NOAA Technical Memorandum CRCP 11 NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems I

NOAA Strategic Plan 

for Deep-Sea Coral and

Sponge Ecosystems

Research, Management, and International Cooperation
CITATION:

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Coral Reef Conservation 

Program. 2010. NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge 

Ecosystems: Research, Management, and International Cooperation. Silver 

Spring, MD: NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program. NOAA Technical 

Memorandum CRCP 11. 67 pp.

FOR MORE INFORMATION:

For more information about this report or to request a copy, please contact 

NOAA’s Coral Reef Conservation Program at 301-713-3155 or write to: NOAA 

Coral Reef Conservation Program; 1305 East West Highway, NOS/OCRM; 

Silver Spring, MD 20910 or visit www.coralreef.noaa.gov.

DISCLAIMER:

Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute 

endorsement or recommendation for their use by the United States 

government. 

Cover caption: Squat lobster on a Lophelia reef on the North Carolina continental slope. 
NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems

Research, Management, and International Cooperation

NOAA Technical Memorandum CRCP 11

Coral Reef Conservation Program 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

2010

United States 

Department of 

Commerce

Gary Locke

Secretary

National Oceanic 

and Atmospheric 

Administration 

Jane Lubchenco, Ph.D.

Administrator
iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This Strategic Plan would not have been possible without the assistance and dedication of numerous individuals. 

In particular, a special thanks go to Kimberly Puglise and Tom Hourigan for co-leading the development of this Plan 

through to publication; Beth Lumsden, Karen Palmigiano, and Maile Sullivan, who each consecutively served as 

the primary point of contact responsible for coordinating the many meetings, document comments and versions, 

and helping ensure that the Plan stayed on schedule; Fran Pflieger for editing; Zhe Liu for graphic design; Fan Tsao 

for helping with document clearance; the photo contributors (listed on page iv); the many reviewers, including 

staff from the Regional Fishery Management Councils, who took the time to provide comments that have greatly 

improved the document; and most of all to the many individuals who contributed their knowledge, experience, 

and time to draft and edit the document – the Section Contributors (listed below). 

Section Contributors:

(Names are in Alphabetical Order; Section Leads are denoted by Section Number)

Robert Brock, Shannon Dionne, 3Liz English, Steve Gittings, Roger Griffis, Robert Gorrell, 2Tom Hourigan, Beth 

Lumsden, 1John McDonough, Karen Palmigiano, Britt Parker, Tracy Parsons, 1Kimberly Puglise, Alan Risenhoover, 

Chris Rogers, Maile Sullivan, and John Tomczuk.

1 Exploration and Research Strategy

2 Conservation and Management Strategy

3 International Strategy
NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems iv

IMAGE CREDITS

Cover: K. Sulak, U.S. Geological Survey. Life on the Edge 2004 Expedition, NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration.

Page iv: NOAA Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary.

Page 2: A. Lindner, NOAA Fisheries.

Page 4: Mountains in the Sea 2004 Research Team, the IFE Crew, and NOAA.

Page 5: (Left image) R. Grigg, University of Hawaii. (Right image) R. Lauth, NOAA Alaska Fisheries Science Center.

Page 7: (Top left image) Deep Atlantic Stepping Stones Science Party, IFE, URI-IAO, and NOAA. (Bottom left image) K. Sulak, U.S. Geological 

Survey. Life on the Edge 2004 Expedition, NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration. (Right image) M. Amend, NOAA Fisheries.

Page 8: S.W. Ross et al., NOAA, and Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute.

Page 10: (Left Image) Lophelia II 2009: Deepwater Coral Expedition: Reefs, Rigs and Wrecks. (Right image) NOAA/MBARI 2002.

Page 12: NOAA and Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute. 

Page 13: (Left Image) Aquapix and Expedition to the Deep Slope 2007. (Right image) Lophelia II 2009: Deepwater Coral Expedition: Reefs, Rigs 

and Wrecks.

Page 14: © Art Howard, 2009, www.arthowardphotography.com.

Page 16: R. Grigg and S. Kahng, University of Hawaii, and NOAA’s Hawaii Undersea Research Laboratory.

Page 18: NOAA’s Hawaii Undersea Research Laboratory.

Page 19: (Left image) A. Baco-Taylor, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. (Top right image) Sanctuary Quest 2002, NOAA Office of Ocean 

Exploration and Research. (Bottom right image) L. Horn, NOAA’s Undersea Research Program Center at the University of North Carolina 

at Wilmington.

Page 20: S. Brooke et al., NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration, and Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution.

Page 21: (Top Left image) Gulf of Alaska 2004 Cruise and NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration. (Bottom left image) NOAA Olympic Coast National 

Marine Sanctuary. (Right image) S.W. Ross, University of North Carolina at Wilmington. Life on the Edge 2005 Expedition, NOAA Office of 

Ocean Exploration.

Page 22: J. Reed, Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution.

Page 23: A. Maness, University of North Carolina at Wilmington.

Page 24: S.W. Ross et al., NOAA/USGS DISCOVRE Cruise. 

Page 25: (Left image) D. Bergquist, South Carolina Department of Natural Resources. (Top right image) NOAA’s Undersea Research Program 

Center at the University of North Carolina at Wilmington. (Bottom right image) NOAA’s Hawaii Undersea Research Laboratory.

Page 26: The Gulf of Alaska Seamount Expedition and NOAA.

Page 28: (Left image) S. Brooke et al., NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration, and Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution. (Right image) L. Horn, 

NOAA’s Undersea Research Program Center at the University of North Carolina at Wilmington.

Page 30: NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration.

Page 32: DSV Alvin, Medusa Cruise on Manning Seamount, 2003.

Page 33: (Left image) Alaska Department of Fish and Game. (Right image) Lophelia II 2009: Deepwater Coral expedition: Reefs, Rigs, and Wrecks.

Page 34: S. Brooke et al., NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration, and Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution.

Page 36: (Left and right images) NOAA Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary. 

Page 38: NOAA’s Undersea Research Program Center at the University of North Carolina at Wilmington and NOAA Flower Garden Banks National 

Marine Sanctuary.

Page 40: A. Baco-Taylor, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.

Page 41: Mountains in the Sea 2004 Research Team, the IFE Crew, and NOAA.

Page 42: Gulf of Alaska Seamount Expedition 2004, NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration.

Page 43: (Top and bottom left images) E. Cordes, Lophelia II 2009: Deepwater Coral Expedition: Reefs, Rigs and Wrecks. (Right image) Submarine 

Ring of Fire 2002, NOAA Office of Exploration.

Page 44: Bahamas Deep-Sea Coral Expedition Science Party, NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration.

Page 46: Bahamas Deep-Sea Coral Expedition Science Party, NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration.

Page 48: (Left image) Mountains in the Sea Research Team, the IFE Crew, and NOAA. (Right image) NOAA and Monterey Bay Aquarium Research 

Institute.

Page 49: A. Baco-Taylor, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.

Page 50: (Left image) Mountains in the Sea 2003 Expedition, NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration. (Right image) Bahamas Deep-Sea Coral 

Expedition Science Party, NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration.

Page 51: NOAA and Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute.

Page 52: Andy Bruckner, NOAA Fisheries.

Page 53: (Left image) S. Smith, Lophelia II 2009: Deepwater Coral Expedition: Reefs, Rigs and Wrecks. (Right image) Mountains in the Sea Research 

Team, the IFE Crew, and NOAA.

Page 61: AquaPix, I. MacDonald, and Expedition to the Deep Slope.
iv

ACRONYMS

AUV Autonomous underwater vehicle

BSAI Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands

BTG Bottom-tending gear

CCAMLR Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources

CITES Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species

Council Regional Fishery Management Council

EEZ Exclusive economic zone

EFH Essential fish habitat

E.O. Executive Order

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization

FMP Fishery Management Plan

IUU Fishing Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing

MPA Marine protected area

MSA Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act as reauthorized in 2006

NAFO Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization

NMSA National Marine Sanctuaries Act

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

OTEC Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion

RFMO/A Regional Fisheries Management Organization or Arrangement

ROV Remotely operated vehicle

UNGA United Nations General Assembly

VME Vulnerable marine ecosystems

v
NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems vi

Table of Contents

Acknowledgements

Image Credits

Acronyms

Table of Contents

Introduction 

 Overview of Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems 

 Purpose

 Scope

 Authorities and Policy Drivers

 Implementing the Strategic Plan

 Data Management and Reporting

I. Exploration and Research Strategy

II. Conservation and Management Strategy

III. International Strategy

Selected References for Further Reading

Glossary

Appendix A. NOAA Authorities and Policy Drivers with Specific 

Reference to Deep-Sea corals

Appendix B. NOAA Requirement and Policy Drivers Relevant to Research 

and Conservation of Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems

Appendix C. Linkages between Exploration & Research and Conservation 

& Management Objectives

iii

iv

v

vi

1

15

27

45

54

56

58

62

66
2

Paragorgia sp. colony weighted 

down by numerous shark 

egg cases, the basket star 

Gorgonocephalus eucnemis

and the crinoids Florometra 

serratissima. 
NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems 1

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) is the lead 

federal agency mandated to conserve and manage the nation’s marine 

resources, including deep-sea coral and sponge ecosystems. As our 

understanding of these resources has grown, so has the need to target 

research and management actions. The NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea 

Coral and Sponge Ecosystems: Research, Management, and International 

Cooperation represents a concerted effort to identify exploration, research, 

management, and international cooperation activities that provide the 

information needed to implement appropriate management measures to 

protect and conserve deep-sea coral and sponge ecosystems. 

This document addresses an identified milestone in NOAA’s five-year 

Research Plan for 2005-2009 to develop a NOAA-wide research plan for 

deep-sea corals; and a commitment by NOAA to develop a national strategy 

for research and conservation of deep-sea corals and sponges in response to 

a petition from Oceana to protect deep-sea corals and sponges.

Introduction
2

Complex seafloor habitats created by large sessile 

organisms are known to play an important role in 

marine ecosystems. In deep or cold oceanic waters, 

complex habitats are most often formed by species 

of corals and/or sponges that are adapted to these 

unique environmental conditions. Deep-sea corals 

and sponges form remarkably complex and fragile 

ecosystems throughout the world’s oceans, both 

within and beyond areas of national jurisdiction. 

In U.S. waters, deep-sea coral ecosystems are 

found in the Atlantic Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico, 

and the Pacific Ocean and occur primarily on hard 

substrate on continental shelves and slopes, in 

offshore canyons, and on oceanic island slopes 

and seamounts. Deep-sea sponge ecosystems 

have not been well mapped, but are often found 

on similar substrates and may be collocated with 

deep-sea corals. Beyond U.S. waters, deep-sea coral 

and sponge ecosystems have attracted interest 

as vulnerable marine ecosystems (VME) and have 

been the focus of international efforts to address 

the impacts of fishing on them, especially in areas 

beyond national jurisdiction. The biology and 

importance of structure-forming deep-sea corals, 

the threats they face, and their distribution and 

conservation status in U.S. waters are reviewed 

in The State of Deep Coral Ecosystems of the United 

States: 2007. 

Coral garden with several species of soft corals, hydrocorals, hydroids, and demosponges off Alaska’s Aleutian Islands.

Overview of Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems
NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems 3

Deep-sea corals, also referred to as cold-water 

corals, are a taxonomically and morphologically 

diverse collection of organisms distinguished by 

their occurrence in deep or cold oceanic waters. 

The calcified skeletons of certain branching stony 

coral species form large reef-like structures in 

deepwater. Gorgonians, gold corals, and black corals 

often have branching tree-like forms and either 

occur singly or form thickets of many colonies. The 

three-dimensional features formed by many deepsea corals provide habitat for numerous fish and 

invertebrate species and, like shallow-water tropical 

corals, appear to enhance the biological diversity 

of many deep-sea ecosystems. A number of deepsea corals are also of commercial importance; in 

particular, black, pink, and red corals are the basis 

for a large jewelry industry. 

Deep-sea corals lack symbiotic algae 

(zooxanthellae). Unlike their shallow-water 

relatives, which rely heavily on photosynthesis by 

their symbionts to produce food, deep-sea corals 

assimilate plankton and organic matter for their 

energy needs. They generally grow much more 

slowly than their shallow-water counterparts. 

Deep-sea sponges provide important threedimensional structure to benthic habitats, and are 

thought to play ecological roles similar to deep-sea 

corals. In some areas, sponge-dominated habitats 

Structure-forming deep-sea corals: 

Any colonial, azooxanthellate corals generally occurring at depths below 50 m that provide 

vertical structure above the seafloor that can be utilized by other species. These include both 

deep reef-building stony corals (e.g., Lophelia pertusa), as well as individual branching 

colonies of corals (e.g., gorgonians and black corals). These are often referred to as habitatforming deep-sea, deepwater, or cold-water corals.

Structure-forming deep-sea sponges: 

Any sponges generally occurring at depths below 50 m that provide vertical structure above 

the seafloor and can occur at a density such that they can be utilized by other species. 

Deep-sea coral communities: 

Habitats formed by structure-forming deep-sea corals and the other species associated with 

these habitats.

Deep-sea sponge communities: 

Habitats formed by structure-forming deep-sea sponges and the other species associated with 

these habitats.

Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Definitions:
4

may be more widespread than coral-dominated 

habitats. For example, in the northeast Pacific 

Ocean, glass sponges (Class: Hexactinellida) form 

unique sponge reefs up to 19 m high and many 

kilometers long. Although much less is known about 

deep-sea sponges, they have been identified as 

habitat for managed fish stocks in certain regions 

and face many of the same threats as deep-sea 

corals. A large variety of chemical compounds, 

many with significant biological activity, have been 

isolated from sponges, and a number are currently 

undergoing pharmaceutical clinical trials.

The Importance of Deep-Sea Coral and 

Sponge Ecosystems

Humankind benefits from many resources and 

processes generated by marine ecosystems. These 

ecosystem services include the production of food 

and safeguards against uncertainty through the 

maintenance of diversity. The ecosystem services 

provided by deep-sea corals and sponges, although 

indirect, are important to humans. Deep-sea corals 

and sponges provide direct services to deep-sea 

biota by providing substrate for attachment, refuge 

for juveniles, aggregating places for spawning and 

feeding, and dissipation of water flow. Humans 

derive benefits from these ecosystems in the fish 

we extract and the bio-compounds we derive from 

both deep-sea corals and sponges.

Bouquet of Corallium with deep purple Trachythela gorgonians on the New England Seamount Chain. 
NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems 5

Threats to Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge 

Ecosystems

Deep-sea corals are generally slow-growing and 

fragile, making them and their associated organisms 

vulnerable to human-induced impacts, particularly 

from physical disturbances. With the exception of a 

few areas (e.g., the Oculina Banks off Florida), the full 

extent of habitat degradation resulting from these 

threats is largely unknown. Even less is known about 

the long-term impacts of human activities on deepsea sponges or their ability to recover.

