GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CIRCULAR 413 

PHREATOPHYTE RESEARCH IN 

WESTERN UNITED STATES, 

OCTOBER 1958 TO MARCH 1959 

Prepared in cooperation with the Phreatophyte Subcommittee, 

Pacific Southwest Inter-Agency Committee 

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

Fred A. Seaton,. Secretary 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Thomas B. Nolan, Director 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CffiCULAR 413 

PHREATOPHYTE RESEARCH IN WESTERN UNITED STATES, 

OCTOBER 1958 TO MARCH 1959 

By Thomas W. Robinson 

Prepared in cooperation with the Phreatophyte Subcommittee, 

Pacific Southwest Inter-Agency Committee 

Washington, D. C., 1959 

Free on application to the Geological Survey, Washington 25, D. C. 

PHREATOPHYTE RESEARCH IN WESTERN UNITED STATES, 

OCTOBER 1958 TO MARCH 1959 

By Thomas W. Robinson 

CONTENTS 

Page 

Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 1 

Projects.......................................................................................................................................... 2 

Arizona........................................................................................................................................ 2 

California..................................................................................................................................... 6 

Colorado....................................................................................................................................... 7 

Kansas......................................................................................................................................... 8 

Nevada......................................................................................................................................... 9 

New Mexico................................................................................................................................... 10 

Utah............................................................................................................................................. 1-2 

Wyoming....................................................................................................................................... 13 

INTRODUCTION 

The increasing demand for water in the arid and 

semiarid regions of Western United States has emphasized the need for conserving the limited supply that is 

available. Primarily this may be done in two ways: 

By reducing waste, and by utilizing the water for a 

higher beneficial use. This report deals with the use 

of water by phreatophytes, a special group of 

plants, and is concerned with both these aspects of 

conservation. 

The vegetation of arid regions may be divided into 

two general classes-xerophtes and phreatophytes-on 

the basis of the plants' source of water. Xerophytes 

obtain their water from soil moisture; phreatophytes 

from ground water. The water used by xerophytes is 

not directly available to man, but the water used by 

phreatophytes is available to him for he, too, can 

utilize ground water. In recent years there has been 

increasing competition between man and these plants, 

each for a larger share of the limited water supply. 

In competing with one species-saltcedal'-a high water 

using, aggressive, and naturalizing plant-man has up 

until now been the loser. Phreatophytes, by virtue of 

their established and direct root connection with the 

water table, occupy a strategic position with respect 

to the utilization of ground water. During the growing 

season, these plants use ground water at varying rates 

throughout the day with the result that the ground-water 

reservoir is depleted and water levels are lowered. 

The economic value of most phreatophytes is low and 

so the water used by them is virtually wasted. Water 

dissipated in this manner has been referred to as 

nonbeneficial consumptive use and, more recently, as 

consumptive waste ... This consumptively wasted water 

is available for salvage. Salvage with respect to the 

use of water by nonbeneficial phreatophytes means 

converting consumptive waste to beneficial consumptive use. 

The phreatophyte problem has many facets. The 

fundamental and applied research necessary to understand, analyze, and solve the problem may be divided 

into three categories: Hydrologic and ecologic, 

eradication and control, and salvage. 

Although these three lines of research may be 

treated separately. in the final analysis and solution 

they are dependent one on the other. 

Phreatophyte research for the purpose of this report 

includes projects that fall, at least in part, in 1 or 

more of the 3 categories. It includes only projects 

that were currently in progress. or for which plans 

were firmly developed, during the period October 1958 

to March 1959. 

The report is the result of a need for information by 

the Phreatophyte Subcommittee of the Pacific Southwest 

Inter-Agency Committee on current research projects. 

It is the subcommittee's responsibility to keep abreast 

of developments in the field of .phreatophytes and to 

keep the parent committee and all interested parties 

informed of these developments. The objectives and 

details of some projects were well known to the subcommittee. while the available information for other 

projects was vague and sometimes contradictory. The 

need for complete and current information on research 

in progress was evident. The author. as chairman of 

the subcommittee's task force on research and coordination, undertook to assemble the information. All 

agencies and individuals known or believed to be concerned with studies of phreatophytes were requested 

1 
2 PHREATOPHYTE RESEARCH IN WESTERN UNITED STATES 

to supply information relative to their studies. In 

order that the information would be uniform and comparable, and to provide a standard format, a suggested 

outline was furnished with each request. All of the 

projects listed follow this outline: 

(a) Title of project. 

(b) Agency or department; if a cooperative project, 

all cooperating parties are shown. 

(c) Project leader; the person actively and directly 

in charge of project. 

(d) Description of project; a brief and concise 

summary, giving the general work plan and objectives. 

(e) Present status. 

(f) Results, 

(g) Publication plans, 

The cooperation of all individuals and agencies who 

contributed to this report is greatly appreciated, The 

author wishes to thank the members of the Phreatophyte 

Subcommittee for their whole-hearted support. 

PROJECTS 

For the purpose of this report, each project has 

been assigned a number. These numbers, which run 

consecutively, have no relation to any actual project 

number and are for reference only. The following is 

a list of contributing agencies and the numbers of the 

projects with which they are concerned. 

Contributing agencies 

Arizona State Land Department. ...... . 

Fort Hays Kansas State College ...... . 

Nevada Department of Conservation and Natural Resources ....... 

New Mexico State Engineer's 

Office ..................................... .. 

Pecos River Commission ............... . 

U. S. Agricultural Research 

Service .................................... . 

U. S. Bureau of Reclamation .......... .. 

U. S. Corps of Engineers .............. .. 

U. S. Forest Service ..................... . 

U. S. Geological Survey ................. . 

U. S. Soil Conservation Service ...... .. 

U. S. Weather Bureau .................... . 

University of Arizona .................... . 

