Report to Congress on the 

Implementation of the 

Deep Sea Coral Research and 

Technology Program 

U.S. Department of Commerce 

National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration 

National Marine Fisheries Service 

Coral Reef Conservation Program 

March 2008 

Silver Spring, Maryland 
 REPORT TO CONGRESS | ii

This document was produced by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

(NOAA), U.S. Department of Commerce, in consultation with Regional Fishery Management 

Councils, to fulfill requirements of the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and 

Management Reauthorization Act of 2006 (P.L. 109-479). 

Date: March 2008 

For more information about this report or to request a copy, please contact: 

NOAA’s Coral Reef Conservation Program, NOAA, National Marine Fisheries 

Service, Office of Habitat Conservation; 1315 East West Highway, Silver Spring, 

Maryland 20910. Tel: 301-713-0299. 

Or visit http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/habitat/rtc.pdf

Cover: Rockfish take refuge among the branches of a deep sea gorgonian coral in Olympic 

Coast National Marine Sanctuary. Photo credit: NOAA Olympic Coast National Marine 

Sanctuary
Table of Contents 

Executive Summary.................................................................................................v

List of Acronyms.................................................................................................. viii

1. Purpose ...........................................................................................................1

2. Nature of Deep Sea Coral Communities.....................................................1

3. Importance of Deep Sea Corals....................................................................2

4. Threats to Deep Sea Coral Ecosystems.......................................................3

5. NOAA Authorities.........................................................................................4

6. Current Knowledge and Knowledge Gaps .................................................5

7. Recent Conservation and Management Actions ........................................7

NOAA and the Councils.......................................................................................8

Federal Interagency Cooperation.....................................................................14

International Activities ......................................................................................15

8. Conclusions and Next Steps........................................................................17

References...............................................................................................................20

Appendices..............................................................................................................25

Appendix 1. Deep Sea Coral Areas in the U.S. EEZ with Limited Protection 

from Interactions with Fishing Gear................................................................25

Appendix 2. Measures Implemented by RFMOs to Protect VMEs Including 

Deep Sea Coral Habitats Beyond National Jurisdiction.................................29

Appendix 3. President Bush’s Memorandum on Sustainable Fisheries and 

Destructive Fishing Practices. October 3, 2006...............................................30

Figures.....................................................................................................................32

Figure 1. Known Locations of Major Deep Sea Corals in Waters of the U.S. 

Atlantic ................................................................................................................32

 Implementation of the Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program | iii 
Figure 2. Known Deep Sea Coral Locations in the Northeast U.S. with 

Management Areas............................................................................................ 33

Figure 3. SAFMC Proposed Deepwater Coral HAPCs ................................. 34

Figure 4. Gulf of Mexico Habitat Areas of Particular Concern ................... 35

Figure 5. Deep Sea Corals in the U.S. Caribbean and Adjacent Areas........ 36

Figure 6. Deep Sea Precious Coral Beds in the Hawaiian Archipelago ....... 37

Figure 7. Known Locations of Deep Sea Corals Off the U.S. West Coast ... 38

Figure 8. Locations of West Coast Groundfish EFH Conservation Areas. 39

Figure 9. Survey sites for deep sea corals and sponges in the Olympic Coast 

National Marine Sanctuary. ............................................................................. 40

Figure 10. Deep Sea Coral Locations in Alaska.............................................. 41

Figure 11. Areas of Alaska with some restrictions on fishing activities....... 42

Figure 12. NPFMC Proposed Habitat Conservation Areas in the Bering Sea

.............................................................................................................................. 43

 REPORT TO CONGRESS | iv
Executive Summary 

The Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Reauthorization Act of 2006 

(MSRA) includes a requirement to establish the “Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology 

Program.” Section 408 (b) of the reauthorized Act tasked NOAA with submitting, in 

consultation with the Fishery Management Councils, “biennial reports to Congress and the 

public on steps taken by the Secretary to identify, monitor, and protect deep sea coral areas, 

including summaries of the results of mapping, research and data collection performed under the 

program.” This is the first biennial report in fulfillment of that requirement. 

The report was prepared by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) 

National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), under the auspices of the Coral Reef Conservation 

Program and in collaboration with NOAA’s National Ocean Service; Office of Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Research; Office of International Affairs; National Environmental Satellite, Data, 

and Information Service; and the eight Regional Fishery Management Councils. Because the 

Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program had no dedicated funding in its first year of 

operation, implementation was limited to activities accomplished as part of, or in association 

with, other existing programs. 

Following are key findings, recent NOAA activities, and recommendations. 

Findings: 

• Research over the past decade has revealed that deep sea corals (also known as coldwater corals) form habitats of high biological diversity in the deeper ocean (generally 

between 50 and 2,000 meters) on continental slopes, canyons, and seamounts, including 

many areas in the U.S. exclusive economic zone (EEZ). 

• Deep sea coral assemblages are vulnerable to damage from bottom-tending fishing gears, 

especially bottom-trawling, but also may be affected by energy exploration and 

development, deployment of cables and pipelines, and other human activities that disturb 

the sea floor. Recovery from damage may take decades to centuries, as most deep sea 

corals grow slowly. 

• NOAA has research expertise and statutory authority to protect and manage deep sea 

coral communities in waters under U.S. jurisdiction pursuant to the Magnuson-Stevens 

Fishery Conservation and Management Act (MSA), as amended in 2006, and the 

National Marine Sanctuaries Act. 

• Significant gaps in knowledge about deep sea corals remain, including the location of 

many deep sea coral assemblages and most aspects of their biology and ecology. For 

example, questions remain as to why deep sea corals occur where they do, their role as 

habitat for other species (including managed fish stocks and protected species), their 

vulnerability and resilience to human impacts, and their responses to climate change and 

ocean acidification. 

 Implementation of the Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program | v
Recent Activities: 

• In 2006, NOAA, in partnership with the Regional Fishery Management Councils, 

protected from bottom-trawling over 500,000 square miles of vulnerable benthic habitats 

designated as essential fish habitat (EFH) in the U.S. Pacific. The protections, pursuant 

to the MSA, are intended to minimize adverse effects from fishing on EFH. Included in 

those protected areas are major deep sea coral habitats, many of which are also 

designated as habitat areas of particular concern (HAPCs) through the EFH authority. 

• In 2007, NOAA published The State of Deep Coral Ecosystems of the United States, an 

assessment of deep sea coral ecosystems in U.S. waters, including the biology of deep sea 

corals and their associated species, their spatial distribution, the stressors that may 

threaten their survival, current management measures, and regional priorities for future 

research. The peer-reviewed report serves as a primary source document for this Report 

to Congress and helps fulfill the first requirement of the Deep Sea Coral Research and 

Technology Program—“to identify existing research on and known locations of deep sea 

corals....” 

• Major habitat conservation efforts are currently underway through the North Pacific, New 

England, and South Atlantic Fishery Management Councils. Councils are primarily 

relying on the EFH authority to recommend habitat protection measures and have not yet 

used their new discretionary authority under the MSRA to recommend designating zones 

to protect deep sea corals from fishing impacts. Further progress in employing the new 

authority will depend, in part, on improved information on the location and ecology of 

these resources. 

• NOAA is expanding partnerships nationally and internationally to understand and protect 

deep sea corals: 

o In April 2007, the Joint Subcommittee on Ocean Science and Technology 

established an Interagency Board on Deep Sea Coral and Other Vulnerable 

Marine Ecosystems co-chaired by NOAA and the Department of the Interior. 

o NOAA and the State Department are actively engaged in efforts to implement a 

2006 United Nations resolution to protect vulnerable marine ecosystems on the 

high seas from destructive fishing practices. 

Next Steps and Recommendations: 

• In 2008, NOAA will develop a Deep Coral and Sponge Research and Management 

Strategic Plan to guide research, management, and international cooperation activities as 

they relate to deep coral and sponge communities. The Plan will provide a framework for 

implementing the Deep-Sea Coral Research and Technology Program. 

• NOAA has requested $1.5 million in the President’s Fiscal Year 2009 budget to advance 

implementation of the Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program in the 

following areas: 

 REPORT TO CONGRESS | vi
o Conducting research on the ecology of deep sea corals and associated faunal 

assemblages, including those associations between corals and managed fish stocks 

through all life stages. 

o Identifying and mapping the locations of deep sea coral communities. 

o Mapping the distribution and intensity of fishing practices known to impact deep 

sea coral communities. 

o Assessing and analyzing bycatch of deep sea corals caught in fishing activities. 

o Integrating and managing deep sea coral data in national and international GIS 

databases. 

• NOAA recommends that the Regional Fishery Management Councils evaluate areas for 

protection known to contain deep sea corals as allowed under discretionary provisions of 

the MSA as amended. An initial list of areas with limited protection from interactions 

with fishing gear is included in Appendix 1. Many of the areas listed are being 

considered for designation as HAPCs, which could afford additional protection for these 

areas from human activities including fishing. 

• NOAA recognizes that deep sea sponge ecosystems can play similar ecological roles and 

face similar threats to deep sea coral ecosystems. NOAA intends to include research and 

conservation of deep sea sponge habitats along with efforts to study and conserve deep 

sea coral habitats. 

 Implementation of the Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program | vii
 REPORT TO CONGRESS | viii 

List of Acronyms 

AIHCA Aleutian Island Habitat Conservation Area 

CFMC Caribbean Fishery Management Council 

CoRIS Coral Reef Information System 

CRCA Coral Reef Conservation Act of 2000 

CRCP Coral Reef Conservation Program 

EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone 

EFH Essential Fish Habitat 

FMC Fishery Management Councils 

FMP Fishery Management Plan 

GIS Geographic Information System 

GMFMC Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council 

HAPC Habitat Area of Particular Concern 

HBOI Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution 

IUU Fishing Illegal, unregulated and unreported fishing 

JSOST National Science and Technology Council’s Joint Subcommittee on Ocean 

Science and Technology 

MAFMC Mid-Atlantic Fishery Management Council 

MPAs Marine Protected Areas 

MSA Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act 

MSRA Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Reauthorization Act 

NEFMC New England Fishery Management Council 

NESDIS National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service 

NGO Non-governmental organization 

NMFS National Marine Fisheries Service 

NMSA National Marine Sanctuaries Act 

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

NOS National Ocean Service 

NPFMC North Pacific Fishery Management Council 

NRC National Research Council 

NURC National Undersea Research Center 

OAR Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research 

PFMC Pacific Fishery Management Council 

RFMO/A Regional Fishery Management Organizations and Agreements 

SAFMC South Atlantic Fishery Management Council 

SSC Scientific and Statistical Committee 

UNCW University of North Carolina at Wilmington 

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme 

UNGA United Nations General Assembly 

USVI United States Virgin Islands 

VMEs Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems 

WPFMC Western Pacific Fishery Management Council 
1. Purpose 

On January 12, 2007, the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management 

Reauthorization Act of 2006 (P.L. 109-479) (MSRA) was enacted and included a requirement to 

establish the “Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program.” Section 408 (b) of the 

reauthorized Act tasked NOAA with submitting, in consultation with the Fishery Management 

Councils, “biennial reports to Congress and the public on steps taken by the Secretary to identify, 

monitor, and protect deep sea coral areas, including summaries of the results of mapping, 

research and data collection performed under the program.” This is the first biennial report in 

fulfillment of that requirement. 