Disturbances to deep-sea coral ecosystems from 

bottom-tending fishing gear, especially bottomtrawl gear, have been well documented where they 

have been studied in U.S. waters and in other regions 

around the world. Bottom trawling is widespread 

and considered the major threat to deep-sea corals 

in most U.S. regions where such fishing is allowed 

and overlaps with areas where deep-sea corals 

are present. Studies of sponges indicate they too 

are subject to damage by bottom-trawl gear. In 

2002, the National Research Council concluded 

that bottom trawling and dredging reduce habitat 

complexity by removing or damaging the physical 

structure of the seafloor and by causing changes in 

species composition. 

Other activities that can directly impact deep-sea 

coral ecosystems include other bottom-set fishing 

gears (e.g., bottom-set gillnets and bottom-set 

longlines); coral harvesting; oil, gas, and mineral 

exploration and extraction; marine debris; and 

submarine cable/pipeline deployment. Deep-sea 

sponge ecosystems are likely to be vulnerable to 

many of these impacts. Invasive species, climate 

change, and ocean acidification represent additional 

potential threats that have not been adequately 

explored. The extent of impact from these activities 

and the type of stressors that cause the most 

degradation vary among regions.

The black coral divers of Lahaina, Maui. Red tree corals (Primnoa sp.) are periodically caught with trawl gear 

in Alaskan waters. This specimen was caught during a NOAA Fisheries 

groundfish stock assessment survey in Dixon Entrance, Gulf of Alaska. 
6

The NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and 

Sponge Ecosystems identifies goals, objectives, and 

approaches to guide NOAA’s research, management, 

and international cooperation activities on deep-sea 

coral and sponge ecosystems for fiscal years 2010 

through 2019. It is intended to identify and integrate 

research and conservation needs and to be a 

flexible, evolving document that allows NOAA and 

its partners to address new management challenges 

and priorities as appropriate. The primary goal of 

this Strategic Plan is to improve the understanding, 

conservation, and management of deep-sea coral 

and sponge ecosystems. 

Exploration

and Research

1. Locate and characterize deep-sea coral and sponge ecosystems. 

2. Understand the biology and ecology of deep-sea corals and sponges. 

3. Understand the biodiversity and ecology of deep-sea coral and sponge ecosystems. 

4. Understand the extent and degree of impact to deep-sea coral and sponge ecosystems caused by 

fishing and other human activities.

5. Understand past oceanic conditions and predict the impacts of climate change using deep-sea 

corals.

Conservation 

and 

Management

1. Protect areas containing known deep-sea coral or sponge communities from impacts of bottomtending fishing gear.

2. Protect areas that may support deep-sea coral and sponge communities where mobile bottomtending fishing gear has not been used recently, as a precautionary measure. 

3. Develop regional approaches to further reduce interactions between fishing gear and deep-sea 

corals and sponges. 

4. Enhance conservation of deep-sea coral and sponge ecosystems in National Marine Sanctuaries 

and Marine National Monuments.

5. Assess and encourage avoidance or mitigation of adverse impacts of non-fishing activities on deepsea coral and sponge ecosystems. 

6. Provide outreach and coordinated communications to enhance public understanding of these 

ecosystems.

International 

Cooperation

1. Promote international partnerships to conserve deep-sea coral and sponge ecosystems through the 

sustainable management of deep-sea fisheries activities impacting those resources.

2. Ensure that international trade of deep-sea coral and sponge species, and their parts and products, 

is sustainable.

3. Increase international exploration and research of deep-sea coral and sponge ecosystems.

Table 1. Summary of Strategic Plan objectives.

Purpose
NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems 7

(Top) A close-up of a gorgonian coral (Iridogorgia sp.) on a seamount off New 

England. The feeding polyps are all lined up on one side of the branches. 

(Bottom) Alfonsino (Beryx decadactylus) hovering around a large Lophelia

coral. Many fishes use deep coral habitat in a similar way as fishes do in 

shallow coral systems.

Christmas tree coral (Antipathes dendrochristos) discovered in 2005. Photographed 

during Delta submersible surveys on deep water rocky banks off southern California. 

Scope

The NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral 

and Sponge Ecosystems is designed to guide 

NOAA activities for deep-sea coral and sponge 

ecosystems as they relate to (I) Exploration and 

Research, (II) Conservation and Management, and 

(III) International Cooperation. The Strategic Plan 

covers deep-sea coral and sponge ecosystems 

under the jurisdiction of the United States and 

international cooperation activities undertaken 

by the United States. It is written for a broad 

audience, including resource managers, scientists, 

policymakers, decision-makers, and the public.

Section I identifies the role of research in 

management, including NOAA’s priorities and 

objectives for research and exploration of deepsea coral and sponge ecosystems and anticipated 

products for each objective. The goal of NOAA’s 

exploration and research on deep-sea coral and 

sponge ecosystems is to provide decision-makers 

with sound scientific information that will enable 

effective ecosystem-based management decisions. 

Section II lays out objectives and approaches that 

NOAA will undertake to enhance protection of 

deep-sea coral and sponge ecosystems working 

with the Regional Fishery Management Councils 

(Councils), National Marine Sanctuary Advisory 

Councils, and other federal agencies and partners. 

NOAA’s strategy for managing deep-sea coral and 

sponge ecosystems is centered on the authority 

provided to NOAA through the Magnuson-Stevens 

Fishery Conservation and Management Act (MSA) 

and the National Marine Sanctuaries Act (NMSA). 

Section III describes NOAA’s participation in 

international activities to protect and/or conserve 

deep-sea coral and sponge ecosystems. These 

three sections and their associated objectives are 

summarized in Table 1. 
8

NOAA recognizes that other deep-sea species 

can form significant structural components on 

the seafloor. These biogenic habitats may include 

aggregations of emergent fauna where large sessile 

invertebrates (e.g., bryozoans, bivalves, tubeworms, 

and other species), or even aggregations of 

protozoans (xenophyophores). As with deepsea corals and sponges, some of these habitats 

may be vulnerable to physical disturbance. This 

Strategic Plan does not deal explicitly with these 

habitats or make recommendations concerning 

their protection, except to the extent they are 

associated with deep-sea coral or sponge habitats 

or are included in international conservation 

efforts to protect VMEs. However, NOAA will look 

for opportunities to expand our knowledge of 

these habitats in the context of deep-sea coral and 

sponge exploration and research. 

This Strategic Plan is not intended to address 

zooxanthellate coral ecosystems, including shallow 

coral reef and mesophotic coral ecosystems. NOAA’s 

The brisingid sea-star (Novodinia antillensis) is a large invertebrate that perches high in the coral branches (Lophelia pertusa) to filter feed. This photo from off North 

Carolina at about 370 m depth is far north of the known range of this species. 

approach to shallow coral reef ecosystems is laid 

out in The National Action Plan to Conserve Coral 

Reefs, the NOAA Coral Reef Ecosystem Research 

Plan, the NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program 

Goals and Objectives, and the NOAA Coral Reef 

Conservation Program International Strategy. 

Mesophotic coral ecosystems are characterized 

by the presence of light-dependent coral and 

associated ecosystems typically found at depths 

ranging from 30–40 m to over 150 m in tropical 

and subtropical regions. While mesophotic 

and deep-sea coral ecosystems may overlap in 

tropical and subtropical regions, mesophotic 

coral ecosystems are light-dependent and 

considered to be extensions of shallow-water 

coral reef ecosystems. For more information 

on these ecosystems, see the Mesophotic Coral 

Ecosystems Research Strategy (2009, NOAA 

Technical Memorandum NOS NCCOS 98 and OAR 

OER 2), which identifies research priorities and 

management needs for these systems.
NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems 9

Authorities and Policy Drivers

Authorities

Primary Authorities:

■ Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act (MSA,16 U.S.C. 1801 et seq.) as 

amended by the 2006 Magnuson-Stevens Reauthorization Act (Public Law 109-479)

NOAA manages fisheries in federal waters through fishery management plans (FMPs) developed in 

conjunction with the Councils. The following provisions of the MSA authorize research on deep-sea corals 

or may require or permit a Council or the Secretary of Commerce to include management measures for 

deep-sea coral and sponge ecosystems:

•	 Section 408 authorizes the establishment of a Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program.

•	 Section 303(b)(2)(b), permits Councils to include management measures in FMPs that protect deepsea coral identified under the Section 408 Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program. 

•	 Section 301(a)(9) requires Councils to include conservation and management measures that, to the 

extent practicable, minimize bycatch.

•	 Section 305(b), requires Councils to identify and describe essential fish habitat and minimize, to the 

extent practicable, the adverse effects on such habitat caused by fishing.

•	 Section 303(b)(12), authorizes Councils to include management measures in FMPs to conserve 

target and non-target species and habitats.

■ National Marine Sanctuaries Act (16 U.S.C. 1431 et seq.)

Authorizes NOAA to identify and protect nationally significant habitats and resources throughout U.S. 

waters. Deep-sea corals are known to exist within the boundaries of eight National Marine Sanctuaries: 

Channel Islands, Cordell Bank, Florida Keys, Flower Garden Banks, Gulf of the Farallones, Monterey Bay, 

Olympic Coast, and Stellwagen Bank. 1

■ Presidential Proclamation 8031: Establishment of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Marine 

National Monument (2006)

■ Presidential Memorandum on Promoting Sustainable Fishing and Ending Destructive Fishing Practices (2006)

■ Presidential Proclamations 8335, 8337, and 8386: Establishment of the Marianas Trench, Pacific 

Remote Islands, and Rose Atoll Marine National Monuments (2009)

1 Gray’s Reef National Marine Sanctuary is shallower than 25 m; however, several corals and sponges that are common in deeper water are 

also found within the sanctuary. The area encompassed by the Hawaiian Islands Humpback Whale National Marine Sanctuary also includes 

deep-sea coral habitat, but this Sanctuary’s mandate currently is limited to sustaining a safe and healthy habitat for the North Pacific stock of 

humpback whales that seasonally visit the area. 

NOAA has the statutory authority and scientific 

expertise to take a lead role in conducting research and 

management of deep-sea coral and sponge ecosystems. 

The Report of the U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy

recommended that NOAA “serve as the lead agency 

for management of deep-water coral communities. 

In this role, NOAA should work with states, academic 

institutions, and others to enhance national capabilities 

related to deep-water corals, including expanded 

surveys of their distribution and abundance and 

research on the major threats to their continued 

existence.” The authorities and policy drivers for this 

Strategic Plan are listed below (see Appendix A and B 

for additional information).
10

Additional Authorities:

■ American Fisheries Act (P.L. 105-277)

■ Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora

■ Deep Seabed Hard Mineral Resources Act (30 U.S.C. 1404 et seq.)

■ Endangered Species Act (16 U.S.C. 460 et seq.)

■ Executive Order 13158: Marine Protected Areas (2000)

■ Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act (16 U.S.C. 1531 et seq.)

■ Government Result and Performances Act of 1993 (31 U.S.C. 1115 et seq.)

■ High Seas Driftnet Fishing Moratorium Protection Act (16 U.S.C. 1826d et seq.)

■ High Seas Fishing Compliance Act (16 U.S.C. 5501 et seq.)

■ National Environmental Policy Act (42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.)

■ NOAA Undersea Research Program Act of 2009 (P.L. 111-11)

■ Ocean Exploration Act (P.L. 111-11)

■ Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Act (42 U.S.C. 9101 et seq.)

The MSA directly references “deep sea corals” under Sections 303(b)(2)(b) and 408 while the High Seas 

Driftnet Fishing Moratorium Protection Act references “cold water corals” under Section 609. None of NOAA’s 

authorities use the term “deep sea sponges.” It is important to note, however, that the authorities identified 

above require or permit the protection of a variety of species and habitats, including deep-sea corals and 

sponges. For example, because corals and sponges are included in the MSA definition of “fish,” Councils may 

be required to include conservation and management measures in an FMP that will minimize bycatch of these 

species. This Strategic Plan seeks to integrate both mandatory and permissive habitat and species protection 

authorities to maximize NOAA’s efforts to conserve deep-sea coral and sponge ecosystems and is not limited 

to MSA Sections 303(b) and 408. 

Paragoria arborea, or bubblegum corals, grow to over 2.5 m tall. On 

Davidson Seamount, where this close up photo was taken, they are found 

primarily on the highest elevations. 

Collected brittle star, Asteroschema, with a parmuricid coral. 
NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems 11

Policy Drivers

NOAA’s Strategic Plan

NOAA’s mission is to “understand and predict changes in the Earth’s environment and conserve and 

manage coastal and marine resources to meet our Nation’s economic, social, and environmental needs.” 

The Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems builds on NOAA’s goal to protect, restore, 

and manage the use of coastal and ocean resources through an ecosystem approach, and is designed to 

guide NOAA’s research, management, and international activities related to deep-sea coral and sponge 

ecosystems.

The projected outcomes of the NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems are directly 

related to the outcomes for the NOAA Ecosystems Goal:

■ Healthy and productive coastal and marine ecosystems that benefit society.

■ A well-informed public that acts as steward of coastal and marine ecosystems.

Furthermore, the activities recommended under this Strategic Plan address the following NOAA 

Ecosystems Goal performance objectives:

■ Improve ecosystem health through conservation and restoration of habitat.

■ Advance understanding and characterization of coastal, marine, and Great Lakes ecosystem 

health and associated socioeconomic benefits, and develop forecasting capabilities to meet 

management needs.

■ Provide tools, technologies, and information services that are effectively used by NOAA partners 

and customers to improve ecosystem-based management.

■ Improve public understanding and stewardship so that ecosystem and sustainable development 

principles are incorporated into planning, management, and use of coastal and marine 

resources.

NOAA’s Research Plan

In 2008, NOAA published Research in NOAA, A Five-Year Plan: Fiscal Years 2008-2012. The Strategic Plan 

for Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems links to the following priority research activity in NOAA’s 

Research Plan:

■ Improve the understanding of deep-sea (or cold-water) coral and sponge ecosystems including 

their role and function in supporting various life stages of living marine resources, the factors 

controlling their distribution, and their potential as paleo-environmental indicators. 
12

Implementing the Strategic Plan 

This Strategic Plan provides guidance for all NOAA 

programs supporting research, management, 

and international cooperation activities on 

deep-sea coral and sponge ecosystems. NOAA’s 

Coral Reef Conservation Program implements 

the congressionally-mandated Deep Sea 

Coral Research and Technology Program and 

provides a mechanism for coordination and 

communication for NOAA’s other deep-sea coral 

activities. The Coral Reef Conservation Program 

is a matrix program consisting of four NOAA line 

offices—the National Ocean Service; National 

Marine Fisheries Service; National Environmental, 

Satellite, Data, and Information Service; and 

Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research. 

Over the next 10 years, NOAA, through the 

Coral Reef Conservation Program, will develop 

implementation plans identifying specific activities 

that address priority information needs and 

allow for the refinement of the objectives and 

approaches identified in this Strategic Plan. The 

annual implementation plans will account for fiscal 

constraints, respond to emerging issues and priorities, 

and take advantage of technologies developed to 

better understand and manage deep-sea coral and 

sponge ecosystems.