University of Nevada, Nevada 

Agricultural Experiment Station .... 

Utah Agricultural Experiment 

Station ..................................... . 

Utah State Engineer's Office ........... . 

Utah Water and Power Board .......... . 

Wyoming Agricultural Experiment 

Station ..................................... . 

Project number 

2 

13 

15 

12,17,18,19 

20 

8, 11, 12. 14, 

15. 22, 23, 24 

1. 8, 9, 12, 13, 

17, 18. 23, 24 

1 

3, 4. 5, 6, 7, 12 

2. 9, 10, 19, 20 

15 

15 

15, 16 

22 

21, 22 

22 

23. 24 

The projects are grouped by States in alphabetical 

order. If there are some deserving projects that are 

not included in the report, it is because they were not 

brought to the author's attention. It is planned to revise 

this listing periodically, and any projects omitted here 

can be included in the revision. 

Arizona 

Project 1 

Title 

Effects of clearing phreatophytes from stream 

channels. 

University of Arizona, U. S. Bureau of Reclamation, 

and U, S. Corps of Engineers. 

Leader 

K. R. Frost, University of Arizona, 

Description 

In the interest of water conservation and flood protection, a 400-foot-wide strip of river-bottom vegetation 

was cleared by the Wellton-Mohawk Irrigation and 

Drainage District along the channel of the Gila River 

from Texas Hill to Dome, Ariz., a distance of 55 miles. 

The vegetation consisted largely of saltcedar, with 

lesser amounts of mesquite, saltbush, and baccharis. 

Clearing operations, using bulldozers equipped with a 

cutter knife for cutting below the root crown, were 

begun in the spring of 1958 and completed that growing 

season. 

The objectives of the project are to obtain data and 

information on: (1) the effectiveness of mechanical 

methods for controlling saltcedar and other riverbottom vegetation, (2) cost of clearing, (3) plant 

succession following clearing, (4) effect of clearing on 

the quantity and quality of the ground water. and (5) 

effectiveness of methods for maintaining cleared 

channels. 

In order to obtain the desired information, 96 plots, 

each 20 feet by 100 feet, were established in or adjacent 

to the cleared area for the purpose of measuring the 

tree cover and density, and the height, basal diameter, 

and spread of the trees. Eleven wells were constructed 

for use in obtaining ground-water levels and water 

samples. Cost data were obtained for various locations 

of different plant density. 

Status 

Active. One season's observations have been completed. 

Results 

Plant density was found to range from 24 to 6 3 persent. Clearing operations reduced plant density 
PROJECTS 3 

90 percent and plant cover 99 percent. Operation costs 

for undercutting ranged from $6 per acre for densities 

of 20 to 30 percent to $30 per acre for densities of 80 

to 90 percent; average, about $15 per acre. Water 

levels rose slightly following clearing, and there was 

an increase in the electrical conductivity of the ground 

water. 

Publication 

Progress report in Pacific Southwest Inter-Agency 

Committee minutes of 58-4 meeting at Las Vegas, 

Nev., December 3, 1958, as Attachment K of the 

Phreatophyte Subcommittee minutes. 

Final report upon completion of project. 

Project 2 

Title 

Change in water yield by the defoliation and removal 

of riparian vegetation in Cottonwood Wash near Kingman, Ariz. 

U. S. Geological Survey. Arizona State Land Department; Salt River Valley Water Users' Association. 

Leader 

U. S. Geological Survey, indiYl:_dual not designated. 

Description 

The objective of project is to determine if recovery 

of water is possible~ first by defoliation and second 

by removal of riparian vegetation. 

As a check on the site, reconnaissance observations 

were made of streamflow and ground-water levels 

during the growing and nongrowing season. Observations were made December 16-18, 1957, when plant 

life along the stream was dormant and again on June 

18-20, 1958, when the vegetation was fully leafed. 

Permanent installations of 3 gaging stations and 3 

ground-water observation wells were completed in 

September 1958. 

The reach of stream being investigated is divided 

into two sections by the gaging stations. It is proposed 

to defoliate vegetation in the lower section by June or 

July 1960 and to remove it during the winter of 1961. 

In the meantime, a detailed study of the geology and a 

careful analysis of ground-water storage will be made. 

Evaluation will be made of the vegetative cover along 

the stream. 

As the foliage leaves out, photographs are being obtained each week from the same observation points to 

attempt correlation between diurnal fluctuation of 

streamflow and water table and leaf cover. 

The area will be mapped with especial attention given 

tp inclusion of the riparian vegetation and the moist 

evaporative fringe along the channel. 

Additional instruments such as rain gages, anemometers, and pyrheliometers are expected to be installed 

in the spring or summer of 1959. 

Status 

Active. 

Results 

Diurnal effects shown on charts of water-stage 

recorders at gaging stations and ground-water observation wells. This is attributed to evapotranspiration 

losses. 

Publication 

Water-supply paper upon completion of project. 

Project 3 

Title 

Life history of tamarisk and related phreatophytes. 

U. S. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and 

Range Experiment Station. 

Leader 

J. S. Horton, U. S. Forest Service. 

Description 

A careful management of vegetation will be necessary 

to salvage additional water from the phreatophyte zone. 

Basic information concerning the life history of the 

principal species is necessary before a management 

practice can be applied with any assurance that the 

desired vegetation can be maintained and that undesirable species will not reinvade. Project covers the 

taxonomy and anatomy of the principal species and the 

influence of site and climatic factors upon seed 

germination, seedling establishment, phenological 

response, and individual growth and development (including roots). 

Status 

Some phases, such as the seed-germination studies, 

are nearing completion; others will require several 

more years. 
4 PHREATOPHYTE RESEARCH IN WESTERN UNITED STATES 

Results 

Tamarix pentandra seeds lose their viability in 

several months, especially when subjected to high 

temperatures. They germinate rapidly when moistened, 

but seedlings develop slowly and can survive only in 

soil that is continuously wet for a period of several 

weeks. 

