Solutes in Small Streams 

Draining Single Rock 

Types, Sangre de Cristo 

Range, New Mexico

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 1535-F

U. S. Gr

Water i

Solutes in Small Streams 

Draining Single Rock 

Types, Sangre de Cristo 

Range, New Mexico

By JOHN P. MILLER

GEOCHEMISTRY OF WATER

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 1535-F

Property of

U- S- GEGL07.-AL S'JRVEY 

Water Recojic

^Surface Water Branch

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1961
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

STEWART L. UDALL, Secretary

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Thomas B. Nolan, Director

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office 

Washington 25, D.C.
CONTENTS

Abstract __ ____________________

Introduction. ___________________

Acknowledgments ___-_______-__.

Physical setting.________________

Stream characteristics_____.

Summary of geology_________

Granite ________________

Quartzite_ -____._______.

Sandstone ______________

Sampling procedure._-___________

Analytical methods______________

Results of analyses._____________

Solutes in snow____________

Specific ions in stream waters. 

Relative mobility of the elements.. 

Rate of chemical denudation......

Conclusions. ____________________

References cited_________________

ILLUSTRATIONS

Page

F-l

1

3

3

3

4

4

5

6

7

8

9

14

16

16

19

23

23

Page 

FIGURE 1. Map showing physiographic features of study area...________ F-2

2. Geologic map and structure section of study area____________ 5

3. Relation of dissolved solids to drainage area, showing approximate uniformity of waters derived from each rock type.___ 18

4. Calculated rates of chemical denudation in study area, showing

differences between rock types and variation with altitude. _ 22

TABLES

Page 

TABLE 1. Mode and chemical composition, in percent, of Embudo granite. F-6

2. Estimated modes of quartzite (Ortega formation) in areas draining to various sampling stations__________-__-_-__-----__- 7

3. Values of all field pH measurements at various sampling stations. 9

4. Chemical constituents of water samples.____________________ 10

5. Average percentage composition of dissolved constituents in

snow and stream waters draining various rock types-_______ 15

6. Results of iron analyses by two methods.__________________ 17

7. Composition of dissolved constituents in waters compared with 

composition in source rocks, and calculated relative mobilities 

of various constituents_________________________________ 20

8. Runoff data for gaging stations in the Sangre de Cristo Range. 20

m

' GEOCHEMISTRY OF WATER

SOLUTES IN SMALL STREAMS DRAINING SINGLE ROCK 

TYPES, SANGRE DE CRISTO RANGE, NEW MEXICO

By JOHN P. MILLER

ABSTRACT

The solute content of stream waters draining a single rock type was found to 

be essentially uniform regardless of the size of area drained. This implies a 

steady-state relation for the various weathering mechanisms through a considerable range in conditions of slope, soil, vegetation, and hydrology.

Average solute concentrations of waters draining quartzite, granite, and sandstone are in the proportion 1:2.5:10. Most of the solute content of waters 

draining sandstone is derived from carbonate cement and thin limestones, which 

together constitute less than 1 percent of the rock. Relative mobilities of the 

various elements (ratio of percentage in water to percentage in rock) agree generally with previous estimates based on less satisfactory data.

Calculated values for rates of chemical denudation suggest considerably greater, 

importance of this factor in landscape sculpture than is commonly believed.

INTRODUCTION

Weathering of rocks results in three kinds of products: (a) residual 

minerals, (b) authigenic minerals, and (c) solutes. The first two 

categories of materials are relatively immobile, except in the presence 

of vigorous transporting agencies, and tend to accumulate at the site 

of weathering. Soluble products, on the other hand, move readily 

with percolating ground waters and ultimately into the streams.

Investigations of weathering processes have consisted largely of 

chemical and mineralogical comparisons between unweathered rock 

and the overlying weathered mantle. Studies of weathering processes 

based primarily on composition of the soluble products are very few 

in number, despite the existence of a voluminous literature on water 

chemistry. A principal reason is that practically all regular sampling 

stations are at sites where stream waters draining several different 

rock types are mingled. This limitation of the available data led 

to the generalized conclusions of Smyth (1913) and Polynov (1937) 

about relative mobility of the common elements during weathering. 

In both cases, average compositions of diverse rocks were compared 

with average compositions of stream waters. Sniyth/s estimate applies to the entire surface of the earth, whereas Polynov considered 

only the surface underlain by igneous rocks. Recently, Anderson and

F-i
F-2 GEOCHEMISTRY OF WATER

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FIGTJEE 1. Map showing location of study area in relation to regional physiographic features.

Hawkes (1958) have published estimates of relative mobility which 

apply to specific rock types in New England.

This paper describes the chemical character of stream waters derived from several small drainage basins, each of which is underlain
SOLUTES IN SMALL STEEAMS DRAINING SINGLE ROCK TYPES F~3

by one of three "uniform" rock types (granite, metaquartzite, and 

sandstone). Estimation of relative mobilities of the common elements and differences in chemical denudation rates between lithologic 

types were the primary objectives of this study.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Cheerful assistance in the somewhat arduous task of sample collection was rendered by Dean Gerber, Santa Fe, N. Mex. Arthur 

Montgomery, Lafayette College, Pennsylvania, and P. K. Sutherland, 

University of Oklahoma, contributed unpublished information on 

miaeralogical and chemical properties of rocks in the area studied 

and criticized the manuscript. The principal work of this study was 

done by the chemical analysts. To them, and also to other U.S. 

Geological Survey colleagues who aided in this project, special thanks 

are due. The suggestions of R. M. Garrels and R. Siever, Harvard 

University, at various stages of this investigation, are greatly 

appreciated.