Bamboo coral, Karatoisis sp., on Davidson Seamount. The age estimates for this coral colony exceed 200 years. 
NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems 13

Basket stars, crinoids, anemone and crab on rock outcropping in 

Atwater Valley region in the Gulf of Mexico. 

A colorful sea whip found in an area called the Coral Garden in the 

Green Canyon, Gulf of Mexico. 

Data Management and Reporting

Data management and reporting are critical 

for ensuring that information acquired is 

accurate, reliable, secure, understandable, timely, 

appropriate, and readily accessible. To ensure 

that information from NOAA’s exploration and 

research activities relating to deep-sea coral and 

sponge ecosystems is available to researchers and 

managers, NOAA will take the following steps: 

■ Provide access to NOAA deep-sea coral 

and sponge data and information 

including metadata, links to online data 

(e.g. regional map servers), products, and 

publications. 

■ Prepare mandated biennial reports to 

Congress and the public on steps taken 

by NOAA to identify, monitor, and protect 

deep-sea coral areas, including summaries 

of the results of mapping, research, and data 

collection performed under the Deep Sea 

Coral Research and Technology Program.

■ Develop and produce a quadrennial report 

on the State of Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge 

Ecosystems of the United States.
14

View from inside the Johnson 

Sea-Link submersible near the 

top of a deep-sea coral mound 

off Cape Lookout, North Carolina 

(depth of 370 m).
NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems 15

As the federal agency responsible for managing 

the Nation’s marine living resources, NOAA is 

well-positioned to locate, characterize, and 

conduct targeted exploration and research to 

improve the understanding of deep-sea coral and 

sponge ecosystems. Sound management of these 

ecosystems requires scientifically based information 

on their condition, the causes and consequences 

of that condition, and the costs and benefits 

of possible management actions to maintain 

or improve their condition. The goal of NOAA’s 

exploration and research on deep-sea coral and 

sponge ecosystems is to provide sound science to 

enable effective ecosystem-based management. 

I. Exploration 

and Research 

Strategy

NOAA’s Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Exploration and Research 

Objectives:

1. Locate and characterize deep-sea coral and sponge ecosystems. 

2. Understand the biology and ecology of deep-sea corals and sponges. 

3. Understand the biodiversity and ecology of deep-sea coral and sponge 

ecosystems. 

4. Understand the extent and degree of impact to deep-sea coral and sponge 

ecosystems caused by fishing and other human activities.

5. Understand past oceanic conditions and predict the impacts of climate change 

using deep-sea corals.
16

To this end, NOAA, in consultation with the Regional 

Fishery Management Councils (Council), will engage 

other federal agencies; academia; the private sector; 

state, territorial, commonwealth, local, and tribal 

governments; and the international community to 

address the exploration and research objectives for 

deep-sea coral and sponge ecosystems stated herein. 

These objectives respond to NOAA’s overall 

mandates and mission to conduct exploration 

and research as they apply to deep-sea coral and 

sponge ecosystems, including the requirements 

of the Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology 

Program authorized under the Magnuson-Stevens 

Fishery Conservation and Management Act Section 

408 (See Appendix A). The linkages among these 

objectives and the Conservation and Management 

objectives are shown in Appendix C.

Essential to addressing the stated exploration and 

research objectives for deep-sea coral and sponge 

ecosystems is availability of and access to advanced 

underwater technologies and the ships to support 

them. Deep-sea coral and sponge ecosystems 

exist at depths greater than 50 m. Thus, scientists 

need a ship outfitted with specialized, deep-seacapable technologies such as human-occupied 

submersibles, remotely operated vehicles (ROVs), 

autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs), and other 

relevant technologies. 

Each exploration and research objective and the 

activities necessary to meet it are discussed below.

Black coral at approximately 100 m depth over-grown with the invasive snowflake coral Carijoa riisei. 
NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems 17

1. LOCATE AND CHARACTERIZE DEEP-SEA CORAL AND SPONGE 

ECOSYSTEMS

The first step in developing appropriate 

management strategies is to locate and characterize 

deep-sea coral and sponge ecosystems. Despite 

an increase in research on deep-sea coral and 

sponge ecosystems in the past 20 years, very little is 

known about their distribution and extent. NOAA, 

working in collaboration with the Councils and 

other partners, will identify priority areas for habitat 

characterization by reviewing existing information 

(e.g., historical collection records, trawl and bycatch 

records, underwater video footage, and previous 

exploration and research results) and conduct 

surveys of areas suspected or known to contain 

deep-sea corals and sponges. 

Given the high costs associated with deep-sea 

habitat characterization surveys (which include 

mapping, filming, and collecting samples using 

submersibles, AUVs, ROVs, and other advanced 

underwater technologies), there is a continuing 

need to improve NOAA’s ability to target areas 

suspected to contain deep-sea coral and sponge 

communities. Development of scientific modeling 

or other such methods will improve NOAA’s ability 

to predict where deep-sea corals and sponges are 

likely to occur and prioritize research in these areas. 

Priority exploration and research 

activities to meet this objective are:

1.1 Locate and characterize priority areas 

suspected or known to contain deep-sea 

corals and sponges using appropriate survey 

technologies, including low-resolution, 

broad-scale surveys to identify potential 

targets and high-resolution surveys for 

creating detailed maps.

1.2 Characterize the abiotic and biotic aspects 

associated with deep-sea coral and sponge 

ecosystems. 

1.3 Develop, test, evaluate, and refine survey 

methods and models to predict where deepsea corals or sponges are most likely to occur. 

Anticipated products from these efforts 

will include:

■ Detailed maps showing the distribution of 

deep-sea corals and sponges, and associated 

substrate and geological features.

■ Databases using Geographic Information 

System software that include the location 

(boundaries) and spatial extent of deep-sea 

coral and sponge habitat.

■ Annotated video and still photography 

depicting deep-sea coral and sponge 

ecosystems.

■ Regional species identification catalogs.

■ Models and maps predicting where deepsea coral and sponge habitats are likely to 

occur and a prioritized list of areas to direct 

research and conservation efforts.
18

2. UNDERSTAND THE BIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY OF DEEP-SEA CORALS AND 

SPONGES

Our understanding of the biology and ecology 

of many structure-forming deep-sea coral and 

sponge species is limited, largely because few 

investigations have been conducted. In general, 

we lack knowledge regarding their basic biology 

or life history (e.g., age and growth, feeding habits 

and patterns, and reproductive, dispersal, and 

recruitment strategies) and impacts of stressors on 

them. Without this type of information, it is difficult 

to determine the resilience of deep-sea coral and 

sponge species to stress or their potential rate of 

recovery from stress or damage. By improving our 

understanding of the relationships between deepsea corals and sponges and their environment, 

important conservation and management strategies 

can be developed and implemented for ecosystems 

that are under stress. 

In addition to information on the biology and 

ecology of deep-sea corals and sponges, specimen 

collection and identification are needed to develop 

taxonomic expertise for these organisms. The study 

of taxonomy and systematic biology has been a 

declining field of interest for young scientists and 

has hampered our future ability to properly identify 

organisms based on morphological characteristics. 

Lack of taxonomists is a capacity gap in addressing 

the stated exploration and research objectives.

The Pisces IV, a 3-person, 2,000 m capable submersible, shown collecting a scientific sample of black coral, Anitpathes grandis.
NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems 19

Priority exploration and research 

activities to meet this objective are:

2.1 Investigate and document demographic 

patterns and processes for structure-forming 

deep-sea coral and sponge species and 

how these are influenced by environmental 

factors and stressors, including species 

tolerance ranges.

2.2 Investigate reproduction, dispersal, and 

recruitment for deep-sea coral and sponge 

species and determine the influence 

of abiotic and biotic factors (including 

microbes) and stressors on these patterns 

and processes.

2.3 Determine connectivity (e.g., larval sourcesink patterns and gene flow) among deepsea coral and sponge populations at local, 

regional, and ocean-basin scales.

2.4 Determine spatial and temporal sources of 

food for deep-sea corals and sponges. 

2.5 Develop condition indices (e.g., lipid/protein 

content, fecundity, skeletal density, and 

disease status) for structure-forming species.

Anticipated products from these efforts 

will include:

■ Taxonomic descriptions of deep-sea coral 

and sponge species.

■ Databases containing information on 

deep-sea coral and sponge taxonomy, 

growth rates, life histories, genetic data, 

and responses to environmental conditions 

(including tolerance limits) that are 

useful for, but not limited to, testing of 

models, research analyses, and hypothesis 

development.

■ Descriptions and models of larval 

distribution pathways for different deep-sea 

coral and sponge species.

Sea star feeding on a deep-sea coral. (Top) A close-up of of a sea anemone. (Bottom) 

Habitat and fish associated with the Oculina 

Habitat Area of Particular Concern off Florida. 
20

3. UNDERSTAND THE BIODIVERSITY AND ECOLOGY OF DEEP-SEA CORAL 

AND SPONGE ECOSYSTEMS 

A specimen of Keratoisis bamboo coral inside the collection box of the Johnson-Sea-Link submersible.

Many deep-sea corals and sponges form threedimensional habitats for a variety of fish and 

invertebrate species seeking shelter, food, and 

spawning areas. Such habitats can be as small as 

a solitary deep-sea coral colony, or as large as a 

well-developed reef comprising numerous colonies 

of multiple species extending for miles. Past 

investigations have identified such areas, and have 

begun to describe how these ecosystems function 

ecologically. However, many questions remain 

concerning how the ecological function of these 

deep-sea corals and sponges compare to other 

structurally complex, abiotic habitats such as rocky 

hard-bottom areas, and how these habitats might 

be used by associated species at different stages in 

their life histories. 

Priority exploration and research 

activities under this objective are:

3.1 Inventory species associated with deep-sea 

coral and sponge ecosystems.

3.2 Determine the role and function of deep-sea 

corals and sponges in supporting various 

life stages of commercially and ecologically 

important species, including identifying 

habitat utilization patterns of associated 

species in comparison to their usage of other 

structurally complex, abiotic habitats (e.g., 

rocky hard-bottom areas).

3.3 Describe food web dynamics for deep-sea 

coral and sponge ecosystems. 
NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems 21

3.4 Determine the levels of biodiversity (i.e., 

genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity) 

associated with deep-sea coral and sponge 

ecosystems, including microbes. 

3.5 Describe the life histories and population 

dynamics of commercially or ecologically 

important species associated with deep-sea 

coral and sponge ecosystems.

Anticipated products from these efforts 

will include:

■ Inventory of species associated with deepsea corals and sponges and their habitat 

utilization patterns.

■ Lists of characteristic species found within 

each ecosystem type by region.

■ Annotated video and still photography 

documenting associative behavior.

■ Stomach content data analyses for selected 

species.

■ Descriptions and graphic depictions of 

trophic structures and food web models.

■ Information needed for review and 

refinement of essential fish habitat 

designations for federally managed species.

■ Information needed for required 

consultations for permitting mineral and 

energy exploration and production, cable 

laying, and other human activities.

(Top) Octocorals have eight pinnate tentacles, whereas 

scleractinian corals have six non-pinnate tentacles. The 

“pinnae” are seen here in the small projections along each 

tentacle of this Swiftia polyp. (Bottom) Paragorgia arborea 

pacifica found in the Olympic Coast National Marine 

Sanctuary. 

The pencil urchin, Cidaris sp., is a common sea urchin member of the deep-sea 

coral community. 
22

4. UNDERSTAND THE EXTENT AND DEGREE OF IMPACT TO DEEP-SEA 

CORAL AND SPONGE ECOSYSTEMS CAUSED BY FISHING AND OTHER 

HUMAN ACTIVITIES 

Coral rubble, likely a result of trawling through Oculina coral reefs. 

2 NOAA will protect all confidential information (such as the location of fishing activity or mineral extraction) received, collected, 

maintained, or used by the agency as required by law.

Understanding the effects of human activities 

that may impact deep-sea coral and sponge 

ecosystems is a key priority for developing and 

implementing management strategies. Bottom 

trawling is currently the primary direct threat to 

these ecosystems in areas where they occur and 

such fishing is allowed. However, other human 

activities, both at local and broader scales, may also 

contribute to the decline of deep-sea coral and 

sponge ecosystems, including use of other bottomset fishing gears, mineral resource exploration and 

extraction, energy exploration and production, 

cable laying, introduction of invasive species, marine 

debris, and harvesting. The extent and degree of 

impact caused by fishing and other human activities 

vary among regions and not all threats listed are 

uniform across U.S. waters. (Note: impacts of climate 

change and ocean acidification are addressed in 

Objective 5.)

Priority exploration and research 

activities to meet this objective are:

4.1 Determine the distribution of effort and 

intensity of use of specific gear types for 

commercial, recreational, tribal, and artisanal 

fisheries that occur in locations where deepsea corals and sponges are known or likely to 

occur. 2
NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems 23

4.2 Develop, test, evaluate, and refine 

technologies to reduce interactions between 

fishing gear and deep-sea corals and 

sponges.

4.3 Conduct cooperative research with fishing 

industry participants and other stakeholders 

on deep-sea corals and sponges, and on 

survey methods.

4.4 Identify and characterize fisheries and areas 

with high bycatch of deep-sea coral and/or 

sponge species.

4.5 Identify mineral and energy exploration and 

extraction activities and infrastructure, cable 

routes, alternative energy infrastructure, 

or other activities occurring in the vicinity 

of, traversing, and/or impacting known 

deep-sea coral and sponge ecosystems and 

identify potential techniques, tools, and 

technologies to offset unavoidable impacts 

(i.e., compensate for ecosystem functions) 

to deep-sea coral and sponge ecosystems 

in collaboration with the appropriate 

management entities.

4.6 Document the presence and impacts, if any, 

of non-native species on deep-sea coral and 

sponge ecosystems.

4.7 Document impacts to deep-sea coral and 

sponge ecosystems, assess their sensitivity 

to disturbance, and determine their recovery 

potential once damaged.

4.8 Model impacts to deep-sea coral and sponge 

ecosystems to determine the effects of 

human disturbances.

Anticipated products from these efforts 

will include:

■ Maps depicting the distribution and intensity 

of fishing and other human activities in areas 

known to contain deep-sea coral and sponge 

ecosystems, or where such ecosystems are 

likely to be present.

■ Annotated video and still photography 

describing the condition of, and impacts to, 

these ecosystems, as well as to serve as a 

baseline for studying ecosystem recovery.

■ Technologies or methods designed to reduce 

interactions between fishing gear and deepsea corals.

■ Areas recommended for future designation 

of Deep Sea Coral Zones, Habitat Areas of 

Particular Concern, bycatch reduction, or 

other marine protected areas.

3-D colored bathymetry of Chapman’s Reef, from 2005 survey done with multibeam sonar from R/V Cape Fear by Seafloor Systems, Inc. 
24

5.UNDERSTAND PAST OCEANIC CONDITIONS AND PREDICT THE IMPACTS 

OF CLIMATE CHANGE USING DEEP-SEA CORALS

Squat lobsters, Eumunida picta, are a common invertebrate in the southeastern U.S. deep-sea coral habitats at depths greater than 200 m.

