J. Michael Pereira, Duane M. Revilock, Bradley A. Lerch and Charles R. Ruggeri

Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio

Impact Testing of Aluminum 2024 and Titanium 

6Al-4V for Material Model Development

NASA/TM—2013-217869 DOT/FAA/TC–12/58

May 2013
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J. Michael Pereira, Duane M. Revilock, Bradley A. Lerch and Charles R. Ruggeri

Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio

Impact Testing of Aluminum 2024 and Titanium 

6Al-4V for Material Model Development

NASA/TM—2013-217869 DOT/FAA/TC–12/58

May 2013

National Aeronautics and

Space Administration

Glenn Research Center

Cleveland, Ohio 44135
Acknowledgments

The authors recognize the work of Dr. Richard Rogers in performing the texture analyses.

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Level of Review: This material has been technically reviewed by technical management. 
NASA/TM—2013-217869 iii

Executive Summary

One of the difficulties with developing and verifying accurate impact models is that parameters such 

as high strain rate material properties, failure modes, static properties, and impact test measurements are 

often obtained from a variety of different sources using different materials, with little control over 

consistency among the different sources. In addition there is often a lack of quantitative measurements in 

impact tests to which the models can be compared. 

To alleviate some of these problems, a project is underway to develop a consistent set of material 

property, impact test data and failure analysis for a variety of aircraft materials that can be used to 

develop improved impact failure and deformation models. This project is jointly funded by the NASA 

Glenn Research Center and the FAA William J. Hughes Technical Center. Unique features of this set of 

data are that all material property data and impact test data are obtained using identical material, the test 

methods and procedures are extensively documented and all of the raw data is available. Four parallel 

efforts are currently underway: Measurement of material deformation and failure response over a wide 

range of strain rates and temperatures and failure analysis of material property specimens and impact test 

articles conducted by The Ohio State University; development of improved numerical modeling 

techniques for deformation and failure conducted by The George Washington University; impact testing 

of flat panels and substructures conducted by NASA Glenn Research Center.

This report describes impact testing which has been done on aluminum (Al) 2024 and titanium (Ti) 

6Al-4vanadium (V) sheet and plate samples of different thicknesses and with different types of 

projectiles, one a regular cylinder and one with a more complex geometry incorporating features 

representative of a jet engine fan blade. Data from this testing will be used in validating material models 

developed under this program. The material tests and the material models developed in this program will 

be published in separate reports. 

NASA/TM—2013-217869 v

Contents

Executive Summary.....................................................................................................................................iii

1.0 Introduction.........................................................................................................................................1

2.0 Methods...............................................................................................................................................1

2.1 Materials....................................................................................................................................2

2.1.1 Material Chemistry.....................................................................................................2

2.1.2 Material Texture and Microstructure..........................................................................3

2.2 Small Panel Test Setup..............................................................................................................3

2.2.1 Al-2024 Test Specimens.............................................................................................3

2.2.2 Ti-6Al-4V Test Specimens.........................................................................................5

2.2.3 Projectiles ...................................................................................................................5

2.2.4 Gas Gun ......................................................................................................................6

2.2.5 Instrumentation...........................................................................................................6

2.3 Large Panel Test Setup............................................................................................................11

2.3.1 Test Specimens.........................................................................................................11

2.3.2 Projectile...................................................................................................................11

2.3.3 Instrumentation.........................................................................................................13

3.0 Results and Discussion......................................................................................................................13

3.1 Small Panel Impact Tests........................................................................................................13

3.1.1 Projectile Residual Velocity .....................................................................................16

3.1.2 Projectile Kinetic Energy Absorbed .........................................................................22

3.1.3 Effects of Projectile Hardness ..................................................................................24

3.1.4 Boundary Conditions................................................................................................25

3.1.5 Strain Measurements ................................................................................................26

3.2 Large Panel Impact Tests........................................................................................................27

4.0 Discussion and Summary..................................................................................................................39

Appendix A.—Material Certification Sheets..............................................................................................41

A.1 Material Certification Sheet for 0.125 in. Al-2024 .................................................................41

A.2 Material Certification Sheet for 0.25 in. Al2024.....................................................................43

A.3 Material Certification Sheet for 0.5 in. Al2024.......................................................................45

A.4 Material Certification Sheet for 0.09 in. Ti-6Al-4V................................................................46

A.5 Material Certification Sheet for 0.140 in. Ti-6Al-4V..............................................................47

A.6 Material Certification Sheet for 0.250 in. Ti-6Al-4V..............................................................48

A.7 Material Certification Sheet for 0.500 in. Ti-6Al-4V..............................................................51

Appendix B.—Texture Analysis.................................................................................................................57

B.1 Al 2024-T3 ..............................................................................................................................57

B.2 Ti-6-4.......................................................................................................................................60

Appendix C.—Grain Structure ...................................................................................................................65

Appendix D.—Pedigree of Supplemental Ti-6-4 Plates.............................................................................69

References...................................................................................................................................................73

List of Tables

Table 1.—Test Specimen Nominal and Measured Thicknesses (in.)...........................................................2

Table 2.—Al-2024 Chemistry (wt %)...........................................................................................................2

Table 3.—Ti-6Al-4V Chemistry (wt %).......................................................................................................2

Table 4.—Projectiles Used for Small Panel Impact Tests............................................................................6

Table 5.—Small Panel Impact Results for Al-2024....................................................................................14

Table 6.—Small Panel Impact Results for Ti-6Al-4V................................................................................15

Table 6.—Concluded. .................................................................................................................................16
NASA/TM—2013-217869 vi

Table 7.—Approximate Projectile Penetration Velocity for the Small Panel Impact Tests......................22

Table 8.—Results of Impact Tests on Large Al-2024 Panels.....................................................................27

Table 9.—Results of Impact Tests on Large Ti-6Al-4V Panels.................................................................27

Table 10.—Projectile Orientation and Angular Velocity at Impact............................................................27

Table B.1.—Summary Texture Results......................................................................................................57

Table C.1.—Grain Dimensions (μm) for Al 2024 Plates ...........................................................................65

Table D.1.—Ti-6Al-4V Chemistry (wt %).................................................................................................69

Table D.2.—Texture results for the second batch of Ti-6-4 plates.............................................................69

Table D.3.—Lattice Parameters for Each Plate ..........................................................................................70

List of Figures

Figure 1.—Small Panel Test Specimen (dimensions in inches). ..................................................................4

Figure 2.—Test Fixture Assembly, (a) front and side view (dimensions in inches), and (b) Clamp 

Fixture Assembly. ...............................................................................................................................4

Figure 3.—Sample Small Panel Projectile (length and diameter vary depending on test specimen 

thickness and material. Dimensions in inches.) ..................................................................................5

Figure 4.—Large Vacuum Gas Gun (shown with 3 in. diameter gun barrel)...............................................7

Figure 5.—Pressure vessel............................................................................................................................7

Figure 6.—Sabots used to transport projectile down the gun barrel. (Post-test sabot shown in 

center.) ................................................................................................................................................8

Figure 7.—Schematic of a top view of the vacuum chamber showing the high speed camera 

locations. .............................................................................................................................................8

Figure 8.—Strain gage locations on panels with five gages. ........................................................................9

Figure 9.—Strain gage locations on panels with nine gages. .....................................................................10

Figure 10.—Points used to define the Laboratory Coordinate System.......................................................10

Figure 11.—Schematic of the Large Panel Test Setup showing the orientation of the projectile 

and test specimen. .............................................................................................................................11

Figure 12.—Projectile used in the Large Panel Impact Tests. (Dimensions in inches.).............................12

Figure 13.—Still image from a high speed movie of an impact test taken directly before impact.............12

Figure 14.—Projectile Coordinate System. ................................................................................................13

Figure 15.—Exit velocity vs. impact velocity for 0.125 in. thick Al-2024 sheet. ......................................17

Figure 16.—Exit velocity vs. impact velocity for 0.25 in. thick Al-2024 plate..........................................17

Figure 17.—Exit velocity vs. impact velocity for 0.5 in. thick Al-2024 plate............................................18

Figure 18.—Exit velocity vs. impact velocity for 0.09 in. thick Ti-6Al-4V sheet. ....................................18

Figure 19.—Exit velocity vs. impact velocity for 0.14 in. thick Ti-6Al-4V sheet with Ti-6-4 

projectile. ..........................................................................................................................................19

Figure 20.—Exit velocity vs. impact velocity for 0.25 in. thick Ti-6Al-4V plate......................................19

Figure 21.—Exit velocity vs. impact velocity for 0.5 in. thick Ti-6Al-4V plate........................................20

Figure 22.—Example of plug formed in 0.5 in. Ti-6Al-4V plate...............................................................20

Figure 23.—Penetration Results for Al-2024. (Dark circles indicate tests in which penetration 

occurred. Open circles indicate tests where there was no penetration.)...........................................21

Figure 24.—Penetration results for Ti-6Al-4V. (Dark circles indicate tests in which penetration 

occurred. Open circles indicate tests where there was no penetration.)............................................21

Figure 25.—Kinetic energy lost by projectile in Al-2024 impact tests. .....................................................22

Figure 26.—Kinetic energy lost by projectile in 0.09 and 0.14 in. Ti-6Al-4V impact tests.......................23

Figure 27.—Kinetic energy lost by projectile in 0.25 in. Ti-6Al-4V impact tests......................................23

Figure 28.—Kinetic energy lost by projectile in 0.5 in. Ti-6Al-4V impact tests........................................24

Figure 29.—Evidence of extensive plastic deformation in Ti-6Al-4V projectile.......................................25

Figure 30.—Sequential frames from front and back cameras viewing an impact on a 0.135 in. 

thick Ti-6Al-4V specimen. ...............................................................................................................25
NASA/TM—2013-217869 vii

Figure 31.—Comparison of strain gage (bold line) and DIC strain measurements on a 0.125 in. 

thick AL2024 panel impacted at 679 ft/sec.......................................................................................26

Figure 32.—Large Al-2024 Test Panel, front and back, side test LG908...................................................28

Figure 33.—Large Al-2024 Test Panel, front and back side, test LG909...................................................28

Figure 34.—Large Al-2024 Test Panel, front and back side, test LG910...................................................28

Figure 35.—Large Al-2024 Test Panel, front and back side, test LG911...................................................29

Figure 36.—Large Ti-6Al-4V Test Panel, front and back side, test LG912...............................................29

Figure 37.—Large Ti-6Al-4V Test Panel, front and back side, test LG913...............................................29

Figure 38.—Large Ti-6Al-4V Test Panel, front and back side, test LG915...............................................30

Figure 39.—Large Ti-6Al-4V Test Panel, front and back side, test LG916...............................................30

Figure 40.—(a) Deformation profile in Al-2024 test LG908 at the time of maximum deformation. 

