Depth, in ffJet 

below I and aurface 

Marl, gray .• ,,,, .. ,, ...............•...••••••• , •. , ...........•..•.•.••• ,,,,, .....•....•••••••• ,,,,,., 

Limestone, white, oolitic, soft, and quartz sand. ....................................... .. 

Sand, quartz, with pieces of riddled oolitic limestone ................................. . 

Limestone, white, sandy, with oolitic aand filling solti.ti()n holes ................... . 

Limestone, white, sandy, shelly, soft to medium hard with solution he>les partly 

filled witb quartz sand. Cavity from 40 to 41 ft. Very high penneability ....... .. 

Sand, quarrz, grayish-white. Very high penneability ............................. """" 

Limestone, white sandy, $belly, hard to sort, with numerous small cavities be-. 

tween 58 and 70 ft. Very high permeability ........................................... .. 

Sa.nds"tOne, c3fC.ireous, very soft, extremely riddted with sol~iion llol~s.~ Very high 

0 

2 

11 

17 

28 

43 

47 

permeab\lity ......................................................................................... · 71 

Sand, ·quartz, .very fine to medium, average is fine, containing nodules of undy 

limestone and numerou$ sheila. Low permeability .................................... . 82 

2 

11 

17 

28 

43 

47 

71 

82 

87 
90(i WATER RESOURCES IN SOU'IHEASTERN Fl.ORIDA 

Table 127.-Lo.fts of wells in Dade Coupty-Continu~d 

Well G 553 

Location: NEY.,SEY-1 sec, 16, T. 55 S., R. 40,E., 0.5 mile west of U. S, Highway No. 1, on south side of Motu Drive, 

Elevation of land surface: 12.0 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 127 ft. 

Diameter: 24 in, to 30 ft and 18 in, to 127 ft. 

Depth, In teet 

below land 111urface 

Limestone, white, oolitic, sandy ......................................• , ... , ..... , ..... ,, .... , 

Sand, oolitic .. ,.,,,.,, .... ,,,,,,,, ................................................................ . 

Limestone, "andJI shelly, porous, soft to hard, with grayish-white, very fine 

quartz sand in aolution holes, Cavity from 41 to 45 ft. lligh permeability to 

93 ft ............................................................................................. .. 

Sari.dstone, calcareous,. shelly, soft to hard, and large amoQnt of gra.yi2Jh-White 

very fine quartz sand, Numerous casts and molds from 78 to 82 ft .............. .. 

Sand, qu11rtz, very fine to medium, average is fine, and pieces of nodular grayish· 

white calcareous sandstone. Low pernteability ......................................... . 

Well GS 14 

0 16 

16 36 

36 74 

74 ...: 93 

93 - 127 

Location: T. 51 S.,: R. 35 E. Johnny Pool's Island approximately 15 miles north of the 

Tamiami Trail and 39 miles west of Miami, 

Elevation of land surface: Approximately 14 ft above mean .sea level. 

Depth: 51 ft. 

Diameter: 4 in. 

D-,th, In feel 

be/ow I and •urfi!Jca 

Muc:k •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ,, ... , .. ,,., ....... , •• ,.,, ••••••••••••••••••••• 0 1 

Limestone,. sandy,. soft,. of fresh-water origin., .. u•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 1 2.5 

Sandstone, calcareoua, and soft gray marl which probably fills solution holes 

ln the sandstone. Low permeability ...................................................... .. 2.5- 7.5 

Sand,. quartz, tan~ very fine to medium. Low permeability ............................ . 7,5- 10.5 

Sand,. quartz, white,. and friable calcareous sandstone ............. ................ u. 10,5- 29.5 

Shell marl,. gray, sandy. Low permeability ................................................ . 29.5- 32 

Shell marl~ green, clayey. Prec:ticaUy imperrneable ••••. ,,.,, .. ,,, .. , ...... , •...•........ , 32 39,5 

Shell marl, gray. Consolidated in places to a shelly sandstone. Low permea• 

bility to 50 ft. ................................................................................ . 39.5- 51 
WELL LOGS 901 

Table l27.-Lo~s of wells in Dade Coupty-Continued 

Well GS 30 

Location: T. 59 S., R, 35 E,, 13 miles southwest of Royal Palm State Park on south side 

of Florida Highway 27, 

Elevation of land surface: Approx, 3,5 ft above mean sea level, 

Depth: 64 ft. 

Diameter; 4 in, 

Fill,,,,,,,,,,,.,,,,,,,,,,.,,,,,, ............ ,,,.,,,,.,,,,,,,,,.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ................. , ... ,,, 

Limestone, oolitic.,,.,.,,., .......................•••••••• ,,,.,,,,,,,,,,,, .........•...••..••••.••• 

Umestone, gray,. hard., ..............••.•............•••••••.••••• ,,,,,,,,, ...................... . 

Sandstone, light-gray, calcareous, shelly, hard ............................................ . 

Sand, quartz, medium to coarse ......................... ,,,,,,,,,., .. ,,,., ..............•••••••••• 

Sand, quartz, fine to medium, and i!imall-ilmount of brown silt ................... u ..... , 

Depth, in feel 

below lsnd surface 

0 

1.5-

13 

21 

34 

39 

1,5 

13 

21 

34 

39 

64 
902 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 128.-Logs of wells in Glades County 

Well GS 18 

Location: NW%SW\I.. sec, 18, T. 39 S., R. 34 E., 0.15 mile southwest of Indian Prairie 

Canal on Florida Highway 78, 

Elevation of land surface: Approximately 17ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 75 ft. 

Diameter: 4 in. 

Sand, quartz, carbonaceous ....... ~··••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

Sand, quart2: ................•........•..•..•......•.......... , ................ , ........... , .....•... 

Shell bed of marine origin ......••.............•..•.............................................•. 

Marl, very sandy, few shells and thin layers of calcareoue sandstone between 18 

and 23ft .......................................................................................... . 

Shell bed, black, and medium to coarse quartz aancL. .................. u ................. .. 

Shell marl, gray, sandy. Low penneability .... , ....... u•••••u••uutuu••uuu .......... .. 

Marl~ light .. green, clayey, ~andy. Very low perm.eability ................................ .. 

Well GS 28 

Depth, in teet 

bela w /lflld sutfa 

0 o.s 

0.5- 3 

3 7 

7 30 

30 44 

44 54 

54 75 

Location: NWV.SW ~ sec, 11, T. 42 S., R, 32 E.,: 200 ft west of Moore Haven High School, 

Moore !Iaven. 

Elevation of land surface: Approximately 17,5 ft above mean sea level, 

Depth: 63 ft. 

Diameter: 4 in. 

Depth, in feel 

below land =rface 

Peat. .................................. , ............................................................ . 

Sand~ quartz .••...••............................•..•.............•••...•.• ~ •••••..................• 

Shell bed with large amounts of quartz sanc:L ••• u••••••u• .. •• ................ h•••••••••• 

Sand, quartz, and shells ..................•............................. '···•·•····•••••••••••• ... 

Sand, quartz, white, fine to 28 ft, medium to coarse from 28 to 50 ft; contains 

some calcareous sandstone •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.••••••••••••• •·•··•···•·•·••·•··· 

Sand, quartz, shelly, coarse .............................•............•. ••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

Well GS 29 

0 

3 

10 

14 

17 

50 

3 

10 

14 

17 

50 

63 

Location: Sec, 22, T. 40 S.,: R, 32 E,,· 1 mile east of Lakeport on Florida Highway 78. 

Elevation of land surface: Approximately 15.5 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 75 ft. 

Diameter: 4 in. 

Sand~ quartz, Lake Okeechobee beach ridge., ............................................. . 

Muck and peat, ...................................................... •••• ••• ....................... . 

Sand~ quartz, gray, rnarly ........................................................................... . 

Depth, In feel 

below llflld surface 

0 

4 

8 

4 

8 

11 
WEU LOGS 903 

Table 128.-Lots ol wells in Glades Co~~.Qty-Continued 

Well GS 29-Continued 

Depth, in feet 

below land BUrface 

Marl, gray, sandy, and few shelle ............................................................. . 11 28.5 

Mad, light•gray, ehelly, very .andy .......................................................... .. 28.5- 41.5 

Sandt quart a:. fine to medium, and ahella, ... ,, ••• .... , ......................................... . 4L5- 47,5 

Mart. greenish-gray. aheUy, &liitndy,, ............................................................... u 47,5- 55,5 

Mad, liireeniah-&ray, silty, plastic, and few shell Crali:D\ents. .......................... .. ss.s- 61,5 

Marl, liiray, Iandy, very 8hllly ................................................................. .. 6L5- 75 

346881 0-55--59 
904 WATER RESOURCES IN SOU1HEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 129.-L.ogs of wells .in Hendry County 

Well HE 4 

Location: SWY<!SE';4 sec. 17, T, 43 S., R. :33 E., 7 miles west of Clewiston and 1 mile 

south of Florida Highway 80. 

Elevation of land surface: Approximately 19 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 127 ft. 

Diameter: 6 in. 

Dep lh, in feet 

below land surface 

Fill .... , ••••••••• ,; ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.••••••••••••••• ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 

Stilnd, quartz ••.•....•....• ••·•···•·• ••••• ••••••• •••• •••••• •• ••·•• •••• ••••• ••••.•.••..••..•.......• 

Limestone, dark-brown., hard ..••••••••• ~··••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••••••· .......•...........• 

sand., quartz, light-gray. and shella ••.• uttt••••······· .................................... . 

Sand, quart2i,. light,..gray, shelly, marly .................................................... . 

Shell marl, gray ....... , ........................................................... , .. ,,, ....... ,,, 

Sheil marl, dark·gray, sandy. Approximately 90 percent of shells are Osttea sp, 

Sand, quartz:, gr•y, marly. shellyJ' fine to coar:se ........................................ . 

Sand, quart%, and shells••••••••••• ...... ••• •••• ... ••••••••• ................................... •• •• 

Sand. quartz~ coarse. with few pebbles and shell fragments ........................... •• 

Clay, green, sandy, Practically impermeable. ........................................... , 

Well GS 4 

0 2 

2 4 

4 6 

6 15 

15 20 

20 30 

~ 84 

84 91 

91 94 

94 - 126 

126 - 127 

Location: NWY,.SWY,. sec. 34, T. 43 S.,· R. 32 E. Devil's Garden Road, 3.6 miles south of 

Florida Higjlway 80. · 

Elevation of land surface: Approximately 23 ft above mean sea level, 

Depth: 50 ft. 

Diameter: 4 in. 

Sand and few shells. •• •• ••••••• ••••• ..•..........•.••...•.••...•. •••• ••• •• ,. ••••• ........•.....• 

Sandstone, calcareous, soft, friable, containing solution holes tilled with sand. 

Medium permeability to 10 ft •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• •••• •••••·• •••••••••••• ••••••••• ... 

Sand, quartz, tan to brown. Low penneability ............................................ u ... 

Sand, quartz~ gray to white. Low permeability ........................................... . 

Well GS 5 

Depth, in teet 

below land surface 

0 

6 

14 

23 

6 

14 

23 

50 

Location: SWY<! sec. 22, T. 45 S., R. 32 E. Devil's Garden Road, 13,8 miles south of 

Florida Highway SO. 

Elevation of land surface: Approximately 27 ft above mean sea level, 

Depth: 50 ft. 

Diameter: 4 in, 

Sand, dark-brown, carbonaceous. Low permeability ...................................... . 

Shell marl, white, chalky, Low permeab!Hty .............................................. . 

Sand, quSrtz, brownj consolidated in places into a soft calcareous sandstone. 

Depth, in feet 

below land surface 

0 

10 

10 

17 

Low pem1eability ••••••••.• ~····••·•·•••••••••••••,•••··········•••·•·••••··············••·••••••• 17 225 
WEll LOCS 905 

Table 129.-Logs of wells in 1lendry Cou.(lty-Continued 

Well GS 5-Continued 

Shell marl, sandy, of marine origin. Low permea_bility,., ............................ . 

~far!, sandy, shelly. Low permeability ............................. , ..................... . 

Marl, sandy, clayey. Practically irnpenneable ......................................... .. 

Deptt•, in teet 

below land surface 

22.5 - 25.5 

25.5- 40 

40 50 
906 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 130.-....ogs ol wells in Highlmds Cou~ty 

Well GS 20 

Location: SWY., sec, 31, T. 37 S.,: R. 31 E., 27 miles west of Okeechobee on Florida 

Highway 70. 

Elevation of land surface: 36 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 125 ft. 

Diameter: 4 in. 

Depth, In feel 

below lsnd wdace 

Sand, black, c:arbonaceou$. .........••••••••....... , .• ,,, ••.••.........•.••••••••.......•.•••••• 0 0.5 

Sand, quartz, tan, medium to coarse, AJi.d some clay ...................... u ............... . o.s- 11 

Clay, whitish-gray, sandy, and thin layers of gray calcareous sandstone from 24 

to 32 ft. Low penneability ...................... ,. .......................................... . 11 32 

Limestone, gray, sandy, containing •mall amount of sandy clay and few pbo,... 

phate pebbles,, ••• •••• ........................... •••• ............... , '''" ..................... . 32 46 

Clay, ~andy, shelly, with thin layers of calcareous sand .. tol\e and grave!, ...... .. 46 67 

Sand, quart.a;,gray, very fine •••••.•...... ,,,,, •••....... ,, ••••••••..•......•.•••••••..•...... ,,, 67 70 

sandstone, calcareous, soft, and thin beds of clay with pl•ces of chalk. ......... .. 70 81 

Sand, quartz, gray, indurated, coarse, •nd thin lay .. s of clay ................... u ... . 81 89 

Sandstone, gray, calcareous, soft, cofttaining alternate layers of quartz saftd and 

thin beds of clay. Thin layers of sandy, shelly marl from 99 to 108 ft. .......... .. 89 - 108 

Marl, green, sandy, and thin layerll of •oft, calcareoua sandstone from 108 to 118 

ft .......................................................................... ; ......................... . 108 - 125 

Well GS 21 

Location: Sec, 35, T. :36 S., R. 31 E. South side of Istokpoga Canal, approximately 1 mile 

east of Lake lstokpoga. 

Elevation of land surface: 39 ft above mean sea level, 

Depth: 65 ft. 

Diameter: 4 in. 

Sana, brown,. carbonaceous.,, •••••••..•.....•.. ,,,,,,,,,,, ............... ,,,,,,, •••••..••..•. ,, 

Sand, gray, clayey, alternating with beda of medium quartz sand. ..... u ........... . 

Sand, brown, clayey, .••............ ,,.,,,,,,,, •........ , .. ,,,,,,., ••..•............ ,,,,,,,,, .•.. 

Sand,. quartl!':, gray,. medium. •••••••• ,,,,,,,,,,, •••••••••• ,,,,,,,,, •••••••••••••• ,,.,,.,, ••••••• 

Clay, gray-green, sandy, light and plastic,. ............................................ .. 

Sand,. quart.t, gray, fine to medium. .•.• "'···•••••••••···············•·•••u•••••••··••····•··• 

Marl, blue-green to. gray-white. sandy, shelly,. ..................................... u•••••••• 

Depth, In tnt 

below lattd BUrf•co 

0 

3 

9 

19 

32 

46 

53 

3 

9 

19 

32 

46 

53 

65 
WEll. LOGS 907 

Table 130.-Logs of wells in HigblBtldB County-Continued 

Well GS 22 

Location: Sec, 8, T. 36 S., R, 33 E. Intersection of Florida Highway 66 and Kissimmee 

River, near Fort Bassinger, 

Elevation of land surface: Approximately 30 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 101 ft. 

Diameter: 4 in, 

Depth, in feel 

below lmd surfece 

Sand, quartl':, gray····•······•··••·•••••••••••••••••·••••••••••••••••••••••••••••·············~····· 0 2 

Sand, quart%, reddish .. brown, indurated.. .............................. ,.u•••••••••••••••••••••• 2 20 

Sand, quartz, K:ray, and small amount of clay ............ u .............. H••················ 20 30 

Clay. dark .. gray. sandy; medium to coarse,,.,,,, ................................ ,,.,,, .• , ••• 30 36 

sand, dark. ... gray. claytJ:y. medium to coarse ................... , •••• , .......................... . 36 48 

Shell marl, grayiBh•green., sandy • and a a mall amount o£ calcareous 6andstone .. .. 48 65 

Marl, green, 'Bandy, Few $hel1Suuttt•.eu•u•u••u4u•••••H••••••••••••••uu•u ........... 4. 65 70 

Marlt g:rayt ahellyt sandy,,,,t•4•••••••••••4••4~·•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••4••••••••••••••••• 70 as 

Marl, bright-green, clayey, containing very little sand or shells .. u••••tt••••••••••••• 85 - 101 
908 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 131.--Logs of wells in Martin County 

Well OS 23 

Location: Sec, 23, T. 40 S., R. 40 E., 8.5 miles southeast of St,Lucie Canal on Florida H~~ey7~ . . 

Elevation of land surface: Approximately 24ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 90.5 ft. 

Diameter: 4 in. 

Depth, in feet 

below land tillrisce 

Sandt quartz; gray to black, carbonaceous ............ u ....................... u •••••• ,,., 

Shell bed; of marirte origin, and quartz sanc:L ...... u ...... t ............................. u 

Sandstone, calcareous, riddled with solution holes largely filled with quart:t 

•and and marine shells, .• ,,,,,.,.,,,, •. , ••.••. ,,,,,, .. ,.,, ...... .,,., .. .; ... , .............•.... 

Sand, quartz, e:ray, shelly, fine to medium. Low permeability ....................... . 

Sand, quart%, dark·gtay, shelly, msrly, Small amount of phosphate pebbles, 

Low permeabiUty,,,,,,,.,,.,,,.,.,., •• ,,, •• ,.,,,.,.,, .............. , ......................... . 

Shell marl, dark·gray, very sandy. Low permeability ....... , .......................... . 

Well M 12 

0 

3 

8 

22 

68 

74 

3 

8 

22 

68 

74 

90.5 

Location: Sec, 27, T. 39 S., R. 42 E., 200ft east of U. S. Highway 1, and 0.3 mile north· 

east of pump house, Hobe Sound. 

Elevation of land surface: 22 ft above mean sea level, 

Depth: 117ft. 

Diameter: 12 in. 

Depth, In feet 

below land lillrfsce 

Sand, quartz, white .....................•••••••••••.•.•.••••••............................•.•..••• 0 5 

Sand, quartz, tan, shelly ........ , ............................................................. .. s 18 

Sand; quartz, white to tan ..............................•...•.•••••••• , •• ....................... . 18 39 

Sandstone, calcareous, shelly .......•....•.••.•..•.•••.•..•••.•••..•.....................•..••• 39 73 

Sand. quartz, white, fine to medium, and nodular sandstone .......................... . 73 79 

Sandstone, gray, calcareous, hard. ...•••.•...•...•.•••••••••••.••..........•..........•••.•.•.• 79 81 

Sandstone, shelly, calcareous, almost a eoquina.u•u••••••••••••••••••••••uuuu•u••• 81 84 

Sand,. quartz, white,. very fine to medium ...................................................... . 84 95 

Sandstone, tan to gray, shelly,. hard. ....... ~ ... ·~···················· .. ··••• ................ . 95 - 106 

Sandstone, shelly, grading into coquina ................................. ~•••u••••••••••••••• 106 - 117 
WELL LOGS 909 

Table 132.-Lo.s~s of wells in Okeechobee County 

Well GS 16 

Location; Sec. 18, T. 34 S., R. 36 G., 19 miles north of Okeechobee, and 2 miles east of 

Fort Drum,· 

Elevation of land surface; 50 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth; 90 ft. : 

Diameter. 4 in. · 

Depth, in feet 

below land surface 

Sand, quartz, gray .....••.•• ~···········•·••••···········•••••••••••••••••~>••••••••••············· 

Sand, dark-brown, carbonaceous, indurated 111 'hardps.n .,·········••••••······.····••••••• 

Sand, quartz, dark-brown, med.iurn. •.........•.•••••••.. ,., ...•.•.•••••••......•.•• jl •••••••••• 

San&, quartz, dark•brown, medium to coarse, and a small amount of friable cal• 

careous sandstone·····•••••···············•••••••·········•··••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.••• 

Sand, quartz, light-tan to gray, fine to medium ........ u ... •••••••••••u••••••••••••uuu 1 

Sand, quar-tz, g:ray, coarse •.•••••......••.....•....•.••••••.••.......••••••....•..•..•••••••.....• 

Sand, quartz;. gray, and thin layers of clayeymarL ...................................... .. 

sand;. quartz, shelly, coar~e·•••···········•·•••••••·········••••••••·······•••••••••·········· 

Shell marl, gray, sandY··•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.•••••••••••••D••••••••·•······•·••••••····· 

Well GS 17 

0 2.5 

is- 6 

6 12 

12 20 

20 44 

44 57 

57 62 

62 73 

73 90 

Location; SE'/.NW\~ sec. 19, T. 38 S., R. 35 E., 0,15 mile northeast of Kissimmee River on Florida Highway 78~ : 

Elevation of lr.nd surface; Approximately 21 ft above mean sea level, 

Depth; 131 ft. 

