i

Constructive Convergence: 

Imagery and Humanitarian Assistance 

Doug Hanchard 

Center for Technology and National Security Policy 

Institute for National Strategic Studies 

National Defense University 

February 2012 
The views expressed in this paper are those of the author and do not reflect official policy or position of the 

National Defense University, the Department of Defense, or the U.S. Government. All information and sources 

for this paper were drawn from unclassified documents. 

Google, Google Earth, KML are registered trademarks of Google. All Google Images created using Google 

Earth and Google Maps created and published with written permission from Google. 

Other product names mentioned herein are used for identification purposes only and may be trademarks of their 

respective companies. 

Content describing commercial, governmental, nongovernmental, nonprofit organizations, or agencies 

describing devices, software, or intellectual property in this document are written under Fair Use per 17 U.S.C. § 

107 of the Copyright Act (1976). 

The Center for Technology and National Security Policy expresses appreciation to Ms. Jessica L. Block, Dr. 

Jeffrey Smotherman, Mr. Frank Hoffman and Ms. Isadora Blachman-Biatch for their editorial support. 

Doug Hanchard is the President of Rapid Response Consulting (Toronto, Ontario), an ICT consulting firm 

specializing in telecommunication services for enterprise organizations and government agencies. Hanchard has 

worked at Bell Canada, TELUS and AT&T implementing and delivering telecommunication solutions 

worldwide in 57 countries. 

In memory of Ivan W. Hanchard 

Collaborator, negotiator, and, most of all, a father 

who taught wisdom based on experience.

ii
iii

Contents 

Foreword ..............................................................................................................................................................v

Executive Summary ...........................................................................................................................................1

I. Introduction .....................................................................................................................................................2

II. The Users of Imagery...................................................................................................................................4

III. Imagery: Types and Uses ..........................................................................................................................7

IV. Computing to Enable the Use of Imagery..............................................................................................8

V. Communications Networks......................................................................................................................25

VI. Putting It into Practice............................................................................................................................32

VII. Recommendations...................................................................................................................................34

Appendix A. Imagery, Maps, and Usage....................................................................................................41

Appendix B. Humanitarian Assistance / Disaster Relief (HA/DR) Events and Mapping 

Examples: Lessons Learned..........................................................................................................................46

Glossary .............................................................................................................................................................74
iv
                                                           

v

Foreword 

In the past few years—especially since the 2010 Haitian earthquake—Geospatial Information System (GIS) 

products, often based on imagery, have become critical enablers of humanitarian assistance and disaster relief 

(HA/DR) efforts. Much more imagery is becoming available to the HA/DR community, complemented by 

increasing bandwidth to share it, more powerful “edge” devices to process it, global volunteer groups to help 

make sense of “crowd-sourced” information and high-level policy and doctrine that are becoming more 

supportive of collaboration around GIS products in HA/DR environments. 

Doug Hanchard’s paper makes an important contribution to this field. He does not try to be all things to all 

people, but focuses on important technological aspects of imagery in HA/DR. The paper includes specific 

recommendations, from transmission standards, to short message service shortcodes, to application 

programming interfaces and data search techniques. At the same time, he recognizes that technology alone is not 

enough: 

• Social networks need to be developed and trust built to encourage diverse groups to work together 

• Policy and doctrine need to be translated into effective field operating procedures so that people “on the 

ground” know what to do 

• Legal and regulatory constraints must be understood and challenged where necessary 

• Resources must be addressed and acquired 

• Trainers must be trained, units exercised and curricula adapted to achieve genuine lessons learned, 

instead of lessons observed, and re-observed, and re-observed. 

Importantly, the paper ties imagery to logistics and to local populations in their worlds, with their resources. 

This reinforces a model, developed from Haitian and Afghan experiences, which suggests that organizations 

need to build “bridges” to the “crowd” that is generating so much information.1

 Handling the volume and 

velocity of information created by social media and the 24/7 news cycle will be essential for all organizations 

going forward. At the same time, unless “transactions” are completed that make a difference on the ground 

(people pulled from rubble, supplies delivered, contracts fulfilled) improved situational awareness doesn’t help 

much—hence the importance of logistics. Finally, “feedback” is needed, both to make the transactions more 

effective and to inform the “crowd” (the international community) about what’s happening. 

Doug repeatedly points out that “people save lives, not technology,” and his solutions emphasize ways that 

technology can help make people more effective, not be an end in itself. The complicated environments of most 

HA/DR scenarios require that practitioners seek to achieve “unity of action” when there’s no “unity of 

command,” and his recommendations provide tangible steps to help achieve this most difficult goal. 

 —Linton Wells II 

 Director, Center for Technology and 

 National Security Policy, 

 National Defense University

1 L. Wells and R. Welborn, “From Haiti to Helmand: Using Open Source Information to Enhance Situational 

Awareness and Operational Effectiveness,” (Center for Technology and National Security Policy, December 2010), 

available at<http://star‐

tides.net/sites/default/files/From%20Haiti%20to%20Helmand%2012%2011%2010%20v14_0.doc >. 
vi
1

Executive Summary 

Imagery assessment is a vital tool for humanitarian responders when disaster strikes. Whether derived 

from satellite, aircraft, unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) or ground views, imagery offers event confirmation and 

impact, an early assessment and a foundation on which to initiate response planning. The goal of this paper is to 

illustrate to the technical community and interested humanitarian users the breadth of tools and techniques now 

available for imagery collection, analysis and distribution, and to provide brief recommendations with 

suggestions for next steps. 

Over the past decade, the humanitarian community has found its growing access to imagery to be 

valuable and organizational policies are changing to reflect that importance. Humanitarian response 

organizations have also paved new paths forward when the existing methods were antiquated (some of which 

are described below). As new methods are adopted, changes in the use of imagery may alter organizational 

command structures. 

Innovative technology, like imagery and the information derived from it, has long been a hallmark of 

human evolution—but using it wisely has been a challenge. There are legal, political and ethical questions that 

quickly arise around the use of imagery in disasters. In addition to the legal and ethical issues, humanitarian 

assistance requires teamwork and collaboration. Responders using imagery must overcome interoperability 

challenges, develop technical standards, create governance structures and protect both personal privacy and 

intellectual property. In some cases, those posting or using imagery in the field may be at physical risk. 

Recognizing those needs, a growing number of volunteer technical groups have an opportunity to design tools 

that reflect current technical capabilities while addressing the full spectrum of requirements. We can now 

include imagery contributions from affected populations to a degree never before possible, which raises further 

opportunities for the design of new tools and processes. 

Today’s technologies include public access to satellite and aerial imagery platforms; resilient networks; 

and larger and faster data storage capabilities at data centers, on smart phones and tablet computers that are 

capable of manipulating imagery files using surprisingly high-performance applications that reside locally on 

the device. Such a convergence of capabilities is uncommon. This paper is intended to stimulate discussion on 

that convergence around the use of imagery in humanitarian response, and to inform readers about the resources 

available for research in more depth. 
2

I. Introduction 

“Imagery is like fish—best when it’s fresh.” 

—Major General John Hawley (USAF Ret.), U.S. Space Command 

Disaster Strikes

An earthquake occurs in a city of 375,000 people. As reports are digested the scale of the disaster 

becomes clear, revealing an estimated $30 billion in damages and resources are overwhelmed. Compromised 

energy resources limit communications for situational awareness, and there isn’t enough manpower on the 

ground. Volunteers from humanitarian groups, especially if they can help manage information, would be useful, 

but civil defense officials don’t have any experience integrating volunteers to a government response plan. 

Could volunteers be deployed? 

On February 22, 2011, Christchurch, New Zealand, did just that—urgently defining, over a matter of 

hours, a new process for integrating a volunteer technical community into an emergency response. Professional 

responders in New Zealand used volunteers, private communications networks, Internet-based tools provided by 

private companies and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) to create a mesh that fed the emergency 

management community the data needed to improve its response. That devastating 6.3 earthquake became a 

laboratory to carry out a complex, yet necessary, coordination of these technical efforts across the professional 

and volunteer boundary. The results demonstrate how open-source maps, layered satellite and aerial imagery, 

and open-source information tools can be rapidly integrated into donated logistics software to empower 

volunteer teams using any available mobile device. In close collaboration with the municipal government, a 

voluntary technical community delivered desperately needed information services with very little warning and 

with a flexible, adaptable model that may be worth replicating. 

The success of the volunteer coordination in Christchurch was largely due to the converging uses for 

imagery among the humanitarian assistance and disaster relief (HA/DR) community. Imagery can be derived 

from sensors on satellites, planes or even from cell phone and digital cameras, and provides a picture of a place 

on earth at a point in time. The ability to acquire and share these images with coordinated response groups has 

been revolutionized by recent efforts that led to several successful rescues and rapid community healing in 

Christchurch. Christchurch is unique: two severe earthquakes occurred separately. The events happened quickly, 

without warning. 

This paper presents a brief overview of the growing power of imagery, especially from volunteers and 

victims in disasters, and its place in emergency response. It also highlights an increasing technical convergence 

between professional and volunteer responders—and its limits. 

The Power of Imagery 

Imagery for HA/DR is used for three primary purposes: situational awareness assessments by the 

scientific community, government and the community; response logistics for search and rescue, medical 

assistance and essential service assessments; and recovery management for clean-up, interim essential service 

distribution and post-disaster reconstruction efforts. 
   

3

                                                        

The immediate aftermath of a disaster is chaotic, and post-event imagery can provide relatively 

unbiased logistical information for rescue operations. Traditionally, there have been significant limitations to 

gaining access to imagery for people responding to an event since civil and military governmental agencies used 

to be the sole owners of satellite imagery. But now high-resolution imagery (in both space and time) is 

commercially available, providing nearly real-time situational awareness. Further, with the creation of such 

organizations as OpenStreetMap (OSM) and Ushahidi, we are beginning to integrate cartography into what can 

be best described as social mapping, breaking the bi-directional barriers to accessibility. However, the case 

studies below have shown that access to this imagery has created challenges in management and distribution. 

Imagery for far-forward situational awareness began to become broadly available during hurricanes 

Katrina and Rita in the Gulf of Mexico in 2005 (Figure 1). NGOs, international organizations (IOs), and 

volunteer groups began to leverage this new access to convey information to the general public. Since then its 

use has accelerated. After the 2010 Haitian earthquake, the use of imagery by non-government groups changed 

how HA/DR communities approached many typical disaster response issues. During those 5 years, imagery 

access began to affect how government emergency operations, policies, procedures, search and rescue planning, 

and logistics services were developed and how humanitarian assistance teams trained and deployed. 

Technological advances in other domains have co-evolved with the access to imagery. Film-based 

camera systems have been replaced with next generation charge-coupled device (CCD) chips integrated with 

next generation photographic lenses in aerial and satellite platforms. These advances have increased the 

resolution and thus the size of the image files and the demand for space to archive it. The data centers now 

required to manage these file sizes must be accessible in the region where the disaster occurs and in reach back 

areas not impacted by the event. That requires broadband connectivity. At the same time, first responders must 

be ready to use low bandwidth methods, such as text-messaging if bandwidth is limited. 

Open source mapping tool add-ons, such as KML, PATH, GRAPH, KML Color Converter2

 for Google 

Earth, use imagery as a foundation for layering field data. But with this availability the amount of information 

that can be collected is skyrocketing, which means the risk of information overload is also rising. Techniques to 

manage and use these tools must be carefully assessed and coordinated. Network providers are experiencing 

daily impacts to voice and data networks by the demands for data sharing, which are made worse in a disaster 

zone. 

Advancements in handheld devices now enable network connectivity in the disaster-affected area. These 

rugged devices are now capable of transmitting and consuming vast amounts of information. In addition, 

satellite and emergency terrestrial wireless networks are able to deploy within hours. While most 

communications systems today generate decent connectivity on the ground in normal circumstances, care must 

be taken as to how organizations and volunteer groups compile and publish information over limited and fragile 

data pathways in a disaster. That requires a degree of understanding and cooperation not yet common in an 

urgent response. 

To coordinate efforts in a disaster environment, a few social networking tools are being integrated by 

HA/DR groups. Those tools offer knowledge sharing opportunities that did not exist 10 years ago but contribute 

to information overload. This allows critical pieces of information to be easily overlooked, and there is 

additional danger in automating the data filtering. 

To collect, optimize, and deploy satellite and aerial imagery successfully, we must consider these issues 

carefully. Each section in this paper will guide the reader through current and future challenges, opportunities 

2 Open source (freeware) tools: http://www.sgrillo.net/googleearth/
and ideas with recommendations for consideration. Imagery does not often lie and only rarely is it misconstrued. 

Each image or map in the appendix tells a story. What is driving the story is the converging use of imagery on 

the ground. 

Figure 1. Hurricane Katrina NOAA Image. Original Size: 1,114 Kilobits − 4077 x 4092 Pixels 

270359.85 m E − 3350705.72 m N − August 30, 2005 15:58:54 CDT3

This image was taken and published by NOAA on its Internet website. However, its value to first responders was minimal 

because information that could have helped analyze the image was not embedded was not, and no geospatial standard was 

used to allow the image to be exported to other mapping services and technologies. 

II. The Users of Imagery 

HA/DR Community: Learning New Visualization Concepts 

When a disaster strikes, the organizations that deploy to respond have different objectives. Thus their 

needs, policies and procedures are different when addressing the “who, what, when, where and why” of the 

event. What they want out of an image is different and it is unlikely that any one solution to imagery will ever 

be found to address everyone’s needs. Moving forward, care must be taken so as not to put useful cooperation 

                                                           

4

3 http://ngs.woc.noaa.gov/storms/katrina/24334501.jpg 
5

at risk when imagery-related needs are at odds. The existing inter-agency and government compliance 

requirements that, in some cases, are in conflict with demands for information generated by the event, which 

further complicates matters. 

Government (Civil) 

Some government structures are based on local culture and historical precedents. Some are based on 

religious beliefs and some are tribal or ethnic in nature. Some are autocratic, devoid of oversight or cooperation. 

In some regions of the world, abstract technical sophistication is limited and interpreting a basic map is beyond 

local capabilities. But in virtually every country, there is a sense that civil government should provide useful 

services to people. Imagery of various kinds is emerging as a potentially valuable service. 

Governance structures at many levels are beginning to recognize the value of post-crisis and near realtime imagery as well as pre-crisis planning. Static web pages no longer meet the needs of constituents nor of 

emergency operation centers. New dynamic sources of information such as social media and open source 

imagery can inform but also overwhelm planning and response mechanisms. The challenge for governments is 

often to address the legal limitations that hinder new approaches to information sharing with volunteer 

organizations. Economic conditions often further limit government financial support for internal training and 

workshops even when sharing is allowed and volunteers welcomed. 

Government (Military) 

The armed forces are often the most valuable resource on which any government can to lean during and 

immediately after a catastrophe. Every executive government branch will be tasked for communications, 

transport, and power. But the military may also be able to provide: Field medical services, emergency 

construction capabilities, additional essential supplies, engineering, field coordination, logistics operations and 

management and aerial surveys. Host-nation militaries often own, or have access to, the highest resolution postevent imagery in the country. In some countries they may provide the only emergency services available. 

Humanitarian operations frequently are integrated as multi-national, civil-military deployments as was the case 

in Indonesia and Haiti. Militaries, therefore, are exploring new approaches to HA/DR as demands escalate. The 

U. S. Department of Defense (DOD) clearly recognizes the requirement for collaboration and how it must 

function in humanitarian assistance and disaster relief. This is reflected in a series of DOD directives and 

instructions. One of most forward leaning is DOD Instruction 8220.02, Information and Communication 

Technology (ICT) Capabilities for Supporting Stabilization and Reconstruction, Disaster and Humanitarian 

Assistance and Civic Operations.4

 Similar themes are found in: DOD Directive 3000.05, Military Support for 

Stability, Security, Transition, and Reconstruction (SSTR) Operations, November 28, 2005,5

 reissued on 

September 16, 2009 as a DoD instruction on Stability Operations.6

NGOs/IOs 

When a major disaster strikes the developing world, there are more than 40,000 different NGOs and IOs 

that may consider responding. They deploy to address specific needs and goals defined by the organization, and 

usually must leverage existing resources to do so. Collaboration with other NGOs is often indispensible. 

                                                           

4 http://www.dtic.mil/whs/directives/corres/pdf/822002p.pdf    5 http://www.usaid.gov/policy/cdie/sss06/sss_1_080106_dod.pdf 6 http://www.dtic.mil/whs/directives/corres/pdf/300005p.pdf
6

                                                           

Volunteer and Local Community 

The public no longer relies on conventional news organizations as their primary source of information. 

The ability to go directly to the source of information online, post comments and offer assistance is growing 

with every new disaster through the capabilities of mobile phones, short message service (SMS), multimedia 

messaging service (MMS), Flickr, Facebook, Twitter, Kiva, tools from the NGO "Innovative Support to 

Emergencies, Disease and Disasters” (InSTEDD), Ushahidi, OSM, and others. This publically generated data 

presents challenges to managing unverified information. Contributions from a diaspora of globally distributed 

people familiar with the impacted area have also proven valuable, but their use needs refining. 

Working Together: Simulation and Coordination Groups 

Some groups have recognized the need to collaborate and be formally organized in order to prepare for 

anticipated events. Here are some (of many): 

Net Hope 

Net Hope—a consortium of 32 of the largest global NGOs—was established in 2001 to research 

innovative approaches to cooperation, knowledge sharing,7

 defining technology and services required to 

accomplish their goals.8

 Many of the most recognized NGO information technology (IT) departments have 

joined this consortium.9

 For Net Hope, accurate geospatial information applications are a critical need. One of 

the group’s goals is to develop standards for solutions that can be replicated to reduce capital costs, increase 

efficiencies and simultaneously expand their capabilities. They are generating internal standards and protocols 

for imagery, data flow guidelines, network communications, device usage, and ancillary systems. 

Exercise “Pacific Endeavor” 

 Field trials and planning for multi-national humanitarian civil-military response teams are occurring 

with multi-national integrated military exercises such as Pacific Endeavor.

10 The program commonly involves 

16 different countries around the Pacific Rim and focuses on establishing communication network 

interoperability across voice and data network services. In the recent past, the military was the sole owner and 

supplier of post-event imagery. Now imagery is produced by many organizations and the military role is being 

reversed from producer to consumer of not only imagery, but maps and new interfaces in which data is layered 

on top of the imagery. 

Exercise 24 (X24) 

 Military organizations—like their civilian brethren—are feeling financial restraints on research and 

development budgets while exploring next generation tools. San Diego State University developed an innovative 

approach to reduce the costs associated with running field exercises. Their solution was to simulate a disaster 

and run the exercise as a virtual event online. The program was tested in September 2010 using a scenario in 

Southern California involving a large earthquake that generated a tsunami. In March 2011, the exercise was 

repeated, this time with a scenario in Europe and the support of the Red Cross of Germany, National Institute for 

7 http://www.nethope.org/about/us/ 8 http://www.nethope.org/ 9

 Members of Net Hope: ActionAid, Ashoka, CARE, CHF, Christian Aid, ChildFund International, Children International, 

Catholic Relief Services, Concern Worldwide, FINCA, Family Health International, Heifer International, International 

Rescue Committee, International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, Mercy Corps, Nature 

Conservancy, Opportunity International, Oxfam, PACT, PATH, Plan, Relief International, Save the Children, VSO, 

WaterAid, Wildlife Conservation Society, Winrock International, and World Vision 10 http://www.dvidshub.net/news/55232/pacific-region-militaries-join-humanitarian-community-pacific-endeavor 
7

Urban Search and Rescue, CrisisCommons, and the U.S. European Command. More than 12,500 volunteers and 

organizations participated from 79 countries in the first X24, and more than 18,000 from 92 countries in the 

second.11 A key component of this new approach to training through an online simulator was the use of 

cartographic applications that layered data published by volunteers. The military participants witnessed the 

avalanche of available information. It was reportedly an eye-opener for many and it appeared to be educational 

for participants at all levels. 

 This exercise formed a Virtual Civil-Military Humanitarian Operations Center. Their design was not 

new, but using data and software applications from civilian and volunteer organizations capable of infusing data 

in a rapid and accurate mapped fashion was new and had an impact. The next challenge will be integration; 

seeing how well these organizations can adapt to non-military designed services and applications, many of 

which today fall outside of military network security regulations and policies. 

Imagery Sharing Organizations 

 Various volunteer and commercial reach back groups are both consumers and distributors of 

information. This is a significant issue as there are many different platforms that are being used to compile a 

map product. These organizations—like Ushahidi, All Partners Access Network (APAN), CrisisCommons and 

OSM—can serve as resources for disaster information, and they use imagery as a base on which to layer their 

datasets. If, however, the map product is created from a proprietary or classified software package, these data 

layers are not easily distributable on other platforms, even if completely unclassified and non-proprietary (see 

figures 7 and 8.) Some organizations have recognized this obstacle and do not use imagery at all because of the 

legal and regulatory restrictions on devices mandated by their organization. If imagery is to be shared among 

different organizations, then international standards that meet corporate and governmental requirements are 

necessary. 

III. Imagery: Types and Uses 

 Imagery of disasters can provide critical information for search and rescue, medical services, shelter, 

and can support ancillary resources such as logistics planning. The source of the image and technology that 

produces them determines the spatial resolution of the resulting image. Resolutions are now available from 

commercial and military satellites down to 10 centimeters per pixel and finer. 