(b). Deformation along section line shown in Figure 40(a) as a function of time (Al-2024 

test LG908). (c). Deformation as a function of time for the point of maximum deformation 

shown in Figure 40(a) (Al-2024 test LG908). ..................................................................................31

Figure 41.—(a) Deformation profile in Al-2024 Test LG909 after projectile penetration. (b) 

Deformation along section line shown in Figure 41(a) as a function of time (Al-2024 test 

LG909)..............................................................................................................................................32

Figure 42.—(a) Deformation profile in Al-2024 Test LG910 after projectile penetration. (b) 

Deformation along section line shown in Figure 42(a) as a function of time (Al-2024 test 

LG910)..............................................................................................................................................33

Figure 43.—(a) Deformation profile in Al-2024 Test LG911 after projectile penetration. (b) 

Deformation along section line shown in figure 43(a) as a function of time (Al-2024 test 

LG911)..............................................................................................................................................34

Figure 44.—(a) Deformation profile in Ti-6Al-4V Test LG912 at the time of maximum 

deformation. (b) Deformation along section line shown in figure 44(a) as a function of time 

(Ti-6Al-4V test LG912)....................................................................................................................35

Figure 45.—(a) Deformation profile in Ti-6Al-4V Test LG913 at the time of maximum 

deformation. (b) Deformation along section line shown in Figure 45(a) as a function of 

time (Ti-6Al-4V test LG913)............................................................................................................36

Figure 46.—(a) Deformation profile in Ti-6Al-4V Test LG915 at the time of maximum 

deformation. (b) Deformation along section line shown in Figure 46(a) as a function of 

time (Ti-6Al-4V test LG915)............................................................................................................37

Figure 47.—(a) Deformation profile in Ti-6Al-4V Test LG916 at the time of maximum 

deformation. (b) Deformation along section line shown in Figure 47(a) as a function of 

time (Ti-6Al-4V test LG916). (c) Deformation as a function of time for the point of 

maximum deformation shown in Figure 47(a) (Ti-6Al-4V test LG916). .........................................38

Figure B.1.—Pole figures for Al 2024-T3. (a) Plate thickness: 1/8 in., (b) Plate thickness: 1/4 in., 

and (c) Plate thickness: 1/2 in. ..........................................................................................................58

Figure B.1.—Continued..............................................................................................................................59

Figure B.1.—Concluded. ............................................................................................................................60

Figure B.2.—Pole figures for Ti-6Al-4V. (a) Plate thickness: 0.09 in., (b) Plate thickness: 0.135 

in., (c) Plate thickness: 0.25 in., and (d) Plate thickness: 0. 5 in. (Note: These pole figures 

are rotated 90° from those of the other plates due to the location of the incident x-ray 

beam.)................................................................................................................................................61

Figure B.2.—Concluded. ............................................................................................................................62

Figure B.3.—Basal (a) and transverse (b) textures of titanium alloys (schematic, (00.2) pole 

figures) (Ref. 7).................................................................................................................................63

Figure C.1.—Grain structure for the Al 2024 plates: (a) 1/2 in., (b) 1/4 in., and (c) 1/8 in........................66

Figure C.2.—Direction of grain dimensions. L is parallel to the rolling direction.....................................67

Figure C.3.—Grain structure for the Ti-6-4 plates: (a) 0.5 in., (b) 0.25 in., (c) 0.135 in., and (d) 

0.09 in. ..............................................................................................................................................67
NASA/TM—2013-217869 viii

Figure D.1.—Microstructures of supplemental Ti-6-4 Plates: (a) BLM 45, 0.270 in. (b) BLM 45, 

0.530 in. (c) BLM 46, 0.270 in. (d) BLM 47, 0.425 in.....................................................................70

Figure D.2.—Pole figures of the supplemental Ti-6-4- plates: (a) BLM 45, 0.270 in., (b) BLM 45, 

0.530 in., (c) BLM 46, 0.270 in., and (d) BLM 47, 0.425 in. ...........................................................71

Figure D.2.—Concluded.............................................................................................................................72
NASA/TM—2013-217869 1

Impact Testing of Aluminum 2024 and Titanium 6Al-4V for 

Material Model Development

J. Michael Pereira, Duane M. Revilock, Bradley A. Lerch and Charles R. Ruggeri

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Glenn Research Center

Cleveland, Ohio 44135

1.0 Introduction

Numerical simulation of dynamic impact events has reached a level of maturity at which it is 

commonly used as a design tool for a wide variety of aerospace structures such as jet engine containment 

systems, fan blades, radomes and cowlings. However, current efforts require extensive testing in parallel 

with modeling and it is often necessary to adjust model parameters somewhat arbitrarily in order that the 

model fit the test results. Explicit transient finite element modeling of even the simplest of problems, such 

as a regularly shaped projectile impacting a flat plate can result in widely varying results, depending on 

the material and failure models, available material properties, the contact models, the mesh density, and a 

number of different numerical parameters that must be specified in the computer codes.

One of the difficulties with developing and verifying accurate impact models is that parameters such 

as high strain rate material properties, failure modes, static properties, and impact test measurements are 

often obtained from a variety of different sources using different materials, with little control over 

consistency among the different sources. In addition there is often a lack of quantitative measurements in 

impact tests to which the models can be compared. 

To alleviate some of these problems, a project is underway to develop a consistent set of material 

property and impact test data and failure analysis for a variety of materials that can be used to develop 

improved impact failure and deformation models. This project is jointly funded by the NASA Glenn 

Research Center (GRC) and the FAA William J. Hughes Technical Center. Unique features of this set of 

data are that all material property data and impact test data are obtained using identical material, the test

methods and procedures are extensively documented and all of the raw data is available. Four parallel 

efforts are currently underway: Measurement of material deformation and failure response over a wide 

range of strain rates and temperatures; Development of improved numerical modeling techniques for 

deformation and failure; Ballistic impact testing of flat panels and substructures; and Failure analysis of 

material property specimens and impact test articles.

This report describes impact testing which has been done on aluminum (Al) 2024 and titanium (Ti)-

6aluminum (AL)-4vanadium (V) sheet and plate samples of different thicknesses and with different types 

of projectiles, one a regular cylinder and one with a more complex geometry incorporating features 

representative of a generic jet engine fan blade fragment—called the NASA Generic Fan Blade Fragment 

(NGFBF). Procedures and results are reported in detail, and information on obtaining raw data is 

provided. The material properties of this material, measured over a range of temperatures and strain rates 

will be provided in a separate report.

2.0 Methods

Impact tests were conducted on flat Al-2024T3/T351 and Ti-6AL-4V panels with two different areal 

dimensions, 24- by 24-in. large panel and 15- by 15-in. small panel. The smaller panels were impacted in 

a normal direction with a cylindrical projectiles ranging in diameter from 0.5 to 0.75 in. The larger panels 

were impacted by the NGFBF as a simplified simulation of a blade impacting containment structure in an 

oblique orientation. Different test setups were used for the two sets of impact tests, as described in the 

following sections. Strains and displacements were measured on the back side of the panels and post-test 

metallography was selectively performed to characterize the material microstructure and damage and 

failure in the test specimens.
NASA/TM—2013-217869 2

2.1 Materials

Impact tests were conducted on Al-2024 T3/T351 (AMS 4037) and Ti-6Al-4V (AMS 4911) sheet and 

plate material of the thicknesses shown in Table 1. The nominal thickness is the thickness stated on the 

certification sheet and the actual thickness is based on averages of multiple measurements of the asreceived material. The material certification sheets are given in Appendix A. For consistency, future 

reference to target thickness in this report refers to the nominal thickness of the material.

TABLE 1.—TEST SPECIMEN NOMINAL AND MEASURED THICKNESSES (in.)

Small panel Large panel

Al-2024

Nominal 0.125 0.25 0.5 0.5

Actual 0.126 0.255 0.503 0.503

Ti-6Al-4V

Nominal 0.09 0.14 0.25 0.5 0.09

Actual 0.092 0.135 0.254 0.515 0.092

2.1.1 Material Chemistry

Chemistry was checked by spectroscopy at GRC for all of the plates tested in this study. The results 

for Al-2024T3/T351 are shown in Table 2 and are within the ranges given in AMS 4037.

TABLE 2.—Al-2024 CHEMISTRY (wt %) 

Element Panel thickness 

(in.)

AMS 4037N

0.125 0.25 0.5 Min Max

Cr 0.003 0.032 0.01 0.1

Cu 4.41 4.32 4.21 3.8 4.9

Fe 0.12 0.25 0.19 0.5

Mg 1.43 1.26 1.27 1.2 1.8

Mn 0.60 0.55 0.55 0.3 0.9

Si 0.06 0.10 0.1 0.5

Ti 0.032 0.017 0.019 0.15

Zn 0.09 0.12 0.17 0.25

Al Balance Balance Balance Balance

The chemical results for Ti-6Al-4V from NASA spectroscopy analysis are shown in Table 3. The 

columns in Table 3 labeled “Cert” refer to the values given in the material certification sheets in 

Appendix A. The chemical composition of the Ti-6-4 materials is consistent with the ranges specified in 

AMS 4911.

TABLE 3.—Ti-6Al-4V CHEMISTRY (wt %)

Element

Panel thickness,

in.

AMS 4911J

0.09 Cert 0.135 Cert 0.25 Cert 0.5 Cert Min Max

Al 6.74 6.16 6.56 6.27, 6.32 6.13 5.91, 6.03 6.64 6.27 5.50 6.75

V 4.07 3.82 3.99 3.94, 4.03 3.97 4.00, 4.02 4.04 4.08 3.50 4.50

Fe 0.16 0.17 0.15 0.13, 0.16 0.18 0.19, 0.20 0.13 0.16 0.30

O 0.151 0.150 0.146 0.162, 0.145 0.173 0.185, 0.200 0.190 0.170 0.20

C 0.003 0.009 0.017 0.023, 0.027 0.016 0.020, 0.020 0.011 0.016 0.08

N 0.006 0.005 0.006 0.004, 0.005 0.006 0.006, 0.007 0.006 0.006 0.05

Ti Balance Balance Balance Balance Balance Balance Balance Balance Balance Balance
NASA/TM—2013-217869 3

2.1.2 Material Texture and Microstructure

The texture and microstructure of all materials used in this study were examined. Techniques and 

results are given for texture in Appendix B. The aluminum plates were found to have cube textures typical 

of annealing textures observed in face center cubic (FCC) structure materials. The Ti-6Al-4V plates had 

either basal or transverse textures typical of hexagonal close packed structure (HCP) materials. For both 

materials the sharpness of the texture (degree of anisotropy) in each plate varied from plate to plate. This 

is most likely due to the specific thermal-mechanical processing history rather than a direct consequence 

of the plate thickness. Therefore, any future plate could have more or less texture than those observed in 

this study.

Appendix C describes the microstructures for each plate. The aluminum plates exhibit pancake-shape 

grains typical of aluminum alloys with their longest dimension in the rolling direction. The 1/8 in. thick 

aluminum has the most equiaxed and the smallest grains. The Ti-6Al-4V plates each have their own 

unique microstructure dependent on their thermal-mechanical history, yet typical of alpha-beta titanium 

alloys.

Appendix D is a description of material pedigree for separate purchases of Ti-6Al-4V plates to permit 

some comment on the variation in pedigree. The additional plates had normal chemistry and 

microstructure for annealed Ti-6-4. The textures were typical of rolled plate. The degree of anisotropy as 

given by the texture index was no greater than 1.54 for all eight plates examined.