Publication 

Research notes are in process of publication. Eventually the material will appear in technical publications. 

Project 4 

Title 

Survey of phreatophyte associations in Arizona. 

U. S. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and 

Range Experiment Station. 

Leader 

J. S. Horton, U. S. Forest Service. 

Description 

A survey of the occurrence and characteristics of 

the phreatophyte zone is needed in Arizona for two 

reasons: First, to properly evaluate the magnitude of 

the problem by obtaining knowledge of the present area 

of the existing associations and their species composition and density; and second, to form a basis for 

determining chahges occurring in the associations, 

particularly the spread of tamarisk into new areas. 

Status 

Observations of isolated occurrences of tamarisk 

have been made throughout the Salt and Verde River 

drainage basins. Assistance has been given by the 

project to the development of a standard method of 

estimating density of phreatophyte vegetation. 

Results 

No increases have been noted as yet in tamarisk 

stands. 

Publication 

No definite plans for publication have been made. 

Project 5 

Title 

Development of equipment for measuring evapotranspiration of undisturbed vegetation. 

U. S. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and 

Range Experiment Station. 

Leader 

J. P. Decker and J. S. Horton, U. S. Forest Service. 

Description 

As a basis for management of streambank and flood 

plains to reduce water losses by phreatophytes, information is needed as to the amount of water that would 

be lost from a given area of land if it were occupied 

by different types of plant communities. This requires 

an apparatus which can measure accurately water losses 

from individual plants or segments of plant cover. Of 

greatest promise is an apparatus which precisely 

measures water-vapor changes by means of an infrared 

gas analyzer. This apparatus must be correlated and 

other methods compared with it. 

Status 

Active. 

Results 

The infrared apparatus has been developed until it 

has been successfully used to measure vapor changes 

from transpiring shrubs up to 10 feet in height. It is 

now being applied in the field. 

Publication 

"An Infrared Apparatus for Measurement of Transpiration," by J. P. Decker and J. D. Wien, in "symposium for Phreatophytes," Phreatophyte Subcommittee, 

Pacific Southwest Inter-Agency Committee, 1958. 

Another article has been prepared and will be submitted for publication as an Experiment Station 

Research Note. 

Project 6 

Title 

Measurement of evapotranspiration. 
PROJECTS 5 

U. S. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and 

Range Experiment Station. 

Leader 

J. S. Horton and J. P. Decker. U. S. Forest Service. 

Description 

In order to determine water losses from the different 

phreatophyte covers and therefore to determine which 

are desirable to maintain or to establish, evapotranspiration losses must be measured over a wide variety 

of conditions. These measurements should be made 

precisely to determine losses from individual plants 

or small areas and then checked by gross measurements such as those from transpiration wells. streamgaging stations, or lysimeter studies. 

Status 

An apparatus using an infrared gas analyzer has 

been successfully developed for use in measurement 

of evapotranspiration from shrubs up to 10 feet in 

height (see project 5). Transpiration wells have been 

established in an experimental area along the Salt 

River above Granite Reef Dam. These are being calibrated at present. 

Results 

The indications are that tamarisk uses more water 

than a Bermuda grass sod. 

Publication 

Eventually, research notes and a final technical 

report. 

Project 7 

Title 

Replacement of undesirable vegetation. 

U. S. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and 

Range Experiment Station. 

Leader 

J. S. Horton. U. S. Forest Service. 

Description 

After it is determined that an existing phreatophyte 

stand is undesirable, a more desirable type of cover 

must be selected and methods of converting to and 

maintaining that cover developed. For this purpose 

fenced areas have been established on the Salt River 

experimental area above Granite Reef Dam to evaluate 

the effect of grazing on a tamarisk-Bermuda grass 

association. In order to evaluate the Fleco root plow 

as a means of removing a heavy stand of tamarisk. 

experimental sites have been established along the 

Gila River near Gillespie Dam. Survival and regrowth 

counts will be made after treatment by the plow. 

Status 

Active. 

Results 

Grazing slows down the development of tamarisk 

seedlings and sprouts. Root plowing in June killed all 

but about 15 tamarisk shrubs per acre. 

Publication 

Eventually. research notes and technical publications. 

Project 8 

Title 

Saltcedar control. 

U. S. Agricultural Research Service. Crops Research 

Division, and U. S. Bu:r:eau of Reclamation. 

Leader 

H. Fred Arle, U. S. Agricultural Research Service; 

C. W. Bowser. U. S. Bureau of Reclamation. 

Description 

A joint investigation of the means for the control of 

phreatophytes. particularly saltcedar. through chemical 

and mechanical methods. The effectiveness of various 

herbicides is tested by varying the rate. time, method, 

and number of applications on replicated plots of saltcedar regrowth of different ages. At the start of the 

study, all mature saltcedar plants were cut off at the 

land surface by a bulldozer. and the area was divided 

into 100 quarter-acre plots. separated by 12-foot 
6 PHREATOPHYTE RESEARCH IN WESTERN UNITED STATES 

access lanes. Age of the regrowth is from the date of 

cutting of the mature plants. Application of the herbicides is by ground-operated equipment. 

Status 

Tests on the plots which were started in the spring 

of 1956 are continuing. Consideration is being given 

to another test area where the regrowth and groundwater conditions are different. 

Results 

1. Saltcedar is more difficult to kill in flood plains 

than along irrigation channels and streams. 

2. Single-spray operations have never given satisfactory total plant kill of adult saltcedar, and only 

rarely have repeated treatments eliminated 80 percent 

or more of the plants. 