Deep-sea corals are long-lived, slow-growing 

organisms with wide geographic and depth 

distributions. These characteristics increase their 

usefulness as tools to discern and reconstruct 

past oceanic conditions and determine potential 

linkages to climate change. Similar to their shallowwater counterparts, their skeletons consist of 

carbonaceous or proteinaceous materials, which 

incorporate trace elements, and isotopes that reflect 

the physical and chemical conditions present at the 

time the skeleton was formed. Thus, coral skeletons 

may be used as a proxy for determining past oceanic 

conditions. 

Climate change—in particular, increases in carbon 

dioxide levels primarily from the burning of fossil 

fuels—may impact deep-sea corals by causing 

changes in ocean carbonate chemistry that result 

in lower pH levels. This process is known as ocean 

acidification. The lowering of the seawater pH and 

the subsequent reduction in the availability of 

carbonate ions may reduce the calcification rates of 

deep-sea corals. The impacts of ocean acidification 

on deep-sea corals may be direct (e.g., decreased 

growth and recruitment) and indirect (e.g., changes 

to food supply). The degree and extent to which 

deep-sea corals are affected by ocean acidification 

will depend on their skeletal composition (aragonite 

versus calcite), geographical location, and depth. 
NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems 25

Other issues associated with climate change include 

changes in temperature and current patterns, which 

may affect both deep-sea corals and sponges and 

their associated species. 

Priority exploration and research 

activities to meet this objective are:

5.1 Provide information on past oceanic and 

climatic conditions derived from deepsea corals to climate modelers to develop, 

validate, or refine new or existing climate 

change models.

5.2 Reconstruct past oceanic conditions using 

deep-sea coral species.

5.3 Investigate how increased ocean acidification 

may impact calcification rates of deep-sea 

coral species, and how this may subsequently 

affect growth and reproduction rates.

5.4 Determine long-term temporal (decadal 

to epochal scales) relationships between 

deep-sea coral population structure and 

distribution to the overlying hydrodynamic 

regime.

Anticipated products from these efforts 

will include:

■ Records of past ocean conditions, which 

can contribute to development of improved 

climate change models.

■ Estimated ages for selected deep-sea coral 

species.

■ Reports on the potential effects of climate 

change (e.g., ocean acidification and hypoxia) 

on deep-sea corals and the ecosystems they 

structure.

The coral species Callogorgia americana delta is abundant in the Gulf of Mexico. (Top) The Eagle Ray, a deep-water AUV, provides vivid bathymetric 

imagery of the ocean floor down to depths of 2,200 m using multi beam 

sonar technology. (Bottom) The Pisces IV, a 3-person, 2,000 m capable 

submersible, shown preparing to collect a deep-sea coral sample.
26

Large primnoid coral with associated 

brittle stars on Dickinson Seamount, 

Gulf of Alaska. 
NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems 27

II. Conservation 

and 

Management 

Strategy

NOAA’s Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Conservation and Management 

Objectives:

1. Protect areas containing known deep-sea coral or sponge communities from 

impacts of bottom-tending fishing gear.

2. Protect areas that may support deep-sea coral and sponge communities 

where mobile bottom-tending fishing gear has not been used recently, as a 

precautionary measure. 

3. Develop regional approaches to further reduce interactions between fishing 

gear and deep-sea corals and sponges. 

4. Enhance conservation of deep-sea coral and sponge ecosystems in National 

Marine Sanctuaries and Marine National Monuments.

5. Assess and encourage avoidance or mitigation of adverse impacts of non-fishing 

activities on deep-sea coral and sponge ecosystems. 

6. Provide outreach and coordinated communications to enhance public 

understanding of these ecosystems.
28

NOAA is the lead federal agency mandated to 

protect, restore, and manage the Nation’s living 

marine resources. In carrying out this mission, 

NOAA recognizes the need to conserve deep-sea 

coral and sponge ecosystems within areas under its 

jurisdiction. This Strategic Plan sets out objectives 

and approaches NOAA will undertake to enhance 

protection of these ecosystems, working with the 

Regional Fishery Management Councils (Councils), 

other federal agencies, and partners. 

 

Most U.S. deep-sea coral and sponge ecosystems 

occur in the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) rather 

than in state waters. Because NOAA, in partnership 

with the Councils, is the federal agency responsible 

for managing fisheries in the EEZ, managing fishing 

threats to these ecosystems is one of the primary 

focuses of this Strategic Plan. NOAA has determined 

that certain fishing practices, especially those 

using mobile bottom-tending gear (including 

beam and otter trawls, dredges, and other mobile 

fishing gear that is dragged along the ocean floor) 

may adversely affect deep-sea corals and sponges 

and the communities that depend upon them 

(70 Federal Register 39700, July 11, 2005). Bottom 

trawling is currently the major threat to these 

ecosystems where such fishing is allowed, although 

other bottom-tending gear, including bottomset longlines and gill nets and, to a lesser extent, 

traps, have also been identified as threats to deepsea corals and sponges.3 In areas where corals or 

sponges occur, but where mobile bottom-tending 

fishing gears are not used or are not allowed, 

bottom-set fixed gears may be more likely to 

adversely impact these resources. 

Current NOAA management measures and 

regulations have kept gear interactions with these 

ecosystems from becoming a threat in certain 

regions. For example, in 1983 the Western Pacific 

Fishery Management Council recommended, and 

NOAA implemented, a prohibition on the use 

of bottom trawl gear, bottom-set longlines, and 

bottom-set gill nets in the entire EEZ under the 

Council’s jurisdiction. More recently, prohibitions 

on certain gears have also been implemented over 

large portions of other Council jurisdictions. 

3 For further information on threats to deep-sea coral ecosystems, see The State of Deep Coral Ecosystems of the U.S.: 2007, Chapter 1.

Diverse deep-sea coral habitat found off Florida. Habitat and fish associated with the Oculina Habitat Area of Particular 

Concern off Florida. 
NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems 29

Box 1. NOAA’s primary authorities for deep-sea coral and sponge protection addressed 

in this Strategic Plan (see Appendix A and B for additional authorities):

Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act (MSA - 16 U.S.C. 1801 et seq.). The 

following Sections of the MSA require or permit NOAA and Regional Fishery Management Councils to include 

management measures that protect deep-sea corals and sponges in fishery management plans.

 Sections that may require protective management measures:

•	 301(a)(9) – Conservation and management measures shall, to the extent practicable, (A) minimize bycatch and 

(B) to the extent bycatch cannot be avoided, minimize the mortality of such bycatch. 

Note: Bycatch of corals or sponges occurs in multiple fisheries. Avoiding bycatch is preferable to attempts to minimize 

mortality, since deep-sea corals and sponges caught as bycatch are unlikely to reattach to the substrate upon their 

return to the ocean.

•	 303(a)(7) – Minimize to the extent practicable adverse effects on essential fish habitat (EFH) caused by fishing, 

and identify other actions to encourage the conservation of such habitat. 

Note: Habitats where deep-sea corals or sponges occur have been identified as EFH for a number of fisheries. 

•	 303(a)(1) – Conservation and management measures shall prevent overfishing while achieving, on a continuing 

basis, the optimum yield from each fishery for the United States fishing industry.

Note: In certain cases, deep-sea corals or sponges may themselves be managed species (e.g., precious corals in the 

Western Pacific).

 Sections that authorize protective management measures:

•	 303(b)(2)(B) – Designate zones in areas where deep-sea corals are identified to protect deep-sea corals from 

physical damage from fishing gear, or to prevent loss or damage to such fishing gear from interactions with 

deep-sea corals. 

•	 303(b)(12) – Include management measures in the plan to conserve target and non-target species and habitats, 

considering the variety of ecological factors affecting fishery populations.

National Marine Sanctuaries Act (NMSA - 16 U.S.C. 1431 et seq.). The NMSA provides NOAA with the 

authority to identify areas of the marine environment that are of special national significance and designate 

them as national marine sanctuaries. The following Sections of the NMSA are among those that permit NOAA 

to implement management measures that protect deep-sea corals and sponges within sanctuaries.

•	 Section 301(b)(3) – Identifies that a purpose and policy of the Act is to maintain the natural biological ecosystems 

in the national marine sanctuaries, and protect, and where appropriate, restore and enhance natural habitats, 

populations and ecological processes.

•	 Section 308 – Provides the National Marine Sanctuaries Program with the authority to issue regulations for each 

sanctuary and the system as a whole. These regulations can, among other things, specify the types of activities 

that can and cannot occur within the sanctuary. 

•	 Section 304(d) – Requires federal agencies whose actions are “likely to destroy, cause the loss of, or injure a 

sanctuary resource,” to consult with the program before taking the action. The National Marine Sanctuaries 

Program is, in these cases, required to recommend reasonable and prudent alternatives to protect sanctuary 

resources. 
30

NOAA’s precautionary approach to reduce adverse 

impacts of fishing on deep-sea coral and sponge 

ecosystems is contained in Objectives 1–3 and 

depicted in Figure 1. In general, it is expected 

that the implementation of Objectives 1 and 2 

will involve, but not be limited to, area closures 

to specific bottom-tending fishing gears likely to 

damage, or result in bycatch of, deep-sea corals or 

sponges in order to protect these resources within 

such areas. Year-round area closures to bottomtending fishing gear represent one subset of 

management measures that fall under the general 

category known as marine protected areas (MPAs). To 

the extent that such areas meet established criteria, 

they may represent important components of the 

evolving National System of MPAs of the United 

States. This spatial approach to management is 

compatible with, and supportive of, comprehensive 

marine spatial planning efforts. Objective 3 allows 

management approaches to be further refined on a 

regional basis.

All conservation measures to protect deep-sea 

coral and sponge ecosystems in the EEZ from the 

impacts of fishing gear will be evaluated within the 

context and consistent with the priorities of existing 

law, and will be implemented through established 

NOAA and Council processes. Information on NOAA’s 

existing measures and efforts to protect, conserve, 

and manage deep-sea coral resources is included 

in The State of Deep Coral Ecosystems of the United 

States: 2007 and the Reports to Congress on the 

Implementation of the Deep Sea Coral Research and 

Technology Program (2008 and 2010).

In addition to fishing, other human activities 

may adversely impact deep-sea coral and 

sponge ecosystems, including oil, gas, and 

Bamboo corals on Miami Terrace Reef 15 miles off the coast of Miami, Florida. 
NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems 31

mineral exploration and extraction; submarine 

cable/pipeline deployment; and deep-water 

placement or anchoring of renewable energy 

facilities. Research activities, including research 

bottom trawls or collections; anchoring of 

instruments/buoys; and groundings of research 

vehicles may also be of concern. NOAA, in 

partnership with co-trustees, can manage these 

stressors directly within National Marine Sanctuaries 

(Objective 4). Elsewhere, NOAA will encourage 

enhanced protection of these ecosystems through 

partnerships with applicable management agencies 

(Objective 5) and through outreach to the public, 

resource users, and the research community 

(Objective 6). The linkages among these Objectives 

and the Exploration and Research Objectives are 

shown in Appendix C. Each conservation and 

management objective is further elaborated below. 

KNOWN DEEP SEA CORAL 

OR SPONGE AREAS

INADEQUATELY SURVEYED AREAS

OBJECTIVES 1 & 3

Evaluate Areas for Additional

Conservation Measures

on a Regional Basis

(e.g. other bottom gear restrictions,

EFH measures, or harvest restrictions)

Prioritize for 

Enhanced 

Monitoring 

Surveillance and 

Enforcement

OBJECTIVE 1

Protect from

Mobile BTG

New Deep-Sea 

Coral or Sponge 

Areas Identified

MOBILE BTG 

CURRENTLY NOT 

ALLOWED

MOBILE BTG

ALLOWED

No Recent Use 

of Mobile BTG 

(e.g., not used in 

the last five years)

Recent Use of 

Mobile BTG

(e.g., used in the 

last 5 years)

OBJECTIVE 2

Close to Mobile 

BTG as a 

Precautionary 

Measure “Freeze 

the Footprint”

OBJECTIVE 3

Enhance 

Bycatch 

Reporting and 

Monitoring

Map and 

Characterize

Fishable Areas 

Free of Corals 

and Sponges 

Identified

Consider 

Potential for 

Future Fishing 

in Areas Free 

of Corals and 

Sponges

MOBILE BTG 

ALLOWED

MOBILE BTG 

CURRENTLY NOT 

ALLOWED

Figure 1. NOAA’s precautionary approach to manage bottom-tending gear (BTG), especially mobile 

BTG and other adverse impacts of fishing on deep-sea coral and sponge ecosystems.
32

Research by NOAA and its partners has identified 

a number of important deep-sea coral and 

sponge ecosystems within the U.S. EEZ. In many 

cases, NOAA and the Councils have already taken 

significant steps to protect known areas from 

impacts of fishing gear. However, new research is 

revealing additional deep-sea coral and sponge 

areas that are currently unprotected. Closures to 

mobile bottom-tending gear are particularly useful 

for protecting biogenic habitats, such as deep-sea 

corals and sponges. Under this objective, NOAA 

will work with the Councils to ensure that fisheries 

that may interact with identified deep-sea coral and 

sponge ecosystems are identified, monitored, and 

that these ecosystems are adequately protected 

from impacts by fishing gear. Areas that NOAA 

will ask the Councils to consider for additional 

protection will be identified on a case-by-case based 

on factors such as large size of the aggregations or 

high concentrations of structure-forming deep-sea 

corals and/or deep-sea sponges, the occurrence of 

rare species, or the importance of the habitat for 

managed species or other associated fauna. NOAA 

will also work with the tribes, as appropriate, with 

reference to areas where deep-sea corals and/or 

sponges are identified that occur in treaty secured 

“usual and accustomed” fishing areas. 

Discarded fishing gear caught on Solenosmillia sp. and Lophelia pertusa scleractinian corals. 

 

1. PROTECT AREAS CONTAINING KNOWN DEEP-SEA CORAL OR SPONGE 

COMMUNITIES FROM IMPACTS OF BOTTOM-TENDING FISHING GEAR
NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems 33

Priority conservation and management 

activities under this objective to be 

addressed in consultation with the 

Councils are:

1.1 Identify areas containing high concentrations 

of structure-forming deep-sea corals or 

sponges and their current level of protection 

from interactions with fishing gear.4

 

NOAA will: 

■ Present this information to the appropriate 

NOAA programs involved in management 

and conservation, as well as to partners and 

Councils for consideration of measures to 

protect these areas. 

■ Develop standards for future identification of 

such areas under Magnuson-Stevens Fishery 

Conservation and Management Act (MSA) 

Section 408. 

■ Improve and refine the list of known areas, 

adding new areas, including sponge areas, as 

they are identified through exploration and 

research activities.

■ Analyze the applicability of predictive 

models or other methods that may aid in 

predicting areas where deep-sea corals or 

sponges are likely to be present.