Satellite Imagery 

 Satellite-based systems take images of the earth and transmit them to the ground upon acquisition. They 

can offer high spatial resolution and broad spectral resolution depending on the sensors on the satellite. The 

advantage of satellite imagery over aerial-based systems is that the orbit of the satellite is already known, and 

can register the bounding coordinates of the image to it automatically. This allows users to project the image to a 

2D map, which enables geospatial data points to be plotted with it. The dominant handicap of satellite-based 

systems is that weather conditions can impact visibility of the ground. Vendors of advanced digital imagery 

available today comply with standards developed by organizations including the American Society for 

Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing12 and the International Society of Photogrammetry and Remote 

                                                           

11 http://x24.eushare.org/ - The author observed and participated in this event. 12 http://www.asprs.org 
  

8

these standards do not imply interoperability or transferability from one software or 

g 

l and 

the 

nated 

 rapidly, but those tools are not commonly available on non-military platforms. Commercial map 

providers are beginning the move toward application program interface (API) tools to alleviate problems 

quicker publishing and manipulation of the 

ages.

r a 

 using Internet-based social media websites such as Facebook, YouTube, Wikipedia, Flickr and 

Twitter. Pages and articles can now be extracted by HA/DR responders and exported as metadata to other 

lickr, YouTube, Twitter and others. With these tools responders can detect, monitor, report and 

record knowledge points within seconds of an event. These flows of information are compiled as datasets. The 

ons and platforms such as Sahana and 

 It is clear to HA/DR map experts that imagery has significant value when correlated with other sources 

 the field, responders need software to read, analyze and share the imagery. 

Below is a snapshot of some software tools that enable each. 

  

Sensing.13 However, 

hardware platform to another. 

Aerial Imagery 

 Aerial imagery is acquired by a camera attached to a plane or an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV). 

Because it is not in a fixed orbit, aerial platforms can fly multiple missions over a disaster area, thus providin

much more flexibility in temporal and spatial resolution. Aerial images are often supplemented with verba

written situation reports, providing further metadata on the image. Advantages over satellite imagery include 

ability to fly below cloud cover, and improving the spatial resolution by altitude variation. Maximum aerial 

imagery resolution is now available at 10 cm or less using advanced digital imaging platforms. The most 

common and difficult challenge is to geo-rectify images to the same accuracy as a satellite in near real-time. 

Commercial aircraft platforms are subject to wind-drift and unintended altitude variations, even with 

sophisticated autopilot and GPS managed flight navigation systems. Next generation systems now appear to

address these issues effectively (see figures 43 and 44.) Advanced government aerial image systems elimi

most of these problems in the 1990s and are capable of registering imagery and embedding it into visualization 

platforms

experienced in the field. Response times are improving, facilitating 

im 

Images from Social Media and Hand-held Devices 

 Modern humanitarian assistance groups draw on information sources that are no longer confined to

official government sources. Today, individuals and local communities publish information during and afte

crisis event

software applications. The social media sites have been both a source and destination for metadata during 

disasters. 

 The use of social media applications has not gone unnoticed. The United Nations developed several 

courses on social media under its United Nations Institute of Training and Research that directly address 

Facebook, F 14

data is often open source and therefore exportable to multiple applicati

Ushahidi. 

IV. Computing to Enable the Use of Imagery 

of information. But to do this in

                                                       

ttp://www.isprs.org/technical_commissions/ 13 h 

on‐development 14 http://www.unitar.org/ksi/innovative‐collaborati
9

n 

rnment set of tools for decades, and did not become widespread in commercial applications 

mputer-based maps now possible, new 

nd consumer applications. 

take 

y to automobile 

stems. In 2001, a small company named Keyhole developed an Internet-based cartographic 

n a globe. Google acquired Keyhole in 2004, modifying it and renaming the Keyhole tool “Google 

r in 

s 

 on a map. It also enables additional 

ce 

is is done through use of a mapping standard defining externally-sourced information 

                                                           

Software Applications 

Geographic Information Systems 

 A geographic information system (GIS), sometimes referred to a geospatial information system, is a 

system designed to work with data referenced to spatial or geographic coordinates.15 An early example was a

epidemiological map of a cholera epidemic in London made by John Snow and colleagues in 1854.16 The map 

showed the location of the outbreaks in relation to the water pumps and led to an effective intervention. A digital

adaptation to mapping was developed by the Department of Forestry of Canada17 in 1960. The Canadian 

Geospatial Information System became the foundation for today’s computer GIS standards. It remained 

primarily a gove

until the 1980s. With these standards in place and the use of co

opportunities in cartography offered the ability to layer information for commercial a

No longer confined to 2D maps, computers offered accuracy since data could be shown in 3D. It would 

almost 35 years to become known outside of professional communities, but the growth of GIS since 2005 has 

been explosive. 

Global Positioning System and a Reference Standard 

 Small-form factor Global Positioning System (GPS) map devices used in Marine and Aviation 

industries started the digital field-mapping revolution. In the mid-1980s, these devices were built into consumer 

devices such as small aircraft and pleasure boats as navigation tools, which spread quickl

navigation sy

application o

Earth.” Google soon began working with authoritative bodies on projection and representation standards. Now 

Google Maps, OSM, Bing, and others use the World Geodetic System (WGS) 84 projection described furthe

this book,18 which has become the Web mapping projection standard around the world. 

Metadata 

 Metadata is data about data, and is either embedded in the geographic data file or is made available a

an independent file that the geographic data reads. It defines the object’s grid coordinates (such as latitude, 

longitude, and resolution) and it’s used to map geographic data accurately

geo-referenced data to be layered over it. In the 1990s, metadata standards for commercial photogrammetry 

vendors were available for both digital and film formats, and they are still in use today. Metadata can also 

include attribution information, such as a description, of the geographic area being plotted. Examples of 

metadata for HA/DR response include when an image was taken, by whom it was taken and how many staff 

work in the medical clinic seen in the image. 

 The Global Disaster Alert and Coordination System (GDACS),19 operated by the United Nations Offi

of Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UN-OCHA), uses GIS metadata to generate alerts that are then plotted

onto a GDACS-provided map, and, in parallel, are then sent as information alerts by really simple syndication 

(RSS)20 or email.21 Th

990 15 Star and Estes by Jeffrey Star and John Estes, 1 16 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ghost_Map 17 http://www.cdci.ca/HGIS_Mapping_v2.pdf 18 http://wiki.openstreetmap.org/wiki/EPSG:3857 19 http://www.gdacs.org/ 20 http://www.rssboard.org/rss-specification 
10

ng a finished map either on the Internet, on paper, or stored 

Java, or 

r a 

or 

phones, social network services and volunteer input data sets. Web portals informing 

HA/DR teams of current conditions in real time are being published on sites using Ushahidi, Riff, Crisis 

online is that they also provide 

forma

e 

e 

p 

a 

s the user to view the processed imagery easily, but cannot extract the image for 

use in another mapping software. In other cases, a WMS allows the user to download raw images and use them 

 to occur, other mapping standards are required (such as using 

 comm

.

 the 

 The ability to add additional geographic datasets from disparate sources with imagery is accomplished 

y using

                                                                                                                                                                                                          

streams, plotting data onto a map, and then publishi

in a computer as an archive. With those tasks accomplished, many subscribers of these maps then layer their

own metadata onto these “foundation” maps through Application Programming Interfaces (APIs), 

similar scripting languages that allow them to create their own maps and information elements (see below fo

description of APIs.)

Web Browser Applications 

 Many Web applications that were originally intended for social networking are now being used f

disaster response assessments. Advances have been made in Web application services that enable 

interoperability between them. Examples include the ability to map satellite imagery and embed third-party 

datasets from applications such as Twitter and Flickr. The third party datasets can be collected from a variety of

sources including smart

Mappers Net and SwiftRiver.22 An additional benefit to these sites being 

in tion to the general public. These websites are integrating data streams from Twitter, SMS,23 and 

volunteer databases in addition to satellite imagery and open source maps. Some Internet applications hav

designed specialized versions of their services for mobile phones like Bing Maps, Google Maps and others ar

now widely available. 

Web Map Service, Web Mapping Tile Service (WMS/WMTS) 

 To share high-volume imagery on maps, the imagery can be published on the Web through a Web ma

service (WMS),24 a standard protocol for serving geo-referenced map images over the Internet. A WMS 

generates images through a map server using data from a GIS database. WMS software reads the embedded 

metadata for an image—location, resolution, number of pixels—and places the image on a 2D map. Image sets 

are formatted as “tiles” or a series of strips that can be stitched together for easier data navigation. Some 

vendors, such as Google, use a WMS (such as Google Maps and Google Earth) that processes the imagery into 

proprietary format that allow

with other applications. In order for image sharing

a on map projection). Some service bureaus use another Web mapping protocol called Web mapping tile 

service (WMTS), which carries the same function as WMS, but is technically a different software application 25

WMTS uses extensible markup language (XML) (see below) to interface with the imagery metadata to tile

images onto a digital map. 

Application Programming Interface (API) 

b API tools. An API takes data from its source and processes it into a dataset that can be read by the 

software interface of your choice. They have become the backbone for integrating third party information 

sources onto maps. Examples of common APIs are Java, Sensor Model Language (SensorML), JavaScript

21 http://www.gdacs.org 22 http://swift.ushahidi.com/ 23 http://www.shortcodes.com/howto_short-codes.html 24 http://www.opengeospatial.org/standards/wms 25 http://www.opengeospatial.org/standards/wmts 
11

his allows developers of databases 

t 

standard in which metadata associated with a digital cartographic image could be correlated and given a 

ds have been developed such as XML30

32

 JavaScript Object Notation (JSON) is a software programming language that is a lightweight form of 

 quickly parse data, including imagery, and import it into a text 

 It 

 data between different encoding formats. XML use is widespread 

nd pop

                                                           

Object Notation (JSON), XML, Geography Markup Language (GML) and Keyhole Markup Language (KML), 

all described below. 

 Google has created an API for users to manipulate its maps.26 T

(regardless of their format) to build datasets that work with Google Earth. Microsoft has a wealth of resources 

available to developers on the Microsoft Bing Map site and Bing Map Blog.27 The company also offers a 

software development kit (SDK), which allows Bing Maps to work on Android devices (including RSS) using 

its AJAX Control version 7.0 package.28

The First API: Sensor Model Language (SensorML) 

 In 1998, the U.S. Government created the Committee on Earth Observing Satellites, endorsed by 

agencies including the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), NASA, the Defense Information Systems 

Agency, and satellite manufacturers including General Dynamics and Northrop Grumman. This committee, in 

cooperation with the Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC), developed SensorML.29 SensorML offered the firs

description. Since the development of SensorML, other API standar

protocol (see explanation for XML below), which is related to SensorML. Another API is GML, which offers 

similar features and protocol concepts. In 2005, OGC released version 3.1.1 of SensorML in which GML is 

encapsulated. This allows protocols like GML, GEO31 (eXtensible Hypertext Markup Language [X-HTML]),

JSON, XML and KML to add additional geographic data as new layers onto a virtual map. 

JavaScript Object Notation (JSON/GeoJSON) 

the JavaScript programming language. It can

format that is language-independent (in the programming sense) but uses conventions that are familiar to 

programmers from C, C++, C#, Java, JavaScript, Perl, Python and others.33 Its primary advantage is that it uses 

less code than XML. GeoJSON is the correlative mapping programming language used to plot data on a map.

is used widely by the open source mapping community and supported by many GIS software packages. 

Extensible Markup Language (XML) 

 XML is a protocol used to interchange

a ular for sharing documents between competing applications (e.g., Microsoft Office to Apple iWork). 

Software image processing applications can publish metadata into XML so it can be used immediately with 

WMS-formatted maps and with specialized survey maps and applications. Other XML applications using 

external metadata layers into crisis maps include Twitter34, RSS35 and YouTube.36

26 http://code.google.com/apis/maps/documentation/javascript/ 

ttp://www.bing. 27 h com/community/site_blogs/b/maps/default.aspx 

http://www.microsoft.com/maps/ 28 http://www.bing.com/community/site_blogs/b/maps/archive/2011/03/31/bing-maps-android-sdk-available-oncodeplex.aspx 29 http://www.opengeospatial.org/standards/sensorml 30 http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-xml/ 31 http://microformats.org/wiki/geo 32 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XHTML 33 http://wiki.geojson.org/What_is_JSON%3F 34 https://dev.twitter.com/docs/using-search 
12

L) 

n 

tinually updated by community users.37

Application Standards: An Impediment in the Making 

f 

amming language can be used for mapping applications and the decision of which is 

ging data. Each of these creates multiple GIS layers that 

nd 

      

Geographic Markup Language (GM

 GML is an XML-based API to link GIS data and a Coordinate Reference System (CRS). GML is ofte

used as the reference schema for geospatial objects. Google’s KML for example can extract data from a GML 

file but not the other way around because Google’s KML uses a different CRS and may not interoperate with 

KML-embedded metadata. GML is con

Keyhole Markup Language (KML) 

 KML is also an XML-based interface that uses Java-based programming to bind data from a remote 

source into a new data layer. Three different versions of KML are widely used because of the ease in which it

can be used in Google Maps and Google Earth. Google’s Earth and Map application resources can be found on 

its Lat Long Blog.38

 Data is no longer confined to static sources. The Internet social revolution offers data from a variety o

sites including Twitter, Facebook, RSS feeds, SMS and MMS, and many others. The structure of this data is 

often extracted as simple Comma Delimited Value or Delimited Set Value format. This has created an explosion 

of possible sources of information that can be mapped. Developers have taken advantage of social media linking 

tools and exported them to mapping solutions. 

 Applications used for mapping start with the simplicity of plotting reference data. But there are now 

more than 25 different database variants, 75 database tools to import and export datasets, and 60 query tools 

available for mapping. Some tools are specialized to only run on specific machines such as Microsoft, Apple, 

Linux or Unix operating systems.39 Some databases are only accessible using proprietary software clients, while 

the ones that are based on Web browsers use different scripting languages such as ActiveX or Java. 

 Almost any progr

often a matter of personal choice. There is no single answer for which languages are used for specific 

applications. This issue is particularly challenging when HA/DR mapping sites are operated by volunteers. For 

example, a volunteer helping with the publication of Twitter feeds onto a disaster map may use JavaScript, then

use GeoJSON with Flickr and XML with SMS messa

are then placed on maps. But by using multiple programming languages, there are opportunities for errors and

programming collisions. 

 Similarly, APIs, which are often written to extract information from one location to be read by an 

interface, are managed at the discretion of the owners. APIs will often be made available for specific operating 

systems and may not interoperate across platforms. 

 Simplified and interoperable application standards for reading and understanding datasets need to be 

specifically developed for imagery data layers, allowing for open source inputs from various news feeds a

application platforms. Examples of some needed standards include keyword index taxonomies and tagging (or 

                                                                                                                                                                                                    

35 http://www.rssboard.org/rss-specification 36 http://code.google.com/apis/youtube/2.0/developers_guide_protocol.html 37 http://www.opengeospatial.org/standards/gml 38 http://google-latlong.blogspot.com/ 39 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_database_tools 
13

y, 

ource of maps and imagery. But there are serious issues with KML. When one portal uses imagery 

(example Google) and collects data from its own data sources (for example, the KML API version 2), it cannot 

s it is 

 interpreted or extracted. This means work is duplicated to export a data set to 

erent 

r commonality, WMS is the protocol the majority of service map providers use to layer their 

41 ed a nonany 

u or

d 

e body managing it h asso

al Organ

ngineering Task Force (IETF) and World Wide Web Consortium, and has compiled roughly 30 different 

application standards.43 Adherence to these standards is not required and is often ignored for service delivery 

pplications for Publishing Geographic Information on the Web 

•

hash-tagging, the process of using a hash mark [#] before the word) often used with GPS coordinates. Currentl

there is no standard for generating a time stamp identification or user ID (source) for export to a dataset, which 

gets transcribed onto other application layers such as KML. KML is often the sole source input feed into 

volunteer syllabus HA/DR data, because there is a large community of developers that use Google Earth for 

their s

be reused on a different service provider source of imagery (say Microsoft Bing Maps) because they do not 

support KML natively. Additionally, the introduction of KML API version 3 creates new technical obstacles 

with the different programming options available. KML directly links to the original source imagery a

being served and cannot be

different APIs made for different image repositories. When supplemental image data is combined on diff

platforms, this step becomes necessary. One data portal may have updated imagery for Region 1 while a second 

data portal may have updated imagery for Region 2, but neither has both regions combined. Integrating the data 

portals requires cycle time between the two service bureaus to enable interaction, which consumes valuable

time. 

 Open standards have been created by the Global Disaster Alert Coordination System (GDACS)40 in 

Europe, comprised of policies organized by UN-OCHA to format data that is collected, apply it to HA/DR maps

and send out the information to its members. The data is imported and exported using RSS and email 

notification. 

 Fo

geographic reference datasets. Over the past year, a commercial firm in Germany called GeOps creat

profit organization to determine how well developer’s image/maps work to WMS standards. The comp

currently monitors 270,000 WMS layers p blished by more than 4,500 w ldwide service bureaus. 

 The Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC)42 is a voluntary standards

s wit

 body with no specific mandate an

has no recognized governanc . The OGC work ciations that adhere to 

internationally recognized standards groups such as the Internation ization for Standardization, Internet 

E

reasons. 

Commercial Software A

GeoBase (Telogis GIS software) • Smallworld’s SIAS • GSS –MapXtreme 

• PlanAcess • Stratus Connect • Cadcorp GeognoSIS 

• Intergraph GeoMedia WebMap • ESRI’s ArcIMS and 

ArcGIS Server 

• Autodesk Mapguide 

• SeaTrails AtlasAlive • ObjectFX • ERDAS APOLLO 

Google Earth and Google Fusion 

Suite 

• • MapServer • GeoServer 

                                                            40 http://www.gdacs.org   41 http://www.mapmatters.org/ 42 http://www.opengeospatial.org/ 43 http://www.opengeospatial.org/standards 
14

ys 

gh 

multiple resolution 

ages 

us. In 

ture 

uld 

, 

 center services are 

rate. Additionally, data of this scale and volume requires high performance network access. An 

bal scale mapping effort is Microsoft’s Bing mapping product. Every month, imagery updates 

e 

ng 

ery 

ith 

ange imagery data defined as required by each ground team. 

ter, or redundant, or are not informative. However, other datasets are highly valuable but not 

accessible due to corporate or commercial interests, government policies, or law. Many government agencies 

further complicate the issue by mandating software that cannot easily parse these data formats. Even when 

                                                           

Data Management 

Options and Obstacles 

 Although there is a lot of technology designed for use in the field, optimal implementation is not alwa

straightforward. Stakeholders must align their needs collectively and convey them to vendors. Not only must the 

technical requirements be mutually acceptable, but they must be delivered within cost constraints. 

 Image technology advances during the past 5 years have created exceptional opportunities throu

lenses, chipsets (in particular CCDs), software and—in the near future—the ability to take 

im simultaneously. In particular, digital imagery used with cartographic techniques has enabled new types 

of maps to be produced that can be densely layered with datasets. The amount of detail that can be extracted 

from an image has increased more than 100-fold since 2005. This capability has created innovation in the 

embedding of post-disaster images onto maps in four dimensions: height, width, depth and time. 

 Images collected from the 2010 Haitian earthquake covered approximately 250 square kilometers (Port 

Au Prince is 32 square kilometers) from a variety of commercial and government agency service burea

Honshu, Japan, the reconnoitered area was more than 5,000 square kilometers. The section of Miyagi Prefec

where some of the most severe damage occurred required 10 times the amount of imagery as Port-Au-Prince 

did. For each image, the file size and data that are transcribed and embedded or linked to it require vast 

quantities of storage. The higher the resolution, the more files to be recorded are required. 

 Files of such imagery require storage services that scale rapidly into the terabyte size or larger. It sho

be noted that storage of 10 petaBytes44 at any one facility constitutes Commercial Data Center classification

requiring maintenance staff, backup power and redundant broadband access services. Data

expensive to ope

example of a glo

are loaded onto its servers and each global update is estimated to average about 10 terabytes in size.45

 Some disaster responders have argued that the ability to browse the Web in the field is undesirable 

because there is not enough bandwidth to access the data being served remotely, or the bandwidth that would b

adequate is prohibitively expensive. Most platforms on the Web host their data with a client-server processi

architecture, meaning that the client (in the field) is requesting data hosted on a server. That server will often be 

located in a different country or even a different hemisphere than where the information is needed. Imag

services may soon develop a standard that enables datasets to be compartmentalized and downloaded w

update solutions that only ch

Data Sharing 

 The Internet’s social capabilities have enabled hundreds of applications to be developed and integrated 

with imagery, but that doesn’t mean they are all useful. Some social data streams are easily available but are 

difficult to fil

44 1000 TeraBytes = 1 Petabyte = 1015 Bytes / 1 Terabyte = 1,000 Gigabytes. / 1 Gigabyte = 1,000 Megabytes. Storage and 

file sizes typically are expressed in terms of Bytes in decimal form, while data transmission rates usually are in terms of 

bits per second (bps). One Byte = 8 bits. Binary formula equates; 1 Megabyte = 1024 kilobytes, 1 Gigabyte = 1024 

Megabytes, etc. 45 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bing_Maps 
15

 are 

 The most serious issues overlooked involve liability protections by both the publishers and sources of 

h shows there is no universally adopted Good Samaritan law that can 

s 

 used. 

ions 

re 

 APIs are constantly being upgraded and that 

ion 

sion 2 of the API until 2013. Microsoft 

offers an API available in its SDK for Microsoft Bing Maps. However, the ability to interoperate or integrate 

nsistent interoperability is clear, but it’s a recurrent 

roblem

he 

as created a website on the topic, centered on the use of XML51 when integrating data 

. 

and 

      

governments and commercial entities do share datasets, the terms and conditions are often very strict, or they

only available through a proprietary API and not downloadable to other network data storage facilities. 