2. Nature of Deep Sea Coral Communities 

Deep sea corals, also referred to as “cold-water corals,” are a taxonomically and morphologically 

diverse collection of organisms (see Box 1) distinguished by their occurrence in deeper or colder 

oceanic waters. The calcified skeletons of certain branching stony coral species form large reeflike structures in deep water. Gorgonians, gold corals, and black corals often have branching 

tree-like forms and either occur singly or form thickets of many colonies. The three-dimensional 

features formed by many deep sea corals provide habitat for numerous fish and invertebrate 

species and, like shallow-water tropical corals, appear to enhance the biological diversity of 

many deepwater ecosystems. 

Deep sea corals lack symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae) characteristic of most reef-building shallow 

water tropical corals. Unlike their shallow water relatives, which rely heavily on photosynthesis 

by their symbionts to produce food, deep sea corals assimilate plankton and organic matter for 

much of their energy needs. They generally grow much more slowly than their shallow water 

counterparts. 

Deep sea corals occur in cold oceanic waters worldwide from near the surface to 6,000 meters in 

depth; however, most are found between 50 and 2,000 meters.1

 Deep sea coral habitats are 

located primarily on rocky bottoms along continental shelves, slopes, canyons, ocean ridges, and 

seamounts. The U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) has many locations with extensive deep 

sea coral populations (Lumsden et al. 2007). The importance of these ecosystems and their 

vulnerability to human impacts has stimulated research, monitoring, mapping, and conservation 

efforts. 

In addition to deep sea corals, sponges provide important three-dimensional structure in many 

deep water benthic communities. Many sponge species have similar habitat preferences to deep 

sea corals, may be found at similar locations, and are thought to play similar ecological roles. 

Although much less is known about deep sea sponges, they have been identified as habitat for 

managed fish stocks in certain regions and face many of the same threats as deep sea corals. 

 

1

 The term “deep sea” usually refers to depths greater than 200 m, however structure-forming corals that lack 

symbiotic zooxanthellae occur over a broader range of depths. 

 Implementation of the Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program | 1
NOAA has committed to expanding efforts to understand and conserve deep sponge habitats 

(Federal Register 2005). 

Box 1. MAJOR DEEP SEA CORAL GROUPS (Phylum Cnidaria) 1

Class Subclass Order Common 

Name Additional Information 

Scleractinia Stony corals 

A few species form deepwater reef-like structures 

known as bioherms, coral 

banks, or lithoherms.

Zoanthidea Gold corals 

Only zoanthids in the family 

Gerardiidae form rigid 

skeletons. 

Hexacorallia 

Antipatharia Black corals 

Many branching forms. 

Certain species harvested 

for jewelry in Hawaii. 

Alcyonacea True soft 

corals 

Most are not major 

structure-forming species. 

Gorgonacea 

Gorgonians, 

sea fans, sea 

whips 

Many branching forms. At 

least 12 families contain 

major structure-forming 

species.

Anthozoa—

corals, sea 

anemones, sea 

pens 

Octocorallia 

Pennatulacea Sea pens 

Unlike other species, sea 

pens are found on soft 

sediments. Contribution as 

habitat and to biodiversity is 

not well understood. 

Hydrozoa—

hydroids and 

hydromedusae 

Hydroidolina 

Anthoathecatae-

(Family 

Stylasteridae) 

Stylasterids or 

lace corals 

Can form branching 

colonies. May be confused 

with stony corals but the 

resemblance is superficial. 1

 More detailed information on the taxonomic classification of deep sea corals can be found in Hourigan et al. (2007). 

3. Importance of Deep Sea Corals 

As our understanding of deep sea coral communities and ecosystems has increased, so has our 

appreciation of their value. Deep sea coral communities can be hot-spots of biodiversity in the 

deeper ocean, making them of particular conservation interest. Stony coral “reefs,” as well as 

thickets of sea fans or black corals and aggregations of lace corals often have large assemblages 

of associated fauna. Deep sea corals may function in ways very similar to their tropical 

counterparts, providing enhanced feeding opportunities for species, hiding places from predators, 

nursery areas for juveniles, fish spawning aggregation sites, and attachment substrate for 

sedentary invertebrates. 

 REPORT TO CONGRESS | 2
The high biodiversity associated with deep sea coral communities is intrinsically valuable, and 

may provide significant opportunities for chemical and biological research on marine organisms. 

For example, several deep water sponges have been shown to contain bioactive compounds of 

pharmaceutical interest; as mentioned above, sponges are often associated with deep sea coral 

communities. Deep sea bamboo corals are being investigated for their medical potential in bone 

grafts and other biomedical applications (Ehrlich et al. 2006). A number of deep sea corals are 

also of commercial importance; in particular, black, pink, and red corals are the basis for a large 

jewelry industry. For example, black coral is the “state gem” of Hawaii. 

Deep sea coral communities have been identified as habitat for certain commercially important 

fishes. In Alaska, commercially valuable species of rockfish, shrimp, and crabs use coral habitat 

for protection from predators and as feeding areas (Krieger and Wing 2002). Husebø et al. 

(2002) documented a higher abundance and larger size of commercially valuable redfish, ling, 

and tusk in Norwegian waters in coral habitats compared to non-coral habitats. Oculina reefs off 

Florida have been identified as essential fish habitat (EFH) for Federally managed species, as 

have gorgonian-dominated deep sea coral communities off Alaska and the U.S. West Coast. In 

other cases, linkages between commercial fisheries species and deep sea corals remain unclear 

(Auster 2005; Tissot et al. 2006) and may be more indirect. 

Deep sea gorgonian and stony coral species have proven useful in reconstructing historic global 

climate and oceanographic conditions (Risk et al. 2002; Williams et al. 2006). The calcium 

carbonate skeletons of deep sea corals incorporate trace elements and isotopes that reflect the 

physical and chemical conditions in which they grew. Skeletons of living deep sea corals have 

been dated to be more than 1,000 years old, and dead corals forming deep banks have been 

radiocarbon-dated to be more than 40,000 years old. Stable isotopes incorporated in skeletons 

can provide a record of past temperatures, and analyses of deep sea coral skeletal microchemistry 

allow researchers to reconstruct past oceanic conditions. The worldwide distribution of many 

deep sea corals permits observations and comparisons across broad ranges of time and space. 

4. Threats to Deep Sea Coral Ecosystems 

Deep sea corals are generally slow-growing and fragile, making them and their associated 

communities vulnerable to human-induced impacts, particularly physical disturbance. With the 

exception of a few areas (e.g., the Oculina Banks), the full extent of habitat degradation resulting 

from these threats is largely unknown. 

Disturbances to deep sea coral communities from bottom-tending fishing gear, especially bottom 

trawl gear, are the best documented and pose the most widespread threat (Rogers 1999; Koslow 

et al. 2000; Hall-Spencer et al. 2001; Fosså et al. 2002; Roberts 2002; Grehan et al. 2005; 

Wheeler et al. 2005; Waller et al. 2007). Disturbances from bottom trawls and dredges have also 

been documented in U.S. waters (e.g., Krieger 2001; Koenig et al. 2005; Stone 2006) and are 

considered the major threat to deep corals in most U.S. regions where such fishing is allowed 

(Hourigan et al. 2007). The National Research Council (2002) concluded that bottom trawling 

 Implementation of the Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program | 3
and dredging reduce habitat complexity by removing or damaging the physical structure of the 

seafloor and by causing changes in species composition. 

Other activities that can directly impact deep sea coral communities include other bottom-set 

fishing gears (e.g., gillnets and longlines); coral harvesting; oil, gas, and mineral exploration and 

extraction; and submarine cable/pipeline deployment (Freiwald et al. 2004; Hourigan et al. 

2007). Invasive species, climate change, and ocean acidification represent additional potential 

threats that have not been adequately explored. The extent of impact from these activities and 

the type of stressors that cause the most degradation vary among regions. 

5. NOAA Authorities 

NOAA has the statutory authority and scientific expertise to take a lead role in locating, 

mapping, characterizing, understanding, protecting, and managing deep sea coral ecosystems. 

Additionally, the President’s Ocean Action Plan directs agencies to “research, survey and protect 

deep sea coral communities.” NOAA manages deep sea corals under two primary authorities: 

• Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act (MSA) (U.S.C. 1801 

et seq.) Under the MSA, NOAA manages fisheries in Federal waters through Fishery 

Management Plans (FMPs) developed in conjunction with the Regional Fishery 

Management Councils. To date, NOAA and the Councils have addressed fishery 

interactions with deep sea coral communities by minimizing adverse effects of fishing 

practices on areas that have been identified and described as essential fish habitat (EFH), 

by reducing fisheries bycatch of coral, and by managing the harvest of deep sea coral 

species (e.g., precious corals). The MSA was amended by the Magnuson-Stevens 

Fishery Conservation and Management Reauthorization Act of 2006, Public Law 

109-479 (MSRA), and now provides NOAA additional science and management 

authorities related to deep sea coral communities. The MSRA directs the Secretary of 

Commerce, in consultation with appropriate Regional Fishery Management Councils and 

in coordination with other Federal agencies and educational institutions, to establish a 

Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program (see Box 2). MSRA also authorizes 

Councils to designate zones to protect deep sea corals from damage caused by fishing 

gear under FMP discretionary provisions. 

• National Marine Sanctuaries Act (NMSA) (16 U.S.C. 1431 et seq.). The NMSA 

authorizes NOAA to identify and protect nationally significant habitats and resources 

throughout U.S. waters. Deep sea corals are known to exist within the boundaries of 

eight National Marine Sanctuaries: Stellwagen Bank, Florida Keys, Flower Garden 

Banks, Channel Islands, Monterey Bay, Gulf of the Farallones, Cordell Bank, and 

Olympic Coast. The area encompassed by the Hawaiian Islands Humpback Whale 

National Marine Sanctuary also includes deep sea coral habitat, but this Sanctuary’s 

mandate currently is limited to sustaining a safe and healthy habitat for the North Pacific 

stock of humpback whales that seasonally visit the area. 

 REPORT TO CONGRESS | 4
Box 2. MSA SECTION 408. DEEP SEA CORAL RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY 

PROGRAM 

(a) IN GENERAL- The Secretary, in consultation with appropriate regional fishery management 

Councils and in coordination with other federal agencies and educational institutions, shall, 

subject to the availability of appropriations, establish a program-- 

(1) to identify existing research on, and known locations of, deep sea corals and submit such 

information to the appropriate Councils; 

(2) to locate and map locations of deep sea corals and submit such information to the Councils; 

(3) to monitor activity in locations where deep sea corals are known or likely to occur, based on 

best scientific information available, including through underwater or remote sensing 

technologies and submit such information to the appropriate Councils; 

(4) to conduct research, including cooperative research with fishing industry participants, on 

deep sea corals and related species, and on survey methods; 

(5) to develop technologies or methods designed to assist fishing industry participants in 

reducing interactions between fishing gear and deep sea corals; and 

(6) to prioritize program activities in areas where deep sea corals are known to occur, and in 

areas where scientific modeling or other methods predict deep sea corals are likely to be 

present. 

(b) REPORTING- Beginning 1 year after the date of enactment of the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery 

Conservation and Management Reauthorization Act of 2006, the Secretary, in consultation with 

the Councils, shall submit biennial reports to Congress and the public on steps taken by the 

Secretary to identify, monitor, and protect deep sea coral areas, including summaries of the 

results of mapping, research, and data collection performed under the program. 

Several other mandates may provide additional authorities for NOAA to take action to conserve 

deep sea corals: 

• Endangered Species Act (16 USC 1531 et seq.). 

• Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act (16 USC 661-666e). 

• Deep Seabed Hard Mineral Resources Act (30 USC 1404 et. seq.). 

• American Antiquities Act (16 USC 431-433).

