United States

Department of

Agriculture

Forest Service

Northeastern

Research Station

Research Paper NE-709

FIA Photointerpretation

in Southern New England:

A Tool to Determine

Forest Fragmentation

and Proximity to Human

Development

Rachel Riemann

Kathy Tillman
Abstract

The increasing proximity of human development to forest lands and the extent of

forest fragmentation caused by this development are major concerns for natural

resource managers. Forest fragmentation affects the biodiversity of native flora and

fauna, hydrologic processes, and management opportunities. Knowing the extent

and location of forest fragmentation and proximity to human development is

important in understanding these impacts. In southern New England, the

Northeastern Forest Inventory and Analysis unit has initiated data collection on the

extent and location of forest fragmentation and proximity to human development

during phase one (photointerpretation) of the inventory process. These data

include: a) the size of the continuous forested area in which the point falls, b) the

distance from that point to the nearest developed land use, and c) the category of

the nearest developed land use. This point sample interpretation, from 1:40,000

aerial photography, allows for the identification and “mapping” of some detailed

distance and land use variables that are not currently available from other sources.

At a sampling intensity of approximately 1 point for every 285 acres, these points

provide a relatively continuous picture of the location of forest land across a state,

the extent of forest fragmentation and distribution of patch sizes, and the extent and

proximity of human development. In this paper we describe the procedure and

preliminary results for Rhode Island and Connecticut.

Published by: For additional copies:

USDA FOREST SERVICE USDA Forest Service

5 RADNOR CORP CTR SUITE 200 Publications Distribution

RADNOR PA 19087-4585 359 Main Road

Delaware, OH 43015

October 1999 Fax: (740)368-0152

Visit our homepage at: http://www.fs.fed.us/ne

The Authors

RACHEL RIEMANN is a research forester/geographer with the Forest Inventory

and Analysis Unit, Northeastern Research Station, Radnor, Pennsylvania. She

received a B.A. in ecology from Middlebury College, an M.S. in forestry from the

University of New Hampshire, and an M.Phil in geography from the London School

of Economics.

KATHY TILLMAN is a forester with the Forest Inventory and Analysis Unit,

Northeastern Research Station, Radnor, Pennsylvania. She received a B.S. in

forestry from Oklahoma State University.

Manuscript received for publication 9 October 1998
1

Introduction

The issues of forest fragmentation and the increasing

proximity of forest land to human disturbances and land

uses are frequently acknowledged throughout the United

States as growing concerns for natural resource managers

(for example, Birch and Moulton 1997; Broderick et al. 1991;

Kitteredge 1992; Rudis 1992; Thompson et al. 1996). The

expansion of urban areas and suburban development, and

the influx of residential and recreational development into

previously forested areas are substantially affecting those

forests (Zipperer 1993a). Development intrusion reduces

forest interior habitat (for example, Franzreb and Rosenberg

1997; Robbins et al. 1989; Zipperer 1993b); increases the

proximity of forest land to human development of all types

(roads, residential, industrial); and increases the use of the

forest by people for recreation and other activities, such as

harvesting of timber and non-timber forest products

(Dawson and Zipperer 1992; Emery 1998). It also alters the

types of forest management that can be used, such as fire,

harvesting techniques, and spraying (Liu and Scrivani 1997;

Zipperer 1993c); changes local hydrology (Zipperer and

Andersen 1991); and enhances the invasion of exotic species

(Pouyat and Zipperer 1992; Zipperer and Pouyat 1995).

These impacts of development are not fully understood. For

example, many fundamental questions need to be

answered. Is there a relationship between changes in forest

composition and type and extent of human development?

Does the proximity and pattern of human development affect

a forest’s species composition, structure, plant and animal

biodiversity, and forest health? What are the indicators or

features that could be used to measure and monitor this

potential impact? Are human density or forest patch size

important factors? Do certain developed land uses have

more effect on forest structure and processes than others?

Is there a certain threshold of patch size, distance to land

use, or percent distribution/cover below which there is

essentially no effect on the forest, or above which forests

begin to dramatically change? And how can we begin to

measure these indicators over both large and small areas?