3. Periodic spraying of infested areas with 2, 4-D 

and 2, 4, 5-T will defoliate saltcedar and in this manner reduce transpiration losses. 

4. Applications of 2, 4-D and related materials 

appear more effective on young regrowth following 

mechanical destruction than on adult saltcedars. 

5. Application rates of less than 2 pounds per acre 

have generally given poor results. 

6. Low-volatile esters of 2, 4-D or combination of 

2, 4-D and 2, 4, 5-T have been consistently more 

effective than amine or sodium salts of 2, 4-D. 

7. Mechanical means, although expensive, are useful 

in the eradication of saltcedar, especially in areas 

near cotton or other crops susceptible to 2, 4-D. 

Mechanical control must be exercised at least yearly 

to eliminate regrowth from root sprouts and seedlings. 

8. Mechanical clearing followed by spraying of 

young regrowth with 2, 4-D or a mixture of 2, 4-D and 

2, 4, 5-T at 2.5 pounds or more per acre repeated as 

necessary once or twice a year appears to be the most 

effective and practical method now known for controlling saltcedar. 

Publication 

Results of first 2 years published in "Progress 

Report on Cooperative Saltcedar Control Investigation" 

prepared for presentation March 11-13, 1958, to 

Phreatophyte Subcommittee, Pacific Southwest InterAgency Committee. Periodic reports will be issued 

from time to time. 

Project 9 

Title 

Use of water by saltcedar in evapotranspirometers 

and correlation of evapotranspiration measuring 

methods. 

U. S. Geological Survey and U. S. Bureau of 

Reclamation. 

Leader 

T. van Hylckama, U. S. Geological Survey; C. W. 

Bowser, U. S. Bureau of Reclamation. 

Description 

To determine the use of ground water by saltcedar 

grown in evapotranspirometers, and to correlate and 

test the validity of other evapotranspiration measuring 

methods. It is proposed to construct six large tanks 

by the use of a plastic water-tight membrane. Each 

tank will be approximately 1,000 square feet in 

surface area and 12 to 14 feet in depth, located in 

an environment of saltcedar, and planted to saltcedar of the same density as in the surrounding area. 

Water levels in the evapotranspirometers will be 

maintained at predetermined levels of from approximately 4 feet to 12 feet below land surface, in order 

to determine the effect of depth to the water table on 

use by the plants. 

Instruments for other methods of measuring evapotranspiration, such as the energy-budget and 

transpiration-well methods, will be installed after the 

saltcedar has ·become established. 

Status 

Plans drawn, test site leased, and construction 

materials ordered. 

Publication 

Annual progress reports and final report. 

California 

Project 10 

Title 

Phreatophyte research. 

U. S. Geological Survey. 

Leader 

T. W. Robinson, U. S. Geological Survey. 

Description 

In the interest of water conservation in Western 

United States, it is essential that a comprehensive and 
PROJECTS 7 

coordinated phreatophyte research program be undertaken to estimate the quantity and quality of the ground 

water consumptively wasted by nonbeneficial phreatophytes, and to evaluate the quantity and quality of that 

that can be salvaged. The fields of study involved in 

these objectives are: (1) a knowledge of the habitats 

and characteristics of nonbeneficial phreatophytes, 

(2) the factors that control their occurrence, (3) the 

factors that effect evapotranspiration of ground water 

by them, and (4) econom~c methods for effecting 

salvage of the consumptively wasted ground water. In 

these hydrologic and ecologic fields of study, data are 

needed on the occurrence of phreatophytes, the relation 

of their occurrence to the quality of the ground water, 

areas and density of growth, depth of root penetration, 

and annual water consumption for different depths to 

the water table under different climatic conditions. 

Status 

Active. 

Results 

Partial data show that the occurrence of saltcedar is 

the most widespread in Arizona and New Mexico, that 

it has spread through all of the Southwestern States, 

and that it is infesting stream and reservoir areas as 

far north as central Wyoming. Considerable data have 

been obtained on the habitat and the relation of the 

quality of water to the occurrence of phreatophytes. 

Publi-cation 

"Phreatophytes," U. S. Geological Survey WaterSupply Paper 1423, 1958; this report; and a report on 

areas of saltcedar occurrence, 1960. 

Project 11 

Title 

Estimate of consumptive use and amount of water 

available for salvage along Kings River in Kings River 

Soil Conservation District, Calif. 

U. S. Agricultural Research Service, Soil and Water 

Conservation Research Division. 

Leader 

Dean C. Muckel, U. S. Agricultural Research 

Service. 

Description 

A large percentage of the area within the levees of 

the Kings River flood channel in the Kings River Soil 

Conservation District is covered with heavy growths 

of nonbeneficial vegetation, water surface, and moist 

soil. A high water table, maintained by seepage from 

a continuous flow in the river, exists along the channel. 

This, together with high summer temperatures, creates 

and ideal environment for maximum growth of phreatophytes ranging from large cotton wood and willows to 

grasses. The objectives of the study were to evaluate 

the loss by evapotranspiration within the levees and to 

estimate the water now being lost that might be salvaged. 

The unit use of water by phreatophytes was estimated 

by the Blaney-Criddle formula, U: Kf, for each of the 

following categories of growth: grassand scattered 

shrubs, and sparse, medium, and dense growths of trees, 

grass, and brush. Use of water for each category was 

obtained by multiplying the area by the unit use. Salvage was estimated by assuming conversion of the 

dense-and medium-growth areas to the grass and 

scattered-shrub category. 

Status 

Study completed. 

Results 

Estimated total evapotranspiration from 2,545 acres 

including water surface and wet sand was 8,546 acrefeet for the period April to September. Of this, 4,380 

acre-feet was by phreatophytes. Salvage was conservatively estimated as 1,450 acre-feet. 