2.2 Small Panel Test Setup

Twelve Ti-6Al-4V and fifteen Al-2024 target ballistic impact tests were conducted on each of the

different thickness target panels shown in Table 1, with the exception of the 0.5 in. thick Ti-6Al-4V for 

which limited material was available. The projectiles were cylindrical with a large radius almost flat front 

face and impacted the plates in a normal orientation at the center of the plate. The only exception to this 

was with the 0.5 in. thick Ti-6Al-4V specimens, for which there were only eleven impact tests and 

multiple impacts were conducted on each panel, at least 3 in. away from each other. The 0.5 in. thick Ti6Al-4V multiple tests on a single panel was considered acceptable as the damage was highly localized.

The tests were designed such that the ballistic limit velocity for the particular combinations of projectiles 

and panels was in the range of 600 to 900 ft/sec. This corresponds to the high-speed range of the center of 

mass of a typical uncontained engine fan blade fragment. The impact tests were conducted at speeds

above and below the ballistic limit so that some projectiles penetrated and some did not.

2.2.1 Al-2024 Test Specimens

Al-2024 sheet and plate, AMS 4037 of three different thicknesses, nominally 0.125, 0.25 and 0.5 in.

were tested. The 0.125 in. material had a temper of T3 and the 0.25 in and 0.5 in. material had a temper of 

T351. The certified test reports for the material are shown in Appendix A and actual measured 

thicknesses are reported in Table 1.

The test specimens were cut in squares, 15 in. on a side, with through holes for mounting bolts as 

shown in Figure 1. The through holes were 9/16 in. diameter on a 13 in. diameter bolt-hole circle. They 

were held in massive steel fixtures with a circular aperture shown in Figure 2(a) and (b). The two parts of 

the fixture were 1.5 in. thick steel.
NASA/TM—2013-217869 4

Figure 1.—Small Panel Test Specimen (dimensions in inches).

Figure 2.—Test Fixture Assembly, (a) front and side view (dimensions in inches), and (b) Clamp Fixture Assembly.
NASA/TM—2013-217869 5

2.2.2 Ti-6Al-4V Test Specimens

The titanium test specimens were Ti-6Al-4V, AMS 4911, with nominal thicknesses of 0.09, 0.14, 

0.25 and 0.5 in., and the same areal dimensions as the aluminum specimens discussed above. The material 

certification test reports for the material are shown in Appendix A and actual measured thicknesses are 

reported in Table 1.

2.2.3 Projectiles

The projectiles used for the small panel testing were cylindrical with varying length, diameter and 

material (Figure 3). They had a relatively large nose radius of 2.75 in., which allowed a slight deviation of 

5° in the normal orientation of the projectile without a front edge impact. The edge of the front face was 

“broken” with a 1/32 in. radius. 

2.2.3.1 Projectiles for Aluminum Panels

The projectiles used for the 0.125 and 0.25 in. aluminum plates were Ti-6Al-4V cylinders, AMS 

4928, with a hardness of 36-37 HRC and a diameter of 0.5 in. The projectiles used for the 0.125 in. plates 

were 0.7 in. long with a nominal mass of 9.9 gram. The projectiles used for the 0.25 in. plates were 0.9 in. 

long with a nominal mass of 12.8 gram. The projectiles used for the 0.5 in Al plate had a similar geometry 

but were manufactured from A2 tool steel and hardened to Rockwell 59C. The diameter was 0.5 in. and 

initially had a length of 1.5 in. The length was reduced to 1.125 in. after four tests indicated that the 

longer projectile resulted in a penetration velocity below that desired by this program.

Figure 3.—Sample Small Panel 

Projectile (length and diameter vary 

depending on test specimen 

thickness and material. Dimensions 

in inches.) 
NASA/TM—2013-217869 6

2.2.3.2 Projectiles for Titanium Panels

The projectiles used for the 0.09 in. thick Ti-6Al-4V panels were 0.5 in. diameter, 1 in. long Ti-6Al4V, AMS 4928, with a hardness of 36-37 HRC, an average mass of 14.05 gram and the same nose profile 

as described above. For the 0.14 in. thick Ti-6Al-4V panels, two different projectiles were used to 

investigate the effects of projectile hardness. The first set of tests used a Ti-6Al-4V projectile similar to 

the 0.09 in. panel tests, but 1.5 in long and with an average mass of 21.28 gram. The second set of tests on 

the 0.14 in. thick Ti-6Al-4V panels utilized a hardened A2 tool steel projectile with a diameter of 0.5 in., 

a length of 0.86 in., an average mass of 21.25 gram and a hardness of 59 HRC. For the 0.25 in. thick Ti6Al-4V panels the projectile was 0.5 in. diameter, 0.875 in. long A2 tool steel with an average mass of 

21.56 gram and a hardness of 59 HRC. The projectiles used for the 0.5 in. thick Ti-6Al-4V were 

considerably larger and heavier than any of the others, as shown in Table 2. A sample small panel 

projectile is shown in Figure 3.

The panel thickness and projectile information is summarized in Table 4. Actual thickness of panels 

were slightly different from the nominal, as shown in Table 1.

TABLE 4.—PROJECTILES USED FOR SMALL PANEL IMPACT TESTS 

Target material Nominal thickness,

in.

Projectile material Hardness,

HRC

Length,

in.

Diameter,

in.

Mass, 

gram

Al2024 0.125 Ti-6Al-4V, AMS 4928 36-37 0.7 0.5 9.0

Al2024 0.25 Ti-6Al-4V, AMS 4928 36-37 .9 .5 12.8

Al2024 0.5 A2 Tool Steel 59 1.125 .5 28.0

Ti-6Al-4V 0.09 Ti-6Al-4V, AMS 4928 36-37 1.0 .5 14.05

Ti-6Al-4V 0.14 Ti-6Al-4V, AMS 4928 36-37 1.5 .5 21.28

Ti-6Al-4V 0.14 A2 Tool Steel* 59 .86 .5 21.25

Ti-6Al-4V 0.25 A2 Tool Steel 59 .875 .5 21.56

Ti-6Al-4V 0.5 A2 Tool Steel 63 2.25 .75 126.3

* Used to study the effect of projectile hardness on penetration speed

2.2.4 Gas Gun

The cylindrical projectiles were accelerated with a helium filled gas gun connected to a vacuum 

chamber, shown in Figure 4. The gun barrel had a length of 12 ft and a bore of 2.0 in. The pressure vessel 

was made up of sections as shown in Figure 5, with a total volume of 681 in3

. The projectile was carried 

down the gun barrel supported by rigid foam in a cylindrical polycarbonate sabot shown in Figure 6. The 

gun barrel protruded into the vacuum chamber which held the fixture for the specimens. The sabot was 

stopped at the end of the gun barrel by a stopper plate with a through-hole large enough to allow the 

projectile to pass through. This stopper system was designed such that the bottom of the sabot, including 

the o-rings, remained in the gun barrel and formed a seal which prevented the gas pressure behind the 

sabot from affecting the pressure in the vacuum chamber.

2.2.5 Instrumentation

Data acquired from the impact tests included measurements of the impact velocity, post-impact 

velocity (if penetration occurred) projectile orientation prior to impact, strain gage measurements and full 

field backside strain and displacement measurements using a digital image correlation system. In 

addition, high speed cameras provided qualitative observations of each test.
NASA/TM—2013-217869 7

Figure 4.—Large Vacuum Gas Gun (shown with 3 in. diameter gun barrel).

Figure 5.—Pressure vessel.
NASA/TM—2013-217869 8

Figure 6.—Sabots used to transport projectile down the gun barrel. (Post-test 

sabot shown in center.)

Figure 7.—Schematic of a top view of the vacuum chamber 

showing the high speed camera locations.

2.2.5.1 General Photo-Instrumentation

Seven high speed digital cameras were used for each test. These cameras provided a side view of the 

front of the panel and two views of the rear of the panel (side and top) for post-impact velocity 

measurement. In addition, a calibrated pair of cameras located above and in front of the panel were used 

to measure impact velocity and projectile orientation, and a calibrated pair of cameras viewing the 

backside of the panel were used to compute the backside displacement and strain. The locations of these 

cameras are shown schematically in Figure 7.
NASA/TM—2013-217869 9

2.2.5.2 Point Strain Measurement

Six of the 15 panels from each of the three thicknesses were instrumented with strain gages. Four of

these six instrumented panels had five uniaxial strain gages located as shown in Figure 8. The other two 

of the instrumented panels had triaxial rosettes substituted for two of the uniaxial gages, resulting in nine 

strain measurements (Figure 9). The uniaxial strain gages were Vishay Micro-Measurements EA-06-

125AD-120 (Vishay Micro-Measurements, Malvern, PA), with a gage factor of 2.085. The triaxial 

rosettes were Vishay Micro-Measurements WA-06-060WR-120 with a gage factor of 2.11. The strain 

gage bridge completion, signal conditioning and recording were performed with a Spectral Dynamics 

Impax-SD measurement and control system utilizing SD-VX2805 data acquisition modules (Spectral 

Dynamics, Inc., San Jose, CA). The acquisition rate for the strain gages was 1.25 Msamples/sec.

2.2.5.3 Projectile Speed and Orientation

The speed and orientation of the projectile were measured by tracking the position of two points on 

the projectile and the position of three fixed points which defined the fixed laboratory coordinate system. 

The point tracking was accomplished with the use of a calibrated pair of high speed cameras (Phantom 

V7.3, Vision Research, Inc., Wayne, NJ) and the PONTOS point tracking software system (GOM, 

Braunschweig, Germany). The three fixed points were located on a metal plate mounted to the specimen 

fixture in a horizontal plane directly below the path of the projectile as shown in Figure 10. The three 

points defined a coordinate system with the X-axis pointing in the opposite direction of the direction of 

travel of the projectile, the Z axis vertically upward and the Y-axis in the horizontal plane and in a 

direction defined by the vector product of unit vectors in the Z and X directions respectively (Figure 10). 

The origin of the coordinate system was at point 1 shown in Figure 10. All positions reported for the 

projectile and the impact point were computed with respect to this coordinate system. In this coordinate 

system, the center of the impact surface of the test specimens is at (-4.24, 0.8125, 1.125) in.

Figure 8.—Strain gage locations on panels with five gages.

Center of Test Panel

1 in.

1 in.

1 in.

2 in.
NASA/TM—2013-217869 10

Figure 9.—Strain gage locations on panels with nine gages.

Figure 10.—Points used to define the Laboratory Coordinate System.

The post-impact velocity for the aluminum panel testing was measured with two high speed cameras 

on the backside of the panel, oriented normal to the path of the projectile, one viewing from above and 

one viewing from the left side (viewing from the gun barrel). These cameras were calibrated prior to the 

impact test using an aluminum rod protruding from the gun barrel with calibration marks located at every 

inch. Calibration tests in which no panel was mounted indicated that the differences in velocity 

measurements between the two cameras and the PONTOS system were well under 1%.

For the Ti-6Al-4V panel testing, the orthogonal camera system for exit velocity measurement was 

replaced with a second pair of calibrated cameras and the PONTOS point tracking system.

2.2.5.4 Full Field Displacement and Strain

Full field displacement and strain measurements were obtained using a calibrated pair of high speed 

digital cameras (Photron model SA1.1, Photron USA, San Diego, CA) and a digital image correlation 

software package (ARAMIS, GOM, Braunschweig, Germany). The cameras were located on the outside 

of the vacuum chamber and viewed the backside of the panel through two viewports. The distance from 

the cameras to the panel was approximately 36 in. and the distance between the cameras was 

approximately 16 in. For test DB58 and prior tests, the cameras recorded an area of approximately 4- by

4-in. with a resolution of 128 pix in the horizontal direction and 128 pix in the vertical direction and a 

frame rate of 180,000 frames/sec. Later tests used a resolution of 128 x 160 pixels and a frame rate of 

150,000 frames/sec. The back side of each panel was painted with a random set of black dots on a white 

X

Y

1 2

3

Center of Test Panel

1 in.