Answers to these questions and others are needed to allow

natural resource managers to assess the status of forest

lands in increasingly populated states and to plan for their

management. This study focuses on one technique used to

identify some of these indicators over large areas.

Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) of the USDA Forest

Service is responsible for providing periodic assessments of

the Nation’s forest resources. FIA units conduct inventories

by state, or groups of states, in cycles that range from 8 to

15 years. These inventories provide information on the

amount, status, and character of the forest resources of the

state and, collectively, of the Nation. Data are collected at a

sampling intensity of between 3,000 and 8,000 acres per

plot. Plots are chosen via a double-sampling strategy,

consisting of both a photointerpretation stage (phase one)

and ground inventory (phase two). Phase one, an intensive

sample grid of photointerpretation points (one point for every

285 acres), is used to stratify sample points. Phase two

consists of remeasured plots supplemented by a subset of

points from that grid (Alerich 1998). As a source of forest

information over large areas, FIA data represent a unique

source. Current pressures on and interests in forested areas

have increased the demands for and uses of forest inventory

information, such as that which can yield additional

fragmentation and context information. The accuracy of

context information, such as the size of the forested patch

surrounding a plot or the distance to certain features, can be

very much affected by the direction a field crew uses to get

to a plot, and is not easily measured on the ground. Remote

sensing can be used to gather or support the collection of

such context information.

To determine type and degree of fragmentation and human

influence on forest land and to begin to determine the

indicators that might effectively provide that information,

efforts have been initiated by several FIA units. To date,

efforts are on a regional scale, having been inspired by

regional concerns, but each effort provides an example of

the kinds of information regarding the proximity of forested

areas to human development that could be gathered on a

national level. For example, the Pacific Northwestern unit

(PNW) has been measuring the proximity and density of

development (number of buildings or other man-made

structures) around each FIA ground plot.1Both the PNW and

North Central (NC) units have been measuring the

percentage of each of six cover types within fixed areas

around each ground plot: 10-, 40-, 160- and 640-ha areas in

PNW, and 5- and 50-ha areas in NC.2The North Central unit

has also been looking at forest fragmentation using a

combination of ground inventory and photointerpreted

information, such as stand area, size of ownership,

disturbance, and distance to nearest road (Schmidt and

Raile 1998). In the Northeast, the FIA unit has been

measuring the size of the forested patch at each

photointerpretation point location, the distance from that

point to the nearest developed land use, and what that

nearest land use is for each photointerpretation point. In this

paper we describe the procedure used by the Northeast FIA

unit for two states in the Northeast, Rhode Island and

Connecticut, and present initial results. With these data

available, additional studies will be possible to investigate

how strongly these variables relate to real changes in the

forest, and investigate further which remote sensing

methods and sensors are most effective at measuring those

features/indicators.

1

Dale Baer, personal communication, PNW-FIA, Portland, OR.

2

Elizabeth Collins, personal communication, NC-FIA, St. Paul,

MN. Ken Winterberger, personal communication, PNW-FIA,

Anchorage, AK. Dale Baer, personal communication, PNW-FIA,

Portland, OR.
2

Data/Methods

During the last forest inventory of Connecticut and Rhode

Island, data on additional fragmentation/proximity

information were obtained by photointerpretation from

1:40,000 color infrared (CIR) spring photography (March and

April, 1992-1993) at all phase one photointerpretation

points. As part of the current inventory in each state, these

points are established on the most recent photography from

the National Aerial Photography Program (NAPP) at a

sampling intensity of roughly one point for every 285 acres.

A grid of 16 points covering the center portion of each

photograph is burned into the imagery in the form of open

crosshairs when the photography is printed, allowing each

point to be both accurately located and free of obstruction

for photointerpretation. The center of the crosshairs is 1 acre

in size. With only a few exceptions due to missing

photography, there is complete coverage of each state.

Gaps and overlaps do occur between flight lines, resulting

in an approximate instead of a fixed regular grid of points across

the state (Fig. 1).