6. Current Knowledge and Knowledge Gaps 

NOAA supports deep sea coral research through activities conducted by several NOAA program 

offices and through collaborations with other Federal agencies, the Regional Fishery 

Management Councils, and external university partners. In FY 2007, no dedicated funds were 

appropriated for the Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program, and therefore 

implementation was limited to activities accomplished as part of, or in association with, other 

existing programs. 

 Implementation of the Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program | 5
NOAA recently completed and published a comprehensive assessment of the state of knowledge 

regarding U.S. deep sea coral ecosystems: The State of Deep Coral Ecosystems of the United 

States: 2007 (Lumsden et al. 2007). This peer-reviewed volume addresses the first requirement 

of the Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program, “to identify existing research on, and 

known locations of, deep sea corals and submit such information to the appropriate Councils.”

The report, released in December 2007, represents the first effort by NOAA (in partnership with 

other Federal, academic and non-governmental partners) to bring together available information 

on the abundance and distribution of structure-forming deep sea corals that occur in U.S. waters 

at depths greater than 50 meters. 

Over the past few years, NOAA has increased activities to locate, study, and protect deep sea 

corals. The following issues were identified as critical information needed to enable better 

understanding and improve management of deep sea coral ecosystems (McDonough and Puglise 

2003; Puglise et al. 2005; MAFAC 2005; Hourigan et al. 2007): 

• Locating, mapping, and characterizing deep sea coral habitats. As a first step in 

building an information base, deep sea coral habitats must be located and mapped. 

Baseline assessments are needed to characterize deep sea corals in terms of their 

geographic distribution, diversity, abundance, and associated environmental conditions. 

The absence of this basic knowledge hampers the effective management of human 

interactions with these communities. There is a significant need to improve abilities to 

target areas suspected of containing deep sea corals, given the high costs of deep sea field 

studies. Therefore, scientific modeling tools need to be improved and models developed 

to predict where deep sea coral communities are likely to occur. 

• Understanding the taxonomy, biology, life histories, and ecology of deep sea coral 

species. Many deep sea coral species are undescribed or described by only the most 

rudimentary information. Taxonomic, systematic, and genetic analyses must be 

expanded to facilitate identification of specimens collected during surveys and 

monitoring activities. Fundamental data regarding growth, reproduction, physiology, and 

ecology of major structure-forming deep sea species have yet to be gathered. Such 

information is important for understanding ecological requirements, distribution, 

resilience to stress, and rates of recovery from damage. 

• Understanding the biodiversity and ecology of deep sea coral communities. Deep sea 

coral habitats represent hot-spots of biological diversity in the deep ocean. Inventories of 

fish and invertebrate species that utilize these habitats are needed, as well as an 

understanding of the role deep sea corals play in sustaining and supporting healthy 

fisheries and ecosystems. Such research is necessary to improve understanding of how 

different species depend on deep coral habitats during various stages of their lifecycles. 

This increased understanding helps identify important habitats that may be designated as 

EFH and habitat areas of particular concern (HAPCs). 

• Understanding impacts caused by fishing and other human activities. Mapping deep 

sea coral habitats in relation to fishing effort, coral bycatch, and other potential 

 REPORT TO CONGRESS | 6
disturbances is crucial for identifying locations of potential impacts and framing studies 

about the nature and magnitude of such activities. Many human activities are expanding 

into deeper waters. Documenting their effects on seafloor habitats provides a foundation 

for developing sound policy and making wise management decisions. Additionally, there 

is a need for basic research to understand recently recognized threats to these ecosystems, 

such as invasive species, climate change and ocean acidification.

• Using deep sea corals to assess past ocean and climate conditions and improve 

climate change models. Deep sea corals provide windows into past environmental 

conditions in the deep ocean and insights for prospective analyses of future changes that 

may result from climate change. Analyses and validations of growth and microchemistry 

of deep sea corals in the field and the laboratory, along with high-quality oceanographic 

data, are needed for reconstructing past global oceanographic conditions and, by 

association, climate conditions. 

Deep sea coral habitats, unlike their shallow water counterparts, require specialized underwater 

technologies (e.g., multibeam sonar, laser-line scans, remotely operated vehicles, human 

occupied submersibles, autonomous underwater vehicles, and advanced technical diving) to 

identify, map, understand, and manage them (Puglise et al. 2005). Integration and management 

of large geographic datasets is necessary to ensure that information from NOAA’s exploration 

and research activities on deep sea corals are available to the research and management 

communities. Building institutional capacities in advanced underwater technologies and data 

management will be necessary to expand exploration and research activities related to deep sea 

coral ecosystems. 

7. Recent Conservation and Management Actions 

NOAA’s undersea research capabilities, in cooperation with academic, Federal, and international 

partners, have put NOAA at the forefront of deep sea coral research and technology. Recent 

research has begun to reveal the extent and ecological importance of deep sea coral communities 

as well as the threats they face, and thereby has catalyzed conservation action. NOAA is the 

principal Federal agency responsible for management of living marine resources within the U.S. 

Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) where most U.S. deep sea coral communities occur. 

The Regional Fishery Management Councils have been active in protecting deep sea coral 

habitat. Beginning in the early 1980s, when the South Atlantic Fishery Management Council 

recommended establishment of the world’s first area to protect deep sea corals (the Oculina

Banks HAPC off Florida) and the Western Pacific Fishery Management Council recommended 

closing the Pacific Islands EEZ to bottom-trawling, the Councils have been increasingly aware of 

the vulnerability of deep sea coral assemblages to bottom fishing practices. They have relied on 

tools like closed areas and gear modifications to address these impacts. With the passage of the 

1996 Sustainable Fisheries Act, Councils were required to describe and identify EFH for 

fisheries and minimize, to the extent practicable, adverse effects on such habitat caused by 

fishing. A number of Councils identified specific deep sea coral habitat as EFH, and the areas 

 Implementation of the Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program | 7
protected increased. In 2006, NOAA approved Council recommendations to protect over 

500,000 square miles of vulnerable benthic EFH in the Pacific. 

The following summaries—developed by NOAA in conjunction with the Regional Fishery 

Management Councils—focus on new management activities conducted by NOAA and its 

partners since the signing of the MSRA in January 2007. These activities were conducted and 

funded under MSA and National Marine Sanctuary Act authorities that pre-dated the MSRA, and 

were not necessarily directed specifically toward deep sea coral conservation needs. Activities 

authorized under the new Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program would complement 

and enhance ongoing EFH and Sanctuary conservation work. For more detailed descriptions of 

the distributions of deep sea corals, specific threats within each U.S. region, management efforts, 

and research priorities, see Lumsden et al. (2007). 

NOAA and the Councils

A. New England and Mid Atlantic Region – Maine to Cape 

Hatteras 

The Northeast has numerous deep sea coral habitats, composed primarily of gorgonians, which 

appear to be most numerous on rocky areas associated with canyons along the continental shelf 

and Georges Bank slopes, in rocky habitats in the northern Gulf of Maine, and on the New 

England Seamount chain extending from Georges Bank southeast for about 684 miles (1,100 

km) to the eastern end of the Bermuda Rise (Watling et al. 2003; Auster 2005; Packer et al. 

2007; Stiles et al. 2007) (see Figure 1 and 2). The Northeast also has a long history of both deep 

sea scientific research and extensive trawl fisheries. 

The New England Fishery Management Council (NEFMC) has authority over fisheries in 

Federal waters off Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. The 

Mid-Atlantic Fishery Management Council (MAFMC) covers fisheries off New York, New 

Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, and part of North Carolina. The Councils 

share management responsibilities for the monkfish and dogfish Fishery Management Plans 

(FMP). 

Nearly 4,000 square miles (more than 10,000 km2

) in the NEFMC region have been designated 

as Habitat Closed Areas to protect EFH from the impacts of harmful fishing activities (Figure 2). 

The use of mobile bottom-tending gears (bottom-trawls and scallop and clam dredges) is 

prohibited in most of these areas. These closures were created to minimize the adverse impacts 

of fishing on EFH, but they may indirectly protect deep sea corals. Deep sea corals and sponges 

are known to occur in Oceanographer Canyon and Lydonia Canyon located on the southern flank 

of Georges Bank. In 2005, the two Councils closed these canyons—an area totaling 155 square 

miles (400 km2)—to fishing for monkfish using bottom-contact gear. In 2007, MAFMC also 

approved the closure of these canyons to vessels trawling for squid, mackerel, and butterfish to 

further protect EFH. 

 

 REPORT TO CONGRESS | 8
In the past year the NEFMC, with technical assistance from NOAA, worked to increase 

knowledge of and protection for deep sea corals. The Council currently is engaged in reviewing 

and updating its EFH identifications and descriptions and management actions through a twophase process. The first phase included revising EFH descriptions and designation of 15 deep 

sea canyons and portions of two seamounts as Habitat Areas of Particular Concern (HAPCs). 

These contain structure-forming organisms (e.g., deep sea corals and sponges) recognized by the 

Council as unique habitats important to conservation and sustainable fisheries management. In 

the second phase, the NEFMC will analyze the impacts of fishing on EFH and recommend 

appropriate management measures to be implemented within the HAPCs or elsewhere. The aim 

is to minimize the adverse effects of fishing to EFH. Final action on the HAPC designations and 

on associated management measures to protect deep sea corals will not come into force until the 

second phase is completed. 

B. Southeast – Cape Hatteras to South Florida 

Within U.S. waters, deep sea stony coral reefs reach their greatest abundance and development in 

the Atlantic south of Cape Hatteras (Ross and Nizinski 2007) (see Figure1). The South Atlantic 

Fishery Management Council (SAFMC) has authority over fisheries in Federal waters in this 

region, which includes the waters off North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and the Atlantic 

coast of Florida, including the Florida Keys. In 1984 the SAFMC recommended, and NMFS 

established, the Oculina HAPC—the world’s first marine protected areas specifically designed to 

protect deep sea corals. 

To guide conservation and management of deep sea coral ecosystems in the South Atlantic and 

to support mandates in the MSRA, the SAFMC voted to approve a Deepwater Research and 

Monitoring Plan in March 2007. The plan has two phases: mapping and describing areas 

harboring deep sea corals and understanding the ecological role of these unique systems. In June 

2007, the SAFMC collaborated with NOAA, Gray’s Reef National Marine Sanctuary, the 

University of North Carolina Wilmington/National Undersea Research Center (UNCW/NURC), 

the Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution (HBOI), and state partners to collect new 

information on deepwater coral habitats in the southeast. Information gathered supports the 

proposed designation of three Deepwater Coral HAPCs off southern North Carolina, South 

Carolina, Georgia, and the Atlantic coast of Florida (Figure 3). The proposed HAPCs will be 

accompanied by measures designed to protect a number of important features with deep sea coral 

habitats. For example, surveys off Florida revealed the presence of coral pinnacles 90 meters 

high and sinkholes 100 meters deep. 

The SAFMC also completed two projects related to deep sea corals in 2007. A high-resolution 

DVD about the deep sea coral banks of the southeast region was completed in August. It 

introduces the subject of deep sea coral habitats off the southeastern U.S. and reviews research 

conducted to date. The SAFMC also completed an initial compilation of benthic habitat 

mapping information. The project, begun in 2001, involved acquisition, integration, and 

distribution of existing bottom habitat information for the South Atlantic Bight outer continental 

shelf and upper continental slope, including information on the locations of deep sea corals. The 

project was conducted in cooperation with the South Carolina Department of Natural Resources, 

 Implementation of the Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program | 9
UNCW, the Georgia Department of Natural Resources, HBOI, and the Florida Fish and Wildlife 

Research Institute. 

C. Gulf of Mexico – South Florida to Texas 

The northern Gulf of Mexico is home to major Lophelia pertusa reefs and other deep sea corals 

(Brooke and Schroeder 2007). The Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council (GMFMC) has 

authority over fisheries in the Federal waters of the Gulf of Mexico off Texas, Louisiana, 

Mississippi, Alabama, and the west coast of Florida. The GMFMC has developed a Coral and 

Coral Reef FMP under which the harvest of all corals, with the exception of a limited harvest of 

some corals (gorgonians), is prohibited. The Council also recommended, and NMFS established 

multiple, HAPCs within its identified EFH and additional protections for shallow water coral and 

sponge communities (e.g., the Florida Middle Grounds and the Flower Garden Banks and 

McGrail Bank off the coasts of Texas and Louisiana; Figure 4). The Council has established a 

special Coral Scientific and Statistical Committee to review new areas that might be designated 

as HAPCs and recommend measures to minimize fishing impacts to these areas. 

The Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary includes three banks in the northwestern 

Gulf of Mexico, and includes zooxanthellate corals occurring from the crest to at least 52 meters, 

as well as deeper communities of octocorals and black corals. Regulations implementing FMPs 

developed by the GMFMC, in cooperation with the Sanctuary govern fishing within the 

Sanctuary. In addition to the Sanctuary, selected deeper banks were designated as HAPCs within 

EFH in 2006 based on the occurrence of deeper water corals. 

D. U.S. Caribbean Region – U.S. Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, 

and Navassa Island 

The U.S. Caribbean includes the waters surrounding Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands 

(USVI), and Navassa Island. Navassa Island is managed as a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

National Wildlife Refuge. The Caribbean Fishery Management Council (CFMC) has authority 

over fisheries in Federal waters surrounding the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and the USVI. 

NMFS manages corals under the Corals and Reef Associated Plants and Invertebrates of Puerto 

Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands FMP developed by the CFMC, and regulations implementing 

theses FMPs prohibit bottom tending gear and anchoring in six seasonally closed areas to protect 

coral habitat at depths beyond 30 meters. Management of three of these areas is shared with the 

Government of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. 

NOAA—in collaboration with the CFMC, the National Park Service, and the USVI and Puerto 

Rico territorial governments—is exploring and characterizing habitats down to 300 meters 

(NOAA 2007). In 2007, the R/V Nancy Foster surveyed two of the three managed areas off the 

west coast of Puerto Rico, producing bathymetry and video showing zooxanthellate coral growth 

at over 90 meters. Beyond these efforts, there has been limited research on true deep sea corals 

(i.e., species that lack symbiotic zooxanthellae) in waters of the U.S. Caribbean (Lutz and 

 REPORT TO CONGRESS | 10
Ginsberg 2007) (see Figure 5). The Council is considering protection of Bajo de Cico—an area 

west of Puerto Rico that may contain deep sea coral resources. 

E. U.S. Pacific Islands – Hawaii and the United States Pacific 

Islands 

Compared to the state of knowledge of similar resources off the continental United States, the 

deep sea coral resources of the Hawaiian Archipelago are poorly studied, and almost nothing is 

known of the deep sea coral resources of the other U.S. Pacific Islands. Gorgonians and black 

corals are the principal structure-forming species on deep Hawaiian slopes and seamounts 

(Parrish and Baco 2007). The Western Pacific Fishery Management Council (WPFMC) has 

authority over fisheries in most Federal waters around the State of Hawaii, the Territory of 

American Samoa, the Territory of Guam, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, 

and the U.S. Pacific Island possessions. Many of the uninhabited U.S. Pacific islands are 

managed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as National Wildlife Refuges. The fisheries in 

Federal waters over which the Council has authority have the oldest and most comprehensive 

restrictions designed to protect coral reef habitats from adverse impacts of fishing gear of any 

region in the United States. In 1983, the Council recommended, and NMFS implemented a 

prohibition on the use of trawl gear, bottom-set long-lines, and bottom-set gill nets—all 

identified as threats to deep sea corals—within all waters in their region of the U.S. EEZ. 

Hawaii has had the only significant U.S. commercial harvests of black and precious corals: 

black, pink, and gold corals occur throughout the Hawaiian Archipelago (Figure 6). These 

resources have been managed since 1981 through regulations implementing the WPFMC’s 

Precious Corals FMP and complementary State of Hawaii administrative rules. Research begun 

in 2001 and supported by WPFMC discovered an invasive soft coral, Carijoa riisei that had 

overgrown and killed over 50 percent of commercial black coral colonies in the Auau Channel 

(Kahng and Grigg 2005). Surveys of the same areas in 2006 suggest the impact of C. riisei on 

black corals has not worsened from previous surveys, and the situation may have stabilized or 

abated slightly (WPRFMC 2006). The extent of impacts of C. riisei on black corals beyond the 

Auau channel is unknown. The Council is working with researchers from the University of 

Hawaii’s Institute of Marine Biology to define reproductive characteristics of black corals to 

further guide management of the species. 

The Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands is 

the nation’s largest comprehensively protected marine area. It is managed jointly by three cotrustees—the Department of Commerce; Department of the Interior and the State of Hawaii. The 

Monument contains rich deep sea coral resources. In November 2007, a collaborative research 

cruise by NOAA and the Hawaii Undersea Research Laboratory discovered new deep sea coral 

and sponge beds 1,000 to 2,000 meters below the surface. 

 Implementation of the Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program | 11
F. U.S. West Coast Region – Washington, Oregon, and 

California 

The seafloor off Washington, Oregon, and California contains extensive deep sea coral 

communities as documented in NOAA trawl survey catch records, supplemented by museum 

collections and underwater vehicle exploration (Whitmire and Clarke 2007; Figure 7). The 

Pacific Fishery Management Council (PFMC) has authority over fisheries in Federal waters of 

this region. The Council, working with other authorities in the region, has recommended several 

management measures to minimize adverse impacts from fishing that have benefited deep sea 

coral habitats, including marine protected areas, reductions in fishing effort, and gear restrictions. 

In June 2006, NOAA implemented the PFMC’s comprehensive plan to protect EFH for 

groundfish (PFMC 2005, 2006) (see Figure 8). The plan was developed in collaboration with 

non-governmental organizations (NGOs), the fishing industry, and the National Marine 

Sanctuary Program to focus largely on pristine or untrawled habitat and habitats such as deep sea 

corals that are vulnerable to impacts from human activities. Over 130,000 square miles (336,700 

km2

) are now protected from impacts from bottom trawls, with selected areas protected from all 

fishing gears that contact the bottom. Gear restrictions include coast-wide prohibitions on gear 

types known to have a high impact on benthic habitats, including dredge gear, beam trawl, and 

large footrope bottom trawl. The establishment of HAPCs and publication of recommended 

conservation measures (PFMC 2005) also allows NOAA to put extra focus on these areas in 

conducting consultations on the impacts of Federal activities other than fishing on EFH. 

NOAA manages five National Marine Sanctuaries (NMS) on the West Coast: the Channel 

Islands NMS, the Monterey Bay NMS, the Gulf of the Farallones NMS, the Cordell Bank NMS, 

and the Olympic Coast NMS. All contain deep sea corals. NOAA has proposed incorporating 

Davidson Seamount — a volcanic seamount that is home to over 20 species of deep sea corals, 

as well as large sponge fields and deep sea fishes — into the Monterey Bay National Marine 

Sanctuary. Incorporating the Davidson Seamount would provide additional protection from 

impacts other than fishing and highlight the seamount’s importance. 

In July 2007, NOAA published a report on observations of deep sea coral and sponge 

assemblages in the Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary (Brancato et al. 2007) (see Figure 

9). In September 2007, Olympic Coast Sanctuary staff presented preliminary findings of their 

deep sea coral/sponge information to the PFMC and stated they would supply the new coral data 

as it is processed. On the basis of the Sanctuary’s information, the environmental group Oceana 

requested that the PFMC initiate an interim EFH review process to protect the newly discovered 

coral and sponge assemblages. In addition, Oceana asked NOAA, working with the Council, to 

take emergency regulatory action to protect deep sea glass sponges in Grays Canyon off Grays 

Harbor, Washington. The PFMC will address Oceana’s requests when they review EFH 

designations in 2008. 

In 2007 the National Marine Sanctuary Program and the Olympic Coast Sanctuary began 

working with the four coastal treaty tribes of Washington State (Makah, Quileute, Hoh, and 

Quinault) and with the State of Washington to collaborate on mutual research and resource 

management interests. This new Intergovernmental Policy Council (IPC) has stated that one 

priority concern is deep sea coral and sponge communities and their relationships to the 

 REPORT TO CONGRESS | 12
Federally recognized usual and accustomed fishing areas of the respective tribes. As comanagers of the fishery resource within the sanctuary, the IPC has expressed an interest in both 

the long-term research needs related to the distribution, abundance, and ecological role of corals 

and the implications for fishery management. 

 

G. Alaska Region – Gulf of Alaska, Bering Sea, and the Aleutian 

Islands 

The U.S. EEZ around Alaska includes the Gulf of Alaska, Aleutian Islands, and Eastern Bering 

Sea in the Pacific, and the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas in the Arctic. Deep sea corals appear to be 

rare in the Arctic, but are an important structural component of other Alaskan marine ecosystems 

(Figure 10) (Stone and Shotwell 2007). U.S. gorgonian deep sea corals reach their highest 

diversity in the Aleutian Islands, often forming structurally complex “coral gardens” with lace 

corals, sponges, and other sedentary taxa. Many of these corals and sponges are unidentified and 

many are probably examples of undescribed species. The North Pacific Fishery Management 

Council (NPFMC) has authority over fisheries in the 900,000-square-mile (2,330,989 km2) EEZ 

off Alaska. 

In 2006, NOAA approved measures recommended by the Council to minimize the adverse 

effects of fishing on EFH, closing nearly 380,000 square miles (over 980,000 km2

) to bottom 

trawling. These areas, along with existing fisheries closures (Figure 11) are thought to include 

significant deep sea coral habitats on seamounts, continental slopes, and ocean ridges. Within 

this suite of measures, the Aleutian Islands Habitat Conservation Area (AIHCA) prohibits the 

use of non-pelagic trawl fishing gear in designated areas of the Aleutian Islands to reduce the 

effects of fishing on deep sea corals, sponges, and hard bottom habitats, while allowing 

historically-fished areas to remain open. Covering approximately 370,000 square miles (over 

950,000 km2), the AIHCA represents the largest effort to conserve relatively undisturbed bottom 

habitats in the nation. In March 2007, the Alaska Board of Fisheries adopted regulations at the 

request of NOAA and the NPFMC to apply management measures of the AIHCA to statemanaged fisheries in both state and Federal waters. Ongoing work will assess the change in deep 

sea coral bycatch by commercial fishing vessels as a result of the conservation measures. 

In 2006, five additional closures were implemented that protect deep sea coral habitat, 

encompassing almost 17,000 square miles (44,000 km2

): the Aleutian Islands Coral Habitat 

Protection Areas, Bowers Ridge Habitat Conservation Zone, Alaska Seamount Habitat 

Protection Areas, Gulf of Alaska Coral Habitat Protection Areas, and the Gulf of Alaska Slope 

Habitat Conservation Areas. Within these areas, fishing with bottom contact gear by Federally 

permitted vessels is prohibited in the Habitat Protection Areas, fishing with non-pelagic trawl 

gear is prohibited in the Habitat Conservation Areas, and fishing with mobile bottom contact 

gear is prohibited in the Habitat Conservation Zone. 

In 2007, the NPFMC recommended new measures to protect benthic fish habitat in the Bering 

Sea from the potential effects of bottom trawling and to provide the opportunity to further study 

the effects of such trawling on bottom habitat. These measures would include areas closed to 

bottom trawling in locations that have not been previously fished with such gear and in nearshore 

 Implementation of the Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program | 13
bottom habitat areas that support subsistence marine resources (Figure 11). Measures adopted by 

the Council would also establish the Northern Bering Sea Research Area for studying the 

impacts of bottom trawling on benthic habitat. True soft corals are the major species occurring 

in these areas (Stone and Shotwell 2007), and the closures were not designed specifically to 

protect deep sea corals. In February 2008, NOAA issued a proposed rule that would implement 

the Bering Sea habitat conservation measures and requested public comment. The Council also 

endorsed efforts by the trawl industry to develop gear modifications that raise the trawl sweeps 

off the bottom. In a separate effort, a NOAA scientist participated in a 2007 Greenpeace-funded 

expedition to explore benthic habitat on the Bering Sea shelf break and slope that documented 

some deep sea coral and sponge habitats in the Pribilof and Zhemchug Canyons. 

Federal Interagency Cooperation

NOAA partners with other Federal agencies to increase understanding of and protection for deep 

sea corals. In April 2007, the National Science and Technology Council’s Joint Subcommittee 

on Ocean Science and Technology (JSOST) established an Interagency Board on Deep Sea Coral 

and other Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems. NOAA co-chairs the Board with the Department of 

the Interior’s Minerals Management Service (MMS). The Board has identified and begun work 

on major opportunities for enhanced interagency collaboration in the Gulf of Mexico and on 

international issues related to vulnerable marine ecosystems in areas beyond national 

jurisdiction. The Board will coordinate interagency review of NOAA’s Deep Coral and Sponge 

Research and Management Strategic Plan. 

NOAA has also partnered on research and mapping with other Federal agencies, particularly the 

Department of the Interior’s U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and MMS to advance deep sea 

coral conservation and research. NOAA and USGS developed a Cold-Water Coral Geographic 

Database. The first version, which included deep sea coral occurrences in the Gulf of Mexico 

and Western Atlantic, was completed in 2007. NOAA has partnered with the United Nations 

Environment Program (UNEP) World Conservation Monitoring Centre to support development 

of a Global Cold-Water Coral Database that incorporates data from the NOAA/USGS database 

(http://bure.unep-wcmc.org/marine/coldcoral/Run.htm).

In 2007, NOAA and MMS continued joint exploration and study of deep sea coral and 

hydrocarbon seep communities in the Gulf of Mexico. This collaboration is reflected in recent 

and upcoming reports on deep stony corals in the Gulf (MMS 2007; USGS in prep.) and 

provides the basis for developing a follow-on project in which NOAA, MMS, and USGS will 

collaborate. 

Also in 2007, NOAA teamed with the Institute for Exploration, Immersion Presents, and the U.S. 

Navy for an expedition in the northwest Gulf of Mexico. The mission explored deep hard 

bottom formations used as habitat for fish and benthic organisms. It combined on-site and 

remote science, education, and outreach activities and involved two surface ships and the Navy 

nuclear-powered submarine NR-1. 

 REPORT TO CONGRESS | 14
International Activities

In the late 1990s, the international community began to recognize the need for more measures to 

protect deep sea coral ecosystems. Efforts through the United Nations General Assembly 

(UNGA) culminated in a December 2006 Sustainable Fisheries Resolution (Box 3) that calls 

upon States and Regional Fisheries Management Organizations and Agreements (RFMO/As) to 

ensure the sustainable management of fish stocks and the protection of vulnerable marine 

ecosystems (VMEs), including seamounts, hydrothermal vents and cold-water corals, from 

destructive fishing practices, recognizing the immense importance and value of deep sea 

ecosystems and the biodiversity they contain. 

Box 3. UNITED NATIONS GENERAL ASSEMBLY SUSTAINABLE FISHERIES 

RESOLUTION 61/105 (2006) 

The UNGA Resolution calls upon RFMO/As to: 

• Assess whether individual bottom fishing activities would have significant adverse 

impacts on VMEs and, if so, manage such fishing to prevent such impacts or not 

authorize it to proceed; 

• Identify VMEs and determine if bottom fishing would cause significant adverse impacts 

to either the VMEs or the long term sustainability of deep sea fish stocks through, among 

others, by improving scientific research, data collection and sharing, and through new 

and exploratory fisheries; 

• Close areas to bottom fishing where VMEs are known to occur or are likely to occur 

based on the best available scientific information, and not allow such fishing to proceed 

unless conservation and management measures are in place to prevent significant 

adverse impacts on VMEs; 

• Cease bottom fishing if a VME is encountered and report the location so that appropriate 

measures can be adopted in respect of the relevant site; and 

• Make the relevant measures adopted in accordance with resolution 61/105 public. 

The text calls for RFMO/As to comply with these provisions no later than December 31, 2008. 

States participating in negotiations to establish new RFMO/As competent to regulate bottom 

fisheries should implement interim measures, consistent with the above provisions, by December 

31, 2007. Further, flag States should adopt and implement the above measures or cease 

authorizing bottom fishing in areas where there is no competent RFMO/A or where no 

interim measures have been adopted in conjunction with new RFMO/A negotiations. 

plement the above measures or cease 

authorizing bottom fishing in areas where there is no competent RFMO/A or where no 

interim measures have been adopted in conjunction with new RFMO/A negotiations. 

NOAA, in partnership with the State Department, has been actively involved in regional 

negotiations to implement the provisions of the 2006 UNGA resolution. Appendix 2 shows steps 

adopted by several RFMOs to protect vulnerable marine ecosystems, including deep sea corals. 

In addition, the U.S. is currently participating in negotiations to establish two new regional 

fisheries management organizations or arrangements to manage bottom fisheries: one in the 

Northwest Pacific and one in the South Pacific. In 2007, both organizations agreed to interim 

 Implementation of the Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program | 15
non-binding provisions that are fully consistent with UNGA resolution 61/105, as well as 

provisions for data collection and monitoring, and measures to freeze current bottom fishing, 

both in terms of effort or catch and areas fished. The U.S. efforts on these issues have been 

guided by the President’s Memorandum to the Secretaries of State and Commerce (Appendix 3), 

which highlights the importance of addressing destructive fishing practices that destroy the longterm natural productivity of fish stocks or habitats such as seamounts, corals, and sponge fields 

for short term gain. 

The U.S. is working through the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations to 

develop technical guidelines on the management of deep-sea fisheries in the high seas, including 

criteria for identifying VMEs, including deep sea corals, beyond areas under national jurisdiction 

and the impacts of fishing activities on such ecosystems, in order to facilitate the adoption and 

the implementation of conservation and management measures by RFMO/As and flag States 

pursuant the UNGA Resolution 61/105. In February 2008, the U.S. participated in a Technical 

Consultation to finalize International Guidelines for the Management of Deep-Sea Fisheries in 

the High Seas. 

Pursuant to the MSRA, NMFS published regulations codifying the legislative definition of 

“Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) fishing,” which includes fishing activities that have 

an adverse impact on seamounts, hydrothermal vents, and cold water corals located beyond 

national jurisdiction, for which there are no applicable conservation or management measures or 

in areas with no applicable international fishery management organization or agreement. The 

Department of Commerce, in consultation with the Department of State and other relevant 

agencies, is developing regulations to implement measures of the Act addressing IUU fishing, 

including proposed additions to the legislative definition. 

The U.S. is working through the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of 

Fauna and Flora (CITES) to address the impacts of trade on deep sea corals. All black, 

hydrozoan, and stony corals are included in Appendix II of CITES. These listings allow trade 

under permit but are designed to ensure the harvest and trade is legal and non-detrimental to wild 

populations. In 2007, NOAA, working with the Department of State and the Department of 

Interior’s U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, prepared a U.S. proposal to add precious red and pink 

corals of the genus Corallium to CITES Appendix II. This proposal was narrowly defeated in 

the CITES 14th Conference of the Parties in June 2007. The U.S. will consider re-submission of 

a listing proposal to the next CITES Conference of the Parties based on the results of two 

planned technical workshops. 

NOAA is working actively with the State Department and other agencies in other fora, including 

the International Coral Reef Initiative, Census of Marine Life, and International Council for the 

Exploration of the Sea (ICES) to enhance understanding and conservation of deep sea coral and 

other deep sea ecosystems. NOAA chairs the Northwest Atlantic Fishery Organization/ICES 

Working Group on Deepwater Ecology, which is compiling a database and map of areas where 

biological research/survey, including deep sea coral research, has occurred in the deep water of 

the North Atlantic. 

 REPORT TO CONGRESS | 16
8. Conclusions and Next Steps 

Exploration and research by NOAA and others have revealed that deep sea corals form habitats 

of remarkable biological diversity along continental shelves, slopes, and seamounts around the 

world. Their potential biological, economic, and commercial importance make them national 

and international assets of particular conservation interest. To this end, the National Research 

Council, Pew Commission, and U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy recommended enhanced 

research on and protection of deep sea corals. The President’s Ocean Action Plan calls for 

increased efforts to “research, survey, and protect deep sea coral communities.” In response to 

these recommendations and calls to action, Congress authorized establishment of a Deep Sea 

Coral Research and Technology Program under the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and 

Management Reauthorization Act of 2006, Public Law 109-479 (MSRA). 

This report reflects NOAA’s growing understanding of the importance of deep sea coral 

ecosystems, and NOAA’s commitment to ensuring their enhanced conservation. NOAA has 

both the statutory authority and the capacity to improve understanding and management of these 

systems. 

NOAA is developing a Deep Coral and Sponge Research and Management Strategic Plan to 

guide implementation of the Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program. The Strategic 

Plan will identify goals, priorities, and approaches to guide NOAA’s research, management, and 

international cooperation activities as they relate to deep sea coral and sponge communities and 

the ecosystems of which they are part. The primary goal of the Strategic Plan is to improve 

research, conservation, and management of deep sea coral and sponge communities, while 

balancing long-term uses of the marine ecosystem with maintenance of biodiversity. The 

Strategic Plan builds upon research and conservation priorities NOAA has identified 

internationally, nationally, and within each region. 

Although important management measures have been implemented recently, much more needs 

to be done. NOAA has requested $1.5 million in the President’s Fiscal Year 2009 Budget to 

begin to implement priority activities of the Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program: 

1. Identify existing research on, and known locations of, deep sea corals. 

NOAA has made significant strides in bringing together existing information through The 

State of Deep Coral Ecosystems of the United States. Expanding these efforts to analyze 

data, integrate new findings, and make data available in usable formats will require 

development of GIS databases for use by the research, management, and education 

communities. NOAA will build on experience form NOAA’s Coral Reef Information System 

(CoRIS) and on existing database partnerships with USGS and UNEP’s World Conservation 

Monitoring Centre. 

2. Locate and map the distribution and abundance of deep sea corals. 

NOAA and the Regional Fishery Management Councils have identified mapping and 

characterization of deep sea coral habitats as a basic requirement for an ecosystem approach 

to management. This will require significant resources and dedicated ship-based mapping 

surveys to locate deep sea coral communities, including high-resolution acoustic mapping 

 Implementation of the Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program | 17
with ground-truthing and finer scale characterization via remotely operated vehicles or 

submersibles and other instruments. High-resolution mapping will build on existing lowresolution data and predictive models. NOAA has identified particular needs for mapping 

deep sea coral areas off the southeastern U.S. and within existing National Marine 

Sanctuaries. NOAA plans to begin this effort with one deep sea coral mapping, 

characterization and research cruise. Thorough mapping and characterization in a region will 

require research conducted over multiple years. 

3. Monitor activities in locations where deep sea corals are known or are likely to 

occur. 

NOAA, assisted by recommendations from the Regional Fishery Management Councils, has 

primary responsibility for managing fisheries in the U.S. EEZ. In many regions, certain 

fishing practices, especially the use of mobile bottom-tending gear, can adversely affect deep 

sea corals and the marine organisms associated with them. Bycatch of deep sea corals 

provides important information on the location of corals and impacts of these fisheries. 

In cooperation with fishing industry participants, NOAA will use currently collected 

information to map the distribution and intensity of fishing practices known to impact deep 

sea coral communities and analyze reports of coral bycatch (all efforts would ensure 

appropriate confidentiality of fishing statistics). A pilot project on the West Coast to train 

observers in deep sea coral and sponge identification for documenting bycatch is yielding 

promising results and should be expanded to other regions. Subsequent efforts could build 

upon interagency partnerships to expand mapping and monitoring to human activities other 

than fishing that are likely to impact deep sea corals. 

4. Conduct research, including cooperative research with fishing industry 

participants, on deep sea corals and related species, and on survey methods. 

Research conducted in association with dedicated mapping and characterization cruises will 

focus on the ecology of deep sea corals and their role and function in supporting various life 

stages of managed fish stocks. Understanding the role that deep corals play in supporting 

sustainable fisheries and healthy fish populations is a priority for NOAA. NOAA will also 

coordinate and integrate analysis of relevant information from mapping and research efforts 

conducted under other mandates. Identifying technologies to assist with locating and 

characterizing deep sea coral communities, and working with partners to develop such 

capabilities is a long-term NOAA priority.

5. Develop technologies or methods to assist fishing industry participants in 

reducing interactions between fishing gear and deep sea corals. 

NOAA currently works with fishing industry participants on technologies to reduce bycatch 

and gear damage to habitats. Given the fragility of deep sea coral habitats and the expected 

long recovery times, priority under the Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program 

will be given to approaches that help participants avoid deep sea coral areas, to complement 

technological efforts underway through other programs. 

Program activities will be prioritized in areas where management needs are greatest and where 

deep sea corals are known to occur or where scientific modeling or other methods predict deep 

 REPORT TO CONGRESS | 18
sea corals are likely to be present. Where necessary management measures should minimize 

human impacts to the currently known resources. 

NOAA recommends that the Regional Fishery Management Councils evaluate areas for 

protection known to contain deep sea corals as allowed under discretionary provisions of the 

MSA as amended (Box 4). An initial list of areas with limited protection from interactions with 

fishing gear is included in Appendix 1. Many of the areas listed are being considered for 

designation as HAPCs, which could afford additional protection for these areas from human 

activities including fishing. 

Box 4. MSA SECTION 303(b) AS AMMENDED BY THE MAGNUSON-STEVENS 

FISHERIES CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT ACT OF 2006. 

DICRETIONARY PROVISIONS OF FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLANS 

TO ALLOW DEEP SEA CLOSURE AREAS 

303 (b) DISCRETIONARY PROVISIONS.--Any fishery management plan which is prepared by 

any Council, or by the Secretary, with respect to any fishery, may—... 

(2) (A) designate zones where, and periods when, fishing shall be limited, or shall not be 

permitted, or shall be permitted only by specified types of fishing vessels or with 

specified types and quantities of fishing gear; 

(B) designate such zones in areas where deep sea corals are identified under section 408, to 

protect deep sea corals from physical damage from fishing gear or to prevent loss or 

damage to such fishing gear from interactions with deep sea corals, after considering 

long-term sustainable uses of fishery resources in such areas; 

In addition to domestic activities, NOAA will continue to work with international partners to 

enhance understanding and conservation of vulnerable marine ecosystems, including deep sea 

coral and sponge ecosystems. NOAA and the State Department will continue to actively engage 

in negotiations to protect these ecosystems in various RFMO/As and through other regional and 

multilateral organizations. 

NOAA recognizes that deep sea sponges can play ecological roles similar to those of deep sea 

corals, thus contributing to ocean biodiversity. Deep sea coral and sponge ecosystems also face 

similar threats. The vulnerability of deep sea sponge fields to destructive fishing practices was 

recognized in the President’s 2006 Memorandum (Appendix 3). NOAA plans to collect 

complementary information, if available, on high biodiversity, deep sea sponge habitats. 

 Implementation of the Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program | 19
References 

Auster PJ (2005) Are deep-water corals important habitats for fishes? Pages 747-760 in 

Freiwald A, Roberts JM (eds.) Cold-water Corals and Ecosystems, Springer-Verlag, 

Berlin Heidelberg 

Brancato MS, Bowlby CE, Hyland J, Intelmann SS, Brenkman K (2007) Observations of deep 

coral and sponge assemblages in Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary, Washington. 

Cruise Report: NOAA Ship McArthur II Cruise AR06-06/07. Marine Sanctuaries 

Conservation Series NMSP-07-03. NOAA National Marine Sanctuary Program, Silver 

Spring, Maryland 

Ehrlich H, Etnoyer P, Litvinov SD, Olennikove M, Domaschke H, Hanke T, Born R, Meissner 

H, Worch H (2006) Biomaterial structure in deep-sea bamboo coral (Gorgonaceas: 

Isididae): perspectives for the development of bone implants. Materialwissenschaft und 

Werkstofftechnik 37(6):553-557 

Fosså JH, Mortensen PB, Furevik DM (2002) The deep-water coral Lophelia pertusa in 

Norwegian waters: distribution and fishery impacts. Hydrobiologia 471:1-12 

Federal Register (FR) 2005. Notice of NMFS Decision and Response to Public Comments on the 

Oceana Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Rulemaking Petition. (Vol. 70 No. 131; 39700-

39714) July 11, 2005. 

Freiwald A, Fosså JH, Grehan A, Koslow T, Roberts JM (2004) Cold-water coral reefs. United 

Nations Environment Programme-World Conservation Monitoring Centre. Cambridge, 

UK 

Grehan AJ, Unnithan V, Olu-Le Roy K, Opderbecke J (2005) Fishing impacts on Irish deepwater 

coral reefs: Making a case for coral conservation. Pages 819-832 in Barnes PW, Thomas 

JP (eds.), Benthic habitats and the effects of fishing. American Fisheries Society 

Symposium 41, Bethesda, Maryland 

Hall-Spencer J, Allain V, Fosså JH (2001) Trawling damage to northeast Atlantic ancient coral 

reefs. Proceeding of the Royal Society of London Series B 269:507-511 

Hecker B, Blechschmidt G (1980). Final historical coral report for the canyon assessment study 

in the Mid- and North Atlantic areas of the U.S. outer continental shelf: epifauna of the 

northeastern U.S. continental margin. Appendix A. In: Canyon Assessment Study. U.S. 

Department of Interior Bureau of Land Management, Washington, DC, USA, No. BLMAA551-CT8-49. 

Hecker B, Logan DT, Gandarillas FE, Gibson PR (1983). Megafaunal assemblages in Lydonia 

Canyon, Baltimore Canyon, and selected slope areas. Pages 1-140. In: Canyon and slope 

processes study: Vol. III, biological processes. Final report for U.S. Department of 

Interior, Minerals Management Service. No. 14-12-001-29178. 

 REPORT TO CONGRESS | 20
Hourigan TF, Lumsden SE, Dorr G, Bruckner AW, Brooke S, Stone RP (2007) Deep Coral 

Ecosystems of the United States: Introduction and National Overview. Pages 1-65 in 

Lumsden SE, Hourigan TF, Bruckner AW, Dorr G (eds.), The State of Deep Coral 

Ecosystems of the United States. NOAA Technical Memorandum CRCP-3, Silver 

Spring, Maryland 

Husebø A, Nøttestad L, Fosså JH, Furevik DM, Jørgensen SB (2002) Distribution and 

abundance of fish in deep-sea coral habitats. Hydrobiologia 471:91-99 

Kahng SE, Grigg RW (2005) Impact of an alien octocoral, Carijoa riisei, on black corals in 

Hawaii. Coral Reefs 24:556-562 

Koenig CC, Shephard AN, Reed JK, Coleman FC, Brooke SD, Brusher J, Scanion KM (2005) 

Habitat and fish populations of the deep-sea Oculina coral ecosystem of the Western 

Atlantic. Pages 795-805 in Barnes PW, Thomas JP (eds.), Benthic habitats and the 

effects of fishing. American Fisheries Society Symposium 41, Bethesda, Maryland

Koslow JA, Boehlert GW, Gordon JDM, Haedrich RL, Lorance P, Parin N (2000) Continental 

slope and deep-sea fisheries: implications for a fragile ecosystem. ICES Journal of 

Marine Science 57:548-557 

Krieger KJ (2001) Coral (Primnoa) impacted by fishing gear in the Gulf of Alaska. Pages 106-

116 in Willison et al. (eds.) Proceedings of the First International Symposium on DeepSea Corals, Ecology Action Centre and Nova Scotia Museum, Halifax, Nova Scotia 

Krieger KJ, Wing BL (2002) Megafaunal associations with deepwater corals (Primnoa spp.) in 

the Gulf of Alaska. Hydrobiologia 471:83-90 

Lumsden, SE, Hourigan TF, Bruckner AW, Dorr G (eds.) (2007) The State of Deep Coral 

Ecosystems of the United States. NOAA Technical Memorandum CRCP-3, Silver 

Spring, Maryland 

Lutz SJ, Ginsburg RN (2007) State of Deep Coral Ecosystems in the Caribbean Region: Puerto 

Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Pages 307-365. In: Lumsden SE, Hourigan TF, 

Bruckner AW and Dorr G (eds.) The State of Deep Coral Ecosystems of the United 

States. NOAA Technical Memorandum CRCP-3, Silver Spring, Maryland 

Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Reauthorization Act (P.L. 109-479). 

Available online at: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/msa2007 

Marine Fisheries Advisory Committee (MAFAC) (2005) Cold Water Coral Report, MAFAC 

Meeting. Honolulu, Hawaii, January 11-14, 2005. 

McDonough JJ, Puglise K (2003) Summary: Deep-Sea Corals Workshop. International Planning 

and Collaboration Workshop for the Gulf of Mexico and the North Atlantic Ocean. 

 Implementation of the Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program | 21
Galway, Ireland, January 16-17, 2003. U.S. Dep. Commerce, NOAA Tech. Memo, 

NMFS-F/SPO-60 

Minerals Management Service (MMS) (2007) Characterization of Northern Gulf of Mexico 

Deepwater hard-Bottom Communities with Emphasis on Lophelia Coral. 

http://www.gomr.mms.gov/homepg/regulate/environ/techsumm/rec_pubs.html 

National Research Council (NRC) (2002) Effects of trawling and dredging on seafloor habitat. 

National Academy Press, Washington D.C. 

New England Fishery Management Council (2007) Essential Fish Habitat (EFH) Omnibus 

Amendment; Phase 1 

NOAA (2007) Benthic Habitat Characterization and Bathymetry of Mid-water Habitats in the 

USVI and Puerto Rico (2007). Project on-line prospectus, accessed July 2007. Available 

on-line at: http://www8.nos.noaa.gov/nccos/npe/projectdetail.aspx?id=402&fy=2007

Pacific Fishery Management Council (PFMC) (2005) Pacific coast groundfish fishery 

management plan: essential fish habitat designation and minimization of adverse impacts: 

Final environmental impact statement. Pacific Fishery Management Council, Portland, 

Oregon 

Pacific Fishery Management Council (PFMC) (2006) Amendment 19 to the Pacific coast 

groundfish fishery management plan: Essential fish habitat designation and minimization 

of adverse impacts. Pacific Fishery Management Council, Portland, Oregon 

Packer DB, Boelke D, Guida V, McGee LA (2007) State of Deep Coral Ecosystems in the 

Northeastern U.S. Region: Maine to Cape Hatteras. Pages 195-232. In: Lumsden SE, 

Hourigan TF, Bruckner AW and Dorr G (eds.) The State of Deep Coral Ecosystems of 

the United States. NOAA Technical Memorandum CRCP-3, Silver Spring, Maryland 

Parrish FA, Baco AR (2007) State of Deep Coral Ecosystems in the Western Pacific Region: 

Hawaii and the United States Pacific Islands. Pages 155-194. In: Lumsden SE, Hourigan 

TF, Bruckner AW and Dorr G (eds.) The State of Deep Coral Ecosystems of the United 

States. NOAA Technical Memorandum CRCP-3, Silver Spring, Maryland 

Puglise, KA, Brock RJ, McDonough JJ (2005) Identifying critical information needs and 

developing institutional partnerships to further the understanding of Atlantic deep-sea 

coral ecosystems. Pages1129-1140 in Freiwald A, Roberts JM (eds.) Cold-water Corals 

and Ecosystems, Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg 

Risk MJ, Heikoop JM, Snow MG, Beukens B (2002) Lifespans and growth patterns of two deep 

sea corals: Primnoa resedaeformis and Desmophyllum cristagalli. Hydrobiologia 

471:125-131 

 REPORT TO CONGRESS | 22
Rogers AD (1999) The biology of Lophelia pertusa (Linnaeus 1758) and other deep-water reefforming corals and impacts from human activities. International Review of 

Hydrobiology 84:315-406 

Ross SW and Nizinski MS (2007) State of Deep Coral Ecosystems in the Southeast Region: 

Cape Hatteras to Southeast Florida. Pages 233-269. In: Lumsden SE, Hourigan TF, 

Bruckner AW and Dorr G (eds.) The State of Deep Coral Ecosystems of the United 

States. NOAA Technical Memorandum CRCP-3, Silver Spring, Maryland 

Scanlon KM, Waller RG, Sirotek AR, Knisel JM, and Alesandrini S (in prep.) USGS ColdWater Coral Geographic Database – Gulf of Mexico and Western North Atlantic, Version 

1.0, U.S. Geological Survey Open-file Report OF2007- XXX. 

Stiles ML, Yitalo-Ward H, Faure P, Hirshfield MF (2007) There’s no place like home: Deep 

seafloor ecosystems of New England and the Mid-Atlantic. Oceana. Washington D.C. 36 

pp. 

Stone RP (2006) Coral habitat in the Aleutian Islands of Alaska: depth distribution, finescale 

species association, and fisheries interactions. Coral Reefs 25:229–238 

Stone RP and Shotwell SK (2007) State of Deep Coral Ecosystems in the Alaska Region: Gulf of 

Alaska, Bering Sea and the Aleutian Islands. Pages 65-108. In: Lumsden SE, Hourigan 

TF, Bruckner AW and Dorr G (eds.) The State of Deep Coral Ecosystems of the United 

States. NOAA Technical Memorandum CRCP-3, Silver Spring, Maryland 

Theroux RB, Wigley RL (1998) Quantitative composition and distribution of the macrobenthic 

invertebrate fauna of the continental shelf ecosystems of the northeastern United States. 

NOAA Technical Report NMFS-140. Silver Spring, Maryland 

Tissot BN, Yoklavich MM, Love MS, York K, Amend M (2006) Benthic invertebrates that form 

habitat on deep banks off southern California, with special reference to deep sea coral. 

Fishery Bulletin 104(2):167-181 

UN General Assembly Resolution 61/105 (UNGA 61/105) (2006) Sustainable fisheries, 

including through the 1995 Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the 

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 relating to the 

Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish 

Stocks, and related instruments. Available online at: 

http://www.un.org/Depts/los/general_assembly/general_assembly_resolutions.htm 

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) in prep. Lophelia Reef Megafaunal Community Structure, 

Biotopes, Genetics, Microbial Ecology, and Geology 

Waller R, Watling L, Auster P, Shank T (2007) Anthropogenic impacts on the Corner Rise 

Seamounts, NW Atlantic Ocean. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the 

United Kingdom. 87:1075-1076. 

 Implementation of the Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program | 23
Watling L, Auster P J (2005) Distribution of deepwater alcyonacea off the northeast coast of the 

United States. Pages 279-296. In: Freiwald A, Roberts JM (eds.) Cold-water Corals and 

Ecosystems, Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg 

Watling L, Auster P, Babb I, Skinder C, Hecker B (2003) A geographic database of deepwater 

alcyonaceans of the northeastern U.S. continental shelf and slope. Version 1.0 CD-ROM. 

National Undersea Research Center, University of Connecticut, Groton, USA 

Wheeler AF, Bett BJ, Billett DS, Masson DG, Mayor D (2005) The impact of demersal trawling 

on northeast Atlantic coral habitats: The case of the Darwin Mounds, United Kingdom. 

Pages 807-817. In Barnes PW, Thomas JP (eds.), Benthic habitats and the effects of 

fishing. American Fisheries Society Symposium 41, Bethesda, Maryland 

Whitmire CE and Clarke ME (2007) State of Deep Coral Ecosystems of the U.S. Pacific Coast: 

California to Washington. Pages 109-154. In: Lumsden SE, Hourigan TF, Bruckner AW 

and Dorr G (eds.) The State of Deep Coral Ecosystems of the United States. NOAA 

Technical Memorandum CRCP-3, Silver Spring, Maryland 

Williams B, Risk MJ, Ross SW, Sulak KJ (2006) Deep-water Antipatharians: proxies of 

environmental change. Geology 34(9):773-776 

Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council (WPRFMC) (2006) Black Coral Science 

and Management Workshop. WPRFMC Report. April 18-19, 2006. Honolulu, Hawaii

 REPORT TO CONGRESS | 24
Appendices 

Appendix 1. Deep Sea Coral Areas in the U.S. EEZ with 

Limited Protection from Interactions with Fishing Gear 

Below is an initial list of areas known to contain aggregations of deep sea corals that 

currently have limited or no protection from interactions with bottom-tending fishing gear; 

it is not a complete list of deep sea coral areas. The Councils are considering many of these 

areas for HAPC designations. The areas were identified through NOAA survey and 

research cruises, research by academic and Federal partners, and information collected by 

Regional Fishery Management Council and National Marine Sanctuary processes. 

Detailed location data for deep sea coral resources associated with these general areas will 

be made available to the Councils. NOAA will continue to develop the list as research 

continues and new information on the location of deep sea corals is obtained. 

Fishery 

Management 

Council (FMC) 

Region 

Identified Area with 

Deep Sea Corals 

Current Status of Protection from 

Bottom-Tending Fishing Gear 

Impacts 

Reference 

New England FMC Bear Seamount • NEFMC Proposed HAPC Packer et al. 2007; 

NEFMC 2007. 

Retriever Seamount • NEFMC Proposed HAPC Packer et al. 2007; 

NEFMC 2007. 

Heezen Canyon • NEFMC Proposed HAPC 

Hecker and 

Belchschmidt 1980; 

Watling et al. 2003 ; 

Packer et al. 2007; 

NEFMC 2007 

Lydonia Canyon 

• NE & MAFMC monkfish bottom-trawl & gill net 

closure 

• MAFMC squid, mackerel, & butterfish bottomtrawl closure 

Watling et al. 2003; 

Packer et al. 2007. 

Oceanographer Canyon 

•NE & MAFMC monkfish bottom-trawl & gill net 

closure 

•MAFMC squid, mackerel, & butterfish bottomtrawl closure 

Watling et al. 2003; 

Packer et al. 2007. 

Veatech Canyon2 • NEFMC Proposed HAPC 

Hecker and 

Belchschmidt 1980; 

Hecker et al. 1983; 

Watling et al. 2003; 

Packer et al. 2007; 

NEFMC 2007 

 2

 Deep sea corals were found near the head of this canyon and on nearby slopes, but it is unclear from the 

literature if deep sea corals have been found in the canyon proper. 

 Implementation of the Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program | 25
Fishery 

Management 

Council (FMC) 

Region 

Identified Area with 

Deep Sea Corals 

Current Status of Protection from Reference 

Bottom-Tending Fishing Gear 

Impacts 

New England FMC 

(cont.) Slope near Alvin Canyon • NEFMC Proposed HAPC 

Hecker and 

Belchschmidt 1980; 

Watling et al. 2003; 

Packer et al. 2007; 

NEFMC 2007. 

Western Jordan Basin •No special protections Auster 2005 and 

Watling et al. 2003

Mount Dessert Rock Area •No special protections Auster 2005 and 

Watling et al. 2003 

Georges Tower off the 

Northern Edge of 

Georges Bank 

•No special protections Watling and Auster 

2005 

Mid-Atlantic FMC Toms/Carteret Canyon •NEFMC Proposed HAPC 

Hecker and 

Belchschmidt 1980 ; 

Watling et al. 2003 ; 

Packer et al. 2007 ; 

NEFMC 2007. 

Hendrickson Canyon •NEFMC Proposed HAPC 

Hecker et al. 1983 ; 

Watling et al. 2003 ; 

NEFMC 2007. 

Baltimore Canyon •NEFMC Proposed HAPC 

Watling et al. 2003; 

Packer et al. 2007 ; 

NEFMC 2007 

Norfolk Canyon •NEFMC Proposed HAPC 

Watling et al. 2003; 

Packer et al. 2007 ; 

NEFMC 2007 

South Atlantic FMC North Carolina Lophelia 

banks • SAFMC Proposed HAPC Ross and Nizinski (2007) 

Stetson Banks • SAFMC Proposed HAPC Ross and Nizinski 

(2007) 

Savannah Banks • SAFMC Proposed HAPC Ross and Nizinski 

(2007) 

Cape Canaveral Banks • SAFMC Proposed HAPC Ross and Nizinski 

(2007) 

Miami Terrace • SAFMC Proposed HAPC Ross and Nizinski 

(2007) 

Pourtales Terrace (shared 

with GOM Council) • SAFMC Proposed HAPC Brooke and Schroeder (2007) 

Gulf of Mexico FMC Pourtales Terrace (shared 

with SA Council) • SAFMC Proposed HAPC Brooke and Schroeder (2007) 

Southwest Florida Slope 

Lophelia lithoherms • No special protections Brooke and Schroeder (2007) 

Mississippi-Alabama 

Pinnacles • No special protections Brooke and Schroeder (2007) 

Viosca Knoll • No special protections Brooke and Schroeder 

(2007) 

Mississippi Canyon • No special protections Brooke and Schroeder 

(2007) 

 REPORT TO CONGRESS | 26
Fishery 

Management 

Council (FMC) 

Region 

Identified Area with 

Deep Sea Corals 

Current Status of Protection from Reference 

Bottom-Tending Fishing Gear 

Impacts 

Gulf of Mexico FMC 

(cont) Green Canyon • No special protections Brooke and Schroeder (2007) 

Northwest TexasLouisiana Shelf Banks 

• East and West Flower Garden Banks; 

Stetson Banks and McGrail Bank – 

Anchoring, bottom trawl gear, bottom 

longlines, buoy gear, and all traps/pots 

prohibited to protect coral. 

• Numerous banks in the NW Gulf of Mexico 

harbor significant populations of deep water 

corals, are HAPCs, but do not carry any 

protection measures. These include, but are 

not limited to: 29 Fathom, Elvers, MacNeil, 

Rankin, 28 Fathom, Bright, Geyer, Elvers, 

Sonnier, Bouma, Rezak, Sidner, Parker, 

Alderdice, and Jakkula Banks. 

GMFMC 2006 

Caribbean FMC Mona Passage – Puerto 

Rico • No special protections Lutz and Ginsberg (2007) 

Western Pacific 

FMC 

All areas of the EEZ are 

protected from bottomtending gear. 

• Areas in the EEZ are protected from bottomtending gear 

• Areas within the National Monument are fully 

protected. 

Parrish and Baco 

(2007) 

North Pacific FMC3 Bering Sea Slope 

• The shelf break and upper slope, including 

areas of Pribilof and Zhemchug Canyons, 

contain areas of deep sea corals that 

currently have no special protections. 

• Deeper areas near the base of the slope are 

protected from bottom trawling. 

Stone and Shotwell 

(2007); AFSC (2007) 

Aleutian Island “coral 

gardens” 

• Six Aleutian Island “coral gardens” 

documented in 2002 were protected in 2006 

from all bottom-contact gear, and additional 

vast areas of seafloor are protected from 

bottom trawling. 

• Since 2005, additional coral gardens have 

been discovered, some of which are in areas 

not currently protected. 

Stone and Shotwell 

(2007); AFSC (2007) 

Gulf of Alaska Primnoa 

Coral habitats4

• Bottom-contact gear is prohibited from five 

small areas in the Gulf of Alaska to protect 

red tree corals (Primnoa sp.). Recently 

surveys in and near the protected areas 

indicate that significant coral resources are 

present outside the protected areas. 

Stone and Shotwell 

(2007); AFSC (2007) 

 

3

 NOAA trawl surveys indicate that many deep sea coral habitats occur in the Gulf of Alaska and the Aleutian Island 

chain. The identified areas are only a few that have received more directed field study using ROVs or submersibles. 4

 Including Fairweather Ground and Shatter Ridge (southwest of Cape Ommaney). 

 Implementation of the Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program | 27
 REPORT TO CONGRESS | 28

Fishery 

Management 

Council (FMC) 

Region 

Identified Area with 

Deep Sea Corals 

Current Status of Protection from 

Bottom-Tending Fishing Gear 

Impacts 

Reference 

Pacific FMC5

Olympic Coast National 

Marine Sanctuary 

Octocoral, stylasterid and 

scleractinian (Lophelia 

pertusa) aggregations 

• Portions of the Sanctuary are protected from 

bottom-trawling conducted under regulations 

implementing PFMC management plans. 

• Recent surveys discovered deep sea corals 

outside the no-trawl area. 

Brancato et al. 2007; 

Whitmire and Clarke 

2007 

Monterey Canyon 

(gorgonians) • Certain areas have no special protections Whitmire and Clarke 2007 

Astoria Canyon 

(gorgonians and black 

corals) 

• Certain areas have no special protections Whitmire and Clarke 

2007 

 

5

 NOAA trawl surveys indicate that many deep sea coral habitats occur along the continental shelf edge and slope 

along the West Coast. The identified areas are only a few that have received more directed field study using ROVs 

or submersibles. 
Appendix 2. Measures Implemented by RFMOs to Protect VMEs Incl

Sea Coral Habitats Beyond National Jurisdiction MEASURES INTERIM MEASURES CCAMLR NAFO SEAFO NEAFC NW Pacific SAdopted in 2007:

- Covers bottom fishing activities (the use of any gear that interacts with the bottom); -Thru 11/08, freezes footprint to areas currently approved for bottom fishing; - Starting 12/1/08, all individual bottom fishing activities are subject to assessment by SC; and  - Measure to be reviewed in 2008 (based on SC findings), and in 2009 and biennially thereafter to assess effectiveness of CMMs. 

Adopted in 2006:

Closure of 4 seamounts to all demersal gear for 2007-2010, w/ option for exploratory fishing based on SC advice Adopted in 2007: Coral 

Protection measure only -- closed area to all fishing from 1/08 to 12/12; SC to develop data collection program; Com to review in 2012 based on SC advice Plan for 2008: Special 

meeting in May, 2008 to address measures for VMEs 

Adopted in 2006:

Closure of 10 seamounts to all fishing activity for 2007-2010, w/ option for exploratory fishing based on SC advice. Adopted in 2007:- Given absence of SC advice, 2006 measure areas remain closed; - Fishing cannot resume until VMEs are identified and mapped and impacts assessed. 

Adopted in 2004: Bottom 

trawling and fishing with static gear prohibited in 4 seamounts 1//1/05- 12/31/07 2006 Measure: Collection 

of data on deep seas species during 2007; to be used by NEAFC WG to propose mgmt measures (Note: NEAFC Annual Meeting is 12-16 Nov 2007) 

Adopted 1/07; amended 

10/07: Freeze footprint 

to current bottom fishing effort and seamounts/areas fished; may be exceptions if determined there would be no significant adverse impacts (criteria to be developed); prohibit bottom fishing in areas where VMEs are known/likely to occur by 31 Dec 2008 if c/m measures have not been established to prevent significant adverse impacts; data collection/sharing,; Vessel Monitoring Systems (VMS) (by 12/07). 

A

ffcc((tafVompaS

CCAMLR: Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources NAFO: Northwest Atlantic Fishery Organization SEAFO: Southeast Atlantic Fishery Organization NEAFC: Northeast Atlantic Fishery Organization NW Pacific Fishery Organization SPRFMO: South Pacific Regional Fishery Management Organization

Implementation of the Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program | 29 
Appendix 3. President Bush’s Memorandum on Sustainable 

Fisheries and Destructive Fishing Practices. October 3, 2006 

For Immediate Release 

Office of the Press Secretary 

October 3, 2006

Memorandum for the Secretary of State and the Secretary of Commerce 

SUBJECT: Promoting Sustainable Fisheries and Ending Destructive Fishing Practices 

It shall be the policy of the United States, in advancing the interests of the American people, to support 

the maintenance and use of sustainable fisheries (1) as a source of nutritious food for the United States 

and the rest of the world, and (2) to meet the needs of commercial and recreational fishing. To implement 

the policy set forth above, the Secretary of State, after consultation with the Secretary of Commerce, 

shall: 

(1) work with other countries and international organizations to eliminate fishing practices that (a) 

jeopardize fish stocks or the habitats that support them, or (b) provide a commercial advantage to those 

who engage in such practices that is unfair in comparison with their competitors; 

(2) work within Regional Fishery Management Organizations (RFMOs), and through other cooperative 

arrangements, to establish rules based on sound science to enhance sustainable fishing practices and to 

phase out destructive fishing practices; 

(3) work with other countries to establish new RFMOs, or other cooperative institutional arrangements, to 

protect ecosystems in high seas areas where no competent RFMO or other arrangement exists, including 

calling on all nations to protect vulnerable marine ecosystems by prohibiting their vessels from engaging 

in destructive fishing practices in areas of the high seas where there are no applicable conservation or 

management measures or in areas with no applicable international fishery management organization or 

agreement, until such time as conservation and management measures consistent with the goals of the 

Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act (Public Law 94-265, as amended), the 

United Nations Fish Stocks Agreement, and other relevant instruments are adopted and implemented to 

regulate such vessels and fisheries; 

(4) work with other countries to develop and promulgate criteria to guide the determination of which 

marine ecosystems are or are not at risk of damage or loss because of destructive fishing practices; and 

(5) work with other countries to combat through enhanced monitoring and surveillance, including through 

the use of Vessel Monitoring Systems and other technologies, fishing that is unlawful, unregulated, and 

unreported. 

Further, to implement the policy set forth above, the Secretary of State, after consultation with the 

Secretary of Commerce, shall carry out diplomatic activities for the purposes of (a) ending destructive 

fishing practices, and (b) promoting rules based on sound science to support sustainable fisheries and to 

end destructive fishing practices. 

 REPORT TO CONGRESS | 30
As used in this memorandum, the term "destructive fishing practices" are practices that destroy the longterm natural productivity of fish stocks or habitats such as seamounts, corals, and sponge fields for short 

term gain. 

This memorandum shall be implemented consistent with applicable law and subject to the availability of 

appropriations. It is intended only to improve the internal management of the executive branch and is not 

intended to, and does not, create any right or benefit, substantive or procedural, enforceable at law or in 

equity by a party against the United States, its departments, agencies, entities, officers, employees, or 

agents, or any other person. 

GEORGE W. BUSH 

# # # 

 Implementation of the Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program | 31
Figures 

Figure 1. Known Locations of Major Deep Sea Corals in 

Waters of the U.S. Atlantic 

The data represent known locations of major structure-forming species of 

gorgonian, stony, and stylasterid deep sea corals included in the USGS and 

(Scanlon et al. in prep; Watling et al. (2003) databases. Data do not represent 

density of coral cover but rather known locations and may reflect fishing or 

research effort. Location data are particularly incomplete for corals other than 

stony corals in the Gulf of Mexico. 

 REPORT TO CONGRESS | 32
Figure 2. Known Deep Sea Coral Locations in the Northeast 

U.S. with Management Areas 

(Packer et al. 2007) 

 Implementation of the Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program | 33
Figure 3. SAFMC Proposed Deepwater Coral HAPCs 

 REPORT TO CONGRESS | 34
Implementation of the Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program | 35 

Figure 4. Gulf of Mexico Habitat Areas of Particular Concern 
 REPORT TO CONGRESS | 36

 

Figure 5. Deep Sea Corals in the U.S. Caribbean and Adjacent Areas 

(Lutz and Ginsburg 2007) 
Figure 6. Deep Sea Precious Coral Beds in the Hawaiian Archipelago 

Pink (Corallium sp.) and gold (Gerardia sp.) coral beds. (Figure from Parrish and Baco, 2007Hawaii Undersea Research Laboratory) 

Implementation of the Deep Coral Research and Technology Program | 37 
Figure 7. Known Locations of Deep Sea Corals Off the U.S. 

West Coast 

Area shown does not include sea pens. (See Whitmire and Clarke 2007 for data 

sources.)

 REPORT TO CONGRESS | 38 
Figure 8. Locations of West Coast Groundfish EFH 

Conservation Areas 

(PFMC 2006) 

Implementation of the Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program | 39
Figure 9. Survey sites for deep sea corals and sponges in 

the Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary. 

This figure shows remotely-operated vehicle dive sites from a 2006 research cruise 

in relation to the boundary of the PFMC Olympic 2 Conservation Area where 

bottom trawling is prohibited (Brancato et al. 2007, Figure 4). Deep sea corals 

were documented at 14 out of 15 completed sites (in green) including five sites 

outside the conservation area.

 REPORT TO CONGRESS | 40 
Figure 10. Deep Sea Coral Locations in Alaska 

The data represent known locations of both soft and hard deep sea corals 

(excluding sea pens). Data do not represent density of coral cover but rather 

known locations and may reflect fishing or research effort. The origin of data in 

Alaska includes Resource Assessment and Conservation Engineering Division 

(RACE) Groundfish Survey data and the Northern Pacific (NORPAC) observer 

database. 

Implementation of the Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program | 41
Figure 11. Areas of Alaska with some restrictions on fishing 

activities. 

Map Credit: Cathy Coon, NPFMC. 

 REPORT TO CONGRESS | 42 
43

Figure 12. NPFMC Proposed Habitat Conservation Areas in 

the Bering Sea 

Map Credit: NPFMC. 

Implementation of the Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program |