Water

Problems

in the

SpringfieldHolyoke

Area,

Massachusetts

By J. C. KAMMERER and H. L. BALDWIN

A layman's look at water in a 

metropolitan area
A CKNO WLEDGMENTS

The authors greatly appreciate the help of Mr. Peter C. Karalekas, 

Chief Engineer, Springfield Municipal Water Works, and Mr. M. O. 

Sounders, City Planning Engineer, Springfield City Hall, in the preparation of this report.

PICTURE CREDITS

The Springfield Newspapers kindly allowed us to use the flood 

pictures on pages 23 and 27, that of the old graveyard on page 27, 

and the one of the city on page 54. The Springfield Municipal 

Water Works lent the picture of the treatment plant on page 36, 

that of the chemist on page 37, and those of the reservoirs on 

pages 7 and 58. Other photographs were made by the U.S. Geological Survey staff photographer.

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office 

Washington 25, D.C.
The water problems.

PAGE 

. 6

Where the water comes from ____________________ 10

Floods.. ____________________________________ 20

Quality of water.______________________________ 30

Today's uses 38

Tomorrow's needs._____________________________ 52

For more information_________________________ 63

Major manufacturers in Springfield-Holyoke area, 

1960____.________________________________ 67
ILi

PAGE 

TABLE 1. Principal types of rocks, and yields of

wells............................. 15

TABLE 2. Classification of sanitary condition of waters 

(by New England Interstate Water Pollution Control Commission)..___.._..___. 34

TABLES. Public water systems...-.............. 41

TABLE 4. Public-supply wells depths and yields.... 44

TABLE 5. Water use in 1957 sources and types

of use___-__-._._-----------_----. 51
PAGE 

FIGURE 1. Springfield-Holyoke area _____________ 10

FIGURE 2. Flow of principal rivers ______________ 12

FIGURE 3. Landforms of western Massachusetts and 

subsurface geology along southern 

border (adapted from Bain and Meyerhoff, 1942)___________________.__ 18

FIGURE 4. Maximum annual stage of Connecticut

River at Springfield, 1869-1960..___ 24

FIGURE 5. Flooded area of Springfield and West

Springfield, March 1936____________ 24

FIGURE 6. Flood-control reservoirs constructed or

authorized ______________________ 26

FIGURE 7. Chemical quality of water from streams

and wells_____._________________ 32

FIGURE 8. Some major manufacturing industries.__ 40

FIGURE 9. Public water systems sources and areas

served._________________________ 42

FIGURE 10. Average water use by public water

systems, 1941-60________-.__-____ 45

FIGURE 11. Trends in growth of population and

water use_______________________ 57

Everywhere in the United States we hear scare 

stories about an apparently diminishing supply of 

water. We are told that our national use of water is 

expected to rise to 600 billion gallons a day by 1980. 

We have heard about restrictions on sprinkling, or 

rationed bathing and car washing, or fines for leaky 

taps.

Yet in central New England, for example the 

Connecticut River sends more than 9,000 million gallons of water past Holyoke, Mass., on a single average 

day.

As the river passes Springfield, the Chicopee and 

Westfield Rivers add nearly 1,300 million gallons a 

day more.

An average of only about 400 million gallons a 

day is withdrawn from the streams and rivers in the 

Springfield-Holyoke area, and most of that is returned 

to the streams after use.

Doesn't sound like a water problem, does it?

Well, quantity is not the only water problem. 

You can have water, water, everywhere, and still not 

have a drop to drink, if the water isn't fit for drinking. It has to be clean, pure water suitable for a 

variety of uses for housework, for industry, for recreation. There has to be enough of it in the hot dry 

periods of summer when streams become sluggish, 

water levels fall, and shallow wells run dry. It has to 

be controlled when there is too much of it, when the 

snows melt in the spring, or when torrential rains 

make the rivers roar over the land, bringing death 

and destruction.

With these thoughts in mind, we look at the 

water resources of the Springfield-Holyoke area a 

little differently.
For instance 

 Did you know that in 1955, 40 million gallons of 

wastes from industry were discharged every day into 

the Connecticut River at Holyoke?

 Did you know that water pollution has killed off 

the salmon that used to breed in the river below Holyoke, and that the shad are in danger of being exterminated also?

 Did you know that even though the average daily 

flow of the Connecticut River at Springfield is more 

than 10,000 million gallons a day, it has dropped to 

as little as 680 million gallons a day during the summer?

 Did you know that floods in the Connecticut River 

basin in 1936, 1938, and 1955 together caused damages of nearly 245 million dollars?

Yes, the area does have a problem a water 

management problem. This is not the same thing as 

a water supply problem. You can see what some of 

the management problems are: pollution control; 

storage of water for dry or "low-flow" periods; flood 

control; development of recreational facilities and 

fisheries. These are water problems that may exist 

wherever you have water resources. They are not 

nearly as critical as the water problems in some other 

areas of the United States, but on the other hand, 

without proper management, they might become more 

serious. The problems are complicated by the fact 

that several States are involved. The Connecticut
River begins to flow in New Hampshire, and journeys 

southward along the New Hampshire-Vermont boundary into Massachusetts. After it leaves Springfield, 

it flows on into Connecticut and ends in Long Island 

Sound. Obviously, the people living upstream and 

dowstream from Springfield may also have something 

to say about management of the Connecticut River 

and its tributaries.

To add to the complications, there are several 

Federal Government agencies involved. The Corps 

of Engineers of the U.S. Army builds the larger dams 

in the Connecticut River basin. The Soil Conservation Service of the Department of Agriculture helps 

to increase the usefulness of water resources by guiding people in careful land management of some watersheds. The Department of Health, Education, and 

Welfare is concerned with control of pollution in rivers 

and streams, through its Public Health Service. The 

Geological Survey of the Department of the Interior 

collects basic information on streamflow, floods, quality of water, and ground-water resources, and appraises the availability and use of water. The basic 

facts obtained by the Survey can be used by all those 

concerned with water problems. There are State 

agencies involved also the Massachusetts Water Resources Commission and the Department of Public 

Health are just two.

But the problems themselves have to be solved 

by people. You can understand the problems better 

if you have a clear picture of the water resources of 

the Springfield-Holyoke area. Other people outside 

the area who read this report may gain an understanding of the water resources and problems of their own 

towns and rivers. Although water resources and 

therefore water problems vary from place to place, the 

basic principles of water management remain the same. 

This pamphlet is written to give you some idea of the 

complexities involved in managing the water resources 

of an industrial urban area.

First, let us look at the geography of the area 

itself, study the map, and see what we find (figure 1).

640004 O - 62 - 2
FIG. 1 SPRINGFIELD-HOLYOKE AREA

\WEST _ 

/SPRINGFIELL ,

( * /-SPR.NGFIELD V \ « *"* » 

' * \ \

"^ \

 -*

SOUTHWICK /

AGAWAM

S^- LONG- LONG- \ 

MEADOW'. MEADOW \

EAST -4 HAMPDEN
The Springfield-Holyoke area lies in the valley of the 

Connecticut River in Hampden County, Mass. It 

contains 313 square miles and a population of 420,000. 

It is shaped somewhat like the wooden engine on a toy 

train, facing west, with a bell on top and a cowcatcher 

on the front. It is bounded on the south by the 

Massachusetts-Connecticut State line and, on the 

north, roughly by the Manhan River and the Hoiyoke Range. The Connecticut River flows more or 

less north-to-south through a valley plain which is a 

center of diversified industry and of tobacco and vegetable growing. Most of the population is located 

within the valley in and near Springfield, Holyoke, 

Chicopee, and Westfield.

The valley is bounded by hills on both east and 

west. On the east are the central uplands of Massachusetts, between 500 and 1,000 feet high, and on the 

west are the beautiful Berkshire Hills, rising to more 

than 2,000 feet in Berkshire County. Running up 

and down through the center of the area, and turning 

sideways, like the bar on a loosely joined "H", is a 

narrow ridge called the Holyoke Range, 500 to 1,200 

feet high.

Climate is one of the attractions that has made 

the Springfield-Holyoke area a center of industry, recreation, and education. It is generally moderate with 

average monthly temperatures ranging from 25° F. 

in January to 74° in July. Occasionally it gets hotter 

or colder, but on the whole it is the temperate climate 

characteristic of the New England States. Monthly 

rainfall ranges from 2.6 to 4.7 inches. The yearly 

average at Springfield is a little higher than the national average. Of course, not all of the water falling in the area can be used. Slightly more than half 

the moisture returns to the atmosphere, either by 

evaporation from land and water surfaces or by loss 

through the leaves of plants. The latter kind of 

evaporation is called transpiration. The remaining 

water runs off the land into streams or seeps slowly 

underground. We call the runoff water "surface 

water." The water which seeps underground is called

11
WESTFIELD RIVER 

(near Westfield)

ICHICOPEE RIVER

at Indian Orchard ^^j ni.

Daily Flow 

1914-60

Drainage area 

497 square miles

Daily Flow 

1928-60

Drainage area 

688 square miles

Average 618 million gallons 

Minimum 26 million gallons 

Maximum 45,400 million gallons

Average 724 million gallons 

Minimum 10 million gallons 

Maximum 29,200 million gallons

MILL RIVER

at Springfield

Daily Flow Drainage area 

1938-51 33.9 square miles

Average 26.9 million gallons

Minimum 0

Maximum 198 million gallons

CONNECTICUT RIVER 

at Thompsonville, Conn.

Daily Flow 

1928-60

Drainage area 

9,661 square miles

Average 10,750 million gallons 

Minimum 680 million gallons 

Maximum 182,000 million gallons

IG. 2-FLOW OF PRINCIPAL RIVERS
"ground water." Surface water and ground water 

are the sources of man's water supply. Of course, 

somewhat less is available from either source during 

the summer because more water is lost to the atmosphere by evaporation and transpiration.

The Connecticut River, which divides the Springfield-Holyoke area into an eastern and a western half, 

is the largest river in New England. With its two 

local tributaries, the Chicopee and the Westfield 

Rivers, it supplies tremendous quantities of water to 

a relatively small area. The 313 square miles of the 

area can draw upon the runoff of more than 9,000 

square miles. The Connecticut River system not 

only furnishes water for municipal use in the area 

but also for a great industrial complex, including 

power plants, paper mills, metal processing plants, 

and chemical industries.

The Connecticut River itself rises in Third Connecticut Lake in northern New Hampshire near the 

Canadian border. Here is the drainage pattern of the 

river and some information about several of the local 

tributaries (figure 2), where they have been measured 

by the Geological Survey. The map shows you the approximate drainage area in square miles, the average 

flow per day, and the minimum daily flow.

As you can tell from the average daily flow of most 

of the rivers, there is generally an enormous amount of 

water available in the Connecticut River basin. There 

are times, however, when there is not so much water 

flowing through the stream channels. For instance, in 

the drought year of 1957, river flows were greatly reduced, and smaller ones dried up completely. For 

man's purpose planning the use of water it is important to know what the minimum 7-day flow of 

a river is likely to be. The U.S. Geological Survey, in 

cooperation with State agencies, maintains gaging 

stations on rivers to measure the height ("stage") and 

flow ("discharge") of the rivers, including the minimum flows. The minimum 7-day flow is usually 

recorded in late summer or early fall when there has 

been little rain and much evaporation. The low flow 

periods unfortunately come at just the time of year 

when people use the most water for bathing, swim13
ming, watering lawns, and irrigating crops. Besides 

cutting down the amount of water available for municipal supplies, such low flows can also be harmful to 

the fish life in the rivers. If wastes are disposed of in 

the rivers as in much of the Springfield-Holyoke 

area low flows are insufficient to dilute these wastes 

adequately, and they become offensive and a nuisance.

Man has not only learned to record high and low 

flows of the river he uses but also how to regulate the 

flow, at least to some extent. We do this by building 

a dam and storing water in an artificial lake or reservoir. When the flow of a river begins to lessen, some 

of this stored water can be released to augment 

natural low flows.

Dams and reservoirs can serve several purposes 

at one time. When used solely for conservation 

storage they help to increase low flows of rivers. 

However, some reservoirs are also used for municipal 

supply. Some are used for the manufacture of water 

power. Some are used for recreational purposesboating, fishing and swimming. Some are used for 

flood control. In a flood-control reservoir, little or no 

water is kept in storage after storm and flood dangers 

have passed. The space is reserved for the tremendous amounts of extra water resulting from the next 

heavy rains, or from suddenly melting snows. A reservoir used for two or more purposes must have 

greater capacity than one used only for flood control, 

if it is to provide effective flood protection.

We have been discussing reservoirs which can be 

used for one or more purposes. Many flood-control 

reservoirs, however, are detention or "dry-bed" reservoirs, which do not contain water at all except 

during times of flood. During flood periods the detention reservoirs give the water a safe place in which to 

accumulate, and lessen the flow of rivers so that they 

do not overflow their banks. There are many such 

single-purpose flood-control reservoirs in the Connecticut River basin, but there are many other reservoirs 

that are used for water-supply storage or for power 

generation. The flow of the Connecticut River is regulated by more than two million acre-feet of storage 

in 23 nonflood-control reservoirs. This regulation

14
Table 1. Principal types of rocks, and yields of wells (listed in order from

youngest rocks to oldest).

Age

Pleistocene

(glacial epoch,

within past 1

million years).

Late Triassic

(a period of time

ending about 155

million years ago).

Pre-Triassic

(approximately

200 to 500 million

years ago).

Principal types

of rocks

Stratified deposits;

mainly layers of

clay and sand;

also, in some

places, gravel and

boulders.

Till an unsorted

mixture of clay,

sand, gravel, and

boulders.

Shale, sandstone,

shaly sandstone;

some conglomerate

near eastern and

western borders of

area.

Diabase a dark

weather-resistant

rock of volcanic

origin.

Crystalline rocks

such as schist,

gneiss, and

granite.

Approximate

thickness (feet)

0-200 +

0-100 +

100-8,000

(or more;

thickest near

center of

valley).

100-550 (at

or near

surface in

the Hoiyoke

Range).

Many

thousands

(underlying

entire area).

Yields of wells

Highest yielding wells in

area, where tapping sand

and gravel largecapacity wells yielding

100 to 1,000 gpm; much

smaller yields from finegrained sands and clayey

sands.

Generally less than 10

gpm; sometimes less than

1 or 2 gpm.

Wide variations in yield.

such as between 10 and

500 gpm.

Little information;

probably less than 2 gpm

in most places.

Little information; most

yields reported to be less

than 10 gpm.

15
helps to increase natural low flow. The greater the 

demand for water, the more regulation of river flow is 

necessary if supply is to be reasonably constant.

There is another source of water in the area as 

well as the Connecticut River and its tributaries. It is 

the water lying beneath the surface of the land, 

"ground water," as it is called by geologists and hydrologists. It moves slowly through the rocks, emerging 

sometimes as a spring, or flowing into a river or lake. 

Rock formations which are capable of yielding water 

to wells are known as aquifers. Geologists use the 

word "rock" to mean both consolidated formations 

such as sandstone or granite, and unconsolidated sediments like gravel, sand, and clay. Sand and gravel 

aquifers contain and yield great quantities of water 

because they are permeable and porous. Tighter 

rocks such as clay, shale, granite, or other hard rocks 

yield less water.

Underneath the aquifers everywhere at some 

depth is rock that is water-tight, because the great 

pressure at depths has closed up the pores and spaces. 

Water seeping down from the earth's surface collects 

above the impervious layer. The top of this zone of 

free water or saturation is called the water table. 

The level of the water table fluctuates according to 

the amount of precipitation.

There are three major groups of rocks in the 

Springfield-Holyoke area, and some ground water is obtainable from parts of each of the three groups, as 

shown in table 1. The youngest group consists of clay, 

sand, and gravel all unconsolidated rocks of Pleistocene (glacial) age. These rocks cover the surface of 

most of the area described in this report and are generally between 30 and 200 feet in thickness. The second and next older group are of Triassic age and 

consist mainly of red or gray shale and sandstone. 

Diabase, a dark gray and very hard volcanic rock, also 

part of the Triassic age group of rocks, underlies the 

Holyoke Range. The Triassic rocks fill a roughly 

wedge-shaped trough to a depth of some thousands of 

feet beneath the Connecticut Valley in south-central 

Massachusetts, as shown in cross section in figure 3.

16
Finally, the third and oldest, deepest, and thickest 

group of rocks in the area are crystalline rock-types 

such as schist, gneiss, and granite. Some of these rocks 

occur at or near the land surface in the uplands east 

and west of the Connecticut Valley (figure 3). The 

word "bedrock" applies to all the consolidated rocks 

in the area, and therefore includes both the second 

and third groups described in this paragraph.

The largest supplies of ground water for public 

and industrial uses are obtained from wells tapping 

Pleistocene deposits of sand and gravel at depths less 

than 200 feet below the land surface, and from wells 

tapping Triassic sandstone or shaly sandstone at 

depths no greater than 1,000 feet, and usually less 

than 600 feet. Most of the Springfield-Holyoke area 

is covered by one or more layers of Pleistocene deposits, but there is wide variation in thickness, structure, and composition of these deposits and therefore 

also in the availability of water contained in these 

rocks. Many are principally clay and fine-grained 

sand, or an unsorted mixture (till), yielding only a few 

gallons per minute to wells. The larger yields occur 

where there is sand or sand and gravel brought down 

by water from melting of glaciers during the glacial 

epoch 10,000 to 20,000 years ago.

The five wells reported to have the largest yields 

in the area, each more than 800 gallons per minute, 

withdraw water from sand and gravel in Westfield and 

Southwick. These wells penetrate between 50 and 110 

feet of waterbearing sand and gravel, a saturated 

thickness greater than that usually encountered in 

other places in the area. Most of the glacial deposits 

likely to yield large amounts of water occur in the 

eastern and western parts of the valley. Most of the 

larger industrial ground-water developments to date 

are located in the central part of the valley, simply because most of the people and industries are located 

there. These industrial wells generally draw water 

from rocks of Triassic age.

During dry periods the yield of shallow wells is 

generally less than in the winter or spring. In such 

dry periods the water table is lowered below the bot17

640004 O - 62 - 3
CONNECTICUT RIVER

QUABBI 

RESERV<

-10,000 FEET OR MORE DOTTED OUTLINE ABOVE SHOWS SPRINGFIELD-HOLYOKE AREA

CONSOLIDATED ROCKS ("BEDROCK"): TRIASSIC SHALE, SANDSTONE, AND CONGLOMERATE 

TRIASSIC DIABASE 

PRE-TRIASSIC CRYSTALLINE ROCKS

(NOTE: NO SURFICIAL ROCKS OF 

PLEISTOCENE AGE ARE SHOWN 

ON THIS GEOLOGIC SECTION.)

Figure 3. Landforms of western Massachusetts and subsurface geology along southern border 

section from diagram (adapted from Bain and Meyerhoff, 1942.)
torn of the shallow wells. However, drought will 

seldom cause failure of wells which are drilled to a considerable depth. A declining level may also occur because the underground reservoir (aquifer) is emptied 

by pumping faster than it is replenished by precipitation. Such a condition is not likely to be a serious 

problem at present in the Springfield-Holyoke area because of the relatively limited development of ground 

water in the region.

The Geological Survey works with State authorities to locate and map ground-water sources in the 

Commonwealth of Massachusetts, as in other States. 

However, in this area there is still a serious lack of information about the locations of favorable sites for 

ground-water development.

Other wells could probably be developed in the 

eastern and western parts of the valley. It might be 

useful to find out more about ground water in the 

area, partly because the population may continue to 

increase, partly because new industries using large 

amounts of water may move into the area, and also 

because extra sources of water might be needed in 

case of a national or regional emergency.

19
-^?F 3i*'K*^r^'!r^^

.* V .Jk \M t .TNTff'v, ^*a»
There can be too much water, as the people of 

Springfield and Holyoke know to their cost. Though 

the Connecticut River is extremely valuable to them 

and to their businesses and industries, it sometimes 

goes on a rampage, wrecking homes and factories, 

killing some and making others homeless and jobless. 

Many serious floods have occurred in the recorded 

history of the Connecticut Valley. The average annual loss due to floods in the Connecticut River basin 

is estimated at $19,635,000. In 1927, although the 

major flood damage was done in Vermont, 10,000 

persons were left homeless in the suburbs of Springfield. In 1936, just as the valley was struggling out 

of the great depression, it was hit by flood damages of 

661/2 million dollars. Twenty-four lives were lost; 

77,000 were homeless. Extensive damage was done in 

the industrial areas of Springfield, West Springfield, 

Chicopee and Holyoke. The water rose above the 

second floor in many buildings. In 1938, damage from 

floods in the Connecticut River basin amounted to 

$48,500,000. The flows of streams in the 1938 flood 

exceeded those of 1936 on many tributaries of the 

Connecticut River. In comparison, the floods of 1948 

were relatively minor, and resulted in less injury and 

loss of property four dead, a thousand homeless, and 

over a million dollars worth of damage. Floods in 

1955 made up for the less damaging year of 1948, 

however, with 34 deaths and property damage of $130 

million in the Connecticut River basin.

There is a point to all these figures. It is to show 

that although floods may occur at infrequent intervals, 

the damage they cause is extremely expensive. The 

sheer human suffering the loss of loved ones or of 

homes and memoried treasures cannot be measured. 

In addition, floods can dislocate the economy of a 

region for several years. Flood waters can wash away 

bridges and roads, factories and properties. A community may take several years to recover from debt 

incurred in trying to repair flood damages.

Of course, there wouldn't be nearly as much damage if everyone built homes and factories on high 

ground away from the banks of the river. But the flat,

21
level flood plains are inviting, and usually are built up 

first. On the whole, the general public seems rather 

unaware of the problem presented by flood plains. 

Many individuals or companies buy or build on lands 

subject to flood, seemingly unaware of the possible 

consequences.

Some communities today adopt flood plain zoning 

as a way of protecting themselves against flood damages. By flood plain zoning, we mean restrictions on 

the kinds of dwellings or businesses which may be 

developed on the level banks of a river. Zoning might 

mean restriction of use of flood lands to agriculture or 

municipal parks. Commercial enterprises might be 

permitted on flood plains if only the floors above flood 

levels are used for offices, permanent records, and 

valuable equipment.

A State law permitting flood plain zoning was 

passed by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in 

1954. Only five municipalities have adopted it, none 

of them in the Springfield-Holyoke area. Flood zoning 

is being considered for Agawam, however. It is, of 

course, easier to regulate flood plain zoning in new subdivisions and communities. In older communities, 

zoning patterns are already set, and considerable 

amounts of money may already be invested in the 

homes or businesses located on the flood plain. It is 

easier to leave them there instead of relocating, and 

to use Federal and State funds for flood protection 

works.

There are several ways in which the existing use 

of the flood plain might be changed. Zoning is one 

way. Another way is for public organizations to buy 

up land along river banks whenever it is vacant or for 

sale. Such land could be used for parks or recreation 

areas. A third way would be for the Federal Government to make zoning a condition of funds for rehabilitation and flood protection. However, the possibility 

of such legislation seems remote at present.

The U.S. Government has measured flood stage on 

the Connecticut River and its tributaries for about 100 

years. The expression "flood stage" simply means the 

height of the river water at which floods occur. The

22
highest flood stages since the Government started 

keeping records have been those of 1936, 1938, and 

1955. Most of the floods occur in the spring when 

heavy rain and melting snow increase the runoff into 

rivers. However, a number of floods have occurred at 

other times of the year, when hurricanes bringing 

heavy rains have followed one another. For instance, 

the flood of March 1936 was caused by heavy rains 

and melting snow. That of September 1938 was 

caused by heavy rains followed by the rains of a tropical hurricane. In August 1955 the flood was caused

by hurricane Diane following within several days of 

hurricane Connie.

When there are floods on the Connecticut River, 

there undoubtedly are floods on some of its tributaries 

as well. High flows on the Chicopee were recorded in 

the same three outstanding flood years 1936, 1938, 

and 1955. Historical records show that the 1938 flood 

was the highest since 1847. We know the years when 

floods have occurred on the Westfield River since 1692, 

although we don't know how severe the early ones 

were. Flood records have been kept at the gaging station near Westfield since 1914, and these measurements along with historical records show that the 

flood of 1955 was the greatest in the past 160 years. 

This flood, which isolated the city of Westfield, 

reached a stage of 34.2 feet. Almost 20 inches of rainfall was measured, of which 18 inches fell in a single 24 

hour period. Most of the damage done in the Springfield-Holy oke area by the '55 flood occurred in the 

Westfield River basin.

23
\6J.3 

165.3

1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940

Figure 4. Maximum annual stage of Connecticut River at Springfield, 1869-1960

J S

Figure 5. Flooded area of Springfield and West Springfield
Records for the Connecticut River at Springfield 

show that floods of 20 or more feet during a single year 

have occurred at average intervals of 11 years. In 

figure 4 you can see the maximum annual stage of the 

Connecticut River from 1869 to 1960. Even though 

the actual interval between floods was shorter or 

longer than the average, high stages have occurred too 

frequently for comfort. You can get some idea of the 

damage done in Springfield itself by the flood of 1936 

from figure 5, which shows the overflow limits of the 

river. This flood was so disastrous that it stimulated 

public interest in flood control. People everywhere in 

the valley backed their senators and representatives 

in seeking Federal flood-control legislation and funds.

The Flood Control Act of 1936 authorized construction of reservoirs on tributaries of the Connecticut River. Because of the concentration of population 

and the extensive development of the area, the plan 

recommended by the Corps of Engineers was based on 

the construction of moderate-size dams on tributary 

streams, combined with local flood-protection works 

such as levees and flood walls. Levees are earth embankments to prevent flooding. Flood walls are made 

of reinforced concrete, and are more often used in 

cities where space is at a premium.

The Act also granted permission to two or more 

States to enter into flood-control compacts, to share 

costs of acquiring lands and rights of way necessary 

for building the dams. For this purpose the Connecticut River Valley Flood Control Commission was 

established, consisting of 12 commissioners, 3 from 

each of the 4 States concerned Massachusetts, Connecticut, Vermont and New Hampshire. Later legislation has authorized a total of 27 reservoirs. Of 

these, 11 have been built. In downstream order they 

are: Union Village, North Hartland, North Springfield, Ball Mountain and Townshend, all in Vermont; 

Surry Mountain and Otter Brook in New Hampshire; 

Birch Hill, Tully, Barre Falls and Knightville, in 

Massachusetts. It must be understood that these reservoirs are part of the comprehensive plan for the 

whole Connecticut River basin.

25

640004 0-62-4
 ___ _ _ L Ji r

FIGURE 6. Present and Proposed Flood-Control Reservoirs (Adapted From Reports of The U. S. Army Corps 

of Engineers and the New England-New York Interagency Committee)

KEY

STATUS OF 

FLOODCONTROL 

RESERVOIRS

 COMPLETED

OR UNDER

CONSTRUCTION

* UNDER DESIGN 

OR ACTIVE 

PLANNING

* OTHER RESERVOIR

SITES PROPOSED

AS PART OF

COMPREHENSIVE

SYSTEM

(SUGAR HILL, N.H. 

SITE OMITTED)

FIG. 6

Not all of them directly affect river stages in the SpringfieldHolyoke area. In fact, 4 of the proposed 27 reservoirs are on tributaries below Springfield.

The reservoirs which have the most direct effect on the Springfield-Holyoke area are: Barre Falls, which reduces flood stages at 

North Wilbraham, Ludlow, Indian Orchard, Chicopee Falls and 

Chicopee, and other centers below the meeting of the Chicopee and 

Connecticut Rivers; and Knightville, which protects Westfield. 

Nevertheless, reservoirs on any tributaries of the Connecticut River 

north of Springfield and Holyoke have some effect in lowering stages 

downstream.

Other flood-protection works, such as dikes and flood walls, 

were also authorized and have been built at Holyoke, Chicopee, 

West Springfield, and Springfield. These works protect highly
developed industrial, commercial and residential areas. 

The dikes and flood walls have a top elevation from 

1.8 to 4.8 feet higher than the stage which would have 

been reached in the flood of 1936, had the five upstream reservoirs completed in 1956 been in operation. A new project, authorized in 1960, will be 

located along the east bank of the Chicopee River in 

the city of Chicopee. Together with the existing 

Barre Falls Reservoir, these works will provide flood 

protection for Chicopee Falls. Also authorized in 

1960 was the Westfield local protection project. 

These works will be located at the junction of the 

Westfield and Westfield Little Rivers. Together with 

Knightville Reservoir and the authorized Littleville 

Reservoir, the project will provide major protection 

for the city of Westfield.

An additional 2 of the 27 reservoirs are presently 

under construction or design. Only one of these 

two at Littleville in Massachusetts would affect the 

Springfield-Holyoke area directly. Figure 6 shows the 

location of the flood-control reservoirs which have been 

authorized and those which are already constructed.

A number of industrial plants have privately 

financed construction of flood-control works for their 

own protection. Districts which have no flood-protection works now at least have the advantage of a 

warning system so that people and valuables can be 

evacuated before the waters rise too high. The Flood 

Warning Center is at Bradley Field, Windsor Locks, 

Conn., and is operated by the Weather Bureau for the 

benefit of New York and New England.

27
Building reservoirs is a slow and costly business. 

Land for the reservoirs has to be bought or leased, 

usually from farmers living along or near an upstream 

tributary. Families sometimes whole communitieshave to find homes and ways of earning a living elsewhere. It is hard to fix a price for the acquisition of 

land that is fair to both landowner and government. 

Finally, a great deal of time may elapse between authorization to build a dam, and the actual beginning 

of construction. The delay is necessary for surveying, 

planning, and negotiation, but the resulting uncertainty is a hardship for the landowners in the area.

Even if the people upstate did not object to selling or leasing their land for reservoirs, there is still 

the loss to the economy to consider in choosing reservoir sites. Productive farm land is needed in New 

England, which contains about six percent of the nation's population but produces only two percent of its 

farm products.

While each of the reservoirs has beneficial effects 

in lowering flood stages on the respective tributaries, 

the prime purpose of the whole system is to lower 

stages of the Connecticut River at damage points in 

Massachusetts and Connecticut. At different times 

in the past, citizens in New Hampshire and Vermont 

have banded together to try to prevent inundation of 

their pasture, farmlands, homesteads and graveyards. 

The people living upstream not unnaturally tend to 

believe in small projects on tributary rivers, floodplain zoning, and reforestation as alternatives to large 

dams and reservoirs. Their spokesmen have recommended that industries and other developments along 

the Connecticut River should move to higher ground. 

The people downstream who are subject to floods 

seem to care less about the flooding of quaint old villages and farms. People in the downstream communities argue that the cost of moving entire industrial 

and commercial centers away from the flood plains 

would be enormously expensive, far more than the 

cost involved in developing and improving new farming areas.

28
The Interstate Flood Control Compact is a way 

of trying to settle these differences. Each State now 

has the right to approve or disapprove sites proposed 

for reservoirs within its own State. Furthermore, the 

compact provides for payments by downriver States 

of the greater share of the costs to the upriver States 

of the damages and tax losses which result from flooding of farmland. Even with such compensation, 

however, locating suitable reservoir sites remains a 

real problem.

No amount of construction can prevent floods; it 

can only lessen their effects. The flood plain belongs 

to the river; it is difficult and expensive to keep the 

river from occupying the flood plain. Warnings to 

those who live or work on the flood plain should be 

clear and unmistakable. Where possible, State and 

local governments might well give serious consideration to the adopting of flood zoning regulations. In 

the final analysis, we must adapt our use to the river, 

as well as adapt the river to our use.

29

When we turn on the tap, we seldom give any 

thought to the quality of the water. We may notice 

slight differences in taste from one area to another, 

but that is all. We take the purity of water for 

granted. But in one sense, there is no such thing as 

"pure" water. All water contains dissolved matter of 

one kind or another. Rainfall is as nearly pure as 

water can be in the hydrologic cycle, yet it contains 

dust, minerals, carbon dioxide and other substances. 

As water flows over the earth or under the earth it 

gradually dissolves minerals. In many waters these 

"natural" substances occur in such small quantities 

that the water in its natural state before contamination by man's activities is usable for many purposes, 

including public water supplies.

We express the amount of dissolved matter in 

parts per million. That is, a million pounds of water 

which contains ten pounds of dissolved material is 

said to have a concentration of 10 parts per million. 

More than 500 parts per million of dissolved matter 

is considered undesirable for a public water supply.

In its natural state, the chemical quality of the 

water in the Springfield-Holyoke area is excellent to 

very good in most places. It can be used with a minimum of treatment. Most of the river waters contain 

less than 100 parts per million of dissolved mineral 

matter (figure 7), and are classed as "soft" waters. 

Iron is the only chemical which generally occurs in 

undesirable concentrations and such water may require treatment. If not treated, water with iron in 

it may stain textiles and porcelain fixtures. The excellent quality and abundance of the local water is 

one reason why many industries have located in and 

near Springfield and Holyoke. Some of the ground 

water in the area contains several hundred parts per 

million of dissolved solids and is hard, so that treatment would be desirable prior to some types of water 

use.

When we speak of pollution, however, we do not 

usually mean the minerals or chemicals which are 

naturally in water. We mean the wastes which are 

a result of our urban and industrial way of life.

31
STREAMS

CHICOPEE RIVER AT 

INDIAN ORCHARD

FlOW

39 mgd 

1,980 mgd

WESTFIELD RIVER

NEAR WESTFIELD 154 mgd

1,110 mgd

CONNECTICUT RIVER

AT THOMPSONVILLE l»740mgd

47,300 mgd

SMALL STILL

BROOK 

STREAMS ARM

BROOK

WELLS:

0.37 mgd 

0.38 mgd

WELL 

NUMBERS

TAPPING UNCONSOLIDATED U

DEPOSITS OF PLEISTOCENE

AND RECENT AGE x

TAPPING CHICOPEE SHALE

TAPPING LONGMEADOW 

SANDSTONE

TAPPING SUGARLOAF 

ARKOSE

SCALE FOR ALL 

ANALYSES SHOWN ABOVE

 MM HARDNESS

DISSOLVED SOLIDS

100

PARTS PER MILLION

200 300 400 500 600

I

SCALE FOR HARDNESS (EXPRESSED AS CaCO3) 

AND FOR DISSOLVED SOLIDS

Figure 7. Chemical quality of water from streams and wells
These may be of two kinds sanitary sewage or industrial wastes. The larger streams in the SpringfieldHolyoke area are polluted much of the time, because 

they serve for disposal of both kinds of wastes. 

Water suitable for drinking and for recreational purposes can be found upstream on the tributaries, some 

distance east and west of the urban and industrial 

centers. At these sources the condition of the water 

is good to excellent. Yet there may be some variation in the sanitary quality of even these waters, as 

certain small communities upstream add untreated 

domestic sewage to the water.

In 1947, the New England Interstate Water Pollution Control Commission was established to coordinate antipollution surveys and programs in the New 

England States and New York. This agency has established a code for classification of waters according 

to their sanitary condition. You will find this code 

in table 2, which shows the standards laid down for 

each use classification. Water classified "A" is excellent; water classified "E" is of unsatisfactory sanitary 

quality. Federal Public Law 660 provides financial 

aid to States for water pollution control. Much basic 

research is needed, for there is as yet no inexpensive or 

economically feasible way of removing dissolved materials such as detergents in water. Particularly difficult is the removal of dissolved chemicals from chemical and plastic industries. Many of these wastes are 

complex compounds, the exact chemical nature of 

which has not even been identified.

Presently, the sanitary quality of the Connecticut, Chicopee and Westfield Rivers in the immediate 

metropolitan area is of condition "D." This condition results partly from disposal of industrial wastes 

and partly from disposal of untreated sanitary sewage. If raw sewage is dumped into a river, the oxygen in the water will gradually decompose it. The 

oxygen in the river water is absorbed from the air and 

from plants growing in and near the water. However, a river may become so overloaded with wastes 

that the natural oxygen in the water cannot cope with 

the load. This is the situation on parts of the 

Connecticut River and its local tributaries.

33
Table 2. Classification of sanitary condition of waters (by New England Interstate 

Water Pollution Control Commission)

SUITABILITY FOR USE

Class A

Suitable for any

water use. Character uniformly

excellent.

Class B

Suitable for bathing

and recreation,

irrigation, and

agricultural uses;

good fish habitat; good aesthetic value.

Acceptable for

public water supply with filtration

and disinfection.

Class C

Suitable for recreational boating,

irrigation of

crops not used

far consumption

without cooking;

habitat for wildlife and common

food and game

fishes indigenous

to the region.

Class D

Suitable for transportation of sewage and industrial wastes

without nuisance,

and for power.

navigation, and

other industrial

uses.

STANDARDS OF QUALITY

Dissolved oxygen . .

Oil and grease ....

Odor, scum, floating

solids, or debris.

Sludge deposits . . .

Color and turbidity .

Phenols or other

taste-producing

substances.

Substances

potentially toxic.

Free acids or

alkalies.

Coliform bacteria . .

Not less than 75

percent

saturation.

None ..........

... .do. .......

.. .do. .......

.... do ........

.... do ........

... .do. .......

... .do. .......

Within limits apapproved by

State department

of health for

uses involved. 1

Not less than 75

percent

saturation.

No appreciable

amount.

None ...........

.... do .........

Not objectionable . .

None ...........

... .do. ........

.... do .........

Bacterial content

of bathing

waters shall

meet limits approved by State

department of

health and

acceptability

will depend on

sanitary survey.

Not less than 5

parts per million.

Not objectionable . .

None ...........

.... do .........

Not objectionable . .

None ...........

Not in toxic

concentrations

or combinations.

None ...........

Present at all times.

Not objectionable.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Not in toxic

concentrations

or combinations.

Not in objectionable

amounts.

1 Sea waters used far the taking af market shellfish shall 

not have a median caliform content in excess af 70 per 100 

million.

NOTE. Waters falling belaw these descriptions are considered as unsatisfactory and as class E. These standards do 

not apply to conditions brought about by natural causes. 

For purpose of distinction as to use, waters used or proposed 

for public water supply shall be so designated.

34
The principal sources of industrial wastes at present are paper mills, textile mills, metal industries, 

chemical plants, breweries, meat and other food processing plants. Usually, pollution by such industrial 

wastes makes the water unfit for domestic use, but it 

can still be used for other purposes, such as navigation or power development, or cooling for industries. 

Or the polluted water can be used by industries which 

do not need first quality for processing. However, at 

some times and places, the pollution is severe enough 

to create a nuisance condition. During periods of 

low flow and high temperature in the summer, certain 

stretches of water on the Chicopee and Westfield 

Rivers are completely unacceptable for any ordinary 

use. The water into which the wastes are discharged 

is colored gray or black by decomposing organic matter, and the odor is offensive.

In addition, there are some cities and towns in 

the area that do little toward treatment of municipal 

sewage, before it is discharged into these rivers. Because of the expense of building treatment plants, it 

is usually the smaller towns that discharge untreated 

sewage into the rivers. Springfield, Ludlow, and 

Longmeadow have adequate disposal facilities, and 

Chicopee, Holyoke, Westfield, and Wilbraham plan 

construction of treatment plants. A sewage treatment plant for South Hadley was completed in 1960. 

In the city of Springfield proper there has been a 

serious lack of sewers in the newer areas, such as Sixteen Acres, Boston Road, and Indian Orchard. However, the septic tanks are now being replaced by trunk 

sewers and lateral lines as quickly as possible. Septic 

tanks are still used in Southwick. Work is continuing 

on two interceptors for carrying sewage from Agawam to the Springfield municipal sewage treatment 

plant.

The quality of the ground water in the area 

varies. Basically, it is satisfactory for many purposes 

and usually can be used with a minimum of treatment, 

even for drinking and bathing. Although it is harder 

than the water from streams, it" is more constant in 

composition and temperature, and is therefore useful

35
for certain industries. However, in industrial areas 

near the Connecticut River, the sanitary quality of the 

ground water in some wells is reported to be unsatisfactory for drinking purposes. One of the aquifers 

may have been contaminated locally, by disposal or 

seepage of waste materials into the ground. Once the 

water in an aquifer is polluted, it may take years before it is slowly purified by nature. Wells containing 

polluted waters would not continue in use, if the use 

depended in any way upon their sanitary quality.

In a third of the wells sampled by the Geological 

Survey, the water was found to contain a high concentration of iron. This water would have to be 

treated to prevent staining of porcelain and textiles. 

In 15 out of the 23 wells, the hardness was over 60 

parts per million. Treatment to reduce hardness 

would also be desirable for some purposes. In general, water from wells drilled in the sand and gravel 

deposits contains less dissolved solids than that from 

the older and harder rocks. Where iron is not a 

problem, water from the younger rocks is satisfactory 

for many purposes.

Because water for public water supplies is obtained from upstream and relatively unpolluted 

sources, you may wonder why there should be concern about the quality of the waters in the immediate metropolitan area. What difference does it make, 

as long as people are not drinking the water and 

washing in it? Well, they might want to go swim36
ming, boating, or sailing. Such activities would not 

be very pleasant in waters of condition "D." Fish life 

can be affected or even wiped out by polluted water. 

Then, too, many industries need relatively pure, clean 

water. Plants which make synthetic fabrics, for instance, cannot use polluted or brackish water. New 

industries coming into an area may be seriously hampered because a possible source of water supply is 

polluted. (Indeed, their choice of area may be 

strongly influenced by the availability of a highquality water supply.) Perhaps the most important 

reason for concern is that water, unlike the other resources of the earth, is not fixed. It is constantly on 

the move, on the surface or underground. The water 

polluted in Holyoke and Springfield flows down the 

river to Hartford and other towns in Connecticut. 

One man's pollution is another man's poison, you 

might say.

Some local municipalities and industries are 

building treatment plants. The management of some 

industries may wish to co-operate with the pollutioncontrol program, but may feel they cannot afford the 

expense of building treatment plants. However, the 

pollution-control program of the Commonwealth of 

Massachusetts aims at least at primary treatment of 

all wastes and sewage. Primary treatment consists 

of settling the water and applying chlorine to kill the 

bacteria. Such treatment reduces the pollution load 

by about 35 percent. By this means, the State hopes 

to improve the waters at least to condition "C" as 

soon as possible.

37

Now that we have a general idea of the quantity 

and quality of water in the Springfield-Holyoke area, 

let us take a look at the people who live here, see what 

kinds of work they do, how they are supplied with 

water, how much or how little they use the millions 

of gallons a day poured out by the Connecticut River 

and its tributaries.

According to the 1960 census, there are 420,000 

people living in Springfield and the dozen neighboring cities and towns. Most of these people make 

their living working in factories. One third of personal income in New England generally comes from 

factory payrolls. This is the highest percentage in 

the country, and in the Connecticut River basin this 

percentage has been increasing. Population in this 

densely settled area has been increasing also. Although generally speaking, economic growth in New 

England has not quite kept pace with growth in other 

areas of the country, certain industrial areas in New 

England are prospering. Springfield-Holyoke is one 

such area.

From the earliest times Springfield has been an 

industrial community with highly skilled workmen. 

Upon this stable base has grown a well diversified 

economy, with two great advantages a moderate 

climate and ample supplies of soft water. Holyoke 

was deliberately laid out as a mill town by Boston industrialists to take advantage of the water resources 

for product processing. Three levels of canals bring 

water from the Connecticut River through the industrial area to provide power and water for processing. 

There are about 900 manufacturing industries in the 

Springfield-Holyoke area. The chief industries are 

paper mills, metal processing and fabricating plants, 

textile mills, chemicals, and machinery-making plants. 

Of these industries, two groups are big water-users 

paper mills and chemicals. Names of some of the 

major companies are shown on figure 8, and at the 

end of the book you will find a list of most of the large 

manufacturing industries.

There is also some agricultural activity in the 

area, chiefly vegetable farming and tobacco. There

39
FIG. 8

SOME MAJOR

MANUFACTURING

INDUSTRIES

is some supplemental irrigation during prolonged dry 

spells, but this usage is too small at present in the 

Springfield area to constitute a problem of water-use 

in competition with cities and industries.

There are seven public water systems serving the 

people of the Springfield-Holyoke area with an average of about 60 million gallons a day for domestic and 

other uses. These seven systems are: Springfield, 

Holyoke, Chicopee, West Springfield, Westfield, Wilbraham and South Hadley Fire Districts 1 and 2.

HOLYOKE

WHITING PAPER CO , 

iinri WRITING PAPER CORP , 

WILLIAM SKINNER £ SONS*

CHEMICAL PAPER MFG CORP 

REMINGTON RAf I «

.^- ^ \ 

iVORTHINGTON CORP 

NATIONAL BLANK BOOK CO.

UVAGE ARMS CORP « 

*ESTFIELD MFG CC

ItiSTER MACHINE CO

V»NLEY HOME PRODUCTS. INC

1ATHMORE PAPER CO 

A. b. SPALDING 8 BROS. INC.

THICOPEE MFC CORP U S. RUBBER CO 

W SICKLE-

 SHAWINIGAN RESINS CORP

-off ,1. _ __ ^ ^'.'JDLOW MFC S SALES CO

 "*" * f-.«AN'\iHEMICALCO 

X'-.APMAN VALVE Ml . .11 \

WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC CORP

MOORE DROP FORGING CO ,

WICO ELECTRIC CO 

GILBERT 8 BARKER MFC. CR

PERKINS MACHINE £ GEAR 0 

. AMERICAN BOSCH ARMA CORP >

»' AN NORMAN CO '

CRAIN BELT CO MILTON BRADLEY CO \

* ~ WHN H BRECK. INC. 

I'.NERAL BAKING CO. SMITH 8 WESSON, INC. )

 ' ' ENVELOPE CO '

 PRINGFIELD ARMORY U '. ARMY 

WILLIAM CARTER CO SPRINGFIELD*

BUXTON,INC 

TITEFLEX, INC . IIAMOND MAiiM Cu

\

"UKAGE MACHINERY CO \

\
Table 3 describes the source of water for each of these 

systems, and the area and population served. It also 

shows how the water is treated to make it suitable 

for domestic use. Figure 9 shows on a map the general area served by each system and the precise location of the source of water for each one. As you can 

see, most of the water for these public systems comes 

from tributaries and small rivers upstream or from 

wells. These waters are not polluted by industrial

Table 3. Public water supplies, 1960

(Sources of data: Records of Massachusetts Department of Public Health, municipal water departments, 

U.S. Geological Survey, and U.S. Public Health Service)

NOTE: Treatment methods identified as follows: A aeration; ( coagulation; D chlorination; F filtration; N ammoniation; 

S sedimentation; T aciivated carbon; X no treatment.

Name of 

water 

system

Chicopee. _ .

Holyoke. .......

South Hadley

Fire District 1

Fire District 2

Springfield .....

Westfield.......

West Springfield.

Wilbraham.....

Other towns and 

places served

Willimansett

Southampton ....

Agawam, East '

Longmeadow, 

Longmeadow, 

Ludlow,

Southwick, 

West Wilbraham

and Westover

, Air Force Base. ,

Population 

served 

(persons)

61,500

54,000

0 Y,OUU ftflTt

4,000

(including

college

students)

230,000

22,000

25,000

5.000

Source of 

water

Quabbin Reservoir

(Swift and Ware Rivers).

Reservoirs and ponds on Manhan

River and Paucatuck Brook.

{

Quabbin Reservoir

Leaping Well Brook

(auxiliary-supply reservoir).

!

Lithia Springs Reservoir (Elmer

Brook).

2 wells near Elmer Brook.

/ Cobble Mountain-Border Brook 

) Reservoirs (Westfield Little 

1 River).

* Ludlow Reservoir (Higher, Broad, 

and Jabish Brooks).

Granville and Montgomery

Reservoirs (Moose Meadow

and Munn Brooks).

{

Bearhole Brook Reservoir

(Paucatuck Brook).

3 wells near Great Brook,

Southwick.

Quabbin Reservoir.

Water 

treatment 

(see above)

D

D

D

D

F

X

ASF

FD

ND

AFD

D

D

Average 

water use 

(mgd)

7.5

8.4

.84

.38

>37.6

'

2.9

2.8 9 ft

.34

41
SOUTH HADLEY FIRE 

D/STRICT 2

.SOUTH HADLEY FIRE 

DISTRICT I

RESERVOIR

CHICOPEE SYSTEM 

WEST SPRINGFIELD SYSTEM 

HOLYOKE SYSTEM 

V/ESTFIELD SYSTEM

SPRINGFIELD SYSTEM 

WILBRAHAM SYSTEM

Figure 9 Public water suppliessources and areas served
and municipal wastes and are of good or excellent 

quality.

The Cobble Mountain-Borden Brook Reservoirs 

to the west of Springfield are the largest source of 

water developed entirely for the Springfield-Holyoke 

area. Together they have a combined storage capacity of 25,400 million gallons. Supplied at the rate 

of 60 million gallons a day which is the average rate 

of use of public supplies in the area at present this 

amount would last about 14 months. The Cobble 

Mountain-Borden Brook Reservoirs supply Springfield, Longmeadow, Agawam, East Longmeadow, 

Southwick, Westover Air Force base, and parts of 

Westfield.

Ludlow Reservoir, six miles northeast of Springfield, provides water for Ludlow and for the Monsanto 

Chemical Company in Springfield. Holyoke is supplied chiefly by the Tighe-Carmody and White Reservoirs on the Manhan River. West Springfield is 

supplied by local water sources; about one half the 

supply being from wells in the northeastern part of 

Southwick. Quabbin Reservoir, located on the Swift 

River 15 miles northeast of Springfield, is the source 

of water for Chicopee, Wilbraham, and South Hadley 

Fire District 1. (The Quabbin site was developed for 

the primary purpose of supplying water to Boston 

and vicinity. About 136 millon gallons a day are diverted from the Swift and Ware Rivers for the 

Boston metropolitan area.)

The wells which provide part of the public water 

supply to South Hadley, Westfield, and West Springfield, are listed in table 4. Some of them have been 

developed fairly recently as a supplemental supply. 

All the wells draw water from deposits of sand and 

gravel lying close to the surface. If population and 

industry increase, more wells may be needed. Ground 

water sources in the area are largely unmapped as yet, 

and detailed geologic studies and exploratory drilling 

will be required to discover the potential ground water 

resources.

43
When a plant is to be built, the industry can choose between 

using public water supplies or developing its own water system from 

the nearest stream or well. Public water supplies are often the most 

convenient, because they already have pumping plants and treatment works. But it may be more economical for an industry to 

develop its own water supply. However, the mere cost of obtaining 

the water in the first place does not represent the total expense of 

water to industry. Industries must also consider the expense of 

treating the water to make it suitable for use (if such treatment is 

necessary), and the expense of treating it after use, to make it 

suitable for others to use.

According to the report of the Senate Select Committee on 

National Water Resources, major water-using industries try to hold 

the cost of water within a range of 5-10 cents per 1,000 gallons. 

Smaller volume users will usually buy from public utilities at a cost 

of 12-20 cents per 1,000 gallons. Costs in Springfield are about 

average. Home owners and small commercial users pay from 21 to 

32 cents per 1,000 gallons. Industries using over 5,000 gallons a 

day pay 12 cents per 1,000 gallons. Suburban towns using water 

from the Springfield system are supplied at a rate of 12^ cents per 

1,000 gallons. Costs of water in Holyoke are about the same.

Table 4. Public-supply wells depths and yields.

Town

well 

number

Year 

constructed

Diameter

Depth

of 

well

(feet)

Yield

(gpm)

SOUTH HADLEY WELL SUPPLY 

(Fire District 2)

1

2

1911 

1919

25 feet 

30 feet

12} 

15) about 

100 

(combined)

WESTFIELD WELL SUPPLY

1

2

1957 

1958

24 inches 

24 inches

118 

118

1,400 

1,400

WEST SPRINGFIELD WELL SUPPLY

1

2

3

1954

1954

1954

18 inches

18 inches

24 to 18 inches

130

127

112

1,500

850

850
Look at figure 10 which shows how the annual quantity of 

water supplied by each of the public systems has increased from 

1941 to 1960. The increase during the 20-year period amounted to 

76 percent a rather steep rise which should give us pause for 

thought. More than half of this water is supplied to commerce and 

industry. Some small companies use water from public supplies for 

processing. Many industries use water from public supplies for 

drinking purposes and their own water supply for processing. In 

addition, steam-electric power plants on the Connecticut River 

use, from privately developed systems, nearly 150 million gallons

 "1

r-

 

~

~. .

-

"

r i

-i

-

] | | i ; ' ! T i i ' * T i i - - 

__ i T' \ [ i

j_ _^ 1 1 

u_ 1 __ 1 EACH BLOCK REPRESENTS AN AVERAGE 1 I 1 '

__ 1941-60 (Source of Data: Massachusetts OeI J !_ _ | i i 1

i 1

' I 1 

, __ , * f '

1

, __ 1

Sorinefield

^

^ ..^_

r Til

r 7

oo

O/

OU i

35 4 o J y

34 

33

32

O 311

OU , 29 4 

in 1 28 T

27

/u

25

24 

23

22

21 

20 

19

lo ' -t t-

_p^_.

i -T r r-

/

8 

7

6 

5 

4

]
a day to cool condensers. Other self-supplied industries (including paper mills, metal processing and 

fabricating plants, textile mills, and chemicals) use 100 

to 200 million gallons a day. Some industries use 

nearby wells, either for auxiliary supplies, or because 

they need water of constant chemical quality and temperature. The industrial use of water from wells is 

about 7 million gallons a day. Average use of water 

for irrigation and other rural supplies probably is 

about 1 or 2 million gallons a day.

The flow of the Connecticut River is highly regulated by reservoirs and hydroelectric power plants. 

Altogether, in 1956, there were approximately 95 

billion cubic feet of reservoir storage in the Connecticut River and its tributaries, above Thompsonville, 

Conn. Of this amount, about 30.3 billion cubic feet 

(32 percent) was storage for hydroelectric power; 8.3 

billion cubic feet (9 percent), storage for flood control, 

and 55.9 billion cubic feet (59 percent), storage for 

water supply. Although water-supply storage is much 

greater than power storage, most of it is in Quabbin 

Reservoir and is held from one year to the next. 

Water in the power reservoirs, on the other hand, can 

be released to increase the flow of the river during lowflow periods. The flood-control reservoirs are empty 

most of the time.

There is less development of electricity from 

waterpower in the Connecticut River basin than you 

might expect, considering the amount of water available. Steam-electric power meets nearly all of the base 

load. For technical reasons there are not many sites remaining suitable for hydropower development in the 

Connecticut River basin. The New York-New England 

Interagency Committee, appointed by President Truman to study the water resources of New York and 

New England, found only 8 feasible sites for water 

power out of 350 considered. Few flood-control reservoir sites have sufficient storage capacity to provide 

hydropower development as well as flood control. Of 

the 11 dams built to date for flood control, only one of 

them (Tully) is suitable for future hydropower development.

46
It is difficult to show on a table or figure how 

much the water resources in the area are used for 

recreation. We do know that the use is increasing, and 

will continue to increase if standards of living continue 

to rise and leisure-time activity grows, as we expect. 

People everywhere in the United States are becoming 

more and more interested in boating, water-skiing and 

skin-diving. At the recent National Watershed Congress, water sports were said to be growing faster than 

any other kind of recreation in the United States .

Fortunately, the people of the Springfield-Holyoke area are well supplied with park and water resources for recreation. The main recreational facilities 

convenient to the Springfield-Holyoke area itself are 

Forest Park in the city of Springfield, Skinner State 

Park at South Hadley, J. C. Robinson State Park at 

Westfield, Mount Tom Reservation at Holyoke, and 

Quabbin Reservoir. J. C. Robinson State Park and 

Mount Tom Reservation have swimming and fishing 

facilities. Skinner State Park and Forest Park do not. 

There are three public outdoor swimming pools in 

Springfield, but the city's master plan recommends 

at least five more. There are no extensive municipal 

facilities for swimming or outdoor recreation in the 

city of Holyoke, but the Holyoke Master Plan recommends conversion of the Whiting Street Reservoir to a 

recreation facility, to include swimming. A potential 

recreation area in Springfield which has been overlooked to date is Watershops Pond (otherwise known 

as Massisoit Lake).

Public swimming on the Connecticut and Westfield Rivers is not encouraged, and there are no public 

beaches. Swimming in these rivers (though possibly 

done unofficially) is dangerous because of the unsanitary condition of the water.

For the last few years, boating has greatly increased in Longmeadow, Ludlow, Southwick and other 

communities. There is a good deal of whitewater 

canoeing on the Westfield River above Westfield. 

New marinas are being opened to accommodate 

boating enthusiasts. However, the use of larger boats 

brings up another pollution problem the disposal of 

wastes from galleys and toilets.

47
Fishing is one of the major sports, and any future 

plans for water resources must take this into consideration. There is plenty of public fishing acreage 

around Springfield-Holyoke. The Commonwealth of 

Massachusetts has leased a considerable amount of 

land as public fishing grounds, and the opening of 

Quabbin Reservoir for fishing was an important addition to the recreational resources of the area.

In the past, water projects just grew up in answer 

to immediate needs, without any particular overall 

plan. In the process, other resources have been lost. 

For instance, the installation of dams for water power 

at Holyoke and Turners Falls made it impossible for 

the salmon to get up the river to their spawning 

grounds. This situation, combined with an ever increasing pollution of the waters, exterminated the 

salmon in the area. Experimental fishways tried out 

at Holyoke in 1873 and 1940 were failures. Another 

fish-passage device is now being successfully used at 

Holyoke. This does not mean, however, that the 

salmon can be restored to the Connecticut River. 

Pollution of the water will still present a very serious 

obstacle. Another problem is the water which is returned to the river after being used for cooling. 

Warmer water temperatures upset the natural cycle 

of fish life.

The shad were also held below Holyoke by the 

dam, but they seem to have survived the pollution of 

the river better than the salmon, at least to date. If 

pollution and warm water temperatures should go unchecked, or should increase, the shad too may disappear before plans can be made to save them.

Opening the main stem of the Connecticut River 

to the fish and abating pollution are only two of the 

problems connected with fisheries. There are dams 

on all the tributaries and these would have to be made 

passable for the salmon also. The shad are less dependent on upstream spawning grounds. The effect 

of water pollution on the fish which actually live on 

the tributaries, such as trout, is also detrimental. On 

the other hand, regulation of the flow of rivers during 

the low-flow periods of summer could be a help to trout 

and other resident fish. However, at times, the flow

48
isn't increased early enough in the season to keep the 

fish alive. This delay is the result of other recreational 

demands boating, swimming and so forth requiring 

high reservoir and lake levels.

Another problem arises with storage of water for 

power. In power-storage reservoirs, the water is released according to daily power requirements. On 

weekends and at nights the flows may be reduced to a 

point so low that many of the fish die.

Recreational use of water is nonconsumptive; that 

is, it does not actually reduce the amount of water 

available. However, it may be contaminating. This is 

why some people are opposed to use of water-supply 

reservoirs for recreation, even if the water is treated 

before it enters the municipal supply system. They 

feel that where there is plenty of water naturally 

available, as in the Springfield-Holyoke area, watersupply reservoirs should not be used for boating, 

fishing and swimming. If it is argued that the river 

water is too polluted for safe swimming and for certain 

kinds of fish, they answer that the river should be 

cleaned up. There is no doubt that control of water 

pollution in the Connecticut River and its tributaries 

would increase recreational opportunities in the 

Springfield-Holyoke area.

The recreational benefit of water resources can 

hardly be assessed economically. Some people try to

49
do so by computing the value of all the park passes 

and permits issued, and of the fishing licenses and operating equipment. This kind of economic assessment 

is useful in planning, but the real benefits of recreation by a lake or stream involve things impossible to 

measure health and skill and appreciation of natural 

beauty. We cannot measure or decide precisely how 

much these things are worth to us but we must have 

them in our lives.

Total water use in the Springfield-Holyoke area 

amounts to between 300 and 400 million gallons a day. 

Table 5 shows how this use is broken down. The 

amount used by an individual person in his home for 

drinking, washing, and other household purposes 

averages about 50 or 60 gallons a day. Yet the public 

water systems of Springfield-Holyoke use about 150 

gallons per person per day. The difference is accounted 

for by industrial use of the public water systems, or by 

municipal uses such as fire-fighting, swimming pools, 

etc. The national average per person per day for 

public water supplies is also about 150 gallons. However, the amount used per person per day in the 

Springfield-Holyoke area for all purposes from all 

types of systems is less than 1,000 gallons. The national average is 1,500 gallons per person per day, but 

this includes use for irrigation. We should bear in 

mind, moreover, that industrial use is fairly uniform 

all year (except for air conditioning and power), 

whereas municipal use is not. During the hot dry 

months of summer, the rate of use of public water 

supplies is sometimes more than twice the average rate.

We have said that the present supply of water 

far exceeds the demand, and this is certainly true in 

an absolute sense. Yet in the drought year of 1957, 

63 municipalities in Massachusetts had to curtail 

water use, some only because of distribution problems, 

some because of actual water shortage. Springfield 

and Agawam both experienced curtailment of water 

use, due to low pressure. Since water supply is a 

changeable asset, its use and distribution have to be 

planned ahead. It might be well to take a look forward to 2,000 A.D., and see whether any major 

changes may be forthcoming that would affect water 

supply and use in the Springfield-Holyoke area.

50
Table 5. Water use in 1957 sources and types of use.

Type of supply 

and name of 

system

Public systems:

Chicopee. _ ____________________

Holyoke____ ___________________

South Hadley

(2 systems combined).

e f u ( Little River only..... Springfield < . ,. . ( Ludlow supply.. ____

Westfield-._____________

West Springfield-.______________

Wilbraham.. __________________

Self-supplied industrial supplies

(entire area).

Irrigation and other rural supplies

(entire area).

Ground 

water 

(mgd)

0

0

.1

0

0

0

1.3

0

7

1

Surface 

water 

(mgd)

7.5

8.6

1.1

36

39

2.5

1.5

.3

320

1

Total 

(mgd)

7.5

8.6

1.2

36

30

2.5

2.8

.3

327

2

Maximum 

day 

(mgd)

11

12

2.4

62

66

3.7

5.1

.5

51

We know that the important water-management 

problems of the area are: control of water pollution; 

flood control; water-supply storage and distribution; 

and development of recreational facilities and fisheries. 

It is difficult to say much more about development of 

recreational facilities than we already have. This use 

of water is beneficial, but it does not represent the 

same urgent consideration as water pollution, flood 

control and water supply. How will these problems be 

affected by the future? Nobody, of course, knows 

what the future will bring to Springfield and the 

surrounding area, but we can make some guesses, 

based on facts supplied by the Census Bureau, and by 

publications of the city itself.

The population of the United States increased 98 

percent from 1900 to 1950. During the same period, 

the population of New England increased 66 percent, 

mostly in the southern half of the Connecticut River 

basin. It is reasonable to assume that population in 

the area will continue to increase slowly.

The population of the Springfield-Holyoke Metropolitan area (as defined by the Bureau of the Census) 

has grown from 318,119 in 1940 to 407,255 m 1950, to 

479,000 in 1960. This is a slow, steady increase, estimated at about one percent annually. If it continues 

at the same rate, the population in 2000 may be on the 

order of 915,000. Like most other major cities, however, Springfield has experienced a flight to the suburbs. The rate of increase in Springfield itself and 

Chicopee has slowed down while the rate of population 

increase in the suburbs of Agawam, East Longmeadow, 

Wilbraham and Southwick has risen. From the point 

of view of flood control it is important to notice that 

the movement to the suburbs has also been a movement away from the Connecticut River, except for 

Agawam, which has had the least population expansion of the four suburbs. We can say that as far as 

residential housing is concerned, there has been a kind 

of spontaneous flood zoning, at least as far as the Connecticut River is concerned. The newer developments Southwick, Sixteen Acres and Indian Orchard are inland from the Connecticut. Wards One

53
and Three of Springfield itself, along the river, have 

leveled off and are losing population. This doesn't 

imply that there is no one left living or working on the 

flood plain, however. There is residential housing and 

business development along the Connecticut in Springfield, Longmeadow, Agawam, Holyoke, South Hadley

and the other towns in the metropolitan area. You can 

check the location of these municipalities by referring 

back to figure 1.

There are several factors favoring growth in the 

Springfield-Holyoke area. A local organization, Future 

Springfield, Inc., in its "Resources Inventory," says 

frankly that until recently the city's organization was 

old-fashioned. All kinds of problems developed in the 

growing suburbs, while the main city was in need of 

face-lifting. Now, however, the city has turned over 

a new leaf, and as a result of its efforts to modernize 

and streamline its facilities, it is attracting new industries. The Wall Street Journal has built a new 

headquarters plant north of Springfield. New plants 

for a motorcycle company and an electronics company 

are planned. Expansion is on the books for a paper 

company and a machinery-making company. A 350- 

acre industrial park in the center of Springfield has 

attracted new business. Several corporations are investing in plants at the Springfield interchange in 

Chicopee. Ludlow and Chicopee have also completed 

industrial parks. A survey made in 1956 showed that 

there was still plenty of industrial acreage available,

54
not subject to floods, near transportation, sanitary 

sewerage, and water supply. Two new highways are to 

be built. One, U.S. 91, will run north-south from New 

York to Montreal and will pass through Springfield. 

The other, U.S. 291, is an expressway to link the Massachusetts Turnpike with Springfield's central business district. These highways will mean improved 

truck freight service, and will stimulate business and 

tourist traffic generally.

All these factors indicate growth and should in 

their turn produce future growth. A study of the 

city's master plan (1957 edition) shows that most of 

these industrial parks will be inland from the Connecticut River. However, the plan assumes that there 

will be further industrial or business development in 

the North End along the river between Plainfield 

Street and Riverside Road. The "Resources Inventory" suggests that West Springfield can expect rapid 

development after U.S. 91 is built, and prophesies that 

its potential for commercial and industrial development is bright. However, its location between the 

angle of the Westfield and the Connecticut Rivers 

ought to arouse some concern about flood zoning of 

new developments in low-lying sections along and between the rivers. It is interesting that although zoning is discussed in the master plan, nowhere is there

55
any mention of flood zoning. One of the publications 

of the Chamber of Commerce specifically states that 

flood damage is "minimal." This may turn out to be 

too optimistic an outlook, as other communities have 

found out in time.

We will assume, then, that by year 2000, industry will have expanded, some of it on the flood plains, 

and the population will have greatly increased. Water 

use will increase proportionately (figure 11). Domestic 

use of water will increase, not only because of a greater 

population but because of more use of automatic appliances, such as disposalls and dishwashers. Perhaps 

a greater amount of water will be required for lawn 

watering and home swimming pools. But industry will 

still be the big water user. Two of the major types of 

industries in the area are among the six types which 

use the most water nationally. These are chemicals 

and paper. The coming of new industries to the area 

may increase demands on water resources.

Growth of the Boston metropolitan area could increase the demand on the Swift and Ware Rivers 

through the Quabbin Reservoir. The Report of the 

Senate Select Committee on National Water Resources (popularly known as the Kerr Report), estimates an increase of nearly 1 1/2 million people in the 

Boston area by the year 2000. Similarly, water use 

(from public supplies) in the Boston area may rise 

from the present 268 million gallons a day to 534 

million gallons a day. However, some thought has 

already been given to increased demand in the Boston 

area. The suggestion has been made that water be diverted from the Millers River (a tributary of the Connecticut), for the use of Boston. This would require 

approval of the United States Supreme Court.

In one sense, all these figures sound more frightening than they really are. The Connecticut River 

basin is not likely to run out of water as far as sheer 

quantity is concerned, at least not in the foreseeable 

future. Cobble Mountain, Borden Brook, Ludlow, 

Tighe-Carmody, and Quabbin Reservoirs afford quite 

a margin for public water supplies. When we suggest 

that additional sources of water may need to be de56
45-

40

35 - <" 

30-

25

20-

15

1O

-* &-*

& 

^A

i I *> ' Use of water from Cobble Mountain and ,i, 

1 Borden .Brook Reservoirs by 

Springfield Municipal System 

serving all or parts of f 

5 cities and towns, 

1910-60 |

{SOURCE OF DATA: SPRINGFIELD MUNICIPAL WATER WORKS]

S 5 S 

» o> o>

Figure 11 . Trends In Growth of Population and Water Use

600,OOO

SOO.OOO

4OO,OOO

3OO,OOO

2OO,OOO

100,000

SPRINGFtELD-HOLYOKE AREA

OF THIS REPORT

(13 CITIES AND TOWNS)1

Growth of Population, 

1880-1960, |

and Protections .v..-fo -. 

to 1980 T V

{SOURCE OF DATA TO I960: U.S. BUREAU OF THE CENSUS 

PROJECTIONS SHOWN ARE EQUAL TO GROWTH 

BETWEEN 1940 AND 1960 AND TO 

ONE HALF THAT GROWTH]

. SPRtUGFIEllMOLYOXE 

-STANDARD METROlkXITAN 

i STATISTICAL AREA
veloped, it is because future demands and competitive 

use may cause shortages at certain places at certain 

seasons. When the same water is used for municipal 

systems, industry, and recreation all at the same time, 

it will inevitably be in short supply occasionally, particularly if it is returned for re-use in a polluted 

condition.

The problem of pollution abatement can only get 

worse if population and industry increase in the area as 

expected. Pollution control is expensive, especially for

industry. It is sometimes difficult to persuade industries to set up treatment plants, but informed public 

opinion backed up by Federal and State pollution control laws could accomplish a great deal. Here are some 

of the benefits which would result from pollution 

abatement: less danger to health from water polluted 

by sewage; improvement of industrial or residential 

real estate values; improvement of water for fishing 

and other recreational uses. The point to keep in mind 

is that it may be more economical to provide new 

water by controlling pollution than by any other 

means. Why build expensive pipelines to carry water 

from far-away sources, when water is at hand?

There are ways in which industry can conserve 

water. One way is to use it over and over. If the water 

is used only for cooling, air cooling systems may sometimes be substituted. Another means of saving water 

in industry in some areas is to use a greater proportion 

of polluted water, unfit for domestic supplies. About 

67 percent of major water-using industries in the

58
United States practiced re-use in 1954. This practice 

reduced total requirements by 44 percent. Generally, 

only big companies can afford either of these methods 

of conservation, because of the high cost of installing 

equipment. In fact, the cost of obtaining and treating 

water and treating wastes before disposal may cause 

more and more small industries to connect with public 

supplies and with public sewage disposal systems. This 

will increase the load on the municipal systems.

Where is the extra water for the future to come 

from, if it should be needed? Lakes and ponds in the 

area, generally untapped as yet, will be one source. 

Some of them are probably polluted, but can be made 

potable if people are willing to bear the expense. New 

sources of ground water can probably be developed as 

a result of ground-water studies. New reservoirs could 

provide extra storage for dry seasons. For instance, 

the Littleville flood-control dam approved by Congress 

for the Middle Branch of the Westfield River at 

Chester would provide 17.5 million gallons a day, increasing the Springfield water system's capacity by 

about one third. By law, Springfield's neighbor communities of Westfield, Chester, Huntington, and Russell must be permitted to meet their own additional 

water needs from the Littleville system. Nevertheless, the chief engineer of the Springfield Water Department has said that Springfield city alone will 

need the additional 17.5 million gallons from Littleville by 1980. New sources of water may yet have to 

be developed by year 2000.

However, a good deal can be accomplished with 

the water already available. As we've said, one way 

of saving water is by re-circulating it. Another way 

is by further controlling pollution. Yet another way 

is by building reservoirs which serve more than one 

purpose, where it is feasible and economical of money 

and water. Reservoirs can be planned so that they 

are useful for power and water-supply storage, or such 

storage and flood control, or storage and recreation. 

The Littleville project itself was originally planned as 

a dry-bed reservoir, but in 1958, Congress authorized 

multipurpose projects in the U.S. Corps of Engineers

59
flood-control program. The Littleville Reservoir will 

be the first Federal flood-control dam project in New 

England with municipal water supply as its secondary 

purpose.

Water resources planning for Springfield-Holyoke 

could stress completion of the authorized flood-control 

plan. Greater floods than that of 1936 might occur. 

Flood potentialities in the area are still dangerous 

enough to warrant further protection measures. If 

local protection works are overtopped, an even greater 

amount of damage than in 1936 might result, since 

there has been continuous development on the flood 

plain behind the levees and flood walls. The inhabitants or owners of businesses in these areas have a 

sense of security that just might prove illusory. In 

addition, there are areas in which it was not thought 

economically justifiable to build local protection 

works. In Agawam, for instance, there are two areas 

subject to flooding. One is south of the Westfield 

River, the other on the west bank of the Connecticut 

River. Both are presently unprotected. In the event 

of a flood, the system of upstream reservoirs, if fully 

developed, would help to reduce the amount of 

damage to Agawam.

The authorized program is now about 40 percent 

completed. The Corps of Engineers estimates that 

with the plan only partly finished, the annual savings 

are about five million dollars. Knightville Reservoir 

and the West Springfield levee system have both been 

in operation twenty years. The Corps estimates that 

these two projects have saved $2.50 and $11.90 respectively for each dollar of cost.

If the authorized plan is completed, 23 of the 

existing and proposed reservoirs will be most important to the people in the Springfield-Holyoke area. 

These measures would produce a 36 percent reduction in flood stage and a satisfying 92 percent reduction in damage. Without the reservoirs of the 

authorized project, all of the completed dikes and 

walls would be overtopped in the event of what the 

hydrologists call a "Standard Project Flood." This is

60
an imaginary but wholly possible flood greater than 

that of 1936. The design of the levees and flood walls 

was based on the assumption that they would be 

backed up by a system of flood-control reservoirs.

Because land for reservoir sites is so difficult to 

obtain, plans for acquisition should be made considerably ahead of the time of proposed construction. 

If the reservoirs are to be used for recreational sites 

as well as flood control, additional land will be needed 

for camping, hiking, and picnicking along the shores 

of the reservoirs. If the need is recognized, local zoning plans could help by preserving future reservoir 

sites.

The people of the Springfield-Holyoke area are 

lucky. Unlike people in the West and Southwest, 

they have lots of water to begin with. Their problem 

is not how to get it, but how to manage what they have 

to the best advantage, now and for the future. Such 

planning invariably involves conflicting choices 

whether farmland should be flooded to prevent flooding of industries and homes downstream; whether a 

reservoir should be used for flood control, power-development storage, recreation, water supply, or some 

combination of these; whether a river should be used 

for sewage disposal or for fishing and swimming. As if 

such choices weren't difficult enough, the interested 

citizen in Springfield and Holyoke is not only responsible for wise decisions about the water flowing past his 

own door, but also for a share in decisions affecting 

people in upstate Massachusetts and people in Connecticut. In turn, people in three other States are concerned with plans which might affect people living in 

Springfield-Holyoke. Massachusetts has pollution 

compacts with other States to reduce pollution in 

rivers affecting two or more States. The Interstate 

Flood Control Compact includes Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Vermont. Thus, all the 

people in the Connecticut River basin have a voice in 

whatever plans are made.

But let us suppose that time has passed and that 

somehow we have achieved our aims. Industries and 

communities have co-operated to reduce the pollution

61
load of the Connecticut River and its tributaries in the 

Springfield-Holyoke area. All the reservoirs in the 

comprehensive flood-control plan have been built. 

Large tracts of land around lakes and reservoirs have 

been set aside as recreational areas and public access 

to them has been assured. New sources of surface and 

ground water have been located to provide for the 

ever-growing demand for water.

Will these achievements mean the end of water 

management problems? To quote Dr. Luna Leopold, 

Chief Hydraulic Engineer of the Water Resources Division of the Geological Survey, "I submit that what 

we call the water problem breaks down to a complicated and unending series of decisions, each of which 

has long-term and often widespread effects * * * How 

will reservoirs, levees or well fields affect the manner 

in which water will flow under the different hydrologic conditions of the future that will result from a 

wide variety of possible combinations of local rainfall, 

vegetation, infiltration, withdrawal, recharge, soil 

moisture and the rest? The particular situations for 

which actual forecasts were made constitute only a 

small part of the possible conditions which could 

indeed exist in the future."

In other words, there is no end to the decisionmaking. We will have to go on making choices as long 

as there is water. For this kind of planning, knowledge 

is needed knowledge of the assets, liabilities, and potentialities of the water resources of the area. Information about streamflows, sources of ground water, 

methods of disposal of industrial wastes, and many 

other water facts is constantly being collected by the 

Geological Survey and other Federal and State government agencies.

This pamphlet is an introduction to some of these 

water facts, as they apply to an industrial area located 

on a great river. We hope it will help you think about 

and evaluate decisions on water policy and planning 

now and in the future.

62
FOR MORE INFORMATION ABOUT...

WATER AND OTHER RESOURCES IN THE SPRINGFIELD-HOLYOKE 

AREA:

Water resources of the Springfield-Holyoke area, Mass., by 

J. C. Kammerer, G. K. Wood, J. M. Weigle, and Daniel 

Tanski: U.S. Geological Survey open-file report, 125 pages, 

Washington, D.C., 1961.

Resources inventory, Springfield economic area, 3d edition, 

by Future Springfield, Inc., 68 pages, Springfield, Mass., 

1960.

A master plan for Springfield, Mass., 1955, by Springfield City 

Planning Board, 52 pages, Springfield, Mass., 1957.

BASIC WATER FACTS, PRINCIPLES, AND PROBLEMS:

A primer on water, by L. B. Leopold and W. B. Langbein: U.S. 

Geological Survey special report, 50 pages.

Water facts for the Nation's future, uses and benefits of 

hydrologic data programs, by W. B. Langbein and W. G. 

Hoyt, 288 pages, Ronald Press Co., New York, N.Y., 1959.

National water resources and problems, by R. E. Oltman and 

others: U.S. Senate (86th Congress, 2d Session) Select Committee on National Water Resources, Committee Print 3,42 

pages.

63
WATER AND OTHER RESOURCES IN THE CONNECTICUT RIVER

BASIN:

(for special reports on floods, see next section) 

Average annual runoff and precipitation in the New EnglandNew York area, by C. E. Knox and T. J. Nordenson: U.S. 

Geological Survey Hydrologic Investigations Atlas HA-7, 

U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, D.C., 1951.

Compilation of records of surface water of the United States, 

through September 1950, part 1-A, North Atlantic Slope 

basins, Maine to Connecticut: U.S. Geological Survey 

Water-Supply Paper 1301, 380 pages.

The Connecticut River; your valley, your future, by P. B. Sears 

and others, 58 pages, Connecticut River Watershed Council, 

Greenfield, Mass., 1953.

Ten rivers in America's future (volume 2 of 3-volume report), 

by the President's Water Resources Policy Commission, 

801 pages. (Chapter 6, pages 467-519, describes the Connecticut River basin.)

Special report of the (Mass.) Water Resources Commission 

relative to methods of providing an adequate water supply 

to the cities and towns of the Commonwealth during a 

period of drought or other emergency: Massachusetts 

House Document 2791, Dec. 30, 1958, 40 pages, Boston, 

Mass., 1959.

Land and water resources of the New England-New York 

region, by the New England-New York Interagency Corn64
mittee: U.S. Senate Document 14, 85th Congress, 1st Session, 429 pages.

Water resources development in Massachusetts, by the U.S. 

Army Corps of Engineers, 120 pages, U.S. Army Engineer 

Division, Waltham, Mass., 1961.

Thirteenth annual report, New England Interstate Water Pollution Control Commission, 36 pages, Boston, Mass., 1960.

Hearings before the Select Committee on National Water 

Resources, U.S. Senate, 86th Congress, 1st Session, part 19, 

Boston, Mass., Dec. 8, 1959, pages 2915-3048.

The flow of time in the Connecticut Valley, geological imprints, by G. W. Bain and H. A. Meyerhoff, 129 pages, 

Hampshire Bookshop, Northampton, Mass., 1942.

The geological history of the Connecticut Valley of Massachusetts, a popular account of its rocks and origin, by W. J. 

Miller, 74 pages, Hampshire Bookshop, Northampton, 

Mass., 1921.

Geology of Massachusetts and Rhode Island, by B. K. Emerson: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 597, 289 pages.

FLOODS IN THE CONNECTICUT RIVER BASIN:

Floods, by W. G. Hoyt and W. B. Langbein, 469 pages, Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J., 1955.

Flood-control politics, the Connecticut River Valley problem, 

1927-50, by W. E. Leuchtenberg, 339 pages, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1953.

65
Floods of August-October 1955, New England to North 

Carolina, by D. B. Bogart: U.S. Geological Survey WaterSupply Paper 1420, 854 pages.

Hurricane floods of September 1938, by C. G. Paulsen and 

others: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 867, 

562 pages.

New Year flood of 1949 in New York and New England: U.S. 

Geological Survey Circular 155, 109 pages.

Hurricane rains and floods of August 1955, Carolinas to New 

England, by P. H. Kutschenreuter and others: U.S. Weather 

Bureau Technical Paper 26, 148 pages.

The floods of March 1936, part 1, New England rivers, by 

N. C. Grover and others: U.S. Geological Survey WaterSupply Paper 798, 466 pages.

The New England flood of November 1927, by H. B. Kinnison: 

U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 636-C, pages 

45-100.

66
MAJOR MANUFACTURERS IN THE 

SPRINGFIELD-HOLYOKE AREA a

a Employing 500 or more people

AGAWAM

Buxton, Inc. ........................ Personal leather goods

CHICOPEE

Chicopee Manufacturing Corp. .......... Cheesecloth, gauze, and other textiles

Chicopee Undergarment Corp. .......... Slips and nightgowns

Hampden-Harvard Breweries, Inc. ...... Ale and beer

F. W. Sickles, Div. General Instrument ... Radio and electronic parts 

Corp.

A. G. Spalding & Bros., Inc. ........... Athletic goods

United States Rubber Co. ............. Tires

EAST LONGMEADOW

Package Machinery Co. ............... Packaging and molding machines

HOLYOKE

American Writing Paper Corp. ......... Business and printing paper

Chemical Paper Manufacturing Corp. .... Paperboard and writing paper

C. F. Church, Div. of American-Stand- ... Molded plastic products

ard 

Holyoke Wire & Cable Corp. ........... Insulated copper wire and cable

National Blank Book Co. ............. Loose leaf equipment

Remington Rand .................... Record-keeping forms

William Skinner & Sons .............. Silk and nylon piece goods

Whiting Paper Co. ................... Technical and writing paper

Worthington Corp. ................... Compressors and drills

LUDLOW

Ludlow Manufacturing & Sales Co. ...... Jute and flax products

67
SPRINGFIELD

American Bosch Div., American Bosch ... Automotive parts

Arms Corp. 

John H. Breck, Inc. ................... Hair preparations

William Carter Co. ................... Underwear

Chain Belt Co., Roller Chain Div. ....... Transmission and conveying products

Chapman Valve Manufacturing Co. ...... Pressure valves

Diamond Match Co. .................. Book matches

General Baking Co. ................... Baked food products

Kellogg Container, Div. of United .... Transparent envelopes and bags

States Envelope Co. 

Milton Bradley Co. ................... Games and toys

Monsanto Chemical Co. ............... Plastic products

Moore Drop Forging Co. (plant in.... Forgings and machined parts

Chicopee) 

Republican Publishing Co. and Spring- .... Newspaper publishers

field Union Publishing Co. 

Shawinigan Resins Corp. .............. Plastic materials and resins

Smith & Wesson, Inc. ................. Revolvers

Springfield Armory, U.S. Army Ord- .... Rifles, guns, and cannon

nance Dept. 

Titeflex, Inc. ........................ Flexible hose and aircraft products

Van Norman Machine Co. ............. Machine tools

Westinghouse Electric Corp. ............ Electrical appliances

WEST SPRINGFIELD

Gilbert & Barker Manufacturing Co...... Fuel-Handling equipment

Perkins Machine & Gear Co. ........... Gears and spring-coiling machines

Strathmore Paper Co. ................. Printing, business, and artist papers

Wico Electric Co., Div. of Globe-Union, .... Magnetos

Inc.

WESTFIELD 

Foster Machine Co. .................. Textile winding machines

Savage Arms Corp. ................... Firearms and lawnmowers

Stanley Home Products, Inc. .......... Household products

Westfield Manufacturing Co. .......... Bicycles

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U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : I96Z O 640004