We interpreted each point as being either forest or

nonforest using FIA’s definition of forest land (at least 1 acre

in size, at least 120 feet in width, at least 10% stocked, and

not developed for a nonforest land use) (Alerich 19983 ).

Each nonforested plot was interpreted for land use using a

slight modification of MacConnell’s land use classification

scheme (Table 1) (MacConnell et al. 1991). In addition, each

forested point was interpreted for three indicators of

fragmentation or human land use: a) the size of the

continuous forested tract in which that point falls, b) the

distance from that point to the nearest developed land use,

and c) the category of the nearest developed land use. The

distance and area information were recorded as discrete

classes (Tables 2, 3, and 4).

Long linear stretches of tree cover were not included in the

size of a continuous forested area unless they were greater

than 120 feet in width. Roads constituted an edge or

interruption in the forest patch only if they were greater than

220 feet wide (a transportation corridor) or had houses

along them (residential). Narrower and non-residential roads

were not considered a developed land use in this study. The

size of the forested patch was measured using a dot grid

overlaid on the photography. Distance to nearest developed

land use was measured as the shortest distance from the

forested point to the nearest edge of that land use.

Photointerpreted points were digitized with estimated

location errors of +/- 100m.

Results and Discussion

Rhode Island and Connecticut are 56 percent and 59

percent forested, respectively (Table 5).4 Results from the

photointerpretation of Rhode Island and Connecticut

illustrate the spatial distribution of forest patch size, distance

to nearest developed land use, type of nearest developed

land use, and land use encountered at each

photointerpreted point (Figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5). In general,

Rhode Island is most developed to the east, around

Naragansett Bay, and the largest patches of forest remain

along the western edge. Connecticut is most developed in

the southwestern corner and up the Connecticut River

Valley, with the largest patches of forest remaining in the

northwest corner of the state. Very few forested points are

more than one half mile from the nearest developed land

use, and most are less than one-eighth of a mile (660 feet)

(Tables 6, 7, and 8).

Residential is the dominant land use nearest to forested

points (61% of the points) (Fig. 4 and Table 8). Cropland/

Pasture is second (22%), and transportation routes do show

up occasionally as the developed land use that is

encroaching on forest land. This variable—type of nearest

developed land use—does show the type and location of

land uses which are potentially affecting forest land most. It

does not, however, provide any information on how much

impact or what kind of impact those different land uses have,

only their extent and where they occur. Combined with

knowledge of the impact of different land uses, the spatial

information could furnish substantial information for regional

planning. For example, Figure 5 illustrates the land uses at

each photointerpreted point. More than half the points are

considered forested by FIA’s definition. However, because of

their proximity to developed land uses, most of that forest

land is also subject to probable human influence.

Our analysis indicated that several different indicators of

fragmentation and proximity to human development are

necessary to assess effectively the effects of each on forest

lands. Each indicator reflected a slightly different component

of the landscape context. To use any one of them alone as a

generic indication of where fragmentation is undesirable

would almost certainly be misleading. For example, the

maps of “size of forested patch” (Fig. 2 and Table 6) and

“distance to nearest land use” (Fig. 3 and Table 7) could

each illustrate how fragmented an area is. However, when

taken separately, they yield two slightly different impressions.

The first map reveals that relatively large patches of

continuous forest area exist in Rhode Island and

Connecticut. By contrast, the second map shows that all

areas are in close proximity to developed land uses and

3Alerich, D. 1998. Field instructions for the fourth inventories of

southern New England: Massachusetts, Rhode Island,

Connecticut. Unpublished report on file at U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station,

Forest Inventory and Analysis Unit, Radnor, PA. 96 p. plus

appendices.

4This is a preliminary look at area breakdowns based on the

photointerpretation. The actual ground data are used to

calculate forest area in the published FIA statistical reports. Due

to different levels of error in the photointerpretation, these values

may differ slightly.
3

human activities, thus probably influencing both

management options and ecological processes. In general,

each photointerpreted variable provides slightly different

information about the current situation. Which impact we are

particularly interested in—whether it is the invasion of the

forest by exotic plant species, reduction in the suitability of

habitat for interior forest species, or restrictions on forest

management—will determine which indicator or combination

of indicators are most useful in any one analysis.