Publication 

Mimeographed report entitled "Estimate of Consumptive Use and Amount of Water Available for Salvage 

Along Kings River in Kings River Soil Conservation 

District, Calif.," January 1959, 

Colorado 

Project 12 

Title 

Carbohydrate reserve in tamarisk (saltcedar). 

U. S. Bureau of Reclamation and U. S. Agricultural 

Research Service cooperating with the U. S. Forest 

Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment 

Station, and the New Mexico State Engineer's Office. 

Leader 

T. R. Bartley, U. S. Bureau of Reclamation. 

Description 

A study to determine the annual cycle of carbohydrate 

reserves in tamarisk stems and roots. The amount of 

carbohydrate reserve is frequently associated with 

growth, vigor, and susceptibility to injury. Thus, information concerning the low point in the carbohydrate 
8 PHREATOPHYTE RESEARCH IN WESTERN UNITED STATES 

root reserves may be useful in timing a control program. Studies of tamarisk plants in greenhouses have 

shown that applications of various formulations of 2, 

4-D and 2, 4, 5-T cause a reduction of carbohydrate 

food reserves present in the stem, crown, and root. 

Two collection sites were selected to learn the effect 

of different ecologic conditions on the seasonal trend 

of reserves. One site wa.s on the delta of the Caballo 

Reservoir on the Rio Grande in New Mexico, the other 

on the Salt River in Arizona. The samples from New 

Mexico were collected by personnel of the State 

Engineer's Office and from Arizona by the Rocky 

Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 

Status 

The study, which has been in progress since 1957, 

will continue. Further collection and analysis of 

specimens will be made to determine if carbohydratereserve trends continue as indicated by the first-year 

study. 

Results 

Preliminary results indicate that carbohydrate 

food reserves of roots and stems of tamarisk have 

well-defined periods of low carbohydrate content. 

The annual low carbohydrate content of the Arizona 

specimens occurred during the latter part of April, 

and in the New Mexico specimens it occurred in June. 

This difference in time could be due to differences in 

altitude, as the New Mexico site was about 3,000 feet 

higher. In the Arizona specimens the average carbohydrate content in roots was 5 to 6 percent greater 

than in the stems. 

Publication 

Carbohydrate reserves in Tamarisk (Salt cedarProgress Report No. 1, July 1957 through July 1958, 

U. S. Bureau of Reclamation, Chemical Engineering 

Laboratory Report No. SI-19, October 17, 1958, 

Commissioner's Office, Denver, Colo. Progress 

reports will be issued annually and a final report will 

be published on completion of study. 

Kansas 

Project 13 

Title 

Ecologic research on saltcedar. 

Agency 

Fort Hays Kansas St~te College, Division of Biological 

Science, cooperating with U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. 

Leader 

Gerald W. Tomanek, Kansas State College. 

Description 

An ecologic study of saltcedar pursuant to distribution 

at Cedar Bluff Reservoir, Kanopolis Reservoir, Smoky 

Hill River and tributaries, Kirwin and Webster Reservoirs, and Solomon River in Kansas, and selected areas 

in Texas and New Mexico; description of vegetation as 

whole, infestations, description of saltcedar communities 

as to density, age classes, variations in growth and 

seedling counts. Studies of life history, reproduction, 

water usage, and competition are also being considered. 

The primary goal of this study is to determine the 

loss of irrigation water due to this phreatophyte. 

Status 

Part of the work has been completed, the remainder 

will be continued until 1961. 

Two annual reports have been completed, and work 

is being done on a third. 

Results 

The viability of saltcedar as such is not a limiting 

factor in the spread of the plant. Viability was found 

to range fr~m 19.0 to 51.4 percent, with an average of 

32,5 percent. Each mature plant produces nearly half 

a million seeds annually. The highest germination 

occurred with solutions that had a pH of between 5.6 

and 7.0 and was weakly saline. Seeds stored at low 

temperatures had a higher rate of germination than 

those stored at high temperatures. 

Transpiration studies of three phreatophytes, saltcedar, cottonwood, and willow, showed that total water 

loss for plants of the same size was greatest for saltcedar. On the basis of loss per square decimeter of 

leaf area per day, the loss was least for saltcedar, 

3,80 grams, while for cottonwood it was 5,80 grams, 

and for willow 8.23 grams. The greater total loss for 

saltcedar was due to the greater leaf area. 

Seedling survival and growth was greatest in sodium 

chloride solutions of 0 to 3,000 ppm. The seedlings 

withstood concentrations of up to 4,000 ppm, but at 

5,000 ppm all seedlings died. 

Publications 

"Life History of Salt Cedar (Tamarix gallica L.)," 

Kansas Acad. Sci., Trans., v. 60, no. 4, 1957. 

"A Study of the Woody Vegetation at Cedar Bluff 

Reservoir," Kansas Acad. Sci. Trans., v. 60, no. 4, 

1957. 

"Annual Report on Ecological Research of Salt: 

cedar and Other Vegetation Primarily at Cedar 

Bluff Reservoir, Kansas," Fort Hays Kansas State 

College, Dept. of Biology, Div. of Biological 

Sciences, 1957. [Mimeographed] 
PROJECTS 9 

Nevada 

Project 14 

Title 

The effect of water-table depth on irrigation requirements and yield of Lahontan alfalfa. 

U. S. Agricultural Research Service. Soil and Water 

Conservation Research Division. 

Leader 

Rhys Tovey, U. S. Agricultural Research Service. 

Description 

To determine surface-irrigation requirements of 

Lahontan alfalfa grown on three soil. textures with 

constant water tables at various depths. and on welldrained soil in the absence of a water table; to determine the effect of plant growth stage on the rate of 

water use by Lahontan alfalfa; to determine the relation between the use of water by alfalfa under various 

water-table conditions. evaporation from porous atmometer bulbs. and evaporation from a Weather Bureau 

evaporation pan; and to evaluate the effects of a fluctuating water table on the yield and growth rate of 

alfalfa. 