PHYSICAL SETTING

The area studied in this report is located at the southern end of the 

Sangre de Cristo Range (fig. 1). The mountains rise 5,000 to 6,000 

feet above the Rio Grande depression to the west and the Great 

Plains to the east, and reach a maximum elevation of 13,100 feet. 

Climate varies markedly with altitude. Average annual precipitation 

ranges from about 12 inches at the lower elevations to 35 inches or 

more on the highest peaks. Differences in precipitation and temperature are clearly indicated by zonation of vegetation. In order 

of their occurrence from low altitude to high pinOn, yellow pine, 

aspen, spruce, and fir dominate the luxuriant forest which covers the 

mountains up to the timberline at 11,000 to 11,500 feet. Above 

timberline, there are clumps of dwarf trees and several kinds of sedges 

and grasses similar to varieties found in arctic regions.

STREAM CHARACTERISTICS

Streams in the southern Sangre de Cristo Range drain either to the 

Pecos River or to the Rio Grande. They flow in deep, narrow 

canyons, and the channels are covered with coarse gravels derived 

largely from adjacent valley walls. Runoff is characterized by a 

period of high discharges during the late-spring snowmelt season and 

by sporadic floods resulting from intense rainfall during summer and 

early fall. However, the streams never carry much suspended sediment. Even after heavy rains, they are merely cloudy rather than 

truly turbid.

Irrigation is widely practiced in this section of New Mexico, but all 

sampling stations discussed in this paper are more than a mile up-
F-4 GEOCHEMISTRY OF WATER

stream from diversions. Most of the area considered is wilderness 

which, except for grazing of cattle and sheep and the presence of a 

few prospect pits, is unaffected by the activities of man.

A detailed account of stream characteristics in this part of the 

Sangre de Cristo Range has been published by Miller (1958).

SUMMARY OF GEOLOGY

A generalized geologic map and structure section, showing the 

major lithological and structural features, is given in figure 2. The 

oldest rocks of the Sangre de Cristo Range are Precambrian quartzites, 

schists, and granites, which underlie most of the mountain crest and 

are also exposed in several deep canyons of the Pecos drainage basin. 

A thick section of sedimentary rocks overlies this basement complex. 

Except for a thin (<OOO feet) limestone of Mississippian(?) age, the 

entire sedimentary column is of Pennsylvanian age consisting in the 

areas where water samples were taken of several thousand feet of 

thick nonmarine sandstones alternating with shales and thin marine 

limestones.

Structurally, this part of the range is a broad north-trending 

anticline broken at several places by major faults that also trend 

roughly north. As can be seen in figure 2, the western flank of the 

anticline is greatly eroded and is buried by Tertiary sediments. Like 

the adjacent Picuris area (Montgomery, 1953), the Precambrian 

metamorphic rocks are complexly folded with axes trending roughly 

from east to west.

Pleistocene glaciation of the southern Sangre de Cristo Range 

consisted of numerous small valley glaciers, which produced rugged 

peaks and broad, deep cirques but left relatively little glacial and 

glaciofluvial debris in most valleys. Patterned ground, block fields, 

and other surficial features produced by Pleistocene and Recent frost 

action are abundant above 10,000 feet.

Chemical and mineralogical composition of rock types drained by 

the stream waters of the southern Sangre de Cristo Range are discussed 

under appropriate headings.

GRANITE

The granitic rocks of this area, referred to by Montgomery (1953) 

as the Embudo granite, include coarse-grained quartz monzonite, 

dark-biotite granite and light-colored, well-foliated granite, and also 

abundant pegmatites and quartz veins. Table 1 gives a chemical 

analysis and estimated mode of Embudo granite in the Picuris Range, 

which is a few miles north of the principal area considered here. According to Montgomery (written communication, November 1959), the 

Embudo granite is identical in both areas.
SOLUTES IN SMALL STREAMS DRAINING SINGLE ROCK TYPES F~

DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL

f Fault

g g Dashed where approximately

u t Im-atfd

Sampling stations

* 

Stream waters

Quartzite I Snow

SANTA FE A'

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-15,000' 

-10,000" 

-500CC

FIGUEE 2. Geoloaic map and structure section of study area showing points where stream waters and snow

were sampled.

QUARTZITE

The metaquartzite considered in this study is the lower part of the 

Precambrian Ortega formation of Montgomery (1953). Although 

quartzite is the principal lithologic type in this formation, there are 

many thin interbedded layers of sillimanite-kyanite gneiss and also 

distinctive beds of several different schists, most of which, however,

604004 61 2
F-6 GEOCHEMISTRY OF WATER

TABLE 1. Mode and chemical composition, in percent, of Embudo granite 

[Average of three analyses reported by Montgomery, 1953]

Mode

Microcline ___ __ _ _ __

Albite and oligoclase _ _ _

Biotlte __ _ _

Muscovite ____ ___ _ _____

Epidote___ ___ .__

Magnetite and ilmenite, _____ _

Zircon _ _

Allanite _ _ __

Pvrite __ __ ____ ____

30 

30 

31 

6 

1 

1 

1 

Tr. 

Tr. 

Tr. 

Tr. 

Tr. 

Tr. 

Tr.

Chemical composition

SiO2 _______

TiO2 ____-._

A1_O3 ------

Fe_O«___ 

FeO___.___

MnO.____-

MgO______.

CaO_--.___

Na2O______

K2O.______

P2 05 __-___-

S________._

BaO___.___

ZrO2 _______

CO2 ________

H2O_______

72. 12 

.42 

14. 24 

1.48 

.99 

.09 

.52 

1. 56 

3. 17 

4.03 

. 12 

.01 

.07 

Tr. 

.03 

. 77

99.62

do not occupy areas that drain to the streams considered in this report. 

The quartzite is many thousands of feet thick and dips steeply 

throughout the area.

Montgomery, who is making a detailed petrologic study of these 

rocks, prepared the mineralogical data given in table 2. No chemical 

analyses are available.

SANDSTONE

The rocks designated here as "sandstone" actually include also 

such diverse lithologic types as conglomerates, shales, mudstones, 

and thin limestones all of Pennsylvanian age and up to 7,000 feet 

thick. In the area where water samples were taken, units called 

"limestone" in measured sections constitute 1 to 2 percent of the total 

thickness. However, the limestones are impure, and the CaCO3 

equivalent of the entire section, including calcareous cement in some 

of the terrigenous rocks, is 0.5 to 1.0 percent (P. K. Sutherland, 

written communication, November 1959). Roughly 25 percent of 

the total section is shale and mudstone. The remainder is a highly 

varied sequence of coarse terrigenous rocks (conglomerates, estimated 

15 percent, sandstone, estimated 60 percent). Quartz and quartzite 

are the predominant detrital constituents, but feldspar and igneous 

and metamorphic rock fragments are present in small amounts 

throughout the sequence. In some layers, feldspathic constituents 

form a major proportion of the rock. Silica is the predominant 

cement, with carbonate minor .in most beds.
SOLUTES IN SMALL STREAMS DRAINING SINGLE ROCK TYPES F~7

TABLE 2. Estimated modes in percent of quartzite (Ortega formation) in areas 

draining to various sampling stations

[Data from A. Montgomery, written communication]

Quartz. _____

Muscovite. __

Biotite

Feldspar _ __ _ _

Hornblende _ __ _

Sillimanite

Ilmenite and hematite

Epidote and clinozoisite___

Tourmaline

Garnet _ ___ _

Kyanite____ __ _

Andalusite

Piedmontite_

Apatite _

Beryl

Station 12

97

.5

.5

.5

Tr.

.5

.1

Tr.

Tr.

Tr.

Station 13

89

12

2

2

2

1

1

Tr.

.3

.2

.2

Tr.

Tr.

Tr.

Tr.

Tr.

Stations 18, 23, 

and 25

97

1

.5

.5

. 1

1 Biotite and chlorite.

Detailed chemical and mineralogical analyses of these rocks have 

not been made, and sampling them for the purpose of making detailed 

comparisons with water samples would be a major undertaking.

Throughout the area where water samples were collected, the 

sandstone sequence is flat lying or very gently dipping.

SAMPLING PROCEDURE

Altogether, 23 samples of stream waters were collected. The 

samples were distributed according to lithologic terrain of basin as 

follows: granite, 11; quartzite, 5; and sandstone, 7. In addition, 

two samples of snow were obtained, one each from granite and quartzite terrains. The total number of samples, and to some extent the 

location of sampling stations, was determined primarily by available 

time and manpower. In most cases, it was necessary to walk 5 to 

miles and backpack the necessary equipment and the samples.

All water samples were collected between June 26 and July 8, 1958, 

except for sample 25 (taken July 26). This sampling period was 

chosen because it follows the peak snowmelt runoff and precedes the 

summer rains, which ordinarily begin during the first half of July. 

No rain fell during the month of June, but a few very small rains had 

occurred by July 26. At the time of sampling, all streams were 

at slightly less than half-bankfull stage.
F-8 GEOCHEMISTRY OF WATER

The location of sampling stations is shown on figure 2. No special 

statistical sampling design was used. Rather, insofar as possible, the 

stations were arranged for each rock type so that samples from drainage areas of various sizes would be obtained. Although altitudes of 

sampling stations range from 6,700 feet to 10,400 feet, three-fourths 

of them are above 9,000 feet. Location and extent of rock exposure 

account for the considerable differences in altitude ranges of sampling stations on the three rock types:

Altitude (feet) 

Granite.___.____________________________ 6, 700-10, 400

Quartzite____________________________________ 9, 400-10, 100

Sandstone_____________________________________ 8, 300-10, 200

The procedure at each stream sampling station was as follows:

1. The pH of the water was determined by means of a portable pH 

meter. First, the meter was standardized with buffer solution, which 

previously had been brought to stream temperature. Next, water 

was dipped from the stream in a polyethylene beaker, the electrodes 

were immersed, and the pH was read. Two or more determinations 

were made at each station.

All field pH measurements are listed in table 3, to indicate degree 

of reproducibility of results. The field pH values listed in table 4 are 

averages of the data reported in table 3.

2. Two half-gallon samples were collected in polyethylene bottles 

at each station. Foreign matter (mostly spruce needles) was removed 

by filtration through a clean cotton handkerchief, which was thoroughly 

rinsed in the stream at each station. Cloth was used rather than filter 

paper because of the greater speed of filtration. The sample collected 

for spectrographic trace-element analysis was acidified to pH 6.0-6.5 

with HCI; the other sample was not acidified or treated in any way 

prior to analysis.

The samples of snow were collected from snowfields above timberline. The surficial dust-covered snow was scraped away, and clean 

snow was ladled directly into polyethylene bottles with a silver spoon.

ANALYTICAL METHODS

All samples were analyzed by methods regularly used by the U.S. 

Geological Survey. Haffty (1960) has given a brief description of 

the residue method for spectrographic determination of trace elements 

in water.

It is exceedingly difficult to evaluate precision of the methods and 

accuracy of the results. From the discussion by Hem (1959), it 

appears that the precision for the common elements is ordinarily in 

the range 2 to 10 percent. However, in these dilute waters, concentrations of some elements are near the limits of sensitivity and the
SOLUTES IN SMALL STREAMS DRAINING SINGLE ROCK TYPES F~9 

TABLE 3. Values of all field pH measurements at various sampling stations

Station pH

Waters draining granite

9_.__ _______________

11 ... _._. __ .__ __

10________. __________

2

4

3

5

6____. ______________

8__-_____-__._______

14_-_________________

7 __

7.0

7.0

7. 1

7.2

7.0

7.0

7.2

7.2

7.2

7.0

7.2

7.0

7.0

7.2

7.2

7.0

7.0

7.2

7.2

7. 1

7.1

7.3

7.6

7.2

7.0

7.1

7.2

7.2

7. 1

7. 4

7. 1

7.2

7.2

Waters draining quartzite

12

13

18

25

23

6. 4

6.6

6. 4

6.6

6.6

6. 4

6. 7

6. 4

6. 6

6.6

6.7

6.4

6.8 6.8

Waters draining sandstone

16___________________

15_-__________.______

17___-_____________._

19__________._______.

20____ __ _____ ___ _

21___ _ ____________

22

8.0

8 1

8 1

7 7

7 8

8 0

8 0

8 0

8 1

8 2

7 8

7 8

8 0

8 0

8. 2

8. 2

results are probably somewhat less accurate. Precision of spectrographic methods is in the range 10 to 20 percent.

RESULTS OF ANALYSES

Complete results of chemical analyses for all samples are given in 

table 4.

Bicarbonate, sulfate, chloride, nitrate, calcium, magnesium, sodium, 

potassium, and silica were determined by standard chemical methods 

outlined by Rainwater and Thatcher (1960). Iron was determined 

both chemically and spectrographically. All other elements listed 

in table 4 were determined by emission spectroscopy. In addition, 

the following elements were sought but not detected in any of the 

spectrographic analyses: antimony, arsenic, bismuth, cadmium, cerium, cesium, dysprosium, erbium, europium, gadolinium, gallium, 

germanium, gold, hafnium, holmium, indium, indium, lanthanum, 

lutetium, mercury, neodymium, niobium, osmium, palladium, phos-
TABLE 4. Chemical constituents of water sam

[Results in parts per billion except as indicated]

Sampling 

station

Location

Altitude 

(feet)

Drainage 

area 

(sq 

mi)

perature

(°F)

PH

Field

Laboratory

Specific

ductance 

(micromhos

at

25°C)

Dissolved

solids

Residue on 

evaporation

of

180°C

Sum

Silica 

(Si02)

Calcium

(Ca)

Snow samples

1 11,280 0) 32

32

6.1

5.3

5

5

4,000

5,000

4,500

3,000

2,000

2,500

2 n.d.

100

50

300

200

250

Waters draining granite

9

11

10

2

4

3

5

6

8

14

7

 . .do.. ... .... .....

... -do 

--.do..... . ...........

.....do ...-. . 

-_ do --- -

..-.do..... 

Average

7,950

9,680

9,720

7,400

10,370

10, 390

7,670

7,670

6,830

9,200

6,700

15.3

.44

1.6

8.3

.52

.88

11.4

13.2

33.6

2.0

29.3

59

50

50

61

50

46

55

54

57

50

55

7.0

7.0

7.1

7.2

7.0

7.0

7.2

7.2

7.1

7.0

7.3

6.7

7.1

7.0

7.0

6.7

6.7

6.8

6.7

6.8

6.9

6.8

38

35

28

43

22

26

35

31

37

38

41

34

, * - 1* 1 

34, 000

33, 000

27,000

38, 000

20,000

23, 000

33, 000

30,000

34,000

35, 000

39, 000

31,400

29, 000

30,000

26,000

32, 000

15, 000

21,000

28,000

26,000

30, 000

30,000

33, 000

27, 300

0,300

10, 000

10,000

11,000

3,500

6,900

10,000

9,700

10, 000

10,000

11,000

9,200

3,700

4,000

3,000

3,700

2,800

3,000

3,700

3,200

3,900

4,200

4,400

3,600
Waters draining quartzite

12

10

18

25

23

__ do ~ 

Rio Santa Barbara -

9,800

9,600

9,400

10,000

10, 100

1.5

2.9

5.1

1.2

1.2

46

46

41

46

50

6.4

6.7

6.4

6.7

6.6

6.4

6.8

6.2

6.7

6.2

13

20

15

16

9

15

13, 000

19, 000

15,000

15,000

10,000

14, 400

11,000

11,000

12, 000

6,000

11,200

3,000

4,800

3,800

4,400

2,000

3,600

2,40

3,00

1,40

1,90

90

1,92

Waters draining'sandstone (with shale and thin limeston

15

17

19 

20

22

- do ___ 

.. do ---

Rio Santa Barbara- ... 

 -do ___ ---

- do - 

 - .do ... -- 

Average

10,000

8,300

9,800 

10, 200

10,200

9,300

2.8

6.4

5.3

.82 

5.7

5.8

16.2

46

54

54

46 

54

54

54

8.0

8.1

8.2

7.8 

7.8

8.0

8.0

7.9

8.1

7.9

7.1 

7.3

7.8

7.4

160

219

199

109 

176

194

170

195

96,000

133,000

117,000

68,000 

107,000

116,000

106,000

106, 100

90,000

126, 000

110, 000

64, 000 

99, 000

109, 000

95,000

99,000

4,800

6,300

4,400

5,300 

3,900

3,600

4,100

4,500

31,00

40,00

35, 00

15,00

28, 00

31,00

27, 00

29,57

See footnotes at end of table.
TABLE 4. Chemical constituents of water samples 

[Results in parts per billion except as indicated]

Sampling 

station

Location

Determined by emission spec

Aluminum 

(Al)

Barium 

(Ba)

Beryllium 

(Be)

Boron 

(B)

Chromium 

(Or)

Cobalt 

(Co)

Copper 

(Cu)

Iron 

(Fe)

Lead 

(Pb)

Lithium 

(Li)

Snow samples

1

24 Jicarilla Peak. ........

320

840

»30

Waters draining granite

9

11

10

2

4

3

5

6

8

14

7

__ do _ . .............

-...do ..............

... ..do... ... ..... ...

-- do ..... ... ......

... -do . 

 .do .... ........

 do -.. 

10

22

44

14

17

18

16

16

4

6

5

7

12

8

6

11

7

n.d.

n.d.

n.d.

n.d.

n.d.

0. 02-0. 2

n.d.

n.d.

n.d.

n.d.

n.d.

5

4

3

7

3

3

4

3

5

3

8

4

5

10

66

oc

15

5

9

15

n.d.

n.d.

0. 03-0. 3

n.d.

.02-. 2

n.d.

.03-. 3

n.d.

.03-. 3

n.d.

n.d.

1

3

1

2

4

3

1

2

9

2

2.5

51

12

57

96

53

140

24

88

30

39

59

1

.4

.6

1

2

.3

.6

3

1

1.2

0.

.

.

.

3

2

.

2

1
Waters draining quartzite

12 

13 

18 

25 

23

 do 

Rio Santa Barbara -

14 

7 

17 

5 

17

12

5 

8 

9 

8 

9

8

0. 01-0. 1 

n.d. 

. 01- 1 

. 01- 1 

. 01-. 1

10 

2 

9 

1 

9

6

5 

2 

1 

6 

1

3

0. 01-0. 1 

n.d. 

n.d. 

. 01-. 1 

n.d.

2 

1 

3 

2 

3

2.3

18 

13 

18 

59 

19

25

1 

1 

4 

.5 

.6

1.3

0

Waters draining sandstone (with shale and thin limeston

16 

15 

17 

19 

20 

21 

22

 .. do 

 -do 

Rio Santa Barbara - 

 do 

 .. do... ... -

 do 

A.V6I*3i26

8 

24 

49 

31 

34 

5 

44

28

16 

24 

21 

28 

31 

35 

33

27

n.d. 

n.d. 

n.d. 

n.d. 

n.d. 

n.d. 

n.d.

4

5 

5 

5 

6 

4 

7

5

6 

2 

2 

5 

4 

5 

33

8

n.d. 

n.d. 

n.d. 

n.d. 

n.d. 

n.d. 

.1-1

0.3 

.4

.2 

.7 

.4 

.2

1

.5

19 

11 

32 

24 

72 

26 

230

59

0.4 

.6

1 

.7 

2 

1 

2

1.3

0

1

1 

1 

1 

2 

1

1

1 Leaders ( __ ), not determined. (2) n.d., nofdetected. > Determined by chemical method. 
F-14 GEOCHEMISTRY OF WATER

phorus, platinum, praseodymium, rhenium, rhodium, ruthenium, 

samarium, scandium, tantalum, tellurium, terbium, thallium, thorium, 

thulium, tin, tungsten, uranium, vanadium, ytterbium, yttrium, zinc, 

and zirconium.

Values of pH measured in the laboratory (at ~25°C) are consistently lower than those measured in the field (at stream temperature). 

The differences are attributable in part to the higher temperature of 

the laboratory and probably also to changes in the gaseous CO2 content of the water in the laboratory environment. Both sets of data 

show that waters draining sandstone are alkaline (pH is more than 

7.0); those from granite are approximately neutral (pH 6.7-7.3); and 

those from quartzite are acid (pH is less than 7.0).

Dissolved-solids determinations by the residue-on-evaporation 

method and by calculation (sum) should be approximately equal, 

and comparison of these two quantities provides a rough check on 

the accuracy and completeness of the analysis. A detailed discussion 

of the two methods is given by Rainwater and Thatcher (1960, 

p. 269-272). Average values for dissolved solids determined by the 

residue-on-evaporation method exceed those obtained by calculation 

by 15 percent for granite waters, about 30 percent for quartzite waters, 

and 7 percent for sandstone waters.

The data for one of the snow samples (No. 24) indicate either an 

error in determination of some constituent or possibly presence of 

foreign material in the residue (dissolved solids). Sample 23 is anomalous, compared with other quartzite waters, but values of specific 

conductance indicate that reported compositional differences are not 

related to analytical errors.

It is apparent from table 4 that concentrations of solutes in waters 

from each rock type are fairly uniform regardless of drainage area 

above the sampling; station. Therefore, the data for samples from 

each type can be averaged (table 5). Average concentrations of 

waters draining quartzite, granite, and sandstone are in the proportion 

1:2.5:10 respectively.

Geological Survey data for miscellaneous samples collected during 

the first half of July 1957 at sites draining a single rock type in this 

area compare very closely with results given in table 4. This statement applies particularly to dissolved solids and pH, as the analyses 

are incomplete for some constituents.

SOLUTES IN SNOW

Because only two samples of snow were analyzed, and with rather 

disparate results, few conclusions can be drawn. Bicarbonate is the 

most abundant dissolved constituent and comprises roughly twothirds of the total. However, S. M. Rogers (written communication
SOLUTES IN SMALL STREAMS DRAINING SINGLE ROCK TYPES F~15

TABLE 5. Average percentage composition of dissolved constituents in snow and 

stream waters draining various rock types

[Number of samples averaged in each category is shown in parentheses]

Constituent

Bicarbonate (HCOs) __ _ _

Sulfate (SO4 )_- -------------- ___

Nitrate(NO8 )_ ---------- -----

Chloride (Cl)_____-__-_-____-__-.