Copyright infringement, licensing rights, privacy regulations and proprietary data limits are additional 

roadblocks to sharing data. 

imagery and its data. As far as our researc

protect volunteers who translate emergency help messages, map them and distribute that map to response team

in the field. 

 Another rising concern is who owns the finished product when data sources are published and

Many non-profit organizations do have Creative Commons license46 terms and conditions that waive any 

proprietary rights. Commercial use agreements for software such as Google Earth, Google Maps47 and 

Microsoft Maps48 should be reviewed with legal counsel to understand content rights, distribution restrict

and other limitations. 

The Need for Data Interoperability 

 Developers using APIs know that not all user devices (browsers, netbooks, tablets, smart phones) a

compatible with their interface tools. Users need to be aware that

upgraded code may affect the API’s performance on their device. As these APIs improve, backwards 

compatibility becomes an obstacle to end user device capability. Google’s API, now available as API Vers

3,49 is compatible with modern smart phones, where previous versions were not. The mobile version 3 is a 

lightweight (small—32 kilobytes (KB) per tile) JavaScript design, enabling these devices to work within 

acceptable operating parameters. As in all software development and vendor solutions, long-term support for 

these APIs create some obvious concerns. Google plans to support Ver

50

with KML is not easily accomplished. The need for co

p in many software services and not unique to mapping. 

 Collaborative efforts to add data layers to imagery are a priority for both public and private entities. T

U.S. Government h

supplied by Government agencies. Options offer opportunities, but also risks conflict, errors and confusion

Single-use image production not exportable to other portals during a disaster event creates a regrettable dem

for multiple sets of imagery, and thus extra service and processing, plus added data downloads by end users. 

This creates congested networks and increased storage requirements. 

                                                     

46 http://creativecommons.org/ 47 http://maps.google.com/help/terms_maps.html 48 http://www.microsoft.com/maps/product/terms.html 49 http://code.google.com/apis/maps/documentation/javascript/reference.html 

soft.com/maps/developers/mapapps.aspx 50 http://www.micro 51 http://xml.gov/ 
16

 map projection used in HA/DR mapping is the World Geodetic System 

with a 

 projections commonly used for charting 

and publishing maps. A singular global map standard began with WGS60 (1960), updated in 1980 as Geodetic 

eferen

 when mapping an earthquake’s epicenter and publishing location data.53

opers to create new er over satellite 

important to source maps or lay e is no specific support or realroubles ay occur. The advantage to using open source maps as a 

speed wi ta and the lack o right considerations. Since 2004, 

een a pioneer hy and in the visualization o

logy con ly uses Openlayers Jav

veral ource cartography. With ery can be 

using open standa APIs. Some commercial his standard and 

maps onto their devices. Gar ers the ability to layer your own 

onto several different models. Table 1 shows a few of the open source map providers registered in 

rter of 2011

ce Map stered in the Second Qua 1 

Standards for Cartography and GIS datasets 

 GDACS retrieves open source or non-restricted data by subscribing to RSS texts from a variety of 

sources and places them onto open source maps that UN-OCHA52 created to help solve several problems in

HA/DR response. 

 The most commonly used

(WGS). A projection is a transformation of the spherical or ellipsoid earth onto a flat map. There are many

different projections that can be chosen to preserve the area, shape or distance computations from the sphere to 

the planar representation of a region. In order to take data from one projection and overlay it on a dataset 

different projection, a transformation must be performed on the data that warps the original data into the new 

projection. Every time data is projected or transformed into a new projection, the accuracy and precision of the 

original data is compromised. Prior to 1958, there were several different

R ce System 80, which evolved into the WGS84 standard in 1984. With these standards, maps were

published with common reference points regardless of the scale or size of the map. Its adoption offered 

information layering opportunities that could be transferable from one source reference map to another with no 

errors. WGS84 has been updated to the Earth Gravitational Model(EGM)96. The United States Geological 

Survey (USGS) uses WGS84

Open Source Map resources 

 Open source applications exist, and enable devel

imagery. It is 

maps that lay

note that when using open ers, ther

time capability to t hoot any issues that m

foundation is the th which you can add da f legal copy

OSM54 has b in cartograp f crisis mapping and continues to drive new

innovative techno cepts. OSM native a.55

 There are se sources of open s these maps, satellite imag

overlaid rd software and vendors have accepted t

allow these services to embed open source 

map56 images 

min off

the second qua . 

Table 1. Open Sour Providers Regi rter of 201

Map Theme Area 

OpenStreetMap general, cyclists, debugging Worldwide 

Information Freeway general, almost real-time Worldwide 

OSM WMS Servers general, Web map services Worldwide 

OpenSeaMap nautical chart Worldwide, multilingual: seas, oceans and waterways 

OpenStreetBrowser features highlighting Europe 

FreeMap Walkers parts of the United Kingdom 

                                                           

52 http://www.reliefweb.int/ 53 http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/glossary.php#location 54 http://www.openstreetmap.org/ 55 http://www.openlayers.org/ 56 http://wiki.openstreetmap.org/wiki/OSM_Map_On_Garmin 
17

Reit- und Wanderkarte walkers and riders Austria, Germany, Switzerland 

TopOSM walkers and riders United States 

OpenCycleMap Cyclists Worldwide 

YourNavigation Routing Worldwide 

OpenRouteService Routing Europe 

OpenOrienteeringMap orienteering style Worldwide 

OpenPisteMap Skiing some European and USA resorts 

Bing OSM “Map App” General Worldwide 

CloudMade general, mobile and various other custom styles Worldwide 

OpenAviationMap Airspace indexing and classification Braunschweig, Germany 

MapQuest Open (beta) general, routing Worldwide 

NearMap up-to-date photomaps populated areas of Australia 

OSMTransport public transport Worldwide 

ÖPNV-Karte, or OpenBusMap Public transport Europe 

OSM Mapper Debugging maps by Ito World Ltd 

Busroutes.in Public transport bus routes India (Chennai) [Bangalore and Delhi under 

development stage] 

Source: Wikipedia57

Hardware 

The Data Center 

 The power of imagery brings a self-inflicted Achilles’ heel injury that is hard to overcome. The sheer 

volume of imagery available is becoming untenable for a variety of users and agencies, which is why it is now 

as important to consider where the data is archived as it is to consider how to process it. The volume of storage

space required to house satellite and aerial image data now demands professional data center facilities, which 

quickly becomes an accessibility problem. Reach back facilities that are out of harm’s way can provide high 

speed access (10 gigabits per second [Gbps] and higher), but end up being retrievable at only 1 megabit per 

second to those on the ground. Delivery of these modified resources to the field is a critical issue and can impac

how, when and where users retrieve files. 

t 

ersonal computers (PCs) and Mac computers can cache up to 2 Gigabytes of data 

. There is no easy way to know how much of 

access to be near to the disaster zone if intense imagery file retrieval and regular updates are required. It should 

                                                           

 Users can cache files on traditional devices such as laptops, notebooks and some tablets, while firstgeneration smart phones have limited capacity and current generation tablets can store up to 64 gigabytes (GBs) 

(iPad 2). Google Earth for p

natively before a call to a data center to load image files is required

this cache is dedicated to global mapping files versus updating imagery that is downloaded. This caching feature 

does not cache KML or KMZ files (KMZs are collections of KML files compressed into single file) if the files 

do not include the images within the KML container, which most do not. There are free geographic tools that 

assist users in creating customized cache settings and files. However, as Google Earth updates its application, 

there is no guarantee that customized cache settings and files will continue to work. The tools do not have a 

bypass capability to exceed Google Earth’s 2 Gigabyte caching limit.58 This illustrates the need for data server 

57 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenStreetMap 58 http://freegeographytools.com/2009/automating-the-google-earth-caching-process 
18

s to 

es. 

n source maps and ancillary 

 be 

es and 1 optional network processing server 

which can also host mapping software if required. Each unit consumes approximately 82 watts of power at its 

aximu

 memory cards (and vice versa), which can subsequently be transferred into smart phones 

through micro SD memory cards or tablet computers though SD memory cards. 

magery can be processed with open standard GIS metadata on hot swappable hard 

s 

be understood that Google Earth (and other similar programs) were never intended for HA/DR use. Google’s 

disaster response team recognizes these severe shortfalls and is changing both data center policy and hardware 

constraints because of it. 

 There are methods that can be used to get high volume image datasets on the ground faster; an example 

includes the Map in a Box. 

Moving the Data Center: Using a Map in a Box Solution 

 Data center mobility should be a key next-generation requirement to provide accessibility to imagery in

the field. The goal should be to ensure that large image data and associated datasets can be made available as 

close to the disaster event as possible, saving valuable network connectivity to other critical application services 

such as Voice over IP and real-time situation awareness needs. Reach back and forward operating acces

large data storage facilities should be a priority for government and private institutions offering these servic

 It is therefore recommended that a mobile data storage system be considered early in a response. The 

processing capacity and data storage (hard drive space) should be sufficient to contain enough imagery to hold 

the pre-event and post-event aerial and satellite imagery with ancillary digital ope

applications required to cover a forward operating area of a disaster site. It should also contain two Ethernet 1-

GB network cards for network access. The parameters of HA/DR forward operating headquarters should

defined by NGOs, IOs, and government agencies to determine which groups are responsible for which 

geographic areas, and that will determine the mobile storage system requirements. An example is Port-auPrince. Pre- and post-event imagery covering every square inch of the city would require approximately 24 

terabytes of data storage requiring approximately 3 compact devic

m m operating performance. This system would be connected to multi-stacked Ethernet switches for local 

high speed local area network access and Wi-Fi Access Points. These systems can be configured to be 

networking-neutral for easy access by Apple, PC Windows, and Linux computers. They can also be made 

available with expanded memory cards with secure digital (SD) and micro SD slots. This allows the quick 

transfer of data onto

 Updates to satellite i

drives and can be delivered through the normal course of resupply that occurs at the forward operating 

headquarters. The hot swappable drives can replace or be added to additional files, be quickly installed into 

these units, and be instantly made available to users on the network. The economics of supplying imagery 

updates in this manner is likely to be more cost effective than consuming expensive satellite or mobile phone 

bandwidth and avoids congesting these networks unnecessarily. 

 For mapping applications to work with a Map in a Box configuration, settings for files storage location

need to be configurable by the user. In addition, new or upgraded APIs may be required or new Java-based 

scripts must be designed. This was prototyped during the Strong Angel III HA/DR demonstration in San Diego

in 2006 and worked very well. The level of computer performance and capabilities are superior today to what 

was available then. 
19

al 

 to use Google or Microsoft, depending on which operating system is installed on the device. 

60

ay 

a ing applications with any utility varies by manufacturer. For example, some map 

S 

ices. Smartphone browser options vary as 

well. Some have their own native Web browser, and others use downloadable versions. Not all browsers support 

 To deliver imagery to every platform generates redundant cycles of content delivery, increasing costs 

ne 

e device from operating 

and it is extremely difficult to repair or undue.65 The Electronic Frontier Foundation claims that it is legal to 

                 

Mobile Smart Devices: Situational Awareness for Humanitarian Responders and the Gener

Public 

 Mobile devices such as tablets and mobile phones are now the primary mode for both collecting and 

sharing information in a response effort. A January 2011 report published by the Mobile Computing Promotion 

Consortium of Japan surveyed users of smart phones. Of those who had smart phones, 55 percent used a map 

application, the third most common application after Web browsing and email.59 

 Android and iPhones both support Google Maps while Windows phones use Bing maps. Motorola 

offers the ability

MapBox, a custom map application on the Web, has created an application for Apple’s iPad 2. Some 

telecommunications providers prepackage imagery options on these devices with embedded software. Others 

have exclusive software add-on contracts that may not offer alternatives to be installed on the device when 

operated on that mobile carrier’s network (figure 3 shows a map application on an iPAD.) The ability to overl

information on these m pp

applications on smart phones do not recognize KML layers. In addition, not all wireless phone operating 

systems are compatible with the application foundation platform, such as Google Maps or Google Earth, and in 

fact may only be compliant with a competitor’s proprietary version creating further export challenges. Also, 

smart phones vary by operating system, software ecosystem, application capabilities, memory capacity, network

speed and energy consumption. Other variations in mobile phone compatibility are SMS character limits, MM

compatibility and other third-party extensions like GPS location serv

add-on plug-ins such as Java,61 Adobe Shockwave,62 Flash or KML63 layers (based on Java) or other specialized

software apps. 

and potential delays in publishing critical information. There are no international standards for devices, 

applications or hardware for HA/DR service delivery and, like public emergency telephone usage, standards 

vary around the world.64 

 Because of the application limitations, developers have created workarounds for a variety of smartpho

devices by “jail breaking” the devices away from their registered cell service provider. There is significant risk

in doing so, including the manufacturer remotely “bricking” the device due to legal software agreements a user 

signs at the time of purchase. Bricking a device is a process that completely disables th

jailbreak a device and the question is currently before the courts.66 

                                          

/pdf/20110128_e.pdf 59 http://www.mcpc-jp.org/english 60 http://mapbox.com/#/ 61 http://www.java.com/ 62 http://www.shockwave.com/ 63 http://code.google.com/apis/kml/documentation/ 

umbers 64 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency_telephone_number#Emergency_n 65 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bricking 66 http://www.eff.org/press/archives/2010/07/26 
20

RIM’s) Blackberry devices that are capable of 

using the AT&T network to tether have software workarounds that are also under scrutiny.68 

Telecommunications carriers are also monitoring modified smartphones that are operating on their 

ound operating on their network. 

t is therefore ma is i e e widest 

er im . An important consideration is 

 consumption in these devices. A m ease, the fa r the device 

which in itself is a lim

For context, i uld be noted that during the agi Earthqu nd Tsunam rch 2011, 

Score found that 9 cent of all m ne users in the impacted region were not smartphone service 

70 In response, Google created viewing options for the same data. 

Smartphone manufactures are not aligned to a single source of mapping technology and their operating 

The Smartphone G et S

 2. Top Five Sma ne Vendor ments, and Market Share During the Fourth ter of 2010 (Units 

4Q10 Units 

Shipped 

4Q10 Market 

Share 

4Q09 Units 

Shipped 

4Q09 Market 

Share 

Year-overyear Growth 

 In February 2009, Apple filed a patent that enables users to be identified when jailbreaking its devices, 

including iPhones, iPods, and iPads.67 Research in Motion’s (

networks. Several carriers have broadcasted to their customers that any modified (jailbroken) smart device will 

be disabled if f 69

 I critical that i gery services consider how th nformation is b st served to th

user audience possible without creating multiple duplications of lay agery

battery s device processing power de ands incr ste

consumes power, requiring frequent recharging, ited resource. 

t sho Miy ake a i of Ma

com 3 per obile pho

capable. multiple 

systems do not always offer third party application plug-ins. 

lobal Mark hare 

Table rtpho s, Ship Quar

in Millions) 71

Vendor 

Nokia 28.3 28.0% 20.8 38.6% 36.1% 

Apple 16.2 16.1% 8.7 16.1% 86.2% 

Research In Motion 14.6 14.5% 10.7 19.9% 36.4% 

Samsung 9.7 9.6% 1.8 3.3% 438.9% 

HTC 8.6 8.5% 2.4 4.5% 258.3% 

Others 23.5 23.3% 9.5 17.6% 147.4% 

Total 100.9 100.0% 53.9 100.0% 87.2% 

Table 3. Top Five Smartphone Vendors, Shipments, and Market Share, 2010 (Units in Millions)72

Vendor 

2010 Units 

Shipped 

2010 Market 

Share 

2009 Units 

Shipped 

2009 t

Share 

 Marke Year year 

Growth 

-overNokia 100.3 33.1% 67.7 39.0% 48.2%

Research In Motion 48.8 16.1% 34.5 19.9% 41.4%

Apple 47.5 15.7% 25.1 14.5% 89.2%

                                                           

67 http://www.patentvest.com/console/reports/docs/app/20100207721.html 68 http://crackberry.com/att-blackberry-bridge-download 69 http://www.tipb.com/2011/03/18/att-cracking-jailbroken-mywi-users/ 

e_Adoption_Continues_to_Grow_in_Japa 70http://www.comscore.com/jpn/Press_Events/Press_Releases/2011/2/Smartphon

n 71 Source: IDC Worldwide Quarterly Mobile Phone Tracker, January 27, 2011. 

bout/viewpressrelease.jsp?containerId=prUS22689111 72 IDC - http://www.idc.com/a 
21

Samsung 23 7.6% 5.5 3.2% 318.2%

HTC 21.5 7.1% 8.1 4.7% 165.4% 

Others 61.5 20.3% 32.6 18.8% 88.7% 

Total 302.6 100.0% 173.5 100.0% 74.4% 

Smartphones to Smart Tablets 

tphone and smart tablet technology offer advanced capabilities and uses for the HA/DR 

com . Tablet computing, once thought to be a small consumer market segment, has exploded with the 

launch of Apple’s iPad.73 The second generation release in 2011 create ar at rowsing 

formation and computing power. Competitors have launched new products because of Apple’s tablet success. 

able 4

Smar

munity

d new m ket innov ions in b

in

T .74 Global Shipments of tablet operating systems (os) 

Shipping Period Q3 ‘10 Q4 ‘10 2010 

Apple iOS 4.2 7.3 14.8 

Android 0.1 2.1 2.3 

Others 0.1 0.3 0.5 

Total 4.4 9.7 17.6 

Table 5. Global Tablet Operating System Marketshare (%) 

Evaluation Period Q3 ‘10 Q4 ‘10 2010 

Apple iOS 95.5% 75.3% 84.1% 

Android 2.3% 21.6% 13.1% 

Others 2.3% 3.1% 2.8% 

Total 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 

 The three key breakthroughs in tablet developments are battery life, graphics and small form factor A5 

processors. The device claims to have up to 10 hours of operating capability before recharging is required. 

Apple’s iPad 2 is available with tri-mode network connectivity. This enhances the users’ ability to connect to a 

variety of communications networks that include Wi-Fi and third generation (3G) in code division multiple 

access (CDMA)75 or Global System Mobile (GSM)76 modes. With the added performance advantage of large 

solid-state disk space, large software ecosystem performance is greatly enhanced. Google’s Android open 

source software approach expands imagery applications opportunities that may be otherwise confined. Software 

designed for Blackberry’s new Playbook will run Android apps and connect with all Wi-Fi standards and next 

generation wireless long term evolution (LTE) and high-speed packet service (HSPA)+ network protocols.77 

                                                           

73 http://www.apple.com/ipad/ 74 Source: Strategy Analytics 75 Code division multiple access - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_division_multiple_access 

http://www.cdg.org/ 76 Global System for Mobile Communications - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_System_for_Mobile_Communications 

http://www.gsmworld.com/ 77 B

11 a/b/g/n + HSPA+ 

/?IID=us:bb:homepage_Learn%20more

lackBerry PlayBook with Wi-Fi 802.11 a/b/g/n 

BlackBerry 4G PlayBook with Wi-Fi 802.11 a/b/g/n + WiMax 

BlackBerry 4G PlayBook with Wi-Fi 802.11 a/b/g/n + LTE 

BlackBerry 4G PlayBook with Wi-Fi 802.

http://us.blackberry.com/playbook-tablet 
22

 As these devices become part of the social fabric, Global CDMA78 and GSM smart phones with map 

applications are becoming available79 and should offer the ability to accept and view layered maps for HA/DR 

teams in conjunction with post event imagery to solve situational awareness for possible communications 

infrastructure damage. The acquisition of this technology will initially be adopted by well funded NGOs and 

public safety agencies. It remains to be seen if such technology can cascade to smaller NGOs and government 

public safety agencies that have very long IT replacement cycles. Adoption in regions like Africa, Southeast 

Asia and South America may use low cost versions by smaller vendors and may not be compatible with namebrand applications and may have limited network connectivity options. 

 Figure 2. iPad with Health Pro software image80 Figure 3. iPad with Jeppesen map81

                                                           

78 http://www.cdg.org/worldwide/index.asp 

om/maps/ 79 http://www.mobileworldlive.c 80 http://www.apple.com/ipad/ 81 http://www.apple.com/ipad/ 
Figure 4. Blackberry Playbook by RIM82

 The tablet market was once thought to be a specialized market segment used for unique applications and 

services. The idea was to use it for logistical applications such as medical and marketing surveys. No longer is 

this the case as Apple has proven with the launch of the iPad 2, selling approximately 400,000 units in 26 

83 ybook (above ,84 offering 

ousan of ap . R ’s for ar recognition that these 

s highs over 

 configurations, repair times 

re reduced (see section V, communications networks.) 

                                                           

countries within 3 days. RIM’s launch of the Pla ) integrates with Android apps

th ds plications written for Android IM ay into the tablet market is cle

devices are a large segment of the “Smart” telephony and Internet access market. By offering features similar to 

Apple and Motorola, the device offers rich graphics capability in addition to long battery life with wireles

speed access including LTE and HSPA+. It is important to note that these devices offer critical advantage

smaller form factors. Among them are interchangeable keyboard formats for language, large screens for Web 

applications (such as Google language translator) and advanced graphics processing enabling the use of satellite

imagery to be viewed in the user’s desired resolution. A key feature is that it can tether via Bluetooth to an 

existing Blackberry smartphone to use its network connectivity. If network connectivity survives a disaster, 

these devices will play an important role in HA/DR responses anywhere services are operational. With advanced 

cellular on wheels emergency communications platforms available in a variety of

a

82 http://ca.blackberry.com/playbook-tablet/ 

ttp://onl 83 h ine.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748704027504576198832667732862.html 

23

84 https://market.android.com/ 
 Figure 5. Motorola Xoom Figure 6. Samsung Galaxy 

 now has a tablet model either in the development pipeline or entering service. 

 7 

                                                           

 Every major manufacturer

This includes Motorola (Xoom with Android)85 selling more than 100,000 units (figure 5), as well as the 

Samsung Galaxy, which is selling well (figure 6). Verizon is offering CDMA–Wi-Fi/LTE network 

connectivity.86 Samsung offers the Galaxy87 tablet available in two different screen sizes and it is also available 

with Wi-Fi/HSPA+ connectivity. LTE and HSPA+ are capable of downloading at speeds of 22 megabits per 

second (Mbps.) All claim to have more than 10 hours of battery life when network connectivity is enabled. 

Other manufactures such as Dell, Hewlett Packard, LG, and Viewsonic have thin-profile devices available in

inches and larger sizes. The cost of these units ranges from $300 to $950 (U.S.). 

85 http://www.motorola.com/Consumers/US-EN/Consumer-Product-and-Services/Tablets/ci.MOTOROLA-XOOM-USEN.overview 86 http://www.motorola.com/Consumers/US-EN/Consumer-Product-and-Services/Tablets/ci.MOTOROLA-XOOM-USEN.alt 

24

87 http://www.samsung.com/global/microsite/galaxytab/ 
25

V. Communications Networks 

 Communications networks, including satellite, terrestrial wireless, and landline voice/data network 

links, are vital to transmitting all forms of information to decisionmakers for analysis and action. Imagery has 

become a cornerstone of factual information for disaster response and requires capable communication networks 

to be shared. The explosive growth in telecommunication technology, networks, and devices has created new 

applications within individual and group communities influencing consumer behaviors, business operations, and 

volunteerism. These tools are driving network providers to develop faster network access services. Hardware 

vendors are following suit with powerful handheld devices that rival regular desktop computers. Data is 

becoming accessible to those who need it. 

Mobile Network Services 

 There are three different technologies that are used for terrestrial-based mobile networks. Terrestrialbased wireless technologies include GSM, CDMA and Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS). 

GSM is used worldwide while CDMA is generally focused in North America, Japan, China, and India.88 UMTS 

networks are deployed in North America, Japan, Southeast Asia, Europe and Africa. Each has next generation 

high-speed data network capabilities including 3G, fourth generation, HSPA+89 and LTE. Over the next several 

years, these technology platforms may be paired down to two competing standards, GSM/EDGE and Wide 

Code Division Multiple Access (W−CDMA)/LTE/UMTS, although this forecast is not certain given the 

constantly changing market and nature of the industry. Wireless access technologies are now capable of 

delivering true high-speed broadband service to mobile phone devices; in particular, smartphone hardware is 

equipped with next generation chipsets. Ten years ago, the average mobile user connected at 14,400 to 28,800 

Kb per second. Today, smartphones can connect at speeds exceeding 20 Mbps with higher speeds becoming 

available within the next 3 years. 

G

 The most popular mobile technology platform with a 

 GSM Evolution). The technology is continually evolving as 

s limiting its maximum range to approximately 35 

ilomet

                                                           

lobal System Mobile (GSM) 

network solution used worldwide is the GSM

follow on system called EDGE (Enhanced Data

shown in figure 7. GSM uses time division multiple acces

k ers from a tower, assuming ideal conditions are available.90 It is possible to extend the range up to 120 

kilometers.91

88 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mobile_network_operators 89 High Speed Packet Service - http://www.gsacom.com/news/gsa_319.php4 

ter-electronics-manufacturing/6838169-1.html 90 http://www.allbusiness.com/electronics/compu 

nics-manufacturing/6838169-1.html 91 http://www.allbusiness.com/electronics/computer-electro 
Figure 7. GSM and UMTS Product Roadma 92 rd

The range of a mobile network depends on the frequencies used. In 2008, more than 180 CDMA mobile 

carriers announced network upgrades to W-CDMA.93 Backwards compatibility will be maintained for the 

foreseeable future. In 2010, the evolution continued with the addition of LTE. Overall CDMA will continue to 

be supported for years to come. However, as devices migrate to next generation standards, use of generic firstgeneration CDMA will be gradually discontinued. This will allow for more efficient use of the wireless carrier 

spectrum, which currently uses it. 

Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) 

 UMTS is primarily used in Europe. One of the drawbacks first generation UMTS/EDGE handsets 

currently experience is higher power consumption levels when compared to GSM or CDMA service. These 

devices are still in wide use and production today. W−CDMA and UMTS can be interoperable, roaming 

between different mobile network operator customers if the handset is a dual mode model. Handset 

manufactures offer dual, tri-mode, and quad-mode phones. 

                                                           

p Illustrating Data Download Speeds (data from the 3

Generation Partnership Project – 3 GPP) 

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) 

92 http://www.gsacom.com/news/statistics.php4 

26

93 http://www.cellular-news.com/story/34083.php 
27

Wide Code Division Multiple Access (W−CDMA) 

 Japan’s largest mobile network is based on W−CDMA technology and has essentially the same structure 

as UMTS. 

Figure 8. Comparison of Bandwidth Speeds94

 under different communication technologies. Actual times vary based on the 

ture backbone, tower capacity and investments made in the network architecture. 

     

Figure 8 shows the time needed to download different kinds of popular applications (songs, albums,

DVD movies, HD Movies)

wireless carriers infrastruc

                                                       94 http://www.gsacom.com/news/statistics.php4 
Figure 9. Coverage Map 3G Illustrating W−CDMA and UMTS Coverage with HSPA Availability95

Wireless Resiliency 

 In the 2004 Banda Aceh 9.3 earthquake and tsunami that killed 250,000 people, 60 percent of all mobile 

towers in the region were destroyed leaving no CDMA mobile data and only partial GSM capacity although 

g r to 

mplete. In some areas, 80 to 90 percent of all landlines were damaged or destroyed. 

 The January 2010 7.0 Haitian earthquake killed more than 200,000 people and took a terrible toll on 

infrastructure. Only three cellular base stations survived.98 However, within 6 months the system was fully 

operational to pre-quake service levels. The September 2010 7.1 Christchurch earthquake took down 24 cell 

 (

SMS texting using analog transmission was still able to et through.) Repairs took more than a yea

co 96 97

Cellular on Wheels 

 Mobile wireless telecommunications carriers now provide mobile cellular tower systems that can be 

brought to a site to augment or replace damaged communications infrastructure and have it operating in several

hours, depending on environmental conditions. 

                                                           

95 http://www.gsacom.com/news/statistics.php4 

&id=1500693 96 http://www.kuna.net.kw/ArticleDetails.aspx?language=en 97 http://www.kuna.net.kw/ArticleDetails.aspx?language=en&id=1500693

 - Author liaison with PT Telkom counterpart while employed with Bell Canada 2004. 

28

98 http://www.digicelgroup.com/en/media-center/press-releases/achievements/digicel-update-on-situation-in-haiti 
29

ore were damaged in the 6.3 aftershock. On both occasions, Cellular 

the 

sites—almost all of the local system.99 M

on Wheels (COW) mobile systems were brought to Christchurch, augmenting service within 7 days. 

 A major concern was fuel for generating power at the cell sites; the task was assigned priority by the 

New Zealand government. Several base stations were not damaged but simply lacked emergency diesel fuel 

replenishment. Service was augmented as the delivery of fuel became available and reduced the load on 

towers that were still connected to the power grid. 

Table 6. Dependency of Frequency on Coverage Area of One Cell of a CDMA2000 Network. 100

Frequency (megahertz) Cell radius (km) Cell area (km2) Relative Cell Count 

450 48.9 7521 1 

950 26.9 2269 3.3 

1800 14.0 618 12.2 

2100 12.0 449 16.2 

 In table 6, note that the higher the frequency used, the shorter the radius of support becomes and the

number of cell towers increases. The lower the frequency, the less data bandwidth is available to share across 

users to connect to that cell. 

 Figure 10. Traditional Mobile Base station101 Figure 11. Alcatel-Lucent–Light Radio102

 The rapid deployment of cellular on wheels is dramatically improving. The Alcatel-Lucent Light Radio 

is 300 grams (about 10 ounces) and stackable. It also consumes very little power, eliminating large generation 

and storage requirements. It is can operate on solar, wind and/or battery power. Each cube fits into the size of

human hand and is fully integrated with radio processing, antenna, transmission, and software management of

frequency. The device can operate on multiple frequencies simultaneously and work with existing 

infrastructure 103

 a 

.

                                                           

3759932 99 http://tvnz.co.nz/national-news/request-limit-use-cellphones- 100 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CDMA2000 101 http://net-trixsolutions.com/images/base%20station.gif 102 http://www2.alcatel-lucent.com/blogs/corporate/2011/02/no-mobile-gridlock-universal-coverage-lightradio-saves-themobile-industry-billions/ 103 http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=I7QnGkKlwBw Tod Sizer – Bell Labs / Alcatel - Lucent 
30

s 

Demonstration Satellite, which is optimized for emergency voice 

and data communications. 

Broadband Global Area Network (BGAN) 

 BGAN by Inmarsat has delivered Internet and voice services on three geosynchronous low earth 

orbiting Immarsat−4 satellites covering 95 percent of the Earth’s land mass since 2005. They are quick and easy 

to configure and consume very little power. The hardware required on the ground is available in rugged form 

factors and offer speeds between 56 Kb and 1 mega bit per second. Once deployed, BGAN network equipment 

can be connected to Wi-Fi access points to enable users nearby to share the resource. BGAN technology was 

widely used for the communications during the 2010 Haitian earthquake.105 In 2010, Inmarsat began 

construction of a new constellation of Ka band106 satellites. The Inmarsat-5 constellation will be capable of 

delivering 50 Mbps.107

Satellite Communications 

 Traditional satellite data service—such as a very small aperture terminal—continues to be a popular 

option for communications for many large organizations when a disaster strikes. The ground equipment is large 

in size, requires significant amounts of power and requires certified specialists to set up and configure the 

equipment. The advantage these systems offer is bandwidth performance ranging from 1 to 50 Mbps. The 

majority of television news networks use these systems to encode video with high resolution and low latency 

between the rem ems and 

deploy them depending on the scale of the event. 

 In the summer of 2007, Greg Wyler founded a company named O3B (Other 3 Billion) with its primary 

goal of establishing Internet broadband access in under-developed countries in Africa and South America and in 

sparsely populated island nations. Wyler has convinced several large corporations to help underwrite the project, 

including Google, Paul Allen and eight venture capital firms.108 His goal is to launch a constellation of Ka band 

satellites with parabolic and maneuverable antennas in a geostationary orbit with bandwidth speeds in the Gbps. 

No launch dates have been confirmed.109 Satellites built with directional capabilities would offer significant 

value to HA/DR communities in underserved regions when disasters strike and be a significant achievement. 

NGOs would be able to retrieve imagery and all its ancillary metadata more efficiently than with any current 

technology. 

                                                           

Space-based Network Service

 When terrestrial-based wireless networks are severely damaged, satellite data systems are the only way 

voice and data connectivity can be deployed in the field. Small and large form factor satellite-based equipment 

is used in HA/DR environments. Depending on the scale of the disaster, these resources can be shared by many

organizations or deployed in the field to small teams remote from their forward operating headquarters. 

Telecommunications satellites are positioned at different altitudes in orbits and vary in capabilities and 

performance.104 The three primary space-based network architectures are broadband global area network 

(BGAN), satellite data service and the Kizuna 

ote location and their broadcast headquarters. Some NGOs and IOs use these syst

104 http://gcmd.nasa.gov/User/suppguide/platforms/orbit.html 105 http://www.inmarsat.com/Downloads/English/BGAN/collateral/Haitiwhitepaper.pdf?language=EN&textonly=False 106 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ka_band . Ku is the other frequency band used on data capable orbiting satellites. 107 http://www.inmarsat.com/About/Our_satellites/default.aspx?language=EN&textonly=False 108 http://www.o3bnetworks.com/AboutUs/about_us.html 109 http://www.o3bnetworks.com/AboutUs/faq.html 
Kizuna Demonstration Satellite 

31

 In the spring of 2008, the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) launched the Ka band 

Kizuna Demonstration Satellite. It is capable of a 1.2 Gbps Internet Protocol (I.P.) data transmission. A user has

the ability to download data at 155 Mbps and upload at 6 Mbps with a 45 centimeter antenna, and they have 

access to the full 1.2 Gbps by installing a 5-meter (15-foot) antenna.110 One of its primary goals is serving as an

emergency data communications bridge across Japan and parts of Southeast Asia during a disaster. Kizuna is a 

demonstration platform and it is not known if JAXA will commission this platform as a continuing service. To 

date, all of its objectives have been achieved. 

Figure 12. Kizuna Data Satellite. Kizuna means “strong bond” in English.111

                                                           

wn/f14/overview/kizuna_e.html 110 http://www.jaxa.jp/countdo 111 http://www.jaxa.jp/countdown/f14/overview/kizuna_e.html 
32

rconnected society that is learning to respond collectively rather than 

individually. As socially and economically empowered populations increase, so does the impulse to respond to 

rises e ery 

d 

e 

y 

 operations center is the centralized location for information during an HA/DR event and delegates 

nt advantages because it has access to advanced 

 Internet, opening access to resources from all 

age 

the need to transmit medical and logistics information. APAN at USSOUTHCOM became one of several 

tion portals.114 Ushahidi115 and OSM116 published real-time map-based situation reports, and 

, 

VI. Putting It into Practice 

 We live in a socially inte

c ffectively. In 2011 alone, global government and public spending in crisis event response and recov

will exceed $500 billion.112 We can therefore address the challenges listed above with governance models an

application standards across an interconnected community. There are many ideas, concepts, and innovativ

technologies on the horizon that will be most effective through cooperation and collaboration. We must start b

understanding the life cycle of services and technology and then couple that cycle with the needs of the HA/DR 

community. 

Headquarters – The Operations Center 

 The

tasks to the responders on the ground. The center has significa

data management through high-speed networks that access the

parts of the world. This enables reasonably fast response times to challenges and obstacles such as langu

translation and publishing data file layers to remote repositories. However, the technology available in the 

affected regions directly affects access to these resources and thus the response results. 

 Technological shortfalls were clearly evident in Haiti immediately after the 2010 earthquake. U.S. 

military reachback resources were coordinated at U.S. Southern Command (USSOUTHCOM) in Miami, 

Florida, and at MacDill Air Force Base in Tampa, Florida. Joint NGO and IO operations were setup on the fly in 

Port-au-Prince with limited telecommunications and technology access.113 The demand for imagery on the 

ground was a priority and consumed significant bandwidth, which impacted other important needs, for example 

possible coordina

data streams also appeared through SMS, Twitter, InSTEDD, the Reuters Emergency Information Service and 

Project 4636. Through significant volunteer efforts, datasets were then compiled and distributed to user groups

then layered as mapped points of damage to transportation, shelter locations, emergency twitter messages, SMS

                                                           

112 Compile your own economic disaster loss analysis through ED-MAT - http://www.emdat.be/ 

The Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) was established in 1973 as a non-profit institution, 

with international status under the Belgian Law. It is located within the School of Public Health of the Université 

Catholique de Louvain (UCL) in Brussels. CRED became a World health Organisation Collaborating Centre in 1980 

and h

ance 

 and 

NDR) within its activities. 

 The ability to leverage crowdsourced information, open source GIS and commercial humanitarian logistics chains  

to deliver capabilities quickly and inexpensively is  being examined in a new initiative by DoD, NATO’s Allied 

Command  Transformation (ACT) and the International Transformation (ITX) Chairs Newtwork termed “Quick 

Wins at Low  Cost (QW@LC).   114 https://community.apan.org/pfa/haiti_HA/DR/

as expanded its support of the WHO Global Programme for Emergency Preparedness and Response. Since then, it

has increased its international network substantially. It has collaborative status with the United Nations Department of 

Humanitarian Affairs (UN-DHA), and also works in collaboration with the European Union Humanitarian Office 

(ECHO), the International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent, the Office of Foreign Disaster Assist

(OFDA-USAID) as well as with non-governmental agencies such as the International Committee of the Red Cross

Red Croissant (ICRCRC, Switzerland). During the 90s, the Centre actively promoted the International Decade for 

Natural Disaster Reduction (ID 113

 - also “Haiti to Helmand” http://star‐tides.net/node/2046 and the 

ICT For Peace Foundation's “Sifting Hype from Reality” http://ict4peace.org/updates/peacebuilding-in-the-informationage-sifting-hype-from-reality 115 http://haiti.ushahidi.com/ 116 http://www.openstreetmap.org/index.html?lat=18.89&lon=-72.83&zoom=7 
33

nditions. This work was not transcribed across all portals that had updated 

 Language barriers in data sharing can be addressed at the operations centers with translators, both 

chine-based. Translation from French Creole to English in Haiti was a significant challenge. 

slated 

ke into 

account the need to have multiple language support of all reference points on an image. Therefore the images 

ust be ee 

The Field − Forward Operating Headquarters 

screen is—graphics resolution, etc.—the more partitioned image tiles will be required to transport as data files 

 host and the device as a user scrolls from one grid to the next. Logistics, tasking orders and 

 

e work from their base as reach back operations. These groups include international aid 

agencies, foreign government assistance agencies, and volunteer groups. Many of these groups will work from 

ome an h 

t and consumes very little power. See figures 3 through 5 illustrating 

process flows in appendix A. 

                                                           

translation and other disaster event co

i ; multiple compilations of the data were pub magery lished on different websites. For more information, see 

U.N.'s Disaster Response 2.0.117

human and ma

Language issues are often ignored and demand significant attention and focus. During rescue operations, 

volunteers translated French Creole to English118 to submit SMS-based emergency requests that proved very 

valuable during the search and rescue phase. During the transition to recovery efforts, English updates tran

into Creole were sporadic at best. Use of imagery in concert with layered data opportunities must ta

m made available to a variety of sources ensuring wide transcription and translation opportunities (s

figure 21.)

 Mobile data center systems should be considered as a component of future large-scale disaster 

deployments. They can be made 100 percent self-contained in network services and in power. The forward 

operating headquarters is where many of the local datasets will be compiled for use in the relief effort. In doing

so, size of the datasets is often the most important obstacle to overcome. Currently, the smaller the user device 

between the edge

search and rescue teams continually face technical and time limitations on how to best leverage imagery. A team 

in region A usually does not need imagery for any other area. There are no broadly published guidelines for 

addressing such policies and needs assessments. See figure 25 for example of KML information layer overload.

Reach Back 

 Some subscribers to the imagery will have no need to interact with the local communities in real-time 

and will therefor

h d from their offices, connected to broadband Internet networks, and therefore do not have the bandwidt

issues of those on the ground. The reach back community often automates many of the datasets that are 

compiled for use in HA/DR responses and composition of this data often happens thousands of miles away from

the disaster. 

 For reach back to be effective and capable of transmitting imagery forward combined with data layers, 

field communications elements require next generation communications technology improvements. AlcatelLucent’s Bell Labs have designed Base Mobile Radio technology as an example that is cost effective, 

sustainable in an HA/DR environmen

117 http://www.globalproblems-globalsolutions-files.org/gpgs_files/pdf/2011/DisasterResponse.pdf 118 http://www.globalproblems-globalsolutions-files.org/gpgs_files/pdf/2011/DisasterResponse.pdf page 11 
34

ver, 

 Existing imagery policies, laws and processes need work. Government agencies and service providers 

ol to 

ap technology are a valuable set of tools 

oved productivity, public safety and stability in a disaster zone. Technical 

n 

o y are amended, the 

e of Excellence (CCOE) in Enschede, Netherlands, is exploring ways to improve these kinds 

of cooperation. 

ry, military organizations also are learning new techniques to use this data 

ery, 

lly 

a, 

 to 

a wareness. 

lied 

should also be made publicly available to the host nation, the United Nations, NGOs and volunteer organizations 

. The benefits would be substantial in cost reduction and organizational 

VII. Recommendations 

 Not all suggestions listed below are applicable to every type of disaster that occurs. There are, howe

themes in cartography and imagery technology that have been seen repeatedly. 

Resources 

need to come to an agreement on where and how the source imagery should be freely available to the HA/DR 

community, using standards that are accepted worldwide and are useable in popular (exportable) formats. 

Although this principle is recognized, it is not law in any region of the world known to the author. 

 No matter how easy it is to use, technology still has its limitations in the field. People save lives, 

technology does not, and technology is not the point—effective help is the point. Technology is merely a to

accomplish a task. While often indispensible, it is—like training, policy and law—a means to a useful end. 

 Used efficiently and with transparency, imagery and digital m

that can be marshaled for impr

solutions must be managed in parallel with the needs of a population under stress, keeping in mind the local 

language, culture and customs. These last two issues are not directly addressed in the recommendations herei

but are recognized as necessary. 

Data Sharing 

 Military organizations own some of the very best imagery. However, there are often legal constraints for

sharing outside of military alliances. While those barriers are dropping as law and p lic

culture is still often adversarial and that issue needs work. One of the best methods for improving relationships 

for data sharing is the embedding of staff from each side within the other. Civil-Military exchange opportunities 

can be particularly effective when focused through information and communication technology (ICT). The 

Civil-Military Centr

 As users of maps and image

in collaborative efforts with civilian volunteer technical communities. In Haiti, USSOUTHCOM found imag

digital open source maps and websites that hosted them (such as Ushahidi and OpenStreetMap) to occasiona

be of greater value than their own assets.119 In Haiti, unsecured sources such as Twitter, Facebook, Wikipedi

and SMS text messages were useful, but the feeds were not, as far as has been reported, integrated into any 

military mapping system, application or device attached to the military data network. The PEAK (Pre-Positioned

Expeditionary Assistance Kits) JCTD (Joint Capability Technology Demonstration), developed by the U.S. 

military in 2010-2011, has a pico-cell communications system to plug into local communication systems

leverage local situation l a

 Federal development agencies (such as the U.S. Agency for International Development ) should 

consider aerial and satellite imagery an early component of aid supplied during a crisis. The imagery supp

that are supporting the disaster response

effectiveness. 

                                                           

119 Author support of United States Marine Corps - 24th Marine Expedition

nd nd

ary Unit: Haiti – February 2010. 

Author support of United States Army - 2 Battalion: 82 Airborne: Haiti – January 2010 
35

ction of resources. The site lists trusted datasets including emergency mapping datasets in pre and 

post disaster files. The formats include KML and KMZ mapping files, JPG and PNG graphics formats, and 

ore. T

nd 

ps far outweighs the marginal cost of a little temporary 

storage. The methods, templates and designs established by the Visualization Center at San Diego State 

es to allow free export of 

agery

d 

L, XML, X-HTML and many other formats not yet developed 

icies and “how to” guidelines 

Data Layer Source Publishing 

formation is also needed. There are thousands of volunteer code writers 

ounts of information for the 

sponse community. If a new user had to use the 

 The United Nations hosts a Web portal under the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs where 

it has a colle

m he site includes metadata for the publisher, date and other ancillary information about the data. This 

allows any user to pick and choose what information is relevant to the user’s specific needs. This collection of 

data has been compiled as a result of lessons from prior emergencies.120

 Governments should be prepared to host and store new imagery on government-supplied and operated 

Internet networks with storage freely available to the humanitarian community for the duration of response a

relief efforts where U.S. dollars are involved (some of which is provided for in DODI 8220.02.) The financial 

benefit from the efficiencies achieved by good ma

University can serve as a useful model. Another option is for government agenci

im files to commercial network suppliers with the provision that all files thus supplied are to be considered 

free and open source, issued under Creative Commons license. 121

Software Applications 

 Today a substantial investment in cartographic products is being made by volunteer, non-profit, and 

corporate entities, but much utility is at risk if the applications can’t talk to each other. APIs, the bridges 

between applications, should be streamlined and exportable to more than one end user service provider. 

Software applications should be designed to operate in a distributed architecture framework. Web site platform 

applications such as the Sahana Disaster Management program 122 and Ushahidi are good examples of this, and 

are being recognized by governments as powerful tools for humanitarian response.123 

 Structured standards for dataset inputs and outputs could be considered one next step in volunteer an

public response user groups. The broad use of KM

requires a discussion about global interoperability. A governance structure of pol

might be valuable. 

 A structure for retrieving in

creating KML, XML and other third-party extensions containing valuable visualization datasets that are not 

being used to their maximum effect. Google’s volunteer bulletin board for KML files contained a wealth of 

information and is not optimized to its full potential. The structure of how the data is placed, who wrote the 

code, what is inside each file and how it’s published are all areas that could be addressed. Several files are full 

of accurate and detailed information surrounding a crisis or event, but lack metadata for context. Only through a 

multi-layered Web search is the information about this file likely to be found, requiring substantial and 

carefully-aimed effort.124

 Google supports sites such as http://bbs.keyhole.com, which hosts vast am

HA/DR community, though it is not well known in the re

                                                           

120 http://www.un-spider.org/japan-pacific 121 http://creativecommons.org/ 122 http://www.sahanafoundation.org/ 

project 123 http://www.crisismappers.n t/forum/topics/eqorgnz-about-the- e 124 http://bbs.keyhole.com 
36

an event is 

 response web pages when a disaster strikes and has done so consistently over 

the last several years. Google’s Japan disaster response page is an excellent example of how KML resources are 

ble, but it does not link back to the Keyhole Bulletin Board Service (BBS) site. This is likely 

urces that this 

riority Request for Comment (RFC) Standards 

except

could be p the International Telecommunications 

Union and the Internet Society. Examples include hashtags (#hashtag) used on Twitter and other applications. 

#H

helpful inf

Web 2 SEO). 

Web 2.0 (or ey are historical terms of reference to 

es that websites adopt for collaborative and shared environments. For example, a website 

s, such as RSS, is a site that complies with Web 2.0 guidelines.126

s: 

the Internet through communication networks (landline, broadband Internet or mobile text or data). Abuse of 

uce the 

#country + location + Fire (FD) + supplemental data 

                                                           

bulletin board front page as a starting point, the probability of finding HA/DR-related information for 

not likely. 

 Google does publish crisis

made availa

because the community that supports and uses the Keyhole BBS site is not solely directed at supporting 

disasters, but at all forums of KML users.125 HA/DR specialists do not have the time to go through thousands of 

results from a search on Keyhole BBS. This is not the fault of the administrators of the site; it is a volunteer 

community that has no formal governance. However, a methodology to extract the valuable reso

site offers needs to be encouraged and explored. 

Application Data – P

If data streams are going to be used to assist in an HA/DR response, they should be delivered with an 

ional level of trust and relevance, and be sent with high priority. Specialized reference metadata standards 

ublished and approved by several governance bodies including 

ashtag usage is currently flooding HA/DR websites, often (based on a quick personal survey) with less-thanormation. The popularity and use of #hashtags was spearheaded by its adoption by many during the 

.0 era and has been further enhanced by companies specializing in Search Engine Optimization (

 its follow-on Web 3.0) and SEO are not sanctioned bodies; th

standards and capabiliti

that offers XML service

 It is recommended that clearly defined and restricted use of specialized #hashtags be implemented 

using a common crisis taxonomy. For example: 

#country + location + emergency code + supplemental data 

The above example, if located in Washington, DC, U.S.A., would be published a

#USAWashingtonDC911Trapped 

 The specialized use of #hashtags could be implemented in the same cultural manner as 911, 999, and 

other emergency phone number systems. Metadata using these tags would also be given priority when sent over 

ratified emergency #hashtags would be a prosecutable offense. Implementing such as system could red

amount of data that crisis mappers and other response organizations need to monitor and improve the quality of 

data to be filtered. Other forms of #Hashtags syllabus can also be implemented such as: 

#country + location + information code (411) + supplemental data 

#country + location + water (H20) + supplemental data 

125 http://www.google.com/crisisresponse/japanquake2011.html 126 http://www.w3.org/tr/wcag
37

smission. 

 that a Request for Comment (RFC) be published for review by the IETF, which is 

managed by the Internet Society. 

ore 

e to 

nd distribution are added, the deployed costs can multiply by a factor of 

network access. As in any large organization, the logistics 

pede capability enhancement. 

, sometimes with their own off-grid 

power. Emergency repair services and infrastructure augmentation capabilities have improved significantly over 

ommunication 

0. Similar to new semiconductor 

architectures such as System on Chip/Programmable Systems on Chip,127 Alcatel claims the cost of owning and 

operating mobile transmission services are reduced by half. The system can take advantage of green energy 

me devices. To increase capacity, range, and bandwidth 

d will not be required to add 

add

           

 These meta-tags could be harnessed and structured in a manner that can be further labeled in 

communication networks for enhanced Type of Service (ToS) or Quality of Service (QoS) priority tran

Perhaps we could recommend

Devices 

 Small form factor devices offer new opportunities to use imagery as key information foundations for

most HA/DR scenarios. Costs for them continue to drop. Software to operate on these devices has become m

flexible for application development, particularly open source operating systems like Android. 

 Two significant issues need to be addressed with respect to new device implementation: training and 

distribution logistics. 

• Training: Consumers have essentially unlimited time to learn new devices. If, however, a device

is complex enough to require technical manuals and formal support, the value of the packag

humanitarian responders might be significantly reduced. 

• Distribution logistics: Managers realize that devices may cost only $1.00 initially, but when 

training, IT processing a

four or more, not including 

associated with change im

Communications 

 Wireless and satellite network link technology continue to improve along the same curve as hardware. 

The need for large form factors such as full size desktop computers or even laptops is disappearing. Long-range 

network access and mobile cell towers are becoming smaller each year

the past 10 years. Network access costs during crises are now being reviewed by large telec

providers and, in some cases, costs will be waived for the duration of the event. 

 Transmission technology is rapidly changing as well. Cellular tower size and footprint requirements are 

shrinking dramatically. Bell Labs recently revealed their “LightRadio,” (using "Base Station on a Chip" 

technology) with high functionality, light weight, and very low power consumption. This design will improve 

availability to broadband network solutions in areas where traditional mobile phone access has proven difficult. 

 Radio processing has been reduced in size by a factor of 1,00

sources and backhaul network trunking on the sa

requirements, all the mobile operator will need to do is stack more cubes an

itional radio processing electronics or antenna needs. 

                                                

/wiki/PSoC 127 http://en.wikipedia.org 
38

ackard and Freescale Semiconductor to build the mobile 

 The above described technology is a few years away from wide spread deployment. The future shows 

ld operations needing high-speed connectivity to the Internet. This is not a universal 

y 

 results 

eir 

in repairs. As the scale of a disaster increases, internal 

ective 

ads be created. Some 

of this work is now underway, following the Internet Engineering Steering Group130 process, managed by the 

lo the 

Quality of Service (QoS) and Type of Service (ToS) RFCs for Emergency Use 

ice and network communication services used in HA/DR operations should have telecom priority 

a 

tion 

 Alcatel-Lucent has partnered with Hewlett P

base station product for its software and hardware requirements. The consortium has signed a 10-year 

collaboration agreement.128 

Communications Regulations 

promise for HA/DR fie

capability and must be considered where imagery service needs exist. Current network access services var

around the world and must be taken into account before deploying advanced devices and expecting equal

regardless of where the disaster has taken place. While it is standard policy for teams to have pencil and paper 

on the ground, technology services, particularly communications, are globally improving and becoming reliable 

for crisis deployments. 

 Governments today do not require telecommunication providers to have redundant mobile networks or 

standby requirements such as Cell on Wheels (COW) equipment. Most governments have relied upon th

military institutions to provide backup needs or to assist 

resources are unlikely to prove sufficient. In some cases the governments have refused international IT support 

or have imposed severe regulatory barriers or time-consuming emergency permits and tariffs that make eff

and timely interventions impossible.129

Communications –RFC Standards 

 It is recommended that a series of new emergency use application and data paylo

IETF.131 Accomplished through the RFC peer and team expert review steps, such RFCs become standards with 

which hardware and software developer vendors can comply. Some of the fol wing recommendations are in

process of being reviewed, while others have not yet been successful. 

 Vo

standards developed for use. These include the ability to create priority queues for critical datasets, mobile text 

and I.P. data from smart phone and tablet devices. Similar to QoS and ToS RFCs, none explicitly exist today for 

emergency use of important data transmission. This is an important issue where imagery and layered meta-dat

are concerned. These files are a significant transport network point of congestion, not only at the event loca

but, also across every network access point, from the data center that hosts imagery to metadata that is sourced 

from multiple locations attempting to be retrieved by HA/DR teams. 

                                                           

128 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7de2e-pUc9c 129 Hurricane Katrina – Ericsson offers complete cellular network for deployment 

http://www.ericsson.com/ericsson/news/archive/2005/050909_er.shtml 

http://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/07/world/americas/07iht-relief.html?_r=1 

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_response_to_Hurricane_Katrina 

Earthquake Haiti – Author’s direct notification of Network Equipment Import tariffs prevented donated equipment to be 

shipped. Author with the help of Motorola Canada found a complete public safety radio system recently 

re the earthquake hit, sitting on pallets ready to be shipped. It was 6 months before the 

uthor and beyond the financial capacity of any organization. 

decommissioned just befo

notification was sent to the a 130 http://www.ietf.org/iesg/ 131 http://www.ietf.org/ 
39

 disaster recovery. 

ommu

l ed. 

 can 

ht 

 Ziemke.133 It is the core of collaboration efforts that can be deployed 

anywhere in the world. CrisisMappers has established workshops and steering committees to set guidelines and 

and layered datasets. This group, which 

day co al 

 range 

nal 

r “Sharing To Accelerate Research, 

Transformative Innovation for Development and Emergency Support.” 

Military 

 As described throughout this document, the military has played a key role in every catastrophic disaster 

e past 50 years in all region of the world. Many of them have contributed to the publication of imagery and 

en confined in narrow and very specific duties and 

nd the front end for many of the needs during a 

w

dis d its metadata could be made available to the 

 host-nation mandates for sovereignty and security. 

                                                           

Communications – Government Regulations 

 Government communications regulators need to consider regulations that account for

C nications regulators should consider specific requirements such as having COW service be a mandatory

requirement in order to operate wireless commercial services that are stored at locations deemed safe from a 

foreseeable hazard. 

Social Networks 

 Visualization of conditions at any HA/DR event quickly establishes facts, situational awareness, 

dynamic conditions and courses of action that need to be taken. Imagery eliminates ambiguity in many 

situations and environments and acts as a language translation between different cultures. No longer is it a 

question of who has access, but how fast it can be dep oy

 The HA/DR community might also begin developing educational programs on how ordinary people

use applications such as Twitter and other social media for disaster response support. Examples include 

language translation on layered images and maps. 

 CrisisMappers.net, mentioned earlier, is a group of more than 4,500 volunteers that have been broug

together by Patrick Meier132 and Jen

standardize functions and capabilities for sites that deliver imagery 

to nsists of diverse and talented volunteers from all walks of life, might soon evolve into a profession

volunteer organization of trusted capabilities and skill sets and they are worth watching. 

 STAR−TIDES is an example of an organization capturing ideas, solutions, and concepts across a

of disaster response domains and sharing them freely with anyone interested.134 It is located at the Natio

Defense University in Washington, DC, and the acronym stands fo

in 

 use of open source tools. In the past, militaries have b

th

the e

operational roles. Today they often provide the backbone a

disaster. In addition to its traditional HA/DR functions as described in the Government-imagery supplier role, 

some militaries have the capability to assist in the processing and delivery of post-event imagery and to comply 

ith industry cartography and mapping standards. 

 If a foreign military institution has similar guidance, it might take into consideration the sharing and 

tribution of imagery and associated GIS metadata. Imagery an

HA/DR community while still meeting international and

132 http://irevolution.net/bio/ 133 http://www.jenziemke.net/ 134 http://star-tides.net/ - Disclosure: The author has collaborated and advised on several HA/DR subject areas with this 

organization. 
40

nitarian support such as DOD Instruction 

and DoD Instruction 8220.02.136 

An example of these processes in action occurred in Jalalabad, Afghanistan, documented by Dr. Dave 

Warner of MindTel. It required the cooperation of several U.S. Government agencies and the U.S. Military, and 

is documented in the reference.137 

 In brief, in 2006 and 2007, the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory and USGS implemented a map server to 

support imagery services required for Project Rampant Lion, an unclassified aerial survey of Afghanistan. 

Rampant Lion consumed more than 20 terabytes of data138 and required more than 40 flights exceeding 220 

flight hours using a U.S. Navy NP−3D Orion. In total, Rampant Lion photographed 330,000 square kilometers 

of the country on more than 65,000 separate images.139 

 Other military air force units around the world have aerial imagery capabilities and could be made 

available for use in emergencies. For several years the U.S. Air Force, Navy and Coast Guard have supplied the 

bulk of government supplied aerial imagery when tasked, but they need not carry this burden alone. Countries 

that have this capability and have been involved in recent disasters but either did not offer or supply or receive 

imagery service requests include Australia, Canada, China, France, Germany, Japan, New Zealand, Russia, 

Sweden and the United Kingdom. 

Understanding Cultural Interpretation: Data as Symbols 

 We tend to forget the multi-cultural demands of our world. While technology evolves, all HA/DR 

participants need to recognize the continued requirement for learning cultural and social differences in each 

country. Streams of data when placed on a map act as symbols. In many cultures symbols are integral to 

effective communication. Developers and software programmers who design APIs might benefit from 

considering the communication resources within societies at risk. 

                                                           

 This policy is similar to the DOD with respect to huma

2105.02135 (Humanitarian and Civic Assistance, Dec. 2, 2008) 

135 http://www.dtic.mil/whs/directives/corres/pdf/220502p.pdf 136 http://www.dtic.mil/whs/directives/corres/pdf/822002p.pdf   137http://www.oss.net/dynamaster/file_archive/100710/8e33760a723ce3c75d733058441d1645/Cyber%20Pass%20Meets%

20Khyber%20Pass.pdf– see also http://mapserver.cmf.nrl.navy.mil/ 138 http://www.nrl.navy.mil/media/news-releases/2010/aerogeophysical-survey-provides-promising-prospects-of-economicdevelopment-in-afghanistan

 The amount of storage required for Proj s than what is used today for high 

resolution disaster imagery from aerial f 0 or Japan 2011. See specifications of 

ect Rampant Lion was significantly les

lights and Satellite passes for Haiti 201

Afghanistan missions as noted on pages 108 and 109 of the report. 139 http://mapserver.cmf.nrl.navy.mil/FA7rev.pdf - Page 108 

65,000 high-resolution photogrammetric Images were collected. 

Other Systems used included: 

L-Band Polarimetric Imaging Radar, 

Magnetometer, 

Gravity Meter, 

Photogrammetric Camera, 

Hyperspecteral Camera, 

Synthetic Aperture Camera, 

Applanix DSS Camera 
41

Appendix A. Imagery, Maps, and Usage 

Figure 13. Image server to user 

This diagram illustrates the different shared resources used in collaboration to export valuable information to a user 

Not all groups share or use the same resources to create a finished product. The weakest link is reaching the device 

platforms (smartphones, tablets) used in the field due to the limited bandwidth that may be available. Each process is 

completed in sequentially: Imagery Æ layered datasets Æ provider Æ host service Æ network infrastructure Æ user 140

group. 

                                                           

140 Rapid Response Consulting, Toronto, Ontario 
42

Imagery Processing and Utilization 

Figure 14. Imagery Network141

n or aircraft landing site location) of the imagery 

multiplied by “N”—the various locations where the imagery is collected and then distributed. Data centers are available all 

over the world. Google’s image sets are housed in a variety of international data centers, as are Microsoft’s Virtual 

Earth/Bing. Forward operating headquarters are often housed in a safe location close to the disaster site that can vary from a 

few kilometers to hundreds. The user groups in the Internet Connection Sharing hot zone ("Ground Zero") will use a variety 

of communications networks including wireless, satellite, and terrestrial landline networks if operational, each with 

potential bandwidth limitations. Not all events have forward operating headquarters. 

                                                           

The end user retrieves imagery and data from sources simultaneously, and not in serial fashion, as shown above. The data

linkage (programming) is serial, but the transmission is not. Several reprocessing steps may occur (translation) and not all 

devices may recognize the datasets being fed into the user’s device browser or third-party application. Language translation 

can crash a user’s device or create significant delays in the transmission of data. The data center is the core; forward 

operating headquarters is the edge, while ground zero represents the user community. The data center formula “X N” 

represents the data center collection location “X” (satellite ground statio

lting, Toronto, Ontario 141 Rapid Response Consu
43

Application Architecture–KML 

Figure 15. Software Architecture of how KML is Used 

A sample architecture for KML, this configuration is only one approach for collection and compiling raw data into 

r groups 

 use. Other 

meaningful data sets to layer on top of cartography and digital imagery maps. The design of XML, X-HTML, and others

often follow similar processing flows but are not invariant. It’s important to recognize that developers of these solutions 

may or may not adhere to a specific user group’s needs. Since many of these applications are designed by voluntee

for use in the field, there is no cohesive team that collaborates to ensure minimum requirements and outputs are followed. 

This potentially creates confusion in the field where the information is critical and must be accurate to be of any

versions of code used for data layering include JSON142 and X-HTML. 

                                                           

142 http://www.json.org/ 
44

Ushahidi Volunteer Data Flow

Figure 16. The use of the Ushahidi platform by the Standby Task Force143, as structured for use for Libya 

crowdsourcing information144

Ushahidi’s platform success stems from its use by organized volunteers, each with skill sets that extract data from multiple 

sources for publication. These streams of data are often in different formats, protocols, and languages. The teams are 

organized to maximize their capabilities, and are often nowhere near the event’s epicenter. Volunteer programmers, 

developers, and team coordinators are based all over the world. Once dataflow structures are put into place, they are often 

then allowed to operate in an automated mode. As illustrated here, they can inject supervisor roles and responsibilities 

ensuring a level of quality control and verification as required. Depending on the scenario, volunteers could be put into 

roles that are often considered government roles and responsibilities. To date, dialogues between volunteers and observers 

who interpret the data have not seen conflicts in this area. This diagram suggests “management” protoco by UN-OCHA. 

he term “volunteer” requires clarific e operators of the websites used for 

humanitarian efforts. The Ushahidi team considers itself a non-profit organization, which implies neutrality. Many of the 

                                                           

ls 

T ation. Ushahidi developers are often not th

volunteer teams that compile the data are employees of non-profit organizations or funded by grants from various 

institutions. The datasets collected from sources as illustrated are freely available for anyone to structure and publish. The 

type of civil crisis or disaster will sometimes influence how many volunteers (who are truly volunteers with no 

remuneration, funding, or furnished compensation for their work) and teams are assisting in the response. 

Some staffing of the deployed services use resources that are individuals and groups funded by foundations such as the 

Harvard Humanitarian Initiative, universities, charities, and other foundations. 

143 Standby Task Force: http://blog.standbytaskforce.com 144 Used with permission – Ushahidi 
 Figure 17. MapBox Architecture145

MapBox offers map developers or individual users the ability to create their own maps and pull in metadata feeds from a 

variety of sources, including popular APIs such as Google Maps API, and OpenLayers. It’s compliant with all Hyper Text 

Markup Language (HTML) standards including HTML 5 and X-HTML. The service supports JavaScript, GeoJSON, 

GeoTIFF, but not Flash. A significant feature is the ability to view customized maps after downloading them once. Once 

downloa146

ded, low bandwidth demand data feeds such as RSS can be layered, offering efficient use of available network 

access. It offers flexibility of allowing a user to download a publisher’s finished map and simultaneously allowing users 

to pull in their own KML files. Current versions of MapBox support some versions of Android and Apple iTunes connected 

devices such as the iPad. 

                                                           

45

ill White of MapBox – April 28, 2011. 

145 Used with permission © Mapbox 2011. 146 Email / Skype Interview with Dave Cole & W
46

ppendix B. Humanitarian Assistance / Disaster Relief (HA/DR) Events 

The illustrations in this appendix show examples not only of increasingly sophisticated uses of imagery, but also of ways 

that it could have been used better and lessons for future contingencies. 

New Orleans, Louisiana, Hurricane Katrina 2005 

Google Earth, Mapping Critical Infrastructure Damage 

A

and Mapping Examples: Lessons Learned 

Figure 18. Early Uses of KML and Google Earth: Hurricane Katrina Damage Assessment, 

September 5, 2005 

This map shows the critical infrastructure damage after the Category 3 Hurricane Katrina made landfall on August 29, 

2005, wreaking havoc across three states. It represents an early attempt by Google Earth to show the value of KML. The 

damage polygons are overlaying Google Earth’s embedded pre-event imagery, the only imagery readily available. Note the 

structure of the legend table in the top left of the KML file, a sensible use of icons and colors.147 Because Google Earth was 

not ubiquitous in 2005, Google also made a graphic .jpg version available for the public to view without requiring a user to 

install Google Earth.148 This is shown in Figure 19, focused on the red, yellow, and blue areas near the center of the image 

above. 

                                                           

147 http://earth.google.com/gallery/kmz/Katrina-damage-outages-05Sep.kmz 148 http://earth.google.com/images/outages.jpg 
47

Early Efforts at Making Google Earth and KML Maps Available 

Figure 19. JPG version excerpted from the static map in figure 18, created to make the information 

available for those who had not installed Google Earth 

This is a blow-up of the central part of Figure 18. Notice how the detail of road damage has disappeared in this jpg version.
Early Mapping of Post-event Imagery 

Figure 20. Hurricane Katrina August 30, 2005 

This map illustrates an early attempt to map post-event imagery using a point KML file showing damaged locations without 

downloading an entire set to the user.149 Dots (shown here in green and red) were clickable, bringing up a bubble describing 

what the image contained and supplemental data such as date and image size. This technique is valuable from several 

perspectives: small KML file size, giving a user the flexibility to zoom into a region of interest and then click on various

dots and ier at 

this poin value 

     

choose which images to download. Lesson Learned: When the user downloaded the image, the KML suppl

t did not provide reference points to street names or grid coordinates with the image which made it of little 

for many organizations such as NGOs, search and rescue, and other agencies. A sample image without any metadata

supplied is shown in figure 1. 

                                                      

48

149 http://earth.google.com/katrina.html 
49

Port-au-Prince, Haiti, Earthquake 2010 

Imagery Missing GPS Coordinates 

Figure 21. Haiti Earthquake Satellite image150 with embedded road condition information 

This image could have been extrapolated for other uses in various products such as Ushahidi, OSM, Google Earth, 

Microsoft Virtual Earth, but was not included because of the methods used in its composition. This image was posted on 

the APAN. Note the lack of GPS coordinate tags except the notation of area covered at the top left of the image. HA/DR 

teams would have found this image of little value. 

The 45th Reconnaissance Squadron operating OC−135B "Open Skies" aircraft (B−707 variant) out of Offutt Air Force 

Base, Nebraska, flew several imagery flights 5 days after the earthquake hit Port-au-Prince, Haiti, on January 12, 2010151

(see figure 38). Northrop Grumman RQ−4 Global Hawks and Lockheed Martin P−3 Orions were also used in this effort. 

                                                           

150 https://community.apan.org/cfs-filesystemfile.ashx/__key/communityserver-components-postattachments/00-00-01-02-

53/Updated-Road-Survey_5F00_ALL.JPG 

hotos/slideshow.asp?id={7649B4DE-E9F4-4F6C-B93C-98C8826E2BBF} 151 http://www.acc.af.mil/p 
50

Christchurch, New Zealand, 2010 Earthquake 

Ushahidi–Configuration Challenges 

Figure 22, Post 6.3 Earthquake imagery; Christchurch, New Zealand, February 22, 2011152

This shows the intersection at Litchfield Street and Manchester Street. Imagery was supplied by the Environmental Systems 

esearch Institute on a website powered by Ushahidi and OpenStreetMap with multiple layers of information available. 

en a user first visits the site, they will see pre-earthquake and post-earthquake imagery options (top right). This 

immediately has two effects; the first is the requirement to download two sets of images. This is because the pre-earthquake 

image has all the street information (see figure 23) and the post-earthquake image shown above does not. The second is that 

when a user clicks on important information datasets (shown on the left—”Layers”) the user opens a new browsing session, 

the datasets revert back to pre-earthquake imagery. Again, see figure 23 for example. This is not the fault of the Ushahidi 

software, but how the administrators configured this particular instance. Careful planning and process steps need to be 

understood when creating disaster information websites. 

R

Wh

                                                           

152 http://eqviewer.co.nz/ 
Figure rds153

d. 

s would 

l the information is available, but the website has 

several issues to resolve before being labeled “user friendly.” Information was parsed from another New Zealand disaster 

                                                           

 23. Christchurch, New Zealand, Ushahidi Data Layer specifically for Road Haza

When a user drills down to the layer desired, in this case road hazards, the information is not layered onto the available 

post-earthquake imagery. The hazard icon is clickable and brings up a pop-up window describing that nature of the hazar

Had this information been layered onto post-earthquake imagery, several agencies in government, NGOs, and other

have been able to “verify” the information and trust its publication. Al

website which deployed the traditional OSM cartography as shown in figure 24.154 

153 http://eqviewer.co.nz/ 154 Co-authored by Erik Hersman, Ory Okolloh, Juliana Rotich, and David Kobia in 2008, Ushahidi154 was developed to 

publish eyewitness accounts of violence occurring during the 2008 Presidential elections in Kenya. Ushahidi means 

51

“testimony” in Swahili.
Figure 24. Christchurch, New Zealand, Earthquake Reporting and Analysis site 

ent 

ed Flickr, Twitter, SMS, Wikipedia, and citizen journalists. Data verification had no 

governance model and many reports were unverified but trusted nonetheless. This site did not directly use satellite 

Note the number of published reports—well over 1,000. The user has the ability to click on one of the listed items in the 

able of Contents on the right hand side, which only brings up posts associated with the link. An Urban Search and Rescue 

od typically used today pushes a user 

requ t to download the “big pictu e data points desired. This may still

be to digest. E on on how to plays a critical role it its value and usage. Many 

USA icated I hen they dep ason, as do other NGOs and United Nation agencies. 

Whi this eam dispatc used to meet this need. 

Info ces such as Twitter, Facebook, or e hard to validate when used in websites like this. To 

elp mitigate the risks, a volunteer team manually verified each inbound message prior to publication. More than 300,000 

messages were reviewed.156

     

Volunteer organizations used this site to publish information about resources, conditions, rescue efforts, and governm

news updates. Other sources includ

imagery,155 but much of the information was geospatially referenced. 

T

(USAR) team could focus on information for their own cachement area. The meth

es re,” then zoom into the area of interest and click on th

o much information to

R teams now take ded

ducati

T staff w

 use the datasets 

loy for this re

le USAR teams do not use site for t h, it could be

rmation from sour SMS can b

h

This capability will not exist for every event that unfolds. Imagine trying to verify messages or manage inbound datasets

during a major earthquake that may strike on the Asian landmass with the potential of having hundreds of different 

language dialects to sort and identify. 

                                                       155 http://eq.org.nz/

52

156 http://vimeo.com/21458456
53

Honshu, Japan, creating a tsunami. Together the 

earthquake and tsunami destroyed or damaged more than 2,200 ce tions and knocked out over 

5,000 landlines. In some regions of the Miyagi Prefecture, entire v d wi e map. 

Telecom carriers responded with the same techniques used for the Ch New epairs to 

ess communications were completed tter of These re ntinued to be 

ging in some areas more than two months later. 

parts of the world there is clear evidence that high-speed unicatio tems can b ed in short time 

disasters. But there are conditions and regions where t e of respon not b The 

, Australia, floods of December 2010158 caused signif mage a ed abilit frastructure 

er. Repair times and installation of temporary communications systems were handicapped by 

the amount of flooding and the time it took for the water to recede. Some regions of South America, Africa, and Southeast 

ogy in these regions 

continues to grow at a rapid pace and offers potential when response to a disaster requires its use. 

view, 

including Cellular News.159

 the 

arket) are smartphone owners, an increase of 33.5 percent from September 2010 when ComScore first 

introduced MobiLens into Japan. 

able 7. December 2010 Smartphone vs Non-Smartphone Users in Japan 

Tohoku Earthquake and Tsunami 2011 

On March 11, 2011, an earthquake measuring 9.0 struck off the coast of 

llular tower157 base sta

12 illages were 

 response in

destroyed an

ristchurch, 

ped off th

 Zealand. R

critical regions needing wirel in a ma weeks. pairs co

challen

In many 

frames after 

 comm

his typ

ns sys

se will 

e restor

e possible. 

Queensland icant da nd limit ies to repair in

due to the nature of the disast

and Northeast Asia have limited wireless network infrastructure. The adoption of mobile phone technol

The recent earthquake and tsunami in Japan, a country whose use of wireless communications is extensive, showed an 

unexpectedly high percentage of old-school text-only 2G mobile phones. This breakdown shows how emergency 

information should be distributed and in what formats. Several reports (such as those in Table 7) support this 

Smartphone and Non-Smartphone Usage: Japan as a Case Study in the Usage of Different 

Platforms 

Analysis of smartphone adoption during December 2010 revealed that 7 million mobile users in Japan (7 percent of

total mobile m

Many smartphones in Japan have advanced capabilities such as mobile wallet, 1seg TV, and waterproof features, all which

encourage current feature phone users to switch to smartphone devices. 

T

 Total Audience (000) Share of Total Mobile Audience 

Total Mobile Audience 100,900 100.0 percent 

Non-smartphone Users (2G) 93,925 93.1 percent 

Smartphone Users 6,975 6.9 percent 

When looking 

largest volum

at smartphone form adoption in Japan (Table 8), the study found that Apple and Google account for the 

e of smartpho rs. In December 20 , 3.8 million sm tphone subscribers used Apple devices, up 48 

nt from June 2010. Google Android devices witnessed a surge in users growing to more than 2 million in December 

 just 435,000 in June. 

                                                           

plat

ne use 10 ar

perce

2010, up from users

157 http://isis-online.org/uploads/isis-reports/documents/Accident_Sequence_Fukushima_31March2011.pdf . This disaster 

has come to be called the great Tohoku (North-East) earthquake. It also has been called the Fukushima, Honshu, 

Miyagi, Sendai, etc. earthquake, but this paper uses the term Tohoku. 

2010-2011 158 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_floods_ 

s.com/story/48068.php 159 http://www.cellular-new 
54

 usage: June, September, and December 2010 

Apple, Google, and Microsoft Smartphone Platform Audience in Japan 

Table 8. Platform

 

Tota (000) l Audience

June-2010 Sept-2010 Dec-2010 

Total Smartphone Audience 5,223 5,702 6,975 

Apple 2,557 3,347 3,787 

Google 435 841 2,174 

Microsoft 2,144 1,475 831 

Source: Cellular News160

ove illust anese usage of m ones indi platforms used. 

se events, Band h and Haiti, the ad tion of newer ha dheld smartphone devices was limited or not 

her because of e ic means (Haiti) o ot yet in produ (Banda Aceh). In New Zealand and Japan, the 

age of new hnology, while significant, suggests spread adoption than expected. The 

bscribers do n e data plans in use, hile others do n know how to use even basic SMS. 

 th hit New Zealand, gove eaders pl ded with the Christchurch population to avoid 

e calls an ead use text messa o conserve a r the first 2 

isaster. 

ore section missions of imager owd-sour aps161 were challenging due to limited 

vices in Ja 

 significant cost ov uns to a HA/DR imagery program. This can be contained through 

s; operated ralized and dist architectu y planning. Japan has nine 

Table 9. Types of Japanese map suppliers 

The breakdown ab rates Jap obile ph cating varying 

In two of the a Ace op n

available eit conom r n ction

acceptance and us er tec less wide

majority of su ot hav w ot

After the two earthquakes at rnment l ea

making audio phon d inst ging t vailable phone lines for emergency use fo

weeks after the d

As noted in the c , trans y and cr ced m

bandwidth. 

Imagery Ser pan

Duplication of data sets can bring err

managed service using cent ributed res and sound polic

different native map suppliers (see tables 9 and 10). 

Service Map Satellite Other

Google Japan Map Labeled satellite 

Geographical Survey Institute Topo 

CyberJapan Topo 

Mapion Map 

MapFan Web Map 

Yahoo! Japan Map 

Goo Map 

Its-mo Guide Map 

Livedoor Map 

If a user looks up Honda Airport (Japan), 22 different service providers are available in addition to the ones listed here: 

                                                           

160 http://www.cellular-news.com/story/48068.php 161 http://crowdmap.com/ 
55

able 10. Additional Japanese Geospatial Providers which accurately found Honda Airport, Japan 

ACME Mapper Map Satellite Terrain, Topo Mapnik

T

Ayna Maps Satellite

Bing Maps Map Aerial Bird’s Eye

Blue Marble Navigator Satellite

ExploreOurPla.net Daily

Flash Earth Satellite

Fourmilab Satellite

GeaBios Satellite

GeoNames Satellite Text (XML)

GlobeXplorer Satellite

Google Earth Open w/ meta data

Google Maps Map Satellite Terrain

GPS Visualizer Map Satellite Drawing utility

Map24 Map

MapQuest Map 

MapTech Map

Maps-For-Free Map 

MSN maps Map

NASA World Wind Open

Norkart Virtual Globe Satellite

OpenStreetMap Map more maps, Nominatim (reverse geocoding)

Shaded Relief Map

TerraServer Satellite

USMapServer Map

ViaMichelin 

International Map 

Wikimapia Map Satellite + old places

WikiMiniAtlas Map 

Yahoo! Maps Map Satellite (Flash required) 

Table 9 and 10 Source: GeoHack at Toolserver.org162

                                                           

ttp://toolserver.org/~geohack/geohack.php?pagename=Honda_Airport¶ms=35_58_35_N_139_31_27_E_type:airp 162h

ort_region:JP&title=Honda+Airport 
56

Example of Information Overload 

Figure 25. Tohoku Japan Earthquake 

This example is taken from the author’s computer with multiple KML files open simultaneously using Google Earth.163 A 

user can turn off and on each KML “layer” as desired. The user zooms into an area of interest and can click on any source 

of information (“pins” or icons) to interpret accuracy, verification, or source of information and its contents. Note the size 

of the Japanese characters. See figure 24 for a supplemental discussion regarding information and imagery overload. The 

user has control of how many KML files are open simultaneously. As shown in this example, it is easy to see how a map 

can become confusing with post-event data in multiple languages, multiple reference points, poorly compiled data syllabi, 

and sometimes duplicated information. But the user has the choice. 

This illustration shows 11 different KML files enabled. 

                                                           

163 http://www.google.com/earth/index.html - Data layers include earthquake aftershocks, twitter feed posts, shelter 

informatio rd n, updated satellite imagery, English and Japanese 3 party source data. Each feed can be turned on and off 

independently of each other. 
57

Google Earth and Missing Street Names 

Figure 26. Satellite Imagery, Sendai, Japan, viewed in Google Earth 

Red pins represent shelters. Note Go ate roads. This image is a 

     

ogle’s lack of street information.164 Gray lines indic

composite of two layers of data supplied via KML files. One is the actual red pin data (shelters), the other is the road map. 

The road information is a Google KML layer while the shelter information is from a third party. A user can copy the 

characters in the bubble and paste the characters into a translator program such as Google Translate, available in more than 

50 languages and used under license from Systran. 165

                                                       164 http://www.kokuminhogo.go.jp/ - Japan Cabinet Secretariat Civil Protection Portal Site – KMZ file published March 

14, 2011 165 http://www.systransoft.com/ 
58

Ushahidi Map– Sendai, Japan 

Figure 27. Sendai Japan Ushahidi Website 

The same shelter information request in figure 26’s Google KML is shown on the Ushahidi site here in figure 27. Note 

there is a cluster of information regarding shelters, identified using a orange-red dot with the number 13 in the middle. The 

next cluster shown lists 7 sources of shelter information to the left of the one identified with 13. This is because the 

information was not compiled from the same source. A user clicks on the cluster and a new webpage opens up with shelter 

address, capabilities, status, and services offered. This example of OSM has some street names, while the Google Earth 

example shown in figure 26 does not.166

how 

The administrator(s) of a Ushahidi-powered website have multiple software options. The administrator can add imagery, 

special topics, and subjects, and offer language options. The site does not have to be built in a single day, but can be 

modified as information and datasets are supplied to the administrator for publication. Twitter feeds (if used) update in realtime when a Twitter user posts a tweet using #hashtags,167 which are then automatically pulled into the Ushahidi website. 

Other API interfaces include publishing shortcode168 data from mobile phones and SMS text messaging. API development 

is done through its SwiftRiver program, a collection of APIs that can assist in taking unstructured data and enabling it to be 

published on a Ushahidi website. Through this API, data can be compiled with GPS coordinates, assigned keywords, and 

published it in near real-time. This software is open source and freely available to anyone. It integrates with other open 

source software including Apache Web server, PHP, MySQL, and Ubuntu.169 

                                                           

166 http://www.sinsai.info/ushahidi/?l=en_US 167 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tag_(metadata) 168 http://www.shortcodes.com/howto_short-codes.html 

http://web.acma.gov.au/numb/openAccess/inquiry/viewAllocationSearch.do 

http://www.usshortcodes.com/ 

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_code 

_to_install_ushahidi#system_requirements 169 http://wiki.ushahidi.com/doku.php?id=how 
Imagery for Situational Awareness of Ground Conditions 

Figure 28. Sendai Airport ap J an, 24 hours after the Earthquake & Tsunami170

his image clearly shows tsunami damage and residue immediately after the flood water receded from the airport. The 

runways, taxiways, and main terminal were not usable. Important details showing damage to the airport offers agencies 

ways to prepare and plan recovery operations or find alternative options in response to the disaster. Any user can retrieve 

updates and see if conditions are improving. Figure 29 illustrates the progress that was made in 3 days and shows the drying 

of the apron and taxiways. Using imagery illuminates individual interpretation of conditions that exist and offers remote 

and localized estimates of response requirements based equal access to identical data. 

T

                                                           

59

170 http://www.google.com/earth/index.html 
60

Google Imagery and Data Sharing – Post Earthquake Example – Sendai, Japan 

Figure 29. Sendai Airport Japan. Image taken 96 hours after the Earthquake and Tsunami occurred.171

This GeoEye satellite image was published by Google Earth. It is not available for use on applications such as Microsoft 

Virtual Earth or other Web portals. The raw image itself may not be available from its native source due to legal and 

contractual obligations to the service bureau. Some GeoEye image sets were available for direct publication and extended 

use providing all the WGS84 and WMS data points. On March 16, 5 days after Tsunami flooded the airport, the U.S. Air 

Force 353rd Special Operations Group172 began repair operations. About 13 days after their arrival, they had cleared the 

main runway and primary apron, allowing military assistance flights to arrive. Sendai Airport re-opened to civilian flights 

on April 13th, 32 days after the tsunami struck.173

Figure 30. March 29, 2011, Sendai Airport 

Airmen from the 320th Special Operations Group, starts military air relief operations. This figure illustrates that 

communications were down and thus the use of a laptop and whiteboard to manage all flights and ground operations.174

                                                           

171 http://www.google.com/earth/index.html 172 http://www.353sog.af.mil/ 173 http://www.353sog.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123250695 

?id=123249590 174 http://www.353sog.af.mil/news/story.asp 
United Nations Map − Tohoku Earthquake: Issues in Using KML 

Figure 31. A United Nations compiled Visual Map of Tohoku Earthquake175

                                                           

61

175 http://www.un-spider.org/japan-pacific 
62

/DR requirements such as damage assessment, planning and disaster site 

conditions. Downloading the United Nations collection of KML files the Tohoku earthquake as a KMZ file exceeds 20 

en downloading the file because it does not indicate its size on 

the site. This file is large for a KMZ and would consume significant transmission time over satellite broadband networks 

and low speed digital mobile phone equivalents. It must be stressed that KML files do NOT send any imagery to be layered 

onto the user’s cartography application. A user downloads the KML file that behaves like HTML, making requests (link) to 

a server to retrieve images where they are stored. This is why many KML files no longer work after the disaster is over. The 

server administrator hosting the images deletes them or archives them elsewhere. This particular KMZ file is hosted on a 

server in Wessling, Germany, at the German Aerospace Center.178 The distance between Wessling and Sendai Japan 

exceeds 6,000 miles routing over 5 different Internet backbone operators before connecting to a local Internet service 

provider (ISP) or mobile phone provider. 

Ushahidi – Tohoku Earthquake – Updated with Bing Map Option 

The United Nations Space Charter176, funded and ratified by the United Nations General Assembly in 2006 has successfully

provided satellite imagery for many HA

MB.177 The users at ground zero would not realize this wh

Figure 32 

This published version of Ushahidi shows a new metadata layer that a user can enable; Microsoft Bing Satellite image, but 

not with updated damage (post event) imagery. The post is in Japanese, despite being viewed in the “English” version. 

Ushahidi accepts KML and KMZ if there is an agreement and technical assistance resources are available. An end user 

cannot on their own manipulate a Ushahidi portal as an individual, nor can external third party groups unless that group ha

an arrangement with the principal operators of the site. This offers new collaboration going forward. The majority of 

Ushahidi disaster portals are operated by volunteer organizations and not government agencies. Note the seven different 

language options available in the top right of the webpage illustrated as flag icons.179 Note the use of the Quick Response 

s 

                                                           

176 http://www.un-spider.org/about 177 http://www.zki.dlr.de/de/system/files/media/filefield/article/download/201103%20-%20Earthquake%20-%20Japan%20-

%20Map%20products%20by%20ZKI.kmz 178 http://www.dlr.de/en/ 

S 179 http://www.sinsai.info/ushahidi/?l=en_U – The Bing Imagery was not an option when the site first became operational 

and was updated with this feature 3 plus weeks after the earthquake occurred on March 11, 2011. 
63

 become very common. Invented in Japan, it is slowly 

Collecting Imagery Depends on the Weather 

icon in the top right of image. The use of such technology will likely

becoming popular around the world.180

Figure 33. Satellite Image taken east of Miyagi Prefecture after the Tohoku Earthquake, Japan, March 

181

r 

 systems have shuttle bay hard drives that can be quickly removed and replaced without delay. Transferring 

11, 2011. An example of how weather can block ground conditions. 

Aerial imagery may solve some cloud cover constraints, providing it is safe to fly and allowed by the government. Weathe

impacts the amount of time it takes to collect, sort, and publish the image sets for further manipulation. Depending on the 

amount of imagery collected during a survey, it can take time to transfer the data from the camera platform to an imagery 

server. Some

the data from the drive to the data center host is then accomplished by remote connection or delivered directly to the 

facility. Transferring a terabyte of image files can take a significant amount of time if it is accomplished over a network 

connection. Advanced military reconnaissance platforms transmit imagery via satellite. Most commercial providers do not 

have access to high-speed satellite data links without incurring significant expense. 

                                                           

180 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QR_code 181 http://hyperquad.telascience.org/jp_earthquake/ 
How Imagery Overload Occurs – The Domino Effect 

Figure 34. UN-SPIDER KMZ file for Google Earth 

This set of KML files illustrates how imagery overload can occur. Using the approach described in figure 14, the UN 

compiled all relevant KML files into a single compressed archived for download at approximately 20 MB in size. Included 

were layered maps to use on Google Maps or Google Earth. Note on the left hand side where all the KML layers that are 

included in the KMZ file are listed. At a very high “altitude” the information contained within each KML appears to be a 

simple overlay of cartography maps that are properly aligned to Google Earth’s virtual map. No other KML files are open 

other than the ones contained within the KMZ file itself. All Google add-on database layers are turned off as shown in the 

bottom left except those that assist in visualization of where a user is relative to the data overlays used. In this case, roads, 

places, and any relevant photos that assist user orientation were shown.

A user can turn off each layer of information supplied by the UN Space-based Information for Disaster Management and 

Emergency Response (SPIDER), then zoom into the appropriate sector of the map the user is interested in. Note the file 

names associated on the map itself, assisting the user in identifying which map applies to each relevant KML file. Not all 

developers of KML follow this cardinal rule, leading to time loss by the users as they experiment with which layers to turn 

on and off. 

e 

ma 

d 

formation relevant to their needs. The need for post-event aerial and 

satellite imagery should also be available as overlays, with care and attention to how big these KML files can grow. 

These layer map add-ons are not updated imagery layered on top of Google’s virtual world. They are traditional 

cartography maps that explain why the KML/KMZ file was so “small” at 20 MBs. Had the UN team used updated real-tim

imagery, the file sizes would have been hundreds of megabytes if they tried to cover the same area. This induces a dilem

facing all users of imagery, particularly those in the field where access to Internet connectivity may be limited. This 

example illustrates why it is critical that KML/KMZ downloads be properly described and portrayed prior to use and 

download. Authors and website administrators must invest time to publish these details using an HA/DR syllabus an

references that will help the user retrieve only in

64
65

agery to be used by different user groups with different needs 

instead of one master KMZ compressed file showing everything available. The ideal scenario is one that allows users to 

download appropriately sized RAW (unedited without markup) post-event imagery as a file in itself, ensuring large imagery 

files only need to be downloaded once for each region. Publishers of supplemental data (such as twitter feeds, shelter 

information, and logistics centers) are then added as new layers (for specific use in each region or grouping of image layers 

supplied) independent of the post-event image(s) KML file. This allows specific information that the user wishes to obtain 

as specialized components while limiting the impacts of excessive information being downloaded. It is critical to note that 

publishers of layer datasets should be prepared to furnish data in the country’s native language and of those assisting on the 

ground. Datasets can be grouped by relevancy such as search and rescue data and then distributed. 

Mapping Standards: Government Use of KML 

Suggestions include sector definitions by name of the region, description of layered information, date, source/publisher, 

instructions, and more. All must be considered when publishing a KML/KMZ. 

When using post-event imagery, the grids (tiles) available must be published in smaller file sizes, enabling ground staff to 

download only what they need and not be required to download large regions of little interest. Authors may be required to 

create multiple KML files using the same post-event im

Figure 35. Manitoba April 2011 Flood 

Some governments are beginning to endorse the use of KML for applications like Google Earth. Note the legend on the left 

hand side. It demonstrates distribution of important information in addition to what each reference point represents. If 

developers follow these policies and guidelines when publishing datasets, the value of their work increases. Highlights 

include date of file publication, additional information resources available, and disclosure of what risks are involved in 

interpretation and use of the information compiled. The pop-up window describes appropriate information relative to the 

authors’ intent, in this case, highway conditions for this section. This KML file was published by the Ministry of 

Tra th , 182 nsportation (Manitoba) April 16 , 2011. 

                                                           

182 http://manitoba.ca/flooding/roadinfo.html 
66

he 

t occurs. This avoids the cost of contracting a service bureau for post 

flooding images.The Transportation Ministry also exported identical data to its Twitter account.183 They used the KML data 

on their website map that uses Google Maps without satellite imagery.184 The flood “season” affects three provinces and is 

monitored between March and May of each year.185

                                                                                                                                                                                                          

Note that post flooding satellite imagery was not used. Even though the flooding has affected large areas and is causing 

significant economic damage and logistics challenges, the province has sufficient communications resources to ensure t

public is informed of essential information as i

http://roaddata.gov.mb.ca/map/gearth/kmz/manitobahighwayconditions_e_kmz.kmz 183 http://twitter.com/MBGov 184 http://roaddata.gov.mb.ca/map/gmap/map.aspx 185 http://news.gov.mb.ca/news/index.html?archive=&item=11084 
67

ric Administration (NOAA) – British Petroleum Deep 

Water Horizon, Gulf of Mexico 

National Oceanic Atmosphe

Figure 36. British Petroleum Deep Water Horizon Disaster April 20, 2010 Website186

The National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) in collaboration with the University of New Hampshire 

developed the Environmental Response Management Application platform to monitor, collect, and optimize environment

imagery datasets. This website became one of the primary sources of information for government and non-government 

agencies consisting of observers, leaders, contractors, volunteers, and the general public to understand fully the challenges 

that would occur over the next 3 months before the oil well (shown as a yellow icon in lower right corner) was capped. 

Note on the right hand side how the site’s administrators put together the table of contents offering concisely formatted 

information sets for a user to navigate. Each section offers expansion to imagery options and information layers as required 

by the user. In this particular screen shot, all imagery tiles have been highlighted to illustrate how many post-disaster aerial 

and satellite missions were undertaken. 

The team focused on pertinent data required and requested by its member audience and published it on the Internet. 

Historically, access to this amount of data and reference information was unprecedented. The NOAA and other U.S. federal 

agencies monitored more than 86,000 square miles of ocean and coastal regions impacted by the estimated release of 4.9 

million barrel equivalents of crude oil into the Gulf of Mexico.187 

                                                           

186 http://gomex.erma.noaa.gov/erma.html#x=-89.57428&y=29.42764&z=9&layers=1709+5723 – image created by the 

author using Chrome Browser. Location: South of New Orleans, Louisiana 187 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deepwater_Horizon_oil_spill 

http://www.pbs.org/newshour/rundown/2010/08/new-estimate-puts-oil-leak-at-49-million-barrels.html 
68

The Use of a Web Map Service

Figure 37. Base Imagery beside post-event imagery, Mississippi River, New Orleans, Louisiana 

Figure 37 illustrates how a WMS indexes, sorts, and identifies different layers of imagery. The sample tile is highlight in 

light blue. How it is scripted on a WMS server is highlig um blue in the Elements section which in turn 

highlights the map tile attached to the script (cargo ship) in the middle of figure 31. Note the equal resolution quality of 

fore and after oil damage in the river identifiable 

ed

hted in medi

prior and post-event imagery. The highlighted light blue image tile clearly shows the shadow of the ship in transit on the 

Mississippi River near Bass Road and Highway 15 illustrating the quality of the image. The contrast between where the 

ship is and just left of its location in the upper left corner clearly shows be

by the different colors of the water. The upper left hand corner tile / image had not been updated with oil spill damage 

imagery. 
69

Aerial Imagery Platforms 

Military 

Figure 38 

U.S. Air Force OC−135B Open Skies observation aircraft similar to this one,188 with four camera bays at rear of aircraft 

(visible under the U.S.A.F. star insignia) flew several sorties over Haiti from Andrews Air Force Base to assess damage. O

significant interest is the way in which the imagery was made available: 

“Within the confines of an “Open Skies” treaty mission the imagery is unclassified, but not for general public release. For 

humanitarian support, the imagery i

f 

s releasable and will be made available to the Department of State for use in its overall 189

t regulations and security policies that impact the value of the 

ll ma ble t d I i ll gove s have u ce. 

logy u -U.S. m d satellites) is restricted, even if op a 

er Unit due log r res agree to when so agery e. 190

                                                           

humanitarian assistance mission and to the public.”

Government aircraft are expensive to operate and have stric

imagery co

There are cases wh

ected and

ere U.S. tech

de availa

no

o NGOs an

sed in non

Os needing 

ilitary aircraft (an

t. Not a rnment the same reg lations in pla

erated by

nation oth than the ed States, to techno y transfe trictions d ld for im us

188 http://www.worldwide-military.com/Military%20Aircraft/Electronic%20Warfare/OC-135_english.htm 189 http://www.dtra.mil/NewsMultimedia/NewsArticle3.aspx 190 http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/textidx?c=ecfr&sid=c5cc9a1c749a6f225283bdfa124431d0&rgn=div9&view=text&node=15:2.1.3.4.45.0.1.3.87&idno=15 
Figure 39. Raytheon Shared Reconnaissance Pod191

Beginning in 2001, the U.S. Office of Naval Research began development of the replacements for film-based imagery 

systems. This platform has been in service since 2003. This Raytheon Shared Reconnaissance Pod was installed on a U.S. 

Navy F–18 during the Tohoku earthquake that struck Japan on March 11, 2011, and recorded more than 45,000 images. 

The pod incorporates a Goodrich CCD CA–270 Dual Band Infrared and Visible camera. It is not known if the visible 5040 

x 5040 JPEG-compliant images are formatted (or available) with WGS84 metadata. Analysis suggests that it is possible to 

do so through software processing. 

The majority of G–20 nations have this capability provided by the military or other federal level agencies. Nations with 

publicly known military aerial reconnaissance units are:192

Australia Canada France Germany Greece Israel Japan Netherlands Philippines 

P

                                                           

ortugal Russia Sweden Serbia United 

Kingdom 

United 

States 

 

191 http://www.nrl.navy.mil/research/nrl-review/2002/optical-sciences/duncan/ 

70

192 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_reconnaissance_units 
Civilian and Commercial 

Figure 40. Commercial Aircraft with Dedicated Camera Platforms installed such as this Beech King 

350

Air 

Commercial digital mapping services today are a commercially viable business. Newer systems are, in some cases, more 

technically advanced than some military platforms in use today. These advanced commercial technologies are not available 

in all regions of the world. Typically turboprop or piston aircraft are used, which limits range and extends the time before 

an aircraft can be on station to begin operations. Popular aircraft such as Cessna C−150/172 up to a Beech King Air 350 are 

the most popular. 

193

Figure 41. Zeiss Jena LMK 2000 Mapping Camera system installed in a Cessna Single Engine T−206194 

This system was not integrated into the aircraft flight management system. It is gyro-stabilized. It records the required GIS 

metadata with its independent GPS navigation system. This particular system is configured for localized imagery capacity 

and is restrained by the aircraft’s range and payload limit. 

A very few commercial imagery bureaus operate pure twin-engine jet aircraft with extended range and payload capabilities 

to deploy anywhere in the world and be on station within 24 hours of a request. 

                                                           

193 http://www.hawkerbeechcraft.com/military_and_special_mission/flight_insp_camera.aspx 

71

194 http://www.georgiaaerial.com/equipment.htm 
72

Commercial Aerial Digital Imagery Products 

Figure 4 195

l Management System196 that can be 

ontrol management system. Leica offers several advanced digital 

imaging systems that are used worldwide. 

2. Leica PV−80 Gyro Stabilizer Used for Aerial Imaging

This accessory helps compensate for angular deviations in addition to the constant changes in pitch and roll experienced in 

flight. Not all aerial imaging service bureaus have this technology due to the costs associated with installing it in 

conjunction with the digital imaging equipment and the Flight and Sensor Contro

integrated into the camera and the aircraft’s flight c

Figure 43. Intergraph Digital Mapping Camera

Intergraph’s Digital Mapping Camera (DMC) is capable of recording digital images at altitudes ranging from 500 to 8,000 

meters. The system is gyro stabilized like the Leica system.198 When first developed, government agencies were the only 

clients that could afford them. Today, they are becoming widespread and used for specific commercial purpose such as 

mapping surveys for hydro grids, transportation providers and content publishers like GeoEye and Google. In 2008, Google 

signed an exclusive mapping imagery contract with GeoEye with the launch of the GeoEye 1 satellite that orbits 423 miles 

above the earth. Resolution is limited to 50 centimeters due to legal contract restrictions with the U.S. Government. Google 

augments its high resolution and on-demand imagery with DMC technology operated and managed by GeoEye. 

                                                           

197

PAV80_70926.htm 195 http://www.leica-geosystems.com/en/Airborne-Sensors-LeicaMS_65491.htm 196 http://www.leica-geosystems.com/en/Airborne-sensor-related-software-Leica-FC 197 http://www.intergraph.com/ 198 http://www.intergraph.com/photo/default.aspx 
Figure 44. Vexcel Ultracam XP Imaging System199

Vexcel’s platform is used for mapping applications including Bing maps. Microsoft acquired the company in 2006.200 This 

system uses advanced management and system software. The specifications are: 

 Image Source Vexcel Imaging UltraCam 

 avg. (68 images) 

 Ortho Processing Speed Up to 27 sec/image/GPU* 

 to 14m 32s /image/Processor* 

*variable; depends on workflow and systems used to integrate to the Vexcel platform.201

 Image characteristics 8U 10000P x 10000L x 3Channel 

 Image file size 259 MB

 Resolution 7.5 centimeters 

 Orthos per Day on GXL Aerial Up to 4700 scenes/day (1.2TB/day) Parallel Processing* 

 OrthoMosaic Full Workflow Speed Up

 OrthoMosaic per Day on GXL Aerial Up to 1797 scenes/day (465GB/day) Parallel Processing* 

73

                                                           

199 http://www.microsoft.com/ultracam/en-us/UltraCamXp.aspx 200 http://www.microsoft.com/presspass/press/2006/may06/05-04VexcelPR.mspx 201 http://download.microsoft.com/download/0/F/D/0FD2DF56-9F51-4516-B83C-F0200AE3DBEE/UltraMapSoftwareLTR-0727-WEB.pdf - *descriptions used are marketing names for the Vexcel platform. 
74

ublisher best known for its Adobe Reader and Shockwave document and multint 

l Dennis Blair. A major focus is on Humanitarian Assistance cooperation between 

ts 

 the 

pple: Apple Computer Corporation co-founded by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, and Ronald Wayne. One of the 

nd next generation 

obile 

onesia that was hit by a catastrophic earthquake 

t and 

lobe. Developed by Inmarsat in 2005. 

ultimedia smartphone in global production, now used by governments, and enterprise and consumer markets.

ed 

ee Geographic Information System (GIS). 

Central African States. A union treaty established in 1966 that includes 

ns. Signatories include: Cameroon, Central African 

ea, and Gabon. 

Glossary 

Adobe (Systems): Software p

media application products. It has been criticized for computer processing demand, bandwidth requirements, and 

problematic security holes. Founded in 1982 by John Warnock and Charles Geschke to develop postscript page 

languages for computers used for desktop publishing, it branched out and acquired several companies 

specializing in multi-media applications and services including Macromedia—the developer of Flash and 

Shockwave. 

All Partners Access Network (APAN): An information exchange portal funded by the United States Departme

of Defense originally developed in 1997 as a Virtual Information Center within U.S. Pacific Command 

(USPACOM) under Admira

military and civilian organizations. Originally known as the Asia-Pacific Area Network. 

Application Programming Interface (API): A software interface that interacts between two or more different se

of design and programming rules and allows each to communicate, share, and transfer information between

different operating (software) and hardware (platform) systems. 

A

largest manufactures of computers, personal multi-media devices, wireless phones, a

consumer tablet computers. 

Android: A computer operating system based on the Linux Open source (operating system) designed for m

phones. (see Linux) 

American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing: United States-based oversight organization for 

imagery and cartography standards for equipment founded in 1934. Member of the International Society for 

Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing. 

Banda Aceh: Provincial capital on the island of Sumatra in Ind

and tsunami on December 26, 2004. 

Broadband Global Area Network (BGAN): Four geostationary satellites in low earth orbit used for Interne

Voice Networks covering 95 percent of the g

Blackberry: Research In Motion’s mobile phone product line. Considered to be the first mass produced 

m

Charge-Coupled Device (CCD): A silicon-based element used in capturing light - photo-electrically that can be 

recorded and converted into a digital photograph. A key component in the replacement of film based image 

recording. 

Canadian Geographic Information System: Standard for geographically referenced information first develop

in the 1960s by the Canadian Government. S

COPAX: Economic Community of 

mutual assistance agreements between member natio

Republic, Chad, Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guin
75

ting of software and technology experts who donate their 

ng and collaborating with government and non-government 

e information and knowledge of the event for use by 

CrisisMappers.net: A group of volunteers who deliver technical and social software application expertise during 

esent in recent disaster events such as the earthquakes in 

2 

t would be created by 

r download 

CrisisCommons: An all-volunteer organization consis

time and expertise with a primary focus of assisti

entities when a disaster strikes creating solutions that shar

any organization or agency. 

a disaster with a focus on mapping. This group was pr

Haiti; Christchurch, New Zealand; and Tohoku, Japan. The group was created by Patrick Meier and Jen Ziemke 

and currently has about 4,500 members. 

Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO): Inter-government cooperation alliance established in 199

after the collapse of the Warsaw Pact. Members include: Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia,

Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. 

Civil Defense: As defined by DOD Joint Publication 1-02: All those activities and measures designed or 

undertaken to: a. minimize the effects upon the civilian population caused or which would be caused by an 

enemy attack on the United States; b. deal with the immediate emergency conditions tha

any such attack; and c. effectuate emergency repairs to, or the emergency restoration of, vital utilities and 

facilities destroyed or damaged by any such attack. Additional civil terms used by DOD available fo

at: http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/new_pubs/jp1_02.pdf 

In Canada, Public Safety Canada's roots in civil defence describe their mandate as: 

Our mandate is to keep Canadians safe from a range of risks such as natural disasters, crime and terrorism. 

Since 1951, Emergency management doctrine and organizational change has occurred 5 times within the 

department. 

Public Safety Canada works with other levels of government and operators of critical infrastructure (such as 

utility companies) to help ensure essential services will be available to Canadians during an emergency. 

See: http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/abt/wwd/index-eng.aspx 

New Zealand's Civil Defence role: The Ministry of Civil Defence and Emergency Management leads the way

making New Zealand and its comm

 in 

unities resilient to hazards and disasters. The overarching strategy for 

achieving resilience to hazards and disasters is through a risk management approach to the four "Rs" of: 

Reduction, Readiness, Response, Recovery. 

See: http://www.civildefence.govt.nz/memwebsite.nsf/wpgURL/About-the-Ministry-Index?OpenDocument 

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA): CDMA is a "spread spectrum" technology, allowing many users to 

orld of finite spectrum resources, 

CDMA enables many more people to share the airwaves at the same time than do alternative technologies. Also 

• 322 commercial CDMA2000 1X networks 

• 122 commercial 1xEV-DO Rel. 0 networks 

occupy the same time and frequency allocations in a given band/space. CDMA assigns unique codes to each 

communication to differentiate it from others in the same spectrum. In a w

known as CDMA2000. CDMA also stores its subscriber authentication information on the carrier networks 

servers, not in the phone itself. Quick facts: 

• 334 commercial operators 

• 123 countries/territories 
76

• 2,984 devices have been introduced in to the market 

• 137 commercial 1xEV-DO Rev. A networks 

• 9 commercial EV-DO Rev. B networks 

• 614,020,000 CDMA2000 subscribers (2Q 2011) 

• 185,890,000 CDMA2000 1xEV-DO subscribers (2Q 2011) 

(as of January 30, 2012) See: http://www.cdma.org 

Coordinate Reference System (CRS): A coordinate’s standard to locate geographic reference points so they can 

be used in GIS. 

EPSG−900913: A mapping standard used by Google Maps. Uses World Geodetic System(WGS)84 as its 

baseline. It is modified to be used on Google’s Map application and is used by Google, OpenStreetMap, and 

Microsoft Bing Maps. It is based on a Spherical Mercator Projection. 

Emergency Operations Center (EOC): A centralized command and control center, coordinated between variou

levels of government organizations, and is activated during a civil or disaster situation. 

s 

n Extensible Markup Language (XML) program interface to extract 

ated polygons) that can be referenced and placed onto a digital map 

ages. 

nly used dimensions: time (past, current or future), 

geometric size in two or three dimensions (expressed as width, length and height), reference points and scale 

ooperation framework under the United Nations umbrella. It 

nd 

EDGE: Enhanced Data GSM Evolution. Next generation mobile/wireless network protocol used to 

communicate between a radio tower and handheld or small form-factor devices for voice and data 

communication links. Used widely in Europe. See GSM.

Facebook: The largest social media portal in the world with more than 600 million users. Developed and 

founded by Mark Zuckerberg, Eduardo Saverin, Dustin Moskovitz, and Chris Hughes in 2004.

Geography Markup Language (GML): A

and place geographic objects (or user cre

source. GML also has other cartography application us

Geographic (Geospatial) Information System (GIS): The capability to layer or merge information onto a 

cartography map. The map is the foundation in which external data (also known as metadata) references the 

source’s location in one or all of the following commo

(numeric volume and/or velocity). 

GDACS: Global Disaster Alert and Coordination System. United Nations designed emergency management 

platform. The UN describes it as: GDACS is a c

includes disaster managers and disaster information systems worldwide and aims at filling the information a

coordination gap in the first phase after major disasters. 

GDACS provides real-time access to web-based disaster information systems and related coordination tools. 

See: http://portal.gdacs.org/about/AboutGDACS/tabid/137/Default.aspx 

Google Earth: An advanced two and three-dimensional cartography software program that produces accurate 

visualization of any point on Earth developed by Keyhole Incorporated in 2001 and acquired by Google in 2005. 

Offshoot services include Google Maps, Google Ocean, and Google Stars. Operates on 15 variants of 

along with Apple and Microsoft-based Operating Systems. Latest release was published as version 6.0 

November 2010. 

Linux 
77

Designed and initiated by the U.S. Department of Defense in 1973, it 

has since been made accessible to any compatible device for both consumer and commercial entities. GPS 

High Speed Packet Service (HSPA)+: Next generation mobile/wireless network protocol used to communicate 

Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF): A volunteer group of expert engineers and managers who collaborate 

ations standards organization under the 

guidance and management as an organization funded by the United Nations. 

iPad: Apple Computer tablet computer. 

 the 

nces 

nguage released by Sun Microsystems in 1995. 

nym for Java Script Object Notation.

ast 

d based tracking systems. Band operates in the 12 to 18 gigahertz frequency range. 

Global Position System (GPS): A space satellite−based network developed to provide accurate geospatial 

reference(s) to fixed and mobile receivers. 

technology is often used in wireless phones to support built-in mapping applications. 

Global System Mobile (GSM): Mobile/wireless network Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) protocol used

to communicate between a radio tower and handheld or small form-factor devices for voice and data 

communication links. Widely used. GSM devices also store subscriber authentication information on a 

Subscriber Identity Management (SIM) card which can be replaced at anytime with another user's SIM card. Not 

all devices have this capability to be replaced with another SIM module, i.e.; tablets computers with SIM.

between a radio tower and handheld or small form-factor devices for voice and data communication links. 

Widely used. Also known as Evolved High Speed Packet Service (+). It is related to UMTS. 

Information and Communications Technology (ICT): The international term for IT (information technology) 

due to the importance of radio communications in many parts of the world.

to share ideas, innovation, research, standards, and protocols funded and managed by the International 

Telecommunications Union (ITU). 

International Telecommunications Union (ITU): The telecommunic

iPhone: Apple Computer mobile phone. 

International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing: Founded in 1910 by Professor Dolezal, it is

oldest recognized remote sensing organization. It developed standards for cartography and information scie

including mapping standards and field survey design.

Java (script): A computer programming la

JSON/GeoJSON: A JavaScript - based programming language developed by Douglas Crockford in 2001. JSON

is an acro

Ka: Abbreviation for K “above”; a microwave frequency used to transmit voice and data between a ground 

station and an orbiting satellite above the Earth operating in the 26.5 to 40 gigahertz frequency range. 

Ku: Abbreviation for frequency "under" the K band. Used for stationary fixed satellite systems used in broadc

or groun

Kb: Abbreviation for Kilobits; A kilobit is 1000 bits (decimal), 1024 bits (binary). 1 kilobit = 103bits = 1000 bits

acity. It is 

Kizuna: A Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) funded, low-Earth orbit satellite capable of 

transmitting voice and data between different regions of Asia at very high speed data rates and cap

optimized to support disaster relief operations. 
78

 onto the 

KMZ: Keyhole Markup Zipped. A set of KML files compressed into a single file. See KML. 

y 

d is considered to be a location within 500 feet of the network switch or router. 

LANs can be divided into segments and interconnected by daisy chaining network components that effectively 

in 

production since 1990. It became famous in part because it is freely available under a General Public License. 

in 2010. Research and development has been largely completed with field trials beginning in the fall of 2011 

 protocol used to communicate 

between a radio tower and handheld or small form factor devices, for voice and data communication links. 

tforms 

Keyhole Markup Language (KML): A JavaScript-based programming language used to place metadata

Google Earth or Google Map application. 

Local Area Network (LAN): A network architecture that connects a group of computers to be accessed through 

a network switch and/or router, enabling the sending and receiving of shared information. LAN connectivit

between users is distance-limited by the technology that was in use when the term was coined. In general terms,

this limitation still exists today an

extends reach through the use of fiber or wireless point-to-point technology. 

Linux: A computer operating system designed by Linus Torvalds in 1991 that can run on most computers 

Light Radio: A next generation mobile wireless telecommunications technology developed by Alcatel – Lucent 

through 2012. 

Long Term Evolution (LTE): A mobile/wireless next generation network

Forecasted to be in service in some parts of the world in 2011. LTE is closely aligned to CDMA based pla

but has also been confused with next generation GSM technology.

Mbps: Megabits per second. One Megabit is 1000 kilobits (106 - one million bits). See Kb / Kilobits. 

Metadata: One (of many) definitions is information that describes or creates a profile of data, or "data about 

data." Satellite imagery consists of the actual image and special metadata that describes or specifies how the 

imagery can be used on a map. This example would include a metadata layer consisting of geographic 

 of metadata are Twitter posts or Short Message Service messages that include definable 

information that can be placed on a map. 

6 

l 

fice 

applications over the next three decades. Microsoft’s first mapping application began in 2005 in both clienty an 

rs to the east. 

d with a 

coordinates known as the Coordinate Reference System (CRS) including latitude and longitude plus other 

important information, such as resolution, and matched to a geographic standard such as World Geodetic 

System 84. Other forms

Megahertz: A Hertz is defined as a cycle per second. One Megahertz translates to a million cycles (10 ) in one 

second. 

Microsoft: One of the first consumer-oriented computer application companies. Founded by Bill Gates and Pau

Allen in 1975, Microsoft became a global standard for personal computer operating systems and of

based (Streets − 2006) and Internet access- based versions, first as Microsoft Virtual Earth, and now as Bing 

Maps. 

MicroSD: See SD Memory Card. 

Miyagi Prefecture: A jurisdiction in the Tohuku region on the island of Honshu, Japan, that was struck b

extremely large earthquake (9.0) and 10-meter high tsunami originating 72 kilomete

Multi-Media Messaging Service (MMS): A smartphone or network handheld device capable of sending multimedia-based data over a telecommunications wireless network. Example: a user’s mobile phone equippe
79

s including Facebook.

y 

ia, 

cus on Information 

Technology challenges. 

s Office of 

Naval Research. 

tal 

 develop publicly available interface standards. 

e way 

built-in digital camera can store and then forward a picture to another mobile phone device if both are 

subscribed to an MMS service. The MMS standard, which is also a protocol, can also be used to send a media

file to Web-based social media application

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO): A military alliance, often assigned humanitarian support roles b

their respective member governments. Alliance members include: Albania, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Croat

Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, 

Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Turkey, the United 

Kingdom, and the United States. 

NetHope: A consortium of 33 of the largest non-government organizations founded in 2001, specializing in 

humanitarian assistance response. It is headquartered in McLean, Virginia, with a fo

Naval Research Laboratory (NRL): The research and development group of the United States Navy'

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA): An agency of the U.S. Government with mandates 

including weather analysis, meteorological satellite operations, monitoring ocean conditions, environmen

analysis of oceanic and atmospheric conditions, and scientific research. 

Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC): An international industry consortium of 439 companies, government 

agencies and universities participating in a consensus process to

OpenStreetMap (OSM): A creative commons, or general public licensed mapping application hosted by three

computer centers; University Central London (U.K.) VR Center, Imperial College (London, U.K.) and 

Bytemark Hosting (U.K.). OSM is an open-source mapping service which is published much in the sam

Wikipedia is, through volunteers around the world. See http://www.openstreetmap.org 

P−3 Orion: Lockheed Martin four-engine turboprop aircraft in use by military organizations worldwide. Used

extensively as an aerial imagery platform. The NP-3D is a specialized research version operated by the Nav

Research Laboratory. 

al 

a 

es 

is often 

affic going over the network.

standards and protocols for use with Internet connected services and systems. 

durance of up to 36 hours and is 

Playbook: A Research In Motion (RIM) tablet computer.

Quality of Service (QoS): An Internet Protocol process in which an Internet packet can be prioritized based on 

header label identifying it as to its type of media (text, video, voice), which is then managed by network devic

as the packets transverse connected computers locally or globally across short or long distances. QoS 

used to manage different priority levels of Internet Protocol (or IP) tr

Request For Comment (RFC): A memorandum published by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), which

describes and illustrates 

RQ−4 Geobar Hawk: A military unmanned surveillance aircraft designed and built by Northrop Grumman. The 

prototype was built in 2001 and continues in production today. Powered by a single Rolls Royce Turbine 

engine, the aircraft has a range exceeding 24,000 kilometers with an en

available in five different versions. Operators include the U.S. military and NASA.

South American Defense Council (SADC): A military alliance created in 2008 as an agency, under the guidance 

of the Union of South American Nations. Members include Bolivia, Columbia, Ecuador, Peru (Andean 
80

//www.unasurcds.org

Community of Nations), Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay (Mercosur), and independent’s Chile, 

Guyana, Suriname, and Venezuela. A similar organization would be the North Atlantic Treaty Organization 

(NATO). See: http: 

Sri 

 continue 

ssional 

ed 

ive different queue (classification) 

s IPV6 

.) 

hat can be 

public formats. Those that are set to public are searchable by Internet Search engines 

such as Google, Bing, and Yahoo!. User’s posts can also be streamed or linked to non-Twitter based 

ir 

): Formed in 1991 with U.N. 

by President John F 

ved by Congress under the Foreign Assistance Act (1961). USAID's mandate is 

Sahana: An open-source disaster management system application used in humanitarian disasters. Originally 

developed to manage logistics data during the Indian Ocean tsunami that struck Sri Lanka in 2004 by the 

Lankan government and Swedish International Development Agency it has been used in more than eighteen 

different disaster events worldwide. The non-profit organization and its Foundation (established 2009)

to expand its capabilities. 

Search and Rescue (SAR): A mission of different specialists consisting of a group of volunteers or profe

experts in the field of emergency rescue of people during a disaster on land or sea. 

Security Digital (SD) Memory Card: A form factor and technical standard for non-volatile memory cards us

in smartphones, computers, cameras, and video equipment developed by the SD Card Association. 

Shortcodes: A specialized set of three, four, five, or six digits used to send or broadcast a text message to a 

destination. The destination is normally not another mobile phone but a network-connected computer server and 

associated database. HA/DR shortcodes are used to send emergency messages or other forms of data for 

publication on a map, or entry into a database for analysis such as medical research. 

Short Message Service (SMS): A text messaging application between wireless mobile phones. SMS messages 

reference the user’s mobile telephone number as its identifier.

Type of Service (TOS): The ability of an application or service to embed a classification or label of Internet 

Protocol−based network traffic to help determine its bandwidth priority requirements. The standard offers the 

ability to label the sending and receiving of Internet packets with low delay, high throughput, and high 

reliability by the use of embedded header tags within the IP (Internet Protocol) header which is read by a 

network's routers and switches to determine control, priority, and (up to) f

levels. Internet traffic TOS has not been widely adopted by independent internet service providers or 

telecommunications carriers. TOS will be replaced by Differentiated Services Code Point (DSCP) a

(Internet Protocol Version 6) replaces IPV4 (Internet Protocol Version 4

Twitter: Internet-accessible social media posting service developed by Jack Dorsey, Noah Glass, Evan Williams, 

and Biz Stone in 2006. Users post “Tweets,” which are then broadcasted to a user’s subscriber list t

published in private or 

applications such as Facebook or a map program such as Ushahidi. 

Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV). Common term for remotely piloted or autonomous, aerial vehicles and the

support/control system. 

United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UN−OCHA

General Assembly resolution 46/182 to improve on the response to disaster relief challenges the United Nations 

had organized under the Department of Humanitarian Affairs in 1972. 

United States Agency for International Development (USAID): A department of the U.S. State Department 

responsible for administering U.S. policy for funding international aid. Established in 1961 

Kennedy, its mandate was appro
81

ng 

f 

, 

Juliana Rotich, and David 

country rticles, 

citizen j

manage

United 

disciplin

departm y 

tracking

publish simple syndication (RSS), and KML formats. 

United int operations command. Established in 

its responsibilities for national defense and 

y of 

managed by the Secretary of State, National Security Council as well as the President's guidance surroundi

economic, development and humanitarian assistance around the world in support of the foreign policy goals o

the United States. 

Ushahidi: A non-profit company developed in Nairobi, Kenya, created in 2008 by Erik Hersman, Ory Okolloh

Kobia. Initiated on the idea of political activism tracking needs in their native 

, they developed Web-based interactive mapping technology and ways to place metadata (news a

ournalism) on digital cartography maps. The software is widely used for disaster information 

ment and publication. 

States Geological Survey (USGS): A U.S. Government agency responsible for the study of four 

es (biology, geography, geology and hydrology) and the study of landscapes. Established in 1879 as a

ent of the Federal Government with oversight by the Department of the Interior, it is a critical agenc

 earthquakes and other geological disasters such as volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. The USGS 

es notifications via email, really 

States Northern Command (USNORTHCOM): A U.S. military jo

2002, USNORTHCOM is responsible for U.S. military services required for the continental United States, 

Canada, Mexico, and portions of the Caribbean including the Bahamas, Puerto Rico, and U.S. Virgin Islands 

and is headquartered in Colorado Springs, Colorado. In addition to 

security, USNORTHCOM is the U.S. military joint forces coordination center when directed by the Secretar

Defense or the President to support Humanitarian and Civil agencies in need of a crisis or natural disaster. All 

U.S. joint operations commands have similar policies and mission. 

United States Southern Command (USSOUTHCOM): A U.S. military joint operations command. Established in

1963, responsible for U.S. military services required covering 32 countries in Latin America, the Caribbean Sea, 

and parts of the Atlantic Ocean. Its headquarters is located in Miami, Florida. USSOUTHCOM is one of 9 

Unified Commands. See http://uscode.house.gov/download/pls/10C6.txt 

Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS): A mobile/wireless network protocol used to 

mmunicate between a radio tower and handheld or small form-factor devices for voice and data 

mmunication links. UMTS is a close relative of CDMA technology.

Wide Code Division Multiple Access (W−CDMA): A next generation mobile/wireless network protocol used to 

communicate between a radio tower and handheld or small form-factor devices for voice and data 

communication links. 

Wi-Fi: Abbreviation for Wireless Fidelity. A LAN wireless technology used to connect a central point to 

wireless devices such as laptops, handheld personal devices, and other equipment using a wireless standards 

ratified by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) in 1997, also known as 802.11. Next 

generation Wi-Fi speeds have been added to the standard using a letter attached to the 802.11 abbreviation 

including A, B, G and N. See http://www.wi-fi.org/

co

co

 for technical specifications. 

WiMax: Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (802.16). A microwave high speed radio technology 

designed for point to multi-point or point to point radio's using spectrum between 2 and 66 GHz. The original 

specification was 10 to 66 GHz. It is primarily used for backhaul between mobile wireless carrier radio towers. 

Bandwidth speeds have increased with radios capable of transmitting up to 400 Mbps. See 

http://www.wimaxforum.org/ 
82

World Geodetic System (WGS): The accepted standard used in digital cartography. The standard evolved 

through scientific research in Europe and North America and has been updated numerous times since it was 

used for surveying in World War II. 

WGS84: A geodetic datum standard to create reference points used to define the shape and size of the earth. 

The WGS84 datum surface is an oblate spheroid (ellipsoid) with major (transverse) radius a = 

6,378,137 m at the equator and flattening f = 1/298.257223563.[6] The polar semi-minor (conjugate) 

radius b then equals a times (1 - f), or 6,356,752.3142 m. 

Presently WGS84 uses the 1996 Earth Gravitational Model (EGM96) geoid, revised in 2004. This geoid 

defines the nominal sea level surface by means of a spherical harmonics series of degree 360 (which 

provides about 100 km horizontal resolution).The deviations of the EGM96 geoid from the WGS84 

reference ellipsoid range from about -105 m to about +85 m EGM96 differs from the original WGS84 

geoid, referred to as EGM84. 

Source: HUhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Geodetic_SystemUH 

X24: Exercise 24: A joint military and civilian exercise series simulating disaster scenarios in different parts of 

the world and coordinated through San Diego State University. 

Extensible Markup Language (XML): A document (text-based) interface standard used by programmers to 

exchange, transfer, or subscribe information from one source format to another. API developers often rely upon 

a data file’s ability to be subscribed or exchanged from its source point using XML to retrieve it and then create 

a program to manipulate the data into a new published format. It is also used to push data (and/or metadata) to a 

destination when the originating source application is not the same as the destinations. 

YouTube: A video-based, multi-media social media Web portal created by Steve Chen, Chad Hurley, and Jawed 

Karim in 2005. The company was acquired by Google in 2006. YouTube video files are often used as a source 

of information that is then placed on digital maps.