The expected duration of the project is 3 years. Two 

years of consumptive-use data will be taken under 

constant water-table conditions. Then the water table 

will be fluctuated in order to observe the effect of a 

fluctuating water table on the yield and root system of 

the alfalfa. 

Status 

Sixty-three lysimeter tanks. 3 feet in diameter and 

varying in depth from 3 to 9 feet, have been installed 

on the University of Nevada Main Agricultural Experiment Station Farm at Reno. The variables. which are 

replicated, include the following: 

1. Three soil textures (sandy loam. loam, clay 

loam). 

2. Three water-table depths (2. 4, and 8 feet). 

3. Irrigated and nonirrigated conditions. 

4. Well-drained soil conditions. 

Alfalfa stands have been established in the tanks and 

in the surrounding area. Tensiometers are being 

installed in some of the tanks to study the movement 

of water in the capillary fringe of the nonirrigated 

tanks. A weather station is being established at the 

site to measure the following climatic and weather 

factors. which will be related to evapotranspiration 

wherever possible: Net radiation, temperature, humidity, precipitation, evaporation from an evaporation pan. 

evaporation from atmometer. bulbs, and wind. 

Results 

Results to date indicate that alfalfa grown under 

constant high water-table conditions has a considerably 

higher consumptive-use rate than alfalfa grown under 

well-drained field conditions. 

Publication 

None. 

Project 15 

Title 

Utilization of available water supplies in the Colorado 

River basin of Nevada. 

U. S. Agricultural Research Service, Soil and Water 

Conservation Research Division, cooperating with 

University of Nevada, Nevada Agricultural Experiment 

Station; U. S. Soil Conservation Service; Nevada 

Department of Conservation and Natural Resources; 

and U. S. Weather Bureau. 

Leader 

V. I. Myers. U. S. Agricultural Research Service. 

Description 

To determine the present disposition of Colorado 

River basin water in southeastern Nevada, both for 

beneficial and nonbeneficial uses. and to evaluate 

potential water supplies available for beneficial 

use in the Colorado River basin in southeastern 

Nevada. 

Status 

Salt grass is being grown in tanks, with a 2 -foot 

water table, at 3 locations, Logandale, Caliente, 

and Mesquite. Records of weather and evapotranspiration have been gathered for 2 years. Correlations and regression equations that relate evapotranspiration to weather records have been compute{f. 
10 PHREATOPHYTE RESEARCH IN WESTERN UNITED STATES 

Results 

At one location, the salt-grass yield was nearly 10 

times greater and the evapotranspiration nearly 4 

times greater than that occurring at another location 

having almost identical climatic conditions during the 

growing season. This demonstrates the importance 

of relating the consumptive use of phreatophytes to 

stand densities or yields. 

Publication 

None. 

Project 16 

Title 

Increased streamflow and forage production through 

eradication of undesirable vegetation, seeding, and 

grazing management. 

University of Nevada, Nevada Agricultural Experiment Station, Reno, Nev. 

Leader 

J. H. Robertson, University of Nevada. 

Description 

To explore the feasibility of using a combination of 

herbicides and fire to clear riparian vegetation, 

largely willow, for increased streamflow, increased 

forage, and easier handling of livestock. 

Status 

Since start of the project on July 1, 1958, 5 Parshall 

flumes and two 8-day water-level recorders have been 

installed on Knoll Creek and its tributaries near Contact, in northeastern Nevada. Knoll Creek is a tributary of the Little Salmon Falls, in the Columbia River 

basin. The recorders can be moved from flume to 

flume. Water-stage records have been obtained 

through September and October. 

Preliminary trial of the spring spraying-winter 

burning method of streamside brush eradication has 

been made on one tributary. Most of the burned area 

has been seeded to forage plants. Electric fence 

proved ineffective in protecting the seeded burned areas 

from either sheep or cattle. 

Profiles of two sections of the main channel of Knoll 

Creek have been charted as a basis for detection of 

accelerated bank cutting. 

Results 

----

Peak flow occurred in early morning, and minimum 

flow about 12 hours later. Daily water loss early in 

September 1958, in 1 mile of a small tributary was 

estimated at 1,370 gallons per day. 

Publication 

None. 

New Mexico 

Project 17 

Title 

Water-conservation measures and control of vegetation in Caballo Reservoir area, New Mexico. 

New Mexico State Engineer's Office and U. S. Bureau 

of Reclamation. 

Leader 

T. H. Moser, U. S. Bureau of Reclamation. 

Description 

The reservoir area of Caballo Dam, a storage diversion below Elephant Butte Dam, is covered with a 

moderate to dense growth of phreatophytes, largely 

saltcedar. Other phreatophytes are mesquite, cottonwood, willow, and baccharis. A high water table in and 

adjacent to the river channel and reservoir delta and 

dam, maintained by water from Elephant Butte Reservoir, offers a favorable environment for phreatophytes. 

Saltcedar, an aggressive and naturalizing plant, has 

spread throughout the bottomland area along the river 

and in the reservoir. The phreatophyte growth, estimated to total 5,500 acres, consumptively wastes many 

thousands of acre-feet of water annually that is 

intended for downstream irrigation. A program of 

conservation was undertaken in 1957 with the following objectives: (1) Conservation of water through 

the removal of saltcedar and other phreatophytic 

growth and control of regrowth, and (2) to evaluate 

the possibility of lowering the water table by rechanneling the river through the reservoir delta 

area. Preliminary analysis of streamflow and 

ground-water conditions indicated a saving of about 

7,000 acre-feet a year after allowing a usage of 

1.0 acre-foot per acre for substitute vegetation. 

Status 

About 4,000 of the 5,500 acres had been cleared to 

October 1958. Of this amount 75 percent was saltcedar, 20 percent cottonwood, and 5 percent mesquite. 

Sixty-three wells have been installed to observe 

ground-water conditions. Aerial photographs were 

taken on October 23, 1957, of the river channel and 

reservoir area between Elephant Butte and Caballo 

Dams. These photographs will be used in density 

surveys of the phreatophyte growth. 
PROJECTS 11 

Results 

Results of the operation are now being compiled by 

the New Mexico State Engineer's Office. 

Publication 

Publication proposed late in 1959 by the New Mexico 

State Engineer's Office. 

Project 18 

Title 

Water salvage in the Middle Rio Grande Valley. 

New Mexico State Engineer's Office; U. S. Bureau 

of Reclamation. 

Leader 

C. H. Clark, U. S. Bureau of Reclamation. 

Description 

The water table in the Rio Grande Valley above 

Elephant Butte Reservoir is such that it supports a 

dense growth of phreatophytes-saltcedar, willows, 

and some cottonwoods. These plants consumptively 

waste many thousands of acre-f~et of ground water 

that could otherwise be used for irrigation, and they 

also impede flood flows. The objective of the program. 

is to increase available flow in the river by (1) eliminating or controlling water-consuming vegetation, (2) 

increasing the efficiency of existing drains by enlarging them and clearing them of vegetation, (3) constructing new drains, and (4) channeling side inflow 

directly to the river, thus lowering the water table. 

Status 

Active in 1958, with continuing eradication of phreatophyte growth and control of vegetation regrowth. 

Results 

Water table lowered, which resulted in water being 

salvaged from water-loving vegetation. Amount salvaged has not been estimated. 

Publication 

None. 

Project 19 

Title 

Appraisal of potential ground-water salvage along 

the Pecos River between Acme and Artesia. 

U. S. Geological Survey and New Mexico Stat~ 

Engineer's Office. 

Leader 

R. W. Mower, U. S. Geological Survey, and J. W. 

Hood, New Mexico State Engineer's Office. 

Description 

In the bottomlands of the Pecos River, between the 

Acme and Artesia gaging stations, the water table is 

at or near the land surface. This condition, in combination with the prevailing climate, has established 

an ideal environment for the growth and spread of 

saltcedar and other phreatophytic vegetation. The area 

covered by these plants in this reach of the river was 

estimated to be more than 43,000 acres in 1956, and 

the consumptive waste to be several tens of thousands 

of acre-feet of ground water annually. Recorded field 

observations and comparison of successive aerial 

photographs show that the areal extent and density of 

the saltcedar are progressively increasing. indicative 

of progressive increase in consumptive waste. 

Studies were begun in 1956 to determine the amount 

of the consumptive waste and the feasibility of recovering a part of it, the effect on the flow of the Pecos 

River and on the ground water, and the probable changes 

in the chemical quality of the ground and surface water 

if salvage is attempted. 

Status 

Preparation of a final report is underway. 

Results 

Preliminary determinations suggest that the loss of 

water to phreatophytes in the Acme-Artesia reach is 

not less than 40,000 acre-feet annually and that 20,000 

to 25,000 acre-feet per year might be salvageable. 

Publication 

Publication of a final report as a technical report by 

the State Engineer's Office in late 1959 or early 1960. 

Project 20 

Title 

Use of water by phreatophytes in the McMillan Delta, 

Eddy County. 

Agency 

U. S. Geological Survey and Pecos River Commission. 

Leader 

E. R. Cox. U. S. Geological Survey. 
12 PHREATOPHYTE RESEARCH IN WESTERN UNITED STATES 

Description 

The bottomlands of the Pecos River between the 

Artesia gaging station and Lake McMillan contain about 

25,000 acres of saltcedar and other phreatophytic 

plants. Between the Artesia gaging station and the 

Rio Penasco the water table is at or near the land 

surface and is above the level of the Pecos River. 

Between the Rio Penasco and Lake McMillan the water 

table is below the level of the river, which flows 

through a constructed low-flow channel. During periods of low flow in the river and low stage of Lake 

McMillan, water levels decline and the consumptive 

use of the saltcedar is small between the Rio Penasco 

and Lake McMillan. However, periodic flooding of the 

lowlands by the Pecos River and the Rio Penasco and 

high stages of Lake McMillan recharge the water 

table in the lowlands south of the Rio Penasco, and the 

consumptive use by the saltcedars is large. 

Studies were begun in 1956 to determine the amount 

of consumptive waste and the relation between the 

ground water in the post-McMillan deposits, the valley 

fill, and the Permian rocks in the area. 

Status 

Basic-data collection period. 

Results 

, No results to report as yet. 

Publication 

Final report to be published by Pecos River 

Commission. 

Utah 

Project 21 

Title 

Utah phreatophyte survey. 

Utah State Engineer, with assistance by individuals 

from several State and Federal agencies. 

Leader 

R. Keith Higginson, Utah State Engineer's Office. 

Description 

The State has been divided into hydrologic units, 

and each member of the survey group is responsible 

for the development of new data within his unit. 

Reconnaissance surveys will be made of the entire 

State to determine the location, density, and effect of 

phreatophytes upon the State's water supplies. 

Status 

About one-third of the State has been covered by 

surveys, and a progress report was issued in August 

1958_..!-

Results 

The parts of the State covered show a total of 700,000 

acres covered by phreatophytic vegetation of various 

species and densities. This includes 6,000 acres of 

saltcedar which has been reported as far north as the 

Provo Bay area. 

Publication 

The group is continuing to work, and the data will be 

compiled from time to time. There are no definite 

plans for publication at this time. 

Project 22 

Title 

Consumptive use of water by native vegetation and 

irrigated crops in the Virgin River area of Utah. 

Utah Agricultural Experiment Station; U. S. 

Agricultural Research Service, Soil and Water· Convation Branch, Western Soil and Water Management 

Section; Utah Water and Power Board; Utah State 

Engineer. 

Leader 

Wayne D. Criddle, Utah State Engineer's Office, 

and Jay M. Bagley, Utah Agricultural Experiment 

Station. 

Description 

Several types of phreatophytes were grown in tanks 

at an experimental site near the Virgin River. Measurements were made of the rates of water consumption by the vegetation within the tanks. These measurements were compared with water-table fluctuations 

and with potential evapotranspiration as indicated by 

data from atmometers. Data were also obtained on 

rates· of consumptive use by irrigated crops in the 

area. The project began in 1955 and the fieldwork was 

completed in 1957. 

Status 

The final draft report is in preparation. 

Results 

Frequent floods of the Virgin River and its tributaries 

caused interruptions of measurements and necessitated 
PROJECTS 13 

some replanting within the tanks from time to time. 

However, results show_ the general range of use rates 

by irrigated crops and native vegetation. 

Publication 

It is expected that the report will be published as a 

special report of the Utah Agricultural Experiment 

Station. 

Wyoming 

Project 23 

Title 

Chemical control of saltcedar. 

U. S. Agricultural Research Service, U. S. Bureau 

of Reclamation Region 6, and Wyoming Agricultural 

Experiment Station, cooperating. 

Leader 

F. L. Timmons and L. W. Weldon, U. S. Agricultural 

Research Service. 

Description 

Basal applications of butoxyethanol esters of 2, 4-D 

and 2, 4, 5-T and a 50-50 mixture of the two were 

made on mature saltcedar at concentrations of 2 and 8 

percent in diesel oil at spring dormant, summer, and 

fall dormant stages of growth in 1956 and 1957. All 

treatments were replicated three times. 

Another experiment was begun in April 1958 comparing basal applications of butoxyethanol ester of 2, 

4-D at concentrations of 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 percent with 

broadcast applications of fenuron pellets at 10, 20, 

and 40 lb per acre active ingredient (ai) and of monuron 

at 20 lb per acre ai. 

Status 

The experiment begun in 1956 is completed. Final 

results on the experiment begun in 1958 will be obtained in 1959. Probably a new experiment comparing 

various herbicides as foliage applications will be 

begun in 1959 or 1960. 

Results 

The basal applications of 2, 4-D and 2, 4, 5-T made 

at full-leaf stage in 1956 gave 100-percent kill of saltcedar. Basal applications at the fall-dormant and 

spring-dormant stages were less effective, the survival 

being 18 to 23 percent for the 2-percent concentration 

and 4. 5 to 10 percent for the 8-percent concentration. 

Preliminary results from treatments made in April 

1958 showed complete defoliation by all rates of fenuron 

and monuron and complete kill by all rates of basally 

applied 2, 4-D. Some regrowth from saltcedar crowns 

had developed in plots treated at the lowest concentration of 0.5-percent 2, 4-D. 

Publication 

One brief report published in the 1958 Research 

Progress Report of the Western Weed Control 

Conference. 

Project 24 

Title 

Ecologic study of saltcedar. 

U. S. Agricultural Research Service, U. S. Bureau 

of Reclamation, and Wyoming Agricultural Experiment 

Station, Cooperating. 

Leader 

F. L. Timmons and L. W. Weldon, U. S. Agricultural 

Research Service. 

Description 

Eight plots, most of them 33 feet by 66 feet, were 

permanently staked out in May 1956 in typical saltcedar 

infestations ranging in age and size from seedlings 

less than 1 inch tall to mature trees 10 feet tall. Four 

additional plots were established in 1957 and 1958 in 

new infestations or on areas subject to invasion by 

saltcedar. The 12 plots are distributed in representative situations along 10 miles of Five Mile Creek from 

its juncture with Boysen Reservoir in central Wyoming. 

A total of 33 individual saltcedar plants within these 

plots was labeled for detailed study. 

In May of each year measurements are made on 

number of living saltcedar plants per plot, number of 

shoots per plant, range and average in height of plants, 

range and average diameter of shoots, distance from 

edge of Five Mile Creek, height of plot above water 

surface in Five Mile Creek and other ecologic measurements. A picture of each plot is taken from the 

same location in June of each year. 

Supplementary phenological observations are made 

each year on dates of first leaf, full leaf, first bloom, 

full bloom, first seed maturity, and fall leaf drop. 

Amount of seed produced and seed viability are also 

determined. 

Status 

Observations were made for 3 years on 8 plots and 

2 years or 1 year on the others. Observations will be 
14 PHREATOPHYTE RESEARCH IN WESTERN UNITED STATES 

continued in May of each year for an indefinite period 

until at least 5 years of results is recorded on all plots. 

Results 

An abundance of mature saltcedar seed of good 

viability has been produced every year. New seedling 

infestations have developed each year at distances up 

to 2 miles from seed-bearing plants. The infestations 

appeared to develop from current-year seed which 

germinates in late July or August on wet sandbars, 

siltbars, or at the waterline of the reservoir. Seedling 

plants only i inch to 2 inches tall grew to 1 to 3 feet 

in 1 year and 2 to 5 feet in 2 years. 

One plot with a dense stand of saltcedar 4 to 7 feet 

tall was washed away completely by undercutting. of 

Five Mile Creek and another was destroyed by submergence under water and silt during an unusually 

high flood stage in Boysen Reservoir. Nearly 100 

percent of the saltcedar has survived partial submergence by water, but 99 percent has been killed 

by complete submergence for several weeks in 

midsummer. 

Publication 

One brief report published in 1958 Research Progress Report of Western Weed Control Conference. 

INT.DUP.,D.C.59- U002