1.2 Request the Councils (and tribes, if 

applicable) evaluate the areas identified 

in Objective 1.1 for adoption of measures, 

including closure to mobile bottom-tending 

gear, and, as needed, other bottom-tending 

gear, in order to: 

■ Minimize bycatch of deep-sea corals and 

sponges.

■ Protect deep-sea corals from physical 

damage from fishing gear by including 

management measures in fishery 

management plans under MSA Section 303 

(b)(2)(B).

Steel pots are used to harvest many species of crabs in Alaska. Some pots, such as this 

one, measure 2 x 2 x 1 m and may weigh more than 300 kg. This pot was derelict for 

some time and has been heavily colonized by soft corals. 

Fragments of coral skeletons (Lophelia pertusa). Note the live corals (white) in the 

foreground and dead corals (brown) in the background. 

 4 An initial list of areas known to contain aggregations of deep-sea corals with limited or no protection from interactions with bottom-tending 

fishing gear is included in NOAA’s Report to Congress on the Implementation of the Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program (2008).
34

1.3 In cases where corals or sponges have been 

identified as essential fish habitat (EFH), 

minimize to the extent practicable adverse 

effects on such habitat caused by federally 

managed fishing.

1.4 Enhance monitoring, control, surveillance, and 

enforcement, as needed, of areas closed for 

deep-sea coral and sponge protection.

1.5 Evaluate the progress by NOAA and the 

Councils to adequately protect the identified 

known deep-sea coral and sponge areas 

from impacts of fishing gear. Identify and 

implement more effective management 

measures to reduce bycatch and report 

on the evaluation and progress in biennial 

reports to Congress and the public on the 

implementation of the Deep Sea Coral 

Research and Technology Program.

Anticipated products from these efforts 

will include:

■ A current list of known deep-sea coral and 

sponge areas in each Council region.

■ A list of areas likely to support deep-sea 

coral and sponge ecosystems, but for which 

additional research is required to verify their 

existence.

■ Information on current levels of protection 

from fishing of known deep-sea coral and 

sponge areas to provide to Congress and the 

public.

■ Standards developed for identification of areas 

containing high concentrations of deepsea corals and/or sponges that may require 

enhanced protection in the future.

■ Enhanced protection from fishing gear 

impacts of areas known to contain high 

concentrations of deep-sea corals or sponges.

A hexactinellid sponge. Small juvenile amphipods enter the sponge and become captive as they grow too large to escape from 

inside the sponge’s chambers. 
NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems 35

The expansion of fisheries using mobile bottomtending gear beyond current areas has the potential 

to damage additional deep-sea coral and sponge 

habitats. Potentially, many undocumented and 

relatively pristine deep-sea coral and sponge 

ecosystems may exist in unmapped areas 

untouched, or relatively untouched, by mobile 

bottom-tending gear. This objective takes a 

precautionary approach to “freeze the footprint” of 

fishing that uses mobile bottom-tending gear in 

order to protect areas likely to support deep-sea 

coral or sponge ecosystems until research surveys 

demonstrate that proposed fishing will not cause 

serious or irreversible damage to such ecosystems 

in those areas. Special emphasis is placed on mobile 

bottom-tending gear (e.g., bottom trawling), as 

this gear is the most damaging to these habitats. 

This objective applies to areas where use of such 

gear is allowed or might be allowed in the future. If 

subsequent surveys identify portions of these areas 

that do not contain deep-sea corals or sponges, 

NOAA may recommend that suitable areas be 

opened for fishing using such gear. 

Priority conservation and management 

activities under this objective to be 

addressed in consultation with the 

Councils are:

2.1 Identify the current “footprint” of mobile 

bottom-tending fishing gear use.

2.2 Identify areas in each Council region that 

have a reasonable expectation of supporting 

deep-sea coral or sponge ecosystems 

and that have not been subject to mobile 

bottom-tending gear based on a review of 

recent and historic fishing patterns (e.g., in 

the past 5 to 20 years or other appropriate 

period). 

2.3 Request that Councils evaluate and take 

action, where appropriate, to temporarily 

close such areas to fishing using mobile 

bottom-tending gear as a precautionary 

measure to avoid bycatch and protect 

deep-sea corals and sponges until NOAA 

has determined through necessary surveys, 

mapping, and research that such fishing 

activities would not be likely to cause serious 

or irreversible damage to deep-sea coral and 

sponge ecosystems in these areas.

2.4 Evaluate the steps taken to prevent 

expansion of mobile bottom-tending 

gear into areas likely to contain deep-sea 

coral or sponge ecosystems, and report 

on the evaluation and progress in biennial 

reports to Congress and the public on the 

implementation of the Deep Sea Coral 

Research and Technology Program.

Anticipated products from these efforts 

will include:

■ Maps of areas that have and have not been 

subject to mobile bottom-tending gear over 

an appropriate period of time (e.g., the past 5 

years) according to best estimates.

■ Maps of recent bottom-tending fishing 

activities in federally managed fisheries 

within the EEZ by gear type.

■ Areas recommended by the Councils for 

precautionary closure to mobile bottomtending gear.

2. PROTECT AREAS THAT MAY SUPPORT DEEP-SEA CORAL AND SPONGE 

COMMUNITIES WHERE MOBILE BOTTOM-TENDING FISHING GEAR HAS 

NOT BEEN USED RECENTLY, AS A PRECAUTIONARY MEASURE 
36

3. DEVELOP REGIONAL APPROACHES TO FURTHER REDUCE INTERACTIONS 

BETWEEN FISHING GEAR AND DEEP-SEA CORALS AND SPONGES

Rockfish take refuge in a primnoid octocoral in Olympic Coast National 

Marine Sanctuary. 

In 2006, the cup coral, Desmophyllum sp., was documented for the first time in the 

Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary. 

Conservation and Management Objectives 1 and 

2 identified NOAA’s national efforts to gather and 

disseminate information needed by the Councils 

and NOAA to address impacts of fishing gear in 

areas where there were known deep-sea coral or 

sponge ecosystems, or where mobile bottomtending gear had not yet been widely used and 

information on the distribution of such habitats 

was lacking. In some other currently fished areas, 

deep-sea corals or sponges are likely to occur but 

there is insufficient information on their distribution, 

concentration, or condition to merit immediate 

closure. Scientific modeling and fishery-dependent 

data (e.g., bycatch) may be used to identify steps 

necessary for additional conservation of deep-sea 

coral and sponge habitats in areas already fished 

using mobile bottom-tending gear. In addition, 

certain areas that have experienced historic impacts 

may now have patchy distributions of corals or 

sponges, but may still merit further protection to 

increase recovery potential. Other management 

tools instead of or in addition to closure areas 

may be appropriate to conserve deep-sea corals 

and sponges (e.g., fishing effort reductions and 

modification of gear design or gear type). This 

objective provides a framework for the Councils and 

NOAA to utilize their management authorities and 

partnerships to enhance information on bycatch of 

corals and sponges and to apply this information 

to better manage areas already under stress from 

fishing, balancing conservation with consideration 

of the long-term sustainable uses of fishery 

resources by fishing communities. These issues are 

best addressed on a region-by-region basis. 

Regional implementation planning (see Box 2) will 

allow refinement of the research and management 

needs identified in this Strategic Plan to further 

focus limited funds, respond to emerging issues and 

changing priorities, and take advantage of increasing 

knowledge developed during the next 10 years.
NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems 37

Priority conservation and management 

activities under this objective, to be 

addressed in consultation with the 

Councils are:

3.1 Monitor fishing in locations where deep-sea 

corals and sponges are known or likely to 

occur, and enhance bycatch monitoring and 

reporting of corals and sponges. 

NOAA will:

■ Establish targeted efforts to map the 

distribution and intensity of specific gears 

across broader management areas (e.g., 

through logbooks, permits, or vessel 

monitoring systems) while ensuring 

appropriate confidentiality of fishing statistics.

■ Enhance fishery observer training to 

include collecting coral and sponge bycatch 

information and increase observer coverage 

(as appropriate in the context of overall 

bycatch reduction goals) on mobile bottomtending fishing vessels operating in areas 

of known or suspected deep-sea coral or 

sponge ecosystems.

Box 2. Planning for Regional Implementation:

Regional implementation planning represents a key element of this Conservation and 

Management Strategy for deep-sea coral and sponge ecosystems. NOAA will evaluate the 

need for developing national guidelines for criteria of vulnerability. Within each region, NOAA, 

in consultation with the appropriate Councils and with the input of stakeholders, will produce 

implementation plans or incorporate this information into existing regional plans (e.g., bycatch 

reduction plans), based on assessments developed in response to this Strategic Plan. Timelines 

will be developed in concert with national policy and guidance on deep-sea coral and sponge 

ecosystems. The timing of implementation will vary, depending on regional needs.

 

The approach could include:

■ Criteria, consistent with national guidelines, for identifying “vulnerability” of deep-sea coral and 

sponge species to adverse impacts from bottom-tending gear.

■ Application of those criteria to identify the most vulnerable deep-sea coral and sponge species 

and ecosystems. 

■ Identification of serious impacts from fishing practices. 

■ Identification and evaluation of alternatives for reducing bycatch and other adverse impacts, 

including at least the elimination of bottom trawling in areas of concentrated deep-sea corals 

and sponges or in areas where rare or particularly vulnerable species of deep-sea corals or 

sponges are known to exist. 

■ Recommendations for modification of fishing gear and/or fishing practices. 

■ Recommendations for area restrictions on fishing as appropriate. 

■ Recommendations on minimum thresholds of coral or sponge bycatch above which new areas 

should be ‘identified’ as potential deep-sea coral or sponge areas. 

■ Recommendations on monitoring, control, surveillance and enforcement needs (e.g., including 

the need for vessel monitoring systems, observers, or other monitoring techniques).
38

3.2 Develop or improve methodologies to 

utilize bycatch reports and information from 

research trawl surveys to identify new coral 

and sponge areas for protection.

3.3 Provide information to fishing industry 

participants to help them avoid areas of 

high bycatch and to identify gear or fishing 

methods that minimize bycatch of deep-sea 

corals and sponges.

3.4 Develop and institute regional 

implementation plans for mapping, 

monitoring, research, and additional 

management actions, where applicable.

3.5 Work with partners to implement regional 

plans through regulations and enhanced 

outreach and education efforts to fishery 

managers, scientists, fishermen, tribes, and 

other stakeholders in each region.

Anticipated products from these efforts 

will include:

■ Regional plans designed to reduce bycatch 

and other interactions between fishing gear 

and deep-sea corals and sponges.

■ Recommendations to appropriate 

Councils and National Marine Sanctuaries 

(as applicable) on additional measures 

to conserve deep-sea coral and sponge 

ecosystems.

■ Fishery observer coverage and training on 

bottom trawl vessels operating in areas 

of known or suspected deep-sea coral or 

sponge ecosystems.

■ Maps of potential and known deep-sea coral 

and sponge habitats, with overlays of the 

distribution of fishing effort and intensity.

An example of deep coral habitat (showing octocorals, antipatharians, echninoderms, sponges and deepwater fishes) found in Flower Garden Banks National 

Marine Sanctuary, in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico. 
NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems 39

 5Gray’s Reef National Marine Sanctuary is shallower than 25 m; however, several corals and sponges that are common in deeper water 

are also found within the sanctuary boundaries. The area encompassed by the Hawaiian Islands Humpback Whale National Marine 

Sanctuary also includes deep-sea coral habitat, but this Sanctuary’s mandate currently is limited to sustaining a safe and healthy 

habitat for the North Pacific stock of humpback whales that seasonally visit the area.

 4. ENHANCE CONSERVATION OF DEEP-SEA CORAL AND SPONGE 

ECOSYSTEMS IN NATIONAL MARINE SANCTUARIES AND MARINE 

NATIONAL MONUMENTS

The National Marine Sanctuaries Act (NMSA) 

authorizes NOAA to identify and protect nationally 

significant habitats and resources throughout U.S. 

waters. Deep-sea corals and sponges are known to 

exist within the boundaries of eight National Marine 

Sanctuaries with mandates that include their 

conservation: Channel Islands, Cordell Bank, Florida 

Keys, Flower Garden Banks, Gulf of the Farallones, 

Monterey Bay, Olympic Coast, and Stellwagen 

Bank.5

 In addition to the sanctuaries, NOAA is a 

co-trustee in four Marine National Monuments 

in the Pacific: the Papahānaumokuākea Marine 

National Monument in the Northwestern Hawaiian 

Islands, the Nation’s largest comprehensively 

protected marine area; the Marianas Trench Marine 

National Monument; the Pacific Remote Islands 

Marine National Monument; and the Rose Atoll 

Marine National Monument. The Marine National 

Monuments are known, or are likely, to contain rich 

deep-sea coral and sponge resources. 

Priority conservation and management 

activities to meet this objective are:

4.1 Evaluate the occurrence of deep-sea coral 

and sponge ecosystems within National 

Marine Sanctuary or Marine National 

Monument boundaries, giving priority to 

areas where there are likely specific threats 

to these ecosystems that can be addressed 

by the Sanctuary or Monument.

4.2 Recommend specific actions for 

implementation by marine Sanctuaries 

and Monuments in their jurisdictions, such 

as closures, restrictions, or other actions 

needed to eliminate activities, including but 

not limited to destructive fishing practices, 

that may adversely affect deep-sea coral 

and sponge ecosystems, in consultation 

with the states, Councils, other fisheries 

management authorities, co-trustees, tribes, 

and other stakeholders, as appropriate.

Anticipated products from these efforts 

will include:

■ Sanctuary and/or Monument management 

plans that incorporate conservation of 

deep-sea coral and sponge ecosystems.

■ Enhanced protection (from all known 

impacts) of areas known to contain high 

concentrations of deep-sea corals or 

sponges.

■ Outreach and education materials that 

enhance the public’s understanding of 

deep-sea coral and sponge ecosystems 

within each Sanctuary or Monument.
40

5. ASSESS AND ENCOURAGE AVOIDANCE OR MITIGATION OF ADVERSE 

IMPACTS OF NON-FISHING ACTIVITIES ON DEEP-SEA CORAL AND 

SPONGE ECOSYSTEMS 

The purple octocoral Clavularia grandiflora shown with a gold coral colony (Gerardia sp.). 

In addition to fishing, other activities can have 

adverse impacts on deep-sea coral and sponge 

ecosystems (e.g., dredging, cable and pipeline 

deployment, and energy and mineral exploration 

and development activities). Outside of National 

Marine Sanctuaries and the Marine National 

Monuments, and with the exception of approval of 

licenses for deep seabed hard mineral exploration 

and development pursuant to the Deep Seabed 

Hard Mineral Resources Act (30 U.S.C. 1401, et seq.) 

and facilities for ocean thermal energy conversion 

under the Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Act 

(42 U.S.C. 9101 et seq.), NOAA has no authority 

to directly regulate such activities. However, 

under the MSA, NOAA is authorized to monitor 

activity in locations where deep-sea corals are 

known or likely to occur [MSA Sec. 408(a)(3)] and 

information gathered through NOAA’s exploration 

and research activities can assist in avoiding or 

mitigating impacts from these activities. In addition, 

for certain federally managed fisheries, deep-sea 

corals or sponges have been identified as EFH. 