1 in.

1 in.

2 in.
NASA/TM—2013-217869 11

background as required by the ARAMIS software. From the images, the software computed the 

displacements in three directions at any point in the view for every recorded frame. In-plane strains on the 

back surface of the panel were computed from the displacements.

2.3 Large Panel Test Setup

Four ballistic impact tests were conducted on larger flat panels of each material. These tests were 

designed to involve a more realistic projectile and non-normal impact orientation to provide data for 

validation of numerical models under conditions more complex than the small panel tests. It also is a 

better representative laboratory test for a turbine engine blade release event. Since the release of an engine 

blade is tangential, as the blade is released the tip makes contact in such a way that it tends to bend, as 

opposed to a blade exiting in a purely radial direction. This creates a moment and the blade rotates after 

initial contact, with the heavier root section often being the part of the blade that penetrates the engine 

case. This test is a simple rig test to try to more represent this type of impact.

2.3.1 Test Specimens

The aluminum test specimens were 24- by 24-in. Al 2024-T351 with a nominal thickness of 0.25 in. 

The titanium test specimens were 24- by 24-in. Ti-6Al-4V, AMS 4911, with a nominal thickness of 

0.090 in. The material certification sheets are shown in Appendix A. The panels were held at a 45° angle 

in a square fixture with a 20- by 20-in. aperture as shown in Figure 11. The panels were through-bolted 

with 24 0.5 in. bolts equally spaced around the sides, 1 in. in from the edges.

2.3.2 Projectile

The NGFBF projectile used for the large panel test was designed to include some of the features of a 

real fan blade, such as a thin tip and a heavier shank, while being relatively simple to manufacture and 

model. It was made from Ti-6Al-4V, AMS 4911 and had a nominal mass of 340 gram. The dimensions 

are shown in Figure 12 and a still image from a high speed video of an impact test, directly before impact 

is shown in Figure 13.

Figure 11.—Schematic of the Large Panel Test Setup showing the 

orientation of the projectile and test specimen.
NASA/TM—2013-217869 12

Figure 12.—Projectile used in the Large Panel Impact Tests. (Dimensions in inches.)

Figure 13.—Still image from a high speed movie of an impact test taken directly before impact.
NASA/TM—2013-217869 13

Figure 14.—Projectile Coordinate System.

2.3.3 Instrumentation

Full field displacement data on the back side of the impacted panels were obtained using a pair of 

calibrated high speed cameras and a digital image correlation (DIC) system, similar to the small panel 

tests. In these tests the cameras were operating at 32,000 frames per second with a spatial resolution of 

256x256 pixels. In addition a second pair of calibrated cameras and DIC system were used to track the 

position of individual points on the projectile. From these data, the impact velocity and orientation of the 

projectile were computed. The cameras used for the projectile information were operating at 12,500 

frames/sec with a resolution of 512 pixels in the horizontal direction and 288 pixels in the vertical 

direction.

For measuring the projectile orientation a coordinate system was established on the projectile as 

shown in Figure 14. The fixed laboratory coordinate system was specified such that the X direction was in 

the direction of the axis of the gun barrel. The Y direction was to the right when looking toward the test 

specimen from the gun barrel and the Z direction was vertically downward. The desired orientation of the 

projectile at impact was 0° about the X axis (roll), 45° about the projectile y axis (pitch), and 0° about the 

(rotated) projectile z axis (yaw). In this orientation the angle between the projectile and the test panel was

90°. This orientation was not achieved exactly in all tests, but the actual orientations (Euler angles) were 

measured and recorded.

3.0 Results and Discussion

3.1 Small Panel Impact Tests

A summary of the small panel impact tests for each of the two materials is given in Table 5 and 

Table 6. In these tables the impact angle is the angle between the axis of the cylindrical projectile and the 

normal direction to the panel at the moment of impact. 
NASA/TM—2013-217869 14

TABLE 5.—SMALL PANEL IMPACT RESULTS FOR Al-2024

(a) Impact Results for 0.125 in. Thick Al-2024

Test Projectile mass,

gram

Projectile impact 

velocity,

ft/sec

Projectile exit 

velocity,

ft/sec

Projectile impact 

angle,

deg

Comments

DB54 9.90 739 41 1.2 Penetrated

DB55 9.88 722 176 2.1 Penetrated

DB56 9.90 707 69 1.7 Penetrated

DB57 9.90 674 0 3.9 Contained

DB66 9.92 782 383 1.9 Penetrated

DB67 9.91 642 0 3.1 Contained

DB68 9.90 626 0 1.0 Contained

DB69 9.90 673 0 1.1 Contained

DB70 9.90 679 0 3.2 Contained

DB71 9.93 920 697 1.7 Penetrated

DB73 9.95 883 644 1.3 Penetrated

DB74 9.95 978 803 6.1 Penetrated

DB75 9.90 858 610 1.7 Penetrated

DB76 9.95 666 0 3.1 Contained

DB77 9.85 663 0 2.4 Contained

(b) Impact Results for 0.25 in. Thick Al-2024

Test Projectile mass, 

gram

Projectile impact 

velocity,

ft/sec

Projectile exit 

velocity,

ft/sec

Projectile impact 

angle,

deg

Comments

DB39 12.8 795 386 5.8 Penetrated

DB42 12.8 729 0 3.9 Contained

DB44 12.8 721 0 2.6 Contained

DB45 12.8 752 0 4.0 Hole, projectile rebounded

DB47 12.8 710 17 2.2 Penetrated

DB51 12.7 734 172 5.6 Penetrated

DB52 12.8 763 153 3.2 Penetrated

DB58 12.7 750 0 7.8 Projectile lodged, plug ejected

DB59 12.7 746 145 2.7 Projectile lodged, plug ejected

DB60 12.8 713 0 4.7 Contained

DB61 12.8 733 0 3.3 Contained

DB62 12.8 685 0 3.8 Contained

DB63 12.7 648 0 1.2 Contained

DB64 12.8 861 444 0.6 Penetrated

DB65 12.8 938 494 0.3 Penetrated

(c) Impact Results for 0.5 in. Thick Al-2024

Test Projectile mass, 

gram

Projectile impact 

velocity,

ft/sec

Projectile exit 

velocity,

ft/sec

Projectile impact 

angle,

deg

Comments

DB79 37.6 757 232 0.5 Penetrated

DB80 37.5 717 279 1.0 Penetrated

DB81 37.5 690 239 0.8 Penetrated

DB82 37.6 659 155 1.5 Penetrated

DB83 27.9 786 0 1.3 Contained, plug almost ejected

DB84 28.1 832 0 1.0 Projectile lodged, plug ejected

DB85 28.0 876 143 1.7 Penetrated

DB86 28.0 751 0 1.4 Contained

DB87 28.0 819 212 0.4 Penetrated

DB88 28.0 961 400 9.4 Penetrated

DB89 28.0 906 191 2.2 Penetrated

DB90 28.0 851 114 0.8 Penetrated

DB91 28.0 843 244 0.9 Penetrated

DB92 28.0 759 187 1.8 Penetrated

DB93 28.0 717 0 1.6 Projectile lodged, plug ejected
NASA/TM—2013-217869 15

TABLE 6.—SMALL PANEL IMPACT RESULTS FOR Ti-6Al-4V

(a) Impact Results for 0.09 in. Thick Ti-6Al-4V

Test Projectile mass, 

gram

Projectile impact 

velocity,

ft/sec

Projectile exit 

velocity,

ft/sec

Projectile impact 

angle,

deg

Comments

DB126 14.01 768 369 3.8 Penetrated

DB127 14.02 720 (116) 4.5 Contained

DB128 14.04 640 (61) 4.4 Contained, no crack

DB129 14.01 716 (64) 10.4 Contained, petal

DB130 14.06 764 385 6.0 Penetrated

DB132 14.10 864 630 2.3 Penetrated

DB133 14.04 706 (75) 4.1 Contained, petal

DB134 14.09 668 (76) 5.1 Contained, petal

DB135 14.07 705 (57) 0.9 Contained

DB136 14.05 669 (29) 3.7 Contained, crack

DB137 14.08 777 377 2.4 Penetrated

DB138 14.08 637 (52) 0.1 Contained

* Rebound velocity given in parentheses where available

(b) Impact Results for 0.14 in. Thick Ti-6Al-4V (Using Ti-6Al-4V Projectile)

Test Projectile mass, 

gram

Projectile impact 

velocity,

ft/sec

Projectile exit 

velocity,

ft/sec

Projectile impact 

angle,

deg

Comments

DB144 21.23 725 (116) 2.7 Contained, crack

DB145 21.24 695 (61) 1.5 Contained, no crack

DB146 21.25 743 (106) 2.3 Contained, flap

DB147 21.33 785 298 8.0 Penetrated

DB148 21.26 901 571 3.7 Penetrated

DB149 21.29 743 (70) 0.7 Contained

DB150 21.29 783 262 1.3 Penetrated

DB151 21.30 773 36 2.2 Penetrated

DB152 21.30 904 625 0.7 Penetrated

DB153 21.30 861 580 2.0 Penetrated

DB154 21.27 771 232 1.6 Penetrated

DB155 21.26 757 (15) 1.4 Contained

* Rebound velocity given in parentheses where available

(c) Impact Results for 0.14 in. Thick Ti-6Al-4V (Using Hardened Steel Projectile)

Test Projectile mass, 

gram

Projectile impact 

velocity,

ft/sec

Projectile exit 

velocity,

ft/sec

Projectile impact 

angle,

deg

Comments

DB157 21.25 674 Not measurable 3.9 Penetrated

DB160 21.24 614 3.4 Contained

DB161 21.26 650 3.5 Contained

DB162 21.25 651 1.3 Contained
NASA/TM—2013-217869 16

TABLE 6.—CONCLUDED.

(d) Impact Results for 0.25 in. Thick Ti-6Al-4V

Test Projectile mass, 

gram

Projectile impact 

velocity,

ft/sec

Projectile exit 

velocity,

ft/sec

Projectile impact 

angle,

deg

Comments

DB114 21.52 752 241 2.2 Penetrated

DB115 21.51 710 (59) 1.7 Penetrated, flap

DB118 21.61 715 (41) 6.8 Contained, plug

DB119 21.62 630 (14) 5.5 Contained, crack

DB121 21.55 696 (16) 3.0 Contained, flap

DB122 21.59 650 (21) 2.1 Contained

DB123 21.54 814 336 1.7 Penetrated

DB124 21.58 852 372 1.5 Penetrated

DB125 21.61 911 396 5.0 Penetrated

DB139 21.54 619 (57) Not available Contained

DB140 21.55 762 277 2.0 Penetrated

DB141 21.55 753 281 1.1 Penetrated

* Rebound velocity given in parentheses where available

(e) Impact Results for 0.5 in. Thick Ti-6Al-4V

Test Projectile mass, 

gram

Projectile impact 

velocity,

ft/sec

Projectile exit 

velocity,

ft/sec

Projectile impact 

angle,

deg

Plug

depth, 

in.

Comments

DB177 126.3 896 475 620 Full Penetrated

DB178 126.4 865 424 522 Full Penetrated

DB179 126.2 713 241 360 Full Penetrated

DB180 126.2 646 152 310 Full Penetrated

DB182 126.4 527 0 0 .053 Contained

DB184 126.3 581 0 0 .237 Contained

DB185 126.2 597 0 0 .308 Contained

DB186 126.4 578 0 0 .187 Contained

DB192 126.3 630 0 153 Full Contained/plug released

DB193 126.3 629 104 226 Full Penetrated

DB195 126.3 616 0 132 Full Contained/plug released

3.1.1 Projectile Residual Velocity

The residual velocity of the projectile is plotted against the impact velocity in Figure 15 to Figure 17

for the Al2024 tests. For the 0.125 in. and the 0.25 in. Al2024 plates the results show a fairly well defined 

transition between penetration and non-penetration, and a generally regular increase in residual velocity 

as the impact velocity increases. However, for the 0.5 in. thick Al-2024 plates there is a considerable 

range of impact velocities where in some cases penetration occurred and in others did not. Due to this 

unexpected result, the data for these tests were carefully reviewed to the satisfaction of the authors that 

there is no significant anomaly in the data. It is not known why this occurred for the thick aluminum 

plates. It is clear that friction plays a more important role in the thicker plates. (In some of the tests, the 

projectile became embedded in the 0.5 in. plate after a plate plug was ejected.) For the heavier and longer 

projectiles used for the 0.5 in. thick plates the projectile orientation was generally very good, so the 

impact angle could not be considered an explanation for the irregularities.

The residual velocity of the projectile is plotted against the impact velocity in Figure 18 to Figure 21

for the Ti-6Al-4V tests. Note that there is no residual velocity plot for the 0.14 in. thick Ti-6Al-4V 

impacted with the hardened steel projectile due to the fact that only one projectile penetrated this limited 

set of tests. The residual velocity was low, but could not be accurately measured. For all the Ti-6Al-4V 

tests there was a well-defined transition between tests where penetration occurred and those where there 

was no penetration as well as a generally regular increase in residual velocity as the impact velocity 

increased.
NASA/TM—2013-217869 17

Figure 15.—Exit velocity vs. impact velocity for 0.125 in. thick Al-2024 sheet.

Figure 16.—Exit velocity vs. impact velocity for 0.25 in. thick Al-2024 plate.

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

500 600 700 800 900 1000

Residual Velocity (ft/sec)

Impact Velocity (ft/sec)

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

500 600 700 800 900 1000

Residual Velocity (ft/sec)

Impact Velocity (ft/sec)
NASA/TM—2013-217869 18

Figure 17.—Exit velocity vs. impact velocity for 0.5 in. thick Al-2024 plate.

Figure 18.—Exit velocity vs. impact velocity for 0.09 in. thick Ti-6Al-4V sheet.

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

500 600 700 800 900 1000

Residual Velocity (ft/sec)

Impact Velocity (ft/sec)

1.5 in. projectiles

1.125 in. projectiles

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

600 650 700 750 800 850 900

Exit Velocity (ft/sec)

Impact Velocity (ft/sec)
NASA/TM—2013-217869 19

Figure 19.—Exit velocity vs. impact velocity for 0.14 in. thick Ti-6Al4V sheet with Ti-6-4 projectile.

Figure 20.—Exit velocity vs. impact velocity for 0.25 in. thick Ti-6Al4V plate.

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

600 700 800 900 1000

Exit Velocity (ft/sec)

Impact Velocity (ft/sec)

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

600 700 800 900 1000

Exit Velocity (ft/sec)

Impact Velocity (ft/sec)
NASA/TM—2013-217869 20

Figure 21.—Exit velocity vs. impact velocity for 0.5 in. thick Ti-6Al-4V plate.

Figure 22.—Example of plug formed in 0.5 in. Ti-6Al-4V plate.

For the 0.5 in. Ti-6Al-4V plates, the damage was highly localized and there was a velocity range over 

which a plug developed but was not ejected (Figure 22). This occurred in the impact velocity range of 578 

to 597 ft/sec. Above this there was a velocity range in which a plug was ejected but the projectile was 

contained. At velocities above 630 ft/sec both the plug and projectile penetrated the panel. For the tests in 

which a plug formed but was not ejected, measurements were made of the plug displacement (Table 6(e)). 

This measurement is the height of the plug face above the back surface of the plate. 

The penetration results for the two materials are presented in Figure 23 and Figure 24 which show the 

impact velocity for each test and whether or not penetration occurred. Based on the results shown in 

Figure 15 to Figure 21 and Figure 23 and Figure 24 the approximate projectile penetration velocity results

are shown in Table 7.

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

500 600 700 800 900 1000

Exit Velocity (ft/sec)

Impact Velocity (ft/sec)
NASA/TM—2013-217869 21

Figure 23.—Penetration Results for Al-2024. (Dark circles indicate tests in which 

penetration occurred. Open circles indicate tests where there was no 

penetration.)

Figure 24.—Penetration results for Ti-6Al-4V. (Dark circles indicate tests in which 

penetration occurred. Open circles indicate tests where there was no 

penetration.)

600

650

700

750

800

850

900

950

1000

1050

1100

Impact Velocity (ft/sec)

.125 in.

.5 in.

(1.125 in. projectiles)

.25 in.

500

550

600

650

700

750

800

850

900

950

1000 Impact Velocity (ft/sec)

.090 in.

.140 in.

Ti-6-4 Projectile .25 in.

.140 in.

Steel Projectile

.5 in.
NASA/TM—2013-217869 22

TABLE 7.—APPROXIMATE PROJECTILE PENETRATION 

VELOCITY FOR THE SMALL PANEL IMPACT TESTS

Target

material

Nominal

thickness,

in.

Projectile

material

Hardness, 

HRC

Length,

in.

Mass,

gram

Projectile 

penetration

velocity,

ft/sec

Al2024 0.125 Ti-6Al-4V 36-37 0.7 9.0 700

Al2024 0.25 Ti-6Al-4V 36-37 .9 12.8 750

Al2024 0.5 A2 Tool Steel 59 1.125 28.0 800

Ti-6Al-4V 0.09 Ti-6Al-4V 36-37 1.0 14.05 740

Ti-6Al-4V 0.14 Ti-6Al-4V 36-37 1.5 21.28 770

Ti-6Al-4V 0.14 A2 Tool Steel* 59 .86 21.25 650

Ti-6Al-4V 0.25 A2 Tool Steel 59 .875 21.56 735

Ti-6Al-4V 0.5 A2 Tool Steel 62-63 2.25 126.2 629

*Used to study the effects of projectile hardness 

Figure 25.—Kinetic energy lost by projectile in Al-2024 impact tests.

3.1.2 Projectile Kinetic Energy Absorbed

A useful metric for impact model validation is the amount of kinetic energy absorbed by a panel when 

impacted. Figure 25 shows the kinetic energy absorbed by the Al2024 test panels. This is defined simply as 

the difference in projectile kinetic energy before and after impact and does not take into account the kinetic 

energy of the plug if one was ejected. In many cases it was not possible to accurately measure the plug 

kinetic energy, but in general it was less than 5% of the total energy absorbed. The curved reference lines 

represent the kinetic energy of the projectile as a function of impact velocity. For cases where all of the 

kinetic energy was absorbed (no penetration), the data points lie on the curves. For higher velocities where 

the projectile has residual kinetic energy, the points fall below the curves. Figure 26 to Figure 28 show the 

same information for the Ti-6Al-4V plates. The data is plotted on separate graphs for clarity. In general, for 

speeds just above the penetration velocity the amount of energy absorbed is slightly less than that at just 

below the penetration velocity. However, as speeds increase, there is no general trend. The data shows that 

for thicker panels (0.25 in. and above) the amount of energy absorbed increases as the speed increases 

beyond the penetration velocity. For thinner panels (0.14 in. and lower) the energy absorbed tends to 

decrease with increasing impact velocity. This may be indicative of a role that friction may play in the 

impact process. Another explanation may be related to the different failure modes in thicker specimens and 

related strain rate hardening effects. At this point there is not enough data to support a general conclusion.

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

Energy Absorbed (J)

Impact Velocity (ft/sec)

0.125

0.5

0.25
NASA/TM—2013-217869 23

Figure 26.—Kinetic energy lost by projectile in 0.09 and 0.14 in. Ti-6Al-4V impact tests.

Figure 27.—Kinetic energy lost by projectile in 0.25 in. Ti-6Al-4V impact tests.

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

Energy Absorbed (J)

Impact Velocity (ft/sec)

0.09

0.14

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

0 200 400 600 800 1000

Energy Absorbed (J)

Impact Velocity (ft/sec)
NASA/TM—2013-217869 24

Figure 28.—Kinetic energy lost by projectile in 0.5 in. Ti-6Al-4V impact tests.

3.1.3 Effects of Projectile Hardness

Referring to Table 7, it can be seen that the Ti-6Al-4V projectile used on the 0.14 in. thick Ti-6Al-4V

material (row 5) had a similar mass to the hardened steel projectile used with the 0.25 in. thick Ti-6Al4V. The penetration velocity for the thicker material was lower than that of the thinner material. It was 

suspected that the cause for this was the difference in material properties of the projectiles. Macroscopic

examination of the two types of projectiles demonstrated mushrooming on the front face of the Ti-6-4 

projectiles (Figure 29) which was an obvious indication of extensive plastic deformation. However there 

were no signs of slip bands, shear bands or grain distortion due to the deformation. In addition, a hardness 

profile was taken from the top radius of the projectile into the core, looking for evidence of work 

hardening. Hardness readings were independent of location. The only sign of plasticity was the 

deformation.

No evidence of plasticity or macro deformation was seen in the hardened A2 projectiles. However, 

micro-hardness profiles indicated that the surface of the projectile was softer than the core. The surface 

had a hardness of approximately HRC45 and got increasingly harder toward the center of the projectile, 

until it reached a constant value of HRC64 at a distance of 200 μm from the surface. The projectile core 

hardness is similar to the values for projectile hardness provided in Table 4, since the values in Table 4

were only taken in the core. The reduced hardness at the projectile surface is believed to be due to 

decarburization of the surface during heat treatment. In some cases the projectiles were hardened in an air 

atmosphere, producing some surface scale. However, a hardness value of HRC45 is relatively high 

compared with the Ti-6Al-4V test panel and probably did not affect the overall behavior significantly.

An additional set of tests was conducted on the 0.14 in. thick Ti-6Al-4V plates using a hardened steel 

projectile of the same mass as the Ti-6Al-4V projectile (see Table 7, row 6). As shown in the table, there 

was a considerable reduction (15%) in the penetration speed. Simple elastic-plastic LS-DYNA analyses 

confirmed a significant increase in plastic strains in the panel with a projectile having a higher yield 

strength, and therefore hardness, and it can be speculated that the higher impedance of the harder 

projectile induces higher particle velocities and resulting higher strains. It has been observed elsewhere in 

Anderson et al. (Ref. 1) that the ballistic limit velocity decreases significantly when the hardness of the 

projectile exceeds that of the target. In thick targets, it has been shown by Forrestal and Piekutowski 

(Ref. 2) that penetration depth increases and projectile deformation decreases as the hardness of the 

projectile increases. Hardness is an indicator of material yield strength.

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

0 200 400 600 800 1000

Energy Absorbed (J)

Impact Velocity (ft/sec)
NASA/TM—2013-217869 25

Figure 29.—Evidence of extensive plastic deformation in Ti-6Al-4V projectile.

Figure 30.—Sequential frames from front and back cameras viewing an impact on a 0.135 in. 

thick Ti-6Al-4V specimen.

3.1.4 Boundary Conditions

One impact test was conducted using a higher camera frame rate to determine the time duration for 

failure to develop in a panel compared with the time required for a stress wave to reach the panel 

boundaries and back. This test was conducted to determine whether boundary conditions play a role in the 

penetration process. This test was conducted on a 0.14 in. thick Ti-6Al-4V test panel. Two synchronized 

cameras, operating at 300,000 frames/sec, showed the time of impact and the time at which damage was 

fully evident on the back side of the panel. Due to the high frame rate, the spatial resolution was limited. 

The test was somewhat qualitative as the time at which damage fully developed is a matter of judgment. 

Sequential frames from the two cameras are shown in Figure 30. Each frame is separated by a time of 

3.33 μsec. Based on strain gage measurements at different distances from the impact point, the speed of 

the fastest recorded strain wave in the panel was 208,000 in./sec. For a 10 in. traverse distance (5 in. to 

the panel boundary and 5 in. back), the time duration is approximately 48.1 μsec, corresponding to 

Impact Test on 0.135 in. Ti-6Al-4V

Cameras running at 300,000 frames/sec

Frame 1

Frame 6

Frame 4 Frame 3

Frame 5

Frame 7 Frame 8

Frame 2

Front Back Front Back
NASA/TM—2013-217869 26

approximately 14 camera frames. It is clear from the images in Figure 29 that damage is fully developed 

within eight frames for this thickness panel. This leads to the conclusion that the boundary conditions do 

not play a role in panels of this thickness.

3.1.5 Strain Measurements

Strain measurements on the backside of the panels were recorded using both strain gages and the 

digital image correlation (DIC) system. Because of the large volume of strain data collected in this study, 

they are not reported here. However a number of comparisons were conducted to check the correlation 

between strain measurements using the two measurement methods. It was questionable whether using the 

DIC system to measure the strain at the actual location of the gage would give accurate results, due to the 

coating used and the existence of the gage itself. So in addition to comparing the results at the gage 

location, the strain gage results were also compared with DIC results at the same radial distance from the 

impact point, but at a location 180° away. Figure 31 shows two strain gage and two DIC strain 

measurements at four locations on a 0.125 in. thick Al-2024 panel impacted at 679 ft/sec, approaching the 

penetration velocity (test DB70, Table 6(a)). Strain gage measurements are shown from gages 2 and 7, 

which, referring to Figure 9, are both 2 in. from the center of the panel and are measuring strain in the 

radial direction. DIC strain measurements are also shown, one directly on gage 7 and the other 180° away 

from gage 7 at the same radial distance. It can be seen that strain gages 2 and 7 have a very similar 

response, indicating that the impact is very symmetric. The DIC strain measurement 180° away from gage 

7 also shows very good agreement. The DIC measurement directly on gage 7 has a similar response, 

although the peak values are somewhat higher. There is more noise in the DIC measurements, due mainly 

to the limited spatial resolution of the high speed cameras. However, in general the agreement is good, 

which gives confidence in the full field strain measurements available in both the small panel tests and the 

large panel tests discussed below, in which no strain gage instrumentation was used.

Figure 31.—Comparison of strain gage (bold line) and DIC strain measurements on a 0.125 in.

thick AL2024 panel impacted at 679 ft/sec.

-6000

-5000

-4000

-3000

-2000

-1000

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Strain (ustrn)

Time (msec) 
NASA/TM—2013-217869 27

3.2 Large Panel Impact Tests

Four impact tests on each of the large Al-2024 and Ti-6Al-4V panels described in Section 2.2, using 

the NGFBF blade fragment simulating projectile. Results of these tests are shown in Table 8 and Table 9.

Photos from the impact tests are shown in Figure 32 to Figure 39. It can be seen from the test photographs 

that failure initiation and the majority of the damage occurs when the heavier root section of the blade 

impacts the panel. This is consistent with what occurs in an actual jet engine fan blade out incident.

TABLE 8.—RESULTS OF IMPACT TESTS ON LARGE Al-2024 PANELS

Test

ID

Measured

thickness,

in.

Projectile

material

Projectile

mass,

gram

Impact

velocity

ft/sec

Result

LG908 0.257 Ti-6Al-4V 330 685 Contained.

LG909 .259 Ti-6Al-4V 338 791 Contained, perforated

LG910 .257 Ti-6Al-4V 329 746 Contained, perforated

LG911 .257 Ti-6Al-4V 338 721 Contained, perforated

TABLE 9.—RESULTS OF IMPACT TESTS ON LARGE Ti-6Al-4V PANELS

Test

ID

Measured

thickness,

in.

Projectile

material

Projectile

mass,

gram

Impact

velocity

ft/sec

Result

LG912 0.094 Ti-6Al-4V 339 626 Contained. Small crack

LG913 .095 Ti-6Al-4V 344 698 Projectile penetrated

LG915 .094 Ti-6Al-4V 344 653 Projectile penetrated

LG916 .094 Ti-6Al-4V 344 569 Contained. No cracks

The projectile impact orientation and angular velocities for the large panel Al-2024 and Ti-6Al-4V

panel tests are shown in Table 10. In this table, the roll angle refers to rotation of the projectile x axis 

about the fixed laboratory X axis, the pitch angle is the rotation of the projectile about the once rotated

(rolled) y axis and the yaw is the rotation of the projectile about the twice rotated (rolled and pitched) z 

axis (refer to Figure 14). The desired orientation of the projectile at impact was (0, 45, 0). Actual 

orientations of the projectile were somewhat different due to the difficulty of precisely controlling

orientation in the impact tests. The lack of precise control is due to the highly dynamic nature of the 

event. When the sabot impacts the sabot stopper, significant deformations occur immediately which can

change the orientation and introduce angular velocities in the projectile as it exits the gun barrel. In 

addition, the roll angle of the sabot is not constrained as it travels down the gun barrel.

TABLE 10.—PROJECTILE ORIENTATION AND ANGULAR VELOCITY AT IMPACT

Test number Orientation angle Angular velocity

Roll,

deg

Pitch,

deg

Yaw,

deg

Roll velocity,

deg/sec

Pitch velocity,

deg/sec

Yaw velocity,

deg/sec

Al-2024

LG908 –2.82 90.64 0.44 1.24 161.12 –0.14

LG909 2.13 75.04 1.03 –8.97 155.80 66.09

LG910 –5.66 81.02 0.77 –6.95 119.10 –32.84

LG911 10.90 85.47 –1.06 68.52 58.41 311.26

Ti-6Al-4V

LG912 0.42 63.92 7.15 1.00 3,862.00 –808.00

LG913 0.70 88.59 1.82 –349.00 8,022.00 555.00

LG915 2.74 85.52 11.49 555.00 7,330.00 1221.00

LG916 –4.79 68.52 5.60 –172.00 3,132.00 622.00
NASA/TM—2013-217869 28

Figure 32.—Large Al-2024 Test Panel, front and back, side test LG908.

Figure 33.—Large Al-2024 Test Panel, front and back side, test LG909.

Figure 34.—Large Al-2024 Test Panel, front and back side, test LG910.
NASA/TM—2013-217869 29

Figure 35.—Large Al-2024 Test Panel, front and back side, test LG911.

Figure 36.—Large Ti-6Al-4V Test Panel, front and back side, test LG912.

Figure 37.—Large Ti-6Al-4V Test Panel, front and back side, test LG913.
NASA/TM—2013-217869 30

Figure 38.—Large Ti-6Al-4V Test Panel, front and back side, test LG915.

Figure 39.—Large Ti-6Al-4V Test Panel, front and back side, test LG916.

Full field deformation results were obtained using the DIC discussed above. Results for the Al-2024 

and Ti-6Al-4V tests in Table 8 and Table 9 are shown in Figure 40 to Figure 47. Perforation occurred in 

all of the panels except one Al-2024 panel (LG908) and one Ti-6Al-4V panel (LG916). For these panels, 

the displacement time history of the point of maximum displacement is also shown in Figure 40(c) and 

Figure 47(c) respectively. It is also noted that each deformation curve is plotted for successive camera 

frames operating at 32,000 frames per second.
NASA/TM—2013-217869 31

Figure 40.—(a) Deformation profile in Al-2024 test LG908 at the time of maximum deformation. (b). Deformation 

along section line shown in Figure 40(a) as a function of time (Al-2024 test LG908). (c). Deformation as a function 

of time for the point of maximum deformation shown in Figure 40(a) (Al-2024 test LG908).
NASA/TM—2013-217869 32

Figure 41.—(a) Deformation profile in Al-2024 Test LG909 after projectile penetration. (b) Deformation along section 

line shown in Figure 41(a) as a function of time (Al-2024 test LG909).
NASA/TM—2013-217869 33

Figure 42.—(a) Deformation profile in Al-2024 Test LG910 after projectile penetration. (b) Deformation along section 

line shown in Figure 42(a) as a function of time (Al-2024 test LG910).
NASA/TM—2013-217869 34

Figure 43.—(a) Deformation profile in Al-2024 Test LG911 after projectile penetration. (b) Deformation along section 

line shown in figure 43(a) as a function of time (Al-2024 test LG911)
NASA/TM—2013-217869 35

Figure 44.—(a) Deformation profile in Ti-6Al-4V Test LG912 at the time of maximum deformation. (b) Deformation 

along section line shown in figure 44(a) as a function of time (Ti-6Al-4V test LG912).
NASA/TM—2013-217869 36

Figure 45.—(a) Deformation profile in Ti-6Al-4V Test LG913 at the time of maximum deformation. (b) Deformation 

along section line shown in Figure 45(a) as a function of time (Ti-6Al-4V test LG913)
NASA/TM—2013-217869 37

Figure 46.—(a) Deformation profile in Ti-6Al-4V Test LG915 at the time of maximum deformation. (b) Deformation 

along section line shown in Figure 46(a) as a function of time (Ti-6Al-4V test LG915).
NASA/TM—2013-217869 38

Figure 47.—(a) Deformation profile in Ti-6Al-4V Test LG916 at the time of maximum deformation. (b) Deformation 

along section line shown in Figure 47(a) as a function of time (Ti-6Al-4V test LG916). (c) Deformation as a function 

of time for the point of maximum deformation shown in Figure 47(a) (Ti-6Al-4V test LG916).
NASA/TM—2013-217869 39

4.0 Discussion and Summary

In the two materials tested there is generally a well-defined ballistic limit velocity. The one exception 

to this is the case of the 0.5 in. thick Al-2024. The plugs formed in the thick aluminum and titanium plates 

were tapered at the front, with significant gouging along the sides. This indicates that fracture occurred 

while the rear side of the plates were under elastic bending deformation which reduced the size of the hole 

when the plate returned to a flat orientation, resulting in a hole with a smaller diameter than the projectile.