Although not every forest patch is identified using this point

sample approach, delineating each forest patch is an

extremely time-consuming photointerpretation process, and

most likely prohibitive for statewide periodic assessments.

Also, delineation is subject to greater interpreter error, as

more error occurs in delineating stand boundaries than in

point interpretation. When a continuous map is desired,

rather than mapping all stands from the photography, a

geostatistically modeled map can be created relatively easily

from the high density of sampled point data using existing

geostatistical techniques.

Point-sample interpretation provides data on patch size,

proximity, and land use measurements that are not currently

available in other spatial datasets. The accuracy, spatial

resolution, and/or classification (attribute) resolution of forest

cover derived from satellite imagery is not yet available for

local or regional planning. Neither are land use, street, and

population databases all available with the necessary

accuracy and resolution to perform such context analyses.

With the point-sample interpretations, regional patterns can

be assessed. For example, at least 60 percent of the

forested plots were less than one-eighth of a mile (660 feet)

from a nonforested land use. When such spatial data are

available with the desired accuracy and currency necessary

for planning, some proximity and context information may be

effectively and more quickly acquired through the spatial

analysis of forested plots with existing spatial databases.

Until then, point-sample interpretation from aerial

photography yields critical data concerning the magnitude,

extent, and location of fragmentation and human

development pressures on the forest. This information is

important towards understanding the effects of these

conditions on the native biodiversity of flora and fauna, forest

structure, and ecological processes. Collecting the

information now, in conjunction with the current inventory,

will provide a useful benchmark against which to assess

future changes.

Table 1.—The MacConnell land use classification system (MacConnell et al. 1991).

Code Description

10 R0 Multifamily residential (apartments and tenements)

11 R1 High-density residential (<= 1/4-acre house lots)

12 R2 Medium-density residential (<= 1/2-acre house lots)

13 R3 Low-density residential (> 1/2-acre house lots)

15 UC Commercial (city buildings, shopping centers, “business parks”, etc.

16 UI Industrial (manufacturing facilities)

17 UO Urban open (schools & colleges, churches, cemeteries, city parks, etc.)

18 UT Transportation (airports, docks, railroads roadways > 220' in width)

05 M Mining (sand, gravel, etc.)

19 UW Waste disposal (landfills, junkyards, sewage plants)

01 AC Cropland (tilled & untilled fields, farm buildings)

02 AP Pasture

21 WP Woody perennials (orchards, Christmas trees, nurseries)

23 CB Cranberry bog

06 O Open land (abandoned fields & orchards, right-of-ways > 100' in width, dunes, heath)

20 W Water (lakes and ponds >= 1 acre, rivers & streams >= 120 feet in width)

04 FW Inland water (flood plain, bog, swamp, meadow, marsh, beaver pond)

14 SW Salt wetland (salt marsh & meadow)

03 F All forest land (>= 1 acre and 120 feet in width)

30 OC Ocean
4

Table 2.—The discrete classes used to record

the size of the continuous forested area.

Code Acres

0 point center is nonforest

1 <= 2.5

2 2.6 - 25

3 26 - 125

4 126 - 250

5 251 - 1,250

6 1,251 - 2,500

7 >= 2,501

Table 3.—The discrete classes used to record the

distance to nearest developed land use.

Code Miles Feet

0 point center is nonforest

1 <= .125 <= 660

2 .125 - .25 661 - 1320

3 .25 - .50 1,321 - 2,640

4 .50 - 1.0 2,641 - 5,280

5 1.0 - 1.5 5,281 - 7,920

6 1.5 - 2.0 7,921 - 10,560

7 2.0 - 2.5 10,561 - 13,200

8 2.5 - 3.0 13,201 - 15,840

9 > 3.0 > 15,840

Table 4.—The land use groups used to record the type

of nearest developed land use.