Federal agencies that authorize, fund, or undertake, 

or propose to authorize, fund, or undertake any 

action that may have an adverse effect on EFH 

must consult with NOAA’s National Marine Fisheries 

Service. Through this consultation, NOAA’s National 

Marine Fisheries Service must provide conservation 
NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems 41

recommendations to minimize or mitigate any 

adverse effects of the action on EFH. NOAA can 

also comment through the National Environmental 

Policy Act process on other federal actions that may 

affect these ecosystems.

Priority conservation and management 

activities to meet this objective are:

5.1 Provide information on the location of 

deep-sea coral and sponge ecosystems to 

other federal agencies, and work with them 

to identify current and potential impacts 

or stressors to these ecosystems associated 

with non-fishing activities.

5.2 Work with industry and federal partners 

to utilize NOAA information to develop 

measures to avoid or minimize these 

impacts.

5.3 Consult with federal agencies on their 

proposed actions that may adversely affect 

deep-sea coral or sponge habitats identified 

as EFH, and provide recommendations for 

conserving those habitats.

Anticipated products from these efforts 

will include:

■ Maps of non-fishing activities that may 

adversely impact known or suspected deepsea coral or sponge habitats.

■ Development of best management practices 

for non-fishing activities that may impact 

deep-sea coral and sponge ecosystems.

Field of yellow Enallopsammia stony coral and pink Candidella octocoral, with various sponges, whip coral, and brittle stars. 
42

6. PROVIDE OUTREACH AND COORDINATED COMMUNICATIONS TO 

ENHANCE PUBLIC UNDERSTANDING OF THESE ECOSYSTEMS 

Improved outreach and communication is central 

to helping people understand the value of deepsea coral and sponge ecosystems and ways to 

avoid damaging them. Reducing human impacts 

on these ecosystems often requires changing 

behavior, beliefs, and decision-making criteria. 

An informed, engaged public (including resource 

users, policymakers, industry representatives, 

nongovernmental organizations, and other 

stakeholders) is fundamental to achieving the goals 

of this Strategic Plan. People are more likely to 

alter their actions and support conservation if they 

understand why these ecosystems are important 

and how their actions affect the condition of deepsea coral and sponge ecosystems. The need for 

effective outreach and education cuts across all 

sections of this Strategic Plan, and progress depends 

on fully integrating outreach and education into 

research and management activities.

Priority conservation and management 

activities to meet this objective are:

6.1 Develop outreach materials to enhance 

public understanding of deep-sea coral and 

sponge ecosystems and their conservation.

Large Paragorgia coral with galatheid crabs on Pratt Seamount at 800 m depth. 
NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems 43

6.2 Work with partners to identify key 

stakeholders and develop targeted outreach 

and education materials tailored to increase 

their understanding of deep-sea coral and 

sponge ecosystems and specific actions that 

can enhance their conservation.

6.3 Incorporate information on deep-sea 

coral and sponge ecosystems into formal 

educational materials and lesson plans.

Anticipated products from these efforts 

will include:

■ Outreach materials that increase the 

understanding of the public and key 

stakeholder groups about deep-sea coral and 

sponge ecosystems and their conservation.

■ Recommendations for expanding education 

and outreach activities.

■ Biennial reports to Congress and the public 

on steps taken to identify, monitor, and 

protect deep-sea coral areas, including 

summaries of the results of mapping, 

research, and data collections performed.

These deep-sea soft corals (Octocorallia: Alcyonacea) sometimes go by the common 

name “mushroom coral.” As with other cnidarians, the mushroom coral has stinging cells 

or nematocysts within its flashy tentacles that are used to capture minute prey. 

(Top) Black coral (Leiopathes sp.). (Bottom) Close-up of Lophelia 

pertusa calyx with its polyp retracted. 
44

A sea spider (Pycnogonida) creeps along the 

top of ridge at 1960 m depth in the Northeast 

Providence Channel near Eleuthera Island, 

Bahamas. The two arm-like structures hanging 

down from the body behind the proboscis are 

“ovigers,” used for carrying eggs.
NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems 45

III.International 

Strategy

NOAA’s Objectives to Enhance International Conservation of 

Deep Sea Coral and Sponge Communities:

1. Promote international partnerships to conserve deep-sea coral and 

sponge ecosystems through the sustainable management of deep-sea 

fisheries activities impacting those resources.

2. Ensure that international trade of deep-sea coral and sponge species, 

and their parts and products, is sustainable.

3. Increase international exploration and research of deep-sea coral and 

sponge ecosystems.
46

Large branching bamboo corals flank a delicate chrysogorgiid coral, Metallogorgia melanotrichos. 

Because deep-sea coral and sponge communities 

occur both within and beyond national jurisdictions, 

effective and comprehensive research, conservation, 

and management measures will benefit from 

complementary national, regional, and global 

initiatives. Similar to domestic management 

issues, human activities in areas beyond national 

jurisdiction may also impact deep-sea coral and 

sponge ecosystems. Potential threats could include 

deep-sea bottom fishing, mining of cobalt-rich crusts 

on seamounts, deployment of submarine cables, 

and vessel discharges and anchoring. For nonfishery-based impacts, NOAA, where appropriate 

and in coordination and cooperation with other 

relevant government entities, will support U.S. 

multilateral efforts to address the impacts of 

these activities. For high-seas bottom fisheries 

activities and international trade that have an 

impact on deep-sea corals and sponges, NOAA—in 

cooperation and consultation with the Department 

of State, Department of the Interior, and other 

relevant government agencies—will continue to 

participate in international fora to ensure the long 

term sustainability of coral and sponge resources. 

NOAA has and will continue to advance the United 

States’ position on conserving and managing deepsea ecosystems in these multilateral and bilateral 

arrangements. 
NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems 47

1. PROMOTE INTERNATIONAL PARTNERSHIPS TO CONSERVE DEEP-SEA 

CORAL AND SPONGE ECOSYSTEMS THROUGH THE SUSTAINABLE 

MANAGEMENT OF DEEP-SEA FISHERIES ACTIVITIES IMPACTING THOSE 

RESOURCES

The decline of near-shore fisheries and the advent 

of improved fishing vessel capacity have led to 

increased fishing efforts in the deep seas. In some 

cases, the rate of this expansion has surpassed our 

knowledge of bottom fisheries target species and 

their associated habitats. Many of these deep-sea 

fish species may be especially vulnerable to fishing 

pressures because of their slower rates of growth 

and reproduction. Furthermore, vulnerable benthic 

ecosystems, such as deep-sea corals, may take 

decades or longer to recover from the impacts of 

mobile bottom-tending gears. 

The United States has been a leader internationally 

for the protection of vulnerable habitats from 

destructive fishing practices, as illustrated in 

President Bush’s 2006 Memorandum to the 

Secretaries of State and Commerce. The memo 

highlights the importance of ending destructive 

fishing practices that destroy the long-term natural 

productivity of fish stocks or habitats such as 

seamounts, corals, and sponge fields for shortterm gain. In the memo, the President directed 

the Department of State and NOAA to work 

diplomatically within international fora to promote 

sustainable fishing practices and to call upon all 

nations to prohibit their vessels from engaging 

in destructive fishing practices on the high seas 

until appropriate conservation and management 

measures are in place. 

NOAA continues to support strong action to end 

destructive fishing practices on the high seas. Under 

the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery and Conservation 

Act (MSA), NOAA published the regulatory 

definition of Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated 

(IUU) fishing (72 Federal Register 18405-5, April 12, 

2007), which includes fishing activities that have an 

adverse impact on seamounts, hydrothermal vents, 

and cold-water corals located beyond national 

jurisdiction, for which there are no applicable 

conservation or management measures or in areas 

with no applicable Regional Fisheries Management 

Organizations or Arrangements (RFMO/As). The 

Department of Commerce is developing regulations 

to implement measures of the MSA that will seek to 

address IUU fishing, and will work closely with our 

international partners in its application.

To that end, the international community has 

acknowledged the need to sustainably manage 

deep-sea fisheries and protect the associated 

vulnerable marine ecosystems (VMEs). Annually, 

all member States of the United Nations General 

Assembly (UNGA) negotiate a sustainable fisheries 

and oceans-related resolution that guides 

international policy and management on a range 

of marine issues. The 2006 UNGA sustainable 

fisheries resolution (A/Res/61/105) provides a 

framework for protecting VMEs such as seamounts, 

cold-water corals, and hydrothermal vents from 

significant adverse impacts of fishing on the 

high seas, as summarized in Box 3. States and 

RFMO/As, with guidance from the United Nations 

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), are 

currently developing, adopting, and implementing 

management measures to fulfill this mandate.

Currently, four RFMO/As have the competency to 

manage bottom fishing: the Northwest Atlantic 

Fisheries Organization (NAFO), North East Atlantic 

Fisheries Commission, South East Atlantic Fisheries 

Organization, and Convention on the Conservation 

of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR). 

Of these, the United States is party to NAFO 

and CCAMLR. Through U.S. leadership, CCAMLR 
48

Box 3. The 2006 UNGA Sustainable Fisheries Resolution (A/Res/61/105) calls upon 

RFMO/As to:

■ Assess whether individual bottom fishing activities would have significant adverse impacts on VMEs 

and, if so, manage such fishing to prevent such impacts or not authorize it to proceed.

■ Identify where VMEs are and determine whether bottom fishing would cause significant adverse 

impacts to the VMEs and long-term sustainability of deep-sea fish stocks through, among other means, 

scientific research, data collection and sharing, and new and exploratory fisheries.

■ Close areas to bottom fishing if VMEs are present or are likely to occur, based on the best available 

scientific information, and not allow such fishing to proceed unless conservation and management 

measures are in place to prevent significant adverse impacts on VMEs.

■ Cease bottom fishing if a VME is encountered and report the location so that appropriate measures can 

be adopted with respect to the relevant site.

■ Make public the relevant measures adopted in accordance with resolution 61/105.

The resolution calls for RFMO/As to comply with these provisions by December 31, 2008, and for States 

participating in negotiations to establish new RFMO/As to regulate bottom fisheries to expedite such 

negotiations and, no later than December 31, 2007, to adopt and implement interim measures that comply 

with these provisions. Further, States should adopt and implement the above measures or cease authorizing 

bottom fishing in areas where there is no competent RFMO/A or where no interim measures have been 

adopted in conjunction with new RFMO/A negotiations. Finally, States agreed to review actions taken in 

accordance with the resolution, and, if necessary, propose further recommendations at the 2009 UNGA fisheries 

resolution negotiations. The 2007 UNGA sustainable fisheries resolution (A/Res/62/177) reaffirmed the call for 

RFMO/As and flag States to implement these measures.

White ruffle sponge, Ferrea sp., blankets large areas at or near the crest of 

Davidson Seamount. 

Whip-like black coral, Stichopathes sp.
NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems 49

and NAFO in 2008 adopted, and have since 

implemented, conservation and management 

measures consistent with UNGA resolution 

A/Res/61/105, including the identification of VMEs; 

assessment of bottom fishing activities and the 

adoption of subsequent management measures, if 

necessary to prevent significant adverse impacts; 

and the cessation of bottom fishing if evidence of a 

VME is encountered.

The United States is currently participating in 

negotiations to establish new RFMO/As to manage 

bottom fisheries in the Northwest Pacific and the 

South Pacific. In 2007, both organizations agreed 

to interim non-binding provisions that are fully 

consistent with UNGA resolution A/Res/61/105, 

as well as provisions for data collection and 

monitoring, and measures to freeze current bottom 

fishing both in terms of effort or catch and areas 

fished. As participants in the Mechanism for the 

Management of High Seas Bottom Fisheries in the 

Northwestern Pacific Ocean, the United States, 

Japan, Republic of Korea, and Russian Federation 

adopted these measures in February 2007 and 

refined them in October 2007. In the international 

consultations on the establishment of a South 

Pacific RFMO, participants—including Australia, 

the Russian Federation, Japan, New Zealand, 

Brittle stars are invertebrates often associated with deep-sea corals. 
50

and Chile—agreed to interim measures in May 

2007. Participants further developed an interim 

benthic assessment framework and an assessment 

process to assist flag States and the interim 

Scientific Working Group in its role to evaluate the 

assessments provided by States. Both organizations 

are currently in negotiations to develop final 

convention text, and permanent conservation and 

management measures.

The 2006 UNGA fisheries resolution identified a 

number of activities for FAO in support of States 

and RFMOs to protect VMEs and ensure sustainable 

deep-sea fisheries on the high seas. In August 

2008, governments, fostered by the FAO, adopted 

a document entitled International Guidelines for the 

Management of Deep-Sea Fisheries in the High Seas,

which includes standards and criteria for identifying 

VMEs beyond areas under national jurisdiction 

and methods to determine the impacts of fishing 

activities on such ecosystems, in order to facilitate 

the adoption and the implementation of 

conservation and management measures by 

RFMO/As and flag States.

Priority international activities under 

this objective, to be addressed in 

coordination and cooperation with the 

Department of State and other relevant 

government agencies, are: 

1.1. Support the development and 

implementation of U.S. policies and 

management measures to end destructive 

fishing practices on the high seas.

A whip-like colony of a bamboo coral extends more than 2 m from the 

face of a ledge at 1700 m depth. 

Deep-sea Paragorgia coral covered in zoanthids and a sea star demonstrates 

the beauty and diversity of life on the New England Seamounts. 
NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems 51

■ Update relevant regulations for U.S. flagged 

fishing vessels that would serve to protect 

VMEs on the high seas. 

■ Develop regulations and measures relevant 

to MSA that address IUU fishing, working 

closely with our international partners.

1.2. Promote implementation of UNGA 

Sustainable Fisheries resolution 

A/Res/61/105 with the authority to regulate 

bottom fisheries and where the United 

States is a member. 

1.3. Support negotiations for the development 

of new RFMO/As where appropriate with the 

competence to regulate bottom fisheries 

and the implementation of interim measures 

to prevent significant adverse impacts 

on VMEs as outlined in UNGA resolution 

A/Res/61/105. 

1.4. Support FAO implementation of technical 

guidance and assistance to address 

significant adverse impacts of fishing on 

VMEs.

1.5 Working in coordination and cooperation 

with the State Department, review progress 

in implementing the 2006 and 2009 UNGA 

fisheries resolutions. 

Yellow Picasso sponge, Staurocalyptus sp. 
52

2. ENSURE THAT INTERNATIONAL TRADE OF DEEP-SEA CORAL 

AND SPONGE SPECIES, AND THEIR PARTS AND PRODUCTS, IS 

SUSTAINABLE

Certain deep-sea corals and sponges are traded 

internationally and, if not well managed, harvests 

to supply this trade could result in habitat damage 

and threats to the species. These threats have been 

recognized internationally, particularly for coral 

species used in the jewelry trade. The Convention 

on International Trade in Endangered Species 

of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) is a multilateral 

agreement designed to ensure that international 

trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does 

not threaten their survival. Black corals have been 

listed in CITES Appendix II since 1981, and in 2008, 

three pink coral species (Corallium spp.) were listed 

by China under CITES Appendix III.6

 

The U.S. is a major importer of products made from 

precious corals. In light of the global concern over 

deep-sea corals and other VMEs, and because of the 

prominent role of the United States as a consumer 

of coral products, it is in the national interest of the 

United States to ensure both sustainable collection 

and trade.

NOAA, in collaboration with other government 

agencies, promoted the addition of precious corals 

(Corallium spp.) under CITES Appendix II at the 15th 

Conference of the Parties, 2007 and 2010. Although 

these measures did not pass, NOAA will continue to 

work bilaterally and multilaterally to build support 

for their listing in the future. NOAA will work 

with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and other 

interested Parties and groups to explore whether 

other deep-sea coral species in trade with similar 

life-history characteristics may be appropriate for 

future listing proposals.

Priority international activities to meet 

this objective are:

2.1 Support CITES Appendix II listing for 

precious coral species (Corallium spp.).

Pink coral necklaces for sale in Japan. 

 6 Under Appendix II, an export permit or re-export certificate issued by the Management Authority of the State of export or re-export is required. 

An export permit may be issued only if the specimen was legally obtained and if the export will not be detrimental to the survival of the species. 

Appendix III lists those species included by the request of a Party State needing help in regulating trade to prevent exploitation of that species.
NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems 53

3. INCREASE INTERNATIONAL EXPLORATION AND RESEARCH OF DEEP-SEA 

CORAL AND SPONGE ECOSYSTEMS

NOAA has unique scientific expertise, programs, 

and technical and ship assets that can support 

or contribute to international exploration and 

research of deep-sea coral and sponge ecosystems. 

NOAA has made and will continue to make a 

concentrated effort to work with the global 

community to identify critical information needs 

to increase our understanding of the distribution 

and ecological importance of deep-sea corals 

and sponges and collaborative efforts to fulfill 

these information needs. A particular focus of 

international cooperation in the next five years 

will be identification of deep-sea coral and sponge 

communities in areas beyond national jurisdiction 

that may contribute to protecting VMEs.

Priority international activities to meet 

this objective are:

3.1 Coordinate bilateral and multilateral 

exploration and research activities.

3.2 Support inclusion of U.S. data on deep-sea 

coral and sponge species and communities 

in multilateral database efforts.

3.3 Support U.S. participation in international 

symposia, conferences, or other fora that 

facilitate information exchange.

3.4 Ensure that international research is 

shared and reflected in U.S. domestic and 

international management measures.

3.5 Support and participate in collaborative 

research on the identification of VMEs 

globally and the assessment of the impact of 

fishing on VMEs.

The ROV Jason surfaces from a dive on a deep-sea coral research A white sponge with purple crinoids. 

expedition. 
54

Cairns, SD. 2007. Deep-water corals: an overview with 

special reference to diversity and distribution of deep-water 

scleractinian corals. Bulletin of Marine Science 81:311-322.

Daily, GC. 2000. Management objectives for the protection of 

ecosystem services. Environmental Science & Policy 3:333-339.

Food and Agricultural Organization, United Nations. 2008. 

International guidelines for the management of deep-sea 

fisheries in the high seas. FAO: Rome. 16 pp.

Freiwald, A, JH Fosså, A Grehan, T Koslow and JM Roberts. 

2004. Cold-water coral reefs, out of sight-no longer out of 

mind. United Nations Environmental Program: Cambridge, U.K. 

84pp.

Freiwald, A and JM Roberts (eds.). 2005. Cold-water corals 

and ecosystems. 2nd International Symposium on DeepSea Corals; 8-12 Sep 2003; Erlangen, Germany. Springer: 

Heidelberg. 1243 pp. 

George, RY and SD Cairns (eds.). 2007. Conservation and 

adaptive management of seamount and deep-sea coral 

ecosystems. Bulletin of Marine Science 81(Suppl. 1):1-324. 

George, RY and SD Cairns (eds.). 2007. Deep-sea coral 

ecosystems: biology and geology. Proceedings of the 3rd 

International Symposium on Deep-Sea Corals; 28 Nov- 2 Dec 

2005; Miami, Florida. Bulletin of Marine Science 81(3):309-559.

Hovland, M. 2008. Deep-water coral reefs, unique biodiversity 

hot-spots. Springer-Praxis: Chichester. 278 pp. 

Krautter, M, KW Conway, JV Barrie and M Neuweiler. 2001. 

Discovery of a ‘living dinosaur:’ globally unique modern 

hexactinellid sponge reefs off British Columbia, Canada. Facies 

44: 265-282. 

Løkkeborg, S. 2005. Impacts of trawling and scallop dredging 

on benthic habitats and ecosystems. FAO Fisheries Technical 

Paper 472. 58pp.

Selected 

References 

for Further 

Reading
NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems 55

Love, MS, DM Schroeder, and MM Nishimoto. 2003. The 

ecological role of oil and gas production platforms and natural 

outcrops on fishes in southern and central California: a synthesis 

of information. U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological 

Survey, Biological Resources Division: Seattle, WA. OCS Study 

2003-032.

Lumsden, SE, TF Hourigan, AW Bruckner and G Dorr (eds.). 2007. 

The state of deep coral ecosystems of the United States: 2007. 

NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program: Silver Spring, MD. 

NOAA Technical Memorandum CRCP 3. 365 pp.

McDonough, JJ and KA Puglise. 2003. Summary: Deep-Sea 

Corals Workshop. International Planning and Collaboration 

Workshop for the Gulf of Mexico and the North Atlantic Ocean; 

16-17 Jan 2003; Galway, Ireland. U.S. Dep. Commerce, NOAA 

Technical Memorandum NMFS/F/SPO-60. 51pp.

Morgan, LE, CF Tsao and JM Guinotte. 2006. Status of deepsea corals in U.S. waters with recommendations for their 

conservation and management. Marine Conservation Biology 

Institute: Bellevue, WA. 64pp.

National Research Council. 2002. Effects of trawling and 

dredging on seafloor habitat. National Academy Press: 

Washington, D.C. 136 pp. 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2010. Report 

to Congress on the Implementation of the Deep Sea Coral 

Research and Technology Program: 2008-2009. NOAA Coral Reef 

Conservation Program: Silver Spring, MD. 64 pp.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2008. 

Report to Congress on the Implementation of the Deep Sea 

Coral Research and Technology Program. NOAA Coral Reef 

Conservation Program: Silver Spring, MD. 43 pp. 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2005. 

Response to Oceana petition for emergency rulemaking 

to protect deep-sea coral and sponge habitat from mobile 

bottom-tending fishing gear under the Magnuson-Stevens 

Fishery Conservation and Management Act essential fish habitat 

provisions. Federal Register, Vol. 70, No. 131. p. 39700-39714.

Partyka, ML, SW Ross, AM Quattrini, GR Sedberry, TW Birdsong, 

J Potter and S Gottfried. 2007. Southeastern United States 

Deep-Sea Corals (SEADESC) Initiative: a collaborative effort to 

characterize areas of habitat forming deep-sea corals. NOAA 

Office of Ocean Exploration and Research: Silver Spring, MD. 

NOAA Technical Memorandum OAR OER 1. 176 pp.

Pitcher, TJ, T Morato, P Hart, M Clark, N Haggan and R Santos 

(eds.). 2007. Seamounts: ecology, fisheries and conservation. 

Blackwell Publishing: Oxford, U.K. 527 pp.

Roberts, JM, A Wheeler, A Freiwald and S Cairns. 2009. Coldwater corals: the biology and geology of deep-sea coral habitats. 

Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, U.K. 352 pp.

U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy. 2004. An Ocean Blueprint for 

the 21st Century. Final Report. Washington, DC. 522 pp.

Watling, L and M Risk (eds.). 2002. Special issue: biology of cold 

water corals. Hydrobiologia 471:1-164.

Willison, JHM, J Hall, SE Gass, ELR Kechington, M Butler and 

P Doherty (eds.). 2001. Proceedings of the First International 

Symposium on Deep-Sea Corals; 30 Jul-3 Aug 2000; Halifax, 

Canada. Ecology Action Centre and Nova Scotia Museum: 

Halifax, Nova Scotia. 231 pp.
56

azooxanthellate Lacking symbiotic photosynthesizing algae (zooxanthellae).

biodiversity The variability among living organisms from all sources including terrestrial, 

marine, and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of 

which they are a part; this includes diversity within species, between species, 

and of ecosystems (Convention on Biological Diversity).

bottom-tending gear Gear that is towed (mobile bottom-tending gear) or rests (fixed bottomtending gear) upon the bottom (seafloor) during fishing operations. Fixed 

bottom-tending gear includes traps or pots (either single or multiple), 

bottom-set gillnets (sink gillnets), and bottom-set longlines. Fixed gear rests 

on the bottom while fishing and may be pulled across the bottom for short 

distances during retrieval or storms. (See also mobile bottom-tending gear.)

bottom trawl A type of mobile bottom-tending gear consisting of a cone- or funnelshaped net that is towed through the water by one or more vessels and 

is designed to be dragged along the bottom in order to capture fish. This 

definition includes beam trawls (trawl with a fixed net opening utilizing 

a wood or metal beam), otter trawls (trawl with a net opening controlled 

by devices commonly called otter doors), and pair trawls (trawl dragged 

between two vessels). It does not include pelagic trawls that do not have 

chafe protection gear attached to the footrope or fishing line. 

bycatch Marine organisms harvested in a fishery but not sold or kept for personal use, 

includes economic discards and regulatory discards. In the context of this 

Strategic Plan bycatch includes, in particular, deep-sea corals and sponges.

commercial fishing Fishing in which the fish harvested, either in whole or in part, are intended to 

enter commerce or enter commerce through sale, barter, or trade.

coral Species of the phylum Cnidaria having continuous or discontinuous calcium 

carbonate or horn-like skeletal elements, including: (a) all species of the 

orders Antipatharia (black corals), Scleractinia (stony corals), Gorgonacea 

(horny corals), Alcyonacea (soft corals), Pennatulacea (sea pens) and 

Helioporacea (blue coral and lithotestelids), and species in the family 

Gerardiidae (gold corals) of the class Anthozoa; and (b) calcified species in 

the order Anthoathecatae (stylasterid corals and fire corals) or the family of 

the class Hydrozoa. 

deep-sea coral, structure forming Any colonial, azooxanthellate corals generally occurring at depths below 

50 m that provide vertical structure above the seafloor that can be utilized 

by other species. These include both deep reef-building stony corals (e.g., 

Lophelia pertusa), as well as individual branching colonies of corals (e.g., 

gorgonians and black corals). These are often referred to as habitat-forming 

deep-sea, deepwater, or cold-water corals. 

Glossary
NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems 57

deep-sea coral communities Habitats formed by structure forming deep-sea corals and the other species 

associated with these habitats.

deep-sea sponge communities Habitats formed by structure-forming deep-sea sponges and the other species 

associated with these habitats.

deep-sea sponge, structure-forming Any sponges generally occurring at depths below 50 m that provide vertical 

structure above the seafloor and can occur at a density such that they can be 

utilized by other species. 

ecosystem A geographically specified system of organisms, the environment, and 

the processes that control its dynamics. Humans are an integral part of an 

ecosystem.

essential fish habitat Those waters and substrate necessary to fish for spawning, breeding, feeding, or 

growth to maturity. Essential fish habitat is described and identified for federally 

managed fisheries species through fishery management plans prepared by the 

Regional Fishery Management Councils or NOAA. 

fish As defined by the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management 

Act, “fish” includes finfish, mollusks, crustaceans, and all other forms of marine 

animal and plant life other than marine mammals and birds. 

fishery One or more stocks of fish that can be treated as a unit for purposes of 

conservation and management and that are identified on the basis of 

geographical, scientific, technical, recreational, and economic characteristics. 

Also includes any fishing for such stocks.

marine protected area Any area of the marine environment that has been reserved by federal, state, 

territorial, commonwealth, tribal, or local laws or regulations to provide lasting 

protection for part or all of the natural and cultural resources therein.

marine reserve An area protected from extractive uses (i.e., no-take area).

mesophotic coral ecosystems Mesophotic coral ecosystems are characterized by the presence of lightdependent corals and associated communities typically found at depths ranging 

from 30–40 m to over 150 m in tropical and subtropical regions. The dominant 

communities providing structural habitat in the mesophotic zone can be 

comprised of coral, sponge, and algal species.

mobile bottom-tending gear Any fishing gear that is towed behind one or more vessels and is designed to 

be dragged along the bottom in order to capture fish. This includes non-pelagic 

trawl, dredge, or dinglebar gear, or other mobile gear that has chafe protection 

gear attached to the footrope or fishing line. (Also referred to as mobile bottomcontact gear.)

sponge Any species in the Phylum Porifera generally occurring at depths below 50 m. 

stressor A physical, chemical, or biological factor that adversely affects organisms; an 

agent, condition, or similar stimulus that causes stress to an organism.
58

NOAA Requirement 

and Policy Drivers with 

Specific Reference to 

Deep-Sea Corals

A. Appendix
NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems 59

The following statutory authorities and other policy authorities make specific reference to deep-sea (or cold-water) corals. 

Statutory Authorities:

Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act (MSA 16 U.S.C. 1801 et seq.)

In 2006, the MSA was reauthorized. In reauthorizing the MSA, Congress added two sections that specifically reference 

management and research of deep-sea corals — Sections 303(b)(2)(B) and 408. Additionally, Congress amended the High Seas 

Driftnet Fishing Moratorium Protection Act to require the Secretary of Commerce, acting through NOAA, to issue a definition of 

Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) fishing that includes fishing for cold-water corals.

MSA Section 303(b). Discretionary Provisions. 

Any fishery management plan which is prepared by any Council, or by the Secretary, with respect to any fishery, may—

(2)(A) designate zones where, and periods when, fishing shall be limited, or shall not be permitted, or shall be permitted only 

by specified types of fishing vessels or with specified types and quantities of fishing gear;

 (B) designate such zones in areas where deep-sea corals are identified under section 408, to protect deep-sea corals from 

physical damage from fishing gear or to prevent loss or damage to such fishing gear from interactions with deep-sea 

corals, after considering long-term sustainable uses of fishery resources in such areas.

MSA Section 408. Deep Sea Coral Research and Technology Program.

(a) IN GENERAL- The Secretary, in consultation with appropriate regional fishery management councils and in coordination 

with other federal agencies and educational institutions, shall, subject to the availability of appropriations, establish a 

program—

(1) to identify existing research on, and known locations of, deep-sea corals and submit such information to the appropriate 

Councils;

(2) to locate and map locations of deep-sea corals and submit such information to the Councils;

(3) to monitor activity in locations where deep-sea corals are known or likely to occur, based on best scientific information 

available, including through underwater or remote sensing technologies and submit such information to the 

appropriate Councils;

(4) to conduct research, including cooperative research with fishing industry participants, on deep-sea corals and related 

species, and on survey methods;

(5) to develop technologies or methods designed to assist fishing industry participants in reducing interactions between 

fishing gear and deep-sea corals; and

(6) to prioritize program activities in areas where deep-sea corals are known to occur, and in areas where scientific 

modeling or other methods predict deep-sea corals are likely to be present.

(b) REPORTING- Beginning 1 year after the date of enactment of the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management 

Reauthorization Act of 2006, the Secretary, in consultation with the Councils, shall submit biennial reports to Congress and 

the public on steps taken by the Secretary to identify, monitor, and protect deep-sea coral areas, including summaries of the 

results of mapping, research, and data collection performed under the program.
60

High Seas Driftnet Fishing Moratorium Protection Act (16 U.S.C. 1826d et seq.)

The Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Reauthorization Act of 2006 amended the High Seas Driftnet 

Fishing Moratorium Protection Act to include fishing activity that has an adverse impact on cold-water corals (deep-sea corals) 

under the definition of IUU fishing.

SEC. 609. Illegal, Unreported, or Unregulated Fishing

(e) Illegal, Unreported, or Unregulated Fishing Defined— 

(1) IN GENERAL- In this Act the term `illegal, unreported, or unregulated fishing’ has the meaning established under 

paragraph (2).

(2) SECRETARY TO DEFINE TERM WITHIN LEGISLATIVE GUIDELINES- Within 3 months after the date of enactment of the 

Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Reauthorization Act of 2006, the Secretary shall publish a 

definition of the term `illegal, unreported, or unregulated fishing’ for purposes of this Act.

(3) GUIDELINES- The Secretary shall include in the definition, at a minimum—

(A) fishing activities that violate conservation and management measures required under an international fishery 

management agreement to which the United States is a party, including catch limits or quotas, capacity 

restrictions, and bycatch reduction requirements;

(B) overfishing of fish stocks shared by the United States, for which there are no applicable international conservation 

or management measures or in areas with no applicable international fishery management organization or 

agreement, that has adverse impacts on such stocks; and

(C) fishing activity that has an adverse impact on seamounts, hydrothermal vents, and cold water corals located 

beyond national jurisdiction, for which there are no applicable conservation or management measures or in areas 

with no applicable international fishery management organization or agreement.

Other Policy Drivers:

Presidential Memorandum on Promoting Sustainable Fishing and Ending Destructive Fishing Practices 

(2006)

On October 2, 2006, President Bush issued a memorandum directing the Secretaries of State and Commerce to work with 

other countries, international organizations, and Regional Fisheries Management Organizations and Agreements (RFMO/As) to 

implement five policies to reduce destructive fishing practices on the high seas. Destructive fishing practices are defined as those 

“practices that destroy the long term natural productivity of fish stocks or habitats such as seamount, corals and sponge fields for 

short term gain.” 
NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems 61

A red gorgonian from the coral garden in the 

Gulf of Mexico. The eight tiny tentacles on 

each polyp place this group of corals in the 

sub-class Octocorallia. 
62

NOAA Authorities and 

Policy Drivers Relevant to 

Research and Conservation 

of Deep-Sea Coral and 

Sponge Ecosystems

B.Appendix
NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems 63

The following is a list of major statutory authorities and 

Executive Orders (E.O.) or other policy drivers that apply to 

NOAA’s research, conservation, and management of deepsea coral and sponge ecosystems. A brief description for each 

authority and an explanation of its application to deep-sea coral 

and sponge ecosystems is included below.

Primary Authorities and Policy Drivers:

Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act 

(MSA, 16 U.S.C. 1801 et seq.)

The MSA establishes exclusive federal management authority 

over fishery resources of the exclusive economic zone. It 

is the principal Act governing U.S. fisheries policy. Fishery 

management plans (FMP) prepared by any Regional Fishery 

Management Council (Council) or NOAA under the MSA may, in 

some cases, require conservation and management measures 

for deep-sea corals and sponges. The MSA requires FMPs to 

include conservation and management measures that, to the 

extent practicable, (a) minimize bycatch and (b) to the extent 

that bycatch cannot be avoided, minimize the mortality of 

such bycatch, [Sec. 301(a)(9)]. In addition, the MSA requires 

FMPs to identify and describe essential fish habitat (EFH), and, 

to the extent practicable, to include management measures 

that minimize the adverse effects of fishing on EFH. FMPs must 

also identify other actions to encourage conservation and 

management of EFH [Sec. 305(b)]. 

In addition to the MSA bycatch and EFH provisions, Councils 

may have authority to include management measures for 

these habitats under the Act’s discretionary provisions. The 

MSA authorizes Councils to designate zones for the protection 

of deep-sea corals [Sec. 303(b)(2)(B) – see Appendix A]. 

Councils may also include management measures in any 

FMP to conserve target and non-target species and habitats, 

considering the variety of ecological factors affecting fishery 

populations [Sec. 303(b)(12)].

National Marine Sanctuaries Act 

(NMSA Title III 16 U.S.C. 1431 et seq.)

The NMSA authorizes the Secretary of Commerce to protect 

and manage the resources of significant marine areas of the 

United States. This authority has been delegated to NOAA. 

NOAA’s administration of the National Marine Sanctuaries 

Program involves designating marine sanctuaries and adopting 

management practices to protect the conservation, recreational, 

ecological, educational, and aesthetic values of these areas. The 

NMSA provides the authority to issue regulations addressing 

threats to the resources of individual sanctuaries or the entire 

system. Among other things, regulations control or prohibit 

specific types of activities known to harm resources. Sanctuary 

management plans guide day-to-day operations, which include 

programs for characterization, monitoring, research, education, 

outreach, enforcement, incident response, restoration, and 

training.

Presidential Memorandum on Promoting Sustainable Fishing and 

Ending Destructive Fishing Practices (2006)

On October 2, 2006, President Bush issued a memorandum 

directing the Secretaries of State and Commerce to work with 

other countries, international organizations, and Regional 

Fisheries Management Organizations and Agreements to 

implement five policies to reduce destructive fishing practices 

on the high seas. Destructive fishing practices are defined as 

those “practices that destroy the long term natural productivity 

of fish stocks or habitats such as seamount, corals and sponge 

fields for short term gain.”

Presidential Proclamation: Establishment of the Northwestern 

Hawaiian Islands Marine National Monument (2006)

Presidential Proclamation 8031 established 

Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, the single 

largest conservation area under the U.S., and one of the 

largest marine conservation areas in the world, encompassing 

139,797 square miles in the Pacific Ocean. The Marine National 

Monument contains deep-sea coral and sponge resources, as 

well as extensive shallow coral reefs.

Presidential Proclamations: Establishment of the Marianas Trench, 

Pacific Remote Islands, and Rose Atoll Marine National Monuments 

(2009)

Three separate proclamations were issued on January 6, 

2009, establishing the Marianas Trench (Proclamation 8335), 

Pacific Remote Islands (Proclamation 8336), and the Rose Atoll 

(Proclamation 8337) Marine National Monuments. All three 

Marine National Monuments are located in the Pacific Ocean 

and are known, or are likely, to contain rich deep-sea coral and 

sponge resources.
64

Additional Relevant Authorities:

American Fisheries Act (P.L. 105-277)

The American Fisheries Act covers management of the 

pollock fishery in the Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands (BSAI) 

management area. It also covers the other groundfish fisheries 

in the BSAI and the Gulf of Alaska, the king and tanner crab 

fisheries in the BSAI, and the scallop fisheries off Alaska.

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild 

Fauna and Flora (CITES)

CITES is a multinational agreement that entered into force in 

1975 to prevent species from becoming endangered or extinct 

because of international trade. Under this treaty, countries work 

together to ensure that international trade in animal and plant 

species is not detrimental to the survival of wild populations 

by regulating the import, export, re-export, and introduction 

from the sea of certain animal and plant species. The goal is to 

ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals 

and plants does not threaten their survival. The United States 

became a Party to CITES in 1975 and implements it through the 

Endangered Species Act. Three pink coral species (Corallium 

spp.) are listed by China under Appendix III.

Deep Seabed Hard Mineral Resources Act (30 U.S.C. 1401 et seq.)

The Deep Seabed Hard Mineral Resources Act establishes 

an interim domestic legal regime for deep seabed mining, 

pending adoption of an acceptable international regime. The 

Act establishes a licensing regime that ensures protection of 

the marine environment, safety of life and property at sea, 

prevention of unreasonable interference with other uses of 

the high seas, and conservation of mineral resources. The 

Act encourages other nations that embark on ocean-mining 

ventures to manage their activities in a similar fashion, and to 

respect licenses and permits issued under the Act.

Endangered Species Act (16 U.S.C. 1531 et seq.)

The Endangered Species Act requires that the Secretary of 

Commerce list any species threatened with extinction in all or 

a significant portion of its range and designate critical habitat 

for that species. At this time, no deep-sea corals or sponges are 

listed as threatened or endangered under the Act; however, 

Oculina varicosa has been identified as a “species of concern” 

by NOAA. Endangered Hawaiian monk seals, Monachus 

schauinslandi, are known to forage in beds of precious 

coral below 300 m, which are habitat for known prey items 

such as eels. The Endangered Species Act also serves as the 

implementing legislation for U.S. participation in CITES.

Executive Order 13158: Marine Protected Areas

E.O.13158 is intended to strengthen management and 

protection of marine protected areas (MPAs). The E.O. requires 

the Secretaries of Commerce and the Interior, in consultation 

with other agencies and affected states and territories, to 

develop a national system of MPAs, to share information, to 

develop an MPA website, and to publish a list of MPAs. The E.O. 

also requires each federal agency to take appropriate steps 

to enhance protection for existing MPAs or to recommend, if 

appropriate, new MPAs.

Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act (16 U.S.C. 661-666e)

The Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act requires federal 

departments and agencies that undertake an action, or issue 

a federal permit or license that proposes to modify any stream 

or other body of water, to first consult with the U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service (Department of the Interior), the National 

Marine Fisheries Service (Department of Commerce), and 

appropriate state fish and wildlife agencies. The purpose of 

the Act is to ensure that wildlife conservation receives equal 

consideration and is coordinated with other aspects of water 

resources development.

Government Performance and Results Act of 1993 

(31 U.S.C. 1115 et seq.)

The Government Performance and Results Act holds federal 

agencies accountable for using resources wisely and achieving 

program results. The Act requires agencies to develop plans 

for what they intend to accomplish, measure how well they are 

doing, make appropriate decisions based on the information 

they have gathered, and communicate information about their 

performance to Congress and the public.

High Seas Driftnet Fishing Moratorium Protection Act 

(16 U.S.C. 1826d et seq.)

The High Seas Driftnet Fishing Moratorium Protection Act guides 

U.S. implementation associated with the United Nations resolutions 

and decisions establishing and reaffirming a global moratorium 

on large-scale driftnet fishing on the high seas. It defines illegal, 
NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems 65

unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing and prohibits the United 

States from entering into international agreements that would 

prevent the full implementation of the moratorium. In 2006, the 

MSA amended the definition of IUU fishing to include “fishing 

activity that has an adverse impact on seamounts, hydrothermal 

vents, and cold water corals located beyond national jurisdiction, 

for which there are no applicable conservation or management 

measures or in areas with no applicable international fishery 

management organization or agreement.”

High Seas Fishing Compliance Act (16 U.S.C. 5501 et seq.)

The High Seas Fishing Compliance Act implements the 

Agreement to Promote Compliance with International 

Conservation and Management Measures by Fishing Vessels on 

the High Seas, adopted by the Conference of the United Nations 

Food and Agricultural Organization in 1993, and establishes 

a system of permitting, reporting, and regulation for vessels 

of the United States fishing on the high seas. Any regulations 

governing U.S. flagged vessels designed to implement 

protection of vulnerable marine ecosystems on the high seas 

would be implemented under this Act.

National Environmental Policy Act (42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.)

The National Environmental Policy Act requires federal agencies 

to integrate environmental values into their decision-making 

processes by considering the environmental impacts of their 

proposed actions and reasonable alternatives to those actions. 

To meet the Act’s requirements, federal agencies prepare a 

detailed Environmental Impact Statement and are required to 

consult with and obtain the comments of any federal agency 

having jurisdiction by law or special expertise with respect to 

any environmental impact involved.

NOAA Undersea Research Program Act of 2009 

(P.L. 111-11, Title XII, Subtitle A, Part II)

The NOAA Undersea Research Program Act of 2009 authorizes 

NOAA to conduct research, exploration, education and 

technology programs based on national and regional undersea 

research priorities; develop, test, and transition advanced 

undersea technologies associated with ocean observatories, 

submersibles, advanced diving technologies, remotely operated 

vehicles, autonomous underwater vehicles, and new sampling 

and sensing technologies; and conduct studies on natural 

resources and products from the sea.

Ocean Exploration Act (P.L. 111-11, Title XII, Subtitle A, Part I)

The Ocean Exploration Act authorizes NOAA to conduct 

interdisciplinary voyages or other scientific activities to explore 

and survey little-known areas of the marine environment; 

inventory, observe, and assess living and nonliving marine 

resources; and enhance the technical capability of the U.S. 

marine science community by promoting the development of 

improved oceanographic research, communication, navigation, 

and data collection systems, as well as underwater platforms, 

sensors, and autonomous underwater vehicles. The Act gives 

priority attention to deep ocean regions, with a focus on 

deep-water marine systems that hold potential for important 

scientific discoveries.

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Act (42 U.S.C. 9101 et seq.)

With regard to alternative energy sources from the ocean, 

the Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Act (OTEC) established 

a licensing program for facilities and plantships that would 

convert thermal gradients in the ocean into electricity. The 

Act directed the Administrator of NOAA to establish a stable 

legal regime to foster commercial development of OTEC. 

The Act also assigned responsibilities to the Secretary of the 

department in which the U.S. Coast Guard is operating, the 

Secretary of State and the Secretary of Energy regarding OTEC 

plants. There has been a low level of activity under the Act 

since its passage in 1980.
66

Linkages between 

Exploration & Research 

and Conservation & 

Management Objectives

C.Appendix
NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems 67

Conservation and 

Management 

Objectives

Exploration and Research Objectives

1. Locate and 

characterize 

deep-sea coral 

and sponge 

ecosystems

2. Understand 

biology and 

ecology of 

deep-sea 

corals and 

sponges

3. Understand 

biodiversity 

and ecology of 

deep-sea coral 

and sponge 

ecosystems

4. Understand impacts

5. Understand 

past oceanic 

conditions and 

predict impacts 

of climate 

change using 

deep-sea corals

Fishing

Other 

human 

activities

1. Protect known 

deep-sea coral or 

sponge communities

X X

2. Freeze footprint 

of mobile bottomtending fishing gearX X

3. Develop regional 

approaches

X X X X

4. Enhance 

conservation in 

National Marine 

Sanctuaries & Marine 

National Monuments

X X X X X X

5. Address impacts of 

non-fishing activities

X X X X X

6. Outreach and 

coordinated 

communications

X X X X X X

NOAA Strategic Plan for Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems 69

http://coralreef.noaa.gov/
70