This presumably increased the friction on the projectile as it travelled through the plate, as evidenced by 

the gouging observed in the plugs. The irregular results obtained for the 0.5 in. thick Al-2024 plates may 

be due to a high sensitivity to frictional effects. It is not known why the same sensitivity was not observed 

with the 0.5 in. thick Ti-6Al-4V plates, in which frictional effects were also present, but it should be noted 

that the impact conditions were significantly different, involving a projectile of different size and 

material.

At velocities higher than the ballistic limit, the energy absorption could either increase or decrease 

with impact velocity. For thicker panels (0.25 in. and above) the amount of energy absorbed increased as 

the speed increased beyond the penetration velocity. For thinner panels (0.14 in. and lower) the energy 

absorbed generally decreased with increasing impact velocity.

The projectile properties had a significant effect on the ballistic limit. The harder steel projectile 

resulted in a 15% decrease in penetration velocity in the 0.14 in. thick Ti-6-4 plate. It is not clear whether 

this is a result of just the hardness difference in the projectile or if the overall mechanical impedance is 

the primary driver, but results in the literature indicate that projectile hardness has an effect on both 

penetration velocity and penetration depth in thick test specimens.

Digital image correlation (DIC) yields good results for strain, even at the relatively low image resolution 

used in this study. However, it is useful to have a limited number of strain gages to verify results at 

discrete points.

In the large panel tests the major damage occurred where the heavier root section of the projectile 

impacted the test panel. This may be counter-intuitive since the tip of the projectile is relatively sharp, but 

is consistent with the damage that results from a fan blade-out in a jet engine.

This report provides results of instrumented impact tests on 15 in. square Al-2024 and Ti-6Al-4V 

panels of three different thicknesses impacted in a normal direction by a cylindrical projectile and 24 in.

square panels of the same materials impacted at a 45° angle by a more complex projectile having bladelike features. The data provided in this report is useful for validation of numerical and empirical impact 

models for metals. Unique features of the data provided include extensive documentation of test 

procedures and results, material characterization of the very same materials used for impact testing, and 

extensive instrumentation results. These reports provide a valuable set of data which can be used for 

developing and validating computational and empirical high strain rate and impact deformation and 

failure models. Although it is impossible to report all data in a single report, they are archived and 

available through the authors.

NASA/TM—2013-217869 41

Appendix A.—Material Certification Sheets

A.1 Material Certification Sheet for 0.125 in. Al-2024
NASA/TM—2013-217869 42
NASA/TM—2013-217869 43

A.2 Material Certification Sheet for 0.25 in. Al2024
NASA/TM—2013-217869 44
NASA/TM—2013-217869 45

A.3 Material Certification Sheet for 0.5 in. Al2024
NASA/TM—2013-217869 46

A.4 Material Certification Sheet for 0.09 in. Ti-6Al-4V
NASA/TM—2013-217869 47

A.5 Material Certification Sheet for 0.140 in. Ti-6Al-4V
NASA/TM—2013-217869 48

A.6 Material Certification Sheet for 0.250 in. Ti-6Al-4V
NASA/TM—2013-217869 49
NASA/TM—2013-217869 50
NASA/TM—2013-217869 51

A.7 Material Certification Sheet for 0.500 in. Ti-6Al-4V
NASA/TM—2013-217869 52
NASA/TM—2013-217869 53
NASA/TM—2013-217869 54
NASA/TM—2013-217869 55

NASA/TM—2013-217869 57

Appendix B.—Texture Analysis

Texture analyses were performed on samples from all the 2024 aluminum (Al) sheet and plates that 

were impact tested in this report. The samples were prepared for measurement by ultrasonic cleaning in 

ethanol followed by immersion etching at ambient temperature. The Al 2024 samples were etched in a 

50% sodium hydroxide solution for 7 minutes followed by a rinse in 50% nitric acid. The titanium (Ti) 

6Al-4 vanadium (V) samples were etched in a 2%HF + 8%HNO3 + 90%H2O solution for 40min 

followed by a water rinse. Typical material removal per surface was 125 μm for the Al 2024 samples and 

50 μm for the Ti-6Al-4V samples.

Texture data was acquired using a Bruker D8 Discover X-ray Diffractometer equipped with a sealed 

Cu tube, graphite monochrometer set to Kα radiation, 0.5 mm diameter collimator, and a proportional 

multiwire 2–D position-sensitive detector (area detector). The sample was mounted in a 2-axis Eulerian 

cradle equipped with a 3-axis translation stage and aligned using a laser/videomicroscope system.

A data acquisition scheme was designed with 5° resolution for reflection-mode pole figure (PF) 

coverage up to 75° (nominal) from the surface normal. For the Al 2024 samples, this included the (200), 

(111), and (220) poles. For the Ti-6Al-4V samples, this included the (10.0), (00.2), (10.1), (10.2), (11.0), 

and (10.3) poles of the alpha Ti phase and the (110) and (200) poles of the beta Ti phase. Data was taken 

from the rolled surface of the samples. The rolling direction (RD) was marked on the samples by the 

requester and preserved during etching by beveling a sample edge parallel to the RD. Sample coverage 

was maximized by oscillating over a 30- by 30-mm area using a 2-axis raster pattern during each of the 

data acquisition frames (180s/frame).

The raw 2D data was reduced to experimental (incomplete) pole figures using the Multex3 software 

package (Bruker AXS, Madison, WI). Data from these pole figures were then used to compute the 

Orientation Distribution Function (ODF) using the harmonic method (Ref. 3) as implemented in the 

TexEval software package (Bruker AXS, Madison, WI). Full pole figures were then calculated from the 

ODF and are shown in this appendix.

A quantitative measure of texture sharpness is the texture index, which is computed from the ODF. Its 

value lies between 1 for a texture-free sample and infinity for a single crystal. For comparison, the texture 

index of a sample of commercial aluminum foil (a highly textured material) was measured at 4.14.

Texture index values, predominant textures present, and degrees off-center (for the Ti-6-4 basal textures) 

are summarized in Table B.1. All the texture measurements were taken at the surface of the sheet or plate 

with the exception of the Ti-6-4 (0.5 in. thick) plate which was measured both at the surface ant at the 

center of the plate thickness.

TABLE B.1.—SUMMARY TEXTURE RESULTS

Sample Texture index Predominant texture 

type

Degrees off-center

Al 2024 1/8 in. 1.26 Cube N/A

Al 2024 1/4 in. 1.89 Cube N/A

Al 2024 1/2 in. 1.34 Cube N/A

Ti-6-4 0.09 in. 1.40 Transverse N/A

Ti-6-4 0.135 in. 1.17 Basal 30°

Ti-6-4 0.25 in. 1.48 Basal 18°

Ti-6-4 0.5 in. 1.03 Basal, Transverse ---

Ti-6-4 0.5 in. 1.45 Transverse (thru-thickness at the center of the plate)

B.1 Al 2024-T3

All of the Al 2024 exhibit a cube texture (Figure B.1) with the textures of the 1/8 in. and 1/2 in. 

samples being considerably weaker than the 1/4 in. sample. The 1/4 in. thick plate also contained the 

largest grain sizes. The 1/8 in. plate had the most equiaxed grains. The cube texture is a typical annealing 
NASA/TM—2013-217869 58

texture seen in Face Center Cubic (FCC) structured metals. The symmetry of the (200) PF from the 1/8

in. sample may indicate cross-rolling (4-fold symmetry with one direction weaker than the perpendicular 

direction. The apparent 6-fold symmetry of the 1/4 and 1/2 in. samples perhaps indicates clock-rolling.

Figure B.1.—Pole figures for Al 2024-T3. (a) Plate thickness: 1/8 in., (b) Plate thickness: 1/4 in., 

and (c) Plate thickness: 1/2 in.
NASA/TM—2013-217869 59

Figure B.1.—Continued.
NASA/TM—2013-217869 60

Figure B.1.—Concluded.

B.2 Ti-6-4

The strong overlap of the beta Ti (110) pole with both of the alpha Ti (00.2) and (10.1) poles 

prevented successful extraction of beta phase pole. This is a common problem with Ti-6Al-4V samples.

Likewise, the beta (110) phase data could not be completely separated from the alpha (00.2) and (10.1) 

pole figures, especially at high tilt angles. Therefore, texture for only the alpha phase is presented.

The texture index in Table B.1 indicates that the 0.09, 0.25 and the 0.5 in. thick Ti-6-4 plates have the 

strongest textures. This is consistent with the high degree of anisotropy observed in the mechanical test 

samples taken out of these plates (Ref. 4). The 0.135 in. plate had a relatively weak texture. The last two 

rows in Table B.1 gives texture measurements for the same 0.5 in. thick plate. The difference between 

these rows is that the first row was taken 50 μm below the surface of the plate, whereas the data for the 

last row was measured 90° with the beam incident to the thickness of the plate. These two measurements 

indicate that there is inhomogeneity within the 0.5 in. plate with the near surface being isotropic and 

becoming strongly textured toward the mid-thickness of the plate. It should be noted that samples for 

mechanical tests were also taken through-the-thickness and exhibit anisotropic results (Ref. 4). 
NASA/TM—2013-217869 61

The pole figures are given in Figure B.2. The 0.09 in. sample displays a transverse (T) texture, where 

the basal planes align perpendicular to the rolling plane with the c-axis parallel to the transverse direction 

(TD) as illustrated in Figure B.3. This indicates that the sample was rolled at a temperature between ~ °F

and the alpha/beta transus temperature (Ref. 5). Note from the (10.0) pole figure that this pole is parallel 

to the RD. This differs slightly from Figure B.3, which shows the (11.0) pole parallel to the RD.

The 0.13 and 0.25 in. samples display a basal (B) texture, where the basal planes are nearly aligned 

with the rolling plane (also illustrated in Figure B.3). This indicates that the sample was rolled at a 

temperature below ~1652 °F (Ref. 5). Table B.1 includes the angle between the maximum intensities of 

the basal planes and the rolling plane (degrees off center). This angle decreases with increasing degree of 

deformation (Ref. 6). Therefore, these angles are qualitatively consistent with the respective texture index 

values for these samples. 

The 0.5 in. plate (through-thickness) showed a strong texture. The pole figures in Figure B.2(d) indicate 

that the basal planes tend to be oriented with their normals parallel to the RD. The prismatic planes tend to 

align with the original sample rolling surface and ± 60° inclinations to that surface. These orientations are 

consistent with a transverse texture. A possible explanation for this is that the plate was cross-rolled.

Figure B.2.—Pole figures for Ti-6Al-4V. (a) Plate thickness: 0.09 in., (b) Plate thickness: 0.135 in., (c) Plate thickness: 

0.25 in., and (d) Plate thickness: 0. 5 in. (Note: These pole figures are rotated 90° from those of the other plates 

due to the location of the incident x-ray beam.)
NASA/TM—2013-217869 62

Figure B.2.—Concluded.
NASA/TM—2013-217869 63

Figure B.3.—Basal (a) and transverse (b) textures of 

titanium alloys (schematic, (00.2) pole figures) (Ref. 7).

NASA/TM—2013-217869 65

Appendix C.—Grain Structure

Metallographic sections were taken out of all plates to document the general grain structure. All three 

plate dimensions were polished and examined. The Al 2024 samples were immersion etched in an 

solution of 2 ml HF, 3 ml HCl, 5 ml HNO3 and 190 ml H2O (Keller’s etch). The Ti-6-4 samples were 

etched in 2 mL HF, 8 mL HNO3, and 90 mL distilled water (Kroll’s etch).

The 3-D views of the microstructure in each aluminum 2024 plate are shown in Figure C.1.

The three plate directions are indicated in the figure. Table C.1 provides the average grain dimensions 

for the three plates. The maximum observed grain size is also given in the table and their variables 

defined in Figure C.2. Finally, the aspect ratio (L/h : W/h : h/h) of each dimension based on the grain 

thickness is listed. 

TABLE C.1.—GRAIN DIMENSIONS (μm) FOR Al 2024 PLATES

Thickness Lmean Lmax Wmean Wmax hmean hmax Aspect

ratio

1/2 in. 706 1861 163 492 40 130 18:4:1

1/4 in. 1505 4249 344 1356 111 382 14:3:1

1/8 in. 37 122 31 86 17 58 2:2:1

The 1⁄2 and 1⁄4 in. plates have large aspect ratios with the longest grain dimension elongated in the 

rolling direction. While the 1⁄2 in. plate has the largest grain aspect ratio, its grains are noticeably shorter 

than those in the 1⁄4 in. plate. The other two grain dimensions are also smaller for the 1⁄2 in. plate. The 1/8 

in. plate contained grains that were more equiaxed and had average grain dimensions less than 50 μm. Of 

all three plates, the 1/8 in. plate had substantially smaller grains. All of the aluminum plates were 

peppered with second phase particles aligned in the rolling direction. These were presumably CuMgAl2

particles, but were not specifically investigated.

The 3-D views of the Ti-6Al-4V microstructures are shown in Figure C.3. The 1⁄2 in. thick plate has a 

binomial grain size consisting of many large areas of elongated unrecrystallized grains interspersed with 

equiaxed grains having diameters of approximately 15 μm. The 1⁄4 in. thick plate has an equiaxed grain 

structure with an average grain size of 13.5 μm. The microstructure consists of equiaxed alpha grains in a 

transformed beta matrix containing coarse acicular alpha. The microstructure of the 0.135 in. plate 

consists of equiaxed alpha grains of an average diameter of 8.2 μm, and particles of beta. The 0.09 in. 

plate contains flattened alpha grains 30 μm in length, 9 μm in width, and 3 μm thick. Grain boundary and 

particulate beta are also present.
NASA/TM—2013-217869 66

Figure C.1.—Grain structure for the Al 2024 plates: (a) 1/2 in., (b) 1/4 in., and (c) 1/8 in. 
NASA/TM—2013-217869 67

Figure C.2.—Direction of grain dimensions. L is parallel to the rolling direction.

Figure C.3.—Grain structure for the Ti-6-4 plates: (a) 0.5 in., (b) 0.25 in., (c) 0.135 in., and (d) 0.09 in.

NASA/TM—2013-217869 69

Appendix D.—Pedigree of Supplemental Ti-6-4 Plates

Four additional plates of Ti-6-4 were examined to provide some guidance on plate variability in the 

pedigree. Chemistry, texture and microstructure were documented following the procedures described 

earlier for Ti-6-4. The chemistry is shown in Table D.1 and documents a normal Ti-6-4 composition.

TABLE D.1.—Ti-6Al-4V CHEMISTRY (wt %)

Element Panel thickness (in.) AMS 4911J

BLM45

0.27 in.

Cert BLM45

0.53 in.

Cert BLM46

0.27 in.

Cert BLM47

0.425 in.

Cert Min Max

Al 6.2 6.35 6.28 6.28 6.29 6.18 6.25 6.25 5.50 6.75

V 3.99 4.00 4.11 3.97 3.99 4.00 3.75 3.9 3.50 4.50

Fe 0.16 0.19 0.16 0.15 0.15 0.16 0.15 0.18 0.30

O 0.193 0.175 0.177 0.183 0.191 0.170 0.176 0.170 0.20

C 0.004 0.003 0.027 0.027 0.013 0.017 0.016 0.010 0.08

N 0.004 0.006 0.004 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.005 0.006 0.05

Ti Bal. Bal. Bal. Bal. Bal. Bal. Bal. Bal. Bal. Bal.

The 3-D microstructures are shown in Figure D.1, displaying common grain structures for alpha-beta 

titanium alloys. The grain size appears similar to those from the earlier batch of plates.

Texture measurements were taken on the near-surface of the rolling plane for each plate. The texture 

index is given in Table D.2.

TABLE D.2.—TEXTURE RESULTS FOR THE SECOND BATCH OF Ti-6-4 PLATES

Sample Texture index Predominant texture type Degrees off-center

BLM 45 0.270 in. 1.24 Transverse 31°

BLM 45 0.530 in. 1.13 Basal 27°

BLM 46 0.270 in. 1.33 Transverse 24°

BLM 47 0.425 in. 1.54 Transverse ---

The texture indices are the range of values listed earlier for the first set of plates. BLM 47 (0.425 in. 

thick) has the strongest texture of all eight plates. Unfortunately no mechanical tests were conducted on 

the latter set of four plates for comparison.

Pole figures are given in Figure D.2. For plates with a transverse (T) texture, the basal planes align 

perpendicular to the rolling plane with the c-axis parallel to the transverse direction (TD). This indicates 

that the sample was rolled at a temperature between ~1706 °F and the alpha/beta transus temperature. For 

a basal (B) texture, the basal planes are nearly aligned with the rolling plane. This indicates that the 

sample was rolled at a temperature below ~1652 °F (Ref. 5). Table D.2 includes the angle between the 

maximum intensities of the basal planes and the rolling plane (degrees off center). This angle decreases 

with increasing degree of deformation (Ref. 6). However, the angles in Table D.2 do not correlate well 

with the texture indices. This might be due to the fact that there are also transverse texture components 

present and that the base texture is dominant only in the BLM 45 0.530 in. sample.

General phase ID data was gathered on each sample prior to the detailed texture measurements. As 

expected, the alpha phase dominated all samples. Unexpectedly, sample BLM 46 0.270 in. showed a 

visibly noticeable shift in the beta lattice parameter. Therefore, lattice parameters were calculated from 

the phase ID scans and summarized in Table D.3 along with composition data (major elements only) as 

determined by a handheld x-ray fluorescence (XRF) instrument. It can be seen from Table D.3 that the 

beta lattice parameter for sample BLM 46 0.270 in. is clearly larger than the rest. For this sample, the 

alpha lattice parameters are also larger than those of the other samples, though the differences are much 

less than the beta phase difference. The sample composition data show only minor variations between 

samples and also from the expected composition given in the specification. Therefore, the BLM 46 

0.270 in. lattice parameter variations do not appear to be due to sample composition.
NASA/TM—2013-217869 70

TABLE D.3.—LATTICE PARAMETERS FOR EACH PLATE

Sample Lattice parameters Alloy composition (wt%)

alpha (Å) beta (Å) Ti Al V

a c a

BLM 45 0.270 in. 2.924 4.671 3.192 89.59 ± 0.65 5.89 ± 0.60 4.12 ± 0.28

BLM 45 0.530 in. 2.924 4.672 3.198 90.06 ± 0.64 5.03 ± 0.60 4.50 ± 0.28

BLM 46 0.270 in. 2.929 4.673 3.236 89.57 ± 0.71 6.07 ± 0.68 4.09 ± 0.27

BLM 47 0.425 in. 2.923 4.669 3.198 90.00 ± 0.64 5.56 ± 0.60 4.07 ± 0.28

Figure D.1.—Microstructures of supplemental Ti-6-4 Plates: (a) BLM 45, 0.270 in. (b) BLM 45, 0.530 in. (c) BLM 46, 

0.270 in. (d) BLM 47, 0.425 in.
NASA/TM—2013-217869 71

Figure D.2.—Pole figures of the supplemental Ti-6-4- plates: (a) BLM 45, 0.270 in., (b) BLM 45, 0.530 in., (c) BLM 46, 

0.270 in., and (d) BLM 47, 0.425 in. 
NASA/TM—2013-217869 72

Figure D.2.—Concluded.
NASA/TM—2013-217869 73

References

1. Anderson, C.E., Jr., Hohler, V., Walker, J.D. and Stilp, A.J., “The influence of projectile hardness on 

ballistic performance,” Int. J. Impact Eng., 22(6), July, 1999.

2. Forrestal, M.J and Piekutowski, A.J., “Penetration experiments with 6061-T6511 aluminum targets 

and spherical-nose steel projectiles at striking velocities between 0.5 and 3.0 km/s,” Int. J. Impact 

Eng., 24(1), Jan., 2000.

3. Kocks, U.F., Tome, C.N., and Wenk, H.-R., Texture and Anisotropy: Preferred Orientations in 

Polycrystals and their Effect on Materials Properties. Cambridge: Cambridge (1998).

4. Seidt, J.D., Plastic Deformation and Ductile Fracture of 2024-T351 Aluminum under Various 

Loading Conditions, PhD dissertation, The Ohio State University, 2010.

5. Luetjering, G., “Influence of processing on microstructure and mechanical properties of (α+β) 

titanium alloys,” Mat. Sci. and Eng. A243 (1998), 32-45.

6. Peters, M. and Luetjering, G. “Control of microstructure and texture in Ti-6Al-4V.” In Titanium 

Science and Technology ‘80: Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Titanium. Ed. H. 

Kimura and O. Isumi. TMS-AIME: Warrendale, PA (1980), 925-935.

7. Leyens, C. and Peters, M. Eds., Titanium and Titanium Alloys: Fundamentals and Applications. 

Wiley-VCH: Weinheim (2003).
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Impact Testing of Aluminum 2024 and Titanium 6Al-4V for Material Model Development 

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14. ABSTRACT

One of the difficulties with developing and verifying accurate impact models is that parameters such as high strain rate material properties, failure modes, static properties, and 

impact test measurements are often obtained from a variety of different sources using different materials, with little control over consistency among the different sources. In 

addition there is often a lack of quantitative measurements in impact tests to which the models can be compared. To alleviate some of these problems, a project is underway to 

develop a consistent set of material property, impact test data and failure analysis for a variety of aircraft materials that can be used to develop improved impact failure and 

deformation models. This project is jointly funded by the NASA Glenn Research Center and the FAA William J. Hughes Technical Center. Unique features of this set of data 

are that all material property data and impact test data are obtained using identical material, the test methods and procedures are extensively documented and all of the raw data 

is archived Four parallel efforts are currently underway: Measurement of material deformation and failure response over a wide range of strain rates and temperatures and 

failure analysis of material property specimens and impact test articles conducted by The Ohio State University; development of improved numerical modeling techniques for 

deformation and failure conducted by The George Washington University; impact testing of flat panels and substructures conducted by NASA Glenn Research Center. This 

report describes impact testing which has been done on Aluminum (Al) 2024 and Titanium (Ti) 6Al-4Vanadium (V) sheet and plate samples of different thicknesses and with 

different types of projectiles, one a regular cylinder and one with a more complex geometry incorporating features representative of a jet engine fan blade. Data from this 

testing will be used in validating material models developed under this program. The material tests and the material models developed in this program will be published in 

separate reports. 

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Impact; Material texture; Microstructure 

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