Code Description

0 point center is nonforest

1 R0,R1,R2,R3 (residential)

2 UC,UI (urban commercial or industrial

3 UO (urban open)

4 UT (transportation/roads)

5 M, UW (mining/waste)

6 AC, P (agriculture crops/pasture)

7 WP (woody perennials

8 CB (cranberry bog)

9 O (open)

Table 5.—Summary statistics regarding the land use classes encountered at each photointerpretation point.

Rhode Island Connecticut

Land use Number of points Total points, percent Number of points Total points, percent

Forest 1,444 56 6,744 59

Residential 498 19 2,302 20

Commercial/industrial 72 3 289 3

Urban open 62 2 218 2

Transportation 49 2 155 1

Mining/waste 14 1 52 0

Cropland/pasture 134 5 907 8

Orchards/nurseries 3 0 42 0

Cranberry bog 0 0 0 0

Open 78 3 215 2

Water/wetland 221 9 493 4

Total points interpreted 2,575 100 11,417 99
5

Table 6.—Summary statistics regarding the size of forested patch across each state.

 Rhode Island Connecticut

Size of forested patch Number of points Total forested Number of points Total forested

(acres) points, percent points, percent

<= 2.5 62 4 535 8

2.6 - 25 90 6 643 9.5

26 - 125 191 13 1,143 17

126 - 250 225 16 846 12.5

251 - 1250 535 37 2,282 34

1251 - 2500 153 11 684 10

> 2501 188 13 611 9

Total forested points 1,444 100 6,744 100

Table 8.—Summary statistics regarding the nearest developed land use encountered across each state.

 Rhode Island Connecticut

Land use Number of points Total forested Number of points Total forested

points, percent points, percent

Residential 877 61 4,036 60

Commercial/industrial 31 2 143 2

Urban open 27 2 112 2

Transportation 56 4 203 3

Mining/waste 19 1 108 2

Cropland/pasture 313 22 1,618 24

Orchards/nurseries 8 0.5 67 1

Cranberry bog 4000

Open 109 7.5 457 7

Total forested points 1,444 100 6,744 101

Table 7.—Summary statistics regarding the distance to nearest developed land use across each state.

 Rhode Island Connecticut

Distance Number of points Total forested Number of points Total forested

(miles) points, percent points, percent

<= .125 898 62 4,582 68

.125 - .25 333 23 1,234 18

.25 - .50 162 11 689 10

.50 - 1.0 49 3 219 3

1.0 - 1.5 1 0 18 0

1.5 - 2.0 1020

Total forested points 1,444 99 6,744 99
6

Figure 1.

—The FIA photointerpretation points, Connecticut and Rhode Island.

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Figure 2. 

# point center is 

# < 2.5 acres# 2.6 - 25 acres# 26 - 125 acres# 126 - 250 acre# 251 - 1250 acr# 1251 - 2500 ac# > 2501 acres

counties

Figure 2.

—Patch size of forested areas, Connecticut and Rhode Island.
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Figure 3. 

# <= .125 mile

# .125 - .25 mi# .25 - .50 mile# .50 - 1.0 mile# 1.0 - 1.5 mile# 1.5 - 2.0 mile

counties

Figure 3.

—Distance from each forested point to the nearest developed land use, Connecticut and Rhode Island.
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Figure 4. 

# point center is 

# residential# commercial/in# urban open# transportation# mining/waste# cropland/pastu# orchards/nurse# open

counties

Figure 4.

—The type of land use encountered nearest each forested point, Connecticut and Rhode Island.
10

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Figure 5. 

# forest

# cropland/pastu# orchards/nurse# residential# transportation# mining/waste# urban commer# urban open# open# water/wetland

counties

Figure 5.

—The type of land use encountered at each photointerpreted point, Connecticut and Rhode Island.
11

Conclusions

Each indicator—forest patch size, distance to nearest land

use, and type of land use—provides a slightly different

context of forest-land dynamics. Which one or combination

of these indicators relates most directly to changes in the

forest, to changes in its use by wildlife species, to changes

in management opportunities, or to changes in the

importance of the forest land to people, is yet to be

determined and will be the subject of future studies.