Silica (SiQ_)_____ _-_ ____

Aluminum (Al) _____

Calcium (Ca)_ _ ____ __ _

Strontium (Sr) ___ __ ________

Barium (Ba) _____ ____

Sodium (Na) ___ _ __ __

Rubidium (Rb)__ _____

Lithium (Li) _____ __ _______ ___

Iron (Fe)_____ __ ______________

Titanium (Ti)___________________

Boron (B) _______ _ _______ _ _

Lead (Pb)_____-________________

Chromium (Cr)_ __ _____

Manganese (Mn)

Copper (Cu)__ _____ _ _

Silver (Ag) _ ___________________

Total.. _________________

Snow 

(2)

68. 8

1.3

5.4

. 7

6.8

8. 1

8. 1

2 . 8

100.0

Granite 

(11)

51.0

10. 8

.4

.6

14.2

.05

1.8

11.9

.04

.02

6.8

2.0

.001

.003

.2

.003

.01

.004

.05

.01

.01

.0001

99.90

Quartzite 

(5)

46.7

14. 4

1.0

.5

13.8

. 1

. 5

15.8

.03

.07

4.3

2.5(')

.003

.2

.003

.05

.01

.03

.02

.02

.0002

100. 04

Sandstone 

(7)

61.2

12.7

. 1

. 1

1.5

.02

1. 8

21. 1

.04

.02

.9

. 4

(')

.001

.04

.002

.004

.001

.01

.001

n.d.

n.d.

99.94

1 Not determined.

2 Determined colorimetrically (bipyridine method); other values for iron were determined spectrographically.

June 18, 1959) found that 56 samples of snow, mostly from the Sierra 

Nevada, ranged in bicarbonate content from 0 to 75 percent and 

averaged 48 percent.

The analyses of Sangre de Cristo snow are compared in the following 

table with the data for rain in the same area, using values for rain

Rain Snow

Cl--____________--_-_-___.__________________________ 0. 2-0. 3

SO4 ___ ---_______---_--_-__-___-_____-____-__-______ 3.0-4.0

Na_--_______---__--_-_-___-._-____________________ .2- .3

K_--_-________---_--____-___----____--_____-_-___- .1- .2

Ca__.____________-_-_-________-_--_._.__________ 3.0-3. 5

0.2 

.0 

.3 

.3 

.2

taken from maps showing isopleths of concentration presented by 

Junge and Werby (1958). Except for calcium and sulfate, the agreement is good. Junge and Werby consider dust storms to be the principal source of calcium, and decomposition of organic matter the 

major source of sulfate in rain. Both of these should be less important 

at high altitudes and especially during winter.
F-16 GEOCHEMISTRY OF WATER

SPECIFIC IONS IN STREAM WATERS

Bicarbonate is by far the most abundant dissolved constituent in 

waters from all three rock types. Solution of intergranular carbonate 

cement and thin limestone beds accounts for the high concentrations 

in sandstone waters. The bicarbonate content of quartzite and granite waters must be derived mostly from atmospheric and pedogenic 

sources.

Sulfate concentrations of sandstone waters are 6 to 10 times those 

of granite and quartzite waters. The atmospheric contribution is 

unknown. Oxidation of trace amounts of pyrite is the only known 

mineral source of sulfate for granite and quartzite waters. Similarities in composition of snow and waters from all three rock types 

indicate that both nitrate and chloride are mostly of atmospheric 

origin.

Iron concentrations are not easily interpreted. The value for 

sample 22 (see table 4) probably is too high, but if it is accepted, then 

average differences between waters draining various rock types are 

roughly twofold. Difficulties in determination of iron-are indicated 

by table 6, which compares the results of colorimetric (bipyridine 

method) and spectrographic analyses. Colorimetric values are notably lower for 21 of the 23 samples, and the exceptions are both granite 

waters. Both methods give approximately the same average concentration of iron in granite waters. Averages for quartzite and sandstone waters are 6-fold and 20-fold greater, respectively, by the 

spectrographic method. These results undoubtedly reflect changes 

undergone by the samples after collection as well as effects of differences in analytical techniques.

Titanium concentrations are 3 to 6 times greater in sandstone 

waters than granite and quartzite waters. Ilmenite, magnetite, and 

sphene are the only likely sources of titanium, but those minerals 

are generally believed to be very insoluble.

Chromium values for samples 4, 5, and 21 (see table 4) are higher by 

an order of several magnitudes than concentrations in other samples. 

Whether these differences are real or the result of errors in analysis 

is not known.

RELATIVE MOBILITY OF THE ELEMENTS

The stream waters described in this report were derived entirely 

from snowmelt that had percolated through thin surficial deposits 

and underlying bedrock. Traveltime of meltwater from snowbank 

to stream did not exceed 3 months and probably was much less. 

Despite great differences in altitude, slope, vegetation, drainage area,
SOLUTES IN SMALL STREAMS DRAINING SINGLE ROCK TYPES F~17

TABLE 6. Iron analysis, in parts per million, by two methods 

[Samples are listed in same order as in table 3]

Sampling station Spectrographic Color imetric 1

Granite waters

9_ _---_-_-___-_-_-_-_-_-_--___________

11.. .._ __ _. _ __ _ _ __ ______ _ _

10. __._-_-__._.._-..__._.-___.______._

2_ ____________________________________

4__.__

3

5. ___-_-_-_-_-____--____----_-________

6. ____________________________________

8_ ____________________________________

14_ ___________________________________

7_ ____________________________________

0.051 

.012 

.057 

.057 

.096 

.053 

. 14 

. 024 

.088 

.030 

.039

0 04 

00 

22 

11 

01 

00 

04 

02 

02 

00 

03

Quartzite waters

12___. ______ _ __ ____ _ __ _ __

13_ __________ ____ ___ __ __ _ _

18. ---------___--_--------__--________

25. __-_-_-_-_-_________-_-___-____.___

23 _ _

0 018 

013 

018 

059 

019

0 00 

00 

01 

01 

00

Sandstone waters

16_ ___________________________________

15_ ___________________________________

17. ___________________________________

19_ -___-_-_-_-___-___-_-______--______

20_ ___________________________________

21________________________________ _ _

22__ _________ ____ _ _ ___ _

0 019 

Oil 

032 

024 

072 

026 

23

0 01 

00 

00 

00 

00 

01 

00

i Bipyridine method.

and runoff conditions, waters draining a specific rock type are remarkably uniform in composition. This relation, shown in figure 3, 

implies that solute concentration is the result of weathering processes 

operating at uniform intensity and presumably under steady-state 

conditions over broad areas. Thus, different basins draining the*^\ 

rock of the same type yield waters of similar composition provided / 

there is no dilution of ground waters by water flowing overland J 

directly into channels. Also, because stream flow is several times 

faster than subsurface flow, the solute content must be acquired by 

the water before it reaches the channels. Therefore, the concentrations of various elements in these waters may be considered the 

result of differences in mobility under the prevailing conditions of 

weathering.
MILLIONS PER PARTS IN SOLIDS, DISSOLVED 9 

i * i * i ^ 

ro4^o>oooro*. 9 3 

O O O O O O O O S 2. 

\

\
SOLUTES IN SMALL STREAMS DRAINING SINGLE ROCK TYPES F~19

Previous workers (Smyth, 1913; Polynov, 1937; Anderson and 

Hawkes, 1958) have defined the ratio

Percent of element in water , ,. ,.,., -^5 - j-^j : T -=relative mobility, 

Percent or element in rock

and this designation is used here also. Data on chemical composition 

of the Embudo granite of Montgomery (1953) of the Sangre de Cristo 

Range are adequate for reasonably accurate calculation of relative 

mobilities. In the case of quartzite and sandstone, estimated chemical 

compositions, computed from modes, permit only comparison of order 

of mobility.

Calculated values of relative mobilities are given in table 7. The 

order of mobility for the various rocks can be summarized as follows:

Granite_____Ca>Mg>Na>Ba>K>Si>Fe=Mn>Ti>Al 

Quartzite____Ca»Na»K>Mg>Fe>Si>Al 

Sandstone. _ _Ca» >Na>K>Si=Al

For granite, the order and also specific values agree reasonably 

well with previous work, except for the finding of Anderson and Hawkes 

(1958) that magnesium is the most mobile element of certain New 

England granites. Comparative data for the other rocks are not 

available.

The exceedingly large values for relative mobility of calcium in 

quartzite and sandstone serve to emphasize the variety of factors 

affecting the ratio. In particular, the proportion of relatively inert 

minerals present in a rock may tend to obscure significant relations 

between highly reactive constituents present in small quantities. 

Further consideration of relative mobility should include analyses of 

soil waters and also laboratory determination of solubilities both for 

bulk rock and for its individual constituent minerals.

RATE OF CHEMICAL DENUDATION

The yield of dissolved products from a basin is commonly expressed as a denudation rate, meaning the average rate of lowering 

of the land surface. Accurate determinations require more detailed 

hydrologic and chemical information than is available for most areas. 

Estimation of denudation rates from the Sangre de Cristo data involves the following assumptions.

1. Average concentrations of dissolved solids reported for waters 

derived from each rock will be considered as mean annual values. 

Because of low-flow conditions at the time of sampling, they may 

be closer to maximum annual concentrations; but specific data on 

this point are lacking. However, study by C. H. Hembree and F. H. 

Rainwater (written communication, Jan. 22, 1960) of waters derived
F-20 GEOCHEMISTRY OF WATER

TABLE 7. Composition of dissolved constituents in waters compared with composition in source rocks, and calculated relative mobilities of various constituents

[Values are recalculated to 100 percent]

Constituent

Si '

Al . .

Ca .... 

Bai. 

Na 

K ... 

Fe--. 

Mn-_. _ 

Source

Water... _ ......

Rock. . .............

Rock ....... ...........

Water - __ ----- --

Rock. __ . _____ .

Water . _ ......

Rock _ ..... ..........

Water 

Rock .. ...

Water 

Granite

Percent

38.24 

67.30

.14 

15.07

4.98 

.62

32.01 

2.22

.16 

.12

18.41 

4.70

5.51 

5.70

.52 

3.62

.01 

.50

.02 

.14

Relative 

mobility

} 0.57 

} .0. 

} 8.03 

} 14. 42 

} 1.33 

} 3.92 

} .96

} .02

Quartzite

Percent

f 37. 09 

f .26 

f 1.32 

f 42.38

f 11.49 

f 6.62

f .55 

\ «1

{ -:_ 

f .04 

I ».02

Relative 

mobility

} _.«

Sandstone

Percent

f 5.95

f .08 

f 7.08

f 81.48

f 3.47 

/ 1.54 1 ».o

! - 16

f .003

Relative 

mobility

} ~0.06

}~200

;:;

 Includes Sr.

from granite in the Wind River Range, Wyo., indicates that concentration at any given station changes very slightly with variation 

in discharge. Furthermore, as in the present study, their data show 

that concentration is independent of drainage area.

TABLE 8. Runoff data for gaging stations in the Sangre de Cristo Range

Stream and location

Rio Tesuque near Santa 

Fe__-_-__ ________

Rio Nambe near Nambe.

Santa Cruz River at 

Cundiyo __ _ ___

Pecos River near Pecos__ 

Santa Fe River near 

Santa Fe ____ ______

Rio Santa Barbara near

Altitude 

(feet)

7, 100 

6,200

6,460 

7,505

7,718 

8,300

Drainage 

area (sq mi)

11 

37

86 

189

18 

38

Average 

annual 

discharge 

(cfs per sq 

mi)

0.29 

.29

.37 

. 51

. 46

.77

Average 

annual 

runoff 

(inches)

3.9 

3. 9

5.0 

6.9

6.2 

10.4

Years of record

1936-50 

1933-40, 

1942-50

1931-57 

1931-57

1913-18, 

1919-27,

1928-57

1953-57

Length 

of record 

(years)

15 

17

27 

27

42 

5
SOLUTES IN SMALL STREAMS DRAINING SINGLE ROCK TYPES F-21

2. The linear increase of precipitation and runoff with altitude, 

indicated by station data, is extrapolated to the crest of the range. 

Available data on runoff in the southern Sangre de Cristo Range, 

summarized in table 8, are from stations fairly well distributed 

through the altitude range 6,200 to 8,300 feet. Precipitation data 

given in the Climatic Summary of the United States to 1930 (U.S. 

Department of Agriculture) consist of records of more than 10 years 

duration for 11 stations ranging in altitude from 6,000 to 9,000 feet.

3. The data for snow (table 4) and the results of Junge and Werby 

(1958) indicate that the approximate average concentration of precipitation in this area is 5 ppm of dissolved solids. In order to correct 

values of dissolved solids in stream waters, the average atmospheric 

contribution must first be weighted according to the ratio of precipitation to runoff. Altitudinal variation in this correction, assuming 

5 ppm dissolved solids in precipitation, is given below.

Attitude Precipitation Runoff Correction 

(feet) (inches) (inches) Ratio (ppm)

7,000.... _____________________ 13.3 5.0 2.7 -13

8,000__ _____._.___.._._......_ 17.5 8.6 2.0 -10

9,000...._._...._._____._..._. 21.7 12.0 1.8 -9

10,000......__._..._.._.._.. 25.9 15.5 1.7 -8

11,000..__._.._..._..._._..... 30.1 19.0 1.6 -8

12,000..__.-__....--.___._._. 34.3 22.4 1.5 -7

Quartzite terrains in this area are restricted to high altitudes, but 

granite and sandstone extend from the base of the range to the crest.

4. Specific gravity of all three rock types is considered to be 2.6. 

Calculated values of denudation rates are plotted in figure 4. These 

results emphasize that denudation depends both on the chemical 

susceptibility of the rock to weathering and on the total quantity of 

solvent, which in this case is closely related to altitude. In general, 

these streams carry very little suspended load, and it may be that 

downwearing by chemical denudation is a major process of landscape 

sculpture in mountainous regions.

Assuming that these estimates of denudation rates are reasonably 

accurate, it seems very unlikely that erosion surfaces can be preserved 

unaltered for millions of years. For example, the curves of figure 4 

indicate that 1 million years of weathering at 10,000 feet could cause 

sandstone terrains to be lowered 48 feet, granite terrains by 11 feet, 

and meta-quartzite terrains by 3 feet. Thus, solution weathering 

alone would considerably lower any surface and in lithologically contrasting areas would produce rugged relief within a few million years.
c

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!ff?\in: f ii

i *- ^r^ "- - "^ "^ ' ' / -J t^V C^t/(,/ 

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VI

f
SOLUTES IN SMALL STREAMS DRAINING SINGLE ROCK TYPES F-23

CONCLUSIONS

The approximately uniform concentration of solutes in waters 

draining a single rock type indicate a steady-state relation for 

various weathering mechanisms affecting the system rock-water. 

This generalization applies for a considerable range in conditions 

of slope, soil, vegetation, and hydrology. Such a relation appears 

to be potentially useful for predicting the chemical character of 

composite waters derived from several rock types.

Estimated values of denudation rates indicate that solution 

weathering deserves greater consideration in several kinds of geomc

^uture investigations of the kind described here should be expanded to include experimental determinations of rock and mineral 

solubilities.

REFERENCES CITED

An

elements in weathering of some schist and granite areas: Geochim. et

Cosmochim. Acta, v. 14, p. 204-210. 

HaTty, Joseph, 1960, Residue method for common minor elements: U.S. Geol.

Survey Water-Supply Paper 1540-A, 9 p. 

Hem, J. D., 1959, Study and interpretation of the chemical characteristics of

natural water: U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 1473, 269 p. 

Jurge, C. E., and Werby, R. T., 1958, The concentration of chloride, sodium,

potassium, calcium, and sulfate in rain water over the United States: Jour.

Meteorology, v. 15, p. 417-425.

Miller, J. P., 1958, High mountain streams; effects of geology on channel characteristics and bed material: New Mexico Bur. Mines Mem. 4, 53 p. 

Montgomery, A., 1953, Precambrian geology of the Picuris Range, north-central

New Mexico: New Mexico Bur. Mines Bull. 30, 89 p.

Po

Sm

phic problems.

erson, D. H., and Hawkes, H. E., 1958, Relative mobility of the common

ynov, B. B., 1937, Cycle of weathering: London, Murby. (Translation

by A. Muir)

Rainwater, F. H., and Thatcher, L. L., 1960, Methods for collection and analysis of water samples: U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 1454, 301 p.

th, C. H., 1913, The relative solubilities of the chemical constituents of 

rocks: Jour. Geology, v. 21, p. 105-120.

o