Diameter: 4 in. 

Depth, in feet 

below I 111'1 d surface 

Sand, quartz. Lake Okeechobee beach ridge ......................... ~········•••H•••••••••• 

Sand, quartz, dark•brown, earbonaceous••••••••••••••••········•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••· 

Muck .... , ............................................................................................ .. 

Sandr quartz, fine to medium. 0. 5 -ft layer of plastic muck at 23 ft ............ uuu•• 

Shell marl; gray, sandy. Low penneability ................................................... . 

Marl, shelly, light•gray, sandy. Shells principally Pecten sp. Contains a thin 

layer of hard bl"own fossiliferous limestone. Low penneability ...................... . 

Marl, shelly, sandy, phosphatic. Low permeabilitY·••••·······••••••••••••••••·······•·••• 

Sand, quartz,. medium to coarse .•...•.....•••••.....•...•••..••...•••••........•••••..•.....•••. 

Sand, quartz, marly, few shell fragments •..•......•• u••·······•• .......................... . 

Sand, quartz, dark•gra.y, marly. Low permea.bility ................... u••••••._ .............. . 

Marl, greenish-gray, shelly, sandy. Low permeability ................................... .. 

Sand, quartz, greenish-gray, marly, fine to medium. Low pennea.bility ............... . 

0 6 

6 9• 

9 12 

12 29 

29 53 

53 54.5 

54.5- 75 

75 81 

81 90 

90 - 110,5 

110,5 ~ 123 

123 - 131 
910 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUtHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 132.-Logs of wells in Okeechobee Cou!!ty-Continued 

Well GS 19 

Location: NEY.,NEY.. sec. 36, T. 38 S., R. 36 E, West side Florida Highway 15, 0.1 mile 

north of Martin County Line, 

Elevation of land surface: Approximately 16 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 80 ft, 

Diameter: 4 in. 

Depth, In teat 

b'llowl11nd wr/aee 

Sand, quartz, Lake Okeechobee beach ridge ............................................. .. 0 3.5 

Muc:k4••••••••••·······•·••••••·········•·•••••••···••••••••••••••·······•"'•••••••••·······,••••••••• 3,5- 5 

Quartz, sand, marl, marine shell bed, and thin layer 6-etih-water limestone, in 

order from top to bottom. ................................................................... . 5 9 

Shell bed, sandy, and lenses of fine quartz und ....................................... .. 9 IS 

Marl, gray, shelly, aandy. Low penneability, ........................................... .. 15 26 

Sand, quartz, fine to medium, and sheila, Low penneability ......................... .. 26 35,5 

Shell bed, sandy, and small amount of marl. Low permeability ...................... .. 35.5- 46 

Shell marl, very sandy. Low permeability ................................................. .. 46 49 

Marl, very sandy, and few ahell fragments. Low permeability ....................... .. 49 66 

M$rl, sandyt sticky,. and very few shells. Low permeability ........................... . 66 80 
WEll LOGS 911 

Table 133.-Log.s of wells in Palm Beach County 

Well GS 2 

Location: T. 45 S., ,R. 36 E. Florida Highway 25, 3.5 miles south of Bolles Canal. 

Elevation of land surface: 13.1 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: SO ft. 

Diameter: 4 in. 

Depth, in feel 

below IBIIcillutiace 

Mu~k and peat •••••• ,,., •• ,.,,,.,.,,.,,""'"" ....... """' .. ""' ............................. ,, 0 6.8 

Sandstone, calcareous, hard, shelly, containing both marine and fresh-water 

fossils, Low penneablllty •• ., .... , .... ""'""'""'""""'"'''"""''"'"'''""'""'' 6,8- 16.5 

Marl, shelly, poorly consolidated in places to a friable shelly sandstone, Low 

permeability .................................................................................... .. 16.5- 30,4 

Sand and shells, probably a sandy shell marL Low permeability,., ...... .,. .......... . 30.4- 36,5 

Sandstone, calcareous, shelly .••••••........... , .. ,,,,,,.,,,,,,, •.•.•......•................ ,, 36.5- 38, ~ 

Marl~ shelly, sandy in places, containl:ng thin hard layers where the marl is consolidated into limestone. Low permeability .......... ,, ... ,,,,,, ......................... , 38.2- 49 

Sand. quartz, very fine. Low permeability ........ , ..... , .. , ................................ , 49 so 

Well GS 3 

Location: Sec. 8, T. 44 S., R. 36 E., 3 miles west of South Bay, and 1 mile south of 

Florida Highway 80 •. 

Elevation of land surface: 15 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 50 ft. 

Diameter: 4 in. · 

Depth, in feel 

below lsncl ourlace 

Uuck and peat ....... ,,,,.,,,., .. , ............................................................ , .. ,, 

Shell marl, sandy, with layers of hard, flinty limestone and soft white limestone. 

Penneable in parts ........................•. ,,,~•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• .. ••••••••••••••••• 

Shell marl, gray to dark-!lfay, sandy. Few thin layers of rock between 32 and 33 

ft, Low perrneabUity •••••.•••.•• ,,,,,,,,,,, ••••••••••.•.••••••••••••••••••••.•••••••••••••••••••• 

Limestone, sandy, shelly, hard,,, ..•••••••••.•••.•••.••.••...................................... 

Shell marl, sandy. Low pernteability.,,,,, ••••••.•...••......•...•...••....•...•....••.•...•. ,., 

Well GS 6 

0 7,5 

7,5- 23.5 

23.5- 34.5 

34.5- 36 

36 5o 

Location: T. 45 s., R. 38 E. Florida Highway 827, 7.2 miles south of its intersection with 

Florida Route 80. 

Elevation of land surface: Approximately 15 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 55 ft. 

Diameter: 4 in, 

D(J>th, .if! feet 

below land wdace 

Road tnt .................................................................................. .. r .. tuck and peat ••••••••••••••••.••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

Shell marl, white, with brackish-water fossils ................................... ,. ...... .. 

0 1.5 

1.5- 7,5 

7.5- 11 
912 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 133.-Lo!l.s of wells in Palm Beach Cou~ty-Continued 

Well GS 6- Continued 

Depth, in feet 

below land ""'face 

Shell marl, sandy, alternating with limestone and calc;:areous sandstone ...... u ... 11 14.5 

Sand, tan, shelly. Low permeability ........................................................ .. 14.5- 18, s 

Sand, quartz, very fine. Low permeability ........................ ,u•••u ................. . 18.5- 26.5 

Shell marl, sandy, Low permeabll!ty •• , ••• ,..,..,.,,.,,.,.,.,,.,.,,,,,.,, ................... . 26.5- 38,5 

Shell marl, partly consolidated. Low permeability,.u.u ............................... , 38.5- 43.5 

Shell marl, soft and sandy. Low permeability ............................................ . 43,5- 55 

Well GS 7 

Location: T. 44 $., R. 39 E. Florida Highway 80, 0.5 mile southwest of.intersection with 

Florida Highway· 716. 

Elevation of land surface: Approximately 15 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 50 ft. 

Diameter: 4 in, 

Dep~, in feet 

below land surface 

Road fill.., ................................................................................ : ....... .. 0 2 

Muck ................................................................................................ .. 2 13 

Limestone, of fresh and brackish-water origin. Low p~,rrn.~ability ..................... . 13 16 

Shell marl, sandy, in places poorly consolidated. Low permeability ................ . 16 21,5 

Sand, quartz, with few shells. Low permeability ......•.............................•. u .. 21.5- 30 

Shell marl, light to dark·gra.y, sandy, Low permeability ................................ . 30 so 

Well GS 8 

Location; T. 43 S., R, 41 E. Florida Highway 80, 0.35 mile west of intersection with 

Florida Highway 7. 

Elevation of land surface: Approximately 17 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 51 ft. : 

Diameter: 4 in, 

Depth, In teet 

below land surlace 

Sand, quartZ, fine to medium,. Low permeability .. .-... u ............................ u .. . 0 3 

Sandstone, calc;:areous, riddled with $olution holes. Low perrnettbiUty ....... ..... . 3 s.s 

Sand, quartz, tan, and shells. Low permeability ........ u ... u ................ u.,.....,,,.. 5.5- 10 

Sand, quartz, tan, fine. Low permeability ............................ ., ••••• ,.,,, ••. , •...••. 10 35,5 

Sand, quartz, light-green, very fine, Low pennt;.ability .• , .......... , ••••.. ,, ••..••.•••• 35.5- 44 

Sand, quartz. containing orgAnic Q.'laterial. Low penneability ............... , ••. ., ••. 44 47 

Sand, quartz, light-grey, with shell fragments, Hard calcareous sandstone layer 

from 48 to 49 ft ................................................................... ""'""""' 47 51 
WELL LOGS 913 

Table 133,-Lo~ts of wells in Palm Beach County-Continued 

Well GS 11 

Location: T. 47 S., R. 40 E. South side of Hillsboro Canal, 11 miles west of Florida 

Highway 7. 

Elevation of land surface: Approximately 12 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 96.5 ft. 

Diameter: 4 in. 

Dept!>, in feet 

below 18nd surf8ce 

Road fill ............................................................................................ .. 

Muck and peat .................................................................................... .. 

Sand and marl,,., .....•.....•.......•••.• ,,,,. ••, •• ., , ...............•....••• , , , , , , ....•........•.•. 

Shell marl, dark•gray, sandy•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

Sand, quartz, gray-~hite, fine, ...................•••••.•• ,,,,,,,,,, ..........•••••••• ,,,,,, ..... 

Sandstone, c::alcareoust hard, containing both n ...... rine and fresh .. w$ter fossils, 

Probably alternating madne and fresh-water beds .••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• · 

Sand, quartz, very fine, shelly in places, Low permeability ... u••••••••••••• ......... .. 

Sand~ quartz, shelly, fine, and some nodular sandstone.H••••••••••••••••• ............ . 

Sand, quartz, gray, very fine, containing a few shell fragments. Low permeability. 

Sandstone, calcllreous~ shelly~ soft ............•. u .......................................... . 

Well GS 12 

0 

2.5-

7 

8.5-

18.5-

23 

29 

47.5-

50 

92 

2,5 

7 

8,5 

18.5 

23 

29 

47.5 

50 

92 

96.5 

Location: Sec. 6, T. 47 S., R, 41 E. Approximately 6 miles west of Florida Highway 7, 

and 4 miles north of Hillsboro Canal. · · 

Elevation of land surface: Approximately 15.5 ft above mean sea level, 

Depth: 50 ft. 

Diameter: 4 in. 

Depth, in feet 

b<llow l8nd surface 

Peat .............................................................................................. . 

Marl, white, sandy, of fresh-water origin. Practically imperrtleable ..•............ 

Sandstone, dark•grtY, calcareous; a few marine she:ll& ............................. . 

Shell marl, sandy, containing both marine and fresh•water fossil£, Low per· 

meability ••.•..•..............••••.•.•..............•.••••••..............••••..............••• 

Sand, quartz greenish-gray, shelly and some nodular sandsto~ .. Low permeability .......................................................................................... .. 

Sand and shells, gray, and da:rk .. gray calcareous sandstone .......••••••.•.......... 

Sand, quartz~ very fine ..•..•.•.•................••••.•••.....•..•.. •••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

Shell marl, consolidated to shelly limestone in places, ............................. H 

0 13.5 

13.5 - 14.5 

14.5 - 16.5 

16.5- 30 

30 

36 

40 

47 

36 

40 

47 

50 
914 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUlHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 133,-Logs of wells in Palm Beach Cout~ty-Continued 

Well GS 24 

Location: SEY..SWY.. sec. :14, T. 41 S.,: R. 41 E., 3.6 miles north of Canal Point on Florida 

Highway 15. 

Elevation of land surface: Approximately 16 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 70 ft. 

Diameter; 4 in. 

Depth, in 181>1 

below land surface 

Muck and peat ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ~··••••••••~•••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

Marl, dark·gray, and few shells, .•........••.••••••••••••••.••••.••.•...•...................... 

Limestone; light-gray, hard••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••··~···••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

Sandstone, calcareoust shelly, with tenses and pockets of quartz sand ....... u .. u 

Sand, quartz, Cine, and few a.hell fragments ................................................ . 

Shell bed and medium to coarse quart% sand. Shell make up approximately 60 to 

70 percent or sample. Small amount of shelly calcareous sandstoneuu ........... . 

Marl, greenish-gray, shelly, sandy. Low permeabil~ty .......................................... . 

Well GS 25 

0 12.5 

12.5- 15 

15 23.5 

23.5- 43.5 

43.5- 45 

45 65 

65 70 

Location; Sec. 20, T. 42 S., R. 37 E., 0,3 mile east of Florida Highway 15, and 2 miles 

south of Pahokee. 

Elevation of land surface; Approximately 15.5 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 59 ft. 

Diameter; 4 in. 

Depth, in feet 

below land surface 

Peat•••••••··•········•···•··•···••••·••··•······················•••··•••··••··••··••··•••·••·•··•••• 

Marl, grayt of fresh-water origin. .....•............•.....•.............•...............•.•... 

Shell bed and quartl: sand••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

Shell marl, gray, of marine origin ........................................................... . 

Limestone, li.ght .. gray, sa.ndy ................................................................... . 

Shell bed, dark-gray, and some marl and quartz sand .......... ••••••• •••••••••••••••••• 

Sandstone, light to dark-gray, calcareous, shelly, and some quartz sand .••••••••• 

Marl; gray, shelly, sandy~ and some nodular, shelly, calcareous sandstone. 

Low perme abtllty .•..................................•.......•••.....•...••.•..•••••••••••••••• 

Well GS 26 

0 11.5 

11.5- 15 

15 18 

18 27 

27 30 

30 34.5 

34.5- 45 

45 59 

Location: T, 42 s., R. 36 E. On northern tip of Kreamer Island, 8 miles northwest of Belle 

Glade. 

Elevation of land surface: Approximately 14 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 91,5 ft. 

Diameter: 4 in. 

Depth, in teet 

below land sud ace 

Muck &nd peat••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 0 

8 

8 

LimeStone, hard; of fresh·water origin .............................. •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 9 
WELL LOGS 915 

Table 133.-Logs of wells in Palm Beach CouQty-Continued 

Well GS 26-Continued 

DtJpt/1, in feel 

belo.-Iand wrfece 

Marl, white, chalky .............................................................................. . 9 12.5 

Limestone, dark·gray, nodular, and marl ........................................ , .... ,,,,,, 12,5- 14,5 

Shell rnarl, gray, and some nodular calcareous sandstone,,,,, .. ,,,,,,,.,, .. ..,,,,.,,., 14,5- 25 

Sandstope, gray, calcareous, shelly, hard,,, ... ,,,,,,, ............ ,.,.,,,,,,, .. ,,, .. u•u•••• 25 40 

Shell rnarl, gray, sandy, and very small amount of calclU'eou~ aand&tone ......... .. 40 82 

Sand, qu8rtz1 gray, medium to coarse1 and a few shell fragmenta,, ................ .. 82 91,5 

Well GS 27 

Location: Sec, 34, T. 43 S., R. 35 E., 1.7 miles northwest of Lake Harbor on Florida Highway 80, 

Elevation of land surface: Approximately 16.5 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 56.5 ft. 

Diameter: 4 in, 

Depth, in feet 

below land surface 

Muck and peat. ........................................................................................... . 

Marl; gray; indurated; of fresh•water origin. ..•...... , ......................................... , 

Shell marl and shell beds, containing both fresh-water and marine fOallilll ........ .. 

Sandstone, calcareous, shelly, nodular, and sh•lly sand. ................. u •••••••••••••••••••• 

Sand, quart.t", and shells. Low perrneability ....................... , ... , ........................ .. 

Sand; quart:o. marly, and thin layers of calcareous sandstone between 34 lllld 39 ft. 

Low penneabUitY···•············································•••••••••••••••••·••····•········· 

Shell bed, containing varying amounts of quartz sand aQ<I marl. Low permeability, 

Well PB 93 

0 - 8,5 

8,5- 9 

9 - 18,5 

18.5- 23.5 

23,5- 27.5 

27.5- 46 

46 - 56.5 

Location: SEV..NWV.. sec. 21, T. 44 s.,· R. 43 E. 8th Avenue North, 0.1 mile west of A St., 

Lake Worth. · · . 

Elevation of land surface: 14 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth: 95 ft. 

Diameter: 6 in. 

Depth, in feel 

below land wrface 

Sand, quartz; white; fine to coarse .......................................................... . 

Sand, quartz, white, with shell fragments, and a large amount of nodular, ahelly, 

calcareous sandstone. Medium permeability, .• ,, ••............•.. u ..................... . 

ShellS and medium .. grained, white quartz sand••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

Sand; quartz, gray, fine to medium, with very few shell fragments .................. . Shells and fine-grained, white tO tan quartz sand. ............................... , ....... . 

0 

20 

57 

69 

80 

20 

57 

69 

80 

95 
916 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 133.-Logs of wells in Palm Beach County-Continued 

Wells 394 

Location: NEY.SWY., sec. 21, T. 46 S., R. 43 E., 300ft west of Swinton Avenue, and 200ft 

southwest of ground storage tank, Delray Beach well field. 

Elevation of land surface: 20 ft aQove mean sea level. 

Depth: 216 ft. 

Diameter: 10 to 16 in. 

Sand, quartz .........................................•.............. ,, •. ,,,,, •••••...•••••.••••••••••• 

Sandstone, calcareous .............................................. , .. ,,,, .................. , .. ,., 

Coquina, coarse, .................. ,,.,, ••..... · •...................................•...............•.. 

Sandstone. calcareoust and coquina.. ......................................................... . 

Sandstone; calcareous; and shell~ ........................................................... . 

Coquina..,.,,,,, •••••. ~~·••••••••••••••••·~~·••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

Limestone, chalky ................................................................................ . 

Sandstone, calcareous ••••.•••••.••••. ···············~··········~····~···~~·················~·~···, 

Sand, quartz, and shells ......................................... , ..... ,, ........................ . 

Sandstone. calc:s.reoust nodular; with quartz sand, and shella ...... u ............... u. 

Depth, in teet 

below 1 and surf see 

0 42 

42 42,5 

42.5- 43 

43 67 

67 93 

93 - 108 

108 - 108.5 

J.08.5 109 

109 - 135 

135 - 216 
WEll LOGS 

Table 134.-Log of well in St. Luopie CountY 

Well St. L 4 

Location; City of Fort Pierce well field, 30 ft east of City supply well 3, 

Elevation of land surface: 25 ft above mean sea level. 

Depth; 135 ft. 

Diameter: 2\~ in. 

917 

Depth, in feet 

b..Jow land surface 

Sand, quartz, gray to white, medium ................ u ................................... .. 

Sand, quartz, light-tan, medium to coarse .............................................. . 

Sand •. quartz, dark .. brown, weakly cementerl, forming ,.hardpan.,,, ............... . 

Sand, quartz, dark-brown to black, carbonaceous. Water from this interval is. 

highly colored. .............................................................................. . 

Sand, quartz, dark.reddish•brown., medium to coarse. Water is very highly 

colored. ..........•••• : .......••••••••.......••••••...........••••.•.........•••.•.......•••••.. 

Alternating layers of dark-gray, sandy, marl, gray, quartz sand, and clayey 

marl. Practically impermeable. Acts as a.n aquiclude ........................ H••••• 

Shell and marl ..•.••..........•.•..........•••..........•••..•..•......••. u•••••••••••••••••••• 

Sandt quartz, grayt fine, and some shells. Also, considerable amount o£ 

otg.anic material of deep reddish-brown color; probably old mangrove swamp. 

Low permeability .•••••.........••••.......•••••••.........•••..........•••••.......••.•....... 

Sand, quartz, dark-gray, fine, approl<imately 20 percent of sample composed of 

shells ........................................................................................... .. 

Shell bed, dark .. gray, with small amount of quartz s.andt and marl .................. . 

Shell marl, dark•gray, sandy••••••••••••········••••••••••••••••••········•••••••••••·•••······ 

Shell marl, light-gray, sandy, with layers of gray clayey marl ....................... . 

Shell marl, dark-gray sandy, and small amount of soft calcareous sandstone, 

probably occurring in thin layers••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

Marl, green, sandyt shelly, with small amount of soft calcareous sandstone ...... 

0 10.5 

10.5- 16.0 

16.0- 21.0 

'21.0- 38.0 

38,0- 60.0 

60.0- 74.0 

74.0- 75,0 

75.0- 79.0 

79.0- 90,5 

90.5- 104 

104 - 112 

112 - 122 

122 - 133 

133 - 135 
MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPLIES 

Table 135.-Municipal water supplies in Broward Cou~ty 

Dania 

Population in 1945: 

Source and date of 

lnfonnation: 

Ownership: 

Source of supply: 

Pumpage (est!· 

mated): 

Storage: 

Treatment: 

Analysis: 

Population In 1945: 

Source and date of 

infonnation: 

Ownership: 

Source of supply: 

Pumpage (estimated); 

Storage: 

346881 0-55--60 

2,979 

Paul Heckert, water plant superintendent,March 1948. 

'IMUnlclpal, 

Three wells. 

Well 1. 1st Avenue SW, and 1st Street, Depth, 60 to 65 ft; diameter, 

8 in.; type, open; equipped with 400.gpm turbine pump and 7Y,.hp, 

electric motor; static water level, 8.0 ft below land surface, 

September 19, 1947. 

Well 2. 13each Boulevard and 1st Avenue SW. Depth 60 to 65 ft; 

diameter, 6 in.; type, open; equipped ·with 750· gpm centrifugal 

purnp and Buick motor; static water level approximately the 

same as well 1. 

Well 3. Parker Street SW, and 3rd Avenue: well drilled in 1948 

and not yet in service. 

Average 400,000 gpd in 1946. 

Ground reservoir: 163,000 gals. 

Elevated tank: 200,000 gals, 

Aeration and chlorination. 

see section on Quality of ground and surface wateft',. 

Deerfield Beach 

2,008 

Mr. Ilutchkinson, plant operator, March 1948. 

Municipal. 

Two wells. 

Well 1. SO ft north of ground reservoir, NW. 1st Street and 1st 

Avenue. Depth; 72 ft;. diameter, 6 in.; Type, open. 

Well 2. 50 ft west of well 1, Drilled In 194 7; depth, 7 2 ft: diameter, 

8 in.; type, open; equipped with 300·gpm centrifugal pump and 

S.hp. electric motor. 

Average 300,000 gpd in 1946. 

Elevated tank: 100,000 gals. 

919 
920 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 135 ....... Municipal water supplies in Broward County-Continued 

Deerfield Beach- Continued 

Treatment; Aer-ation. 

Analysis: 

0 

-C> 

0 

See section on °Quality of ground a.nd.v~urface waters. t' 

j _________ _ 

OKEE~ !SAINT 

CHOBEE! C> 

ILUCI E 

0 oKEECHOBEE ~­

!--- -· -· -·J· 

MARTIN 

PIERCE 

e e HOBE SOUND 

1!"~1-~. !2.~--

CLEWISTON I 

N 

E N 0 R y ! e BOYNTON BEACH 

!p A L M B E A C H e DELRAY BEACH 

. ! .e BOCA RATON 

I t-·-·-·---·-·-·-·.- DEERFIELD BEACH 

L-------~ • POMPANO BEACH 

R jB R O W A R ~ FORT LAUDERDALE 

L L I E i DANIA 

0 

10 0 

HOLLYWOOD 

NORTH MIAMI BEACH 

NORTH MIAMI 

EXPLANATION 

0 

Surface-water supply· 

Ground -wafer • supply 

() 

Surface-water and ground -water supply 

!50 MILES 

Figure 223. -Index map showing municipal water supplies in southern Florida. 
MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPLIES 921 

Table 135.-Municipal water supplies in Broward County-Continued 

Population in 1945: 

Source and date of 

infonnat.ion; 

Ownership: 

Source of supply: 

$torage: 

Treatment: 

Analysis: 

r ort Lauderdale 

26,185 

Charles Fiveash, water plant superintendent, March 1948, 

Municipal. 

Twelve wells. 

Well 1, Fort Lauderdale Golf Course. This well does not contribute 

to the City supply but is used exclusively for watering the golf 

course. It was drilled and developed in the same manner as well 2. 

Wells 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. Fort Lauderdale Golf Course, approximately 

7 miles from the Atlantic Ocean and 1>(. miles north of the North New 

River Canal. Drilled in 1927; depth, 90 ft; casing set approximately 

80 ft below land surface, with 10 ft or open hole below bottom of 

casin11; deepened in 1940 to 135 ft; 35 ft of screen installed with 10 

ft of blank pipe below the screen; gravel-packed; diameter, 12 in.; 

400-gpm centrifugal pumps and 771 hpoelectric motors. 

Well 7. Fort Lauderdale Golf Course; drilled in ·1940; depth, 115 ft; 

12-in. casing seated 80 ft below land surface with 35 ft of 6-in. screen 

below the casing; gravel-packed; 500-gpm deep-well turbine pump and 

10-hp electric motor. ' 

Well 8, Fort Lauderdale Golf Course. Drilled In 1940; depth, 97 ft; 

12-in. casing seated 62 ft below land surface with 35 ft of 6.in. 

screen below bottom of casing; gravel-packed; 500-gpm deepowell 

turbine pump and 10-hp electric motor. 

Wells 9 and 10. Fort Lauderdale Golf Course, Drilled in 1945; depth, 

115 ft; diameter, 12 in.; casing set approximately 80 feet below land 

surface with 35 ft of screen below casing; gravel-packed; deep~well 

turbine pumps and 10-hp electric motors. 

Well 11. 100 ft east of water plant, Drilled in 1947; depth, 136 ft; 

diameter, 10 in.; casing seated 125 ft below land surface with 12 ft 

of open hole below bottom of casing; 600-gpm deep-well turbine pump 

and 15-hp electric motor; reported yield, 675 gpm with a drawdown of 

11 ft. 

Well 12. 100 ft east of water plant, Drilled in 1927; depth, 102 ft; 

diameter, 12 in.; casing seated 92ft below land surface with 10ft of 

open hole below bottom of casing. In 1940, 35 ft of screen was in· 

stalled below casing; gravel-packed; 400-gpm centrifugal pump and 

771 hpoelectric motor • 

. 1 veratl e pumpafl e (llP d) 

1930 ...................... 565,000 1939 .................... 1,670,000 

1931. ..................... 555,000 1940 .................... 1,877,000 

1932 ..................... 520,000 1941 .................... 2,230,000 

1933, ..................... 697,000 1942 .................... 2,390,000 

1934 ...................... 748,000 1943 .................... 3,010,000 

1935 ...................... 960,000 1944. ................... 3, 765,000 

1936... ... .. .. .... • ... 1, 150,000 1945 .................... 3, 810, 000 

1937 .................... 1,295,000 1946 .................... 4,190,000 

1938 .................... 1,470,000 

Ground reservoir: 3, 750,000 gals. Elevated tanks: 1,050,000 gals. 

Aeration, lime-silica, filtration, chlorination. 

See sectior> on Quality of ground and surface waters. 
922 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTiiEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 135.-Municipal water supplies in Broward Coullty-Continued 

Population in 1945: 

Source and date of 

information: 

Ownership: 

Source of supply: 

Storage: 

Treatment: 

Analysis: 

Population in 1945: 

Source and date of 

infcinnation; 

Ownership:· 

Source of supply: 

Pumpage (est!· 

mated): 

Storage: 

Treatment: 

Analysis: 

Hollywood 

7,740 

R. F, Armstrong, water plant superintendent, March 1948. 

Municipal. 

Five wells. 

Wells located from 5 to 500 ft north o£ water plant, which is on Hollywood Boulevard, approximately 2 miles west of U. s. Highway 1. 

Depth, 70 ft; diameter, 10 to 12 in.; type, open; two wells equipped 

with 650- and700-gpm turbine pumps and 20.hp electric motors; two 

with 900~gpm centrifugal pumps and 20-hp electric motors; one with 

l,OOO.gpm centrifugal pump and 75-hp electric motor, static water 

level, 10.5 ft below land surface, March 29, 1948. 

Two salt-water wells on Hollywood Beach; depth, 80 ft; diameter, 12 

in.; equipped with 300·gpm centrifugal pump and 7Y,• and 15-hp 

electric motors• salt water is. used for zeolite regeneration. 

Avera!!e pumpajje (lip d) 

1941 ...................... 740,000 1944 .................... 990,000 

1942 ...................... 622,000 1945. ................. 1,075,000 

1943. ..................... 758,000 1946 .................. 1,145,000 

Ground reservoir: 1,000,000 gals. Elevated tank: 960,000 gals, 

Aeration, chlorination, and zeolite softening, 

See section on Quality of ground and surface waters. 

Pompano Beach 

2,445. 

W, E. Smith, water plant superintendent, M:~rch 1948. 

Municipal. 

One well adjacent to pumping station. Depth, 170ft; diameter, l2 in.; 

type, open; equipped with 750-gpm centrifugal pump and 60-hp 

electric motor; emergency otand-bylO-hp gasoline motor with 200· 

gpm centrifugal pump; static water level, 12 ft b~ow land surface, 

March 29, 1948. 

Average 328,000 gpd in 1946. 

Elevated tank: 300,000 gals. 

None 

See section on Quality of ground and surface waters. 
MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPLIES 923 

Table 136.-Municipal water supplies in Collier County 

Population in 1945: 

Source and date of 

information: 

Ownership: 

Source or supply: 

Pumpage (estimated): 

Storage: 

Treatment: 

Analysis: 

Everglades 

629 

E. L. Lezotte, chief engineer, Everglades Railway, Light and Power 

Company, March 1948, 

Collier Corporation, 

1'hree wells. 

Well 1. 0.5 mlle south of water plant and 500ft west of Collier County 

Court House. Depth, 640 ft; diameter, 4 in.; type, open; natural flow, 

80 gpm (reported), and 22 pounds pressure at land surface; 300·gpm 

centrifugal pump with 20..hp electric motor pumps water from all three 

wells to ground reservoir at water plant. 

Well 2, 150 ft NW. of well 1, Depth, 640 ft; diameter, 4 in.; natural 

flow, 60 gpm (reported), and 21 pounds pressure at land surface. 

Well 3, 150 ft north of well 1; depth, 640 ft; diameter, 6 in.; type, 

OJ?en; natural flow, 120 gpm (reported), 

Average 130,000 gpd in 1946. 

Ground reservoir; 300,000 gals, Elevated tank; 75,000 gals. 

ChlorinaUon. 

See section on Quality of ground and surface waters. 
924 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 137.-Municipal water supplies in Dade CountY 

Population in 1945: 

Source and date of 

information: 

Ownership: 

Source of supply: 

Pumpage (estimated): 

Storage: 

Treatment: 

Analysis: 

Population in 1945: 

Source and date of 

information: 

Ownership: 

Source of supply: 

Homestead 

3,015 

G~ W~ Ivy~ water plant superintendent, March 1946.. 

Muillcipal. 

Two wells. 

Well 1. East side of Homestead Power and Light Plant; depth, 65 ft; 

diameter, 10 in.; type, open; equipped with 650.gpm centrifugal pump 

and 30-hp electric motor; static w.,;..~ter level, 7.0 ft below land surface, 

March 31, 1948; emergency stand-by, 1,500- gpm centrifugal pump and 

150. hp electric motor. 

Well 2. l"h miles north of well 1; depth, 65 ft; diameter, 12 in~; 6-in. 

drop line to 20 ft; 65Q-gpm centrifugal pump and 3Q-hp electric motor, 

Average 800,000 gpd in 1946. 

Elevated tank: 100,000 gal,., 

None. 

See section on Quality of ground and surface waters. 

Miami 

245,577 (Miami, Miami Beach, Coral Gables, llialeab, Miami Springs, 

El Portal, Miami Shores, Surfside, and l3iscayne Park). 

w. L. Dlack, water plant superintendent, March. 1948. 

Municipal. 

Twenty-two wells,. 

Well 1. Lower well field, Miami Springs Golf Course, ,approximately 

1 mile south of water plant; drilled in 1923; depth, 67 £t; diameter, 14 

in.; casing seated. 60 rt below land surface with 7 ft of open hole below bottom of casing; 5,000-gpm centrifugal pump and 75-hp electric 

motor, Yield, 6 million gpd with drawdcwn of 7.6 Ct, as determined by 

a pumping test run November 19 to 26, 1926; water level, 7,6 £t below 

land surface, May 27, 1948. 

Well 2. 800 ft SW. of well 1; drilled in 1924; depth, 96 ft; diameter, 

12 in.; casing seated 79 ft below land surface with 17 ft of open hole 

below bottom of casing; 2,SOQ-gpm centrifugal pump and 40-hp electric 

motor; water level, 8.6 ft below land surface, May 27, 1948. 

Well 3. 1,000 ft NW. of well 1; drilled in 1924; depth, 62 ft; diameter, 

12 in.; casing seated 52 £t below land surface with 10 ft of open hole 

below bottom of casing; 2, 500-gpm centrifugal pump and 40-hp electric 

motor; water level, 9.5 ft below land surface, May 27, 1948, 

Well 4, 600 Ct north of well 1; drilled in 1924; depth, 94 ft; diameter, 

12 in.; casing seated 83 ft below land surface with 11 ft of open hole 

below bottom of casing; 2,500-gpm centrifugal pump and 40-hp electric motor; water level, 8. 2ft below land surface, ~lay 27, 1948. 
Storage: 

Treatment; 

Analysis: 

MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPLIES 

T11hle 137.-Municipal water supplies in Dade County-Continued 

Miami-Continued 

925 

Well 5. 1, 700 rt NW. of well 1; drilled in 1924; depth, 100 ft; diameter, 

14 in,; casing seated 82 Ct below land surface with 18 ft of op~n hole 

below bottom of casing; 2, 500-gpm centrifugal pump and 40.hp electric 

motor; water level, 8.8 rt below land surface, May 27, 1948. 

Well 6. About 2,500 ft west of well 1; drilled in 1924; depth, 62ft; 

diameter, 14 in~; casing seated 49 Ct below land surfa~e with 13 ft of 

open hole below bottom of casing; 2,500-gpm centrifugal pump and 

40-hp electric motor; water level, 8. 9 ft below land surface, May 27, 

1948. 

Well 7. About 3,800 ft SE. of well 1; drilled in 1924; depth, 62ft; 

diameter, 14 ln.; casing seated 48 ft below land surface with 14ft of 

open hole below bottom of casing; 2,500-gpm centrifugal pump and 

4Q..hp electric motor; water level, s~ 8 ft below land surface, May 27, 

1948. 

Well 8. About 2,100 ft SE. of well 1; drilled in 1924; depth, 64 ft; 

diameter, 12 in.; c~u;.ing seated 50 ft below land surface with 14 Ct of 

open hole below bottom of casing; 2,500-gpm centrifu~al pump and 40~ 

hp electric motor; water level, 7.5 ft below land surface, May ~7, 1948. 

Wells 9 and 10. Moore Park, NW. 36th Street and 8th Avenue; drilled 

in 1926; depth, 98 and t45 ft; diameter, 14 in.; casing seated 88 and 

116 ft below land surface with 10 and 29 ft of open hole below bottom 

of casing; 2,500 gpm centrifugal pumps and 4Q..hp electric motors; 

stand-by wells. 

Wells 11, 12, and 13. At Water Plant, llialeah; drilled in 1928; depth, 

55 to 91ft; diameter, 14 in.; casing seated 43 to 85ft below land surface with 6 to 12'ft of open hole below bottom of casing; 2,500 gpm 

centrifugal punps and 40-hp electric rrotors.. 

Wells 14, 15; 16, and 17. Upper well Held, approximately 0. 2 to 0,6 

mile west of Water Plant, llialeah; drilled in 1936; depth, 73 to 91ft; 

di.arneter, 14 in.; casing seated from 67 to 79 (t below land surface 

with 6 to 13 ft of open hole below bottom nf ca~ing; 2,500-gpm centrifugal pumps and 40.hp electric motors; water level, 6.4 ft below land 

surface, May 27, 1948. 

Wells 18, 19, 20, 21, and 22. Upper well field, approximately 0,6 to 

0.9 mile west of Water Plant, lllaleah; drilled in 1945; depth, 90 to 94 

ft; diameter, 14 in.; casing: seated 80 to Sfi ft below land surface with 

7 to.10 {t of op"n hole below bottom of casino:; 2,500.gpm centrifugal 

pumps and 4Q .. hp electric motor. 

A veraf$e pump age (gpd) 

1926 .................... 12,684,000 1937 .................... 16,946,000 

1927 .................... 12,631,000 t93S. ................... l7,845,000 

1928. ................... 10,056,000 1939.. ................... 19,574,000 

1929 ..................... 9, 707,000 1940, ................... 22,486,000 

1930 .................... 10,253,000 1941 .................... 23,536,000 

1931 .................... 11,352,000 1942 .................... 24,508,000 

1932. ................... 11,876,000 1943. ................... 27,911,000 

1933. ................... 11,520,000 1944 .................... 30,611,000 

1934 .................... 12,208,000 1945, ................... 33,903,000 

1935 ..................... 14,220,000 1946. ................... 36,596,000 

1936 .................... 15,147,000 

Elevated tank; 1,000,000 gals.; four concrete ground reservoirs, 

2,500,000 gals,.each; and four steel ground reservoirs, 2,500,000 gals. 

each. Not included are the storage facilities maintained by other 

municipalities using the Miami supply. 

Chlorination, filtration, lime, and soda-ash. 

See section on Quality of ground and sutface waters. 
926 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 137.-Mu~icipal water supplies in Dade County-Continued 

Population in 1945: 

Source and date of 

information: 

Ownership: 

Source of supply: 

Pumpage (estimated): 

Storage: 

Treatment: 

Analysis: 

Population .in 1945: 

Source and date of 

information: 

Ownership: 

Source of supply; 

Storage: 

Treatment: 

Analysis: 

Population in 1945: 

Source and date of 

infonnation: 

North Miami 

2,776 

D. W, Jones, superintendent of Public Works, March 19>l8. 

Municipal. 

Two wens. 

Well 1, NE. !25th Sb'eet and 200 Ct east of 8th Avenue; depth, 60 Ct; 

diameter, 8 in.; 75Q-gpm centrifugal pump and 15-hp electric motor; 

type, open; emergency stand-by, SOQ-gpm pump and Chrysler motor. 

Wen 2. 55 Ct east of well 1; depth, 60 ft; diameter, 8 in.; type, .open; 

400-~:pm centrifugal pump and 7'/:.-hp electric motor, 

Average 400,000 gpd in 1946, 

Ground reservoir: 150,000 gals. Elevated tank; 60,000 g•ds. 

Aeration and chlorination, and lime, 

See section on Quality of ground and surface waters, 

North Miami Beach 

1,082. 

W. Oeffler, water plant superintendent, March 1948. 

Sunny Isles Water Company, 

Two wells. 

Located 1 mile west of Sunny Isles water plant; depth, 80 ft; diameter, 

8 in. and 6 in. (stand-by); 8-in. well semi-gravel-packed for 7 ft; 

6-in, well open; deep-well SOo-gpm turbine pump and 2Q-hp electri<: 

motor; emergency stand-by, SOo-gpm centrifugal pump and gasoline 

motor; static water level, 10ft below land surface, March 29, 1948. 

A veras e pumpaB e (Sp d) 

1939 .................... 88,000 1945 .................... 103,500 

1940. ................... 66,000 1946. ................... 135,000 

1944 .................... 87,000 

Ground reservoir: 150,000 gals. 

Chlorination, lime, soda, silica, and sulfuric: acid. 

See section on Quality of groul\d al\d surface waters, 

Opalocka 

1,855 

11. C. Weber, water plant superintendent, M""ch 1948. 
MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPLIES 927 

Table 137.-Municipal water supplies in Dade County-Continued 

Ownership: 

Source of supply: 

Pumpage (estlmated): 

Storage: 

Treatment: 

Analysis; 

Opalocka- Continued 

Municipal. 

Two wells. 

Well t~ Northeast corner of aerator, between Burlington St. and Seaboard Air Line Railroad; depth, 59 ft; diameter, 6 in.; 4-in. drop line 

to 20 ft; 500-gpm, centrifugal pump and 7'ho-hp electric motor; static 

water level, 7. 5 ft below land surface, March 30, 1948. 

Well 2. East side of earator, 30 ft south of well 1; depth, 58 ft; diameter, 6 in.; 4-in. drop line to 20 ft; 300-gpm centrifugal pump and 10-

hp electric motor; static Water level same as well 1. 

Emergency stand .. by, SOO.gpm centrifugal pump and gasoline motor. 

Average 200,000 gpd, in 1946. 

Elevated tank, 75,000 gals. 

Aeration1 chlorination, ammoniation, and lime alum. 

See section on Quality of ground and surface watflrs. 
928 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Tsble 138.-Municipal water supply in Glades County 

Moore Haven 

Population in 1945: 599 

source and date or inform.ation: 

Ownership: 

Source of supply: 

Pumpage (esti• 

mated): 

Storage: 

Treatment: 

Analysis: 

E. Lundy, water plant auperintendent, March 1948. 

Municipal. 

Lake Okeechobee; approximately 1,000 £t north of water plant; intake 

line in dred11ed channel extendiUj! into Lake Okeechobee; intake, 

centrifugal pump and 15-hp electric motor; discharge, 180.gpm centrifugal pump and electric motor. 

Average 100,000 gpd in 1946, 

Elevated tank, 50,000 gals. 

Aeration. chlorination, hydrated lime, aluminum sulfate, and filtration. 

See section on Quality of ground and surface waters. 
MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPLIES 929 

Table 139.-Municipal water supplies in llendty County 

Population in 1945: 

Source an~ date of 

information~ 

Ownership; 

~ource of supply: 

Pumpage (esti. 

mated): 

Storage: 

Treatment: 

Analysis: 

Population in 1945: 

Source and date of 

information: 

Owner: 

Source or supply: 

Pumpage (esti• 

mated): 

Storage: 

Treatment: 

Analysis: 

Clewiston 

1,917 

IV, L, Brantley, Jr., city engineer; and S. j. Finley, water plant 

operator, March 1948. 

Municipal. 

Lake Okeechobee; 500 ft north of water plant; 12-in. intake line ex• 

tends approximately Y, mile into Lake Okeechobee; two 180-gpm 

centrifugal pun1ps with S·hp motors connected to intake line~ discharge, two 18Q .. gpm centrifugal pumps and 15-hp motors.. 

Average 170,000 gpd in 1946, 

Elevated tank, 75,000 gals, 

Chlorination, aeration, aluminum sulfate, hydrated lime, and activated 

carbon. 

See section on Quality of ground and surface waters, 

LaBelle 

848 

Mrs, llal!, and R. W. Davenport, Mayor, March 1948, 

Mrs, Hall, 

Well 0.4 mlle north or Florida Highway 80, one block east of Florida 

lllghway 78, and 250 ft south o£ Cal005ahatchee River; drilled be· 

tween 1915 and 1920; depth, 602 tt; diameter, 6 in.; flowing well; 

flows directly, into distribution main under its own pressure. 

S,UOO gpd in 1946. This is supplemented by several private wells, 

None. 

None, 

See section on Quality of ground and surface wate ..... 
930 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUniEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 140.-Municipal water suppliea in Marlin County 

Population in 1945: 

Source and date of 

information: 

Owner: 

Source of aupp1y: 

Pumpage (estimated): 

Storage: 

Treatment: 

Analysis: 

Population in 1945: 

Source and date or 

information: 

Owner: 

Source of supply: 

Pumpage {estimated): 

Storage: 

Treatment; 

Analysis: 

Population In 1945: 

Source and date of 

information: 

Ownership: 

Hobe Sound 

749 

Albert King, water plal\t superintendent, March 1948, 

"nobe Sound Company. 

Three wells. 

Wells located 200ft east of U, S. llighway 1 and 0. 25 mile northwest 

of pumping station; depth 78 to 117ft; diameter, 12 ln.; tyPe, open; 

25D-gpm deep-well turbine pumps and electric motors; two booster 

pumps (275-gpm centrifugal pumps) and 5-hp electric motors; static 

water lev .. !, approximately 10ft below land surface, March 24, 1948, 

Average 200,000 gpd in 1946. 

Ground reservoir: 440,000 gals, Elevated tank: 75, 000 gals. 

None. 

See section on Quality of ground and surface waters. 

Indian Town 

475 

W. F, Fortune, water plant operator, March 1948, 

Indian Town Development Corporation. 

10 wells. 

Five wells on west side of water plant connected In manifold and five 

on southwest side connected in manifold; depth, 25 to 30 ft; diameter, 

2 in.; type, open; one 14D-gpm centrifugal pump with 3-hp electric 

motor is used to pump all wells; similar pump and motor used as standby, 

75,000 gpd during winter season; 60,000 ,gpd during summer, in 1946. 

Ground reservoir: 56,000 gals. Elevated tank: 80,000 gals. 

Aeration, chlorina.tion1 and lime-soda aah. 

See section on Quality of ground and surface waters. 

Stuart 

2,516 

F. J, Walton, water plant superintendent, March 1948. 

Municipal. 
MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPIJES 931 

Table 140.-Mupicipal water suppliea in Martin Coonty-Continued 

Source of supply: 

Pumpage (esti· 

mated): 

Storage: 

Treatment: 

Analysis: 

Stuart-=- Continued 

Three wells. 

One well is in water plant. another is 75 ft north of phint, and the 

third is 75 ft south of plant; depth, 75 to 85 ft; diameter, 6 in.; 6ft 

of screen in bottom llection of eech well; two 200-gpm centrifugal 

pumps with 5- hp electric motors; static water level, approximately 

14ft below land surface, March 24. 1948. 

Average 135,000 gpd in 1946. 

Ground reservoir: 40.000 gals. Elevated tank: 60.000 gala. 

Aeration, chlorination, and filtration. 

See section on Quality of ground and surface waters. 
932 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 141.-Mullicipal water supply in Monroe County 

Population in 1945: 

Source and date of 

information: 

Ownership: 

Source of supply: 

Pumpage {esti· 

mated): 

Storage: 

Treatment: 

Analysis: 

Key West 

14,246, 

T, IL Griggs, water plant superintendent, and A. C. Husband, Public 

Works officer, U. S. Naval Station, Key West, Florida, June 1948. 

Key West Aqueduct Commission. 

Three wells. 

Located on the mainland adjacent to the pumping station, which is 

about 2 miles southwest of Homestead, Dade County; two 10-in. 

gravity-feed wells and one 20-in. well, ranging: in depth from 40 to 

62ft; type, open; static water level; 7.5 ft below land wurface, 

April 2, 1948, 

Average 2,600,000 gpd in 1946. This supply serves several other 

Keys. 

20,000-gallon concrete sump with 1, 750-gpm turbine pump and 50-hp 

electric motor. 

Chlorination, phosphate, and Hme. 

See S@ction on Quality of ground and surface waters. 
MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPLIES 933 

Table 142.-Municipal watef supply in Okeechobee Cou(lty 

Population in 1945: 

Source and date of 

Information: 

Ownership: 

Source of supply: 

Pumpage (esti· 

mated): 

Storage: 

Treatrr.ent: 

Analysis: 

Okeechobee 

1,435 

], R. ~Iinehan, Jr,, water plant operator, March 1948. 

Municipal. 

Lake Okeechobee. 

\Vater plant appro,Umately 500 ft north of Lake Okeechobee; 12-in. 

intake line e><tends 400 ft Into Lake; intake, two 500-gpm centriru~:al 

pumps with 7Y,.hp electric motors; discharge, two 250-gpm centrifugal 

pumps with 20-hp motors. 

Average 225,000 gpd during winter season; 150,000 gpd during summer, 

1946. 

Elevated tank, 150,000 gals, 

Aeration. chlorination, activated carbon, and lime. 

See s"ction on Quality of wound and surface waters. 
934 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FlORIDA 

Table 143.-Municipal water supplies in Palm Beacb County 

i.Jelle ~Hade 

Population in 1945: 

Source and date of 

information: 

Ownership: 

Source of supply: 

Pumpage (estimated): 

Storage: 

Treatment: 

Analysis: 

Population in 1945: 

Sourc::" and date o£ 

information: 

Ownership: 

Source of supply: 

Storage: 

Treatment: 

Analysis: 

4,800 

C. IL Throop, water plant Sllperintendent, March 1948. 

Municipal. 

Lake Okeechobee, 

Water plant approximately 3Y, miles east of Lake Okeechobee and 

200 rt south of llillsboro Canal; 16--in. intake line el<tends from 

plant to Lake; intake, 1,500.gpm centrifugal pump {not in use), 

2,100-gpm centrifugal pump (notin use), and l,OSO.gpm centrifugal 

pump in sei'Vice at present time; discharge, "'t,OOO.gpm centrifugal pump 

and SO.hp electric motor, and SOO.gpm centri£ugal pump with 25-hp 

electric motor. 

Average 650, 000 gpd in 1946. 

Elevated tank: 50,000 gals. 

Chlorination, aeration, alum., aetivated carbon, and filtration. 

See section on Quality of ground and surface waters. 

Boca Raton 

1,387 

w. R. Eddinger, water plant operator, March 1948. 

Municipal 

Three wells. 

Located 75 to 300ft from water plant; depth, 106 to 115ft; diameter, 

10 in.; type, openi two wells equipped with 300.gpm centrifugal 

pumps and 7'hohp electric motors and one well with 1,000-gpm deepwell turbine pump.. 

A verBile P'""P"ii" (lip d) 

1930 .................... 105,000 1939 .................... 157,000 

1931. ................... 101,000 1940 .................... 149,000 

1932. ................... 86,000 1941 ... : ................ 149,000 

1933 ..................... 75,000 1942. ................... 265,000 

1934 .................... 121,000 1943 .................... 483,000 

1935 .................... 119,000 1944 .................... 366,000 

1936. ................... 117,500 1945 .................... 438,000 

1937 .................... 134,000 1946. ................... 564,000 

1938.·-·-· .. ·-··-··· .. -·147,000 

Ground reservoir: 65,000 ~:ala. Elevated tank: 125,000 gals, 

Chlorination, sodium silicate, and filtration. 

See section on Quality of ground and surface waters. 
MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPUES 935 

Table 143,-Municipal water supplies in Palm B~ach Couoty-Continued 

Population in 1945: 

SoUJ'ee and date of 

information; 

OWnership: 

Source of supply: 

Pumpage (esti· 

. mated): 

Storage: 

Treatment: 

Analysis: 

Population in 1945: 

SoUJ'ce and date of 

information: 

Ownership: 

SoUJ'ee of supply: 

Pumpage (esti• 

mated): 

Storage: 

Treatment: 

Analysis: 

Population in 1945: 

SoUJ'ce and date of 

information: 

OWnerQhip: 

346881 0-55--61 

Boynton Beach 

2,001 

J. E. Raulerson, water plant operator, March 1948. 

MUnicipal. 

Three wells. 

On north side or water plant; depth 55 to 65 ft; diameters, 4 in. (one 

well) and 6 ln. (two wells); type, open; equipped with 150-, 200-, and 

300-gpm centrifugal pumps and 10·, 20-, and 25-hp motors, 

Average 245,000 gpd in 1946 • 

Elevated tank: 500,000 gals, 

None. 

See section on Quality of ground and surface waters. 

Canal Point 

464 

T. W, Griffith, water plant operator, March 1948. 

Uulted States ·Sugar Corporation. 

Lake Okeechobee, 

Water plant approximately 300 Ct east of Lake .Okeechobee and 0, 2 

mile north of west Palm Beach Canal; 6-in. intake line from water 

plant with a 4-in. line extending about 400 ft into Lake Okeechobee; 

intake, two 130- and 180-gpm, centrifugal pumps, with 2h- and 5-hp 

electric motors; discharge, 13o;.gpm centrifugal pump and 2h-hp 

electric motor. 

Average 155,000 gpd in 1946; 86,000 I!Pd in 1941, and 45,000 gpd in 

1933. 

Ground reservoir: 20,000 gals. Elevated tank: 70,000 gals. 

Chlorination and lime-alum, 

See section on Quality of ground and SUJ'face waters, 

Delray Beach 

4,943 

C. E. Black, City Manager, March 1948. 

Municipal. 
936 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN ,FLORIDA 

Table 143,-Municipal water supplies in Palm Beach County-Continued 

Source of supply: 

Pumpag" (estimated): 

Storage: 

Treatment: 

Analysis; 

Population in 1945: 

Source and date of 

information: 

Ownership: 

source of supply: 

Pumpage (estimated): 

Storage: 

Treatment: 

Analysis: 

Population in 1945: 

Source and date of 

information; 

Ownership: 

Delray Beach--Continued 

Seven wells. 

Wells located 200 to 600 ft west o£ Swinton Avenue, in vicinity of. 

aerator and elevated tank; wells 1 to 6 drilled in 1929; well. 7 

drilled in 1940; depths, 65 to 72 ft; diameters, 4 in,. (one wel1),6 

in. (five wells), and 10 in.(one well); well 7 originally drilled to 216 

ft and dynamited at 72 ft; sso- to 75o-gpm centrifugal pumps and 25-

to 30-hp electric motors; well 7 equipped with deep-well turbine pump 

and electric motor. 

Average 1, 000,000 gpd in 1946. 

Ground reservoir: 500,000 gals. Elevated tank: 300,000 gals. 

Aeration and chlorination. 

See section on Quality of ground and surface waters. 

Lake Park 

537 

j. A. Wright) water plant operator, March 1948f 

Municipal. 

Two wells. 

Wells located on east side of pumping plant, 8 ft apart; depth, 40 ft; 

diameters, 4 and 6 in.;. type, open; equipped with centrifugal pump 

and lo-hp electric motor and a stand-by centrifugal pump with Diesel 

motor; static water level, about 8 ft below land surface, March 24, 

1948. 

Average, 100,000 gpd during winter season, and 60,000 gpd during 

summer season in 1946. 

Elevated tank: 100,000 gals. 

None. 

See section on Quality of ground and surface waters. 

Lake Worth 

10,615 

J. W. Orock, water plant superintendent, March 1948. 

Municipal. 
MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPLIES 937 

Table 143.-Municipal water supplias.in Palm Beach County-Continued 

Source of supply: 

Pumpage (esti· 

mated): 

Storage: 

Treatment: 

Analysis: 

Population in 1945: 

Source 11nd date of 

informettion~ 

Ownership: 

Source of supply: 

Pumpage (esti· 

mated): 

Storage: 

Treatment: 

Analysis: 

Population in 1945: 

Source and date of 

information: 

OWnership! 

Source of supply: 

Lake Worth--Continued 

Four wells, 

Adjacent to water plant; drilled 1925-1938; depth, 135 ft; gravel· 

packed, with 50 ft of screen in bottom aection; diameter, 12 in.; 750. 

to 1, 300.gpm deep-well turbine pumps with electric motors; static 

water level, 19ft below land surface, March 15, 1941, 

Five new wells located about 700 ft aouth of water plant were put in 

operation in 1948. 

Average 2,000,000 gpd in 1946. 

Elevated tank: 600,000 gals, 

Chlorination. 

See section on Quality of ground and aurface waters. 

Lantana 

504 

R , C. lli!brant, water plant superintendent, March 1948, 

Municipal. 

Three wells. 

Wells located south of pump house, 50 ft apart; depth, 54 ft; diameter, 

4 in. (two wells) and 8 in. (one well); type, open; the 8. ln. well, with 

a reported yield of 800 gpm with a 6-ft drawdown, is not In use at the 

present time; 4-in, wells equipped with 350· and 125· gpm centrlfue;a1 

pumps and 25· and 7\4;hp electric motors. 

Av.,..age 135,000 gpd in 1946. 

Elevated tank: 125,000 gals. 

None. 

See section on Quality of ground and surface waters. 

Pahokee 

4,413 

R. J, Schroder, water plant superintendent, March 1948. 

Municipal. 

Lake Okeechobee. 

Water plant is located' about 100 ft east of Lake Okeechobee and 200 

ft west of Flori4a Highway 15; 14-in. intake liiW ntends 300 to 400 

ft into Lake O~eechobee; intake, centrifugal pump and S.hp electric 

motor; discharge, centufugal pu·m;; and 1S·hp electric motor. 
938 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN Fl.ORIDA 

Table 143.-Municipal water supplies in Palm Beach COU!Jty-Continued 

Pumpage (esti· 

mated): 

Storage: 

Treatment: 

Population in 1945: 

sourc;:e and date or 

information: 

Ownership: 

Source or SUpPly: 

Pumpage (esti· 

mated): 

Storage: 

Treatment: 

Analysis: 

Population in 1945: 

Source and date of 

Information: 

Ownership: 

Source or supply: 

Pahokee-Continued 

Average 250,000 gpd In 1946. 

Ground reB.,.,nir: 125,000 gal•. l!:levated tank: 75,000 gab. 

Aeration~ chlorination, alum, lime, and $Odium silicate. 

See section on Quality of ground and surface waters. 

Riviera Beach 

2,512. 

Charles Di<=k, water plant operator, March 1948, 

Municipal. 

Five well., 

Three wells spaced 30 rt apart located at the town hall; one well is 

0.5 mile nortl> and onoo 0.2 mile soutl> of tl>e town l>all; deptl>s, 85ft; 

diameters, 6 in.; water is pumped difectly into mains from the wells 

nortl> and soutl> of the town hall; wells at town l>all are connected in 

manifold and equipped with one 175-&Pm centrifugal pump with a 10· 

hp electric motor; emergency stand-by, centrifugal pump and gasoline 

motor. 

Average 200,000 gpd in 1946. 

Elevated tank: 50,000 g:als. 

None. 

See section on Quality of ground and surface waters. 

West ?aim Beach 

44,195 

j .. G. Simmons, water l'lant superint.!ndent, March 1948. 

West Palm Beach Water Company. 

Clear Lake and one well. 

Water plant on south edge of Clear Lake, 300 ft north of Tamarind 

Avenue; intake in Clear Lake; three centrifugal pumps, 2, 100.., 5, 250-, 

and 10, 50(1. gpm, with 4(1., 100., and 125· hp electric motors; well 

water used only in chemical make ... up of water treatment. 
MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPLIES 939 

Table 143.-Municipal water supplies in Palm Beach County-Continued 

West Palm Beach- Continued 

Avets&e pumps&e (IIP<V 

19~2 .................... 1,455,000 1935 .................... 3,645,000 

1923. ................... 1,850,000 1936. ................... 3,535,000 

1924 .................... 2,460,000 1937 .................... 4,000,000 

1925 .................... 3, 780,000 1938. ................... 4,455,000 

1926 .................... 5,470,000 1939 .................... 4,275,000 

1927 .................... 4,600,000 1940. ................... 4,050,000 

1928. ................... 4,120,000 1941. ................... 4,140,000 

1929 .................... 3,805,000 1942 ................... 4,280,000 

1930 .................... 3,840,000 1943 .................... 4,520,000 

1931 .................... 3,845,000 1944. ................... 5,370,000 

1932 .................... 3,515,000 1945 .................... 6,010,000 

1933 .................... 3,090,000 1946., .................. 6,220,000 

1934 .................... 3,340,000 

Storage; Ground resetVoir: 3,000,000 gals, Elevated tank: 2,000,000 gals. 

Treatment: Chlorination, filtrationt alum, and lime. 

Analyses: See section on Quality of ground and surface waters. 
940 WATER ~SOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 144,-Municipal water supply in St. Lucie County 

Population in 1945: 

Source and date of 

Information: 

OWnership: 

Source of supply: 

Storage: 

Treatment: 

Analysis: 

Fort Pierce 

9,482 

Harry Gahn, water plant superintendent, March 1948, 

Municipal. 

Six wells and Savanna. 

Wells located adjacent to the water plant, Spaced 300 to 500ft arartj 

approximately 2.5 miles south of the downtown area of Fort Pierce 

and 0.4 mile west of Indian River; drilled in 1939; depths, 118 to 168 

ft; diameter5t 8 in.~ type, gravel-packed, each well having 20 to 60 ft 

of screen set at varying depths; 300.gpm deep..well turbine pumps and 

IO.hp electric motors; well water utilized since March 1939. 

Savanna. The Savanna, extending south from the water plant, Is 12 to 

15 miles long and 0. 26 to 0. 5 mile wide and lies to the west of and 

adjacent to the Pleistocene beach ridge that borders the western 

margin of Indian Rivert a salt•water lagoon; two 1200-gpm and one 

750-gpm centrifugal pumps and electric motors, 

Average pumpage (gpd) 

1928. ................... 477,000 1938 .................... 634,000 

1929.-.--............. 370,000 1939 .................... 706,000 

1930 .................... 406,000 1940 .... , ............... 733,000 

1931 ................... 382,000 1941 .................... 708,000 

1932. ................... 346,000 1942 .................... 514,000 

1933. ................... 495,000 1943, ................ 4180,000 

1934 .................... 415,000 1944 ................ 1,865,000 

1935 .................... 468,500 1945 ................. 2,035,000 

1936. ................... 568,000 1946 ................ 1,250,000 

193 7 .................... 538,000 

Ground reservoir: 1,500,000 gals, Elevated tank: 75,000 gels. 

Chlorination, aeration, lime, acti.vated carbon, .and filtration. 

See section on Quality of ground and surface waters. 
INTERPRETATION OF APPARENT RESISTIVITY CURVES 

Table 145.-Intocpretations of apparent resistivity curvos at Silver Bluff 

LINE 1. 

Location: ln Coconut Grove Park, 45 !t east of stone wall at western boundary and about .375ft 

north or water's edge~ Discayne Uay. Direction of line-N. 60° W. 

Electric."Jl dopth profile: 

Feet 

0 6 Thin soil layer- and dry oolite. 

6 42 Oolite, ~and~ and calcareous sandstone satut"ated with water of low chloride 

content. 

42 - 100 Zone u( water o[ high chloriJe content; character of fortn~tion not identified from 

curvo. 

LINE 2. 

Location: Along SW. 35th Avenue in (:enter of SW. 9th Terrace. Direction of line-N. il W. 

E/actti cal depth proli/ a: 

Fact 

0 9 Thin soH h:~ycr and dry tJolite. 

9 166 Sand, oolite, 8.nd calcarf;!"o\ls sandstone with water of low chloride content. 

166 240 Marl; clay, or possibly sandstone with water of high chloride content. 

LINE 3. 

Location: 275ft east of Douglas Road and 390ft north of Coral Way. Direction of line-N. · .. 7° w. 

Electrical depl/1 profil~: 

Feet 

0 11 Thin sandy so i1 cover and dry ~~olite 

11 145 Sand 1 oolite, and calcareous sandstone with water of low~chloride content. 

145 200 Marl, clay~ or possibly sandstone with water of high chloride content. 

LINE 4. 

Location: '27 ft from center of Dixie Highway at SW. 28th Terrace 1 along F. E. C. Railroad right-ofway. Direction of line-S. 67° W. 

l£1ecttical depth profile: 

Feel 

0 - 6.4 Thin sandy soil cover, and dry oolite. 

6.4~ 29 s~nd and oolite with water of low chloride content. 

29 - 100 Sand and calcareou'-' sandstone with water of moderately high chloride content. 

941 
942 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORJDA 

Table 145.-Interpretations.of apparent resistivity curves at Silver Bluff-Continued 

LINE 5. 

Location: On Boys' Club grounds at sw. 32nd Avenue and S. Dixie llighway. Abandoned because 

of interference from burled pipes in sprinkling syotem on the grounds. 

LINE 6 

Location: Along SW. 31st Avenue,0.2 mile north of S. Dixie llighway. Direction of line-N. S0 W. 

Electrical depth profile: 

Feet 

0 3. 2 Thin soU and sand. 

3. 2 - 14 Dry oolite. 

14 - 140 Oolite and calcareous sandstone saturated with water of relatively higher 

chloride concentration than that of Hne 4 at this depth. 

Table 1~6.-lnterpretations of apparent' resistivity curves at Cufler 

LINE 1. 

Location: 324ft west of sea wall, 390 ft west of water's edge and 35 ft southwest of well G-467 

on south side of Richmond Drive offset. Direction of line-N. 84 ° E. 

Eleclric8l depth profile: 

Fe'et 

0 9 Thin soil layer and dry oolite. 

9 73 Oolite and calcareous sandstone containing water of moderately high chloride 

content. 

73 - 200 Calcareous sandstone containing water of high chloride content. 

LINE 2 

Location; 280ft from center of Cutler Road on south side of Richmond Drive opposite store and 

gasoline station. Direction of line-N. 86 ° E. 

Electflca/ depth profile: 

F10et 

0 11 Thin sandy soil and dry oolite. 

11 69 Oolite and calcareous sandstone containing water of moderately hililh chloride 

content. 

69 - 200 Calcareous sandstone containing water of high chloride content. 

LINE 3. 

Location: 0. 15 mile west of Cutler Road on Richmond Drive. on south aide of road 120ft west of 

S. B. T. & T. Co. pole No, 4 7. Direction of lin.,.. E.-W. 

Electrical depth profile: 

Feat 

0 10 Thin a andy soil and dry oolite. 

10 3G Oolite and calcareous sandstone containing water of low-chloride content. 

36 80 Calcareous sandstone and some limestone containing nearly fresh water. 

80 - 300 Limestone and calcareous sandstone with water of higher chloride content than 

at any other horizon in the well; marl, clay. 
INTERPRETATION OF APPARENT RESISTIVITY CURVES 943 

Table 146.-/nterpretations of apparent resistivity curves at Cutler-Continued 

LINE 4. 

Location: Opposite well G 469 on West Cutler Road north of Richmond Drive. 

Electrical depth profll e: 

Feet 

0 11 Thin sandy topooil and dry oolite. 

11 34 Oolite and calca~eous sandstone containing water of moderately low chloride 

content. 

34 - 91 Calcareous sandstone and limestone containing nearly fresh water. 

91 - 300 Limestone and calcareous sandstone with water of higher chloride content than at 

any other place in the depth profile; marl and clay. 

LINE 5. 

Location: 400 ft east of line 4 and midway between East and West Cutler Roads, Direction of 

line-N. 85 ° E. 

Electrical depth profile: 

Feet 

0 7. 7 Thin soil and dry oolite. 

7. 7 - 32 Oolite and calcareous sandstone containing water of moderately low chloride 

content. 

32 ~ 78 Calcareous sandstone and some limestone containing neady fresh water. 

78 - 200 Limestone and some calcareous sandstone c<>ntalnlng water of higher chloride 

content than at any other level in the depth profile; marl and clay. 

LINE 6. 

Loc.st.ion: Coral Ree£ Dri.ve offset, %mile west of Biscayne Bay. Direction of line-S. 52° E. 

Electrical dsplh profile: 

Feet 

0 7. 4 Soil and oolite: considerable concentration of chloride. 

7.4- 26 

26 - 200 

LINE 7. 

Oolite and calcareous sandstone: lower chloride content in this horizon. 

Calcareous sandstone and limestone; very high chloride content. 

Location: Along Ludlum Road, 287 ft north of well G-472. Direction of llne-N.•S, 

Electrical deptli profile: 

Feet 

0 5. 8 Sandy topsoil and oolite. 

5.8 ~ 11.8 llard lin1estonej rather impervious. 

11,8 - 48 Oolite and calcareous sandstone with water of appreciably higher chloride 

48 - 160 

LINE 8. 

content. 

Calcareous sandstone and limestone saturated with water of very high 

chloride content. 

Location: 0. 22 mile west of Ludlum Road on Coral Reef Drive. Direction of line• E. -W. 

Electrical depth profile: Closely similar to line 7 up to the 50-ft electrode interval. However, the 

line was abandoned because of evident interference from the metal fence parallel and clo.,ely 

adjacent to the line of electrodes, No further interpretation made, 
944 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 146.-lnterpretations of apparent ~esistivity curves at Cutler-Continuerl 

LINE 9, 

Location: 375 ft west of Ludlum Road and 0. 1 mile north of Coral Reef Drive. Direction of line. 

N. 88°E. 

101ectric8l clapth profile: 

Feet 

0 ~ 15 Dry sandy soil and oolite. 

15 ~ 103 Oolite, calcareous sandstone, and limestone containing water of moderately low 

chloride content. 

103 - 200 Limestone containing water of very high chloride contentj marl and clay. 

LINE 10, 

Location: 0.3 mile south of Coral Reef Drive along wea.t side of Kuhn Drive near well C.4SO. 

Direction of line- N.-S. 

Electrical depth profile: 

Feet 

0 8. 25 Soil and oolite, dry. 

8,25 ~ 44 

44 - 121 

121 ~ 200 

J....INE 11. 

Oolite, lime~tone, and calcareous sandstone containing water of low chloride 

content. 

Limestone and calcareous sandstone containing water of very low chloride 

content. 

Marl and clay. 

Location: 0,15 mile north of well C-472, along e-ast side o£ I..,.udlum Road. Direction of line-N.-~ 

F.l ectri cal_ dapth pro tile: 

Feet 

0 5, 8 Dry soil and oolite. 

5,8 - 11.8 liard limestone, impervious. 

11.8 - 72 Oolite, limestone, calcareous sandstone; and sand containing water of low 

chloride content. 

72 ~ 200 Calcareous sandstone containing water of moderately high chloride content; 

marl and clay. 

LINE 12. 

Location: 0.35 mile east of tJ. S. llighway 1 along Coral Reef Drive, Direction of line E, ~W. 

Electrical depth profile: 

Feet 

0 10,5 Dry sandy soil and oolite, 

10. S - 72 Oolite; limestone, calcareous sandstone, and sand with water of low chloride 

content, 

72 - 122 T ,im.estone~ sand, and calcareous sandstone containing water of very low chloride 

content, 

122 ~ 300 Marl and clay. 
INTERPRETATION OF APPARENT RESISTIVITY CURVES 945 

Table 146.-lnterpretations of apparent resistivity co:uves at Cutler-Continued 

LINE 13. 

Location: 0. 15 mile east of Allapattah Drive along north side of Goulds Canal, 0. 15 mile east of 

well G-518. Direction of line-E.-W. 

Electtica/ dtJpth profile: 

Fuet 

0 8 Soil, sand, and oolite. 

8 39 Hard oolite and calcareous sandatone with water of low chloride content. 

39 ....... 300 Calcareous sandstone with water of moderately low chloride contenti marl, clay. 

Table 147.-lnterpretations of apparent resistivity curves at Fort Lauderdale 

LINE 1. 

Location: 520 ft west of Florida Highway 7 on Rode Road, along north side of North New River 

Canal. Direction of line-N. 75 ° w. 

Electl'i cal depth profile: 

Feet 

0 2. 7 Road fill and sand. 

2. 7 - 3. 1 Black muck or oolite saturated with water of rather high chloride content. 

3.1- 68 

68 - 250 

250 - 300 

LINE 2 

Oolite and compact sand of relatively high resistivity, indicating water of low 

chloride content. 

Sand, calcareous sandstone, and limestone of moderately high resistivity, in .. 

dicating an increase of chloride content over the previous layer. 

Sand and marl of low resistivity; water probably of high chloride content. 

Location: 0.9 mile west of Florida Highway 7 on Rode Road along north side of North New River 

Canal, Direction of line-N, 75 ° W. 

El ectl'i cal depth profile: 

Feet 

0 2. 5 Sandy soil. 

2. 5 - 14 Black muck or oolite saturated w!th water of rather high chloride content, 

14 - 125 Oolite, compact sand, calcareous sandstone, and limestone; relatively high 

resistivity, indicating water of low chloride content. Zones of probable saltwater contamination near 40 and _68ft., 

125 - 265 Mad, calcareous 8andstone, limestone, aand, and clay; moderately low resis· 

tivlty, indicating an increaae in chloride content with respect to the layer 

immediately above. 

265 - 350 Marl, clay, and eand; very low resistivity with correspondingly high chloride 

content. 
946 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTiiEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 147.-lnterpretations of apparent resistivity curves at Fort Lauderdale-Continued 

LINE 3. 

Location: 0. 7 mile west of Florida Highway 7 along north side of Petets Road. Direction of lin ... 

E.-w. 

81 ectrical depth pro tile: 

Feet 

0 8 Loose, very dry sand. 

8 15 Sand containing organic material moistened with water of low chloride content. 

15 - 112 Sand and sandy limestone of relatively higher resistivity than the above layer, 

indicating low chloride content. 

112 - 200 Calcareous sandstone and limestone in the upper part of this layer is of moder· 

ately low resistivity, indicating the presence of higher chloride concentrations 

than in the layer abo"e; lower part, below 175 ft is probably clay and mlilrl of 

low resisti'Vity and high chloride content. 

LINE 4. 

Location: 0.85 mile west of Florida !Ugh way 7 on Peters Road. Abandoned because of loose, dry 

sand at the surface; unable to obtain electrode contact. 

LINES 5 AND 6. 

Location: 1. 2 miles west of Florida Highway 7 along north side of Peters Road, Direction of line. 

N.·E. (Line 5 was abandoned because of instrument trouble and Line 6 was taken in its place 

fr<>m the same center). 

El ectrlcal d"f'lh profit e: 

Feet 

0 4. 4 Loose, ""ry dry sand. 

4.4 - 17 Muck and some sand, probably of relatively high chloride content as its resistivity is low. 

17 - 155 Sand, sandy limestone, and calcareous sandstone; water probably or low chloride 

content. 

155 -"- 250 Sand with some clay and marl; chlorides increasing with depth and becoming 

high below 250 ft. 

"'250 - 300 Marl, clay, and sand with water of rather high chloride content. 

LINE 7, 

Location: First street south of Country Club Road at intersection of first street west or Florida 

Highway 7, along north side of street. Direction of line. E.-w. 

Electrical depth profile: 

Feet 

0 - 11 Loose, very dry sand. 

11 - 145 Sand, sandstone, and sandy limestone; resistivity relatively high, indicating 

low chloride content. 

145 - 300 Clay, marl, and sand; water probably of moderately high chloride content. 

LINE 8. 

Location: 0.2 mHe east of Florida Highway 7 dong south side of Droward l3lvd. Direction of 

llne-E.·W. Observations taken to the 200·ft interval distance, but results beyond the 15-ft 

interval distance are of no value; unable to send current through the dry sand cover. 
INTERPRETATION OF APPARENT RESISTIVITY CURVES 947 

Table 147,-lnterpretations of apparent resistivity curves at Fort Lauderdale-Continued 

LINE 9. 

Location: 0.22 mile south or new w. 13roward Blvd., along eut aide of former Broward Blvd. 

Direction of line-N,•S. 

Electrical d<lpth profile: 

Feet 

0 12.5 Loose, dry sand, 

12.5 - 92 Sand with a mall amount of organic mllterial, calcareous sandstone, and &llndy 

limestone; moderately high resistivity, indicating little or no chloride in the 

water. 

92 - 300 Sandy limestone, sand, calcareous sandstone, and some clay 10nd marl; water in 

this zone does not have high chloride content, 

LINE 10. 

Location: 0.9 mile east of Florida Highway 7 along aouth side of IJroward Blvd. Direction or 

line-E.·W. 

Electrical depth profile: 

Feet 

0 - 1 L 5 Loose, dry sand. 

1 L 5 - 152 Sand with small amount of organic meterial, calcareous sandstone, and sandy 

limestone; moderately hi~~;h resistivity, Indicating little or no chloride in the 

water. 

152 - 232 Sandy limestone and calcareous sandstone that ia either compact or saturated 

with relatively fresh water, 

232 - 300 Probably clay, marl and sand; the chloride content or thi" zone is comparatively 

low, but the apparent resistivity c;,..ves indicate an increased salinity west of 

the center station. 

LINE 11. · 

Location: Along south side of NW. 6th st. at 28th Ave. Direction of line•E.•W. 

Electrical depth profile: 

Feet 

0 4. 5 Dry, loose sand. 

4. 5 - 12,5 Sand with small amount of organic material; chloride content of water is low, 

as indicated by the moderately high resistivity, 

12. 5 - 250 Sand, calcareous sandstone, and sandy limestone of eli~~:htly higher resistivity 

250 -400 

LINE 12. 

than the previous layer; contains water of low chloride contenL 

Probably clay and marl with water of rather high chloride contenL Because of 

the variability ofP and P , oniy a qualitative interpretation ia given for 

this bottom layer. 1 2 

LocaUon: 0.22 mile west of Westwood Road and 0,15 mllio north of Davie Blvd. Direction of line· 

E.-W. 
948 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Table 147.-lnterpretations of apparent resistivity curves at Fort Lauderdale-Continued 

LINE 12,-Continued 

Elt~clrlcal depth protile: 

Feet 

0 10,2 Sand, loose and very dry. 

10.2 - 61 Sand and calcareous undstone; high resistivity, indicating water of very low 

chloride content. 

61 ~ 300 Sandy limestone, calcareous sandstone, and sand: medium. .. hi@;h resittivity, indi .. 

eating water of low chloride content. 

LINE 13. 

Location: 0,4 mlle directly north of resistivity line 12. Direction of line-E.-W. 

El ectrl cal dopth pro tile: 

Feet 

0 6. 1 Loose, dry sand, 

6. 1 - 12.5 Moist sand with some organic material. 

12.5 ~ 38 Compact sandy limestone or calcar@ous sandstone of high-resistivity. 

38 ~ 300 Sandy limestone; calcareous sandstone, and sand; medium-high resistivity, 

indicating water of low chloride content. 
SELECTED Bl BLIOGRAPHY 

f Reports marked by an asterisk (*) are by U. S. Geological Survey staff members and are based on 

data gathered as a result of the Southeastern Florida Wate:r .. Resources Investigation] 

Agassiz, J,ouis, 1852, Florida reefs, keys, and coast: U. S. Coast Survey Rept, for 1851, 

App. 10. 

Alexander, L. ] ., 1940, Economic evaluation of tuberculation in pipe lines: Am, Water 

Works Assoc. Jour,, v. 32. 

Allison, R. V,, 1928, Movement of underground waters: Florida Agr. Expt. Sta., Ann, 

Rept. 

-----1939, The soil and water conservation problem in the Everglades: Soil Sci, 

Soc, Florida Proc,, v. 1. 

-----1943, The need of the Everglades for a specific plan of development based 

on the physical and chemical characteristics of its soils and a rational handling of its 

natural water supply: Soil Sci. Soc. Florida Proc., v, 5-A. 

American Public llealth Association and American Water Works Association, 1936, 

Standard methods for the examination of water and sewage, 8th ed, . 

Applin, p, L., and Applin, E. R., 1944, Regional subsurface stratigraphy and structure 

of Florida and southern Georgia: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v, 28, 

no, 12. 

Barksdale, II, C., Sundstrom, R. W., and Brunstein, M. S., 1936, Supplementary report on 

the ground-water supplies of the Atlantic City region: New Jersey State Water Policy 

Com, Special Rept. 6. 

Bell, H. s., 1942, Stratified flow in reservoirs and its use in prevention of silting: U. s. 

Dept. Agriculture Mise, Pub, 491. 

Bellamy, Jeanne, 1946, Salt in water was big problem twenty-seven years ago: The 

Miami Herald, Miami, Fla. 

-----1947, Taming the Everglades, A report on water control: The Miami Herald, 

Miami, Fla. . 

Bestor, H. A., 1942, The principal elements· of a longtime soil and water conservation 

plan for the Everglades: Soil Sci. Soc, Florida Proc, v, 4-A. 

Dogart, D. B., and Clayton, B. S., 1948, The effect of aquatic weeds on the flow of 

canals: [paper presented at 9th annual meeting of the Soil Sci, Soc, of Florida, Clew· 

iston, Fla,l. 

Bray, R. H., 1942, Ionic competition in base exchange relations: Am. Chern, Jour., 

v. 64. 

llrooks, C. E. P., 1949, Climate through the ages, McGraw-Hill Co, 

Brown, J, S., 1925, A study of coastal ground water, with special reference to Connect· 

icut: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 537. 

*Brown, R. H., 1944, Water levels and artesian pressure in southeastern Florida (1942): 

U. S. Geol, Survey Water-Supply Paper 945. 

*Brown, R. H., and Parker, G. G., 1945, Salt-water encroachment in limestone at Silver 

Bluff, Miami, Florida: Econ, Geology, v, 40, no, 4. 

California Department of Public Works, Division of Water Resources, 1942, Use of water 

by native vegetation: Bull, SO. 

Campbell, R. B., 1939a, Report of laboratory analysis in letter to Dr. Herman Gunter, 

Florida state geologist, .. 

-----1939b, Deep test well in the Everglades: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists 

Bull., v. 23, no. 11. 

-----1939c, Outline of the geologic history of'peninsular Florida: Florida Acad. 

Sci, Proc., v. 4 [1940]. 

Carson, Ernest, 1940, Annual meteorological summary with comparative data, Miami, 

Fla.: U. S. Weather Bureau, 

Challenger Report, 1844, Physics and chemistry, v. 1. 

Chapman, H. D., and Kelley, W. P., 1930, The determination of the replaceable bases 

and the base exchange capacity of soils: Soil Sci., v, 30. 

Clark, W, M., 1928, The determination of hydrogen ions, 3d ed., Williams &. Wilkins Co. 

Clayton, B. S,, 1938, Water control in the peat soils of Florida: U, S. Dept. Agriculture, 

Bur, Agriculture Eng. Release 1077. 

949 
950 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

Clayton, B. s., and NeUer, J, R., 1943, Nature and extent of surface subsidence of the 

organic soils of the Everglades: Soil Sci. Soc, Florida Proc., v, 5-A. 

clayton, B. s., Neller, J. R., and Allison, R. V., 1942, Water control in the peat and 

muck soils of the Florida Everglades: Florida Agr. Exper. Sta., Bull. 378. 

Cole, w. s., 1941, Stratigraphic and paleontologic studies of wells in Florida: Florida 

Geol. Survey Bull. 19, 

-----1944, Stratigraphic end paleontologic studies of wells in Florida, No, 3: 

Florida Geol. Survey Bull. 26. 

Collins, w. D., and Howard, c. S., 1928, Chemical character of waters of Florida: U. S. 

Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 596-G. 

Collins, w. D., and Love, S~ K., 1944, Quality of surface waters of the United States: 

(1942): U. s. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 950. 

Collins, w. D., Howard, c. S., and Love, S. K., 1943, Quality of surface waters of the 

United States (1941): U, s. Geol, Survey Water-Supply Paper 942. 

Congressional documents: 76th Cong., 1st sess., H. Doc. 469, 

Cooke, c. W., 1930, Pleistocene seashores: Washington Acad, Sci, Jour., v. 20. 

-----1931, Seven coastal terraces in the southeastern States: Washington Acad. 

Sci, Jour,, v. 21. · 

-----1935, Tentative ages of Pleistocene shore lines: Washington Acad, Sci. 

Jour., v. 25. 

-----1937, The Pleistocene Horry clay and Pamlico formation near Myrtle Beach, 

S. C.: Washington Acad. Sci, Jour., v. 27, no, 1. 

------1939, Scenery of Florida: Florida Geol. Survey Bull. 17. 

----1945, Geology of Florida: Florida Geol. Survey Bull. 29, 11.(\ t• 

Cooke, c. w., and Mossom, Stuart, 1928, Geology of Florida; Florida Geol, Survey 20th 

Ann, Rept. 

Cooper, H. H., Jr., 1944, Ground-water investigations in Florida: Am. Water Works 

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Cooper, H. H,, Jr., and Jacob, C. E., 1946, A generalized graphical method for evaluating formation constants and summarizing well-field history: Am. Geophys, Union 

Trans., v, 27, no. 4' p. Sl..,-S~~. 

*Cooper, 11. H., Jr., and Parker, G. G., 1945, Water levels and artesian pressure in 

Florida (1943): U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 987, 

Cooper, H. H., Jr., and Warren, M, A., 1945, The perennial yield of artesian water in the 

coastal area of Georgia and northeastern Florida: Econ, Geology, v. 40, no. 4. 

*Cross, w. P,, 1942, Water levels and artesian pressure in southeastern Florida (1940): 

U. s. Geol, Survey Water-Supply Paper 907. 

* 1943, Water levels and artesian pressure in southeastern Florida (1941): 

U •. S. Geol. Survey Water-supply Paper 937. 

*Cross, w. P,, and Cooper, H. H., Jr., 1940, Water levels and artesian pressure in southeastern Florida (1939): U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 886. 

*Cross, w. P., and Love, S. K., 1942, Ground water in southeastern Florida: Am. Water 

Works Assoc, Jour,, v, 34, no. 4, 

*Cross, W, P., Love, S. K., Parker, G. G., and Wallace, D. S., 1940, Progress report on 

the investigation of water resources in southeastern Florida: [Mimeographed in small 

quantity; now exhausted. Copies on file in Geological Survey offices in Miami, Ocala, 

and Tallahassee, Fla., and in Washington, D. C.]. 

Cushman, J, A., 1942, Report,on well samples from Florida: [Memo.)o John B. Reeside, 

Jr.]. 

Dall, w. H,, 1887, Notes on the geology of Florida: Am. Jour. Sci., 3rd ser,, v, 34, 

-----1893, Geological results from the study of the Tertiary fauna of Florida: 

Wagner Free Inst, Sci, Trans,, v. 3,pt. 6, 

Daly, R. A., 1934, The changing world of the ice age, Yale Univ. Press, 

Davis, C. K., 1942, The plan and progress of soil and water conservation studies in the 

Everglades: Soil Sci. Soc. Florida Proc., v. 4-A. 

-----1943, Summary of three years of conservation work in the Everglades and 

plans for the future: Soil Sci. Soc. Florida Proc., v, 5-A. 

Davis, J. H., 1940, The ecology and geologic role of mangroves in Florida: Carnegie 

Inst. Washington Pub. 517. 

-----1943, The natural features of southern Florida: Florida Geol. survey Bull. 

25. 

Dean, H. T., 1936, Chronic endemic dental fluorosis: Am. Med. Assoc. Jour,, v. 107. 

Dean, H. T., Jay, Phillip, Arnold, F. H., Jr., and Elvove, Elias, 1941, Domestic water 

and dental caries: U, s. Public Health Repts,, v, 56. 
SELECTED BIBUOGRAPHY 951 

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typewritten manuscript, sec, 2, p. 1, 

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Dole, R. 8., 1914, Some chemical characteristics of sea water at Tortugas and around 

Biscayne Say, Fla.: Carnegie Inst. Washington, v. 5, rept. 182. 

Dole, R. B., and Chambers, A. c., 1918, Salinity of ocean water at Fowey Rocks, Florida: 

Carnegie Inst, Washington Pub., v. 9, rept. 213. 

Dovell, J. E., 1942, A brief history of the Florida Everglades: Soil Sci. Soc. Florida 

Proc., v. 4-A. 

Elliott, F. C., Everglades Drainage District: Biennial report, 1925-26; 1927; 1927-28; 

1929. 

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no, 2644. 

Evans, c. B., and Allison, R. V., 1942, The soils of the Everglades in relation to reclamation and conservation operations: Soil Sci. Soc. Florida Proc,, v. 4-A. 

Everglades Drainage District, 1944, Report by advisory committee on the present drainage 

system in relation to water control requirements. 

-----1946, General construction regulations (West Palm Beach, Fla.). [mimeo.). 

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*Ferguson, G, E., 1942, The plan and progress of recent surface-water studies in the 

Everglades: Soil Sci, Soc, Florida Proc., v. 4-A. * 943, Summary of three years of surface water studies in the Everglades: Soil 

Sci. Soc. Florida Proc,, v, 5-A. 

*Ferguson, G. E., Lingham, C. W., Love, S. K., and Vernon, R. 0,, 1947, Springs of 

Florida: Florida Geol. Survey Bull. 31, 

Flint, R. F., 1941, Glacial geology, in Geology, 1888-1938: Geol. Soc, America, 50th 

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Johnson, Lamar, 1944, Proposed plan of regulation of North New River Canal: Ever· 

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Jones, L. A., 1948, Soils, geology, and water control in the Everglades r~gion: Univ. 

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954 WATER RESOURCES IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA 

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INDEX 

A Page 

Abstract ............................................. 1-4 

Allapattah Marsh, description .......... - ..... 143 

Anastasia formation, age ................ , 66, 100 

lithologic features .. 66, 100, 101, 120, 122 

occurrence and distribution .......... 100, 101 

water-bearing characteristics .. 66, 101, 102 

Annual runoff, data of selected drainage 

basins ..................... 513, 514, 515, 516 

Appendix, .................................... 835-948 

Aquifer, definition ............................... 157 

Aquifer at Everglades, description ..... 196-197 

Aquifers at Fort Pierce and in the 

Kissimmee valley, description .... 194-196 

Arbuckle Creek, description,,, ........ 311-312 

Area zonei description ................. n•••••••••• 70 

Arch Creek, origin ........... , ............ 125, 127 

Areal studies, characteristics .................. 509 

Everglades, ................................ 509-510 

west of Hialeah ................................ 510 

Artesian aquifer. functioning .................. 159 

Artesian aquifer at Indian Town, 

description ........................... ,, 193-194 

Artesian head, general statement ............ 159 

Artesian water, chemical character .•••.•... 826 

definition ................................ .,158-159 

general statement ............................... 188 

shallow aquifers .......................... 193-197 

Atlantic Coastal Ridge, deep sand-filled 

Pleistocene channels through ...... 150-151 

description,. .................... , ............... 145 

Atlantic Coastal Ridge in Broward County, 

aquifer and grotmd water ........... 169-171 

development of wells ........................ ,172 

effects of .................................. 171-172 

Atlantic Coastal Ridge in Pahn Beach 

County. aquifer and ground 

water .................................... 172-173 

development of wclls ......................... 175 

effects of drainage ............................ 174 

Atlantic Coastal Ridge in St. Lucie County, 

aquifer and ground water ................. 176 

development of wells ......................... l76 

Atlantic Coastal Ridge north of Greater 

Miami, aquifer and ground 

water .................................... 168-169 

Atlantic Coastal Ridge south of Greater 

Miami, aquifer and ground 

water .......................................... l67 

development of wel!s ................... 167-168 

Atlantic Coastal Ridge north of Miami, 

development of wells ...................... 169 

Atlantic Ocean, chemical 

compositlon,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.,,,,,,,,,,572-573 

contamination by ........................ 572-573 

specific gravity .......................... 573-574 

Avon Park limestone formation, age ......... 67 

lithologic features ........................ 67, 68 

water-bearing characteristics ......•••...... ~ 67 

B Page 

Bar and swale topography, 

description,123-1~4. 139, 142, 143, 152 

Base exchange, description .. 578-579, 821-822 

Base flow, explanation ................... 524-528 · 

Base storage, explanation ............... 528, 530 

Basins tributary to Lake Okeechobee, 

characteristics ... ········•·•·••·•••••••·••••·300 

general drainage system ............... 300-301 

"Bays, • origin ...................................... 125 

Beach sand, age,,., ............................. 111 

fossil identification ........................... 111 

lithologic features, ............................ lll 

occurrence and distribution .......... 110, 111 

Bicarbonate, in ground water .. ,, .... , ........ 733 

Big Cypress-Devil's Garden area, aquifer 

and ground water ........................... 186 

development of wells, ....................... 186 

Big Cypress Swamp, description ........ 144-145 

Big Pine Key, description, .. 61, 146, 155, 177 

ground-water tidal fluctuation ............. 177 

Biscayne aquifer, compared to Floridan 

aquifer at Jacksonville, Fla., and 

Savannah, Ga ............................... 270 

description .................. 160-162, 166, 198 

factors affecting, .............................. 199 

occurrence and water •••u•••••il'••••••••••••••• 96 

perennial yield ................................. 200 

Pleistocene building .......................... ,,94 

recharge rates ............................ 220-221 

response to pressure changes .......... 198-199 

salt-water encroachment,,., ............. 200 

t-ransmissibility and storage 

coefficients ............................ 269-270 

well yields ................................ 162-163 

Biscayne Bay, chloride concentration,.574-577 

ground~water discharge into .......... 592-593 

salt-water contamination .............. 57 4-577 

Biscayne Canal, salt-water 

encroachment ...................... ,,, 645-652 

Boynton Canal, description .............. 502-505 

Brevard County, precipitation .. , ........... 22-40 

rain gages ....................................... ,.18 

Broward County, chemical character of 

nonartesian ground waters., ......... 797-800 

chemical character of public water 

supplies ................................ 828, 830 

development of wells., ................ , ...... 172 

effect of drainage,, .................... 171-172 

municipal water supplies .............. 919-922 

precipitation ..................... ,,,,,,,,,,.,22-40 

rain gages ......................................... 18 

salt·wa ter encroachment ............... 171-172 

well logs ................................... 859-S70 

well rccords ............................... 836-837 

Buckingham formation, fossil 

identification~···A·······•····•······•········ 87 

lithologic features .............................. 87 

957 
958 INDEX 

c Page 

Calcareous rocks, solution ........... 90, 96-99, 

104, 128-129, 132-134 

Calcium, In ground water ................ 731-732 

Caloosahatchee Canal, chemkal 

character of water.,,, ................ 751-755 

Caloosahatchee marl formation, age 

o£ ........................................... 67, 89 

fossil identification ............................. B7 

litholo_glc features ................... 67, 88, 89 occurrence and disll'ibution ..... , ....... 87, 88 

water-bearing characteristics ......... 67, 89, 

118, 119 

Caloosahatchee River, Cancellsris ~one ..... 70 

capillary fringe ................................ 221 

cation exchange ............ 578-579, 821-822 

dates of canal construction ................. 587 

description,,,,,.,,,.,, ......................... 141 

Camp Murphy, wells ............................ 175 

Campbell, Robert 8 ............................... 65 

Cenoooic era, time correlation ............... 111 

Charlotte County, precipitation .. ,., ...... 22-40 

rain gages,•••••••••••••••••••••••••••·•"'"•••••••··18 Chemical character of artesian water, 

general statement .................... 826-833 

Chemlc'al character of nonartesian ground 

waters, general statement .......... 784-785 

Chemical character of surface waters, 

general statement ..................... 737-784 

Chemical quality of nonartesian ground 

waters, areas surrounding Lake 

Okeechobee, ........................... 806-822 

Chemical quality of surface waters, effect 

of drought on Everglades canals ......... 784 

major Everglades drainage canals., .. 755-779 

miscellaneous sampling ................ 779-783 

Chloride, description in ground water .. 733-734 

Chlorides, taste levels of human 

perception,, ................................... 96 

U. S. Public Health Service standards ... .,96 

Choctoawhatchee marl, description, ......... 70 

Circular ponds, originanddescription .. l41-142 

Climate, general statement ... ., .... 15-57, 132 

Climatic effects on topography, general 

statement, .................................... 132 

Climatic Optimum, definition .. ., ... , ........ 125 

CHmatologic data, analysis ............. 516-524 

Coastal areas north of Miami, chemical 

character of nonartesian ground 

waters .................................... 792-796 

Coastal marshes and mangrove swamps, 

description ........... ; ....................... J.54 

Coconut Grove, early springs,..,,.,.,.,.,.,. .. 581 

ground water in early days .................. 580 

well field established ......................... 705 

Coconut Grove welloofleld, salt-water 

encroachment ................................ 707 

Coefficient of permeability, 

deflnition, .............................. 236-237 

Coefficient of storage, definition,. .......... 237 

Coefficient of transmissibility, definition .. 237 

Collier County, chemical character of 

nonartesian ground waters .......... 822-825 

chemical character of public water supplies,,,,., ................................ , 830 

contamination of shallow ground water 

by salty artesian water .................... l92 

Cory No. 1 well, water analyses .... , ..... 65 

Everglades City aquifer and ground 

water, ................................... 196-197 

municipal water supplies ............... ., ... 923 

precipitation,., ... ,, ......................... 22-40 

rain gages,, ....................................... 18 

well records ... ,.,. .............................. 836 

Color of ground and surface waters, 

general statement~,111 ,,u-:•n••••U'I•'111•~·····.730 

Page 

Cooke, C. Wythe., ... ., ........................... 7o 

Coral Gables Canal. salt-water 

encroachment.,_ .................... 667-674 

Corrosiveness of ground water, 

general statement .......................... 737 

"Coskinolina ~ne• of Stubbs, 

general statement ,.,. .......... ,. ......... .,67 

Cushman, J. A. , ............................. 81, 82 

Cutler, interpretations of apparent 

resistivity curves at ............... 942-945 

Cutler area, measurements of salt-water 

encroachment by electrical· 

resistivity studies ..................... 718-721 

Cypress CreeK Canal, chemical 

character of waters ........................ 776 

description ....... , ........ , •• , ... ,.,, •• ,. 505-507 

D 

Dade County, chemical character of 

Biscayne aquifer water ....... _ ....... 792-796 

chemical character of public water 

supplies ............................... 828, 830 

estimated pumpage of ground water ...... 236 

municipal water supplies .............. 924-927 

precipitation,,,.,,.,,,.,.,,.,,,,.,,,,,,,.,,,23-40 

ra.in gages ....................................... , .. lS 

welllogs ................................... 871-901 

well records ............................... 839-848 

Dade County shoreline, salt-water 

encroachmen-t •• , ................ ,,.,,,708-711 

Dams, salt· water controls..,590, 640, 65?., 705 

Dania, aquifer and ground water 

near. ..................................... l68-169 

Dania Cutoff Canal, salt-water 

encroachment from .......... ,.,,,.,,. .... 171 

Darcy's law, general statement.,,,. ... 206, 274 

Density of jp'Ound water, effect on 

_-..a tar· table elevation .............. 613-617 

De Soto County, precipitation ............. 22-40 

rain gages ................... ., .................... l9 

Development of area, problems ... ., ........ 9-11 

Devil's Garden, description ............ , • .,,. .. l86 

Dictyoconus ameticsnu• 10ne of Cole ......... 68 · Dictyoconue cookel mne of Cole .............. 68 

Direct flow, explanation .. .,., ........... 524-528 

Dissolved solids, general statement., ......... 735 

Drainage, results,, .............................. 9-11 

Drainage canals, salt·water encroachment 

from .................................... 682-686 

time of construction ..... ., ....... ., .. .,., .... 587 

Droughts, descrlption,.,, ..................... S3-40 

Droughb and salt-water encroachment, 

general statement .................. , 587 .:SBS 

679-681. 784 

Duplin marl formation, age ................ 70, 71 

fossil identification ........................ ,70-82 

lithologic features ............................... 70 

occurrence and distribution .... ., ............. 70 

E 

Ecphota zoue ...... ,. •• 11 .,,, ............................... 70 

Effective recharge, definition ................. 281 

Electrical resistivity, studies ............ 712-725 

Eocene series, general statement .. .,., .. ., ... , 64 

Equivalents per million, defined ............. 577 

Erosion, description .......... 134-135, 147, 155 

of channels through the Atlantic 

Coastal Ridge. ........................ lS0-151 

Evaporation, general statement ............ 42-57 

methods of computation ............ ,,.516, 524 

computation ....................... 516, 524 
Page 

Evapotranspiration, general statement, •• 42-57 

salvage .................................... 285-287 

Ever!ilades, central, aquifer and ground 

water,.,,,., .............................. 183-184 

development of wells .. ,., ... , ................ 184 

quality of water .......................... 183-184 

seepage, .......................................... 184 

Everglades,' lower, aqUifer and - - • 

ground water ........................... 179-180 

development of wells ......................... 180 

seepage ••••••••••••••••••• ~~~····•••••••••••••••••••183 

Everglades, lower, west of Hialeah, 

water·table conditions .............. 180-183 

Everglades, The, chemical character of 

nonartesian ground water.,.,., .... 818-821 

description ................................. l47-148 

drainage pattern .......................... l52-153 

flC!br., ....................................... 149-151 

geologic history, ......................... 118-125 

•grain• ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 152 

rock floor.,,,..,.,.,., ..................... 149-151 

soils .... ., ................................... 148-149 

solution of rock floor ............................ 151 

source of mineralization of ground 

waters, ................................... 821-822 

*subsidence valleys, • ................ ,,.152-153 

- vegetation ....................................... 148 

water storage,.,., ....................... 566, 567 

Everglades, The, and the Atlantic Coastal -

Ridge, aquatic weeds,. ............. 342-344 

bars and shoals .... , .................. ., .. 341-342 

characteristics •...•••••••••••••••• ~~~~ ............. 332 

chemical quality of ground water.,, 818-821 

combined natural and artificial 

control regimen ....................... 347-348 

Everglades hydrologic unit ........ ., ... 332-335 

factors affecting canal capacity ...... 338-344 

general drainage features,. ................... 332 

ground•water flow from Atlantic 

Coastal Ridge to ............................ 591 

soil subsidence ........................... 338-341 

source of mineralization of ground 

water .................................... 821-822 

topographic and geologic factors of 

water control., ........................ 344-346 

water·control facilities ................ 335-338 

Everglades, The, area, hydrologic 

studies ................................... 560-570 

precipitation,. ...... 561, 566, 568, 569, 570 

runoff ................. 561, 566, 567, 569, 570 

seepage, ......................................... ,561 

Everglades, upper, aquifer and . 

ground water ........................... 184-185 

development of wells ........... .-............. .185 

seepa.ge•••••.••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••185 

Everglades City. aquifer and ground -

. water at .................. , ............. 196-197 

"Everglades Keys,." general state· 

ment ..................................... l45-146 

Everglades National Park area, aquifer- · 

and ground water ........................... 178 

development of wel!s.,.,, .............. 178-179 

quality of water ................ ~ ............... l78 

F 

Fahkahatchee Slough, descripHon ........... 142 

fire wells ........................................ 166 

Fisheating Bay, description, ................... 137 

Fisheatin~~; Creek. chemical character 

of water ....................................... 741 

description ........................ 139, 140, 141 

Fisheating Creek basin, characteristics ..... 315 

959 

Page 

Flsheating Creek valley, description ........ 139 

"Floating islands,• definition .................. 154 

Florida City area, aquifer and ground 

water •• ,. ............................... l67, 711 

Floricb Keys, aquifer and ground 

water ............................. lOO, 176-177 

descrlption, ..................................... ,l55 

development of wells ................... 167 -177 

ground·water tidal fluctuation ....... 176-177 

Floridan aquifer and aquiclude, · 

c::ontamination.. ............................. ,..J92 

descriptionauu••.,.••••••••••••••••••••••••lSS-189 

distributiQD and pressure ............. .,,189-191 

in Miami area .••••••• ••••••••••••••••••••••••••J92 

quality of water in Miami area.,.,,.,.,.,.,571 

quality of water in southeastern 

Florida •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 824-826 

temperature··••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 191 

utility ...................................... 191-192 

yield to wells ................................... 191 

Floridan Plateau, effect of fluctuating sea 

level upon ................................... 129 

features ....................................... S0-62 

geology ....................................... Sl-62 

stabllity ......................................... l14 

Fluoride, in ground water ........... ., ... 734-735 

Foraminifera, lists ................................ 81 

Fort Lauderdale, colored water ............... 170 

interpretations of apparent resistivity 

curves at ............................... 945-948 

measurement< of salt-water encroachment 

by electrical-resistivity studies 721-725 

precipitation ................................ 22-40 

public""'lUpply wells ........................... .172 

transmissibility of Biscayne aquifer ....... 170 

Fort Lauderdale area, depth to 

bedrock .............................. 150-151 

Pleistocene residual sea water near, ...... l70 

salt-water encroachenmt .............. 677-679 

Fort Pierce, aquifer and ground water ....... 176 

Fort Thompson formation, age ............... 66, 

94, 95, 118 

fossil identification., ... 94, 95, 98, 99, 120 

lithologic features ...... 66, 90, 91, 92, 93, 

94, 95, 96, 118, 121, 122 

occUlTence and distribution ........... 90, 92, 

93, 94, 118, 149 

relation to Anastasia formation ........... 90, 

170, 172-173 

section at type locality ............... ll7-118 

water-bearing characteristics ............... 66, 

90, 94, 95, 96, 98, 99, 119 

G 

Gallatin, M. H ................................... 711 

Gardner, Juiia, macrofauna 

identification ............................ ,71-80 

Ceologic formations, table ................ 66, 67 

Geologic investigations, from outcrop 

data ............................................. 58 

methods ...................................... 57-58 

test-well drilling ................. 59-60, 64-65 

Geology and ground~water resources, 

relatio:nship .............................. 57, 64 

Ghyben-Herzberg principle ............ lOO, 278, 

279, 591-592, 604, 611 

Glades County. chemical character of 

public water supplies ............... 828, 830 

chem1cal quality of nonartesian _ 

ground wak'rs ......................... 806-809 

Glades Peninsula .............................. 139 

municipal water ~upplies .................... 928 
960 INDEX 

Page 

Glades County-Continued 

precipitation ................................. 22-40 

rain gages., .. ~ .................................... 19 

well logs ................................... 902-903 

well records ......................... .,, .. , ...... 849 

Goulds, electrical resistivity studies near ... 721 

Greater Miami area, development of 

wells .................................... .,162-163 

early water supplies ..................... 163-165 

effects of drainage ...................... 165-166 

fire wells ........................................ 166 

present supplies .......................... 166-167 

Ground water, definition.,., ................... 157 

density effects on water-table 

elevation ............................... 613-617 

dissolv<'d solids ....................... , ......... 735 

effect of rainfall on isochlor 

patt"l"n, ................................. 608-610 

hardness .................................... 735-736 

rate of intrusion of salty water in ........ 590, 

700, 705 

specific gravity of, and related to, 

sea water ............................... 598-600 

temp0rature ..................................... 191 

tidal·storage changes ................... 617-618 

Ground·water discharge, Collier. 

County ..................... 806-818, 822-823 

decline of water table in the Atlantic 

Coast a' Ridge, ........................ 232-233 

description ...................................... 221 

early supplies in Miami ............... ,l63-165 

evaporation and transpiration ...... ~ ........ 222 

flow towards the Everglades .... 591, 818-821 

Lake Okeechobee area .... , ............ 806-818 

pumpage in Dade County .................... 236 

relation to Ghyben-Herzberg lens .. , ... ., .. 593 

studies in Dade County ................. 222-228 

studies north of Kendall .......... ., .. ,.233-235 

studies south of Kendall ................ 228-232 

Ground ·water inventory, necessity 

of.,,, ..................................... 197-198 

Ground-water occurrence, methods of 

investigating •••• ,,,,,,,,,, .......... ,,, •• , •• .160 

Ground-water pumping test, conclusions. 

reached •• ., ........... , ... ,, ............ 269-270 

G 551 .................................... ,,.252-258 

G 552 ....................................... 258-262 

G 553 .......................... , ...... .,,. .. 263-268 

objectives of,.,,, ....................... ,,249-252 

s 1 .......................................... 239-248 

Ground-water quantitative studies, 

canal inflow .. ;, ....................... 274-276 

cone of depression in Miami well 

field ........................................... 274 

F 85 pumping test ....................... 270-272 

G 218 pumping test ..................... 272-274 

introduction to ................................. 197 

Ground-water recharge, description ... 212-214 

in relation to muck of the 

Everglades .. , ........................... 215-216 

in relation to oolite of the Atlantic 

Coastal Ridge., .. - ................... 218-221 

in relation to sand of the Atlantic 

Coastal Ridge ......................... 216-217 

"Gulf Hammock formation" of 

Erickson ........................................ 68 

Gulf Stream, salinity ...................... 572-573 

H 

Hardee County, precipitation .............. 22-40 

rain gages ......................................... 19 

Page' 

Harney Pond Canal, drainage 

characteristics ........................ " ..•..... 319 

Hawthorn formation, age .... ., ... 67, 71, 83-84 

fossil identification ........................ 70-82 

lithologic features .............. 67, 70, 83-84 

occurrence and distribution ......... 70, 83-84 

water-bearing characteristics .• uu .... G7, 84 

Henbest, Lloyd G., and Cushman, 

Joseph A., microfossil 

identification ............................ 81-82 

Hendry County, chemical character of 

public water supplies ............... 828, 830 

chemical quality of nonartesian 

ground water .......................... 809-810 

m'lmicipal water supplies ... ueu••••••••••••929 

precipitation ................... ,, ........... 22-40 

rain gages .... , ................................... 19 

well logs .................................. 904-905 

well records., .................................. 850 

Hernando County, precipitation,.,..,,.,,22-40 

Hialeah, water-table maps .............. 180-182 

Highlands County, Highlands Peninsula .... 136 

precipitation ................................ 22-40 

rain gages ........................................ 19 

well logs .................................. 906-907 

well records .................................... 851 

Hillsboro Canal, characteristics ............. 362 

chemical character of waters ......... 758-759 

description,,,.,,,,.,,,,,, ................. 362-365 

flow characteristics ..................... 369-373 

records.,,,,..,,.,,,,,,, ................... 365-369 

special studies ........................... 373-374 

Hillsboro Lakes Marsh, description ... ., ..... 154 

Hillsborough County, precipitation ....... 22-40 

rain gages .•.•••.••••••.•• v.••••······~ .. ···•··••••.l9 

Hobe Sound, wells ............................... l75 

Homestead area, aquifer and ground water 

near; .................................... 167-168 

lateritic soils near ............................ 110 

salt-water encroachment .............. 679-682 

Hungryland Slough, description .............. 143 

Hurricanes, tidal action ....................... 131 

wind velocities ................................ 153 

Hydrogcn·ion (pH), of ground water.,,736-737 

Hydrogen·sulfide, in ground water .......... 736 

Hydrologic cycle, definition ............ 511-512 

explanation ......... .,.,,,.,,, .. ,, ........... l4-15 

Hydrologic data, annual summary., ......... 512 

Hydrologic properties, coefficient of 

permeability .......................... 236-237 

cocffi~ient of storage ............... h .. ••••• 237 

coefficient of transmissibility ............. 237 

Theis nonequilibrium formula ....... 238-239 

Hydrologic studies, general features of 

the area ................................ 512-516 

general statement .. .,., ................. 511-512· 

Illinoian glacial age, general statement • .,l20 

Immokalee Island, description ............... 139 

Indian Prairie Canal, chemical character 

of water ...................................... 741 

drainage characteristics ............... 317-318 

Indi~n River County, precipitatio';' ....... 22-40 

ram gages ........................................ 19 

Indian Run, general statement ............... 154 

Indian Town, aquifer and ground water............................... 175, 1!)3 

well supplies ................................... l06 

Infiltration from canals, general 

stateme,.t ............................. 287-290 

Interpretation of apparent resistivity 

cutves .......................... , ........ 941-948 
INDEX 961 

Page 

Introduction,.,,,.,,,.,.,, ........................ 5-14 

Iron, in ground water,. ...................... , ... 731 

Isochlors, effect of rainfall .............. 608-610 

in canals ......................................... 629 

Istokpoga Canal, description ............ 313-314 

Istokpoga Strait, description ................... l36 

K 

Kansan glacial age, general 

stateme.nt .................................... 120 

Karst topography, description .......... 128, 135 

Kendall area, aquifer and ground 

water ... , ................................ 167-168 

Key Largo limestone formation, age ........ 66, 

99, 100 

fossil identification ........................... 100 

lithologic features of ......................... 66, 

99, 100, 119, 120 

occurrence and distribution ............ 99', 100 

water-beadng characteristics .... 66, 99, 100 

Key West, general statement ................ 146, 

155, 176-177 

Kiser, H. E ................................. 163, 164 

Kissimmee, droughts,.................. 34-4C' 

Kissimmee Island, general statement ....... 136 

Kissimmee River, average depletion 

hydrograph .................................. 527 

chem>Cal character of water .......... 738-741 

depletion rating C'.ll'Ve ........................ 526 

description ...... ,. ................ 139, 140, 141 

hydrograph ...................................... 525 

recession rating curve of direct runoff .... 529 

relation between rate of base flow and 

base storage.-.............................. 528 

Kissimmee River basin, annual runoff 

analyses of ............................. 531-540 

annual summary of hydrologic data ....... 550 

base storage •• , ............................ 528-530 

characteristics, ................................. 30 1 

description ...................................... 139 

direct-runoff storage .................... 530-531 

monthly rainfall-runoff relations .... 540-544 

precipitation, ............................. 517-524 

sepa•ation of direct' and base flow ... 524-528 

similar geologic structure ................... 159 

water losses and storage ................ 544-551 

Kissimmee River lower ba.Sin, Arbuckle 

Creek ................................... 311-312 

characteristics ............................ 307-310 

flood frequency .......................... 310-311 

Istokpoga Canal .......................... 313-314 

Kissimmee Rive• upper basin, 

chara.cteristics ....................... ,302~305 

flood frequency ................................ 305 

Reedy Creek .............................. 305-307 

Kissimmee Sound, general statement.,.,. .. 137 

Kissimmee valley, aquifer and ground 

water in ................................ l86-187 

development of wells 1n ..................... 187 

L 

La Belle. fluoride in public water supply .... 826 

Lag, deflnitlon .................................... 511 

Lake City limestone formation, age .......... 67 

lithologic features ............................. , 67 

water-bearing characteristics . .-~~o •• -.u ...... 67 

Lake County, precipitation ................. 22-40 

rain gages ......................................... 19 

Lake Flirt marl formation, age .... ,. ......... 66, 

107' 108 

fossil identification ........................... 108 

Page 

Lake Flirt marl formation~Continued 

lithologic features ................ 66, 107, 108 

occurrence and distribution .......... ! 07, 108 

water-bearing characteristics .. 66, I 08, 109 

Lake Hatchineha, origin ....................... 138 

Lake Istokpoga, description ................... 139 

orlgln ............................................ 139 

Lake Kissimmee, origin ........................ 138 

.Lake Okeechobee, beach ridge ............... l53 

chemical character of ground water 

nearby............................. 806-818 

description ............................... 140, 153 

chemical character of water...... 741-747 

during Climatic Optimum ................... 125 

evaporation ....................... 558, 559, 560 

hydrologic summary ................. ,..551-560 

inflow ..................................... 551, 558 

runoff ............................................ .560 

seepage .......................................... 558 

summary of quality of ground water in 

area ........................................... 818 

transpiration .................................... 559 

Lake Okeechobee and principal canals, 

Caloosahatchee Canal. ............. 327-330 

characteristics ................................. 321 

lake-regulation program .............. 321-327 

physical features .............................. 321 

St. Lucie Canal ......................... 330-33:-l 

Lake Okeechobee area, summary of quality 

of ground water .. ,. ......................... 818 

Lake Tahopekaliga, origin .................... 138 

Land forms, composition ................. 127-129 

effect of climate and vegetation on ...... 132 

effect of erosion on ..................... 134-135 

effect of fluctuating sea level on ......... 129 

effect of shoreline processes on,.,. .. l29-131 

effect of solution on .................... l32-134 

factors affecting ............................... 127 

Laterite, Redlands district, age ............. 110 

occurrence and distribution ................. llO 

water-bearing characteristics .............. 110 

Lee County, precipitation .................. 22-40 

rain gages ........................................ l9 

Limestone, breccia ......... : ............. 100, 102 

iron oxide in .............................. 99, 102 

origin of oolite., ........................ 103-104 

solution processes in .................. 103-104, 

128-129, 133-134 

Little River Canal, salt~water 

encroachment ........................ 652-659 

Lower Cretaceous rocks, description ...... 61-62 

Lower Miami Canal, characteristics ........ 412 

description ............................... .412~421 

discharge computation ................. 4 71-486 

dredgin~~: ......................................... 584 

flow characteristics ..................... 458-470 

hydraulic characteristics of 

headwaters ............................ 435-439 

records ................................. ,,,,421-435 

tidal reaches ............................. A39-458 

Lower bJew River basin, characteristics ..... 399 

description.,, ............................. 3 99-40 0 

flow characteristics ..................... 400-402 

salt-water encroachment .............. 677-679 

special studies ........................... 402-406 

Loxahatchee Marsh, description., ............ 143 

M 

MacNeil, F. Stearns, macrofossil 

identification ................ 86-88, 95, 100 

Macrofaunas, listing .......................... 72-81 

magnesium, in ground water ............... 732 
962 INDEX 

Page 

Magruder, R. H •••••••• , ••• ,.,.,,.,,,,,,,.,,,,,,J_63 

Manatee County, precipitation •••••••••••• 22-40 

rain gages ........................................ ,l9 

Mangrove swamps, description ................ 154 

Marine terraces, general statement,,.,l35-136 

Pamlico .................................... 140-146 

Penholoway ..................................... 137 

shorelines ........................... 62, 114, 117 

Silver Bluff ................................ 146-154 

Talbot ...................................... l39-140 

Wicomico, ................................ 136-137 

Marine terraces east of Kissimmee valley, 

aquifer and ground water ........... 187-188 

development of wells ......................... 188 

Marl, description and location,.,,,,,.ti4, 129 

Martin County, aquifer and ground water ... 174 

chemical character of public water 

supplies ....................................... 830 

chemical quality of nonartesian ground 

water, ................................... 814-815 

development of wells ............. ., .... 175-176 

municipal water supplies, ............. 930-931 

precipitation •• , ........................ : ••••• 22-40 

rain gages ......................................... 19 

well logs.,., ................................. ,, .. 908 

well records ..................................... 852 

Miami, chemical characteristics of 

Biscayne aquifer water .............. 785-791 

drainage operations ........................... 584 

droughts ....................................... 34-40 

early gr01111d ~water conditions ........ 580-584 

fire wells .......................... , ............. 166 

ground-water conditions 1907 to 1939, ... 584 

measurements of salt-water 

encroachment by electricalresistivity studies ............................ 715 

population ....................................... , •• 9 

precipitation ................................. 22-40 

Miami area well field (proposed), cone of 

depressi6n .............................. 281-285 

conclusions ...................................... 290 

evapotranspiration salvage, ........... 285-287 

general statement • ., .................... 277-281 

infiltration from canals ................ 287-290 

salt-water encroachment .... , ......... 584-591 

theoretical drawdowns ..................... ,,.281 

Miami Beach, tide levels .......... ,.;, .. 441-442 

"Miami Bench" ................................... 146 

Miami Canal, chemical character of 

Page 

Miami Springs-Hialeah well field-continued 

establishment and first use of well 

field ................................... ...166, 691 

pumpage ......................................... 235 

salt-water encroachment .............. .ti91-705 

Middle River basin, salt-water 

encroachment ............................... 679 

Miocene series, general statement ... ,.,. ......• 70 

Monometer, mercury ............................ 251 

Monroe County, chemical character of 

public water supplies ...................... 830 

municipal water supplies .................... 932 

precipitation ................................. 22-40 

uin gages ......................................... 20 

Moore Haven, ground-water supply, ......... 806 

Muck, age ......................................... 109 

evapotransplration ..................... ,222, 224 

lithologic features ............................. l09 occurrence and distribution ................. 109 

water-bearing characteristics ............... 109 

Municipal water supplies, general 

statement,,,, ........................... 919-940 

Muskat, Morris .............................. 592-593 

N 

Natural wells, description ...................... 155 

Nebraskan glacial age, general 

statement ............................ 118-119 

New River, origin ................................ 125 

New River basin, drainage operations ........ 584 

New River valley, depth to bedrock.,,.,,.,,l69 

Nitrate, in ground water .................. 734, 735 

Nonartesian water,., ........................ 160-188 

definition .................................. 157-158 

North Miami, general statement .............. l66 

North Miami Beach, general statement ..... l66 

North New River Canal, characteristics ..... 375 

chemical character of waters,.,. .... 759-766 

description ................................. 375-378 

flow characteristics ...................... 382-386 

records, ..................................... 378-382 

salt-water encroachment from,. ............ 171 

seepage rates .............................. 386-389 

0 

waters .................................... 767-776 Ocala anticline, geology ..................... 62-63 

salt-water encroachment, ...... 631-641, 691 occurrence of water ............................. 63 

Miami Canal-upper and middle reaches, Ocala limestone formation, age,. ....... , 67, 68 

characteristics ............................... 406 lithologic features.,,., ............... 67, 68, 69. · 

description ................................ 406-407 occurrence and distribution ................... 68 

flow characteristics ..................... 411-412 water-bearing characteristics., .... 67, 68, 69 

records ..................................... 408-410 Okaloacoochee Slough and Devil's Carden, 

Miami metropolitan area, chemical descdption,., .............................. l42-143 

character of nonartesian ground . Okeechobee County, chemical character 

waters ................................... 785-791 Of public water supplies ............. 828, 831 

early water supplies .................... 163-165 chemical quality of nonartesian 

Miami oolite formation, age ................. 66, · ground water ............................ 816-817 

102, 103, 104 municipal water supplies in.,,. .............. 933 

fossil identification ................. , .. l02, 103 precipitation .................................. 22-40 

lithologic features ................... , .. 66, 102, rain gages,.,. ...................................... 20 

103, 104, 120, 121 welllogs ............................ ; .. ,,. .. !!09-910 

occWTence and distribution., .. ., .......... 102, well records ... , .............................. .,,.853 

103, 104, 105, 149 · Okeechobee Peninsula, general statement .. l37 

water-bearing characteristics, .............. 66, Oligocene series, general statement.,;~ ....... 69 

102, 103, 104, 105 Opa Locka, descriptlon,,., ...................... 166 

Miami River, origin ............................. 125 Cpa Locka area, water-table map,. .......... 275 

Miami Springs-Hialeah well field, O,ange County, precipitation ............... 22-40 

coefficients of tl'ansmissibility and rain gages ............................................. 20 

storage ........................................ 274 O<ceola County, precipitation .............. 22-40 

cone of depression around ................... 274 rain gages ..... "'•••••••·••••••••••••••••••••••••••••20 · O<ceola Island, general statement,.,,.l36-137 
INDEX 963 

p Page 

Palm Beach County, aquifer and ground 

w,o.ter .............................. ,,,,,,172-173 

chemical character of nonartesian 

ground water.,,,,. ......... B01-805, 811-813 

chemical character of public water 

supplies ................................. .B28, 831 

effect .of drainage operations on ground 

wa.ter·••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••173 

municipal water supplies,,,.,.,.,.,, ,934-939 

precipitation,., ......................... , .... 22-40 

rain gages.••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••·•,.20-21 ·salt-water encroachment,,,,,,,,173-174 

well development .............................. .l74 

well logs .................................... 911-916 

well records.,,,. .. ,. ..................... ,,854-857 

Palmer Lake, salt-water encroach-

. ment, ................................... ,640-641 

Palmsdale, Glades County,..,., ............... ,137 

Pamlico sand formation, age .................... 66 

fossil identification,.,, ...................... 106 

lithologic features, .. 66, 106, 107, 118,123 occurrence and distribution,. 106, 107, 118, 

149 

water-bearing characteristics.,. 66, 107, 118 

Parker Sand Islands, general statement,.,,l39 

Pasco County, precipitation ................. 22-40 

rain gages •••••••••••••••.••• ,. ....................... 21· 

Peat, age ...................................... ,., .. 109 

lithologic features ........................ .,,. .. 109 

occunence and distribution .................. 109 

origin ................................ 105, 125, 132 

water-bearing characteristics .... , .... ,· ..... 109 

Penholoway formation, age ............... 66, 105 

fossil identification, .................... .l05, 106 

lithologic features .... ., ........... 66, 105, 106 

occurrence and distribution .................. 105 

water-bearing characteristics .......... 66, 106 

Pennick, J, M. K • ., ...................... .,591-592 

Perennial yield, Miami area,,;.,,.,.,.,,,, 200 

Permeater tests, Terrace sands ................ 106 

Perrine, ground-water supplies ................ ,166 

Peny, C. H ....................................... ,163 

Piezometric surface, definition.,. ....... .l58-159 

relation to water table ........................ 158 

Pinellas County, precipitation .............. 22-40 

rain gages •••• ~~~••• .. •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••21 

Pitometer, description ........................... 251 

Pleistocene and Pliocene formations, 

c·onelation, ............................. 115-116 

Pleistocene or •Great Ice Age, • 

histOl'Y···IIIIIIIIIIIIIIillllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllillllllllllllll•tt••••••••• 112-113 

Pleistocene sedimentation, general 

statement ·••••••••••,.••••••••••••••••·••••• .. •••• 94 

Pleistocene series, general statement ......... 89 

Pleistoce11e shorelines. ·see- Mari11e tenaces. Pliocene reefs and ~shoestring sands, • 

genera.! statement ................. .,., •••••••••• 89 

Pliocene series, ·ge11eral statement~ ............ 88 

Polk County, precipitation.,,. .............. ,22-40 

rain gages ............................................ 21 

Population, southern Florida counties ........... 8 

Porosity, definition, .............................. .214 

Potassium, in ground water, .. ,.,,. ............ 732 

Pre-Tertiary rocks, occurrence and 

wa.te:r •• jl ......................................... 65-66 

Precipitation, amount,.,.,.,,. .. 21-40, 132, 512 

methods of computation., ........ .,.,.516, 524 

records ............. ~~•••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 16-21 

Previous investigatlons ....................... ,13-15 

Public water supplies, chemical charactei~ .... """'•••••••••••·•·••••••••••••••••• 82'7-833 

Pumping tests. Se<> Ground-water pumping 

tests. Purpose and scope of investigation ....... ,., 5-13 

Q Page 

Quality of waters, bicarbonate, ......... ., .... 733 

calcium,. .. ,, •• , ... , ........................ 731-732 

chloride ..................................... 733-734 

collection and examination of 

samples ..................................... 727-729 

color ••••••••••• ,. ......................... , ••••• ,. ...... 730 

constituents and properties of natural 

waters .................................... 729-730 

cotrosiveness •••••••••••••••••••••• ,. ••••••••••••• '737 

dissolved solids ................................. 735 

earlier reports ............................. 727-728 

expreslri.on of results ............................ 729 

fluoride .... e••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 734 

general statement ................................ 727 

batdn.ess •••••• ,. ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 735-736 

hydrogen-ion concentrati<m ........... 736-737 

hydrogen suliide,,., ........................... 736 

iron••·•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• .. •••••••• 731 

magnesium••·••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 732 

nitrate,.•••••••••••••••••••••••••••,.•••••,••••••••• 734 

sllica,.,, ....................................... ,731 

sodium and potassiwn ........................ 732 

specific conductance .......................... 730 

sulfate ........................ :-••••••••••••••••••••••••• 733 

R 

Rainfall. See Precipitation. 

Recent epoch, general statemel>t,,,, 124-126 

Reedy Creek, description,..,, ............ 305-307 

Residual Ice Age sea water, general 

statemet)t ......................................... 123 

Royal Palm H<>J:el, early ground-water 

supply ............................................... 163 

Runoff, ann:ua.l ••••••••••••••••••••••••• ••••••••••• 512 

s 

Saint Lucie Canal, chemical character - -of water ••••••••••••••••••••••••• ,. ••••••• 747-750, 

Saint Lucie County, chemical character 

·. of public water Stfpplies ................... 831 

municipal water supplies .................... 940 

precipitation ................................... 22-40 

rain gages••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 21 

well logs .......................................... 917 

well records••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 858 

Salt contamination of ground waters, 

chemical composition .. , ............ 577-579 

Salt contamination 0f surface waters, 

chemica.l con,.positiQ.u. ..................... 577 

Salt front, in tidal canals, 628-629, 636-640, 

641, 645, 652,659, 682 

Salt-water contamination,· source,,,., 571-577 

Salt-water contamination of aquifer from 

tidal c~nals, from Palmer taka •••• , ... 640 

general statement ................. -..... ,.682-686 

studies along Miami Canal ............ 683-686 

Salt-water contamination of canab hy 

· residual ground water, description. 686-687 

Salt-water contamination of welb in 

w•mi area. chloride concentratiot~. ......................................... 694-705 · Salt-water contamination of wells in 

Miami· area, desc;:ription. ........... 687-708 

Salt-water encroachme11t along Dade 

County shoreline, descriptiQD, ..... 708-711 

Salt-water encroachment determinations 

by electrical resistivity studies, 

electric conduction.,_.,,,; ........ 712-713 

evaluation of method ......................... 725 

field measurements., ................... '714-715 
964 INDEX 

Page 

Salt•water encroachment determinations 

by electrical resistivity studies-Con. 

intel'j>l'etation of resistivity curves ......... 715 

measurements at Cutler area ......... 718-721 

measurements at Fort Lauderdale .... 721-725 

measurements at Miami ...................... 715 

measurements at Silver Bluff area.,. 715-718 

Salt-water encroachment in Biscayne 

Canal, chloride concentration.,.,,646-651 

descrlption ....................................... 645 

Salt-water encroachment in coastal 

groUnd water, review of literature 

on.,, ...... ; .............................. 591-593 

shape of encroaching salt-water 

wedge,, .................................. 610-611 

Salt-water encroachment in Coconut 

Grove well field, chloride concentration .•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 707 

description,,,, •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 705-707 

Sa"lt·water encroachment in Coral 

Gables Canal, chloride concentratlon ............. , ..................... 668-673 

description .................................... ,,,667 

Salt-water encroachment in Fort Lauderdale area, description-............. 677-679 

Salt-water encroachment in Homestead 

area, chloride concentration. ..... 680-682 

de•cription ....................................... 679 

Salt-water encroachment in Little River 

' Canal, chlcride concentration .... 653-658 

description ..................................... ,.652 

Salt-water encroachment in lower New 

River basin, chloride concentration, ........... , ..................... 677-679 

description ...................... , ......... 677-679 

Salt-water encroachment in Miami 

area, between 1907 and 1939.? .. 584-587 

early conditions .... ., .................... 580-584 

Miami Water Co. sued., ..................... 165 

rate of encroachment ........... 590, 700, 705 

since 1939,. ............................. ~ 587-591 

Salt-water encroachment in Miami 

Car1al, description. ... - .................. ,691 

location of salt front .................... 636-640 

Palmer Lake,,.,,,,, ........................ , .... 640 

Twin Lakes ...................................... 641 

Salt-water encroachment in Miami Springs~Hialeah well field, 

_description ..... , ...................... 691-705 

Salt-water encroachn1ent in Miami 

well fields, description ............ 687-708 

Salt-water encroachment in Middle 

River basin, chloride c:oncentra.tion •• ,,679 

description .............................. ;, ..... 679 

Salt-water encroachment in Silver Bluff 

· area, characteristics and changes 

in poSition of the salt~waterwedge 610-617 

data from studies.,,, ................ ., ... 600-607 

effect of rainfall on the isochlor 

pattern ................................... 608-610 

erosion of salt-water wedge by sea• 

ward:flowing ground water ......... 612-613 

objectives.,, ............................. ~ ...... 596 

preliminary work,,,,, .................... 594-596 

procedures., ............................... 596-598 

selection of site for study .............. 593~94 

specific gravity of sea and ground . 

water,,., ................................ 598-600 

tidal-storage changes.,, ................ 617-618 

water-table related to isochlor 

pa.ttern ........................................ ,611 

Salt-water encroachment in Snake Creek 

Canal, chloride concentration .... 642-644 

description., ..................................... 641 

Salt-water encroachment in Snapper 

Creek Canal, chlodde concenPage 

tration ••••• ~ ............................ 674-676 

description ••••••••••• il•••••••••••••••••••••••••••674 

Salt•"("ter encroachment in Spdng 

. Gardens well field, description. ... 687-691 

Miami Water Co. prosecuted for 

sale of salt water ........................... 165 

Salt-water encroachment in Tamiami 

Canal, chloride concentration ..... 660-665 

descr!ption, ...................................... 659 

Seminole Lake .................................. 666 

Salt-water encroachment in tidal canals, 

areaS studied ••••••• ,. •••••••••••••••••••.•••• 619 

density currents and hydraulic re-

. lationships:.,,,,, .. ;; .................. ,620-630 

divided flow and shape of density 

currents .................................. 620-621 

location of salt front .................... 628-630 

mechanics of salt contamination,., .. 621-626 

Miami area.,., ............................. 631-676 

residual contamination ................. 630-631 

salinity investigations .. ,., ............. 619-620 

sampling procedure ..................... 619-620 

studies.,, .. ,, ............... , ............... 618-619 

variation of chloride concentration 

with tides ............................... 626-627 

Sand, beach., ...................................... 128 

description and location ........ -. .............. 128 

dunes ....................................... 128-129 

permeability,,, ................................. 129 

Sandy flatlands, description ... ,. ...... .,.141-142 

Sandy flatlands south of Loxahatchee 

Marsh, description ................... 143-144 

Sangamon interglacial age,.,, ........ 121-122 

Sarasota County, precipitation.,,.,,, ...... 22-40 

rain gages ......................................... 21 

Sea level, effect of Aftonian interglacial ag~ ............................. 119-120 

effect of climatic conditions during 

Recent epoch ..................... ,. ... 124-125 

effect of Illinoian glacial age .. ., .......... 121 

effect of Kansan glacial age ................ 120 

effect of Nebraskan glacial age.,,.,, 118-119 

effect of Sagamon interglacial age .. 121-122 

effect of Wisconsin glacial age ....... 122-124 

effect of Yarmouth interglacialage..120-121 

fluctuations and effect on land 

forms,,, ........................................ l29 

glacial control .. ., ................... ., ... l13-114 

progressive increase.,.,, ................ 441-443 

Sea watel', che.p1ical analyses .... ,.,. ....... ,.,, ••••• 572 

specific gravity,. .... ., ........... ., .... , 573-574 

specific gravity related to ground 

water,,.,,,,,, ............................ 598-600 

Secondary canals, characteristics ............. 502 

descriptlon,, ............................... 502-509 

Selected bibliography ...................... 949-956 

Seminole Bay, general statement ............. 139 

Seminole Lake, salt-water encroachment., ................................... 666-667 

Sewell, John, and John, Jr. , .................. 163 

Shoal River formation, general 

statement.••••••••••••••••••••••••••••·••••••••• 70 

Shoreline processes and effect on land 

forms, generalstatement-129-131, 146,147 

Silica, in ground water., ....................... ,731 

Silver Bluff, interpretations of apparent 

resistivity curves ......................... 941-942 

Silver Bluff area, general statement ....................... 93, 130, 145, 710 

measurements of salt•water encroachment by electrical-resistivity 

studies ................................... 715-718 

salt-water encroachment., ............. 593-618 
INDEX 965 

Silver Bluff terrace. Sse Marine terraces. 

Snake Creek Canal, salt-water enPage 

croachment .•••••••.••••••••••••••• , •.• 641~645 

Snapper Creek Canal, salt-water en• . 

croachn1ent •••.••••..••••••••••••••••.••.•.•• 677 

Sodium and potassium, in ground \Vater ••••• 731 

Soil moisture, role in hydrologic 

cycle •• •••·•··••·••·•••·•••••••••·---··· 546-548 

Solution holes, formation ................ 133-134 

South Miami, ground-water supplies, ........ 166 

South New River Canal, characteristics,,, .. 389 

chemical character of waters ............... 766 

description,, •••• , .............. ,,,,,,,, .. , 389-391 

flow characteristics ...................... 397-399 

records,, ................................ , ... 391-396 

Specific conductance, of ground wate:t",., •• ,, 730 

Specific retention, definition ................. 214 

Specific yield, definition ...................... 214 

Spring Gardens well field, general 

statement .............................. 164-165 

.salt-water encroachment ............... 687 -691 

Sp:ringst locati.on~.t-~H•·•••••••••·•···--··• ... 6H 

Silver Springs .................................... 69 

Wakulla Spring .................................. 69 

Storms .............. , ............................. 30-33 

Stratigraphy and water-bearing 

characteristics of forma.tions._ •••. u. 64-124 

Page 

Tidal canals in the Miami area, 

description ........................ ,,,,,,508-509 

Tidal effects, on ground water in 

limestone ........................ 176-177, 201 

Tidal inlets, southward irrigation ............ 131 

Tidal neap, definition .......................... 439 

Tidal range, definition .......................... 439 

in Biscayne Bay,.,. 199, 440, 442-445, 596 

Tidal scour, general statement ............... ,155 

Tidal spring, definition ......................... 439 

Tide levels, Miami Beach ...................... 441 

Tides, amplitude ................................. 439 

funda mental .................................. ,,,439 

hurricane ..................... 125, 153, 443-444 

in Miami Canal .......................... 448-458 

in sea-level canals ...................... 444-448 

Transpiration, general statement .......... A2-57 

Transverse glades, general statement,144, 146 

"Tree islands," origin and description .......................... 125, 148, 152 

Tributaries, drainage characteristics ......... 317 

Tuttle, Harry ...................................... 163 

Twin Lakes, salt-water encroachment .... .,,641 

v 

Stuart. wells .......................... , ............ 175 Vadose water, general statement ....... 157-158 

Sulfate, in ground water ........................ 733 Vernon, Robert 0, ........................... 63, 68 

Surface water, characteristics ................. 291 

chemical quality ..................... ~ .. 737-784 

collection and interpretation of w 

data, .. , .................................. 291-295 

index of gaging stations ................ 296-300 Wagner's Creek, Miami-. ....................... 164 

methods of investigation and ex- Water level fluctuations, graphs ........ 202-205 

planation of data ........................... 291 meaning .......................................... 201 

Suwannee limestone formation, age ........... 67 Water losses in drainage basin, method 

lithologic features ......................... 67, 69 of computation ........................ 544-545 

occurrence and distribution .. , ........... ,69-70 '·Water storage, types ............................. 513 

water-bearing characteristics ............ u .... 67 Water storage in drainage basin. method 

"Swales," origin ........................... 125, 152 of computation ........................ 544-546 

Water table, adjustment for density 

T 

variance in ground water ........... 613-617 

correlations with rainfal1 .......... , .... 215-221 

Dade County studies ..................... Zl0-212 

declines below sea level ........ 210-211, 226 

description .................... 157 -158, 201-202 

Talbot formation, age.,, .................. 66, 105 

fossil identification .. , •...•.•.....•...••••••... l05 

effect of canals .......................... 203-204 

effect of evapotranspiration ........ ,;, 222-228 

effect on plant distribution ........ , .. 144, 148 

maps .................................... - ........ 158 

Miami area studies .................... , 204-210 

lithologic features., .............. 66, 105, ·106 

occurrence and distribution .. ., ...... 105, 106 

water-bearing characteristics ... 6.6, 106, 106 

Tamiami Canal, characteristics ............... 486 

chemical character of waters ......... 777-779 

relation to land surface.,.,, ............ 157 -158 

relation to piezometric surface ............. 158 

description ................................ 486-489 

flow characteristics ..................... 495-501 

records ..................................... 489-494 Well logs ...................................... 859-918 

salt-water encroachment, ............. ,659-667 Well records,,,,,.,,,,,,,,, ... ,, .............. 835-858 

Wells, drilling depth ............................. 111 

Wentworth, C. K ................................. 593 

West Palm Beach Canal, characteristics .... 348. 

seepage rates and profile ............... 501-502 

Tamiami formation, age .................. 67, 85 

fossil identification •• , ................... , •• 86-'88 

chemical character of waters ........ 755-757 

description ................................ 348-451 

lithologic features .......................... 67, 85 

occurrence and distribution., .......... ,.84, 85 

water-beating characteristics ........... 67, 85 flow characteristics ..................... 355-358 

records,,,,,,,, ... , .......................... 351-355 

special studies., .......................... 358-362 

Wind, effects on tides ......... 129; 153,443-444 

general statement ......................... , 41-42 

Tampa limestone formation, age ........ 67, 82 

fossil identification, ....................... 70-82 

lithologic features,. ................. , 67, 82-83 

occurrence and distribution ......... 70, 82-83 

Wisconsin glacial age, general statement ..................................... 122-124 

water-bearing characteristicsuuuu .. , 67, 83 

Taylor Creek, chemical character of 

· water ........................................... 741 

drainage characteristics ................ 319-320 

Temperature, .......... ; ........................ 40-41 y 

Test wells, Dade County ...................... 96-99 

drilling ... , .................................... 59-60 

Theis nonequilibrium method expiation .... ,. ................................ 238-239. 

Thiessen precipitation computation 

Yarmouth interglacial age, general 

statement ............................... 120-121 

Yoldia zone, general ~tatement ................. 70 

method, explanation,,, .............. 516-524' 
~I 

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.. -.::1.