Preliminary information on site conditions can be acquired

by local managers and landowners. More detailed data on

changes in site conditions must be obtained from FIA data

over time, and long-term field research. For example, current

research being established by the two new urban Long Term

Ecological Research (LTER) sites in Phoenix, Arizona, and

Baltimore, Maryland, will yield much needed data on the

impacts of human activities on forest ecosystems. The

approach used here provides some information regarding

the status of forest lands via several indicators of

fragmentation and proximity. This information can be used in

conjunction with local knowledge, additional research, and

comparison with other information to address the questions

above, and to assess the impacts of and plan for future

development.

Future Research

Investigations will continue to determine and examine: a)

whether the variables collected identify characteristics of

fragmentation and proximity to human development that are

of interest, b) what is an appropriate sampling intensity to

yield needed data, and c) whether other data sets such as

population and housing densities from the Census Bureau

can be combined with FIA sample data to give additional

information on land use patterns and effects on natural

resources management and ecological processes.

Other future investigations will involve comparing the

inventory approaches and databases used by the NC, NE,

and PNW units. Each FIA unit sampling approach uses

different sampling intensities, different sampling strategies

(point sample vs. area estimate sample), and different

sample variables to determine what is the best approach or

series of approaches to assess the effect of development on

forest lands. The results of these photointerpretation efforts

have not yet been exhaustively analyzed.

The data collected for this study are available for further

analysis and use with your own data, and can be accessed

via the NEFIA web page at (www.fs.fed.us/ne/data/

pipoints.html).

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landowners: a profile. National Woodlands. January.

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1991. Practicing foresters identify research needs.

Journal of Forestry. 89(8):27-32, 35.

Dawson, C.P.; Zipperer, W.C. 1992. Impacts of land use

changes on recreation and open space in the New

York-New Jersey Highlands Region. In: Chavez, D.,

tech. coord.. Proceedings of the symposium on social

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Emery, M.R. 1998. Invisible livelihoods: non-timber forest

products in Michigan’s Upper Peninsula. Rutgers, NJ:

Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Department

of Geography. Ph.D. dissertation. 291 p.

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assessment: phase one project report. Charlottesville,

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Massachusetts at Amherst.

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management of urban woodlands. In: Rodbell, P.D., ed.

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conference; 1991 November 12-17; Los Angeles, CA.

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12

Rudis, V.A. 1992. Forest fragmentation of southern U.S.

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The increasing proximity of human development to forest lands and the extent of

forest fragmentation caused by this development are major concerns for natural

resource managers. Forest fragmentation affects the biodiversity of native flora and

fauna, hydrologic processes, and management opportunities. Knowing the extent

and location of forest fragmentation and proximity to human development is

important in understanding these impacts. In southern New England, the

Northeastern Forest Inventory and Analysis unit has initiated data collection on the

extent and location of forest fragmentation and proximity to human development

during phase one (photointerpretation) of the inventory process.
Headquarters of the Northeastern Research Station is in Radnor,

Pennsylvania. Field laboratories are maintained at:

Amherst, Massachusetts, in cooperation with the University of Massachusetts

Burlington, Vermont, in cooperation with the University of Vermont

Delaware, Ohio

Durham, New Hampshire, in cooperation with the University of New Hampshire

Hamden, Connecticut, in cooperation with Yale University

Morgantown, West Virginia, in cooperation with West Virginia University

Parsons, West Virginia

Princeton, West Virginia

Syracuse, New York, in cooperation with the State University of New York,

College of Environmental Sciences and Forestry at Syracuse University

Warren, Pennsylvania

The U. S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and

activities on the basis of race, color, national origin, gender, religion, age, disability, political

beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all

programs.) Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for communication of

program information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact the USDA's TARGET

Center at (202)720-2600 (voice and TDD).

To file a complaint of discrimination, write USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, Room 326-

W, Whitten Building, 14th and Independence Avenue SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410, or

call (202)720-5964 (voice and TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer.